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ls, families and communities. It may be physical, sexual, emotional and/or psychological. The latter may include intimidation, harassment, damage to property, threats and financial abuse.
==Other definitions==
The New York State Coalition defines domestic violence as "abusive behavior - emotional, psychological, physical, or sexual - that one person in an intimate relationship uses in order to control the other. It takes many different forms and includes behaviors such as threats, name-calling, preventing contact with family or friends, withholding money, actual or threatened physical harm and sexual assault. Stalking can also be a form of domestic violence." [http://www.nyscadv.org/domesticviolence.htm]
''Domestic''
*[[Family]] relationship, explicit and formal or informal, usually between adults of similar age, else it is labeled [[child abuse]] or [[child sexual abuse|child molestation]] for children, and [[elder abuse]] for older adults.
*[[Romantic relationship]]s including [[marriage]]s, cohabitation, and dating relationships, sexual and nonsexual, exclusive or nonexclusive, heterosexual or homosexual.
[[Image:images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/sharemed/targets/images/pho/t629/T629092A.jpg|frame|A victim of Domestic Violence]]
''Violence''
*Physical violence
**Direct physical violence, ranging from [[murder]] and [[rape]] to unwanted [[physical contact]].
**Indirect physical violence, including [[destruction]] of objects, [[throwing]] objects near the victim, harm to animals
*Mental/emotional violence
**Verbal [[threat]]s of physical violence to the victim, the self, or others including children, ranging from explicit, detailed and impending to implicit and vague as to both content and time frame
**Verbal violence, including threats, [[insult]]s, put-downs, attacks
**Nonverbal threats, including [[gesture]]s, [[facial]] expressions, [[body]] [[posture]]s
*Economic/social abuse
**Controlling victim's money and other economic resources, preventing victim from seeing friends and relatives, actively sabotaging victim's social relationships and isolating victim from social contacts.
The term "domestic violence" replaced "wife beating" or "wife battering" which came before. In its turn, it has begun to be replaced with more descriptive terms such as "relationship violence", "domestic abuse", "intimate partner violence", "[[spousal abuse]]", and "family violence". The term has been defined legally in some jurisdictions, which can add further confusion when members of the justice system interact with domestic violence advocates.
===Cycle of violence===
Frequently, domestic violence is used to describe specific violent and overtly abusive incidents, and legal definitions will tend to take this perspective. However, when violent and abusive behaviors happen within a relationship, the effects of those behaviors continue after these overt incidents are over. Advocates and counselors will refer to domestic violence as a pattern of behaviors, including those listed above.
[[Lenore Walker]] presented the model of a [[Cycle of violence|Cycle of Violence]] which consists of three basic phases:
;''Honeymoon Phase'':Characterized by affection, apology, apparent end of violence.
;''Tension Building Phase'':Characterized by poor communication, tension, fear of causing outbursts,
;''Acting-out Phase'':Characterized by outbursts of violent, abusive incidents.
Although it is easy to see the outbursts of the Acting-out Phase as abuse, even the more pleasant behaviors of the Honeymoon Phase serve to perpetuate the abuse. See also the [[cycle of abuse]] article.
=Cause=
There are many different theories as to the cause of domestic violence. One of the leading theories is that domestic violence is fueled by a need for power and control over another person. The Domestic Abuse Intervention Project illustrated this by creating the [http://www.ncdsv.org/images/Power_and_Control_wheel_NCDSV.pdf "Power and Control Wheel"] which shows power and control at the center, surrounded by spokes referring to techniques used, the titles of which include:
* Coercion and threats
* Intimidation
* Emotional abuse
* Isolation
* Minimizing, denying and blaming
* Using Children
* Economic Abuse
* Male Privilege
The simplest theory that explains the cause for domestic violence comes from people who deal with bullies. It is a means to an end that is easier than other means. The heading on the UK National Website for Bullying in the Family states that 'Those Who Can, Do. Those Who Can't Bully.' It seems reasonable to add that those who ''won't'' also prefer violence too.
Given the complexity of human beings and human societies, it seems likely that the full scope of possible intentions for violence occur in domestic violence too. One film which shows some of these intentions is [[The Piano]] (1994). Domestic violence often seems to be intended to intimidate, deter, avenge, punish and/or to torture. Anthropologist Michael Ghigleiri, in his scientific study of male violence suggests that anger in insecure and jealous men who abuse women is associated with prior physical and verbal abuse by their mothers. These men who fear abandonment and cuckoldry by their wives, use abuse as the best way to stop them.
Though not by any means a cause, substance abuse and mental illness can act as fuel for domestic violence.
=Purpose=
Whilst purposelessness might be a better heading for this section, a [[causality|causalist]] view is that the purpose of domestic violence is not primarily to hurt or harm the victim. Rather, it is to gain or maintain power and control over the victim.
''Note that power in a relationship is often a matter of perception. A person may perceive themselves to be put-upon when a less involved observer would disagree.''
An alternative view is that abuse arises more from an attempt to 'export' feelings of power''less''ness to the victim. The purpose of an attempt to 'gain or maintain power and control over the victim' is to develop and enforce a permanent channel for such attempted 'export' to the other. Since feelings are personal, and cannot be resolved via others as proxies, this 'export' is inherently impossible to achieve, hence such behaviours are inherently addictive, leading to cycles of abuse. Mutual cycles develop when each party attempts to 'pass the buck' back and forth, usually through varying mechanisms of abuse. Since preferences for abuse-mechanisms are somewhat gendered, with females strongly favouring non-physical forms of abuse, selective 'snapshots' of such interactions may create an illusion of a gendered pattern of violence. Models such as the Duluth framework which attempt to resolve abuse by disempowering the alleged 'perpetrator' actually exacerbate the problems and all but guarantee failure. Resolution is only achieved when ''all'' parties acknowledge their responsibilities, and identify and respect mutual purpose. [http://www.nuancejournal.com.au/documents/one/graves-duluth.pdf]
=Gender=
It is impossible to have a discussion of domestic violence that does not include a discussion of the role gender does or doesn't have to play in the problem. Sometimes, the discussion of gender can overwhelm any other topic, due to the degree of emotion with which the discussion of gender can attain. The topic is also itself emotive because of the revulsion that is evoked by the idea of vulnerable people powerless and hurt at the hands of a partner, spouse or other relative.
Attention to domestic violence began in the women's movement as concern about wives being beaten by their husbands, and has remained a major focus in the modern [[feminism|feminist]] movement, particularly under the label "violence against women". [[Erin Pizzey]], the founder of an early women's shelter in [[Chiswick]], London, has since expressed her dismay at how the issue has become a gender-[[political football]], and expressed an unpopular view in her book ''Prone to Violence'' that some women in the refuge system had a predisposition to seek abusive relationships. She also expressed the view that domestic violence can occur against any vulnerable intimates, regardless of their sex. Given the violence that she herself experienced in the UK for voicing her views, one might be suspicious of some of those who opposed her views, which remain very relevant. Political balance in light of pressure from the feminist movement has been helped by noting that there are women who were violent with their husbands and partners, and with the realisation that where the prevailing culture ceases to be predominantly patriarchal there is no corresponding lessening in the incidence of domestic violence. Pizzey never claimed that the sample of victims she described is representative of the majority of female victims of violence, only that ''some'' erstwhile victims are actually perpetrators or collaborators in violent relationships to which they are addicted.
There continues to be discussion about whether men are more abusive than women, whether men's abuse of women is worse than women's abuse of men, and whether abused men should be provided resources similar to those available for abused women. What is often missing in such discussions is that, being equal, both genders commit more or less equal aggression, the difference being in the form that aggression takes (See External links).
Males often prefer physical aggression while women often prefer psychological aggression. Unlike physical violence, psychological violence leaves no visible scars but it's consequences, to the target, can be just as terrible.
Domestic violence is clearly an enormous problem. Many studies have reported the high frequency of women as victims: The Council of Europe found in a [[1992]] study that 1 in 4 women experience domestic violence over their li |
of Asian origin) from entering Canada. In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship (However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown, and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth; ''Murray v Parkes'' [1942] All ER 123).
In 1946 the Canadian Citizenship Act destroyed the common basis for citizenship. The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948. Other Dominions adopted this principle, in New Zealand, in the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948. Citizenship has replaced allegiance, a more than symbolic change. Yet, at the same time, Canada continued to stress the continued allegiance of Canadians to a common Crown. It was just that practical requirements meant that national status had to be based on something other than allegiance, or peoples from throughout the Commonwealth might choose to settle in Canada.
==Honorary citizenship==
Some countries extend "honorary citizenship" to those whom they consider to be especially admirable or worthy of the distinction.
By [[Act of Congress]] and presidential assent, [[Honorary Citizen of the United States|honorary United States citizenship]] has been awarded to only six individuals.
The only people to ever receive honorary [[Canada|Canadian]] citizenship are [[Raoul Wallenberg]] posthumously in 1985, and [[Nelson Mandela]] in 2001.
American actress [[Angelina Jolie]] received an honorary [[Cambodia|Cambodian]] citizenship in [[2005]] due to her humanitarian efforts.
==Historical citizenship==
Historically, many states limited citizenship to only a proportion of their nationals, thereby creating a citizen class with political rights superior to other classes, but equal with each other. The classical example of a limited citizenry was [[Athenian democracy|Athens]] where slaves, women, and [[metic|metics]] were excluded from political rights, but [[roman republic|the Roman Republic]] forms another example, and, more recently, the [[szlachta]] of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] had some of the same characteristics.
==Bibliography==
*Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities. Verso, 1991.
*Balibar, Ettienne- Race, Nation, Classe: Les identités ambiguës (with Immanuel Wallerstein)
*Barry, Brian. Culture and Equality: An Egalitarian Critique of Multiculturalism. Harvard, 2001.
*Kymlicka, Will. Multicultural Citizenship. Oxford, 1995.
*Okin, Susan. Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? Princeton, 1999.
*Taylor, Charles. Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition. Princeton, 1994.
*Armstrong, John A. Armstrong: Nations Before Nationalism (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1982)
*Smith, Rogers, Stories of Peoplehood, The Politics and Morals of Political Membership, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
==See also==
*[[Citizenship education]]
*[[Jus sanguinis]]
*[[Jus soli]]
*[[Multiple citizenship]]
*[[Nationality law]]
*[[Naturalization]]
*[[Permanent residency]]
*[[Second-class citizen]]
*[[Stateless person]]
*[[World citizen]]
===Citizenship in specific countries===
*[[Nationality law of Barbados|Barbados nationality law]]
*[[British citizenship]]
*[[Canadian nationality law]]
*[[Indian nationality law]]
*[[Foreign-born Japanese|Japanese, born overseas]]
*[[French nationality law]]
*[[Malaysian citizenship]]
*[[South African nationality law]]
**[[Black Homeland Citizenship Act]]
*[[Swiss citizenship]]
*[[Naturalized TRNC citizens]] in the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]
*[[United States citizenship]]
===Historical citizenship===
*[[Roman citizen]]
*[[Reich Citizenship Law]]
==External links==
*[http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/cig/g4000c.htm#c1 EU Glossary: Citizenship of the Union]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-1/democracy.html The Concept of Citizenship in Education for Democracy]
*[http://www.dreptonline.ro/resurse/cetatenie.php The Law in Romania: The Romanian Citizenship ]
[[Category:Human migration]]
[[Category:Nationality]]
[[Category:Government]]
[[bg:Гражданство]]
[[cy:Dinasyddiaeth]]
[[de:Staatsbürgerschaft]]
[[es:Ciudadano]]
[[fi:Kansalaisuus]]
[[fr:Citoyen]]
[[he:אזרחות]]
[[id:Kewarganegaraan]]
[[ja:市民]]
[[nl:Burger]]
[[pl:Obywatelstwo]]
[[pt:Cidadania]]
[[simple:Citizenship]]
[[sv:Medborgarskap]]
[[simple:citizen]]
[[tr:Vatandaşlık]]
[[ru:Гражданин]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chiapas</title>
<id>6787</id>
<revision>
<id>41570859</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T05:33:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Paul August</username>
<id>87355</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.60.24.112|24.60.24.112]] ([[User talk:24.60.24.112|talk]]) to last version by JerryFriedman</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="240" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" align="right"
!align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" colspan="3"|'''Estado de Chiapas'''
|-
|align="center" colspan="3"|[[Image:Escudo-Chiapas.png|120px]]
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" colspan="3"|Location
|-
|align="center" colspan="3"|[[Image:Chiapas in Mexiko.png|200px]]
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" colspan="3"|Statistics
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Capital
|colspan="2" valign="top"| [[Tuxtla Gutiérrez]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Area
|colspan="2" valign="top"|74,211 [[square kilometer|km²]]<br>[[List of Mexican states by area|Ranked 8th]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Population<br><small>(2000 census)</small>
|colspan="2" valign="top"|3,920,500<br>[[List of Mexican states by population|Ranked 8th]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[List of Mexican state governors|Governor]]<br><small>(2000-2006)</small>
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Pablo Salazar Mendiguchía]] (PRD)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Chamber of Deputies of Mexico|Federal Deputies]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Institutional Revolutionary Party|PRI]]: 11<br>[[National Action Party (Mexico)|PAN]]: 1
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Senate of Mexico|Federal Senators]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|PRI: 2<br>[[Partido de la Revolución Democrática|PRD]]: 1
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[ISO 3166-2]]<br><small>Postal abbr.</small>
|colspan="2" valign="top"|MX-CHP<br>Chis.
|}
'''Chiapas''' is a state in the southeast of [[Mexico]]. Chiapas is bordered by the states of [[Tabasco]] to the north, [[Veracruz]] to the northwest, and [[Oaxaca]] to the west. To the east Chiapas borders [[Guatemala]], and to the south the [[Pacific Ocean]].
Chiapas has an area of 73,887 km&sup2; (28,528 square miles). The [[2003]] population estimate was 4,224,800 people.
In general Chiapas has a humid, tropical weather. In the north, in the area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, rainfall can average more than 3,000 mm/year. Natural vegetation at this region was lowland, tall perennial [[rainforest]], but this vegetation has been destroyed almost completely for agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the [[Pacific Ocean]], but it is still abundant enough to allow the cultivation of bananas and many other tropical crops near [[Tapachula]]. On the several parallel sierras or mountain ranges running along the center of Chiapas, climate can be quite temperate and foggy, allowing the development of [[cloud forests]] like those of the [[Reserva de la Biosfera el Triunfo]], home to a handful of [[Resplendent Quetzal|quetzal]]s and [[horned guan]]s.
The state capital city is [[Tuxtla Gutiérrez]]; other cities and towns in Chiapas include [[San Cristóbal de las Casas]], [[Comitán]], and [[Tapachula]]. Chiapas is also home to the ancient [[Maya civilization|Maya]] ruins of [[Palenque]], [[Yaxchilan]], [[Bonampak]], [[Chinkultic]], and [[Tonina]].
Many of the people in Chiapas are poor, rural small farmers. About one third of the population are of full or predominant [[Maya peoples|Maya]] descent, and in rural areas many do not speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. The state suffers from the highest rate of malnutrition in Mexico, estimated to affect over 40% of the population.
Other social issues involve the increasing presence of the Central American gangs known as [[Maras]], and illegal immigration from Central America in general, mostly directed towards the United States, but further aggravating the panorama of local poverty. This floating influx of people is frequently subject to abuse and human rights violations from Mexican authorities.
Since [[1994]], Chiapas has been involved in an ongoing [[civil war]] or [[revolution]], nowadays in a calm but somewhat tense state, especially in the "autonomous municipalities" (see below). The two sides are the Mexican Government and the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation]] (the EZLN or Zapatistas). There are currently 32 "rebel autonomous zapatista municipalities" (independent Zapatista communities, MAREZ from their name in Spanish), controlled by the EZLN in Chiapas: some of these communities are [[Ocosingo]] and [[Las Margaritas]].
Despite these problems C |
la scriptura]]'', ''[[sola fide]]'', the priesthood of all believers and other positions that Luther, Calvin and traditional reformers held in contrast to the Roman Catholic Church in the 1500s.
The label ''[[religious denomination|denomination]]'' is rejected by some because of the local autonomous governance system used by Baptist churches. Being a denomination is viewed as having a hierarchy that substitutes for the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church. Another reason for the rejection of the label is the influence of the [[Restorationism|Restoration]] period on Baptist churches, which emphasized a tearing down of denominational barriers. Other Baptists accept the label, feeling that it does not carry a negative connotation but rather is merely a synonym for a Christian or religious group with common beliefs, organized in a cooperative manner to spread its beliefs worldwide.
The label ''[[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]]'' is rejected by some fundamentalist Baptists who consider the term to describe a theological position that is not fundamentalist enough. It is rejected by some liberal Baptists who consider the term to describe a theological position that is too conservative. It is accepted by moderate Baptists who identify with the revival in the United States in the 1700s known as the [[First Great Awakening]]. Conversely, Evangelicals reject the label "[[fundamentalist]]", believing it to describe a theological position that they consider too extreme and "legalistic".
== See also ==
*[[Bible Belt]]
*[[Christian Right]]
*[[Fundamentalism]]
*[[Protestant]]
*[[List of Baptist sub-denominations|List of Baptist Associations, Conventions and sub-groupings]]
*[[List of Baptists]]
== External Links ==
* [http://www.bereabaptistchurch.org/ Berea Baptist Church (Press, Archives, & Bookstore)]
* [http://www.sbc.net/ Southern Baptist Convention]
* [http://www.sbhla.org/info.htm/sbhla/ Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives]
* [http://www.bates.edu A Historically Affiliated Baptist College]
* [http://www.bpnews.net/bpn/ Baptist Press]
* [http://www.abc-usa.org/abhs/ American Baptist Historical Society]
* [http://www.baptisthistory.org/ Baptist History and Heritage Society]
* [http://www.centerforbaptiststudies.org/ The Center for Baptist Studies]
* [http://www.baptistlife.com/ BaptistLife.Com]
* [http://www.valpo.edu/geomet/pics/geo200/religion/baptist.gif Map of USA showing Percentage of Baptist Population in each county]
[[Category:Baptist]]
[[Category:Anabaptism]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[ca:Església Baptista]]
[[cs:Baptisté]]
[[da:Baptistkirken]]
[[de:Baptisten]]
[[et:Baptistid]]
[[es:Iglesia bautista]]
[[eo:Baptismo]]
[[fr:Église baptiste]]
[[ko:침례교]]
[[id:Gereja Baptis]]
[[ia:Baptistas]]
[[nl:Baptisme]]
[[nds:Baptisten]]
[[ja:バプテスト教会]]
[[pl:Baptyzm]]
[[pt:Igreja Batista]]
[[ro:Bisericile Baptiste]]
[[ru:Евангельские Христиане-Баптисты]]
[[scn:Chiesa Battista]]
[[fi:Baptismi]]
[[sv:Baptism]]
[[vi:Baptist]]
[[zh:浸信会]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blackjack</title>
<id>3981</id>
<revision>
<id>41439819</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T09:05:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Gnome</username>
<id>509411</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Insurance */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the word see [[Black Jack]]''
[[Image:Blackjack.jpg|thumb|right|Blackjack! The face cards (Jack, Queen, and King) count as 10 points, and the Ace counts as 1 or 11.]]
'''Blackjack''', also known as '''twenty-one''' and '''pontoon''' in [[British English]], is one of the most popular [[casino game|casino]] [[card game]]s in the world. Much of blackjack's popularity is due to the mix of chance with elements of skill and decision making, and the publicity that surrounds the practice of [[card counting]], a skill with which players can turn the odds of the game in their favor by making betting decisions based on the values of the cards known to remain in the deck. Blackjack's precursor was ''vingt-et-un'' ("twenty-one"), which originated in French casinos around 1700, and did not offer the 3:2 bonus for a two-card 21.
When blackjack was first introduced in the United States it wasn't very popular, so gambling houses tried offering various bonus payouts to get the players to the tables. One such bonus was a 10-to-1 payout if the player's hand consisted of the ace of spades and a black Jack (either the Jack of clubs or the Jack of spades). This hand was called a "blackjack" and the name stuck even though the bonus payout was soon abolished.
==Rules==
[[Image:Blackjack game example.JPG|thumb|Example of a Blackjack game]]
Blackjack hands are scored by their point total. The hand with the highest total wins as long as it doesn't exceed 21; a hand with a higher total than 21 is said to ''bust''. Cards 2 through 10 are worth their face value, and face cards (jack, queen, king) are also worth 10. An ace's value is 11 unless this would cause the player to bust, in which case it is worth 1. A hand in which an ace's value is counted as 11 is called a ''soft'' hand.
The goal of each player is to beat the dealer, by having the higher, unbusted hand. Note that if the player busts, he loses, even if the dealer also busts, which is the source of the casino's advantage. If the player's and the dealer's hands have the same point value, this is known as a "push", and neither player nor dealer wins the hand.
After initial [[bet]]s are placed, the dealer deals the cards, either from one or two hand-held [[deck of cards|decks of cards]], known as a "pitch" game, or more commonly from a [[shoe (cards)|shoe]] containing four or more decks. The dealer gives two cards to each player, including himself. One of the dealer's two cards is face-up so all the players can see it, and the other is face down. (The face-down card is known as the "hole card". In [[Europe]]an blackjack, the hole card is not actually dealt until the players all play their hands.) The cards are dealt face up from a shoe, or face down if it is a pitch game.
A two-card hand of 21 (an ace plus a ten-value card) is called a "blackjack" or a "natural", and is an automatic winner. A player with a natural is usually paid 3:2 on his bet, although in 2003 some casinos started paying only 6:5 on blackjacks, a move decried by longtime blackjack players.
After the cards are dealt, if the dealer has a blackjack, all the players who don't have a blackjack lose immediately. If a player has a blackjack and the dealer doesn't, the player wins automatically. If the player and dealer both have a blackjack, it's a push. In casinos where a hole card is dealt, a dealer who is showing a card with a value of 10&nbsp;may slide the corner of his or her facedown card over a small mirror on the tabletop in order to check whether it is an ace or not. This practice minimises the risk of inadvertantly revealing the hole card, which would give the sharp-eyed player a considerable advantage.
If the dealer does not have a natural, then the first player completely plays out his hand, followed by the next player, and so on. When all the players have finished the dealer plays his hand.
The player's options for playing his or her hand are:
* '''Hit''': Take another card.
* '''Stand''': Take no more cards.
* '''Double down''': Double the wager, take exactly one more card, and then stand.
* '''Split''': Double the wager and have each card be the first card in a new hand. This option is available only when both cards have the same value.
* '''Surrender''': Forfeit half the bet and give up the hand. Surrender was common during the early- and mid-20th century, but is no longer offered at most casinos.
The player's turn is over after deciding to stand, doubling down to take a single card, or busting. If the player busts, he or she loses the bet even if the dealer goes on to bust as well.
After all the players have finished making their decisions, the dealer then reveals his or her hidden hole card and plays the hand. House rules say that the dealer must hit until he or she has at least 17, regardless of what the players have. In most casinos a dealer must also hit a soft 17 (such as an ace and a 6). The felt of the table will indicate whether or not the house hits or stands on a soft 17.
If the dealer busts then all remaining players win. Bets are normally paid out at the odds of 1:1.
Some common rules variations include:
* one card split aces: one card is dealt on each ace, player's turn is over.
* early surrender: player has the option to surrender before dealer checks for Blackjack.
* late surrender: player has the option to surrender after dealer checks for Blackjack.
* double-down restrictions: double-down allowed only on certain combinations.
* dealer hits a soft seventeen (ace-six, which can play as seven or seventeen)
* ''European No-Hole-Card Rule'': the dealer receives only one card, dealt face-up, and does not a second card (and thus does not check for blackjack) until players have acted. This means players lose not only their original bet, but also any additional money invested from splitting and doubling down.
There are more than a few blackjack variations which can be found in the casinos, each has its own set of rules, strategies and odds. It is advised to take a look at the rules of the specific variation before playing.
==Insurance==
If the dealer's upcard is an Ace, the player is offered the option of taking ''Insurance'' before the dealer checks his 'hole card'.
The player who wishes to take Insurance can bet an amount up to half his original bet. The Insurance bet is placed separately on a special portion of the table, which usually carries the words "Insurance Pays 2:1". The player who is taking Insurance is betting th |
nt by public authorities of strict [[Catholic]] social [[mores]] was a stated intent of the regime, mainly by using a law (the ''Ley de Vagos y Maleantes'', Vagancy Act) enacted by [[Manuel Azaña|Azaña]] [http://search.boe.es/g/es/bases_datos/tifs.php?coleccion=gazeta&anyo=1933&nbo=217&lim=A&pub=BOE&pco=874&pfi=877].
The remaining nomads of Spain ([[Gitano]]s and [[Merchero]]s like [[El Lute]]) were especially affected.
In [[1954]], [[homosexuality]] and [[prostitution]] were, through this law, made criminal offenses.
[http://search.boe.es/datos/imagenes/BOE/1954/198/A04862.tif]. Its application was inconsistent.
In every town there was a constant presence of ''[[Guardia Civil (Spain)|Guardia Civil]]'', a military police force, who patrolled in pairs with [[submachine gun]]s, and functioned as his chief means of control. He was constantly obsessed with a [[Freemasonry|Masonic]] conspiracy. In popular imagination, he is often remembered as in the black and white images of ''[[No-Do]]'' [[newsreel]]s, inaugurating a [[reservoir (water)|reservoir]], hence his nickname ''Paco Ranas'' (Paco&mdash;a familiar form of Francisco&mdash;"the Frog"), or catching huge fish from the '''Azor''' yacht during his holidays.
[[Image:Tomb_of_francisco_franco.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Franco's tomb is incidentally located at his monumental [[Monumento Nacional de Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caidos|Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos]], a memorial to all casualties of Spanish Civil War, from 1940 onwards]]
Famous quote: "Our regime is based on bayonets and blood, not on hypocritical elections."
In [[1968]], due to the United Nations' pressure on Spain, Franco granted [[Equatorial Guinea]] its independence.
In [[1969]] he designated Prince [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos de Borbón]] with the new title of Prince of Spain as his successor. This came as a surprise for the [[Carlism|Carlist]] pretender to the throne, as well as for Juan Carlos's father, [[Juan de Borbón|Don Juan, the Count of Barcelona]], who technically had a superior right to the throne. By [[1973]] Franco had given up the function of [[prime minister]] (''Presidente del Gobierno''), remaining only as head of the country and as commander in chief of the military forces. As his final years progressed tension within the various factions of the Movimiento would consume Spanish political life, as varying groups jockeyed for position to control the country's future.
<div id="Deathdate">{{note_label|Deathdate|›|none}}
Franco died on [[November 20]], [[1975]], at the age of 82&mdash;the same date as [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]], founder of the [[Falange]]. It is suspected that the doctors were ordered to keep him barely alive by artificial means until that symbolic date. The historian, Ricardo de la Cierva, says that on the 19th around 6 pm he was told that Franco had already died. Franco is buried at [[Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos]], a site built by forced prisoners of the Spanish Civil War as the tomb for anonymous soldiers dead during war. </div>
==Spain after Franco==
{{main|Spanish transition to democracy}}
Franco's successor as head of state was the current Spanish monarch, [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos]]. Though much beloved by Franco, the King held liberal political views which earned him suspicion among conservatives who hoped he would continue Franco's policies. Instead, Juan Carlos would proceed to restore democracy in the nation, and help crush an [[23-F|attempted military coup]] in 1981.
Since Franco's death, almost all the placenames [[personality cult|named after him]] (most Spanish towns had a '''calle del Generalísimo''') have been changed. This holds particularly true in the regions ruled by parties heir to the Republican side, while in other regions of central Spain rulers have preferred not to change such placenames, arguing they would rather ''not stir the past''. Most statues or monuments of him have also been removed, and the last one standing in the capital, Madrid, was removed in March 2005.
He was [[canonization|declared a saint]] by Pope Gregory XVII ([[Clemente Domínguez y Gómez]]) of the [[Palmarian Catholic Church]], a right-wing Catholic mysticalist [[sect]] largely based in Spain. Franco's canonization is not recognized by the mainstream [[Roman Catholic Church]].
== Franco in Culture ==
The famous [[Saturday Night Live]] Skit Weekend Report when it began in 1975 had [[Chevy Chase]] saying "[[Generalissimo Francisco Franco is still dead]]"!
===Franco in the movies===
* ''[[Raza]]'': based on a script by "Jaime de Andrade" (Franco himself), it's the semi-autobiographical story of a military officer played by [[Alfredo Mayo]].
* ''[[Dragón Rapide]]'' ([[1986]]): played by [[Juan Diego (actor)|Juan Diego]]
* ''[[Madregilda]]'' ([[1993]]): played by [[Juan Echanove]]
* ''[[Operación gónada]]'' ([[2000]]): played by [[Javier Deltell]]
* ''[[¡Buen Viaje, Excelencia!]]'' ([[2003]]): played by [[Ramon Fontserè]]
* ''[[Cinema mil]]'' ([[2005]], TV): played by [[Juan Echanove]]
==Notes==
#{{note|Mussolini1}} [[:wikisource:Speech delivered by Premier Benito Mussolini. Rome, Italy, February 23, 1941|Speech delivered by Premier Benito Mussolini. Rome, Italy, February 23, 1941]]
==See also==
* [[History of Spain]]
* [[Spain under Franco]]
* [[Generalissimo Francisco Franco is still dead]]
* [[Ramón Serrano Súñer]]
* [[Luis Carrero Blanco]]
* [[Emilio Mola]]
* [[Spanish Legion]]
* [[Language politics in Francoist Spain]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fuenterrebollo.com/Gobiernos/general-franco.html Biographical page in Spanish about "Francisco Franco"]
*[http://www.ferrol-concello.es/eng/cometoferrol/discoverus/celebrities/franco.html Biography] at El Ferrol official site.
*[http://www.fnff.org/ Fundación Nacional Francisco Franco] (in Spanish with [http://www.ctv.es/USERS/fnff/indexeng.htm English-language start page]). A memorial foundation led by Franco's family, holding lots of documentation.
* {{imdb name|id=0290542|name=Francisco Franco}}. He wrote the script for ''Raza'' under the name "Jaime de Andrade".
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWfranco.htm Franco Biography] From Spartacus Educational.
*[http://hitlerstoppedbyfranco.com/home.htm Hitler Stopped by Franco]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the Government of Spain (list)|President of the Government of Spain]]|before=[[Juan Negrín]]|after=[[Luis Carrero Blanco]]|years=[[1939]]&ndash;[[1973]]}}
{{succession box one to two|title2=[[List of Spanish monarchs|Spanish Head of State]]|title1=[[President of Spain]]|before=[[Manuel Azaña]]|after2=[[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos I]]|after1=Monarchy reinstated with vacant throne; Franco acts as ''de facto'' [[regent]]|years2=[[1939]]&ndash;[[1975]]|years1=[[1939]]&ndash;[[1947]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1892 births|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:1975 deaths|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Anti-communism|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Cold War|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Francoist Spain|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Galicia (Spain)|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Galician people|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Heads of state in Spain|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:History of Galicia|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Spanish Civil War people|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Spanish generals|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Spanish politicians|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[ang:Francisco Franco]]
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[[uk:Франко Франциско]]
[[zh:弗朗西斯科·佛朗哥]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flash Crowd</title>
<id>11467</id>
<revision>
<id>41202673</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:30:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.9.16.193</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''"Flash Crowd"''' was a [[1973]] short story by [[science fiction author]] [[Larry Niven]], one of a series about the social consequence of inventing an instantaneous, practically free [[transfer booth]]s that could take one anywhere on [[Earth]] in milliseconds.
One consequence not predicted by the builders of the system, was that with the almost instantaneous reporting of newsworthy events, tens of thousands of people worldwide would flock to the scene of anything interesting &mdash; along with criminals, hoping to experience or exploit the instant disorder and confusion so created.
Larry Niven anticipated the phenomenon known as a [[Flash mob]] thirty years before it became reality. The only change of the idea in real life was: instead of instant teleportation the crowds organized themselves by [[instant messaging]] and the [[Internet]].
In various other books, for example ''[[Ringworld]]'', Larry Niven suggests that easy transportation might be disruptive t |
ufficient just to minimize the number of symbols used by the message.
== Applications ==
[[Arithmetic coding]] can be viewed as a generalization of Huffman coding.
Although arithmetic coding offers better compression performance than Huffman coding, Huffman coding is still in wide use because of its simplicity, high speed and lack of encumbrance by [[patent]]s.
Huffman coding today is often used as a "back-end" to some other compression method.
[[DEFLATE (algorithm)|DEFLATE]] ([[PKZIP]]'s algorithm) and multimedia [[codec]]s such as [[JPEG]] and [[MP3]] have a front-end model and [[quantization (signal processing)|quantization]] followed by Huffman coding.
==See also==
*[[Modified Huffman coding]] - used in [[fax machines]]
*[[Shannon-Fano coding]]
*[[Data Compression]]
== References ==
*Huffman's original article: D.A. Huffman, "[http://compression.ru/download/articles/huff/huffman_1952_minimum-redundancy-codes.pdf A method for the construction of minimum-redundancy codes]" (PDF), Proceedings of the I.R.E., sept 1952, pp 1098-1102
*Background story: [http://www.huffmancoding.com/david/scientific.html Profile: David A. Huffman], [[Scientific American]], Sept. 1991, pp. 54-58
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 16.3, pp.385&ndash;392.
== External links ==
* [http://alexvn.freeservers.com/s1/huffman_template_algorithm.html n-ary Huffman Template Algorithm]
* [http://mathforum.org/discuss/sci.math/t/632220 Huffman codes' connection with Fibonacci and Lucas numbers]
* [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=2ss5aqF1oc42cU1%40uni-berlin.de Fibonacci connection between Huffman codes and Wythoff array]
* [http://www.research.att.com/projects/OEIS?Anum=A098950 Sloane A098950] Minimizing k-ordered sequences of maximum height Huffman tree
* [http://semillon.wpi.edu/~aofa/AofA/msg00040.html Computing Huffman codes on a Turing Machine]
* Mordecai J. Golin, Claire Kenyon, Neal E. Young "[http://www.cs.ust.hk/faculty/golin/pubs/LOP_PTAS_STOC.pdf Huffman coding with unequal letter costs]" (PDF), [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/stoc/stoc2002.html STOC 2002]: 785-791
* [http://gumuz.looze.net/wordpress/index.php/archives/2004/11/25/huffman-encoding/ Huffman Coding, implemented in python]
* [http://www.compression-links.info/Huffman List of Huffman compression resources, papers, libraries]
* [http://www.cs.duke.edu/csed/poop/huff/info/ Huffman Coding: A CS2 Assignment] a good introduction to Huffman coding
[[Category:Lossless compression algorithms]]
[[Category:Coding theory]]
[[cs:Huffmanovo kódování]]
[[de:Shannon-Fano-Kodierung]]
[[es:Codificación Huffman]]
[[fr:Codage de Huffman]]
[[ko:허프만 코딩]]
[[it:Codifica di Huffman]]
[[he:קוד הופמן]]
[[nl:Huffmancodering]]
[[ja:ハフマン符号]]
[[pl:Kodowanie Huffmana]]
[[pt:Codificação de Huffman]]
[[fi:Huffmanin koodaus]]
[[ru:Алгоритм Хаффмана]]
[[sv:Huffmankodning]]
[[th:รหัสฮัฟแมน และ รหัสแชนนอน-ฟาโน]]
[[zh:哈夫曼树]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>High density lipoprotein</title>
<id>13885</id>
<revision>
<id>40585309</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:07:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David.Throop</username>
<id>523120</id>
</contributor>
<comment>ID for A class of apolipoproteins, with Baylor cite</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''High-density lipoproteins''' ('''HDL''') form a class of [[lipoprotein]]s, varying somewhat in their size (8-11 nm in diameter) and contents, that carry [[cholesterol]] from the body's tissues to the [[liver]].
Because HDL can remove cholesterol from [[atheroma]] within arteries, and transport it back to the liver for excretion, they are seen as "good" lipoproteins. When measuring cholesterol, any contained in HDL particles serves as protection to the body's cardiovascular health. (In contrast to "bad" [[Low density lipoprotein|LDL]] cholesterol.)
HDL are the smallest of the lipoproteins. They are the densest because they contain the highest proportion of [[protein]]. They contain the A class of [[apolipoprotein]]s.{{ref|baylor}} The liver synthesises these lipoproteins as complexes of apolipoproteins and phospholipid, which resemble empty flattened spherical protein particles. They are capable of picking up cholesterol, carried internally, from cells they interact with. A plasma enzyme called lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) converts the free cholesterol into cholesteryl ester (a more hydrophobic form of cholesterol) which is then sequestered into the core of the lipoprotein particle eventually making the newly synthesized HDL spherical. They increase in size as they circulate through the bloodstream and incorporate more cholesterol molecules into their structure. Thus it is the concentration of large HDL particles which more accurately reflects protective action, as opposed to the concentration of total HDL particles. This ratio of large HDL to total HDL particles varies widely and is only measured by more sophisticated lipoprotein assays using either [[electrophoresis]], the original method developed in the [[1970s]] or newer [[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]] [[spectroscopy]] methods, developed in the [[1990s]].
Men tend to have noticeably lower HDL levels, with smaller size and lower cholesterol content, than women. Men also have an increased incidence of [[atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic]] heart disease.
Epidemiological studies have shown that high concentrations of HDL (over 60 mg/dL) have protective value against [[cardiovascular disease]]s (such as ischemic [[stroke]] and [[myocardial infarction]]). Low concentrations of HDL (below 40 mg/dL for men, below 50 mg/dL for women) are a positive risk factor for these [[atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic]] diseases.
HDL particles are not inherently protective. It is only the HDL particles which become the largest, i.e. are actually picking up and carrying cholesterol, which are protective. There is no reliable relationship between total HDL and large HDL, and more sophisticated analyses which actually measure large HDL, not just total, correlate much better with clinical outcomes.
In the [[stress response]], [[serum amyloid A]], which is one of the [[acute phase proteins]] and an apolipoprotein, is under the stimulation of [[cytokine]]s ([[IL-1]], [[IL-6]]) and [[cortisol]] produced in the liver and carried to the damaged tissue incorporated into HDL particles. At the inflammation site, it attracts and activates leukocytes. In chronic inflammations, its deposition in the tissues manifests itself as [[amyloidosis]].
==Recommended range==
The [[American Heart Association]], [[NIH]] and [[NCEP]] provides a set of guidelines for male fasting HDL levels and risk for [[Coronary heart disease|heart disease]].
{| cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 border=1 style="border-collapse:collapse"
|bgcolor="#cccccc"| '''Level''' [[gram per litre|mg/dl]]
|bgcolor="#cccccc"| '''Level''' [[Mole (unit)|mmol]]/[[Litre|L]]
|bgcolor="#cccccc"| '''Interpretation'''
|-
| <40
| <1.03
| Low HDL cholesterol, heightened risk for heart disease, <50 is the value for women
|-
| 40-59
| 1.03-1.52
| Medium HDL level
|-
| >60
| >1.55
| High HDL level, optimal condition considered protective against heart disease
|}
More sophisticated laboratory methods measure not just the total HDL but also the range of HDL particles, typically divided into 5 groups by size, instead of just the total HDL concentration as listed above. The largest two groups (most functional) of HDL particles have the most protective effects. The two groups of smallest particles reflect HDL particles which are not actively transporting cholesterol, thus not protective.
==Citations==
# {{note|baylor}} {{Web reference|author= Baylor College of Medicine, Lipids Online|url= http://www.lipidsonline.org/slides/slide01.cfm?q=apolipoprotein&dpg=59|publishyear=January 29, 2001 |date=February 20|year=2006|title=Heterogeneity of HDL}}
==References==
*[http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/atp3_rpt.htm Adult Treatment Panel III Full Report]
*[http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/atp3upd04.htm ATP III Update 2004]
''See also'': [[cholesterol]], [[low density lipoprotein]]
[[category:Endocrinology]]
[[category:Cardiology]]
[[Category:Lipoproteins]]
[[de:HDL (Medizin)]]
[[es:Lipoproteína de alta densidad]]
[[fr:Lipoprotéine de haute densité]]
[[pl:Lipoproteina wysokiej gęstości]]
[[sv:LDL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry I</title>
<id>13886</id>
<revision>
<id>38857297</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T02:29:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry I''' may refer to:
* [[Henry the Fowler|Henry I of Germany]], "the Fowler" (876–936).
* [[Henry I, Duke of Bavaria]] (c. 920–955).
* [[Henry I of Austria]] (died 1018).
* [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (972–1024), called "Henry I" by historians who don't recognise Henry the Fowler as Holy Roman Emperor.
* [[Henry I of England]] (1068–1135).
* [[Henry I of France]] (1008–1060).
* [[Henry I of Champagne]] (died 1181).
* [[Henry II of Champagne|Henry I of Jerusalem]] and II of Champagne (1166–1197).
* [[Henry of Flanders|Henry I of Constantinople]] (1174–1216).
* [[Henry I of Castile]] (1204–1217).
* [[Henry I, Duke of Brabant]] (c. 1165–1235).
* [[Henryk I the Bearded|Henryk I, Duke of Poland]], "the Bearded" (1163–1238).
* [[Henry I of Cyprus]], "the Fat" (1217–1253).
* [[Henry III of Champagne|Henry I of Navarre]] and III of Champagne, "the Fat" (c. 1 |
uir (2004) ''The Business of Brands'', ISBN 0470862599 - Examines how brands can create value for businesses
*Olins, W (2003) ''On Brand'', London: Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0500511454
*Schmidt, Klaus; Ludlow,Chris (2002) "Inclusive Branding: The why and how of a holistic approach to brands", Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0333980794
*Wernick, Andrew (1991) "Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (Theory, Culture & Society S.)", London: Sage Publications Ltd, ISBN 0803983905
==External links==
* [http://www.historyofbranding.com/ History of Branding] - learning the history of how today's most powerful brands evolved
*[http://www.brandstrategy.co.uk/ Brand Strategy] - monthly global business title covering every aspect of brand and business strategy
*[http://bwnt.businessweek.com/brand/2002/index.asp BusinessWeek 2002 Global Brands Scorecard]
* [http://www.code-interactive.com/thinker/a112.html What Makes A Great Logo] - Commentary on various logos and brands.
* [http://www.logoterra.com Logo Design Services Directory] - List of logo design companies.
*[http://www.monochrom.at/markenzeichnen/index-eng.htm Brandmarker] - The art group [[monochrom]]'s attempt to evaluate the actual power of commercial brands by making people draw famous logos from memory.
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/browse/tradenames/ Trade Names] in [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
* [http://www.globalizationinstitute.org/blog/0502_pro_logo.php I like Brands] on the [http://www.globalisationinstitute.org/ Globalisation Institute] website
* [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=770992 Who's wearing the trousers?] - [[The Economist]]'s defence of brands
* [http://www.brandinggreece.com BrandingGreece.com] - Branding a country: Greece
* [http://www.transnationale.org Transnational brands] - Information Brands
* [http://www.dinarstandard.com/rankings/ds100/DS100Brands.htm Leading Consumer Brands from the Muslim World]
* [http://users.ncrvnet.nl/mstol/55.htm Resources for corporate identity packages]
[[Category:Brands| ]]
[[Category:Graphic design]]
[[Category:Branding]][[Category:Marketing]]
[[he:&#1502;&#1493;&#1514;&#1490;]]
[[ja:&#12502;&#12521;&#12531;&#12489;]]
[[pl:Marka (producenta)]]
[[fi:Brändi]]
[[sr:Српски]]
[[sv:Varumärke]]
[[zh:&#21697;&#29260;]]
[[de:Markenartikel]]
[[ru:Бренд]]
[[fi:Brändi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buffy The Vampire Slayer television show</title>
<id>4235</id>
<revision>
<id>15902522</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-05T14:59:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brion VIBBER</username>
<id>51</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Bypass redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balfour Declaration</title>
<id>4236</id>
<revision>
<id>40133323</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T10:53:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zero0000</username>
<id>18776</id>
</contributor>
<comment>replace irrelevant fact by relevant one.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Balfour Declaration''' is applied to two key [[United Kingdom|British]] government policy statements associated with [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] statesman and former Prime Minister [[Arthur Balfour]].
*The first and most known, is the [[Balfour Declaration, 1917|Balfour Declaration of 1917]]: An official letter from the British [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Office]] headed by [[Arthur Balfour]], the UK's official [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] (from December 1916 to October 1919), to [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Lord Rothschild]], who was seen as a representative of the Jewish people. The letter stated that the British government "view[ed] with favour the establishment in [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] of a national home for the Jewish people".
*The second, lesser-known, [[Balfour Declaration, 1926|Balfour Declaration of 1926]], recognised the self-governing [[Dominion]]s of the [[British Empire]] as fully autonomous states.
==See also==
*[[Balfour|Balfour (disambiguation)]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barnard College</title>
<id>4237</id>
<revision>
<id>41925092</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:38:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.82.125.162</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notable Alumnæ */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|motto = Hepomene toi logismoi
|name = Barnard College, Columbia University
|image = [[Image:Barnard College.GIF]]
|established = 1889
|type = Private
|endowment = $150 million (as of 2001)
|president = [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/president/ Judith R Shapiro]
|city = [[New York City]]
|state = [[New York|NY]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|campus = Urban
|undergrad = 2,297
|postgrad =
|staff = 296
|mascot = the Barnard Bear, Millie
|free_label = Athletics
|free = [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/admiss/athletics/ Official site]
|website = [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu]
|}}
'''Barnard College''', founded in [[1889]], is an [[independent college]] of [[liberal arts]] and sciences for women, located in the borough of [[Manhattan]], in [[New York, New York]], [[United States]]. Barnard is affiliated with [[Columbia University]], but maintains an independent [[campus]], faculty, administration, trustees, operating budget, and endowment, although there is much overlap.
The four acre (16,000&nbsp;m²) campus is adjacent to Columbia's [[Morningside Heights]] campus, and has been used by Barnard since [[1898]]. The neighborhood is sometimes called the [[Academic Acropolis]] because it is mostly on a hill, and is the location of [[Bank Street College of Education]], [[Columbia University]], [[Jewish Theological Seminary]], [[Manhattan School of Music]], [[Teachers College (Columbia University)]], and [[Union Theological Seminary]].
==General Information==
Barnard's original 1889 home was a rented [[brownstone]] at 343 Madison Avenue, where a faculty of six offered instruction to 14 students in the School of Arts, as well as to 22 “specials,” who lacked the entrance requirements in Greek and so enrolled in science. In [[1900]], Barnard affiliated with [[Columbia University]], but it continued to be independently governed, while making available to its students the instruction, the library, and the degree of the University. Under the terms of the affiliation, Columbia University actually awards degrees to graduates of Barnard College. Barnard College, in fact, was created for the female students of the University, which traditionally admitted only men.
The College gets its name from [[Frederick A.P. Barnard]] ([[1809]]-89), an American educator and mathematician, who served as then-Columbia College's president from [[1864]] to 1889. Frederick Barnard advocated equal educational privileges for men and women (but preferably in a coeducational setting). The school's founding, however, is largely due to the determined efforts of [http://www.columbia.edu/~rr91/3567/sample_biographies/annie_nathan_meyer_McCaughey.htm Annie Nathan Meyer], a talented student and writer who was not satsified with what she saw as Columbia's half-hearted, token effort to educate women.
Meyer later wrote: "I confess to a pride in having defended the affiliated college at a time when it was neither popular or understood. To me nothing in the education of women mattered so much as the creation of right standards, and this was effected by the establishment of the affiliated college. My faith was surely justified, for in 1891 I was happy to proclaim (to the Council of Women in Washington) as an established fact: 'Barnard College is Columbia.'"
Barnard College was one of the [[Seven Sisters (colleges)|Seven Sisters]] founded to provide an education for women comparable to that of the [[Ivy League]] schools, which (with the exception of [[Cornell University]] and the [[University of Pennsylvania]]) only admitted men for undergraduate study into the [[1960s]]. Barnard was the sister school of Columbia College, one of the [[undergraduate]] schools of Columbia University. Columbia College began admitting women in 1983 after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard for a [[merger]] along the lines of [[Harvard College]] and [[Radcliffe College]]. Today, Barnard is one of five Seven Sisters that remain single-sex in admissions. The school's classes and activities, however, are open to all members of Columbia University, male or female, in a [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/about/columbia.html reciprocal arrangement] to benefit the academic and social life of the entire University community. Nevertheless, some Columbia students and alumnae are unhappy with Barnard's association with Columbia University. As a result, Barnard students are a regular jest for Columbia students. Popular points of insult include the relative intelligence of a Barnard girl vs. a Columbia girl, the "easiness" of Barnard girls, and the typical Barnard girl's eagerness to associate herself with the Columbia name.
==Notable Alumnæ==
* [[Elsie Clews Parsons]] 1896, first woman elected President of the [[American Anthropological Association]].
* [[Freda Kirchwey]] 1915, journalist, editor and publisher of [[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]].
* [[Léonie Adams]], 1923, poet
* [[Margaret Mead]] 1923, anthropologist, writer
* [[Zora Neale Hurston]] 1928 |
Tennessee off of Kidwells Ridge Rd.
*The two fishermen on the side of the road at the beginning are writer/director [[Sam Raimi]] and producer [[Robert Tapert]].
*Shooting began on [[November 14]], [[1979]]. The original cast left after six weeks of filming which was the original shooting completion date. There was still much shooting left to do and the remainder of the film was shot with family and friends dressed like the actor for behind or side shots. This became known as "[[Shemp Howard|shemp]]ing" and the person as a "[[Fake shemp]]" as an homage to the [[Three Stooges]].
*The "Book of the Dead" is referred to as ''Naturom Demonto'' in the film and "[[Necronomicon]] Ex Mortis" in the two sequels. Terminology used by the unleashed horrors and professor studying them shows that Raimi's version of the notorious faux-occult book is influenced by [[H.P. Lovecraft]]'s book that has been often used in the ensuing modern [[Cthulhu Mythos]].
*When listening to Professor Knoby's recording and recitation of the Book of the Dead you can hear a distorted version of the words, "Sam and Rob are the hikers down the road."
*The film was screened at the [[Cannes]] film festival in [[1982]]. It recieved a widely publicized review from horror author [[Stephen King]], published in the [[November 1982]] issue of ''[[Twilight Zone (magazine)|Twilight Zone]]''.
*In the scene when Ash first finds the Necronomicron, a torn poster advertising [[Wes Craven]]'s ''[[The Hills Have Eyes]]'' is visible in the background. In response to this homage, a scene from "Evil Dead" is visible on a television screen in ''[[Nightmare on Elm Street]]''.
*The poster for "Evil Dead" can be seen in a closet containing a chainsaw in the horror film ''[[Dead and Breakfast]]''.
*The film plays when Donnie and Gretchen go to the cinema in ''[[Donnie Darko]]''. The filmmakers originally wanted to use ''[[C.H.U.D.]]'', but could not obtain permission. Director Sam Raimi allowed them to use the footage from ''The Evil Dead'' for free.
== Censorship ==
Because of its graphic violence, the original version of the movie was banned in several countries, including [[Finland]], [[Iceland]], [[Ireland]] and [[Germany]]. The "tree rape" scene was also objectionable to some and seen as being [[misogynist]].
In Germany, the movie's release was hindered by public authorities for almost 10 years. Original 1982 cinema and video releases of the movie had been seized, making the movie a hit on the black market video circuit, with pirated copies abounding. A heavily edited version was first made available in 1992.
Several high-profile horror enthusiasts, among them even author [[Stephen King]], publicly criticized the German ban on the movie. In other [[German language]] markets, the movie was never restricted from distribution.
The first legal uncut version of the movie entered the German market in 2001, on DVD.
In one scene early in the film, the characters are seen to smoke [[cannabis]]. The actors are not genuinely 'high', however the shot had to be abandoned because the actors tried using real cannabis but this caused them to become unpredictable, to say the least.
In the [[United Kingdom]], the movie was one of the first to be labelled as a [[video nasty]] and was only released uncut in [[2001]].
== Sequels ==
Two sequels were made, ''[[Evil Dead II]]: Dead By Dawn'' ([[1987]]) and ''[[Army of Darkness]]'' ([[1993]]). Each succeeding film has featured more humor than the preceding one, so much so that many do not consider ''Army of Darkness'' a true horror film. The films' mix of humor and gore has been called "splatstick," a [[portmanteau]] of "[[Splatter film|splatter film]]" and "[[slapstick]]."
At the beginning of each sequel, the preceding story is summarized, though with some small changes. These changes, along with the similarity in plot to the original film, lead some fans to consider ''Evil Dead II'' a remake rather than a sequel.
The series is regarded as a [[cult film|cult classic]], and a book, ''The Evil Dead Companion'' (Bill Warren, ISBN 0312275013), has been written about it.
In an interview in 2005 [http://www.comingsoon.net/news/topnews.php?id=8225], Sam Raimi and Rob Tapert talked about plans to make another sequel called ''Evil Dead IV'' or ''Army of Darkness II'', again starring Campbell. However, it was recently revealed that filming will begin in 2006 for a movie entitled ''They Call Me Bruce'', starring Bruce Campbell as himself. This movie may be seen as a non-canon title in the Evil Dead series because it concerns Campbell being mistaken for Ash by fans of the movies who force him to fight real Deadites in their hometown. There are also plans for a remake of the original ''Evil Dead'', with a different director and different actors.
Sam Raimi's 1978 30-minute movie ''Within the Woods'', also starring Bruce Campbell, has sometimes been called a [[prequel]] of the ''Evil Dead'' series, which is incorrect, since ''Within the Woods'' was made before any of the series proper. The movie ''Within the Woods'' was, in fact, created to raise funds for the filming of ''The Evil Dead''.
== Video games ==
The ''Evil Dead'' trilogy has inspired four [[Computer and video games|video game]]s: ''[[The Evil Dead]],'' for Commodore 64; ''[[Evil Dead: Hail to the King]]'', for [[PlayStation]], [[Sega Dreamcast]], and the [[P.C.]]; And ''[[Evil Dead: A Fistful of Boomstick]]'', for [[PlayStation 2]] and [[Xbox]]. The fourth, ''[[Evil Dead: Regeneration]]'', was released in September 2005 for [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]], and [[P.C.]]
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0083907|title=The Evil Dead}}
*[http://www.deadites.net Deadites Online] - Internet site with information regarding the trilogy
*[http://www.withinthewoods.co.uk/ Within the Woods] - Largest UK based appreciation site for ALL things Evil Dead.
*[http://www.aeonity.com/ab/soundboards/movies/evil-dead-httk.php Evil Dead Soundboard] - Evil Dead Movie Soundboard (1981)
*[http://www.bruce-campbell.com Bruce Campbell online] - Bruce Campbell's official website
*[http://michael.tresca.net/] - the site featuring the freely downloadable Evil Dead: Swallow This! in the Freebie section.
{{Evil Dead}}
[[Category:1981 films|Evil Dead, The]]
[[Category:Cult films|Evil Dead, The]]
[[Category:Horror films|Evil Dead, The]]
[[Category:Zombie films|Evil Dead, The]]
[[Category:Evil Dead|Evil Dead]]
[[Category:New Line Cinema films|Evil Dead]]
[[Category:Films directed by Sam Raimi|Evil Dead]]
[[Category:American films|Evil Dead]]
[[de:Tanz der Teufel]]
[[es:Evil Dead]]
[[fr:Evil Dead]]
[[pl:Martwe zło]]
[[fi:Kauhun riivaamat]]
[[sv:The Evil Dead]]
[[no:The Evil Dead]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economists</title>
<id>9295</id>
<revision>
<id>36910835</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T06:53:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.154.42.116</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[economist]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economic calculation problem</title>
<id>9297</id>
<revision>
<id>41614643</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:00:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.116.68.14</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>General equilibrium, changed "Real socialism wouldn't work either" to link that works, added CC&C link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''economic calculation problem''' is a criticism of [[socialist economics]]. It was first proposed by [[Ludwig von Mises]] in [[1920]]. Those who agree with this criticism claim it is a refutation of [[socialism]] and that it shows why a [[socialist]] [[command economy]] could never work.
==Liberal thinkers==
Many "Classical Liberal" thinkers, especially those of the [[Austrian School]] believed [[Marxist economics]] to be impractical because it denied private [[ownership]] of productive property. They state that prices represent information about market conditions, and are necessary for economic activity. In this view a socialist economy, therefore, would require a price system in order to operate. The socialist economy is said not to set prices as efficiently as private owners, as private property owners seek the best profits for factors of production they owned, even in constantly changing circumstances. It would be this process that would ensure the best use of resources.
This was first stated by [[Friedrich von Wieser]] and a good summation of this case was that of [[Ludwig von Mises]] in his article "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth".
==Friedrich Hayek==
[[Hayek]] further refined this by pointing out that by the time all the relevant information had been gathered the situation would have changed and so the government would be chasing a moving target. In their view, prices in a free market on the other hand instantly conveyed information on the demand and scarcity of products. In theory, the free market was effectively "self organising" in a way that a centrally planned one could never be. He also felt there were other dangers inherent in a planned economy, illustrated in his "[[The Road to Serfdom]]".
==Extended explanation of argument==
The argument goes roughly as follows:
# The basic economic problem is to produce the "right quantity" of all [[Good (economics)|goods and services]], including any [[capital goods]] required to produce the finished goods or services. (Assume for this argument that "goods" refers to both goods and services.)
# Since the [[factors of production]] are finite, producing more of one good means producing less of some other good. Therefore the basic economic problem can be restated thus: given a fixed quantity of the [[factors of production]], how should they be allo |
their original (Irish or [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish]]) Gaelic forms. Similarly, the funeral lament became a mournful cry or wail by which the death is heralded. In these tales, hearing the banshee's wail came to predict a death in the family and seeing the banshee portends one's own death.
Banshees are frequently dressed in white and often have long, fair hair which they brush with a silver comb, a detail scholar Patricia Lysaght attributes to confusion with local [[mermaid]] [[myths]]. Other stories portray them as dressed in green or black with a grey cloak.
== References ==
* {{cite book
| title = The Banshee: The Irish Death Messenger
| first = Patricia | last = Lysaght
| year = 1986
| publisher = Roberts Rinehart Publishers
| id = ISBN 1-57098-138-8
}}
* {{cite book
| title = An Encyclopedia of Fairies
| first = Katharine | last = Briggs
| year = 1976
| publisher = Pantheon Books
| id = ISBN 0-394-73467-X
}}
* The Banshee by Josh Grant
[[Category:Celtic legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Irish mythology]]
[[Category:Scottish mythology]]
[[Category:Irish women]]
[[de:Banshee]]
[[es:Banshee]]
[[fr:Banshee]]
[[ga:Bean sí]]
[[gd:Bean-shìdh]]
[[it:Banshee]]
[[nl:Banshee (demoon)]]
[[ja:バンシー]]
[[no:Banshee]]
[[pl:Banshee]]
[[ru:Баньши]]
[[fi:Banshee]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transgenic maize</title>
<id>4514</id>
<revision>
<id>41818669</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:15:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Transgenic maize''' (corn) has been deliberately [[genetically modified organism|genetically modified]] to have agronomically desirable traits. Traits that have been engineered into corn are resistance to [[herbicide]]s and incorporation of a [[gene]] that codes for the ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' (Bt) toxin, protecting plants from [[insect]] pests. [[Hybrid]]s with both herbicide and pest resistance have also been produced. Transgenic maize is currently grown commercially in the [[United States]].
==Herbicide resistant corn==
Corn varieties resistant to [[glufosinate]] (Liberty) herbicides and [[Roundup]] have been produced. There are also corn hybrids with tolerance to imidazoline herbicides marketed by [[Pioneer Hi-Bred]] under the trade mark Clearfield, but in these the herbicide tolerance trait was bred without the use of genetic engineering. Consequently the regulatory framework governing the approval, use, trade and consumption of transgenic crops does not apply for imidazoline tolerant corn.
Herbicide resistant GM corn is grown in the United States. Amidst much controversy, a variation of herbicide resistant GM corn was approved for import into the [[European Union]] in [[2004]]. Such imports remain highly controversial (The Independent, 2005).
==Bt corn==
[[Image:Corn borer.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The European corn borer ''Ostrinia nubilalis'', destroys corn crops by burrowing into the stem, causing the plant to fall over.]]
Bt corn is a variant of [[maize]], [[Genetically modified organism|genetically altered]] to express the bacterial [[Bacillus thuringiensis|Bt]] toxin, which is [[poison|poisonous]] to [[insect]] pests. In the case of corn, the pest is the [[European Corn Borer]].
Expressing the toxin was achieved by inserting a [[gene]] from the soil-dwelling [[microorganism]] ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' into the corn [[genome]]. This gene [[code for|codes for]] a [[toxin]] that will [[crystallize]] in the [[digestive tract]] of [[insect]] [[larva]]e, leading to its starvation.
In [[2001]], Bt176 varieties were voluntarily withdrawn from the list of approved varieties by the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] when it was found to have little or no Bt expression in the ears and was not found to be effective against second generation corn borers. (Current status of Bt Corn Hybrids, 2005)
===Bt corn and monarch butterflies===
In May [[1999]], a laboratory at [[Cornell University]] published the results from a laboratory trial that appeared to indicate that the [[pollen]] of genetically modified Bt corn presented a threat to [[Monarch butterfly|monarch]] caterpillars. Critics claimed that the popular media was wrong to report that monarch butterflies were threatened because this experiment did not duplicate natural conditions under which monarch caterpillars may come in contact with corn pollen. (Cornell News, 1999)
In [[2001]] the scientific journal the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] published six comprehensive studies that showed that Bt corn pollen does not pose a risk to monarch populations for the following reasons:
*The density of Bt corn pollen that overlay milkweed leaves in the environment rarely comes close to the levels needed to harm monarch butterflies. Both laboratory and field studies confirmed this.
*There is limited overlap between the period that Bt corn sheds pollen and when caterpillars are present.
*Only a portion of the monarch caterpillar population feeds on milkweeds in and near cornfields.
(Sears, ''et al.'', 2001)
===Cross pollination===
By law, farmers in the United States who plant Bt corn must plant non-Bt corn nearby. These non-modified fields are to provide a location to harbor [[Maize#Pests of maize|pests]]. The theory behind these refuges is to slow the adaptation of the pests to the Bt pesticide.
The non-Bt pesticide status of the refuges is being compromised by wind-born [[pollen]] drifting into the non-Bt corn fields. Corn harvested from the supposed Bt-free zones has shown traces of Bt toxin. The levels found in the non-Bt corn decreases with distance from the Bt-corn fields indicating that the pollen is wind-borne rather than another method of transfer. The concentrations in the refuge fields were found to be low-to-moderate.
Possible solutions to the [[Pollination|cross-pollination]] problem are to plant a wider refuge field or plant varieties of corn that bloom at different times than the Bt fields do. (Chilcutt & Tabashnik, 2004)
===The StarLink corn controversy===
'''StarLink''' was a variety of Bt corn patented by [[Aventis Crop Sciences]] (a subdivision of [[Aventis]], acquired by [[Bayer|Bayer AG]] in [[2002]]).
U.S. regulatory authorities permitted the commercial sale of StarLink seed, with the stipulation that crops produced must not be used for human consumption. This restriction was based on the possibility that a small number of people might develop an [[allergy|allergic]] reaction to a protein contained in the grain.
StarLink corn was subsequently found in food destined for consumption by humans, with an episode involving [[Taco Bell]] [[taco]] shells being particularly well publicized. This led to a public relations disaster for Aventis and the biotechnology industry as a whole. Sales of StarLink seed were discontinued.
The southern portion of the U.S. corn belt planted the greatest amount of StarLink corn. It is this portion of the U.S. where corn borer damage creates the greatest economic loss to farmers.
==See also==
* [[GM food]]
==References==
* {{Citenews | title=EU authorises Monsanto GMO maize for import | date=October 26, 2004 | org=Reuters| url=http://www.afaa.com.au/news/news-1538.asp}}
* {{Citenews | title=EU deadlocked over latest GMO maize approval | date=June 3, 2005 | org=Reuters| url=http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=scienceNews&storyID=8690383}}
* {{Citenews | title=Food agency accused of Stalinist tactics over GM maize cover-up | date=June 19, 2005 | org=The Independent| url=http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/environment/story.jsp?story=648020 }}
* {{cite web | title=Approval Status of Biotech Corn Hybrids | work=National Corn Growers Association (US) | url=http://lepton.marz.com/ncga/search_hybrids/know_where.asp | accessdate=June 19 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{Citenews | title=Engineered corn kills monarch butterflies | date=May 19, 1999 | org=Cornell News | url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/May99/Butterflies.bpf.html}}
* {{cite web | title=Butterflies and Bt Corn| work=United States Department of Agriculture | url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/sites/monarch/index.html | accessdate=June 19 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite journal | author=Mark K. Sears, Richard L. Hellmich, Diane E. Stanley-Horn, Karen S. Oberhauser, John M. Pleasants, Heather R. Mattila, Blair D. Siegfried, and Galen P. Dively | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/21/11937 |title =Impact of Bt corn pollen on monarch butterfly populations: A risk assessment | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=98 | issue=October 9 | year=2001 | pages=11937-11942 |id={{doi|10.1073/pnas.211329998}} }}
* {{cite journal | author=Chilcutt, C.F., and B.E. Tabashnik| url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/20/7526| title=Contamination of refuges by ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' toxin genes from transgenic maize | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=101 | issue=May 18 | year=2004 | pages=7526-7529 |id={{doi|10.1073/pnas.0400546101}} }}
* {{cite web | title=Biopesticides Registration Action Document: Preliminary Risks and Benefits Sections (Page 14)| work=Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Science Coordination and Policy | url=http://www.epa.gov/oscpmont/sap/2000/october/brad1_execsum_overview.pdf | accessdate=June 19| accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=Current status of Bt Corn Hybrids| work=Kansas State University Research and Extension| url=http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/swao/Entomology/Bt_Folder/Bt%20Corns2.html | accessdate=June 19| accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite journal | author=Bruce Chassy and Drew Kershen | url=http://westernfarmpress.com/mag/farming_bt_corn_reduce/index.html|title=Bt corn can reduce serious birth defects by li |
nowrap; width: 12%;" | <br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | <br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | 4<br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | 3<br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | <br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | <br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | 0<br>
|-----
| colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 255);" | VPI<br>
|-----
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 255);" | VPI<br>
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);" | VCI<br>
|-----
| colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);" | VCI<br>
|-----
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);" | VCI
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" | PT
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 204);" | CLP<br>
|-----
| colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(153, 255, 153);" | HEC
|-----
| colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | <br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
Payload (48 bytes)<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
|}
</td></tr></table>
GFC = [[Generic Flow Control]] (4 bits) (default: 4-zero bits)
VPI = [[Virtual Path Identifier]] (8 bits UNI) or (12 bits NNI)
VCI = [[Virtual Channel Identifier]] (16 bits)
PT = [[Payload Type]] (3 bits)
CLP = [[Cell Loss Priority]] (1 bit)
HEC = [[Header Error Correction]] (8bits) (checksum of header only)
The PT field is used to designate various special kinds of cells for [[Operation and Management]] (OAM) purposes, and to delineate packet boundaries in some AALs.
Several of ATM's link protocols use the HEC field to drive a [[CRC-Based Framing]] algorithm which allows the position of the ATM cells to be found with no overhead required beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection.
In a UNI cell the GFC field is reserved for an (as yet undefined) local flow control/submultiplexing system between network and user. All four GFC bits must be zero by default.
The NNI cell format is almost identical to the UNI format, except that the 4 bit GFC field is re-allocated to the VPI field, extending the VPI to 12 bits. Thus, a single NNI ATM interconnection is capable of addressing almost 2<sup>12</sup> VPs of up to almost 2<sup>12</sup> VCs each
(in practice some of the VP and VC numbers are reserved).
==External links==
* [http://www.atmforum.com/ ATM forum]
* [http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/atm/c8540/12_0/13_19/trouble/cells.htm ATM Cell formats- Cisco Systems]
* [http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk39/tsd_technology_support_category_home.html Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) - Cisco Systems]
* [http://www-comm.itsi.disa.mil/itu/r_q293.html Reference for Q.2931 etc Link failes]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.10/atm.html ''Netheads vs Bellheads'' by Steve Steinberg]
*[http://www.juniper.net/techpubs/software/erx/junose61/swconfig-link/html/atm-config2.html ''A tutorial from Juniper web site]
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
[[Category:Network protocols]]
[[ca:Mode de transferència asíncrona]]
[[de:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
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[[fr:Asynchronous transfer mode]]
[[id:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[it:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[he:ATM]]
[[nl:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[ja:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[no:ATM]]
[[pl:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[pt:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[ru:ATM]]
[[fi:ATM]]
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[[tr:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anus</title>
<id>2500</id>
<restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42036056</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:21:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ec5618</username>
<id>12620</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41857216 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:male anatomy.png|thumb|350px|Male Anatomy]]
{{about|the bodily orifice|the New Guinea tribal language|[[Anus language]]}}
{{Redirect|Anal}}
In [[anatomy]], the '''anus''' (from [[Latin]] ānus "ring, anus") is the external opening of the [[rectum]]. Closure is controlled by [[sphincter]] [[muscle]]s. [[Feces]] are expelled from the body through the anus during the act of [[defecation]], which is the primary function of the anus. Most animals &mdash; from simple worms to elephants and humans &mdash; have a tubular [[gut]], with a [[mouth]] at one end and an anus at the other.
The anus is often considered a [[taboo]] part of the body, and is also known by a large number of slang terms, which are generally considered vulgar and not used in polite speech.
== Structure ==
The human anus is situated between the [[buttock]]s, [[posterior]] to the [[perineum]]. It has two anal sphincters, one internal, the other external. These hold the anus closed until time to defecate.<!-- or time for sexual activity.--> One sphincter consists of smooth muscle and its action is involuntary; the other consists of striated muscle and its action is voluntary. In many animals, the anus is surrounded by [[anal sacs]].
== Role in defecation ==
{{main|Defecation}}
When the [[rectum]] is full the increase in intrarectal pressure forces the walls of the [[anal canal]] apart allowing the fecal matter to enter the canal. The rectum shortens as material is forced into the anal canal and peristaltic waves propel the feces out of the rectum. The internal and external sphincters of the anus allow the feces to be passed by muscles pulling the anus up over the exiting feces.
To prevent diseases of the anus and to promote general hygiene, humans often follow the action of the sphincter with a cleansing activity after emptying the bowels. A wash with a [[bidet]] or a wiping with [[toilet paper]] are often used to clear the anus of fecal matter.
== Role in sexuality ==
{{main|Anal sex}}
The anus has a relatively high concentration of [[nerve ending]]s and is an [[erogenous zone]]. [[Sigmund Freud]]'s theory of [[psychosexual development]], for example, described an [[anal stage]], hypothesizing that toddlers derive pleasure from retaining and expelling feces. This is the source of the [[derogatory]] term [[anal-retentive]].
Anal intercourse can be pleasurable for both the insertive partner and the receptive partner. For females, pleasure from anal intercourse is also thought to be related to the shared wall between the rectum and the [[vagina]] as well as the [[G-spot]]. For males, the tightness of the anus is often said to be a source of pleasure in penetrative anal sex, while the presence of the [[prostate]] gland near the rectal wall is generally seen as a source of pleasure during receptive anal intercourse. Other animals have also been observed practicing anal intercourse.
Anal intercourse, sometimes referred to as [[sodomy]] or [[buggery]], is a common human sexual activity, but is considered [[taboo]] in a number of moral systems, and it has been, and in some jurisdictions continues to be, a crime carrying severe punishment.
Anal sex need not include penetration. The anus also plays an important role in [[face sitting]], [[coprophilia]] and [[anilingus]].
[[Anal stretching]] can stimulate the nerves around the anus and can be considered pleasurable. Care must be taken to maintain elasticity.
==Maintenance==
[[Image:Human female anus.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Female human anus, bordered by the [[buttock]]s and [[perineum]].]]
Hygiene is important for good anal health. Washing with a mild soap and water will keep the anus clean. Harsh soaps or wiping vigorously with toilet paper can irritate the skin around the anus, making it itchy or sore. [[pinworm|Pinworms]] are sometimes the source of [[anal itching]].
Care should be taken not to strip the anus of natural oils that keep the skin around the opening supple and elastic.
Penetration with a penis or sex toy can irritate or tear the inside of the anus. Lubrication is often recommended to ease penetration.
[[Kegel exercise]]s can improve the tone of the outer sphincter muscle.
==Cosmetics==
Shaving, trimming, [[depilatory]], or [[Brazilian waxing]] can clear the perineum of hair.
[[Anal bleaching]] is a relatively new [[West coast]] phenomenon where the perineum, which darkens over the years, is lightened for a more youthful appearance. In April 2000, gossip columnist [[Ted Casablanca]] reported that actresses including [[Lara Flynn Boyle]] have had their anuses bleached. [http://www.eonline. |
</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[flower|flowers]]''' </td><td>A bunch of flowers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[god|god]]s''' </td><td>A pantheon</td><td> <center>complete set</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[homework|homework]]''' </td><td>A slew of homework</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[impediment|impediments]]''' </td><td>A vagary of impediments</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[information|information]]''' </td><td>A wealth of information</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[island|islands]]''' </td><td>A chain of islands</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[island|islands]]''' </td><td>An archipelago</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[jewel|jewels]]''' </td><td>A cache of jewels</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[lock and key|keys]]''' </td><td>A ring of keys</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[lorry|lorries]]''' </td><td>A convoy of lorries</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[money|money]]''' </td><td>A wad of money</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[money|riches]]''' </td><td>An embarrassment of riches</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[money|winnings]]''' </td><td>A purse of winnings</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[mountain|mountains]]''' </td><td>A range/chain of mountains</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[piñata|piñatas]]''' </td><td>A plethora of piñatas</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[prose|prose]]''' </td><td>An anthology of prose</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[rebuttal|rebuttals]]''' </td><td>A quiver of rebuttals</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[robot|robots]]''' </td><td>A cog of robots</td><td> <center>Spurious</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[satellite|satellites]]''' </td><td>A constellation of satellites</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[ship|ships]]''' </td><td>A fleet of ships</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[ship|ships]]''' </td><td>A flotilla of ships</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[ship|ships]]''' </td><td>An armada of ships</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[star|stars]]''' </td><td>A galaxy of stars</td><td> <center>specific arrangement</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[task|tasks]]''' </td><td>An agenda [of tasks]</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[thing|things]]''' </td><td>A bunch of things</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[trash|trash]]''' </td><td>A heap of trash</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[truck|trucks]]''' </td><td>A convoy of trucks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[unicorn|unicorns]]''' </td><td>A blessing of unicorns</td><td> <center>&radic;?</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[wager|wagers]]''' </td><td>A book of wagers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
</table>
[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Objects and concepts]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carat (mass)</title>
<id>7158</id>
<revision>
<id>38515931</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T21:38:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.32.79.75</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the word carat, see [[Carat]].''
The '''carat''' is a unit of [[mass]] used for [[gem]]s, and equals [[1 E-4 kg|200 milligrams]]. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''keration'' (fruit of the [[carob]]), via [[Arabic (language)|Arabic]] and [[Italian (language)|Italian]]. Carob seeds were used as weights on precision scales because of their uniform size. In the distant past, different countries each had their own carat, roughly equivalent to a [[carob]] seed.
Eventually, it was linked to the [[grain (measure)|grain]] in the [[Troy pound]] system of measurement. Under this system the standard was about 205 milligrams. Metric countries used this measurement nonetheless in its limited range of application. In 1907 the metric carat of [[1 E-4 kg|200 milligrams]] was adopted, and is now universally used today.
Note: A carat can also be further divided into "points". There are 100 points to a carat.
For [[diamond]]s, a [[paragon]] is a diamond weighing 100 carats or more, which is 20,000 milligrams or 20 [[grams]].
The ANSI X.12 EDI standard abbreviation for carat is 'CD'
{{standard-stub}}
[[cs:Karát]]
[[da:Karat]]
[[de:Karat]]
[[eo:Karato]]
[[es:Quilate]]
[[et:Karaat]]
[[fr:Carat]]
[[it:Carato]]
[[hu:Karát]]
[[ja:カラット]]
[[nl:karaat]]
[[pl:Karat]]
[[pt:Quilate]]
[[sq:Karati]]
[[sv:Karat]]
[[vi:Cara]]
[[Category:Units of mass]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations</title>
<id>7160</id>
<revision>
<id>26807398</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-29T18:08:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edcolins</username>
<id>51336</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Member countries */ added the number of countries</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations''' (CEPT) was established on [[June 26]], [[1959]] as a coordinating body for [[Europe]]an state [[telecommunications]] and [[postal organizations]]. The [[acronym]] comes from the [[French language|French]] version of its name ''Conférence européenne des administrations des postes et des télécommunications''.
CEPT was responsible for the creation of the [[ETSI]] in [[1988]].
Current CEPT organizations include
* European Radiocommunications Committee
* CERP (''Comité européen des régulateurs postaux'')
* European Committee for Regulatory Telecommunications Affairs
* European Telecommunications Office
== Member countries ==
''As of [[August 25]], [[2004]]: 46 countries.''
[[Albania]], [[Andorra]], [[Austria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Malta]], [[Moldova]], [[Monaco]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[Russian Federation]], [[San Marino]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Turkey]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Vatican City]].
==See also==
* [[CEPT1]] standard
* [[International Telecommunication Union]]
* [[Universal Postal Union]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cept.org/ Official web site]
[[de:Conférence Européenne des Administrations des Postes et des Télécommunications]]
[[es:CEPT]]
[[fr:Conférence européenne des administrations des postes et télécommunications]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chain termination method</title>
<id>7161</id>
<revision>
<id>34701493</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T02:49:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Petaholmes</username>
<id>59986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge and redirect to new sequencing article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DNA sequencing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Tramlink</title>
<id>7162</id>
<revision>
<id>41641921</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:06:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.195.189.27</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Incorrect information, Spelling errors</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox TfL line|
Line=Tramlink|
ColourName=Green|
TextColour=White|
YearOpened=2000|
DeepOrSurface=Tr |
tory with [[Eastern Pomerania]]; in prehistoric times it was the center of [[Oksywian culture]]; it was later populated by [[Goths]] and eventually [[Slavs]] with some [[Baltic Prussian]] influence. As a part of [[Pomerania]], it was a province of [[Poland]] from circa [[990]]&ndash;[[1308]]. In [[1309]]-[[1310]] it was conquered by the [[Teutonic Order]] (1309&ndash;[[1454]]/66), but afterwards became part of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] ([[1466]]&ndash;[[1772]]. At the [[Partitions of Poland]] of 1772 it was annexed into the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] (1772&ndash;[[1870]]), and as part of Prussia became part of the [[German Empire]] ([[1870]]&ndash;1920).
In 1870 the village of Gdynia had some 1200 inhabitants, and it was not a poor fishing village as it is sometimes described. It was a popular tourist spot with several guest houses, restaurants, cafes, several brick houses and a small harbour with a pier for small trading ships. The first [[Kashubians|Kashubian]] mayor of Gdynia was [[Jan Radtke]]. After the 1919 [[Treaty of Versailles]], the town, with other parts of former [[Polish Pomerania]] (or [[Royal Prussia]]), was became part of the new Republic of Poland, while the centre of the region Gdańsk and surrounding area, which were declared the [[Free City of Danzig]] under the [[League of Nations]] were only partially under Poland's control.
=== Construction of the Seaport ===
The decision to build a major seaport at the Gdynia village was made by the Polish government in winter 1920, because of the hostile attitude of the Danzig (Gdańsk) authorities and the seaport workers towards Allied military supplies to Poland during the [[Polish-Soviet War]] (1919&ndash;1920). Construction of the seaport was started in 1921, but because of financial difficulties was conducted slowly and with interruptions. It was accelerated after the Sejm (Polish parliament) passed the ''Gdynia Seaport Construction Act'' on [[23 September]] [[1922]]. By [[1923]] a 550-metre pier, 175 metres of a wooden tide breaker, and a small harbour had been constructed. Ceremonial inauguration of Gdynia as a temporary military port and fishers' shelter took place on [[23 April]] [[1923]], and the first major seagoing ship arrived on [[13 August]] [[1923]].
To speed up the construction works, the Polish government in November 1924 signed a contract with the [[French-Polish Consortium for Gdynia Seaport Construction]], which by the end of 1925 had built a small seven-metre-deep harbour, the south pier, part of the north pier, a railway, and had also ordered the trans-shipment equipment. The works were going more slowly than expected, however. They accelerated only after May 1926, because of an increase in Polish exports by sea, economic prosperity, the outbreak of the German&ndash;Polish trade war which reverted most Polish international trade to sea routes, and also thanks to the personal engagement of [[Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski]], Polish Minister of Industry and Trade, also responsible for construction of [[Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy]]. Till the end of [[1930]] docks, piers, breakwaters and many auxiliary and industrial installations were constructed (such as depots, trans-shipment equipment, and a rice processing factory) or started (such as a large clod room).
Trans-shipments rose from 10,000 tons (1924) to 2,923,000 tons (1929). At this time Gdynia was the only transit and special seaport designed for coal exports. In the years 1931&ndash;1939 the Gdynia harbour was further extended to become a universal seaport. In 1938 Gdynia was the largest and most modern seaport on the Baltic Sea, as well as the tenth biggest in Europe. The trans-shipments rose to 8.7 million tons, which was 46% of Polish foreign trade. In 1938 the Gdynia shipyard started to build its first full-sea ship, the ''Olza''.
=== Construction of the City ===
The city was constructed later that the seaport. In 1925 a special committee was inaugurated to build the city, in 1926 city expansion plans were designed, and [[city rights]] were granted, in 1927 tax privileges for investors granted. The city started to grow significantly after 1928 and the population grew rapidly to over 120,000 in 1939.
In [[1930]] the [[Baltic Institute]] in [[Toruń]], institition designed to research the polish heritage in Pomerania, opened its branch in Gdynia.
=== Gdynia during World War II (1939&ndash;1945) ===
The city and seaport were occupied in [[Polish Defence War of 1939|September 1939]] and renamed ''Gotenhafen'' after the [[Goths]] (even though the previous German name was ''Gdingen'', which had no connection to the Goths). Some 50,000 of the Polish citizens were expelled to the [[General Gouvernment]] and their homes were seized by German settlers. The harbour was turned into a German navy base. The [[shipyard]] was extended in 1940 and turned into a branch of a [[Kiel]] shipyard (''Deutsche Werke Kiel A.G.''). It became a primary German naval base, and witnessed several air raids by the Allies from [[1943]] onwards, but suffered little damage. The seaport was largely destroyed by the withdrawing German troops in [[1945]] (90% of the buildings and equipment were destroyed) and the harbour entrance was blocked by the German [[battlecruiser]] [[German battlecruiser Gneisenau|Gneisenau]].
The city was also the location for the [[Nazi]] [[concentration camp]] ''Gotenhafen'', a subcamp of the [[Stutthof concentration camp]].
=== Gdynia after World War II ===
On [[March 28]], [[1945]] Gdynia was captured by the Soviets and assigned to Polish [[Gdansk Voivodship]].
In the [[Polish 1970 protests]], worker demonstrations took place at Gdynia Shipyard. Workers were fired upon by the police. The fallen became symbolized by a fictitious worker [[Janek Wiśniewski]], commemorated in a song by [[Mieczysław Cholewa]], ''Pieśń o Janku z Gdyni''.
One of Gdynia's important streets is named after Janek Wiśniewski. The same person was portrayed by [[Andrzej Wajda]] in his movie ''[[Man of Iron]]'' as Mateusz Birkut.
== Economy ==
Notable companies that have their headquarters in Gdynia:
* [[Stocznia Gdynia]], the largest Polish shipyard
* [[PROKOM SA]], the largest Polish I.T. company
* Two banks, [[Gdynski Bank Komunalny]] and [[Nordea]],
* Some shipping lines.
=== [[Port of Gdynia]] ===
[[image:3_zaglowce.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Cutty Sark Tall Ships' Races]] [[2003]]; [[Stad Amsterdam]], [[Dar Młodzieży]] and [[Dar Pomorza]].]]
*Official name:PORT OF GDYNIA AUTHORITY
*Trans-shipments:
** 1924 10,000 tons
** 1929 2,923,000 tons
** 1938 8,700,000 tons
** 2002 9,365,200 tons
***Containers 252,247 TEU (#2 on the Baltic Sea)
***Passengers 364,202
:::''See also: [[Ports of the Baltic Sea]]''
== Education ==
[[Image:Gdynia kamienna marina.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[Marina]] in Gdynia View from Kamienna Gora]]
There are currently 7 [[university|universities]] and institutions of higher education based in Gdynia. Many students from Gdynia attend also universities [[List of Polish universities|located in the Tricity]].
*State-owned:
** [[Naval Academy of Gdynia]] - 8,162 students
** [[Military Naval Academy of Gdynia]] - 1,452 students
** [[Gdańsk University]] - departements of Biology, Geography and Oceanology, 1,987 students altogether
*Privately-owned:
** University of Business and Administration - 1,418 students
** University of International Relations - 86 students
** Humanistic University of Pomerania - 38 students
** Cardinal Wyszynski University a department - 219 students
** Pomorska Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczna
** Wyższa Szkoła Administracji i Biznesu im. [[Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski|Eugeniusza Kwiatkowskiego]]
** Wyższa Szkoła Komunikacji Społecznej
** Wyższa Szkoła Międzynarodowych Stosunków Gospodarczych i Politycznych
:::''See also: [http://www.gdynia.pl/index.php?co=inwestor/notes_edukacja Education in Gdynia]''
== Sports ==
There are many popular professional sports teams in Gdynia and Tricity area. Amateur sports are played by thousands of Gdynia’s citizens, as well as in schools and universities.
=== Sports in Gdynia ===
[[Image:Arka Gdynia.gif|right|Arka Gdynia, Polish football club]]
* [[Arka Gdynia]] - men’s [[Football in Poland|football]] team ([[Polish Cup]] winner [[1979]], 2nd league 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 seasons, 1st league at season 2005/2006)
* [[Lotos VBW Clima Gdynia]] - women’s basketball team (Polish Champion 2004 in [[Sharp Torell Basket Liga]])
* [[KS Laczpol Gdynia]] - women’s handball team (1st league in season 2003/2004)
* [[Arka Gdynia]] - rugby team (1st league in season 2003/2004)
=== Sports in Tricity ===
* [[Prokom Trefl Sopot]] - men’s basketball team (Polish Champion 2004)
* [[Lotos Gdansk]] - cinder-track racing team (Polish Champion 2004)
* [[Energa Gedania Gdansk]] - women’s volleyball team (Seria A in season 2003/2004)
* [[Nata AZS AWFiS Gdansk]] - women’s handball team (Premier league in season 2003/2004)
* [[DGT AZS AWFiS Gdansk]] - men’s handball team (Premier league in season 2003/2004)
* [[SMS Gdansk]] - men’s handball team (1st league in season 2003/2004)
* [[Stoczniowiec Gdansk]] - men’s ice hockey team (Premier league in season 2003/2004)
* [[Lechia Gdańsk]] - men’s [[Football in Poland|football]] team ([[Polish Cup]] winner [[1983]], [[Polish Supercup]] winner [[1983]]; 3rd league in 2004/2005 season)
* [[AZS AWFiS Gdansk]] - rugby team (1st league in season 2003/2004)
== Politics ==
=== Gdynia/[[Słupsk]] constituency ===
Members of Parliament ([[Sejm]]) elected from Gdynia/Slupsk constituency
* [[Dorota Arciszewska-Mielewczyk]], [[Platforma Obywatelska|PO]]
* [[Jerzy Budnik]], [[Platforma Obywatelska|PO]]
* [[Izabela Jaruga-Nowacka]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Stanislaw Kalinowski|Stanisław Kalinowski]], [[Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe|PSL]]
* [[Jacek Kowalik]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Kazimierz Plocke]], [[Platforma Obywatelska|PO]]
* [[Andrzej Rozanski|Andrzej Różański] |
(in Northern Zimbabwe)
** Southern Nguni
*** Mfengu
*** Mpondo
*** Mpondomise
*** Thembu
*** [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
* Shangana Tsonga
* [[Sotho]]
** [[Basotho]] (also: Southern Sotho)
** [[Barotse]]
** Northern Sotho
*** [[Balobedu]]
*** Bapedi
** Batswana (also: Western Sotho)
* [[Venda|Vhavenda]]
* [[Lemba|Vhalemba]]
Common among the two powerful groups of the Nguni and the Sotho are patrilinear societies, with which the leaders formed the socio-political units. Similarly, food acquisition was by cultivation and hunting. The most important differences were the strongly deviating languages, although both are dialects of [[Bantu language]], and the different settlement types and relationships. With the Nguni settlements were villages widely scattered, whereas with the Sotho settled in towns.
===Culture===
The Bantu were not territorially minded like the Europeans, but rather group-related. As long as sufficient land was available, they had only very vague conceptions of [[border]]s. Borders were natural features such as rivers or mountains, which were not by any means fixed.
===Food acquisition===
The [[food]] acquisition of the Bantu was primarily limited to agriculture and [[hunting]], where generally the women were responsible for agriculture and the men drew for the hunt. Except with the [[Shangaan|Tsonga]] (and partially the [[Mpondo]]), fishing was surprisingly of little importance. The diet consisted of corn, meat (mostly [[beef]]), vegetables; and [[milk]], [[water]] and grain beer (which contained very little [[ethanol|alcohol]] compared with European beer).
The Bantu had a number of [[taboo]]s regarding the consumption of meat. No meat of [[dog]]s, [[ape]]s, [[crocodile]]s and [[snake]]s could be eaten. Likewise taboo was the meat of some [[bird]]s, like [[owl]]s, [[crow]]s and [[vulture]]s.
All Bantu groups commonly had clear separation between the tasks of the women and those of the men.
===House types===
The Bantu lived in two different types of house. The [[Nguni]] used the [[Beehive house]], a circular structure out of long poles, which was covered with grass. The huts of the [[Sotho]], [[Venda]] and [[Shangana Tsonga]] used the Cone and Cylinder house. A cylindrical wall was formed out of vertical posts, which was sealed with mud and cow dung. The roof was built from tied-together poles. The floor of both types is compressed earth.
===Faith===
[[Magic and religion|Magic]] takes a major central role in Bantu belief, with good and bad influence. They often saw a manifestation of the souls of deceased ancestors in ceremonies. The Bantu believed the separation from body and spirit after death.
==Literature==
* Schapera I (OD.): The Bantu Speaking Tribes OF South Africa. 1959: Routlege & Kegan Paul, London.
[[Category:Bantu|*]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Africa]]
[[bg:Банту]]
[[ca:Bantu]]
[[de:Bantu]]
[[es:Bantú]]
[[fa:بانتو]]
[[fi:Bantut]]
[[fr:Bantous]]
[[nl:Bantoe]]
[[nn:Bantu]]
[[pl:Bantu]]
[[pt:Bantu]]
[[sr:Банту]]
[[sv:Bantu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B roll</title>
<id>4122</id>
<revision>
<id>15902420</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-21T18:18:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kelly Martin</username>
<id>158241</id>
</contributor>
<comment>changed to redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Footage]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bantu languages</title>
<id>4124</id>
<revision>
<id>41346150</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:18:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Moyogo</username>
<id>44443</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Niger-Congo.png|right|350px|thumb|Map showing the approximate distribution of Bantu (dull yellow) vs. other [[Niger-Congo languages]] (bright yellow).]]
'''Bantu''' is a [[language family]] that belongs to the [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] group. Bantu [[language]]s are spoken in South [[Cameroon]], and in the south-eastern region of [[Nigeria]] close the Cameroonian Border, in [[Gabon]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]] and the southern tip of [[Somalia]], [[Tanzania]], [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], and [[South Africa]]. This wide expansion makes the Bantu family the most widespread language family in [[Africa]], with about 310 million speakers.
The word Bantu was first used by [[Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel Bleek]] ([[1827]]-[[1875]]) with the meaning ''people'' as this is reflected in many of the languages of this group. A characteristic of Bantu languages is that they use ''-ntu'' to refer to a man. ''ba'' is a plural in some dialects, becoming ''ba-ntu''. He and later [[Carl Meinhof]] did comparative studies of the Bantu language grammars.
The language family has hundreds of members. They have been classified by [[Malcolm Guthrie]] in [[1971]] into groups according to geographical zones - A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, L, M, N, P, R and S and then numbered within the group. Guthrie also reconstructed ''Proto-Bantu'' as the [[Proto-language]] of this language family.
This classification was later extended and modified by [[SIL]] in [[1996]] and another time by researchers from the [[Royal Museum of Central Africa]] of Tervuren in [[1999]], adding zone J and reorganizing many groups.
==Language structure==
The most prominent [[grammar|grammatical]] characteristic of Bantu languages is the extensive use of [[prefix|prefixes]] (see [[Sesotho language#Noun prefix system|Sesotho language]]). Each noun belongs to a class, and each language may have about ten classes all together, somewhat like [[Gender (grammar)|gender]]s in European languages. The class is indicated by a prefix on the noun, as well as on adjectives and verbs agreeing with it. Plural is indicated by a change of prefix.
The verb has a number of prefixes. In [[Swahili language|Swahili]] for example ''Mtoto mdogo amekisoma'' means 'The small child has read it [a book]'. ''Mtoto'' 'child' governs the adjective prefix ''m-'' and the verb subject prefix ''a-''. Then comes perfect tense ''-me-'' and an object marker ''-ki-'' agreeing with implicit ''kitabu'' 'book'. Pluralizing to children makes it ''Watoto wadogo wamekisoma'', and [[plural]]izing to books (''vitabu'') makes it ''Watoto wadogo wamevisoma''.
Bantu words are typically made up of [[open syllable]]s of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with some languages having a vocabulary exclusively of this type. The construction of words is typically CV, VCV, CVCV, VCVCV etc with words always ending in a vowel. This tendency to avoid [[consonant cluster]]s is important when words are imported from [[English language|English]] or other non-African languages. An example is in [[Chichewa]] the word "school" becomes ''sukulu''. ''Sk-'' is broken by inserting an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] ''-u-'', and ''-u'' is added at the end; another is ''buledi'' for "bread". Similar effects are seen in [[loanwords]] for other non-African CV languages like [[Japanese language|Japanese]].
The Bantu language with the largest number of speakers is Swahili (G 40), while those with the most native speakers are [[Shona language|Shona]] and [[Zulu language|Zulu]]. Judging from the history of Swahili, some linguists believe that Bantu languages are on a continuum from purely [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal languages]] to languages with no tone at all.
==Other Bantu languages include==
*in Central and Eastern Africa
**[[Swahili language|Swahili]]
**[[Lingala language|Lingala]]
**[[Luganda language|Luganda]]
**[[Rutooro language|Rutooro]]
**[[Runyoro language|Runyoro]]
**[[Runyankole language|Runyankole]]
**[[Rukiga language|Rukiga]]
**[[Gikuyu language|G&#297;k&#361;y&#361;]]
**[[Bukusu]]
**[[Lusoga language|Lusoga]]
**[[Kikongo language|Kikongo]]
**[[Chichewa language|Chichewa]]
**[[Chiyao]]
**[[Haya language|Kihaya]]
**[[Kichagga language|Kichagga]]
**[[Kinyarwanda language|Kinyarwanda]]
**[[Kirundi language|Kirundi]]
**[[Tshiluba language|Tshiluba]]
*in Southern Africa
**[[Shona language|Shona]] (ChiShona)
**[[Ndebele language|Ndebele]] (Sindebele)
**[[Tswana language|Tswana]] (Setswana)
**[[Sesotho language|Sesotho]]
**[[Zulu language|Zulu]] (isiZulu)
**[[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] (isiXhosa)
**[[Sepedi language|Sepedi]]
**[[Swazi language|Swazi]] (siSwati)
*in West Africa
**[[Ngumba language|Ngumba]] (Cameroon)
**Kako (Cameroon)
**[[Basaa language|Basaa]] (Cameroon)
Some are usually known in English without the class prefix (Swahili instead of Kiswahili, etc.), and some others vary (Setswana or Tswana, Sindebele or Ndebele, etc.). The bare form typically does not occur in the language: in the country of [[Botswana]] the people are the Batswana, one person is a Motswana, and the language is [[Setswana]].
Today most linguists see the center of the [[Bantu|Bantu expansion]], that started about 2000 years before present in eastern [[Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon]].
==(Narrow) Bantu languages==
*'''[[Kinyabemba language|Bemba]]'''
*'''[[Songa language|Songa]]'''
*'''Northwest'''
**'''Zone A'''
**'''Zone B'''
**'''Zone C'''
*'''Central'''
**'''Zone D''' ([[Lengola language|Lengola]], [[Enya language|Enya]], [[Mbole language|Mbole]], [[Mituku language|Mituku]], [[Bembe language|Bembe]], [[Buyu language|Buyu]], [[Nyanga language|Nyanga]], [[Bhele language|Bhele]] (Piri), [[Bila language|Bila]], [[Bodo language|Bodo]], [[Bera language|Bera]] (Bira), [[Budu language|Budu]], [[Homa language|Homa]], [[Kaiku language|Kaiku]], [[Komo language|Komo]], [[Kango language|Kango]], [[Ndaka language|Ndaka]], [[Nyali language|Nyali]], [[Amba language|Amba]], [[Vanuma language|Vanuma]], [[Mbo language|Mbo]], [[Kare language|Kare]], [[Bali language|Bali]], [[Beeke language|Beeke]], [[Hamb |
users and Photographic artists still pronounce it as GIF", like "Gift".
The basic pronunciation of a word like GIF suggests that when a consonant (G) is immediately followed by a vowel (I) the consonant's sound is elongated, so the G should be pronounced as "G", bound with the i and f, correctly pronounced "GHIF".
==Unisys and LZW patent enforcement==
The LZW compression algorithm was covered by {{US patent|4,558,302}}, owned by [[Unisys Corporation]]. When CompuServe first developed the GIF format, they did not know that LZW was covered by a [[patent]]. In December [[1994]], after Unisys discovered that the newly-popular file format used LZW compression, they announced that they would be seeking royalties on that patent; all commercial programs capable of producing GIF files would be required to pay a license fee to Unisys.
By this time, GIF was in such widespread use that most companies producing these programs had little choice but to pay. These problems were one factor leading to the development of the [[PNG]] format, which has become the third common image format on the Web after GIF and [[JPEG]].
In late August 1999, Unisys terminated its royalty-free LZW technology licenses for free software and non-commercial proprietary software and even for individual users of unlicensed programs, prompting the [[League for Programming Freedom]] to launch the Burn All GIFs campaign to inform the public of the alternatives.
Many legal experts have concluded that the patent does not cover devices that can only uncompress LZW data and cannot compress it; for this reason, the popular [[gzip]] program can read .Z files but cannot write them.
On [[June 20]], [[2003]], the United States patent on the LZW algorithm expired [http://www.unisys.com/about__unisys/lzw], which means that Unisys and Compuserve can no longer collect royalties for use of the GIF format in that country. Those bothered with the patent enforcement dubbed this day GIF Liberation Day. The equivalent patents in Europe and Japan expired on [[June 18]] and [[June 20]] [[2004]] respectively, with the Canadian patent following on [[July 7]].
IBM has also patented the LZW algorithm, but has never enforced this patent. According to the [[Free Software Foundation]] that patent will expire on [[August 11]] [[2006]] in the United States.
==Usage==
Even with the general adoption of [[broadband]], the size of downloads continues to be a critical issue on the [[world wide web]]. Large web pages have a negative effect on user experience by being slow to render. Large web pages are also more expensive for their owners, who pay based on the amount of data transferred by their site. Therefore GIF's compression makes it desirable as an image format for use on webpages.
Apart from the [[SWF]] format of [[Macromedia Flash]], GIF is the only widely used [[Graphics file format|image format]] to support animation. It is frequently used to make small animations and short, low-resolution films for web pages.
Most web page logos and design element images are GIF or PNG because those are designed to successfully compress images that contain large blocks of the same colour or of repeating patterns; [[JPEG]] cannot compress areas of flat, clean colour with sharp transitions well.
JPEG is preferred for [[digital photography|digital photographs]] because it allows images to contain more than 16 million different colours (GIF gives a choice of only 256 of those colours per image) and it compresses photographs better. Uncompressed bitmap formats like [[Windows bitmap]] are sometimes preferred for images in [[computer software]] when speed is more important than reduced file size, because uncompressed bitmaps can be displayed more quickly.
==Color==
GIF is palette based: although any [[color|colour]] can be one of millions of shades, the maximum number of colours available for each frame is 256, which are stored in a "palette", a table which associates each colour number with an actual colour value. The limitation to 256 colours seemed reasonable at the time of GIF's creation because few people had the hardware to display more. Simple graphics, line drawings, cartoons, and grayscale photographs typically need fewer than 256 colours. Optionally, one of the colours in the palette can be set as transparent, hence achieving simple binary transparency.
There exist ways to [[dithering|dither]] colour photographs by alternating pixels of 2 or more different colours to approximate an in-between colour, but this transformation inevitably loses some detail, and the [[algorithm]]s to select colours and to perform the dithering vary widely in output quality, giving dithering a possibly unwarranted bad reputation. Additionally, dithering significantly reduces the image's compressibility and thus works contrary to GIF's main purpose.
In the early days of graphical web browsers 256 color screens were common and it was fairly common to make GIF images using the [[Web_colors#Web-safe_colors|websafe palette]] which was based on the common parts of the standard Windows and Mac palettes. This ensured predictable display on 256 color screens but severely limited the choice of colors. Now that truecolour screens are the norm, optimised palettes make more sense when creating 256 color images, though there are still many sites on web design that advise use of the websafe palette.
<div id=truecolour></div><!--anchor for internal link-->
<!--need more info on how this works, where this does and doesn't work and what if any tools can produce them (so far the only thing I've found is angif which is just a library not a tool in itself) [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 13:46, [[18 April]] [[2005]] (UTC)-->
GIF89a was designed based on the principle of rendering images (known as frames when used for animation) to a logical screen. Each image could optionally have its own palette, and the format provides flags to specify delay and waiting for user input (not widely supported by viewers) between them. This is the feature that is used to create animated GIFs, but it can also be used to losslessly store a 24-bit RGB ([[truecolour]]) image by splitting it up into pieces small enough to be encoded into a 256 colour palette and setting up the GIF to render these with no delay on the logical screen ([http://phil.ipal.org/tc.html demo]). Unfortunately, most web browsers seem to assume that this multi-image feature will only be used for animation and insert a minimum delay between images. There will be some file size bloat from doing this, especially if the encoder doesn't support LZW for patent reasons. There are very few tools around that can easily produce truecolor GIFs, and it is rarely an appropriate format unless there is absolutely no other option.
==Alternatives==
The [[PNG]] format was specifically designed to replace GIF for use as a single-image web format. PNG offers better compression and more features than GIF. The format is rapidly replacing GIF for still images, mostly on web sites of computer enthusiasts protesting Unisys's license policies and on some [[webcomic]] sites that take advantage of PNG's tighter compression to save on internet [[bandwidth]] charges.
All the features of GIF except animation are supported by PNG. As new [[web browser]]s support PNG, most GIF images could be replaced by PNG images. Unfortunately many people are under the misconception that [[Internet Explorer]] does not support transparent pngs. This results from confusion of [[alpha channel]] transparency (which GIF does not offer) with [[binary transparency]] (which Internet Explorer supports for both GIF and PNG images).
The mistaken belief that PNG files are larger than GIF for the same images can generally be traced back to one of two things:
* People making the unfair comparison of the file size of 8 bit GIF with 24 bit PNG.
* The poor PNG support in older versions of [[Adobe Photoshop]].
[[MNG]], the animation-supporting relative of PNG, reached version 1.0 in [[2001]], but few applications support it. It has therefore had little impact on the use of GIFs for animation. Today animations may be the only field where GIF is needed, because of the lack of web browser support for MNG.
In [[2004]], a proposed extension to the PNG format, called [[APNG]] was suggested. It would add the ability to animate PNG files, while retaining backwards compatibility in decoders which cannot understand the animation chunk. Such decoders would simply display it as though it were a single image PNG file.
==Miscellaneous==
The [[MIME]] media type for GIF is image/gif (defined in [[Request for Comments|RFC]] 1341).
==See also==
*[[Windows Picture and Fax Viewer]]
*[[Image file formats]]
*[[Software patent]]
*[[Comparison of layout engines (graphics)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.w3.org/Graphics/GIF/spec-gif89a.txt GIF89a specification]
*[http://www.compression-links.info/GIF List of GIF resources]
*[http://www.gifs.net GIFs.net] - More then 14000 animated GIFs free for non-commercial use.
*Links related to the gif patent issue
**[http://burnallgifs.org Burn All GIFs] - a site providing information about the ramifications of the LZW patent, advocating the abandonment of the format
**[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/gif.html Why There Are No GIF files on GNU Web Pages]
**[http://www.cloanto.com/users/mcb/19950127giflzw.html The GIF Controversy: A Software Developer's Perspective] (by Michael C. Battilana)
**[http://lpf.ai.mit.edu/Patents/patents.html#GIF The GIF situation] (by the League of Programming Freedom)
[[Category:Graphics file formats]]
[[Category:CompuServe]]
[[ca:GIF]]
[[cs:GIF]]
[[de:Graphics Interchange Format]]
[[es:GIF]]
[[fr:Graphics Interchange Format]]
[[gl:GIF]]
[[id:GIF]]
[[it:Graphics Interchange Format]]
[[ko:GIF]]
[[nl:Graphics Interchange Format]]
[[ja:Graphics Interchange Format]]
[[lt:GIF]]
[[pl:GIF]]
[[pt:Graphics Interchange Form |
==
# {{Note|blood}} Gettysburg was the battle with the largest number of casualties in the war. [[Battle of Antietam | Antietam]], the culmination of Lee's first invasion of the North, had the largest number of casualties in a single day.
==References==
*Coddington, Edwin B., ''The Gettysburg Campaign; a study in command'', Scribner's, 1968, ISBN 0-684-84569-5.
*Tagg, Larry, [http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/ ''The Generals of Gettysburg''], Savas Publishing, 1998, ISBN 1-882810-30-9.
==See also==
*[[Gettysburg Confederate Order of Battle]]
*[[Gettysburg Union Order of Battle]]
*[[Gettysburg (movie)]]
*[[Gettysburg (music)]]
*[[The Killer Angels]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.nps.gov/gett/ Gettysburg National Military Park (National Park Service)]
*[http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/gettysburg/ Military History Online: The Battle of Gettysburg]
*[http://www.bufordsboys.com/WittenbergBufordDefense.htm Explanation of Buford's Defense at Gettysburg]
*[http://www.brotherswar.com/ The Brothers War: The Battle of Gettysburg]
*[http://www.gdg.org/ Gettysburg Discussion Group archives]
*[http://www.bklyn-genealogy-info.com/Military/ConfederateGenerals.html List of 53 Confederate generals at Gettysburg]
*[http://www.bklyn-genealogy-info.com/Military/UnionGenerals.html List of 67 US generals at Gettysburg]
[[Category:Adams County, Pennsylvania|Gettysburg, Battle of]]
[[Category:Battles of the Gettysburg Campaign of the American Civil War|Gettysburg]]
[[Category:George Armstrong Custer|Battle of Gettysburg]]
[[Category:History of Pennsylvania|Gettysburg]]
[[Category:Union victories of the American Civil War|Gettysburg]]
[[da:Slaget ved Gettysburg]]
[[de:Schlacht von Gettysburg]]
[[es:Batalla de Gettysburg]]
[[fr:Bataille de Gettysburg]]
[[ko:게티스버그 전투]]
[[nl:Slag bij Gettysburg]]
[[no:Slaget ved Gettysburg]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Gettysburgiem]]
[[pt:Batalha de Gettysburg]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Gettysburg]]
[[zh:蓋茨堡之役]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)</title>
<id>4851</id>
<revision>
<id>41868448</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:26:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.23.171.130</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Market share */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Czech Republic|Czech]] beer also known as "Budweiser", please see [[Budweiser Budvar]].''
[[Image:StLouisABPackaging Plant.JPG|thumbnail|right|250px|The packaging plant at the [[Anheuser-Busch]] headquarters in [[St. Louis, Missouri]].]]
'''Budweiser''', usually simply called '''Bud''' and often marketed with the slogan ''"King of Beers"'', is the primary brand of [[beer]] made by [[Anheuser-Busch]]. It is the best-selling brand of beer in the world, followed by Bud Light. Budweiser is an [[American lager]] brewed using [[mass production]] techniques. Like other American lagers, it is lightly flavored and heavily carbonated; it is among the mildest-tasting of internationally distributed [[lager]]s.
There are numerous Budweiser breweries located around the United States and the rest of the world.
The company is known for its [[sport]]s [[sponsorship]]s, [[Computer and video games|video game]] sponsorship ([[Tapper]]), and (often) humorous [[advertisement]]s. Advertising campaigns have included a nude [[Ganymede_(mythology)|Ganymede]] grasping a beer bottle and borne aloft by a [[bald eagle]], frogs saying 'bud-wei-ser', lizards doing the same, and [[Clydesdale horse]]s. Anheuser-Busch is also known for its repeated legal attempts to obtain complete control of the Budweiser trademark, which have been generally unsuccessful.
==Market share==
Anheuser-Busch has a market share in the United States of about 50% for all of its brands of beer combined. Despite its wide commercial success in the United States, it has a very poor reputation with beer enthusiasts, both foreign and domestic, who typically object to its use of [[adjunct (beer)|adjuncts]], and to the taste of [[American lager]]s in general. In spite of that reputation, the company's 2004 annual report cites figures which demonstrate Budweiser brands are proving to be quite successful in three markets outside of the U.S.:
* in [[China]], where Anheuser-Busch has had a brewery in [[Wuhan]] since [[1995]], 2.7 million barrels of Budweiser were brewed there in 2004, a number which is expected to grow to nearly 3.5 million barrels in 2005;
* in the [[United Kingdom]], where Anheuser-Busch owns Stag Brewery in [[Mortlake]], Budweiser is the number one on-premise, premium packaged lager and the country's number two such lager;
* in [[Canada]], where [[Labatt Brewing Company]] brews and packages Budweiser and Bud Light for the Canadian market; Budweiser became the country's number one brand in 2004.
Budweiser is also widely available in [[Mexico]] due to Anheuser-Busch's half-ownership of [[Grupo Modelo]], through which Budweiser and Bud Light are distributed. In [[Ireland]], Budweiser is the largest off-premise beer; it is brewed, marketed, and sold by [[Guinness]]. Budweiser is also available in [[Italy]] and [[Argentina]] because of partnerships Anheuser-Busch has with major brewers there.
==Marketing==
Budweiser is one of the major breweries that emphasizes humorous advertising campaigns, such as the "[[Real Men of Genius]]" radio commercials for Bud Light, recently moved to television. The spots feature an over-the-top, 1980s-style rock ballad sung by David Bickler, the former lead singer of "Survivor," describing ordinary activities as if they were heroic. The campaign originally was called "Real American Heroes," but the name was changed after the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001.
Some Bud advertising campaigns have entered the popular culture in the U.S.. They include a long TV advertisements in the 1990s featuring three [[Budweiser Frogs|frogs]] named "Bud", "Weis", and "Er", and a campaign built around the phrase "[[Whassup?]]".
==The name==
:''See also [[Budweiser Budvar]].''
With globalization of brands, the existence of the Czech beer of the same name has caused problems in some markets. A long-standing agreement with the Czech brewer divided the rights to the name "Budweiser," so that the Anheuser-Busch product is marketed as "Bud" (in France and elsewhere) and "Anheuser-Busch B" (Germany), where the Czech beer has the rights to the name. Anheuser-Busch has made offers to buy out the Czech brewing company in order to secure global rights to the name "Budweiser", but the Czech government has refused all such offers, considering keeping the Budweiser name Czech to be a matter of national pride.
The name was coined by the founders of the company. They chose "Budweiser" because it was German sounding and would appeal to other German immigrants, and it was easy for Americans to pronounce.
==The beer==
Anheuser-Busch brews several brands of beer:
*The Budweiser Family
**Budweiser
**Budweiser Select
**Bud Light
**Bud Dry
**Bud Ice
**Bud Ice Light
*The [[Michelob]] Family
**Michelob
**Michelob Light
**Michelob Ultra
**Michelob Ultra Amber
**Michelob Honey Lager
**Michelob AmberBock
**Michelob Golden Draft
**Michelob Golden Draft Light
*[[Busch]] Family
**Busch
**Busch Light
**Busch Ice
*The [[Natural Light|Natural]] Family
**Natural Light
**Natural Ice
*Specialty Beers
**B^E
**Bare Knuckle Stout
**Anheuser World Lager
**[[Ziegen Bock|ZiegenBock]]
**ZiegenLight
*Non-alchoholic
**O'Doul's
**O'Doul's Amber
**Busch NA
==External links==
* [http://www.budweiser.com/ Budweiser official website]
* [http://www.anheuser-busch.com/ Anheuser Busch corporate website], including its [http://www.anheuser-busch.com/annual/default.htm annual report]
* [http://budlight.whipnet.com/ Budweiser "Real Men of Genius" Unofficial]
[[Category:Brands of beer]]
[[cs:Budvar]]
[[de:Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)]]
[[fr:Budweiser]]
[[it:Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)]]
[[ja:バドワイザー]]
[[fi:Budweiser]]
[[nl:Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Breslau</title>
<id>4853</id>
<revision>
<id>17751018</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-28T10:46:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Akumiszcza</username>
<id>3391</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wrocław]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bermuda Triangle</title>
<id>4854</id>
<revision>
<id>42087520</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:15:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.32.103.39</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Bermuda Triangle''' (also known as '''Devil's Triangle''') is a 1.5-million-[[square mile|square-mile]] area of ocean roughly defined by [[Bermuda]], [[Puerto Rico]], and the southern tip of [[Florida]]. Some believe it is a [[paranormal]] site in which the [[physical law|laws of physics]] are either violated, altered, or both.
Some claim that within this area a number of ships and airplanes have disappeared under highly unusual circumstances and conditions. The [[United States Coast Guard]] and others disagree with the assessment of paranormal activity, citing statistics demonstrating that the number of incidents involving lost ships and [[fixed-wing aircraft|airplanes]] is no larger than that of any other heavily traveled region of the world. Many of the allegedly mysterious cases have, upon closer examination, proved not so unusual, with innacuracies and misinformation about the cases often circulating and recirculating over the decades.
Original research by investigators in the last two decades has focused on examples of several of the claims presented by the "Triangle myth," including disappearances while within sight of land, coming in for landings or having just departed, an |
seshoeing has been deeply reviewed in the last years based on physiological, scientific arguments. Observations on wild horses and horses in natural boarding situations (and [[barefoot horses|barefoot]] trimmed) have suggested that domesticated horses in domestic situations can grow hooves as healthy as those of wild/feral horses and do not need shoes if properly cared for. However, a long tradition of conventional horse keeping, stall boarding and shoeing has meant that these ideas have been slow to take off.
There are several variations on the theme of barefoot trimming and natural horse keeping with their main differences stemming from different philosophies on the limits of invasive trimming techniques and differing strategies during the 'transition phase' when a horse is transitioned from a traditional keeped and shod lifestyle to a natural and barefoot lifestyle. Two horse care practitioners who have been particularly influential on the barefoot horse movement are [[Jaime Jackson]] and Dr. [[Hiltrud Strasser]].
==History==
===Earliest horseshoes===
Horse owners have sought to remedy the problems shown above with supplemental support and [[armor]], beginning in the earliest days with [[rawhide boot]]s which could be tied onto the hoof.
===Metal horseshoes===
Since then, [[metal]] ([[iron]]) horseshoes have been developed. These are nailed to the rim of the sole with nails which find a purchase in the hoof wall.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Horseshoes.jpg|framed|These [[Roman villa]] horseshoes from about 294 CE challenge assumptions about horseshoe history.]] -->
There has been some debate about when metal horseshoes were first invented - some historians believe that horseshoes were invented during the [[Middle Ages]], but the image on the right shows two of several horseshoes that were part of a much larger loot from a [[Roman villa]], found in a river near [[Neupotz, Germany|Neupotz]], [[Germany]]. They are dated to the year 294. (From Kuenzl, Ernst, ''Die Alamannenbeute aus dem Rhein bei Neupotz: Plünderungsgut aus dem römischen Gallien.'' Mainz 1993.) In any case, metal horse shoes were not commonly used until the middle ages.
== For luck==
[[Image:Horseshoe lucky on door.jpg|thumb|A horseshoe on a door is regarded a protective [[amulet|talisman]] in some cultures]]
Horseshoes are considered a good [[luck]] charm in many cultures. A common tradition is that if a horseshoe is hung on a door with the two ends pointing up (as shown here) then good luck will occur. However, if the two ends point downwards then bad luck will occur. Traditions do differ on this point, though. In some cultures, the horseshoe is hung ''points down'' (so the luck pours onto you); in others, it is hung ''points up'' (so the luck doesn't fall out); still in others it doesn't matter so long as the horseshoe has been used (not new), was found (not purchased), and can be touched.
In some traditions, any good or bad luck achieved will only occur to the ''owner'' of the horseshoe, not the person who hangs it up. Therefore, if the horseshoe was stolen, borrowed or even just found then the ''owner'', not the person who found or stole the horseshoe will get any good or bad luck. Other traditions require that the horseshoe be found to be effective.
One reputed origin of the tradition of lucky horseshoes is the story of [[Dunstan|Saint Dunstan]] and the Devil. Dunstan, who would became the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in AD 959, was a blacksmith by trade. The story relates that he once nailed a horseshoe to the Devil's hoof when he was asked to reshod the Devil's horse. This caused the Devil great pain, and Dunstan only agreed to remove the shoe and release the Devil after the Devil promised never to enter a place where a horseshoe is hung over the door.
Another theory concerning the placing of horseshoes above doorways is to ward off [[Faeries]] (the Celtic kind); the theory being that Faeries are repelled by iron and as horseshoes were an easily available source of iron, they could be nailed above a door to prevent any unwanted, otherworldly guests. One can see how the custom, as people began to forget the stories concerning the Fair Folk, eventually morphed into a simple good luck charm. It is also possible that the Romans, when arriving in Celtic countries, came across horseshoes nailed above doors and simply borrowed the concept of horseshoes as good luck charms, failing to understand the background of the Celtic custom, and made their use more widespread.
==External links==
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/9/9/14990/14990-h/14990-h.htm#art16 Historical development of the horseshoe] 1891 [[Scientific American]] article from [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.luckymojo.com/horseshoe.html ''Lucky Mojo'' web site]
*[http://www.e-equestrian.com/ Discuss Hoof care]
[[Category:Horse management]]
[[Category:Horse racing]]
[[Category:Lucky/unlucky things or events]]
[[da:Hestesko]]
[[de:Hufeisen]]
[[eo:Hufumo]]
[[es:Herradura]]
[[fr:Fer à cheval]]
[[it:Ferro di cavallo]]
[[nl:Hoefijzer]]
[[simple:Horseshoe]]
[[sv:Hästsko]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hymenostomatia</title>
<id>13482</id>
<revision>
<id>15911087</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-18T22:57:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josh Grosse</username>
<id>517</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hymenostome]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hemoglobin</title>
<id>13483</id>
<revision>
<id>41442459</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T09:42:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gurch</username>
<id>241822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>arrangment -> arrangement (x2)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hemoglobin.jpg|thumb|300px|3-dimensional structure of hemoglobin. The four subunits are shown in red and yellow, and the heme groups in green.]]
'''Hemoglobin''' or '''haemoglobin''' (frequently abbreviated as '''Hb''') is the [[iron]]-containing [[oxygen]]-transport [[metalloprotein]] in the [[red blood cell|red cells]] of the [[blood]] in [[mammal]]s and other animals. Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the [[lung]]s to the rest of the body, such as to the [[muscle]]s, where it releases the oxygen load.
The name ''hemoglobin'' is the concatenation of ''heme'' and ''globin'', reflecting the fact that each [[subunit]] of hemoglobin is a [[globular protein]] with an embedded [[heme]] (or haem) group; each heme group contains an iron atom, and this is responsible for the binding of oxygen. The most common types of hemoglobin contains four such subunits.
Mutations in the [[gene]] for the hemoglobin protein result in a group of [[hereditary disease|hereditary diseases]] termed the ''[[hemoglobinopathy|hemoglobinopathies]]'', the most common members of which are [[sickle-cell disease]] and [[thalassemia]].
==Structure==
[[Image:Heme.png|right|framed|Heme group]]
The Hemoglobin [[molecule]] is an assembly of four [[globular protein]] subunits. Each [[subunit]] is composed of a [[protein]] chain tightly associated with a non-protein [[heme]] group.
Each individual protein chain arranges in a set of [[alpha-helix]] structural segments connected together in a "[[myoglobin]] fold" arrangement, so called because this arrangement is the same folding motif used in the heme/globin proteins. This folding pattern contains a pocket which is suitable to strongly bind the heme group.
A heme group consists of an iron atom held in a [[heterocyclic]] ring, known as a ''[[porphyrin]]''. This iron atom is the site of oxygen binding. The iron atom is bonded equally to all four [[nitrogen]]s in the center of the ring, which lie in one plane. Two additional bonds perpendicular to the plane on each side can be formed with the iron to form the fifth and sixth positions, one connected strongly to the protein, the other available for binding of oxygen. The iron atom can either be in the Fe<sup>2+</sup> or Fe<sup>3+</sup> state, but ferrihaemoglobin ([[Methaemoglobin]]) (Fe<sup>3+</sup>) cannot bind oxygen.
In adult humans, the most common hemoglobin type is a [[tetramer]] (which contains 4 subunit proteins) called '''hemoglobin A''', consisting of two &alpha; and two &beta; subunits non-covalently bound. This is denoted as &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>. The subunits are structurally similar and about the same size. Each subunit has a molecular weight of about 16,000 [[dalton (unit)|dalton]]s, for a total [[molecular weight]] of the tetramer of about 64,000 daltons. Haemoglobin A is the most intensively studied of the haemoglobin molecules.
The four [[polypeptide chains]] are bound to each other by [[salt bridge (protein)|salt bridge]]s, [[hydrogen bonds]] and [[hydrophobic interaction]]. There are two kinds of contacts between the &alpha; and &beta; chains: &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>1</sub> and &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>.
==Types of haemoglobins in humans==
In the [[embryo]]:
* Gower 1 (&xi;<sub>2</sub>&epsilon;<sub>2</sub>)
* Gower 2 (&alpha;<sub>2</sub>&epsilon;<sub>2</sub>) ({{PDB|1A9W}})
* Haemoglobin Portland (&xi;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub>)
In the [[fetus]]:
* [[Haemoglobin F]] (&alpha;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub>) ({{PDB|1FDH}})
In adults:
* Haemoglobin A (&alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>) ({{PDB|1BZ0}}) - The most common type.
* Haemaglobin A<sub>2</sub> (&alpha;<sub>2</sub>&delta;<sub>2</sub>) - &delta; chain synthesis begins late in the third trimeste |
ned similar sentences</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Almond
| image = Almond blossoms branch.JPG
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Almond flowers
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Rosales]]
| familia = [[Rosaceae]]
| subfamilia = [[Prunoideae]]
| genus = [[Prunus]]
| species = '''''P. dulcis'''''
| binomial = ''Prunus dulcis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Philip Miller|Mill.]]) D. A. Webb
}}
The '''Almond''' (''Prunus dulcis'', [[synonymy|syn.]] ''Prunus amygdalus'', or ''Amygdalus communis'') is a small [[deciduous]] [[tree]] belonging to the subfamily [[Prunoideae]] of the family [[Rosaceae]]. An ''almond'' is also the [[fruit]] of this tree. It is classified with the [[peach]] in the subgenus ''Amygdalus'' within ''[[Prunus]]'', distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated seed shell.
The fruit lacks the sweet fleshy outer covering of other members of ''Prunus'' (such as the [[plum]] and [[cherry]]), this being replaced by a leathery coat, called a hull, which contains the edible kernel, commonly called a [[nut]], inside a hard shell. In botanical parlance, the reticulated hard stony shell is called an [[endocarp]], and the fruit, or [[exocarp]], is a [[drupe]], having a downy outer coat.
The tree is probably a native of southwest [[Asia]] and north [[Africa]], but has been so extensively cultivated for so long over the warm temperate regions of the Old World that its original natural distribution is obscure. It can ripen fruit as far north as the [[British Isles]]. It is a tree of moderate size; the leaves are lanceolate, and serrated at the edges; and it flowers early in spring.
==Production==
Global production of almonds is around 1.5 million tonnes, with a low of 1 million tonnes in 1995 and a peak of 1.85 million tonnes in 2002 [http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/Hort_Circular/2004/12-10-04/12-04%20Almonds.pdf FAO figures (pdf file)]. Major producers include [[Greece]], [[Iran]], [[Italy]], [[Morocco]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]], and the [[United States]]. In Spain, numerous commercial cultivars of sweet almond are produced, most notably the Jordan almond (imported from [[Málaga]]) and the [[Valencia]] almond. In the United States, production is concentrated in [[California]], with almonds being California's sixth leading argicultrual product and its top agricultural export. California exported almonds valued at 1.08 billion dollars in 2003, about 70% of total California almond crop.
==Pollination==
{{ImageStackRight|200|
[[image:Almond blossoms closeup.jpg|thumb|right|Almond flowers]]
[[Image:Unripe almond on tree.jpg|thumb|Unripe almond on tree]]
[[Image:Almonds_th.jpg|thumb|right|Almonds (in the shell and out of it)]]}}
The [[pollination]] of California's almonds is the largest annual [[Pollination management|managed pollination]] event in the world, with close to one million hives (nearly half of all [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] in the USA) being trucked in February to the almond groves. Much of the pollination is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory [[beekeeper]]s from at least 38 states for the event.
==Sweet and bitter almond==
There are two forms of the plant, one (often with white flowers) producing [[sweet]] almonds, and the other (often with pink flowers) producing [[Bitter (taste)|bitter]] almonds. The kernel of the former contains a fixed oil and emulsion. As late as the early 20th century the oil was used internally in medicine, with the stipulation that it must not be adulterated with that of the bitter almond; it remains fairly popular in [[alternative medicine]], particularly as a [[carrier oil]] in [[aromatherapy]], but has fallen out of prescription among doctors.
The bitter almond is rather broader and shorter than the sweet almond, and contains about 50% of the fixed oil which also occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains a ferment emulsion which, in the presence of water, acts on a [[soluble]] [[glucoside]], [[amygdalin]], yielding [[glucose]], [[cyanide]] and the [[essential oil]] of bitter almonds or [[benzaldehyde]]. Bitter almonds may yield from 6 to 8% of prussic acid (also known as [[hydrogen cyanide]]). Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses effects are severe and in larger doses can be deadly; the prussic acid must be removed before consumption.
==Almond oil==
"Oleum Amygdalae", the fixed oil, is prepared from either variety of almond and is a glyceryl oleate, with slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]] but readily soluble in [[chloroform]] or [[diethyl ether|ether]]. It may be used as a substitute for [[olive oil]].
The sweet almond oil is obtained from the dried [[seed|kernel]] of the plant. This oil has been traditionally used by [[massage therapist]]s to lubricate the skin during a massage session, being considered by many to be an effective [[emollient]].
==Culinary uses==
While the almond is most often eaten raw, it is used in some dishes. It, along with other nuts, is often sprinkled over desserts, particularly sundaes and other ice cream based dishes. It is also used in [[Baklava]]. There is also almond butter, a spread similar to [[peanut butter]], popular with peanut allergy sufferers and for its less salty taste.
The sweet almond itself contains practically no [[starch]] and may therefore be made into flour for cakes and biscuits for patients suffering from [[diabetes mellitus]] or any other form of [[glycosuria]]. Almond extract is also a popular substitute for [[vanilla]] extract among people with diabetes. Sweet almonds are used in [[marzipan]], [[nougat]], and [[macaroon]]s, as well as other desserts. Almonds are a rich source of [[Vitamin E]], containing 24 mg per 100 grammes [http://www.allaboutvision.com/nutrition/vitamin_e.htm]. They are also rich in [[monounsaturated fat]], one of the two "good" fats responsible for lowering [[LDL cholesterol]].
In China, almonds are used in a popular dessert when it is mixed with milk and then served hot.
==Cultural aspects==
The almond is highly revered in some cultures. Among the [[Hebrews]], it was a symbol of watchfulness and promise due to its early flowering, while the [[China|Chinese]] consider it a symbol of enduring sadness and female beauty. In India, consumption of almonds is considered to be good for the brain. Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the [[Virgin Birth]] of [[Jesus]]; paintings often include almonds encircling the [[Child Jesus|baby Jesus]] and as a symbol of [[Mary]]. In the [[Bible]] ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 17) [[Aaron]] is chosen among the other tribes of Israel by a rod that brought forth almond flowers. Today, Jews still carry rods of almond blossom to the synagogues on great festival days. The fruit of the almond supplied a model for certain kinds of ornamental carved work ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 25:33-34; 37:19-20). In a similar legend, [[Pope Urban]] once declared that a man named [[Tannhäuser]] would not receive forgiveness until his wooden staff bloomed again. This occurred after three days, but Tannhauser could not be found. The nut of the tree has also been used as a preventative for [[ethanol|alcohol]] [[intoxication]]. Folklore claims that almonds are poisonous for [[fox]]es. The tree grows in [[Syria]] and [[Israel]], and is referred to in the [[Bible]] under the name of "Shaked", meaning "hasten". The word "Luz", which occurs in [[Book of Genesis|Genisis]] 30:37, and which some translations have as "hazel", is supposed to be another name for the almond. In Israel the tree flowers in January. The application of "Shaked" or "hasten" to the almond is similar to the use of the name "May" for the hawthorn, which usually flowers in that month in Britain.
==Etymology==
The word 'almond' comes from the Old French ''almande'' or ''alemande'', late Latin ''amandola'', derived through a form ''amingdola'' from the Greek ''amugdale'', an almond; the al- for a- may be due to a confusion with the Arabic article ''al'', the word having first dropped the a- as in the Italian form ''mandorla''; the British pronunciation ''ar-mond'' and the modern French ''amande'' show the true form of the word.
In parts of Northern California, where almonds are a main crop, the word is often pronounced with a unique regional accent. Rather than the usual American pronunciation of "Ahl-mond", with the soft A and L, it is pronounced with a hard A and nearly silent H, as in "Aah-men”. This method of pronunciation is particularly prevalent near the city of [[Chico, California|Chico]] in Butte County, but it is also heard in nearby Glenn, Colusa, and Tehama Counties.
==See also==
* [[Almond milk]], a milky drink made from ground almonds, similar to soy milk
* [[Almond Joy]], a [[candy bar]]
* [[Fruit trees]]
* [[Fruit tree forms]]
* [[Pruning fruit trees]]
* [[Fruit tree propagation]]
* [[List of edible seeds]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Prunus dulcis dulcis}}
* [http://www.almondboard.com/ The Almond Board of California]
* [http://almondboard.files.cms-plus.com/PDFs/CA%20Almond%20Facts%20Summer%202005.pdf The Almond Board of California - fact sheet]
* [http://www.almondsarein.com/ "Almonds Are In" Health and Nutrition site (The Almond Board of California]
[[Category:Rosaceae]]
[[Category:Nuts and seeds]]
[[Category:Pollination management]]
[[be:Мігдалы]]
[[ca:Ametller]]
[[co:Amandula]]
[[cy:Cneuen almon]]
[[da:Mandel]]
[[de:Mandel]]
[[es:Prunus dulcis]]
[[fr:Amandier]]
[[gl:Amendoeira]]
[[he:שקד מצוי]]
[[nl:Amandel]]
[[ja:アーモンド]]
[[pl:Migdałowiec zwyczajny]]
[[pt:Amendoeira]]
[[ru:Миндаль]]
[[sr:Бадем]]
[[fi:Manteli]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<tit |
ls play a role in an important social occasion, such as the celebration of many key [[culture|cultural]] and [[religion|religious]] [[festival]]s.
A meal can be used as means for feeding a single individual or shared and eaten simultaneously by two or more people.
The number of meals consumed by individuals in a [[day]], their [[size]], [[wikt:composition|composition]], when and how they are prepared and eaten varies greatly around the world. This diversity can be attributed to a number of local factors, including [[climate]], [[ecology]], [[Economics|economy]], [[culture|cultural]] [[tradition|traditions]] and [[industrialisation]].
In societies where the availability of food has risen above [[subsistence]] levels and beyond [[staple food]]s, meals are also [[sell|sold]] pre-prepared for immediate consumption in [[restaurant]]s and other similar [[retail]] premises.
Food eaten in smaller quantities between the culturally normative meals is regarded as [[snack food]].
:''See also: [[Appetite]], [[Buddhist cuisine]], [[Eucharist]], [[Fast food]], [[Fasting]], [[Gault Millau|Gault Millau restaurant guide]], [[Halaal]], [[I-tal]], [[Kashrut]], [[Michelin Guide|Michelin restaurant guide]], [[Muslim dietary laws]], [[Potluck]], [[Totemism]]''.
==Food production or acquisition==
Food is traditionally obtained through [[farming]], [[ranching]], and [[fishing]], with [[hunting]], [[foraging]] and other [[List of subsistence techniques|methods of subsistence]] locally important for some populations, but minor for others.
In the modern era in [[developed nations]], food supply is increasingly dependent upon [[agriculture]], [[factory farming|industrial farming]], [[aquaculture]] and [[fish farming]] techniques. These techniques aim to maximize the amount of food produced while minimizing the [[cost]]. The techniques include a reliance on mechanized tools, from the [[threshing machine]] and [[seed drill]], to the [[tractor]] and [[combine harvester|combine]]. Developed tools have been combined with the use of [[pesticide]]s to promote high [[agriculture|crop]] [[yield]]s and to combat [[insect]]s or mammals which reduce yield.
More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more [[sustainable agriculture|Sustainable agricultural]] practices. This approach - which is partly fuelled by [[consumer]] [[demand]] - encourages [[biodiversity]], local self-reliance and [[Organic farming]] methods.
Major influences on food production are international policy, ''e.g. the [[World Trade Organization]] and [[Common Agricultural Policy]]'', national government policy or [[law]] and [[war]].
Food for [[livestock]] is [[fodder]] and traditionally comprises [[hay]] or [[cereal|grain]].
:''See also: [[mariculture]], [[horticulture]], [[agribusiness]], [[gardening]].''
[[Image:Foods.jpg|thumbnail|right|Food from plant sources]]
===From [[plant]]s===
* [[Seed]]s
** [[Cereal]]s from [[Poaceae|grass]]es, including [[barley]], [[maize]], [[oat]]s, [[rice]], [[rye]], and [[wheat]]
** Cereals from non-grasses, including [[buckwheat]], [[amaranth]], and [[quinoa]]
** [[Legume]]s, including [[bean]]s, [[pea]]s, and [[lentil]]s
** [[Nut (fruit)|Nut]]s, including [[coconut]]s, [[almond]]s, and [[pine nut]]s
** [[Oilseed]]s, including [[sesame]], [[sunflower]], and [[hemp]]
* [[Vegetable]]s (see also [[list of vegetables]])
** [[Root vegetable]]s, including [[potato]]es, [[cassava]], and [[turnip]]s
** [[Leaf vegetable]]s, including [[amaranth]], [[spinach]], and [[kale]]
** [[Seaweed|Sea vegetable]]s, including [[dulse]], [[kombu]], and [[dabberlocks]]
** [[:Category:Stem vegetables|Stem vegetables]], including [[bamboo]] shoots, [[nopal]]es, and [[asparagus]]
** [[:Category:Inflorescence vegetables|inflorescence vegetables]], including [[globe artichoke]]s, [[broccoli]], and [[daylily|daylilies]]
** [[:Category:Vegetable-like fruits|Fruit vegetables]], including [[pumpkin]], [[okra]], and [[eggplant]]
* [[Fruit]]s (see also [[list of fruits]])
* [[Herb]]s and [[spice]]s (see also [[list of herbs and spices]])
[[Image:Meatfoodgroup.jpg|thumb|right|Various uncooked meats]]
===From [[animal]]s===
* [[Dairy product]]s, including [[milk]]
* [[Egg (food)|Eggs]], including [[roe]] and [[caviar]]
* [[Insect]]s, including [[honey]]
* [[Meat]], including [[beef]], [[frogs' legs]], [[goat]], [[horse]], [[kangaroo]], [[lamb]], [[sheep|mutton]], [[pork]], [[veal]], [[rodents]], [[cannibalism|human (i.e. cannibalism)]]
* [[Offal]], including [[blood]]
* [[Poultry]], including [[chicken]], [[Turkey (domesticated)|turkey]], [[duck]], [[goose]], [[dove|pigeon or dove]], [[ostrich]], [[emu]], [[guinea fowl]], [[pheasant]], [[quail]]
* [[Seafood]], including [[Fishery|finfish]] such as [[salmon]] and [[tilapia]], and [[shellfish]] such as [[mollusk]]s and [[crustacea]]ns
* [[Snail]]s
* [[Game (food)|Game]], this includes all animals hunted for food.
===From neither animals or plants===
* [[edible salt|Salt]]
* [[Yeast]], which is a type of [[fungus|fungi]] (and an essential ingredient in [[bread]] and [[beer]])
* [[Mushroom|Mushrooms]], which are a type of [[fungus|fungi]]
* [[Seaweed]], which is a [[protist]]
* [[Water]], including [[mineral water]] and [[spring (water)]]
* [[Blue Green Algae]] (cyanobacteria)
==Food preparation==
[[Image:Mass food production02.jpg|thumb|250px|Food being prepared in large quantities]]
{{main|Cooking}}
While some food can be eaten without preparation, many foods undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, or [[Flavor|flavor]]. At the simplest level this may involve [[washing]], [[cutting]], trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as [[spice]]s. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, [[pressure cooking]], [[fermentation]], or combination with other food. Most food preparation takes place in a [[kitchen]].
The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve [[slaughter]], [[evisceration]], hanging, [[portion]]ing and [[rendering]].
:''See also:'' [[Barbecue]], [[List of eating utensils|Eating utensils]], [[Frankfurt kitchen]], [[Hangi]], [[Oven]], [[Microwave oven]], [[Refrigeration]], [[List of food preparation utensils|Food preparation utensils]].
===Food manufacture===
Early food processing techniques were limited by the available [[food preservation]], packaging and [[transport|transportation]]. Early food processing mainly involved [[salting (food)|salting]], [[curing]], curdling, [[drying (food)|drying]], [[pickling]] and [[smoking (food)|smoking]]. An early processed food product was [[cheese]].
During the [[industrial era|industrialisation era]] in the [[19th century]], food manufacturing arose. This development took advantage of new [[Mass-marketing|mass markets]] and emerging new technology, such as [[milling]], preservation, [[packaging and labelling]] and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ [[domestic servant]]s.
At the start of the [[21st century]], a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well known food [[brand]]s; with a populous number of small local or national food processing companies.
:''See also: [[Best before]], [[Canning]], [[Food coloring|Coloring]], [[Food quality]], [[Snap freezing]], [[Food additive|Additive]]s, [[Flavoring]], [[Enzyme]]s, [[Genetically modified food]], [[Pasteurization]], [[Shelf-life]], [[Ultra-high temperature processing]].''
====Types of manufactured food====
* [[Drink]]s: [[beer]], [[juice]], [[soft drink]], [[Squash (drink)|squash]], [[wine]].
* [[Bread]] is a staple food for many nations, being made of risen dough of [[wheat]] or other cereals.
* [[Cake]]s and [[cookie]]s
* [[Cheese]] is a curdled milk product, of which many varieties exist.
* [[Dessert]] is a course, usually sweet, and generally served after the main course, e.g. [[Ice cream]].
* [[French fries]], [[Chips]]
* [[Functional food]]
* [[Jam]] and [[Jelly]]
* [[Pasta]]
* [[Pie]]
* [[Pizza]]
* Processed [[meat]]s
* [[Sandwich]]es
* [[Salad]]
* [[Sauce]]
* [[Sausage]]
==Food trade==
[[Image:Food on shelf.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Some Brand name food]]
Food is now [[trade]]d on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing [[season]]. Between [[1961]] and [[1999]] there has been a 400% increase in worldwide food [[export]]s. Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.
In [[1994]] [[trade liberalisation]] began when over 100 countries became signatories to the [[Uruguay Round]] of the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] which included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers. This is underpinned by the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] enforcement of [[Agricultural policy|agricultural subsidy]], [[Tax, tariff and trade|tariffs]], import [[quota]]s and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved. Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the [[Codex Alimentarius]] Commission, which was founded in [[1962]] by the [[United Nations]] [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] and the [[World Health Organization]].
===Food retailing===
[[Image:Beer and wine aisle.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Supermarket goods]]
The sale of surplus food traditionally took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day, into the local [[village]] [[market place]]. Here food was sold to [[grocer]]s for sale in their local shops for purchase by local people.
With the onset of industrialisation, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be [[counter]]-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper |
t;/small> || small capital E, mid front unrounded vowel used by Sinologists, between {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʆ}} || Curly-tail esh, withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[ʃʲ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʓ}} || Curly-tail ezh, withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[ʒʲ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ƫ}} || Left-hook T, withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[tʲ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|d̡}} ''etc.'' || Subscript left hook, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[dʲ]}} ''etc.''
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|σ}} || = {{IPA|[θʷ, sʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ƍ}} || = {{IPA|[ðʷ, zʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ƪ}} || = {{IPA|[ʃʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ƺ}} || = {{IPA|[ʒʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|k̫}} ''etc.'' || Subscript w, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[kʷ]}} ''etc.''
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ɑ̢}} ''etc.'' || = {{IPA|[ɑ˞]}} ''etc.'' ("retroflex" or [[r-colored vowel]]s)
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʇ}} || Turned T, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[ǀ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʖ}} || Inverted glottal stop, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[ǁ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʗ}} || Stretched C, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[ǃ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ʞ}} || Proposed symbol for velar click, withdrawn 1970
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ}} || Hooktop P, T, C, K, Q, withdrawn 1993, = {{IPA|[ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̥ ɠ̥ ʛ̥]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ƞ}} || Right-leg N, withdrawn 1976, = {{IPA|[n̩]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|š}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ž}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|č}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ǰ, ǧ, ǯ}} || Americanist, Slavicist ''etc.'' usage, = {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ƛ}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[t͡ɬ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|λ}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[d͡ɮ]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ƾ}} || Withdrawn 1976, = {{IPA|[t͡s]}}
|-
| width=20 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ƻ}} || Barred two, withdrawn 1976, = {{IPA|[d͡z]}}
|}
===How to transcribe sounds that don't have symbols in the IPA charts===
The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ''ad hoc'' symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the lateral flaps and voiceless lateral fricatives, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones. For example, the Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, {{IPA|[β̞]}}. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA|[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]}}. A few languages such as [[Banda language|Banda]] have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap symbol and the advanced diacritic, {{IPA|[v̛̟]}}. Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪]}} (bilabial trill and the dental sign). Palatal and uvular taps, if they exist, and the epiglottal tap could be written as extra-short plosives, {{IPA|[ɟ˘ ɢ˘ ʡ˘]}}. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted {{IPA|[r̠]}}, just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.
The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering. For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|[ʊ]}} can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA|[ɯ̽]}}, and the rounded equivalent of [æ] as raised {{IPA|[ɶ̝]}}. True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]}}, while centered {{IPA|[ɪ̈ ʊ̈] and [ä]}} are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The vowels that aren't representable in this scheme are the [[rounded vowel|compressed]] vowels, which would require a dedicated diacritic.
==Names of the symbols==
It is often desirable to distinguish an IPA symbol from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not a one-to-one correspondance between symbol and sound in broad transcription. The symbol's names and phonetic descriptions are described in the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association''. The symbols also have nonce names in the [[Unicode]] standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls {{IPA|ɛ}} "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E".
===The letters===
The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are used for unmodified symbols. In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section.
Examples:
{| class="wikitable"
! style="width:2em;" | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | p || (lower-case) P || [[voiceless bilabial plosive]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER P
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | x || (lower-case) X || [[voiceless velar fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER X
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | r || (lower-case) R || [[alveolar trill|coronal trill]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER R
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|β}} || [[beta]] || [[voiced bilabial fricative]] || GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ɛ}} || [[epsilon]] || [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN E
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ɣ}} || [[gamma]] || [[voiced velar fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER GAMMA
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|θ}} || [[theta]] || [[voiceless dental fricative]] || GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|χ}} || [[Chi (letter)|chi]] || [[voiceless uvular fricative]] || GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ɸ}} || [[phi]] || [[voiceless bilabial fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER PHI
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ʊ}} || upsilon {{footnote|1}} || [[near-close near-back rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER UPSILON
|-
|}
'''Note'''
#The Latin "[[upsilon]]" is frequently called "[[horseshoe|horseshoe u]]" in order to distinguish it from the Greek upsilon. Historically, it derives from a Latin small capital <tt>U</tt>.
The IPA standard includes some small capital letters, such as {{IPA|ʀ}}, although it is common to refer to these symbols as simply "capital" or "cap" letters, because the IPA standard does not include any full-size capital letters.
A few letters have the forms of cursive or script letters. Examples:
{| class="wikitable"
! style="width:2em;" | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ɑ}} || script A || [[open back unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER ALPHA
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ɡ}} || opentail G {{footnote|1}} || [[voiced velar plosive]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER SCRIPT G
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ʋ}} || cursive V {{footnote|2}} || [[labiodental approximant]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER V WITH HOOK
|}
'''Note'''
#The "looptail G" [[Image:Looptail g.PNG|10 px]] is not strictly an IPA character, but is an acceptable alternative.
#In form and origin, but not in name, this is the Greek upsilon.
Ligatures are called precisely that, although some have alternate names. Examples:
{| class="wikitable"
! style="width:2em;" | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|œ}} || (lower-case) o-e ligature || [[open-mid front rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LIGATURE OE
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ɮ}} || L-Ezh ligature || [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative|voiced coronal lateral fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER LEZH
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|æ}} || [[Ash (letter)|ash]]; (lower-case) a-e ligature || [[near-open front unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER AE
|}
Many letters are ''turned'', or rotated 180 degrees. Examples:
{| class="wikitable"
! style="width:2em;" | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ʎ}} || turned Y || [[palatal lateral approximant]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED Y
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ɥ}} || turned H || [[labial-palatal approximant]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED H
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ɒ}} || turned script A || [ |
eloped as a lightweight "point defense" weapon that could be retrofitted to existing ships, often in place of existing gun-based anti-aircraft weapons. The primary development issues were changes to the seekers to allow them to operate with shipboard radars, and a new trainable launcher system, based on the [[ASROC]] launcher, to align the seeker head with the target before launch.
As a surface-to-air system, the Sparrow has a number of disadvantages. For one, the missile steers with its mid-mounted wings, which makes them unfoldable. For this reason the missile takes up much more room than it would have to if the wings could be folded. Additionally the engine is optimized for flight time, as opposed to fast acceleration, which makes sense when launched from an aircraft moving at high speed at a target at long range. In the surface-to-air role, however, one would rather have very high acceleration in order to allow it to intercept sea-skimming targets as soon as possible.
In order to address these issues, a consortium of many Sea Sparrow users joined together to create the [[ESSM|''Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile'' ('''ESSM''')]]. The new design uses the tail-fins for steering, allowing the wings to fold. This allows the missile body to increase in size while still fitting into the same launchers, growing to 10 inches in diameter and offering far higher performance. Additionally the wing-based manuvering of the older design is designed to save energy during the long gliding period of the missile, while the tail-fin based steering of the ESSM uses up more energy but offers considerably higher manuverability while the engine is still firing.
Another recent development is the ''Jet Vane Control'' ('''JVC''') unit, which can be added to the base of the missile to allow it to be vertically launched. After being "poppped" from the launch cell the JVC rotates the missile to bring the seeker onto the target and level the flightpath in that direction. It is then jettisoned. Vertical launching allows a single cell to cover the entire area around the ship, because the seeker can be pointed in any direction by the JVC after launch. Additionally the time needed to point the launcher is eliminated.
The [[Egyptian Navy]] uses the Sea Sparrow for air defense of its two [[Descubierta class frigate|''Descubierta'' class light frigates]].
==Description==
The Sparrow has four major sections: guidance section, [[warhead]], control, and rocket motor (currently the Hercules MK-58 solid-propellant rocket motor). It has a cylindrical body with four wings at mid-body and four tail fins. Although the external dimensions of the Sparrow remained relatively unchanged from model to model, the internal components of newer missiles represent major improvements, with vastly increased capabilities. The warhead is of the [[continuous-rod warhead|continuous-rod]] type.
As with other semi-active radar guided missiles, the missile does not generate radar signals, but instead homes in on reflected continuous-wave signals from the launch platform's radar. The receiver also senses the guidance radar to enable comparisons that enhance the missile's resistance to passive jamming.
==Principle of guidance (semi-active version)==
The launching aircraft will illuminate the target with its radar. In radars of the 1950's these were single target tracking devices using a nutating horn as part of its antenna. This caused the beam to be swept in a small cone. Signal processing would be applied to determine the direction of maximum illumination and so develop a signal to steer the antenna toward the target. The missile detects the reflected signal from the target with a high gain antenna in a similar fashion and steers the entire missile toward closure with the target. The missile guidance also samples a portion of the illuminating signal via rearward pointing [[waveguide]]s. The comparison of these two signals enabled logic circuits to determine the true target reflection signal, even if the target were to eject radar-reflecting [[chaff (radar countermeasure)|chaff]].
==Specifications (AIM-7M)==
* '''Length''': 12 ft (3600 mm)
* '''Diameter''': 8 in (203 mm)
* '''Wingspan''': 2 ft 8 in (81 mm)
* '''Launch weight''': 510 lb (231 kg)
* '''Speed''': Mach 4
* '''Range''': 44 mi (70 km)
* '''Guidance''': semi-active radar homing
* '''Warhead''': 88 lb (40 kg) blast fragmentation
== See also ==
* [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]
* [[AIM-54 Phoenix]]
* [[List of missiles]]
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:American Cold War air-to-air missiles|AIM-007]]
[[Category:Naval surface-to-air missiles of the United States|AIM-007]]
[[Category:Surface-to-air missiles of Egypt|AIM-007]]
[[de:AIM-7 Sparrow]]
[[he:AIM-7 ספארו]]
[[it:AIM-7 Sparrow]]
[[ja:スパロー (ミサイル)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AIM-120 AMRAAM</title>
<id>3147</id>
<revision>
<id>40437389</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T15:19:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.48.232.30</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Operators */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Missile|
name=AIM-120 AMRAAM|
image=aim_120_amraam_missile_20040710_145603_1.4.jpg|
Function=Medium-range, air-to-air tactical missile|
Contractor=[[Hughes Aircraft|Hughes]]/[[Raytheon]]|
Unit_cost=$386,000 (2003); $299,000 (price for Lot 12 contract in April [[1998]]; the previous price in Lot 11 was $340,000 each)|
Deployment=September [[1991]]|
Engine=High performance, directed rocket motor|
Launch_mass=335 lb (152 kg)|
Length=12 ft (3.66 m)|
Diameter=7 in (178 mm)|
Wing_span=20.7 in (526 mm) (AIM-120A/B)|
Speed=Supersonic|
Range=75 km (45 mi) AIM-120D range is over 110 km (65 mi))|
Flying_altitude= N/A|
Warhead=Blast Fragmentation; high explosive|
Guidance=INS, active radar |
Fuzes= |
Launch_platform=Aircraft, Surface launched.
*{{DEU}}: [[F-4]]
*{{NOR}}: [[F-16]]A/B and [[NASAMS]]
*{{UK}}: [[Panavia Tornado]] and [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] ([[Royal Air Force]]), [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] ([[Fleet Air Arm]])
*{{USA}} [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]]: [[AV-8 Harrier II|AV-8B+]], [[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18]]
*{{USA}} [[US Navy|Navy]]: [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet]], [[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18]]
*{{USA}} [[US Air Force|Air Force]]: [[F-15 Eagle|F-15]], [[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]], [[F/A-22 Raptor|F-22A]]
*{{AUS}}: [[F/A-18A Hornet]] (retrofitted during the Hornet Upgrade Program)
*{{BHR}}: [[F-16]]C/D
*{{SIN}}: [[F-16]]C/D, Upgraded [[F-5 Freedom Fighter|F-5S/T]]
*{{SWE}}: [[Saab Gripen]]|
}}
The '''AIM-120 Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile''', or '''AMRAAM''' (pronounced am-ram), commonly known to air crews as the "Slammer," is a modern [[air-to-air missile|air-to-air]] [[missile]] (AAM).
==Politico-historical background==
AMRAAM was developed as the result of an agreement, no longer in effect, among the United States and several other [[NATO]] nations to develop air-to-air missiles and to share production technology. Under this agreement the U.S. was to develop the next generation medium range missile (AMRAAM) and Europe would develop the next generation short range missile ([[ASRAAM]]). The breakdown in this agreement lead to Europe developing the [[MBDA Meteor]], a competitor to AMRAAM and the U.S. pursuing upgrades of the [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]. After protracted development, deployment of AMRAAM (AIM-120A) began in September [[1991 in aviation|1991]].
The eastern counterpart of AMRAAM is the very similar [[Russian Air Force|Russian]] [[R-77 AA-12 Adder]], commonly known in the west as "Amraamski."
==Operational features summary==
AMRAAM has an all-weather, beyond-visual-range capability. It improves the aerial combat capabilities of U.S. and allied aircraft to meet the future threat of enemy air-to-air weapons. AMRAAM serves as a follow-on to the [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] missile series. The new missile is faster, smaller, and lighter, and has improved capabilities against low-altitude targets. It also incorporates an active radar in conjunction with an inertial reference unit and micro-computer system, which makes the missile less dependent upon the fire-control system of the aircraft.
Once the missile closes in on the target, its active [[radar]] guides it to intercept. This feature, called "[[fire and forget]]," frees the pilot from the need to continuously illuminate the missile's target with a radar lock, enabling the pilot to aim and fire several missiles simultaneously at multiple targets and perform evasive maneuvers while the missiles guide themselves to the targets.
==Guidance system overview==
===Interception course stage===
AMRAAM uses two-stage [[missile guidance|guidance]] when fired at long range. The aircraft passes data to the missile just before launch, giving it information about the location of the target aircraft from the launch point and its direction and speed. The missile uses this information to fly on an interception course to the target using its built in [[inertial navigation system]] (INS). This information is generally obtained using the launching aircraft's [[radar]], although it could come from an [[infra-red]] search and tracking system ([[IRST]]), from a [[Joint Tactical Information Distribution System|data link]] from another fighter aircraft, or from an [[AWACS]] aircraft.
If the firing aircraft or surrogate continues to track the target, periodic updates are sent to the missile telling it of any changes in the target's direction and speed, allowing it to adjust its course so that it is able to close to self-homing distance while keeping the target aircraft in the ''basket'' in which it will be able to find it.
Not all AMRAAM users have elected to purchase the mid-course update option, which limits AMRAAM's effectiven |
egun, Ahmet]]
[[Category:1989 deaths|Ertegun, Nesuhi]]
[[Category:Living people|Ertegun, Ahmet]]
[[Category:National Soccer Hall of Fame members|Ertegun brothers]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Ertegun brothers]]
[[Category:Turkish musicians|Ertegun brothers]]
[[Category:Sibling duos|Ertegun brothers]]
[[Category:Turkish Americans]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eating Out</title>
<id>10319</id>
<revision>
<id>15908138</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Restaurant]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eminem</title>
<id>10320</id>
<revision>
<id>42160770</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:35:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.177.113.2</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Albums and EPs */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the singer Eminem}}
<!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: Please note that vandalism of this page will not be tolerated; this includes unregistered IP addresses.
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{{Infobox band
| band_name = Eminem
| image = [[Image:Eminem-69.jpg|200px]]
| caption = Marshall Mathers
| years_active = [[1996]] to present
| origin = [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]], [[Missouri]]
| music_genre = [[Rap music|Rap/Hip Hop]]
| record_label = [[Shady Records|Shady]]/[[Aftermath Entertainment|Aftermath]]/[[Interscope Records|Interscope]]
}}
'''Eminem''' (born '''Marshall Bruce Mathers III''' on [[October 17]], [[1972]]) is an [[United States|American]] rapper, one of today's most popular and controversial [[rap music|rappers]], and a [[Grammy]] and [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winner. He currently lives in suburban [[Detroit]] and is of mostly [[Scottish people|Scottish-American]] descent. Discovered by rapper/producer [[Dr. Dre]], Eminem is known as one of the most skillful and controversial rappers in the industry, becoming a [[crossover (music)|crossover]] sensation with his debut single "[[My Name Is]]" while simultaneously earning respect from the hip-hop community for his lyrical talent. He is noted for his ability to change his own verbal pace (flow) and style multiple times within one song without losing the [[Beat (music)|beat]], and has been praised for his skill in [[alliteration]] and [[assonance]]. He is infamous for the controversy surrounding many of his lyrics. With the enormous success of his sophomore album ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'' following its release in [[May 2000]], and its subsequent nomination for four Grammy awards including Album of the Year, critics such as [[GLAAD]] denounced his lyrics as [[Homophobia|homophobic]], while others complained that it was also extremely [[Misogyny|misogynistic]] and violent. However, he has received a great deal of praise within the hip-hop community for his lyrical ability. He is the second-highest selling rapper of all time, behind [[Tupac Shakur]], though the latter has had several posthumous albums released. <!-- NOTE TO VANDALS: DON'T BOTHER REMOVING THE BIT ABOUT TUPAC, I WILL JUST REPLACE IT IMMEDIATELY. THIS SECTION HAS BEEN REPEATEDLY VANDALISED. IF YOU HAVE A PROBLEM WITH MENTIONING 'PAC, TAKE IT TO THE TALK PAGE AND WE'LL DISCUSS IT. ANYONE WHO DELETES THIS SECTION *WILL* BE REPORTED FOR VANDALISM. -KASREYN-->
While generally avoiding overtly political tones previously (or if they were mentioned it was in passing), in late [[2004]] before the presidential election, Eminem released the song "[[Mosh (song)|Mosh]]," which harshly criticizes President [[George W. Bush]]. ''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'', Mathers' fourth major-label album, was released later that year, but was considered by many to be a disappointment in comparison to his previous three albums and sold half of what ''[[The Eminem Show]]'' had. Though Eminem considers himself neither a militant nor a political artist, he did have his own Hip Hop Political Convention as a parody of the national political conventions held in 2004. His latest release is ''[[Curtain Call: The Hits]]'', a compilation which covers many of his past hit songs, and includes three new tracks.
== Personal life ==
===Early childhood===
Marshall was born in [[Saint Joseph, Missouri|St. Joseph]], [[Missouri]] (near [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]]) to parents Deborah "Debbie" Mathers-Briggs and Marshall Bruce Mathers II, and spent most of his childhood moving back and forth between Kansas City, and suburban [[Detroit]], including [[Warren, Michigan|Warren]]. His father had abandoned the family before Marshall turned two years old, and the two have not had contact since, save some rejected attempts by Marshall's father to contact Marshall after his rise to fame. Constantly moving from home to home, he frequently changed schools, often finding himself to be an outcast in the new communities, and frequently fell victim to [[Bully|bullying]]. An assault by schoolmate DeAngelo Bailey that left Marshall hospitalized was the most notable such incident, which Marshall would later recount in greatly exaggerated form on the track "Brain Damage" (''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'', [[1999]]). The song prompted legal action by the assailant,[http://www.vh1.com/news/articles/1451396/12102001/eminem.jhtml] with accusations of [[Slander and libel|libel]] and [[Invasion of privacy|privacy infringement]], which were eventually dismissed in court.
His childhood was further marred by his family's meager financial status, which was the primary reason for the continuous moving, during which Marshall and his mother Debbie would often find themselves living in [[public housing]], [[mobile home]]s, and under the care of relatives, such as Marshall's great-aunt Edna, whom he mentions in "Evil Deeds" (‘‘Encore’’). During this time, Debbie was legally taking the [[prescription drug]]s [[Hydrocodone|Vicodin]] and [[Diazepam|Valium]], though Marshall later claimed in numerous interviews and songs that she was abusing the drugs,[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436917/09152000/eminem.jhtml] to which Debbie retaliated with a lawsuit pressing defamation charges (see below). In the song "Cleaning Out My Closet" (''The Eminem Show'', [[2002]]), Marshall also accuses Debbie of having [[Munchausen syndrome]] by proxy, adding that "my whole life I was made to believe I was sick when I wasn't... it makes you sick to your stomach, doesn't it?". This was not the first time someone suggested Debbie had the disorder, as a social worker had made similar comments following a [[1996]] investigation of her mistreatment of Nathan Samra-Mathers, her second child, 14 years Marshall's junior.
===Life before fame===
Before dropping out of [[Lincoln High School]] Warren as a 9th grader at the age of 17 (after failing ninth grade three times), Marshall made a number of significant acquaintances at the school. This included fellow rapper [[Proof (rapper)|Proof]], who was to become one of his closest friends, the [[Runyon Avenue Soldiers]], and future wife [[Kim Mathers|Kimberly Ann "Kim" Scott]], with whom he soon developed a long-term relationship. When Kim became pregnant, this further increased Marshall's drive to succeed through concern over the welfare of his new family. He discusses this in "Never Far" (''[[Infinite (album)|Infinite]]'', [[1996]]), saying "I got a baby on the way, I don't even got a car...I still stay with my moms...we gotta make some hit records or something [because] I'm tired of being broke..." When the ''Infinite'' album failed to generate the revenue and acclaim he had hoped for, and Kim ended their relationship, preventing him from seeing his newborn child, Marshall decided to take his own life. However, his suicide attempt using an overdose of [[Tylenol]] [[analgesic]]s failed, and Marshall resumed his efforts to succeed in the music industry and reconcile with Kim.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/eminem/bio.jhtml] He ultimately succeeded in doing both, marrying Kim on [[June 14]], 1999 in St. Joseph, Missouri.
The couple's daughter, [[Hailie Jade Scott]], born [[December 25]], [[1995]] would grow to become an important part of Marshall's life, as he became dedicated to giving her everything he himself was deprived of in his childhood, including a father figure and financial security. He would go on to mention her extensively in some of his songs, including "'97 Bonnie & Clyde" (''The Slim Shady LP'', 1999), which takes the form of a one-sided [[dialogue]] with Hailie, as well as "Hailie's Song" (''The Eminem Show'', 2002), "Mockingbird" (‘‘Encore’’, 2004), and "When I'm Gone" (''Curtain Call: The Hits'', 2005), all of which are proclamations of his love and dedication to her. In addition, he samples her voice in the less serious upbeat track "My Dad's Gone Crazy" (''The Eminem Show'', 2002).
===Legal troubles===
The year 1999 was marked by a rise to celebrity status for Marshall, but it also ushered the beginning of his numerous legal troubles. The first of these was his mother Debbie's lawsuit against him in September of that year. The lawsuit was motivated by comments on Debbie's drug use made by Marshall on the song "My Name Is" (''The Slim Shady LP'', 1999), specifically the lyric "Ninety-nine percent of my life I was lied to/I just found out my mom does more dope than I do", and similar accusations in numerous interviews. Debbie |
5:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Fox hunting]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ford Motor Company</title>
<id>11095</id>
<revision>
<id>42092767</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:57:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>168.99.166.20</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Ford}}
{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Ford Motor Company |
company_logo = [[Image:Ford_Motor_Company_logo.png|center|170px]] |
company_type = Public ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=F F]) |
company_slogan = Built for the Road Ahead. |
foundation = 1903 |
location = [[Dearborn, Michigan]]<br />[[List of Ford factories]] |
key_people = [[William Clay Ford, Jr.|William Ford, Jr.]] Chairman & CEO |
industry = [[Automotive]] |
num_employees = 327,531 |
products = [[Aston Martin]]<br />[[Ford]]<br />[[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]]<br />[[Daimler|Daimler (div. of Jaguar)]]<br />[[Land Rover]]<br />[[Lincoln (automobile)|Lincoln]]<br />[[Mazda]]<br />[[Mercury (automobile)|Mercury]]<br />[[Volvo|Volvo]] (cars only)|
revenue = [[Image:green up.png]]$178.1 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] (2005) [http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22357]|
homepage = [http://www.ford.com/ www.ford.com]
}}
The '''Ford Motor Company''' (often referred to as '''Ford'''; sometimes called '''FoMoCo'''), {{NYSE|F}} is a [[multinational corporation]] that manufactures [[automobiles]]. The automaker was founded by [[Henry Ford]] in [[Dearborn, Michigan]], [[United States]] (where the company is currently headquartered), and incorporated on [[June 16]], [[1903]]. In its twentieth century heyday, Ford, along with [[General Motors]] and [[Chrysler]], were known as [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit's]] "Big Three" automakers, companies that dominated the American auto market. [[Toyota Motor|Toyota]] surpassed Ford in revenue starting in 2004. Ford remains one of the world's [[Fortune Global 500|ten largest]] corporations by revenue.
Ford introduced methods for large-scale [[manufacturing]] of cars, and large-scale management of an industrial workforce. Ford implemented the ideas of [[Eli Whitney]], who developed one of the first [[assembly line]]s using [[American system of manufacturing|interchangeable parts]], which made it possible to put the cars together at a much lower cost and with greater reliability and repeatability. The use of a chain-driven track to move the vehicles to the workers was unique in the industry and quickly became the preferred method for volume production. As the individual work tasks became simple and repetitive this allowed the use of unskilled laborers who could be quickly trained for a single task (though it also removed most of the satisfaction that a worker performing multiple tasks may enjoy).
==Early history==
[[Image:Henry ford 1919.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Henry Ford (ca. 1919)]]
[[Image:AssemblyLine.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Ford assembly line (1913)]]
Ford was launched from a converted wagon factory, with $28,000 cash from twelve investors. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at the Ford factory on Mack Avenue in Detroit. Groups of two or three men worked on each car from components made to order by other companies.
In 1908, the Ford company released the Ford [[Ford Model T|Model T]]. The first Model Ts were built at the Piquette Manufacturing Plant. The company was forced to move production to the much larger [[Highland Park, Michigan|Highland Park]] Plant to keep up with the demand for the Model T, and by 1913 had developed all of the basic techniques of the [[assembly line]] and mass production. Ford introduced the world's first moving assembly line on [[December 1]] that year, which reduced chassis assembly time from 12½ hours in October to 2 hours, 40 minutes. However these innovations were not popular, and in order to stop the staff deserting the monotonous jobs, on [[January 5]] [[1914]], Ford took the radical step of doubling pay to $5 a day, and cut shifts from nine hours to an eight hour day &mdash; moves that were not popular with rival companies, although seeing the increase in Ford's [[productivity (economics)|productivity]], most soon followed suit.
By the end of 1913, Ford was producing 50% of all cars in the United States, and by 1918 half of all cars in the country were Model T's. Referring to the Model T, Henry Ford is reported to have said that "any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black." This was because black paint was quickest to dry; earlier models had been available in a variety of colors. But most were black.
On [[January 1]], [[1919]], [[Edsel Ford]] succeeded his father as president of the company, although Henry Ford still kept a hand in management. The Ford company lost market share during the 1920s due to the rise of consumer credit. The company's goal was to produce an inexpensive automobile that any worker could afford. To keep prices low, Ford (at the behest of its owner, Henry Ford) offered few features. General Motors and other competitors began offering automobiles in more colors, and with more features and luxuries. They also extended credit so consumers could buy these more expensive automobiles. Ford resisted following suit, insisting that such credit would hurt the consumer and the economy. Due to market constraints, however, the company finally gave in and followed its competitors' lead when on [[December 2]], [[1927]], Ford unveiled the redesigned Ford [[Model A]] and retired the Model T.
In 1925, Ford expanded its reach into the luxury auto market through its acquisition of the [[Lincoln (automobile)|Lincoln Motor Company]], and the [[Mercury (automobile)|Mercury]] division was established in the 1930s to serve the mid-price auto market. {{ref|fordhistory}}
==Post World War II developments==
[[Henry Ford II]], grandson of Henry Ford, served as President from 1945-1960, and as Chairman and CEO from 1960-1980. "Hank the Deuce" led Ford to became a [[publicly traded]] [[corporation]] in 1956. However, the Ford family maintains about 40% controlling interests in the company, through a series of Class B [[preferred stock]]s.
In the 1950s, Ford introduced the iconic [[Ford Thunderbird|Thunderbird]], and the [[Ford Mustang|Mustang]] in the 1960's. By 1967, Ford of Europe was established.
[[Harold Arthur Poling|Harold Poling]] served as Chairman and CEO from 1990-1993. [[Alexander Trotman, Baron Trotman|Alex Trotman]] was Chairman and CEO from 1993-1998, and [[Jacques Nasser]] served at the helm from 1999-2001. Henry Ford's great-grandson, [[William Clay Ford Jr.]], is the company's current Chairman of the Board and CEO.
==General Corporate Timeline==
''source: Ford Motor Company 2002 Annual Report''
[[Image:Henry Ford - Quadricycle, 1905.jpg|thumb|150px|Henry Ford and the Quadricycle]]
1896: Henry Ford builds his first vehicle – the [[Quadricycle]] – on a buggy frame with 4 bicycle wheels.
1901: Henry Ford wins high profile car race in Grosse Pointe, Mi.
1903: Ford Motor Company incorporated with 11 original investors. The original [[Ford Model A|Model A]] “Fordmobile” is introduced.
1908: [[Ford Model T|Model T]] is introduced. 15 million are produced through 1927.
1911: Ford opens first factory outside North America – in Manchester, England.
1913: The moving [[Assembly Line]] is introduced at Highland Park assembly plant, making Model T production 8 times faster.
1914: Ford introduces $5 workday [[minimum wage]] – double the existing rate.
1918: Construction of the [[River Rouge Plant|Rouge]] assembly complex begins.
1919: [[Edsel Ford]] succeeds Henry as Company President.
1922: Ford purchases [[Lincoln (automobile)|Lincoln Motor Company]] for US $8 million.
1925: Ford introduces [[Ford Tri-Motor]] airplane for airline services
[[Image:Ford Model A Fordor.jpg|right|thumb|150px|1928 Ford Model A]]
1927: Ford introduces the second generation [[Ford Model A|Model A]], from the Rouge complex.
1932: Ford introduces the one-piece cast [[V8]] block.
1936: [[Lincoln Zephyr]] is introduced.
1938: Mercury division is formed to fill the gap between economical Fords and luxury Lincolns.
1941: The [[Lincoln Continental]] is introduced. Ford begins building general purpose “jeep” for the military. First labor agreement with UAW-CIO covers North American employees.
1942: Production of civilian vehicles halted, diverting factory capacity to producing [[B-24 Liberator]] bombers, tanks, and other products for the war effort.
1943: Edsel Ford dies, Henry Ford resumes presidency for the duration of the war.
[[Image:HenryFordii250.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Henry Ford II]]
1945: Henry Ford II becomes president.
1946: The Whiz Kids – former US Army Air Force officers – hired to revitalize the Company.
1948: [[Ford F-Series|F-1]] Truck introduced
1949: The ’49 Ford introduces all-new post-war era cars. The [[Station Wagon#The Woodie Wagon|"Woody"]] station wagon is introduced.
1954: [[Ford Thunderbird|Thunderbird]] introduced as a personal luxury car with a [[V8]]. Ford begins crash testing.
1956: $10,000 [[Lincoln Continental]] Mark II introduced. Ford goes public with common stock shares.
1959: [[Ford Motor Credit Company|Ford Credit]] corporation formed to provide automotive financing.
1960: [[Ford Galaxy]] and [[Ford Falcon]] introduced.
1964: [[Ford Mustang]] and [[Ford GT40]] introduced.
1967: Ford of Europe is established.
1970: Ford establishes Asia Pacific operations.
1976: Retractable seat belts introduced.
1979: Ford acquires 25% stake in [[Mazda]].
1981: |
church governance.
==History==
{{Template:LDS}}
The ''Doctrine and Covenants'' was first published in [[1835]] as a later version of the ''[[Book of Commandments]]'', which had been partially printed in [[1833]]. This earlier book contained 65 early [[revelations]] by church leaders including [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] and [[Oliver Cowdery]]. Before many copies of the book could be printed, however, the printing press and most of the printed copies were destroyed by a mob in [[Missouri]].
On [[September 24]], [[1834]] a committee was appointed by the general assembly of the church to organize a new volume containing the most significant [[Latter Day Saint]] [[revelation]]s. This committee of Presiding [[Elder (Mormonism)|Elder]]s, consisting of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], [[Oliver Cowdery]], [[Sidney Rigdon]], and [[Frederick G. Williams]], began to review and revise numerous revelations for inclusion in the new work. The committee eventually organized the book into two parts: a "Doctrine" part followed by a "Covenants" part.
The "Doctrine" part of the book consisted of a theological course now called the ''[[Lectures on Faith]]''. The Lectures were a series of doctrinal courses used in the [[School of the Prophets]] which had recently been completed in [[Kirtland, Ohio]]. According to the committee, these Lectures were included in the compilation "in consequence of their embracing the important doctrine of salvation." (''See'' 1835 D&C, Preface.)
The "Covenants" part of the book, labeled "Covenants and Commandments of the Lord, to his servants of the church of the Latter Day Saints", contained a total of 103 revelations on church governance. These 103 revelations were said to "contain items or principles for the regulation of the church, as taken from the revelations which have been given since its organization, as well as from former ones." (''See'' ''id.'') Each of the 103 revelations was assigned a "section number"; however, section 66 was numbered twice. Thus, the original work was numbered only to 102.
On [[February 17]], [[1835]], after the committee had selected the book's contents, the committee wrote that the resulting work represents "our belief, and when we say this, humbly trust, the faith and principles of this society as a body. (''See'' 1835 D&C, Preface.)
The book was first introduced to the church body in a general conference on [[August 17]], [[1835]]. [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] and [[Frederick G. Williams]], two of the Presiding Elders on the committee, were absent, but [[Oliver Cowdery]] and [[Sidney Rigdon]] were present. The church membership at the time had not yet seen the ''Doctrine and Covenants'' manuscript as it had been compiled and revised by the committee; however, various church members who were familiar with the work "bore record" of the book's truth. Two sections, however, were read verbatim to the membership of the church: [[William W. Phelps]] read section 101, which contained a denouncement of [[polygamy]], and [[Oliver Cowdery]] read section 102, which was an article on national governments and laws. At the end of the conference, the church voted to accept the compilation as "the doctrine and covenents of their faith, by a unanimous vote" (History of the Church 2: 243-6), and to make arrangements for its printing.
Later in [[1835]], the book was printed and published under the title ''Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God''.
===Challenged===
At the time of the publication of the book, several Church members questioned some of the wording of the revelations. Joseph Smith responded with a revelation that challenged the wisest member to try and produce a revelation comparable to the least of them. (D&C 67:6&ndash;7, LDS) [[William E. McLellin]], who was thought to be the smartest member at the time, was selected, but was unable to produce such a revelation. (''History of the Church'', 1:226)
==The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints editions==
In [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church), ''The Doctrine and Covenants'' stands alongside the [[Bible]], the [[Book of Mormon]], and ''The [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]'' as holy scripture. Together they are referred to as the "[[Standard Works of the LDS Church|Standard Works]]."
===Sections added to LDS edition===
The 138 Sections in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints' ''Doctrine and Covenants'' break down as follows:
*Sections 1–134, 137 — From the presidency of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] (1828–1844)
*Sections 135–136 — During the administration of the [[Quorum of the Twelve|Twelve]] (1844–1847)
*Official Declaration 1 — From the presidency of [[Wilford Woodruff]] (1889–1898)
*Section 138 — From the presidency of [[Joseph F. Smith]] (1901–1918)
*Official Declaration 2 — From the presidency of [[Spencer W. Kimball]] (1973–1985)
The 1844 edition added eight sections not included in the 1835 edition. In the current edition, these are numbered Sections 103, 105, 112, 119, 124, 127, 128, and 135.
In 1876, a new edition renumbered most of the sections in a roughly chronological order instead of the earlier topical order, and included twenty-six revelations not included in previous editions, now numbered as Sections 2, 13, 77, 85, 87, 108-11, 113-18, 120-23, 125, 126, 129-32, and 136. This was the first edition in which the text was divided into verses.
During the 1880s five foreign editions contained two revelations to [[John Taylor]] (in 1882 & 1883) which "set in order" the priesthood, gave more clarificatation about the roles of priesthood offices - especially the Seventy and required Priesthood leaders to live [[plural marriage]] in order to qualify to hold their Church positions. Probably due to the LDS Church's change in attitude to this doctrine in 1890, these sections were not included in future English editions.
In 1930 a small volume edited by [[James E. Talmage]] titled "Latter-day Revelations" was published, which contained a highly edited selective version of the Doctrine and Covenants. Some believe it was intended to to replace the Doctrine and Covenants, but that due to the controversy that arose this plan was dropped. Interestingly it did not contain the section on plural marriage (D&C 132) at all.
Sections 137 and 138 were added in the 1981 edition. These were accounts of two visions, one from Joseph Smith and the other from his nephew, Joseph F. Smith in 1918. No new revelatory sections have been added in the 20th or 21st centuries.
The LDS Church's edition also now contains two "Official Declarations" at the book's conclusion, the first renouncing [[polygamy]] in [[1890]], and the second renouncing racial discrimination in ordaining members to the [[Priesthood (Mormonism)|Priesthood]] in [[1978]]. An "Official Declaration" is not a revelation, but an announcement ''that'' a revelation was received. In neither case is the entire revelation included in the Doctrine and Covenants, and these two revelations were possibly not of the nature of a writable piece of text.
===Portions removed from the LDS edition===
In 1876, the original Section 101 was removed. It had included the text:
:"Inasmuch as this Church of Christ has been reproached with the crime of fornication, and polygamy: we declare that we believe that one man should have one wife; and one woman but one husband, except in the case of death, when either is at liberty to marry again."
Replacing this section is the Section now numbered 132 which discusses the doctrine of [[plural marriage]] (now discontinued within the LDS Church).
In [[1921]], the LDS Church removed the ''[[Lectures on Faith]]'' portion of the book, apparently without a vote by the church body, with an explanation that the Lectures "were never presented to nor accepted by the Church as being otherwise than theological lectures or lessons". (''See'' Introduction , [[1921]] edition.) The Lectures contained theology concerning the [[Godhead (Mormonism)|Godhead]]&mdash;such as that the Godhead consists of two "personages" (5:2a), and that the Father is a "personage of spirit, glory, and power" (5.2:c)&mdash;that were apparently inconsistent with Joseph Smith's later teachings that the Godhead consists of three personages, and that the Father has a physical body.
==Community of Christ editions==
Officials of [[Community of Christ]] (formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints) first published an edition of ''The Doctrine and Covenants'' in 1864, based on the previous 1844 edition. A [[General Conference (Mormonism)|General Conference]] of the church in 1878 approved a resolution that declared that the revelations of the Prophet-President [[Joseph Smith III]] had equal standing to those previously included in the work. Since that time, the church has continually added sections to its edition of ''The Doctrine and Covenants'', containing the revelations of succeeding Prophet-Presidents. (The numbers of the sections and versification differ from the edition published by [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and both modern editions differ from the original 1835 edition numeration).
===Sections added to Community of Christ edition===
The 163 Sections of the Community of Christ's ''Doctrine and Covenants'' break down as follows:
*Sections 1–113 — From the presidency of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] (1828–1844)
*Sections 114–131 — From the presidency of [[Joseph Smith III]] (1860–1914)
*Sections 132–138 — From the presidency of [[Frederick Madison Smith|Frederick M. Smith]] (1914–1946)
*Sections 139–1 |
in Prize
*"An Attack of Nerves" ([[1888]])
*"An Awkward Business" ([[1888]])
*"The Beauties" ([[1888]])
*"The Swan Song" ([[1888]])
*"Sleepy" ([[1888]])
*"The Name-Day Party" ([[1888]])
*"A Boring Story" ([[1889]])
*"Gusev" ([[1890]])
*"The Horse Stealers" ([[1890]])
*"The Duel" ([[1891]])
*"Peasant Wives" ([[1891]])
*"Ward No 6" ([[1892]])
*"In Exile" ([[1892]])
*"The Grasshopper" ([[1892]])
*"Neighbours" ([[1892]])
*"Terror" ([[1892]])
*"My Wife" ([[1892]])
*"The Butterfly" ([[1892]])
*"The Two Volodyas" ([[1893]])
*"An Anonymous Story" ([[1893]])
*"The Black Monk" ([[1894]])
*"The Head Gardener's Story" ([[1894]])
*"Rothschild's Fiddle" ([[1894]])
*"The Student" ([[1894]])
*"The Teacher of Literature" ([[1894]])
*"A Woman's Kingdom" ([[1894]])
*"Three Years" ([[1895]])
*"Ariadne" ([[1895]])
*"Murder" ([[1895]])
*"The House with an Attic" ([[1896]])
*"My Life" ([[1896]])
*"Peasants" ([[1897]])
*"In the Cart" ([[1897]])
*"The Man in a Case", "Gooseberries", "About Love" - the 'Little Trilogy' ([[1898]])
*"Ionych" ([[1898]])
*"A Doctor's Visit" ([[1898]])
*"The New Villa" ([[1898]])
*"On Official Business" ([[1898]])
*"The Darling" ([[1899]])
*"The Lady with the Dog" ([[1899]])
*"At Christmas" ([[1899]])
*"In the Ravine" ([[1900]])
*"The Bishop" ([[1902]])
*"The Bet" ([[1889]])
*"Betrothed" or "A Marriageable Girl" ([[1903]])
*"Agafya"
*"The Pipe"
*"The Lottery Ticket"
*"Verochka"
=== Novel ===
*''The Shooting Party'' ([[1884]]-[[1885]])
==External links==
{{Commons|Anton Pavlovič Čechov}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Anton+Pavlovich+Chekhov | name=Anton Chekhov}}
*[http://www.kunalsharma.com/antonchekhov/index.htm An easy-to-surf and easy-to-read Collection of Stories by the Great Writer Anton Chekhov]
*[https://www.audioville.co.uk/store/view.php?Id=199 Download audio recordings of a selection of his short stories]
*[http://ilibrary.ru/author/chekhov/ Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian]
*{{imdb name|id=0155009|name=Anton Chekhov}}
*[http://www.taganrogcity.com Official Web Site of the City of Taganrog, "The Birthplace of Anton Chekhov"]
*[http://www.hackwriters.com/chekhov.htm In depth review of Chekhov's short stories]
*[[Faina Ranevskaya]]
*[http://www.russian-literature-online.com/anton-chekhov/ Read Anton Chekhov's works online] translated into English in an easy to read HTML format
[[Category:1860 births|Chekhov, Anton]]
[[Category:1904 deaths|Chekhov, Anton]]
[[Category:Russian dramatists and playwrights|Chekhov, Anton]]
[[Category:Russian novelists|Chekhov, Anton]]
[[Category:Russian short story writers|Chekhov, Anton]]
[[ar:أنطون تشيكوف]]
[[ast:Anton Chekhov]]
[[bg:Антон Чехов]]
[[ca:Anton Txèkhov]]
[[cs:Anton Pavlovič Čechov]]
[[da:Anton Tjekhov]]
[[de:Anton Pawlowitsch Tschechow]]
[[et:Anton Tšehhov]]
[[es:Antón Chéjov]]
[[eo:Anton ĈEĤOV]]
[[fr:Anton Tchekhov]]
[[gl:Chekhov - Антон Павлович Чехов]]
[[ko:안톤 체호프]]
[[hr:Anton Pavlovič Čehov]]
[[it:Anton Čechov]]
[[he:אנטון צ'כוב]]
[[ka:ჩეხოვი, ანტონ]]
[[hu:Anton Pavlovics Csehov]]
[[nl:Anton Tsjechov]]
[[ja:アントン・チェーホフ]]
[[no:Anton Tsjekhov]]
[[pl:Anton Czechow]]
[[pt:Anton Pavlovitch Tchékhov]]
[[ro:Anton Cehov]]
[[ru:Чехов, Антон Павлович]]
[[sh:Anton Pavlovič Čehov]]
[[sk:Anton Pavlovič Čechov]]
[[sl:Anton Pavlovič Čehov]]
[[fi:Anton Tšehov]]
[[sv:Anton Tjechov]]
[[tr:Anton Çehov]]
[[zh:契訶夫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Action Against Hunger</title>
<id>2448</id>
<revision>
<id>41859395</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:54:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>142.104.250.115</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Action Against Hunger''' (also known under French name '''Action Internationale Contre la Faim''') is international non-profit non-governmental organization that fights against hunger, the [[physiology|physiological]] need to eat, worldwide.
AAH was founded in [[1979]] by group of [[France|French]] doctors, scientists, journalists and writers.
In following years, three more chapters were founded: [[United States|American]] in [[1985]], [[Spain|Spanish]] it [[1994]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]] in [[1995]].
AAH has projects in 40 countries and helps 4 million people yearly.
==External links==
* [http://www.acf-fr.org/ Action Contre la Faim (France)]
* [http://www.aah-usa.org/ Action Against Hunger (USA)]
* Action Against Hunger (UK)
* [http://www.achesp.org/ Accion Contra el Hambre (Spain)]
{{charity-org-stub}}
[[Category:International charities]]
[[Category:French charities]]
[[fr:Action contre la faim]]
[[pl:Action Internationale Contre la Faim]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AW</title>
<id>2452</id>
<revision>
<id>41041444</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T17:53:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.126.249.33</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''AW''', '''aW''' or '''aw''' may stand for:
{{TOCright}}
==AW==
*[[Active Worlds]]
*[[Addison-Wesley]], publishers
*[[Ahrweiler]] district in Germany
*[[After Waizz]], a dating system used in the [[Phantasy Star series]] videogame series.
*[[Allied Waste Industries]] Inc, stock symbol on NYSE
*''[[Another World (TV series)]]'', abbreviation
*[[Arctic Warfare]], a British sniper rifle
*[[Aruba]], the ISO 3166-1 2-letter country code
*[[A&W Restaurants]] or [[A&W Root Beer]]
*[[Dirgantara Air Services]] (Indonesia) (IATA code)
*[[Schreiner Airways]] (Netherlands) (ATA code)
*[[Advance Wars]]
==aW==
*[[atto]][[watt]], an SI unit of power
==aw==
*[[Water activity]] (aw) relative availability of water in a substance.
==See also==
* [[.aw]], the ccTLD for Aruba
{{disambig}}
[[fr:AW]]
[[ko:AW]]
[[it:Aw]]
[[ja:AW]]
[[sl:AW]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Akhal-Tekes</title>
<id>2453</id>
<revision>
<id>15900863</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-12T11:09:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rmhermen</username>
<id>835</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Akhal-Teke]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AsDB</title>
<id>2455</id>
<revision>
<id>15900864</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Asian Development Bank]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apoptosis</title>
<id>2457</id>
<revision>
<id>41837441</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:44:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tycho</username>
<id>139187</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvd</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Apoptosis-blank.png|thumb|right|200px|Apoptosis]]
In [[biology]], '''apoptosis''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''apo'' = from and ''ptosis'' = falling, commonly pronounced ''ap-a-tow'-sis''<small><sup>[http://www.nih.gov/sigs/aig/Aboutapo.html]</sup></small>) is one of the main types of [[programmed cell death]] (PCD). As such, it is a process of deliberate life relinquishment by an unwanted [[Cell (biology)|cell]] in a multicellular [[organism]]. In contrast to [[necrosis]], which is a form of cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis is carried out in an ordered process that generally confers advantages during an organism's life cycle. For example, the differentiation of [[human]] [[finger]]s in a developing [[embryo]] requires the cells between the fingers to initiate apoptosis so that the fingers can separate. The way the apoptotic process is executed facilitates the safe disposal of cell corpses and fragments.
Since the beginning of the [[1990s]], research on apoptosis has grown spectacularly. In addition to its importance as a biological phenomenon, defective apoptotic processes have been implicated in an extensive variety of diseases. ''Too much'' apoptosis causes cell-loss disorders, whereas ''too little'' results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, namely [[cancer]]ous [[tumor]]s.
Not all forms of PCD share the characteristic shapes (the [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]]) and sequences of apoptosis, but all types of PCD are highly-regulated processes.
== Functions of apoptosis ==
=== Cell damage or infection ===
Apoptosis can occur, for instance, when a cell is damaged beyond repair, or infected with a [[virus (biology)|virus]]. The "decision" for apoptosis can come from the cell itself, from its surrounding tissue or from a cell that is part of the [[immune system]].
If a cell's capability of apoptosis is damaged (for example, by [[mutation]]), or if the initiation of apoptosis is blocked (by a virus), a damaged cell can continue dividing without restrictions, developing into [[cancer]]. For example, as part of the hijacking of the cell's genetic system carried out by [[human papillomavirus]]es (HPV), a gene called ''E6'' is expressed in a product that degrades [[p53 gene|p53]] protein, which is a vital piece of the apoptotic pathway. This severe interference in the apoptotic capability of cells plays a critical role in the fact that persistent infection by oncogenic HPVs can result in the development of [[cervical cancer]].
=== Response to stress or DNA damage ===
Stress conditions |
dicated to the exploration, research, and conservation of caves.
The [[United States]] the [http://www.caves.org National Speleological Society] or NSS is a national organisation with local chapters (known as ''grottos''). It has the goals ''... to study, explore, and conserve cave and karst resources; protect access to caves; encourage responsible management of caves and their unique environments; and promote responsible caving.'' The NSS maintains a discussion board that is open to anyone to discuss caving and cave issues. It is [http://caves.org/phpBB2/]
The [http://www.scci.org Southeastern Cave Conservancy] (SCCi) act to protect cave resources and access to caves in the Southeastern US thorough leases, agreements and outright purchase.
The [http://caves.org/region/sera/ Southeastern Regional Association] (SERA) is a Southeastern USA regional organization.
[http://www.uscaversforum.com U.S. CAVERS FORUM] (USA) (Cave Chat) Features multiple cave discussion boards pertaining to cave gear, cave trips, cave photography, cave information, cave news, cave conservation, the study of speleology and more!
The [http://www.caves.org/grotto/wvg/index Northwest USA] Caving Information
and links to caving organizations for Washington, Oregon, and Northern Calif.
==Notable cave explorers==
*'''[[Stephen Bishop (cave explorer)|Bishop, Stephen]]''' (USA) Early (~1830s) explorer of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.
*'''Boegli, Alfred''' (Switzerland) Explorer of [[Hoelloch]], Switzerland.
*'''[[Cave Research Foundation | Brucker, Roger]]''' (USA) Explorer and historian of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.
*'''[[Floyd Collins|Collins, Floyd]]''' (USA) Early explorer (~1920s) of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.
*'''Conn, Herb''' (USA) Explorer and Surveyor of Jewel Cave, South Dakota.
*'''Conn, Jan''' (USA) Explorer and Surveyor of Jewel Cave, South Dakota.
*'''Coons, Donald''' (USA) Prominent American caver involved with numerous international caving projects. Major discoveries in Big Island, Hawaii and Mammoth Cave, Kentucky region.
*'''Cornes, George''' (UK) Discovered [[Lancaster Hole]] with Bill Taylor in 1946
*'''[[Eavis, Andrew]]''' (UK) British caver, President of the International Union of Speleology [[UIS]]). Discoverer of the three largest chambers in the world. Involved with numerous international caving projects. Major discoveries in Saravak, Borneo and in China.
*'''[[Sheck Exley|Exley, Sheck]]''' (USA) Pioneering Cave Diver.
*'''[[George Irvine|Irvine, George]]''' (USA) Pioneering cave diver and head of [[Woodville Karst Plain Project]].
*'''[[Jarrod Jablonski|Jablonski, Jarrod]]''' (USA) Pioneering cave diver and head of [[Global Underwater Explorers]].
*'''[[Martyn Farr|Farr, Martyn]]''' (UK) Made major advances in systems such as [[Ogof y Daren Cilau]], and pioneering cave diver, pushing exploration in [[Wookey Hole]], [[Dan yr Ogof]], and others
*'''[[Cave Research Foundation | Kambesis, Patricia]]''' (USA) Prominent American cave surveyor. Involved with numerous international caving projects. Major discoveries in Big Island, Hawaii, and Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico.
*'''Klimchouk, Alexander''' (Russia) Prominent cave explorer in Russia and eastern bloc countries. Involved with deep exploration efforts in Poland.
*'''[[Edouard Martel|Martel, Édouard-Alfred]]''' (France) Pioneering French cave scientist and explorer. Often credited as the father of speleology.
*'''Quick, Peter''' (USA) Lead explorer involved with the Fisher Ridge Cave System, Kentucky.
*'''Stone, William''' (USA) Pioneering cave diver and prominent explorer of southern Mexico's deep cave systems.
*'''Smith, Marion O.''' (USA) Tennessee Alabama Georgia (TAG) civil war historian who has explored more than 5000 different caves and dropped more than 4000 pits which are all documented in great detail in his journals.
*'''Warild, Al ''' (Aus) Promient Australian cave explorer who has explored caves in Mexico, New Guinea, Europe and many other countries. Outstanding vertical caver and climber.
*'''Waters, Shelah ''' (USA) Early Tennessee cave explorer. Shelah Waters explored Higgenbotham Cave in 1869. Today Higgenbotham Cave is known as Cumberland Caverns.
==See also==
* [[Speleology]]
* [[List of Caves]]
* [[Cave rescue]]
* [[Claustrophilia]]
* [[Cave Conservation]]
==Bibliography==
* ''Alpine Caving Techniques'' by Marbach and Tourtes ISBN 3908495105: widely considered to be the bible of caving techniques, particularly by European cavers
==External links==
* Australian Speleological Federation: http://www.caves.org.au/
* British Cave Research Association (UK): http://bcra.org.uk/
* British Caving Association (UK): http://british-caving.org.uk/
* Cave Conservation and Management Section of the NSS http://www.caves.org/section/ccms/
* Canadian Cave and Karst Information Server http://www.cancaver.ca
* Conservation Division of the NSS http://www.caves.org/committee/conservation/
* Glossary of Caving Terms: http://werple.net.au/~gnb/caving/glossary/
* Hellenic Speleological Federation (GR) http://www.fhs.gr/eng/news/news.php
* Malaysian Caves : http://www.cavesofmalaysia.com
* National Speleological Society (USA): http://www.caves.org/
* Southeastern Cave Conservancy, Inc.(USA) : http://www.scci.org
* Southeastern Regional Association (SERA)(USA): http://caves.org/region/sera/
* Speleological Union of Ireland & Irish Cave Rescue Organisation: http://www.cavingireland.org/
* Tennessee Alabama Georgia "TAG" Caving : http://www.tagcaving.com/tagcave.html
* U.S. CAVERS FORUM: http://www.uscaversforum.com
* French Speleological Federation: http://ffspeleo.fr/
* Europe Speleological Federation: http://www.fsue.org/
[[Category:Adventure sports]]
[[Category:Extreme sports]]
[[Category:Water sports]]
[[Category:Caving|*]]
[[ca:Espeleologia]]
[[de:Speläologie]]
[[eo:Speleologio]]
[[fa:&#1594;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1608;&#1585;&#1583;&#1740;]]
[[fr:Spéléologie]]
[[id:Caving]]
[[hu:Barlangászás]]
[[nl:Speleologie]]
[[el:Σπηλαιολογία]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Caves</title>
<id>5777</id>
<revision>
<id>28546404</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-17T00:08:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aquillion</username>
<id>106922</id>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Cave]]. Sorry, Portland, OR band.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cave]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cave</title>
<id>5778</id>
<revision>
<id>41212210</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:45:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
<id>294180</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.5.137.162|66.5.137.162]] ([[User talk:66.5.137.162|talk]]) to last version by RJP</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''Alternate meanings: [[Cave (disambiguation)]]''
''This article is about natural ''caves''; for artificial ''caves'' used as dwellings, such as those in north [[China]], see [[yaodong]].''
[[image:Lavacaveexit.jpg|thumb|300px|The outside world viewed from a cave]]
A '''cave''' is a natural underground void large enough for an adult human to enter. Some scientists stipulate that it must be large enough that some portion of it will not receive daylight; however, in popular usage, the term includes smaller spaces like cliff cavities, rock shelters and sea caves. [[Speleology]] is the scientific exploration and study of all aspects of caves. The act of exploring a cave for recreation is called '[[caving]]', 'potholing', or occasionally (only in the USA) '[[spelunking]]'.
==Types and formation==
Caves are formed by [[geology|geologic]] processes. These may involve a combination of chemical processes, tectonic forces and atmospheric influences.
===Primary caves===
Some caves are formed at the same time as the surrounding rock. These are called ''primary caves''.
[[image:Lava tube at Craters of the Moon NM-750px.JPG|thumb|300px|Lava tube cave at [[Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve|Craters of the Moon]].]]
*[[Lava tube]]s are formed through [[volcanic]] activity. They are the most common primary caves. [[Lava]] flows downhill and the surface cools and solidifies. The lava now flows under this crust, until the eruption ends. If the liquid lava inside the crust flows out, a hollow tube remains.
The most important lava tubes are found on [[Hawaii]] ([[Hawaii (island)|Big Island]]). [[Kazumura Cave]] near [[Hilo]] is the longest and deepest lava tube of the world and also the eighth longest cave of the United States.
*[[Blister cave]]s are also formed through volcanic activity.
===Secondary caves===
''Secondary caves'' are formed inside the rock after the rock itself has formed by processes which removes material such as [[solution]] and [[erosion]].
* ''Sea caves'' are very common at all coasts of the world, but as they are restricted to the zone where waves work on the rocks of the coast they are generally rather small.
[[Image:Ice cave.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Glacier cave in Big Four Glacier, [[Big Four Mountain]], [[Washington]], ca. [[1920]].]]
* ''Glacier caves'' occur in and under [[glacier]]s, formed by melting. They are also influenced by the very slow flow of the ice which tends to close the caves again. (These are sometimes called ''ice caves'', though this term is properly reserved for caves which contain year-round ice formations).
*''Solutional caves'' may form anywhere with rock which is soluble, and are most prevalent in [[limestone]], but can also form in other material, including [[chalk]], [[dolomite]], [[marble]], [[loess]], [[ice]], [[granite]], [[salt]], [[lava]], [[sandstone]], and [[gypsum]]. The most common process of cave formation is karstification, which is the solution of rocks by rain water.
**''Fracture caves'' are formed when layers of more soluble minerals such as gypsum d |
(urban areas in particular), where faster forces, such as armored vehicles are incapable of going or would be exposed to ambush.
'''Escort''' consists of protecting other units from ambush, particularly from other infantry. This is one of the most important roles for the modern infantry, in particular when operating along side armored vehicles. In this capacity, infantry essentially conducts patrol on the move, scouring terrain which may hide enemy infantry waiting to ambush friendly vehicles, and identifying enemy strong points for attack by the heavier units.
'''Maneuver''' operations consume much of an infantry unit's time. Infantry, like all combat units, are often maneuvered to meet battlefield needs, and often must do so under enemy attack. The infantry must maintain their cohesion and readiness during the move to ensure their usefulness when they reach their objective. Traditionally, infantry have relied on their own legs for mobility, but modern infantry often uses trucks and armored vehicles for transport.
'''Reserve''' assignments for infantry units involve deployment behind the front, although patrol and security operations are usually maintained in case of enemy infiltration. This is usually the best time for infantry units to integrate replacements into units and to maintain equipment. Additionally, soldiers can be rested and general readiness should improve. However, the unit must be ready for employment at any point.
'''Construction''' can be undertaken either in reserve or on the front, but consists of using infantry troops as labor for construction of field positions, roads, bridges, airfields, and all other manner of structures. The infantry is often given this assignment due the quantity of men within the unit, although it can lessen a unit's morale and limit the unit's ability to maintain readiness and perform other missions.
== Equipment ==
The equipment of infantry forces has evolved along with the development of military technology in general, but certain constants remain regarding the design and selection of this equipment. Primary types of equipment are weaponry, protective gear, survival gear, and special equipment.
[[Infantry weapon]]s include all types of personal weapons, i.e. anything that can be handled by individual troops, as well as some small crew-served weapons that can be carried and used by infantry. Modern infantry weaponry include [[rifle]]s, [[machine gun]]s, shoulder-fired [[rocket launcher]]s and [[missile]]s, and lighter [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s and [[grenade launcher]]s. Older examples of infantry weapons include all sorts of [[melee weapon]]s and some light ranged weapons such as [[spear]]s, [[Bow (weapon)|bows]], and [[sling]]s. During operations, especially in modern times, infantry have a tendency to scavenge and employ whatever weapons they can acquire in addition to those given them by their superiors.
[[Infantry protective gear]] includes all equipment designed to protect the soldier against enemy attack. Most protective gear comprises body armor of some type. Classical and Medieval infantry employed leather and metal armor as defense against both ranged and melee attacks, but with the advent of firearms, such armor could no longer defeat attacks and was discarded. The return to use of the helmet was prompted by the need to defend against high explosive [[fragmentation]], and further developments in materials led to effective bullet-defeating armor within the weight acceptable for infantry use. The use of body armor is again becoming widespread amongst infantry units, primarily using [[Kevlar]] technology. Infantry must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including gas masks, counter-agents, and protective suits.
Infantry survival gear includes all of the items soldiers require for day-to-day survival in the combat environment. These include basic environmental protections, medical supplies, food, and sundries. Traditionally, infantry have suffered large casualty rates from disease, exposure, and privation--often in excess of those suffered from enemy attacks. Better equipment of troops in this area greatly reduce this rate of loss. One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the [[entrenching tool]]--basically a small shovel--which can be employed not only to dig important defenses, but also in a variety of other daily tasks and even as an effective weapon.
Specialized equipment consists of a variety of gear which may or may not be carried depending on the mission and the level of equipment of an army. Communications gear has become a necessity, as it allows effective command of infantry units over greater distances. In some units, individual communications are being used to allow the greatest level of flexibility. Engineering equipment, including demolitions, mines, and other gear, is also commonly carried by the infantry or attached specialists. A variety of other gear, often relating to a specific mission, or to the particular terrain in which the unit is employed, can be carried by infantry units.
There are some general rules to which all infantry equipment must adhere to be effective and widely adopted:
* Reliability: Equipment failure is fatal to the infantry, and if equipped with unreliable gear, morale will suffer greatly. Soldiers tend to prefer reliable proven technology to new, unproven gadgets. Additionally, the conditions in which infantry operate are often extreme and gear must be able to survive and operate in these condition without fail.
* Utility: Infantry have very limited weight capacity, and thus gear which doesn't help them do their job will be discarded.
* Availability: Since infantry units are often large, and must be able to be raised in quantity, a particular tool must be available in sufficient quantity to equip the units. This means that it must be inexpensive enough to afford in quantity during peacetime, and producible enough to meet wartime demands.
* Simplicity: Infantry relies on large numbers of troops, often conscripted and therefore of lesser quality than those available to other branches. An army must be able to train its troops uniformly in minimal time on the tools of the trade. Overly complex gear will often be useless in combat due to a lack of training or the difficulty of maintenance under field conditions.
== Quotations ==
* "I love the infantry because they are the underdogs. They are the mud-rain-frost-and-wind boys. They have no comforts, and they even learn to live without the necessities. And in the end they are the guys that wars can't be won without." [[Ernie Pyle]]
*"I'm convinced that the infantry is the group in the army which gives more and gets less than anybody else." [[Bill Mauldin]], ''Up Front'' (1945)
*"Infantry is the Queen of Battle." - slogan of the [[United States Army]]
*"The Air Force and Navy, no matter what they say, are and have always been, delegated to a support position. Bombers can't capture a city. Battleships can't knock out a tank 50 miles inland. These jobs are, and have always been, the role of the common grunt, the leatherneck, the infantryman." - [[Stephen Ambrose]]
*"But never think that war, no matter how necessary, nor how justified, is not a crime. Ask the infantry and ask the dead." [[Ernest Hemingway]]
*"To seek out and close with the enemy; to kill or capture him; to seize and hold ground; to repel attack, by day or night, regardless of season, weather or terrain" - The stated role of the Royal Australian Infantry Corps, an Arms Corps of the [[Australian Army]].
*"The infantry doesn't change. We're the only arm of the military where the weapon is the man himself." [[C.T. Shortis]]
==See also==
* [[Army]]
* [[Combat Infantryman Badge]]
* [[Marine]]
* [[Mechanized infantry]]
* [[Podhale rifles]]
* [[Light Infantry]]
* [[U.S. Army Rangers]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[Military camp]]
* [[Military science]]
* [[Mobile infantry]]
* The [[Military Revolution]]
* [[Zouave]]
* [[Evzones]]
* [[Roman infantry tactics,strategy and battle formations]]
* See [[List of Regiments of Foot]] for the numbered British Army infantry regiments of the [[18th Century|18th]] and early [[19th Century|19th]] centuries. For British infantry regiments by year, see: [[List of British Army regiments (1881)|1881]], [[List of British Army regiments (1962)|1962]], [[List of British Army regiments (1994)|1994]]
==External links==
* [http://www.army.mil/CMH-PG/books/Lineage/in/infantry.htm#2 Infantry, Part I: Regular Army ]
* [http://www.army.mil/CMH-pg/books/Lineage/arcav/arcav.htm Armor-Cavalry, Part I: Regular Army and Army Reserve]
* [http://www.army.mil/CMH-pg/books/Lineage/M-F/index.htm Maneuver and Firepower, The Evolution of Divisions and Separate Brigagdes]
* [http://www.infantrymen.net/ Infantrymen.net, Military reference focusing on the infantry (11b)]
* [http://www.goinfantry.com/ GoInfantry.Com, Military Grunts. An online military community]
*[http://www.isayeret.com isayeret.com - The Israeli Special Forces Database]
[[Category:Infantry| ]]
[[Category:Military occupations]]
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<page>
<title>Identity function</title>
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<username>YurikBot</username>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a |
y]] (Unitary)
|}
{{infobox England traditional county|
|County= Devon
|Image= [[Image:EnglandDevonTrad.png]]
|SizeRank= 3rd
|Size= 1,661,914 acres
|Water= ?
|CountyTown= [[Exeter]]
|ChapmanCode=DEV
|detailedImage=
}}
[[Image:devon.brixham.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The inner harbour, [[Brixham]], south Devon, at low tide]]
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Devon]].''
Devon was one of the first areas of [[England]] settled following the end of the last [[ice age]]. [[Dartmoor]] is thought to have been settled by [[Mesolithic]] [[hunter-gatherer]] peoples from about [[6th millennium BC|6000 BC]]. The name "Devon" derives from the name given by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s to the [[Celt]]ic people who inhabited the south western peninsula of Britain at the time of the [[Roman invasion of Britain|Roman invasion]] c. 50AD , known as the [[Dumnonii]], thought to mean 'Deep Valley Dwellers'. The Romans held the area under Military Occupation for approx 25 years. Later the area became a frontier between [[Brythonic Dumnonia]] and [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[Wessex]], and some historians claim that this resulted in the effective conquest of Devon by Wessex by [[715]] and its formal annexation around [[805]]. However, this is a matter of controversy. Later William of Malmesbury claimed "that the Britons and Saxons inhabited [[Exeter]] ''aequo jure''" ("as equals") in [[927]].
By the [[ninth century]], however, the major threat to Saxon control of Devon came not from the native British but from [[Viking]] raiders, and sporadic incursions continued until the [[Norman Conquest]]. A few [[Old Norse language|Norse]] placenames remain as a result, for example [[Lundy]] Island, though the Vikings' most lasting legacy is probably the move of the cathedral from [[Crediton]] to Exeter.
Devon has also featured in most of the civil conflicts in England since the Norman conquest, including the [[Wars of the Roses]] and [[Perkin Warbeck]]'s rising in [[1497]], the [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] of [[1549]] and the [[English Civil War]]. Perhaps most notably, the arrival of [[William III of England|William of Orange]] to launch the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]], took place at [[Brixham]].
Devon has produced [[tin]], [[copper]] and other metals from ancient times. Devon's tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devon's [[stannary parliament]], which dates back to the twelfth century. The last recorded sitting was in [[1748]], and it is believed they then adjourned to a pub in Tavistock.
Devon is also known for its mariners, such as Sir [[Francis Drake]], Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]], Sir [[Richard Grenville (Elizabethan sailor)|Richard Grenville]] and Sir [[Walter Raleigh]], and as the childhood home of psychology pioneer [[Raymond Cattell]].
==Economy==
Like its neighbouring county to the west, [[Cornwall]], Devon is relatively disadvantaged economically compared to other parts of southern England, due to the decline of many traditional industries such as fishing, mining and farming. Consequently, most of Devon has qualified for the [[European Community]] [[Objective 2]] status. The epidemic of [[Foot and mouth disease|Foot and Mouth (Hoof and Mouth) disease]] in [[2001]] harmed much of the farming community severely and had knock-on effects on the rest of the county. The attractive lifestyle of the area is drawing in many new industries which are not heavily dependent upon geographical location; [[Dartmoor]], for instance, has recently seen a significant rise in the percentage of its inhabitants involved in the financial services sector. Devon is one of the rural counties, with the advantages and problems characteristic of these.
==Flag==
[[Image:Flag of Devon.svg|thumb|left|200px|The [[flag of Devon]]]]
Devon has its own (unofficial) [[Flag of Devon|flag]] which has been dedicated to [[Saint Petroc]], a local saint with numerous dedications throughout Devon and neighbouring counties. The flag was adopted in [[2003]] after a competition run by [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] Devon [http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/community_life/features/devon_flag.shtml]. The winning design was created by website contributor Ryan Sealey, and won 49% of the votes cast. However the creation of the flag has caused some controversy, especially in neighbouring [[Cornwall]] where the need for a Devon flag is disputed.
The cross design is reminscent of both [[England]]'s [[St George's Cross]] and neighbouring [[Cornwall]]'s [[Saint Piran's Flag]] (which also uses black and white). The colours of the flag are those popularly identified with Devon, e.g. - the colours of the [[Rugby Union ]] team, and the Green and White flag flown by the first [[Viscount Exmouth]] at the [[Bombardment of Algiers]] (now on view at the Teign Valley Museum).
==Geology, landscape and ecology==
:''Main article: [[Geology of Devon]].''
The [[Dartmoor]] [[National park|National Park]] lies wholly in Devon, and the [[Exmoor]] National Park lies in both [[Devon]] and [[Somerset]]. In addition Devon is the only county in [[England]] to have two completely separate coastlines. Both the North and South coasts offer dramatic views: much of both coastlines is named as Heritage Coast, and the [[South West Coast Path]] runs along the entire length of the both. The inland of the county has attractive rolling rural scenery and villages with [[thatch]]ed [[Cob (building)|Cob]] cottages. All these features make Devon a popular [[tourism|holiday]] destination for many Britons. The variety of scenery and habitats means that there is an exceptional range of wildlife (see [[Dartmoor wildlife]]). A popular challenge among [[bird-watching|birders]] is to find over 100 species in the county in a day.
The landscape of the south coast consists of rolling hills dotted with small towns, such as [[Dartmouth, England|Dartmouth]], [[Salcombe]], [[Totnes]] etc. The towns of [[Torquay]] and [[Paignton]] are the principal [[seaside resort|seaside resorts]] on the south coast. The north of the county is very rural with few major towns except [[Barnstaple]], [[Great Torrington]], [[Bideford]] and [[Ilfracombe]].
Devon has also given its name to a geological era - the Devonian era (the era before the carboniferous stage), so called because the distinctive red-sandstone of exmoor was studied by geologists here. Devonian sandstone/slate is also found in neighbouring [[Cornwall]] (such as [[Tintagel]], where the castle is made from Devonian slate) and across the [[Bristol Channel]], [[Wales]] (the [[Gower peninsula]]/[[Pembrokeshire]]/[[Brecon Beacons]] has the same lumpy sandstone cliffs/hog backed hills as Exmoor). This is because around 7000 years ago the Bristol Channel did not exist, instead there was a large bay stretching between Pembrokeshire and Devon. Where the Bristol Channel is now was mainly a flat plain, although the [[Cambrian]] mountain system of Wales continued over to (what is now) Exmoor and Dartmoor. The peaty sandstone of north Devon is of poor quality (for farming), hence the bareness of the landscape. Devon's other major rock system is the carboniferous sandstone which stretches from [[Bideford]] to just outside [[Bude]] in Cornwall, which is generally better quality than the Devonian sandstone, and also contributes to a gentler, greener, more rounded landscape.
Devon's Exmoor seaboard has the highest coastline in southern Britain, culminating in the massive Great Hangman, a 1043 ft "hog-backed" hill with a 820 ft cliff-face, located near Combe Martin Bay. It's sister cliff is the 716 ft Little Hangman, which marks the edge of Exmoor.
==Politics and administration==
The administrative centre of Devon is the city of [[Exeter]]. The city of [[Plymouth]], the largest city in Devon, and the conurbation of [[Torbay]] (including the towns of [[Torquay]], [[Paignton]] and [[Brixham]]) are now [[unitary authority|unitary authorities]] separate from Devon for the purposes of [[local government]].
Nearly half of the holdings of the [[Duchy of Cornwall]] are in Devon.
==Cities, towns and villages==
{| style=float:right
|[[Image:Heath.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Heath (habitat)|Heathland]] at Woodbury Common in southeast Devon]]
|-
|[[image:torquay.devon.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Part of the seafront of [[Torquay]], south Devon, at high tide]]
|-
|[[Image:CIMG4019.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The Great Red cliff of Foreland point]]
|-
|[[image:westwardho.beach.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The beach at [[Westward Ho!]], north Devon, looking north towards the [[River Taw|Taw]] and [[River Torridge|Torridge]] [[estuary|estuaries]]]]
|}
This is a list of the main towns and cities in Devon, for a complete list of settlements see [[list of places in Devon]].
{|cellpadding=4 cellspacing=4 border=0
|-
||
* [[Axminster]]
* [[Barnstaple]]
* [[Beer, Devon|Beer]]
* [[Bideford]]
* [[Brixham]]
* [[Dartmouth, Devon|Dartmouth]]
* [[Dawlish]]
* [[Exeter]]
* [[Exmouth, Devon|Exmouth]]
* [[Honiton]]
* [[Ilfracombe]]
* [[Landkey]]
* [[Lynmouth]]
* [[Newton Abbot]]
||
* [[Okehampton]]
* [[Paignton]]
* [[Plymouth]]
* [[Plympton]]
* [[Princetown]]
* [[Salcombe]]
* [[Sidmouth]]
* [[Tavistock]]
* [[Teignmouth]]
* [[Tiverton]]
* [[Torquay]]
* [[Totnes]]
|}
:''See also: [[List of civil parishes in Devon]]''
==Places of interest==
*[[Buckfast Abbey]]
*[[Castles in England#Devon|Castles in Devon]]
*[[Dartmoor]]
*[[Exmoor]]
*[[Heritage railways]]:
**[[Bideford & Instow Railway]]
**[[Dartmoor Railway]]
**[[Lynton and Barnstaple Railway|Lynton & Barnstaple Railway]]
**[[Paignton & Dartmouth Steam Railway]]
**[[Plym Valley Railway]]
**[[South Devon Railway]]
*[[Jurassic Coast]] (a [[World Heritage Site]])
*[[Lundy]] Island
*[[Lynmouth]]
==Rivers==
''See also: [[:Category:Rivers in Devon]]''
*[[River Avon, Devon|River Avon]]
*[[River Axe, Devon|River Axe]]
*[[River Dart]]
*[[River Erme]]
*[[River Exe]] |
p, the two regions labeled ''A'' belong to the same country, and must be the same color. This map then requires five colors, since the two ''A'' regions together are contiguous with four other regions, each of which is contiguous with all the others. If ''A'' consisted of three regions, six or more colors might be required; one can construct maps that require an arbitrarily high number of colors.
==See also==
* [[Graph coloring]]
* [[Graph theory]]
* [[Topology]]
* [[:WikiBooks:Amateur's Guide to Proving the Four Color Theorem]]
==References==
* Appel, Kenneth & Haken, Wolfgang & Koch, John, ''Every Planar map is Four Colorable'', Illinois: Journal of Mathematics: vol.21: pp.439-567, December 1977.
* Appel, Kenneth & Haken, Wolfgang, ''Solution of the Four Color Map Problem'', Scientific American, vol.237 no.4: pp.108-121, October 1977.
* Appel, Kenneth & Haken, Wolfgang, ''Every Planar Map is Four-Colorable.'' Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society, 1989.
* Gonthier, Georges, ''[http://research.microsoft.com/~gonthier/4colproof.pdf A computer-checked proof of the Four Colour Theorem],'' unpublished.
* O'Connor and Robertson, ''[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_four_colour_theorem.html The Four Colour Theorem]'', at the [[MacTutor archive]], 1996.
* Robertson, Neil; Sanders, Daniel; Paul, Seymour; and Thomas, Robin, [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=237814.238005&coll=ACM&dl=ACM&type=series&idx=237814&part=Proceedings&WantType=Proceedings&title=Annual%20ACM%20Symposium%20on%20Theory%20of%20Computing&CFID=36220143&CFTOKEN=50709087 Efficiently four-coloring planar graphs], New York: ACM Press, 1996.
* Saaty and Kainen, ''The Four Color Problem: Assaults and Conquest'' (ISBN 0-486-65092-8)
* Thomas, Robin, ''Four Colors Suffice'', London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2002.
* Thomas, Robin, [http://www.ams.org/notices/199807/thomas.pdf An Update on the Four-Color Theorem] (PDF File), ''Notices of the American Mathematical Society'', Volume 45, number 7 (August 1998)
* Thomas, Robin, ''The Four Color Theorem'', http://www.math.gatech.edu/~thomas/FC/fourcolor.html
* Ringel, G. and Youngs, J. W. T. "Solution of the Heawood Map-Coloring Problem." Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 60, 438-445, 1968.
[[Category:Topological graph theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
<!---->
[[ar:مبرهنة الألوان الأربعة]]
[[cs:Problém čtyř barev]]
[[de:Vier-Farben-Satz]]
[[es:Teorema de los cuatro colores]]
[[ko:사색정리]]
[[io:Problemo di quar kolori]]
[[it:Teorema dei quattro colori]]
[[he:משפט ארבעת הצבעים]]
[[nl:Vierkleurenstelling]]
[[ja:四色定理]]
[[pl:Twierdzenie o czterech kolorach]]
[[pt:Teorema das quatro cores]]
[[sl:Izrek štirih barv]]
[[fi:Neliväriongelma]]
[[sv:Fyrfärgssatsen]]
[[th:ทฤษฎีบทสี่สี]]
[[tr:Dört Renk Teoremi]]
[[zh:四色定理]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fahrenheit 451</title>
<id>10951</id>
<revision>
<id>41849984</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:30:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BDAbramson</username>
<id>196446</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved the article back to original title using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:fahrenheit451.jpg|thumb|200px|Fahrenheit 451 book cover]]
'''''Fahrenheit 451''''' ([[1953]]) is a [[dystopia|dystopian]] [[fiction]] novel by [[Ray Bradbury]].
It is set in a world where books are [[censorship|banned]] and critical thought is suppressed; the central character, [[Guy Montag]], is employed as a "fireman" (which, in this case, means "[[book burning|book burner]]"). 451 [[Fahrenheit|degrees Fahrenheit]] (about 233°[[Celsius|C]]) is stated as "[[Autoignition temperature|the temperature at which book-paper catches fire, and burns ...]]". It was originally published as a shorter [[novella]] ''The Fireman'' in the February 1951 issue of ''[[Galaxy Science Fiction]]''. It was made in to a [[Fahrenheit 451 (film)|movie]] in [[1966 in film|1966]] by [[François Truffaut]].
The novel reflects several major concerns of the time of its writing: the [[censorship]] and suppression of thoughts and ideas exercised in the [[United States]] in the [[1950s]] as the result of [[McCarthyism]]; the burnings of books in [[Nazi Germany]] starting in [[1933]]; and the horrible consequences of an explosion of a [[nuclear weapon]].
One particularly ironic circumstance is that unbeknownst to Bradbury his publisher released a ''censored'' edition in [[1967]] that eliminated the words "damn" and "hell" for distribution to schools. Later editions with all words restored include a "Coda" from the author describing this event and further thoughts on censorship and "well-meaning" revisionism.
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
The story takes place sometime in the not-too-distant future, in an America whose society's goal in life is [[hedonism|hedonistic]] pleasure and abandonment of self-control. By this point in time, books have been made obsolete by the increasingly frenetic pace of life and the ever-shortening attention span of the [[common man]] nobody has "time" to read anymore. In the government's, and consequently the society's opinion, books contain problems and conflicting theories, books are seen as a source of unhappiness, causing people to be anxious, sad or angry, a threat to one's neighbour with attained knowledge. That is what the government wants to avoid, because those feelings could threaten the country's stability. The ideas in books are considered [[heresy]] and firemen are employed to burn and destroy them whenever discovered, in favor of fun and happiness. According to the authorities, [[Benjamin Franklin]] was the ''first'' fireman and people should achieve happiness by watching [[television|TV]] all day long or by using [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]s. The fire brigade's symbol is the [[salamander]], an animal that was thought to thrive in fire.
For ten years the [[protagonist]], Guy Montag, works with grim pleasure as a fireman, seemingly committed to the concept that books have nothing to say. The stench of [[kerosene]] in his nostrils and the spark in his eyes do little, however, to mask the loneliness he feels coming home to his wife, Mildred, a woman who, at all times, seeks self-stimulation in various forms such as a miniature [[radio]] jammed in her ear at night, or the three wall TVs in the parlour, with their silly shows, lacking any sense or meaning. With the spreading of TVs, newspapers disappeared and nobody wanted them back and nobody missed them because it was so easy: one did not have to think while sitting in front of the screen.
At first, Guy is proud of his work. He thinks it is a fine job and kerosene is nothing but perfume to him, as he says. Upon meeting [[Clarisse McClellan]], a 17-year-old girl living in Montag's neighbourhood, who is considered abnormal because of her compassion and her simple interest in the world around her, his way of thinking changes. Unlike Guy, she pays attention to nature, which average people don't care about anymore. She makes him reflect on life and his work. She poses essential questions to him, asking him if he is happy, and why things are the way they are. This results in Guy beginning to think about his situation. Clarisse dies early in the story and acts only as a catalyst to Guy's transformation. Guy develops from a loyal servant of the state's [[ideology]] to a self-confident human being with his own free will.
Guy's wife Mildred loses her free will, self-confidence, and the desire to question [[Norm (sociology)|societal norms]], prefering to sit in her parlour and watch TV on three TV walls set up around her. She seems to be happy staring at the screens but actually attempts to commit [[suicide]], revealing her emptiness. She takes too many pills which actually should make her happy. As consequence of her watching TV in such an excessive way she has lost her sense of reality: She is convinced that in case of an imminent war every man will return back home in a few days. Moreover she's unable to make complete and logical sentences.
Another event that is important for Guy's development happens when he and his [[fire brigade]] are sent to a house whose owner, an old lady, is suspected of owning books. However the lady strikes a match and kills herself along with the books rather than carry on living without them. This causes Guy to contemplate the meaning of books, as the woman found them important enough to die for.
After this cruel event, unnoticed by the other firemen except perhaps Beatty (who would say not a thing, as if he could see right through him), Guy takes a [[Bible]] with him, reading it in secret. He stays away from work and pretends that he is ill. He wonders if he could ever do his job again, both because of the old woman's death, and because of his new interest in books. In preceding actions of the fire brigade, he has already stolen books without knowing why, but unlike now, he had never read them.
With him staying away from work, Beatty, the Captain of his fire station, visits Guy. He tells him about the history of the fire brigade, and the senselessness of books. In this speech, the reader of the book recognizes that Beatty knows that Guy has at least one book. It is implied that he has read a lot, and "knows his enemy", but at the same time despises books and their readers. In his speech he mentions in passing that once in his career every fireman wants to know what books say, and if a fireman takes a book with him, he has 24 hours to bring it to the fire house and burn it there.
Now Guy is confused. He cannot find it in his heart to burn such valuable things. On top of it all, his wife Mildred is annoyed that he is keeping some books, and is scared of what could happen if the fire brigade knew abo |
lly destroyed as a combat unit in this battle and Sickles's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell's division was devoured piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson's division assault starting around 6 p.m. reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but they could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps.
Meanwhile, Colonel [[Strong Vincent]] of V Corps was holding, with his small brigade, an important hill in the Union position: [[Little Round Top]]. He was able to hold off repeated assaults by a Confederate brigade of Hood's division with his five relatively small regiments. Meade's chief engineer, Brig. Gen. [[Gouverneur K. Warren]], had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, Hazlett's artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the [[20th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment]] was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War.
{{seesubarticle|Little Round Top}}
===Attacks on the Union right flank===
About 7:00 p.m., the Second Corps' attack by Johnson's division on Culp's Hill got off to a late start. Most of the hill's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet's attacks, and the only portion of the corps remaining on the hill was a brigade of New Yorkers under Brig. Gen. [[George S. Greene]]. Due to Greene's insistence on constructing strong defensive works, and with reinforcements from the I and XI Corps, Greene's men held off the Confederate attackers, although the Southerners did capture a portion of the abandoned Federal works on the lower part of Culp's Hill.
{{seesubarticle|Culp's Hill}}
Just at dark, two of Jubal Early's brigades attacked the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill where Col. [[Andrew L. Harris]] of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, came under a withering attack, losing half his men; however, Early failed to support his brigades in their attack on the Union defenders, and Ewell's remaining division, that of Maj. Gen. [[Robert E. Rodes]], failed to aid Early's attack by moving against Cemetery Hill from the west. The Union army's interior lines enabled its commanders to shift troops quickly to critical areas, and with reinforcements from II Corps, the Federal troops retained possession of East Cemetery Hill, and Early's brigades were forced to withdraw.
{{seesubarticle|Cemetery Hill}}
J.E.B. Stuart and his four cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg late in the afternoon, but had no role in the second day's battle. [[Wade Hampton]]'s brigade fought a minor engagement with [[George Armstrong Custer]]'s [[Michigan]] cavalry near [[Battle of Hunterstown | Hunterstown]] to the northeast of Gettysburg.
== Third day of battle ==
[[Image:Gettysburg_Battle_Map_Day3.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Map of Battle, July 3rd.]]
General Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, [[July 3]], using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the Federal left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill. However, before Longstreet was ready, Federal XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11 a.m., after some seven hours of bitter combat.
{{seesubarticle|Culp's Hill}}
Lee was forced to change his plans. Now Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the Federal II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the Federal positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line.
[[Image:3698.jpg|thumb|left|The "High Water Mark" on Cemetery Ridge as it appears today. The monument to the 72nd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment ("Baxter's Philadelphia Fire Zouaves") appears at right, the Copse of Trees to the left.]]
Around 1:00 p.m., 170 Confederate cannons began an artillery bombardment was probably the largest of the war. In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew must follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery at first did not return the enemy's fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, 80 or so Federal cannon added to the din. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position. Around 3:00 p.m, the cannon fire subsided, and 12,500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of a mile (1200 m) to Cemetery Ridge in what is known to history as "[[Pickett's Charge]]". Due to fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and north of Little Round Top, and musket and canister fire from the II Corps as the Confederates approached, nearly one half of the attackers would not return to their own lines. Although the Federal line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog in a low stone fence called the "Angle", just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach and the Confederate attack was repulsed.
{{seesubarticle|Pickett's Charge}}
There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3. Stuart was sent to guard the Confederate left flank and was to be prepared to exploit any success the infantry might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the Federal right and hitting their trains and lines of communications. Three miles (5 km) east of Gettysburg, in what is now called "East Cavalry Field" (not shown on the accompanying map, but between the York and Hanover Roads), Stuart's forces collided with Federal cavalry: Brig. Gen. [[David McM. Gregg]]'s division and [[George A. Custer]]'s brigade. A lengthy mounted battle, including hand-to-hand sabre combat, ensued. Custer's charge, leading the 1st Michigan Cavalry, blunted the attack by [[Wade Hampton]]'s brigade, blocking Stuart from achieving his objectives in the Federal rear. After Pickett's Charge, Meade ordered Brig. Gen. [[Judson Kilpatrick]] to launch a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet's Corps southwest of Big Round Top. Brig. Gen. [[Elon J. Farnsworth]] protested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders; Farnsworth was killed in the attack and his brigade suffered significant losses.
{{seesubarticle|Battle of Gettysburg, Third Day cavalry battles}}
== Aftermath ==
The armies stared at one another across the bloody fields on [[July 4]], the same day that the [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] garrison surrendered to Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. Lee reformed his lines into a defensive position, hoping that Meade would attack. The cautious Union commander, however, decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized.
On [[July 5]], in a driving rain, the Army of Northern Virginia left Gettysburg on the Hagerstown Road; the Battle of Gettysburg was over, and the Confederates headed back to Virginia. Meade's Army of the Potomac followed, though the pursuit was half-spirited at best. The recently rain-swollen Potomac trapped Lee's army on the north bank of the river, but by the time the Federals caught up, the Confederates were ready to cross back to Virginia. The rear-guard action at Falling Waters on [[July 14]] ended the Gettysburg Campaign and added some more names to the long casualty lists, including General Pettigrew, mortally wounded.
[[Image:Battle_of_Gettysburg.jpg|thumb|300px|left|"The Harvest of Death": Union dead on the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, photographed July 5&ndash;6, 1863, by Timothy O'Sullivan]]
Throughout the campaign, General Lee seemed to have entertained the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the army had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Federals at Gettysburg on July 1. To the detrimental effects of this blind faith were added the fact that the Army of Northern Virginia had many new and inexperienced commanders. (Neither Hill nor Ewell, for instance, though capable division commanders, had commanded a corps before.) Also, Lee's habit of giving general orders and leaving it up to his lieutenants to work out the details contributed to his defeat. Although this method may have worked with Stonewall Jackson, it proved inadequate when dealing with corps commanders unused to Lee's loose style of command. Lastly, after July 1, the Confederates were simply not able to coordinate their attacks. Lee faced a new and very dangerous opponent in Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac stood to the task and fought well on its home territory.
The armies would move on, but Gettysburg had much cleaning up to do. The two armies had suffered 51,000 casualties&mdash;killed, wounded, and captured/missing. More than 7,000 soldiers had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. 5,000 horse carcasses were burned in a pile south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench. The ravages of war would still be evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on [[November 19]], the [[Soldiers' National Cemetery]] was dedicated. During this ceremony, President [[Abraham Lincoln]] with his [[Gettysburg Address]] would re-dedicate the nation to the war effort and to the ideal that no soldier at Gettysburg&mdash;North or South&mdash;had died in vain.
Today, the [[Gettysburg National Cemetery]] and [[Gettysburg Battlefield | Gettysburg National Military Park]] are maintained by the [[U.S. National Park Service]] as two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks.
==Notes |
tp://debate.org.uk/topics/history/xstnc-5.html The status of the Dhimmi: A critical perspective]
* [http://www.cyberislam.com/literature/fiqh/halalharam/chap4s5.html The status of the Dhimmi: An Islamic perspective]
* [http://www.dhimmi.org/ The Status of Non-Muslim Minorities Under Islamic Rule]
* [http://www.jihadwatch.org/dhimmiwatch/ Dhimmi Watch]
* [http://www.guidedones.com/metapage/non_muslims/Qislamtol10.htm Islam and its tolerance level (dhimmis also covered)]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html Bernard Lewis, ''Race and Slavery in the Middle East'']
* [http://www.secularislam.org/jihad/subjects.htm Jihad, the Arab Conquests and the Position of Non-Muslim Subjects]
* {{ar icon}}[http://www.qaradawi.net/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=439&version=1&template_id=93&parent_id=12 Yusuf al-Qaradawi "Non Muslims in Islamic societies"]
* [http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503545930 Religious Freedom in the Eyes of Shari`ah]
* [http://www.youngmuslims.ca/articles/display.asp?ID=43 On Religious Tolerance, by Khalid Baig]
[[Category:Islamic law]]
[[Category:Religion and politics]]
[[da:Dhimmi]]
[[de:Dhimma]]
[[fi:Dhimmi]]
[[fr:Dhimmi]]
[[it:Dhimmi]]
[[nl:Dhimmi]]
[[sv:Dhimmi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Doctor V64</title>
<id>9091</id>
<revision>
<id>40752310</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T20:10:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sango123</username>
<id>223113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.161.86.155|207.161.86.155]] ([[User talk:207.161.86.155|talk]]) to last version by FlyingPenguins</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Doctor V64''' is a backup/development device, made by [[Bung Enterprises Ltd]], that is used in conjunction with the [[Nintendo 64]].
The Doctor V64 came out in [[1996]] and soon dominated the market by the end of the year, facing virtually no competition. Many third party developers used the V64 in lieu of the [[PC64 Development Kit]] sold by [[Nintendo]] because of its much lower cost. Soon, individuals began to use the V64 for video game piracy.
The Doctor V64 unit contains a CD-ROM drive which sits underneath the Nintendo 64 and plugs into the expansion slot on the underside of the Nintendo 64. The expansion slot is essentially a mirror image of the cartridge slot on the top of the unit, with the same electrical connections, thus the Nintendo 64 reads data from the Doctor V64 in the same manner as it would from a cartridge plugged into the normal slot. In order to get around Nintendo's [[10NES|lockout chip]], when using the Doctor V64 a game cartridge is plugged into the Nintendo 64 through an adaptor which connects only the lockout chip.
Bung was at one time contemplating releasing a Doctor V2, but instead decided to release the Doctor V64 Jr. in [[December]] [[1998]]. This was basically a more cost-efficient condensed version of the original V64. The V64jr had no CD drive and plugged into the normal cartridge slot on the top of the Nintendo 64.
The Doctor V64 is not very user friendly. It was mainly designed for game designers even though it is possible to back up cartridges with it. The setup procedure is moderately harrowing and the user interface is very plain: text with no graphics. The [[Central processing unit|CPU]] of the V64 is a [[6502]] chip (the CPU from the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]]); the operating system is stored in the [[BIOS]] chip. It is likely that Bung reused most of the design of their earlier NES clones in the Doctor V64.
The Doctor V64 could be used to read the data from a game cartridge and transfer the data to a PC via the parallel port. A somewhat odd characteristic of the V64 is that the original software to do this ignored the [[endianness]] of the data, resulting in a copy with each pair of bytes swapped, and the CD-ROM interface of the V64 was designed to expect data in this swapped format.
==Main menu==
* Alternate and BootCrack
* Load Boot Crack Routine
* Backup Card Auto &rarr; DRAM
* Backup Card Auto &rarr; PC
* Manual Slide Show
* Auto Slide Show
* V64 Self Test
* Fully Test 128M DRAM
* Fully Test 256M DRAM
* Upload DRAM Data &rarr; PC
* Fix CRC Code &rarr; run game
* Show Game Name in DRAM
* Upload V64 BIOS to PC
* DX256 Upload to PC
* PC Download to DX256
* Swap Bytc Order in DRAM
==Specifications==
*CD-ROM access speed: 8x or 32x
*RAM: 128mb or 256 mb
[[Category:Unlicensed Nintendo hardware]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dragonball Z</title>
<id>9092</id>
<revision>
<id>25921623</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-19T14:41:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Muchi</username>
<id>283926</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Dragon Ball Z]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>De Havilland Mosquito</title>
<id>9093</id>
<revision>
<id>41939357</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:37:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.60.190.70</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>updating entry</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border:3px solid #87CEEB;width:30%" align="right"
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom:3px solid"|De Havilland Mosquito
|-
|colspan="3" align="center"|[[Image:Mosquito 600pix.jpg|250px|center|de Havilland Mosquito]]
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Description
|-
|Role||colspan="2"|[[Fighter-bomber]], [[night fighter]], [[photo-reconnaissance]]
|-
|Crew||colspan="2"|2
|-
|First flight||colspan="2"|[[November 25]], [[1940 in aviation|1940]]
|-
|Entered service||colspan="2"|[[1941 in aviation|1941]]
|-
|Manufacturer||colspan="2"|[[de Havilland]], [[Airspeed Ltd|Airspeed]], [[Percival Aircraft Company|Percival]], [[Standard Motors]]
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Dimensions
|-
|Length||40 ft 10 in||12.44 m
|-
|Wingspan||54 ft 2 in||16.51 m
|-
|Height||15 ft 3 in||4.65 m
|-
|Wing area||454 ft&sup2;||42.18 m&sup2;
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Weights
|-
|Empty||14,300 lb||6,490 kg
|-
|Loaded||18,100 lb||8,210 kg
|-
|Maximum takeoff||20,000 lb||9,070 kg
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Powerplant
|-
|Engines||colspan="2"|2 x [[Rolls-Royce Merlin]] 21/23, 72 or 76 Vee-type
|-
|Power||1,460 hp (21/23)<br/>1,680 hp (72&nbsp;or&nbsp;76)||1089 kW<br/>1,253 kW
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Performance
|-
|Maximum speed||370 mph||595 km/h
|-
|Combat range||1,400 miles||2,253 km
|-
|Ferry range||1,905 miles||3,065 km
|-
|Service ceiling||43,500 ft||10,500 m
|-
|Rate of climb||2,200 ft/min||670 m/min
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Avionics
|-
|Avionics||colspan="2"|AI Mk.IV, VIII or X radar (NF variants)<br/>Gee [[radio-navigation]]
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Armament
|-
|Guns<br/>(F & NF)||colspan="2"|4 x 20 mm Hispano Mk.II [[cannon]]s<br/>4 x .303 in (7.7 mm) Browning [[machine gun]]s<br/>57 mm cannon in nose (FB&nbsp;XVIII)
|-
|Bombs||4,000 lb||1,800 kg
|-
|Rockets||colspan="2"|8 x 60 lb (27 kg) rockets (Mk.VI)
|-
|}
{{lowercase|de Havilland Mosquito}}
The '''[[de Havilland]] Mosquito''' ("The Wooden Wonder" a.k.a. "The Timber Terror") was a [[military]] [[aircraft]] that excelled in a number of roles during [[World War II]]. It was a twin engine aircraft with the [[aviator | pilot]] and [[navigator]] sitting side-by-side. Unorthodox in design, it used a [[plywood]] structure of [[spruce]] and [[balsa]] when wood and fabric construction was considered outdated. It was powered by a pair of [[Rolls-Royce Merlin]] engines. The Mosquito was conceived as a fast day bomber that could outrun all contemporary fighters and hence dispensed with defensive armament; however, due to its speed, agility and its exceptional durability due to its wooden design, it was also used as a fighter. The fighter versions used a flat windshield to aid sighting. Its various roles included tactical bomber, pathfinder, day or night fighter, [[fighter-bomber]], intruder, maritime strike or photo-[[reconnaissance]] aircraft. It served with the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]], [[RAAF]], [[RCAF]], [[RNZAF]], [[USAAF]] and [[Israeli Air Force]], plus the air forces of Belgium, Burma, China, Czechoslovakia, France, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, Sweden, Turkey, Yugoslavia and the Dominican Republic.
== Construction ==
The method of construction, as well as the materials used, was also unorthodox for the time. The body was made as two moulded pieces, by pressing the wood in a concrete mould. These halves were then glued together to form the basic body before the wings were attached. Rivets were then used to give extra strength. The glue was changed when the Mosquito was introduced to fighting in semi-tropical and tropical climates, after some unexplained crashes led to the suspicion that the glue was unable to withstand the climate. de Havilland also developed a technique to accelerate the glue drying by heating it using radio waves.
The specialized veneer lumber used in the construction of the Mosquito was made by Roddis Manufacturing in Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA. Hamilton Roddis had teams of dexterous young women ironing the (unusually thin) strong wood veneer product prior to shipping to the UK.
== History ==
De Havilland conceived the idea of a wooden aircraft to take advantage of the unde |
the [[Pepsi 400]] at Daytona. Earnhardt would defeat best friend and rival [[Rusty Wallace]] for the championship by just 80 points and set about to repeating in 1994.
'''1994-7th Heaven'''
[[Richard Petty]] had been the only driver in [[NASCAR]] history to win 7 championships in NASCAR's top division, a record no one thought would be broken. In 1994, Earnhardt showed them they were wrong. Once again, Earnhardt was a model of consistency, scoring only 4 wins, but winning the title by over 400 points over [[Mark Martin]]. As Earnhardt scored his 4th title in 5 years, he seemed poised to break the record for championships and make his own mark in the history books.
'''1995-The Chase for 8'''
Dale Earnhardt started off his challenge for a record 8th Winston Cup championship the same way he always did-coming up one spot short in the Daytona 500. He finished 2nd after again dominating Speedweeks, this time to [[Sterling Marlin]]. Earnhardt wouldn't let this deter him from his goal, though. He would win 5 races in 1995, including his first career [[road course]] victory at [[Sears Point]] and the prestigious [[Brickyard 400]] at [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]], a win he called the biggest of his career at the time. But in the end, he once again came up short of the historic 3-peat, losing the title to [[Jeff Gordon]] by just 34 points.
'''1996-One Tough Customer'''
When Earnhardt teamed up with [[Wrangler Jeans]] to sponsor him in the 80s, their slogan for him was that he was "One Tough Customer". In 1996, he showed us why. Earnhardt had his now-legendary Daytona luck, winning the pole for the Daytona 500 and dominating speedweeks again before finishing 2nd to [[Dale Jarrett]] for a 2nd time. Earnhardt won early in the year, scoring back to back victories at [[Rockingham]] and [[Atlanta]]. Coming to [[Talladega Superspeedway]], he was leading the points looking for his 8th title despite the departure of [[Andy Petree]] as crew chief. [[David Smith]] had taken the reigns of the crew chief role in 1996. A horrific accident at the track appeared to have ended his season early, let alone his title hopes. But in true Earnhardt fashion, Dale refused to sit out and raced every weekend. He had to let [[Mike Skinner]] take the wheel the first week after the accident at Indianapolis, but Earnhardt didn't like the taste of that and the following weekend at [[Watkins Glen]] he won the pole and refused to get out of the car, dominating most of the race before fatigue from his injuries caused him to slow down in which he wound up 6th. Earnhardt would not win again in 1996, but he still finished 4th in the standings behind [[Terry Labonte]], [[Jeff Gordon]] and [[Dale Jarrett]]. David Smith would leave as crew chief of the #3 team at the end of the year to become team manager of the new #31 [[Lowes Home Improvement Warehouse]] RCR entry of [[Mike Skinner]] as a teammate to Earnhardt and [[Larry McReynolds]] would replace him.
'''1997-Blackout'''
In [[1997]], the black #3 was shut out of victory lane for only the 2nd time in Earnhardt's career. The lone win of the season came during speedweeks at Daytona in the Twin 125-mile qualifying race, his record 8th straight win in the event. Once again in the hunt for the Daytona 500 with 10 laps to go, Earnhardt was taken out of the Daytona 500 by a late crash which sent his car flipping down the backstretch. The crowd roared as he examined his car, got back into it and drove it to the finish, despite heavy damage to the car. Earnhardt would hit the low point of the year when he would black out early in the [[Southern 500]] in [[Darlington]], causing him to hit the wall and scaring onlookers and fans. He would go to the hospital and be cleared to race, but had no idea what caused the [[blackout]]. Earnhardt would finish the season 5th in the final standings, but was obviously disappointed by their lack of results.
'''1998-FINALLY'''
Finally! The first words out of everyone's mouth when Dale Earnhardt finally scored the victory in the only jewel left from his crown. After 20 years of disappointment in the [[Daytona 500]] and dominating races only to fall to the wayside late in the going, Earnhardt finally held on and did not let go. He started Speedweeks like any other, winning his Twin 125-mile qualifier race, then fielded questions from the media about his inability to win the race thus far. On race day, Dale showed himself to be one of the contenders early, leading for long periods of time. By halfway, though, it seemed that [[Jeff Gordon]] had the upper hand. But by lap 138, Earnhardt had taken the lead, and thanks to a push by teammate [[Mike Skinner]] on lap 170 on the restart, he would not lose it. Earnhardt beat [[Bobby Labonte]] to the line to take the checkers in the race. There was a wild celebration afterward, the likes of which few races have seen since. Every crew member of every team lined [[pit road]] to slap his hand as he made his way to the coveted [[Victory Lane]] and the [[Harley Earl Trophy]]. Unfortunately, the rest of the season would not go as well for Earnhardt. He slipped to 12th in the standings by the season's halfway mark, and [[Richard Childress]] decided to make a crew chief swap, taking Mike Skinner's crew chief [[Kevin Hamlin]] and putting him with Earnhardt while giving Skinner's team Larry Mac. The results seemed to improve, as Earnhardt climbed back to 8th in the final standings.
'''1999-BACK IN BLACK'''
[[1999]] was the year that served notice that The Intimidator had NOT gone into that good night. Everyone had started talking about Earnhardt's age and thinking that with his son [[Dale Jr]]. getting into racing that Earnhardt might start thinking [[retirement]]. Dale set out to prove them wrong, and did so with ease, scoring the sweep at [[Talladega Superspeedway]]. But this season was highlighted by a much more [[controversial]] moment. At the August Bristol Night race, Earnhardt found himself in contention to win his first short track race since his win at [[Martinsville]] in 1995. Earnhardt had not won a non-restrictor-plate race since 1996, and people doubted his ability to win on the short tracks, thinking he had mellowed and wasn't going to beat and bang anymore. When a caution came out with 15 laps to go, leader [[Terry Labonte]] got hit from behind by the lapped car of [[Darrell Waltrip]]. His spin put Earnhardt in the lead with 5 cars between he and Labonte with 5 laps to go. Labonte had fresher tires and Earnhardt did not. Labonte caught Earnhardt coming to the [[white flag]] and hit him 3 times to move him out of the way. Earnhardt returned the favor, but unlike Earnhardt, Labonte could not hold on. He spun, and Dale collected the win and the boos from the multitudes at the track. Earnhardt would finish 7th in the standings that year, but more importantly looked like a contender again.
'''2000-The #1 Earnhardt'''
Everyone was expecting [[2000]] to be the Year of Earnhardt, but Dale Jr., not Dale. Dale's son had moved up to the [[Winston Cup Series]] and was competing for [[Rookie of the Year]], and most expected the younger Earnhardt to outrun his father. Once again, Earnhardt proved his [[detractors]] wrong, as he scored the 2 most exciting wins of the year, winning by a foot at [[Atlanta Motor Speedway]] over [[Bobby Labonte]], then winning at [[Talladega Superspeedway]] after coming back from being 18th with only 5 laps to go to score his first [[No Bull]] 5 million dollar bonus. On the strength of these performances, Earnhardt took the #3 GM Goodwrench [[Chevrolet Monte Carlo]] to 2nd in the standings, proving to everyone that he was by no means done racing yet. He also won the battle of the Earnhardts, as Dale Jr. scored 2 wins also, but finished only 16th in the standings.
With the season he had last year, people knew he could still get the job done. When the Daytona 500 rolled around, it seemed different. Every Speedweeks for over a decade, Dale had won at least one race before the Daytona 500. This year, Earnhardt appeared to have the qualifying race in hand but was passed by [[Sterling Marlin]] on the last lap. He finished 2nd to budding star [[Tony Stewart]] in the [[Bud Shootout]]. When the Daytona 500 started, Earnhardt appeared to have a good car, but not a dominant one. A big crash inside 25 laps to go eliminated a great deal of competition, though, and it appeared that either Earnhardt, his son or his newest hire, [[Michael Waltrip]], would win the race. Earnhardt appeared content to ride behind the two, seemingly running interference for them. When they came to the final lap, [[Sterling Marlin]] got a run under Earnhardt and tapped him in the left quarterpanel, sending him into [[Ken Schrader]], which in turn sent him into the wall headfirst. As his friend Michael and his son Dale Jr. went on to finish 1-2 in the Daytona 500, Dale's life would end. The rest of the season seemed to be a tribute to the greatest to drive a [[stock car]], with his replacement, [[Kevin Harvick]], driving a white #29 GM Goodwrench Chevy, scoring 2 wins and a 9th-place effort in the standings en route to rookie of the year. [[Steve Park]], another Earnhardt hire, won at [[Rockingham]] and appeared to have a top 10 finish in the standings secured before a serious [[head injury]] ended his season early. Dale Jr. scored 3 wins, including emotional wins at [[Daytona]] and [[Talladega]], en route to an 8th-place finish in the standings. [[Michael Waltrip]] would push his teammate and friend Dale Jr. to his win in the first race back at Daytona in July of 2001 for a [[Dale Earnhardt Inc]]. 1-2 finish at the track, for a storybook ending to a hard time for the Earnhardt camp.
[[Image:Earnhardt 3.jpg|right|150px]]
Dale drove the #3 car for most of his career, spanning the early [[1980s]] until his unfortunate passing in 2001. [[As of 2006]], no other [[Nextel Cup]] race car has used this number, but NASCAR will not officially |
ican tourists and art students as models and assistants, Leutze finished ''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]]'' in 1850.
In 1859, Leutze painted a portrait of Chief Justice [[Roger Brooke Taney]] which hangs in the [[Harvard Law School]]. In a 1992 opinion, Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] described the portrait of Taney, made two years after Taney's infamous decision in [[Dred Scott v. Sanford]], as showing Taney "in black, sitting in a shadowed red armchair, left hand resting upon a pad of paper in his lap, right hand hanging limply, almost lifelessly, beside the inner arm of the chair. He sits facing the viewer and staring straight out. There seems to be on his face, and in his deep-set eyes, an expression of profound sadness and disillusionment."
In [[1860]] Leutze was commissioned by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] to decorate a stairway in the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] Building in [[Washington, DC]], for which he painted a large composition, ''[[Westward the Course of Empire takes its Way]]''.
Late in life, he became a member of the [[National Academy of Design]].
He died in Washington, D.C. in his 53rd year.
==External links==
* http://wwar.com/masters/l/leutze-emanuel_gottlieb.html
* [http://blog.oup.com/oupblog/2006/02/washingtons_cro.html Introduction to ''Washington's Crossing''] by David Hackett Fischer at the Oxford University Press blog, discusses Leutze's most famous painting.
{{romanticism}}
[[Category:1816 births|Leutze, Emanuel]]
[[Category:1868 deaths|Leutze, Emanuel]]
[[Category:American painters|Leutze, Emanuel]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Leutze, Emanuel]]
[[de:Emanuel Leutze]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erasmus Alberus</title>
<id>9684</id>
<revision>
<id>28108910</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T11:49:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Erasmus Alberus''' (c. 1500-[[1553]]), [[Germany|German]] [[humanist]], [[reformer]], and [[poet]], was born in the village of [[Sprendlingen]] near [[Frankfurt am Main]] about the year [[1500]]. Although his father was a schoolmaster, his early education was neglected.
Ultimately in [[1518]] he found his way to the [[University of Wittenberg]], where he studied theology. He had the good fortune to attract the attention of [[Martin Luther]] and [[Philipp Melanchthon]], and subsequently became one of Luther's most
active helpers in the [[Protestant Reformation]].
Not only did he fight for the Protestant cause as a preacher and theologian, but he was almost the only member of Luther's party who was able to confront the Roman Catholics with the weapon of literary [[satire]]. In [[1542]] he published a prose satire to which Luther wrote the preface, ''Der Barfusser Monche Eulenspiegel und Alkoran,'' an adaptation of the ''Liber confermitatum'' of the Franciscan [[Bartolommeo Albizzi]] of Pisa, in which the [[Franciscan]] order is held up to ridicule.
Of higher literary value is the didactic and satirical ''Buch von der Tugend und Weisheit'' ([[1550]]), a collection of forty-nine fables in which Alberus embodies his views on the relations of Church and State.
His satire is incisive, but in a scholarly and humanistic way; it does not appeal to popular passions with the fierce directness which enabled the master of Catholic satire, [[Thomas Murner]], to inflict such telling blows.
Several of Alberus's hymns, all of which show the influence of his master Luther, have been retained in the German Protestant hymnal.
After Luther's death, Alberus was for a time a deacon in Wittenberg; he became involved, however, in the political conflicts of the time, and was in [[Magdeburg]] in 1550-[[1551]], while that town was besieged by Maurice of Saxony. In [[1552]] he was appointed Generalsuperintendent at [[Neubrandenburg]] in [[Mecklenburg]], where he died on the [[May 5|5th of May]] [[1553]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1500 births|Alberus, Erasmus]]
[[Category:1553 deaths|Alberus, Erasmus]]
[[Category:German theologians|Alberus, Erasmus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earley parser</title>
<id>9685</id>
<revision>
<id>35083141</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-14T00:01:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.135.104.99</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Earley parser''' is a type of [[chart parser]] mainly used for parsing in [[computational linguistics]], named after its inventor, [[Jay Earley]]. The algorithm uses [[dynamic programming]].
Earley parsers are appealing because they can parse all [[context-free language]]s. The Earley parser executes in cubic time in the general case, and quadratic time for unambiguous grammars. It performs particularly well when the rules are written [[left recursion|left-recursively]].
== Performing the Algorithm ==
To understand how Earley's algorithm executes, you have to understand [[dot notation]]. Given a production A &rarr; BCD (where B, C, and D are symbols in the grammar, terminals or nonterminals), the notation A &rarr; B &bull; C D represents a condition in which B has already been parsed and the sequence C D is expected.
For every input position (which represents a position ''between'' [[token (parser)|tokens]]), the parser generates a ''state set''. Each state is the [[cartesian product]] (that is, just the combination) of:
* A dot condition for a particular production.
* The position at which the matching of this production began: the ''origin state''.
The state set at input position ''k'' is called S(''k''). The parser is seeded with S(0) being the top-level rule. The parser then iteratively operates in three stages: ''prediction'', ''scanning'', and ''completion''. In the following descriptions, &alpha;, &beta;, and &gamma; represent any sequence of terminals/nonterminals (including the null sequence), X, Y, and Z represent single nonterminals, and ''a'' represents a terminal symbol.
* '''Prediction''': For every state in S(''k'') of the form (X &rarr; &alpha; &bull; Y &beta;, ''j'') (where ''j'' is the origin state as above), add (Y &rarr; &bull; &gamma;, ''k'') to S(''k'') for every production with Y on the left-hand side.
* '''Scanning''': If ''a'' is the next symbol in the input stream, for every state in S(''k'') of the form (X &rarr; &alpha; &bull; ''a'' &beta;, ''j''), add (X &rarr; &alpha; ''a'' &bull; &beta;, ''j'') to S(''k''+1).
* '''Completion''': For every state in S(''k'') of the form (X &rarr; &gamma; &bull;, ''j''), find states in S(''j'') of the form (Y &rarr; &alpha; &bull; X &beta;, ''i'') and add (Y &rarr; &alpha; X &bull; &beta;, ''i'') to S(''k'').
These steps are repeated until no more states can be added to the set. This is generally realized by making a queue of states to process, and performing the corresponding operation depending on what kind of state it is. For the implementor, it is important to note that this is a ''set'' of states, and that you not add two identical states to the same set.
== Example ==
The algorithm is hard to see from the abstract description above. It becomes much clearer how it operates once you see it in action. The output is a little verbose, but you should be able to follow it.
Let's say you have the following simple arithmetic grammar:
P &rarr; S # the start rule
S &rarr; S + M
| M
M &rarr; M * T
| T
T &rarr; number
And you have the input:
2 + 3 * 4
''Here are the generated state sets:''
(state no.) Production (Origin) # Comment
---------------------------------
== S(0): &bull; 2 + 3 * 4 ==
(1) P &rarr; &bull; S (0) # start rule
(2) S &rarr; &bull; S + M (0) # predict from (1)
(3) S &rarr; &bull; M (0) # predict from (1)
(4) M &rarr; &bull; M * T (0) # predict from (3)
(5) M &rarr; &bull; T (0) # predict from (3)
(6) T &rarr; &bull; number (0) # predict from (5)
== S(1): 2 &bull; + 3 * 4 ==
(1) T &rarr; number &bull; (0) # scan from S(0)(6)
(2) M &rarr; T &bull; (0) # complete from S(0)(5)
(3) M &rarr; M &bull; * T (0) # complete from S(0)(4)
(4) S &rarr; M &bull; (0) # complete from S(0)(3)
(5) S &rarr; S &bull; + M (0) # complete from S(0)(2)
(6) P &rarr; S &bull; (0) # complete from S(0)(1)
== S(2): 2 + &bull; 3 * 4 ==
(1) S &rarr; S + &bull; M (0) # scan from S(1)(5)
(2) M &rarr; &bull; M * T (2) # predict from (1)
(3) M &rarr; &bull; T (2) # predict from (1)
(4) T &rarr; &bull; number (2) # predict from (3)
== S(3): 2 + 3 &bull; * 4 ==
(1) T &rarr; number &bull; (2) # scan from S(2)(4)
(2) M &rarr; T &bull; (2) # complete from S(2)(3)
(3) M &rarr; M &bull; * T (2) # complete from S(2)(2)
(4) S &rarr; S + M &bull; (0) # complete from S(2)(1)
(5) S &rarr; S &bull; + M (0) # complete from S(0)(2)
(6) P &rarr; S &bull; (0) # complete from S(0)(1)
== S(4): 2 + 3 * &bull; 4 ==
(1) M &rarr; M * &bull; T (2) # scan from S(3)(3)
(2) T &rarr; &bull; number (4) # predict from (1)
== S(5): 2 + 3 * 4 &bull; ==
(1) T &rarr; number &bull; (4) # scan from S(4)(2)
(2) M &rarr; M * T &bull; (2) # complete from S(4)(1)
(3) M &rarr; M &bull; * T (2) # |
line|alkalinity]] or [[acidity]]. Hardness measures overall dissolved mineral content; [[soft water|soft]] or [[hard water|hard]] water may be preferred. [[Chemical oxygen demand|Dissolved organic content]] and dissolved gases content are also important factors.
Home aquarists typically use modified tap water supplied through their local [[municipal water system]] to fill their tanks. For freshwater aquaria, additives formulated to remove [[chlorine]] or [[chloramine]] (used to [[disinfectant|disinfect]] drinking water supplies for human consumption) are often all that is needed to make the water ready for aquarium use. Brackish or saltwater aquaria require the addition of a mixture of salts and other minerals, which are commercially available for this purpose. More sophisticated aquarists may make other modifications to their base water source to modify the water's alkalinity, hardness, or dissolved content of organics and gases, before adding it to their aquaria. In contrast, public aquaria with large water needs often locate themselves near a natural water source (such as a river, lake, or ocean) in order to have easy access to large volumes of water that does not require much further treatment.
====Secondary water characteristics====
Secondary water characteristics are also important to the success of an aquarium. The [[temperature]] of the water forms the basis of one of the two most basic aquarium classifications: tropical vs. cold water. Most fish and plant species tolerate only a limited range of water temperatures: Tropical or warm water aquaria, with an average temperature of about 25 &deg;C (78 &deg;F), are much more common and house most popular aquarium fish. Cold water aquaria are those with temperatures below what would be considered tropical; a variety of fish are better suited to this cooler environment.
Water movement can also be important in accurately simulating a natural ecosystem. Aquarists may prefer anything from still water up to swift simulated [[current (water)|currents]] in an aquarium, depending on the conditions best suited for the aquarium's inhabitants.
Water temperature can be regulated with a combined [[thermometer]]/heater unit (or, more rarely, with a cooling unit), while water movement can be controlled through the use of powerheads and careful design of internal water flow (such as location of filtration system points of inflow and outflow).
====Size====
[[Image:Aquariumsimple.jpg|thumb|400px|Simple hobbyist Aquarium, 80 x 30 x 40 cm, 96 liter]]
An aquarium can range from a small, unadorned glass bowl containing less than a liter of water – although generally unsuited for most fish (except, perhaps, air breathing fish such as [[Betta splendens]] or the [[Paradise Fish]]) – to massive tanks built in public aquaria which are limited only by engineering constraints and can house entire ecosystems as large as [[kelp forest]]s or species of large [[shark]]s. In general, larger aquarium systems are typically recommended to hobbyists due to their resistance to rapid fluctuations of temperature and [[pH]], allowing for greater system stability.
Aquaria kept in homes by hobbyists can be as small as 3 U.S. gallons (11 L). This size is widely considered the smallest practical system with filtration and other basic systems; indeed, the local government of [[Rome]] has recently taken the step of banning traditional goldfish bowls as inhumane. Practical limitations, most notably the [[weight]] (water weighs about 8.3 pounds per U.S. gallon (1 kg/L)) and internal [[water pressure]] (requiring thick, strong glass siding) of a large aquarium, keep most home aquaria to a maximum of around 1 m&sup3; (300 U.S. gallons). However, some dedicated aquarists have been known to construct custom aquaria of up to several thousand U.S. gallons (several cubic meters), at great effort and expense.
Public aquaria designed for exhibition of large species or environments can be dramatically larger than any home aquarium. The [[Shedd Aquarium]] features an individual aquarium of two million U.S. gallons (7,500 m&sup3;), as well as two others of 400,000 U.S. gallons (1,500 m&sup3;). The [[Monterey Bay Aquarium]] has an [[Polymethyl methacrylate|acrylic]] viewing window into their largest tank. At 56 feet long by 17 feet high (17 by 5 m), it used to be the largest window in the world and is over 13 inches (330 mm) thick. The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium is the world's second largest aquarium and part of the Ocean Expo Park located in Motobu, Okinawa. Its main tank, which holds 7,500 cubic meters of water, features the world's largest acrylic panel measuring 8.2 meters by 22.5 meters with a thickness of 60 centimeters. The size of public aquaria are usually limited by cost considerations.
===Species selection===
Several theories on species selection circulate within the community of hobby aquarists. Perhaps the most popular of these is the division of aquaria into either a ''community'' or ''aggressive'' tank type. Community tanks house several species that are not aggressive toward each other. This is the most common type of hobby aquarium kept today. Aggressive tanks, in contrast, house a limited number of species that can be aggressive toward other fish, or are able to withstand aggression well. In both of these tank types, the aquarium cohabitants may or may not originate from the same geographic region, but generally tolerate similar water conditions. In addition to the fish, [[invertebrate]]s, plants, and decorations or "[[aquarium furniture]]" (all of which may or may not be natural neighbors of any of the fish) are typically added to these tank types.
''Species'' or ''specimen'' tanks usually only house one fish species, along with plants, perhaps found in the fishes' natural environment and decorations simulating a true ecosystem. These tanks are often used for [[killifish]], livebearers, [[cichlids]] etc. They can be simple as bare bottom with a few necessities or a complex planted aquarium. Some tanks of this sort are used simply to house adults for breeding. Such tanks are common in fishrooms, where people keep many tanks at home.
''Ecotype'' or ''ecotope'' aquaria attempt to simulate a specific ecosystem found in the natural world, bringing together fish, invertebrate species, and plants found in that ecosystem in a tank with water conditions and decorations designed to simulate their natural environment. These ecotype aquaria might be considered the most sophisticated hobby aquaria; indeed, reputable public aquaria all use this approach in their exhibits whenever possible. This approach best simulates the experience of observing an aquarium's inhabitants in the wild, and also usually serves as the healthiest possible artificial environment for the tank's occupants.
====Species selection for saltwater aquaria====
In addition to the types above, a special category of saltwater aquaria is the [[reef tank|reef aquarium]]. These aquaria attempt to simulate the complex reef ecosystems found in warm, tropical oceans around the world. These aquaria focus on the rich diversity of invertebrate life in these environments, and typically include only a limited number of small fish. Techniques of maintaining [[sea anemones]], some [[corals]], [[live rock]], [[mollusk]]s, and [[crustacea]], developed since the 1980s, have made the recreations of a reef ecosystem possible.
Reef aquaria are widely considered the most difficult and demanding of the common hobbyist aquarium types, requiring the most expertise in addition to the most specialized equipment (and corresponding high cost).
===Source of aquarium inhabitants===
[[Image:AquariumDiverMed.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A [[Surface supplied diving|surface supplied diver]] interacts with viewers while feeding the fish]]
Fish and plants for the first modern aquaria were gathered from the wild and transported (usually by ship) to European and American ports. During the early [[twentieth century]] many species of small colorful [[tropical fish]] were caught and exported from [[Manaus]] [[Brazil]], [[Bangkok]] [[Thailand]], [[Siam]], [[Jakarta]] [[Indonesia]], the [[Dutch West Indies]], [[Calcutta]] [[India]], and other tropical ports. Collection of fish, plants, and invertebrates from the wild for supply to the aquarium trade continues today at locations around the world. In many places of the world, impoverished local villagers collect specimens for the aquarium trade as their prime means of income. It remains an important source for many species that have not been successfully bred in captivity, and continues to introduce new species to enthusiastic aquarists.
The practice of collection in the wild for eventual display in aquaria has several disadvantages. Collecting expeditions can be lengthy and costly, and are not always successful. The shipping process is very hazardous for the fish involved; [[mortality rate]]s are high. Many others are weakened by [[stress (medicine)|stress]] and become diseased upon arrival. Fish can also be injured during the collection process itself, most notably during the process of using [[cyanide]] to stun reef fish to make them easier to collect.
More recently, the potentially detrimental environmental impact of fish and plant collecting has come to the attention of aquarists worldwide. These include the poisoning of [[coral reef]]s and non-target species, the depletion of rare species from their natural habitat, and the degradation of ecosystems from large scale removal of key species. Additionally, the [[destructive fishing techniques]] used have become a growing concern to environmentalists and hobbyists alike. Therefore, there has been a concerted movement by many concerned aquarists to reduce the trade's dependence on wild-collected specimens through captive breeding programs and certification programs for wild-caught fish. Among [[United States|American]] keepers of marine aquaria su |
[[South Region, Brazil|South]] (Sul), needle-leaved [[pinewood]]s (Paraná pine or [[araucaria]]) cover the highlands; grassland similar to the Argentine pampa covers the sea-level plains. The [[Mato Grosso]] [[swampland]]s ([[Pantanal]] Mato-grossense) is a [[Florida]]-sized plain in the western portion of the Center-West (Centro-Oeste). It is covered with tall [[grass]]es, [[bush]]es, and widely dispersed trees similar to those of the cerrado and is partly submerged during the rainy season.
Brazil, which is named after reddish dyewood ([[pau brasil]]), has long been famous for the wealth of its tropical forests. These are not, however, as important to world markets as those of Asia and Africa, which started to reach depletion only in the 1980s. By [[1996]] more than 90% of the original Atlantic forest had been cleared, primarily for agriculture, with little use made of the wood, except for araucaria pine in Paraná.
The inverse situation existed with regard to clearing for wood in the Amazon rain forest, of which about 15% had been cleared by [[1994]], and part of the remainder had been disturbed by selective logging. Because the Amazon forest is highly heterogeneous, with hundreds of woody species per [[hectare]], there is considerable distance between individual trees of economic value, such as [[mahogany]] and [[cerejeira]]. Therefore, this type of forest is not normally cleared for [[timber extraction]] but logged through high-grading, or selection of the most valuable trees. Because of [[vine]]s, felling, and transportation, their removal causes destruction of many other trees, and the litter and new growth create a risk of [[forest fire]]s, which are otherwise rare in [[rain forest]]s. In favorable locations, such as [[Paragominas]], in the northeastern part of [[Pará]] State, a new pattern of timber extraction has emerged: diversification and the production of [[plywood]] have led to the economic use of more than 100 tree species.
Starting in the late 1980s, rapid deforestation and extensive burning in Brazil received considerable international and national attention. [[Satellite image]]s have helped document and quantify deforestation as well as [[fire]]s, but their use also has generated considerable controversy because of problems of defining original vegetation, cloud cover, and dealing with secondary growth and because fires, as mentioned above, may occur in old pasture rather than signifying new clearing. Public policies intended to promote sustainable management of timber extraction, as well as sustainable use of nontimber forest products (such as [[rubber]], [[Brazil nut]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[seed]]s, [[vegetable oil|oil]]s, and [[vine]]s), were being discussed intensely in the mid-1990s. However, implementing the principles of sustainable development, without irreversible damage to the environment, proved to be more challenging than establishing international agreements about them.
==Climate==
[[Image:Brazil_temp_1977.jpg|thumb|250px|Temperature and precipitation map of Brazil, 1977]]
Although 90% of the country is within the [[tropical zone]], the climate of Brazil varies considerably from the mostly tropical North (the [[equator]] traverses the mouth of the Amazon) to [[temperate zone]]s below the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] (23°27' S latitude), which crosses the country at the latitude of the city of [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]]. Brazil has five climatic regions: [[equatorial]], [[tropical]], [[semiarid]], [[highland tropical]], and [[subtropical]].
Temperatures along the equator are high, averaging above 25°C, but not reaching the summer extremes of up to 40°C in the temperate zones. There is little seasonal variation near the equator, although at times it can get cool enough for wearing a jacket, especially in the rain. At the country's other extreme, there are frosts south of the Tropic of Capricorn during the winter (June-August), and in some years there is [[snow]] in the mountainous areas, such as [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]. Temperatures in the cities of São Paulo, [[Belo Horizonte]], and [[Brasília]] are moderate (usually between 15°C and 30°C), despite their relatively low latitude, because of their elevation of approximately 1,000 meters. [[Rio de Janeiro (city)|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Recife]], and [[Salvador]] on the coast have warm climates, with average temperatures ranging from 23°C to 27°C, but enjoy constant trade winds. The southern cities of [[Porto Alegre]] and [[Curitiba]] have a subtropical climate similar to that in parts of the United States and [[Europe]], and temperatures can fall below freezing in winter.
Precipitation levels vary widely. Most of Brazil has moderate [[rainfall]] of between 1,000 and 1,500 millimeters a year, with most of the rain falling in the [[summer]] (between December and April) south of the Equator. The [[Amazon region]] is notoriously humid, with rainfall generally more than 2,000 millimeters per year and reaching as high as 3,000 millimeters in parts of the western Amazon and near Belém. It is less widely known that, despite high annual precipitation, the Amazon rain forest has a three- to five-month dry season, the timing of which varies according to location north or south of the equator.
High and relatively regular levels of precipitation in the Amazon contrast sharply with the dryness of the semiarid Northeast, where rainfall is scarce and there are severe droughts in cycles averaging seven years. The [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]] is the driest part of the country. The region also constitutes the hottest part of Brazil, where during the dry season between May and November, temperatures of more than 38°C have been recorded. However, the [[sertão]], a region of [[semidesert vegetation]] used primarily for low-density ranching, turns green when there is rain. Most of the Center-West has 1,500 to 2,000 millimeters of rain per year, with a pronounced dry season in the middle of the year, while the South and most of the Atlantic coast as far north as Salvador, [[Bahia]], in the Northeast, have similar amounts of rainfall without a distinct dry season.
==Geographic Regions==
[[Image:Brazil_pol94.jpg|thumb|250px|Political map of Brazil]]
[[Image:Brazil_land_1977.jpg|thumb|250px|Land use map of Brazil, 1977]]
Brazil's twenty-six states and the Federal District ([[Distrito Federal]]) are divided conventionally into five regions: [[North Region, Brazil|North]] (Norte), [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]] (Nordeste), [[Southeast Region, Brazil|Southeast]] (Sudeste), [[South Region, Brazil|South]] (Sul), and [[Center-West Region, Brazil|Center-West]] (Centro-Oeste) - see fig. 4. In [[1996]] there were 5,581 [[municipal|municipalities]] (municípios), which have municipal governments. Many municipalities, which are comparable to United States counties, are in turn divided into [[district]]s (distritos), which do not have [[political autonomy|political]] or [[administrative autonomy|administrative]] autonomy. In [[1995]] there were 9,274 districts. All municipal and district seats, regardless of size, are considered officially to be urban. For purely statistical purposes, the municipalities were grouped in 1990 into 559 micro-regions, which in turn constituted 136 meso-regions. This grouping modified the previous micro-regional division established in [[1968]], a division that was used to present census data for [[1970]], [[1975]], [[1980]], and [[1985]].
Each of the five major regions has a distinct [[ecosystem]]. Administrative boundaries do not necessarily coincide with [[ecological boundary|ecological boundaries]], however. In addition to differences in [[physical environment]], patterns of [[economic activity]] and [[population settlement]] vary widely among the regions. The principal ecological characteristics of each of the five major regions, as well as their principal socioeconomic and demographic features, are summarized below.
===North===
The equatorial North, also known as the Amazon or [[Amazônia]], includes, from west to east, the states of [[Rondônia]], [[Acre]], [[Amazonas]], [[Roraima]], [[Pará]], [[Amapá]], and, as of [[1988]], [[Tocantins]] (created from the northern part of [[Goiás]] State, which is situated in the Center-West). Rondônia, previously a federal territory, became a state in [[1986]]. The former federal territories of Roraima and Amapá were raised to statehood in [[1988]].
With 3,869,638 square kilometers, the North is the country's largest region, covering 45.3% of the national territory. The region's principal [[biome]] is the [[humid tropical forest]], also known as the rain forest, home to some of the planet's richest [[biological diversity]]. The North has served as a source of forest products ranging from "[[backlands drugs]]" (such as [[sarsaparilla]], [[cocoa]], [[cinnamon]], and [[turtle butter]]) in the colonial period to [[rubber]] and [[Brazil nut]]s in more recent times. In the mid-twentieth century, nonforest products from [[mining]], [[farming]], and [[livestock-raising]] became more important, and in the [[1980]]s the [[lumber industry]] boomed. In [[1990]], 6.6% of the region's territory was considered altered by anthropic (man-made) action, with state levels varying from 0.9% in Amapá to 14.0% in Rondônia.
In [[1996]] the North had 11.1 million inhabitants, only 7% of the national total. However, its share of Brazil's total had grown rapidly in the 1970s and early 1980s as a result of interregional migration, as well as high rates of natural increase. The largest population concentrations are in eastern Pará State and in Rondônia. The major cities are [[Belém]] and [[Santarém]] in Pará, and [[Manaus]] in Amazonas. Living standards are below the national average. The highest [[per capita income]], US$2,888, in the region in [[1994]], was in Amazonas, while the lowest, US$901, was in Tocantins.
===Northeast===
The nine states that make |
[[.222 Remington]], which can further be shortened to beome a [[.221 Fireball]]. [[.30-06 Springfield]] can become [[.308 Winchester]], which can become [[.308 x 1.5]] or any number of speicalized [[benchrest shooting]] cartridges. Since the cracking is likley due to a brittle neck, the cases should be annealed before attempting to reform them, or the crack might propagate and ruin the new case as well.
===Minimizing powder cost===
Powder is another significant cost of reloading, and one over which the handloader has significant control. In addition to the to the obvious step of using a minimum charge, rather than a full power one, significant const savings can be obtained through careful powder choice. Given the same bullet and cartridge, a faster burning powder will generally use a smaller charge than a slower powder. For example, Accurate Arms lists 5 powders as suitable for a [[.44 Magnum]] firing a 240 grain lead semiwadcutter. AA #2 is a very fast pistol powder, while AA #9 is a very slow pistol powder, and loads are listed four both of these. The minimum loads listed are 9.0 grains of AA #2 for a velocity of 1126 fps, and 19.5 grains of #9 for 1364 fps. The difference is 777 loads per pound for AA #2, and 358 loads per pound for AA #9.All the Accurate Arms pistol powders cost the same per pound, about US$16, so the difference is US$0.0206 vs. US$0.0447, over 2 cents per round. Where the tradeoff comes in is in terms of power and accuracy; AA #2 is designed for small cases, and will burn inconsistenly in the large .44 Magnum case. AA #9, however, will fill the case much better, and the slow burn rate of AA #9 is ideal for magnum hangun rounds, producing 20% higher veloocities (at maximum levels) while still producing less pressure than the fast burning AA #2. A medium burning powder might actually be a better choice, as it would split the difference in powder weights while delivering more power and accuracy than the fastest powder.
One solution that is applicable to [[revolver]]s in particular is the possibility of using a reduced volume case. Cartridges such as [[.357 Magnum]] and [[.44 Magnum]] are just longer versions of their parent rounds of [[.38 Special]] and [[.44 Special]], and the shorter rounds will fire in the longer chambers with no problems. The reduced case capacity allows greater accuracy with even lighter loads. A .44 Special loaded with a minimum load of AA #2 uses only 4.2 grains of powder, and produces a modest 771 fps.
==External links==
*[http://www.jesseshunting.com/articles/guns/category16/9.html Low Pressure & High Velocity with Cast Bullets], from Jesse's Hunting and Outdoors
*[http://www.rainierballistics.com/ Rainier Ballistics], a major maker of plated bullets for handloaders
*[http://www.corbins.com/index.htm Corbin], maker of commercial and consumer grade bullet swaging equipment, including the equipment to turn .22 LR cases into jacketed bullets
*[http://www.firearmstactical.com/ammo_data/9mm.htm Comparison] of various 9 x 19 mm expanding bullet loads, including the Speer Gold Dot plated bullet
*[http://www.gun-tests.com/performance/jun96cases.html Gun Tests] article on case annealing.
*[http://www.accuratepowder.com/ Accurate Arms], source of loading information for fast vs. slow powder comparison
[[Category:Ammunition]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Houston Texans</title>
<id>13864</id>
<revision>
<id>41502392</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:21:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.190.62.54</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The NFL seeks a 32nd team */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|1=the current [[National Football League]] team|2=the [[World Football League]] team|3=Shreveport Steamer}}
{{NFL team | name = Houston Texans
| logo = HoustonTexans_100.png
| founded = 2002
| city = Houston, Texas
| colors = Deep Steel Blue, Battle Red, and Liberty White
| coach = [[Gary Kubiak]]<!--Note: Please do not add a name here until the team officially announces it. Thanks. -->
| owner = [[Bob McNair]]
| general manager = [[Charley Casserly]]
| mascot = Toro
| stations = KILT (610 AM), KILT (100.3 FM), and KLAT (1010 AM)-Spanish
| announcers = Marc Vandermeer and [[Andre Ware]] (English); Rolando Becerra and Enrique Vasquez (Spanish)
| hist_yr = 2002
| NFL_start_yr = 2002
| division_hist =
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (2002-present)'''
**'''[[AFC South]] (2002-present)'''
| stadium_years =
*'''[[Reliant Stadium]] (2002-present)'''
}}
The '''Houston Texans''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Texas]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC South|Southern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Texans joined the NFL as a 2002 [[expansion team]]. The city's previous franchise, the '''Houston Oilers''', moved to [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], [[Tennessee]] in 1997 and changed their name to the [[Tennessee Titans]]. <!--Note: detailed history should be put into the Franchise history section below, not in this lead section-->
:'''Uniform colors:''' Steel blue, Battle red, and Liberty white
:'''Helmet design:''' Blue helmet with a bull head in the red, white, and blue colors of the Texas flag
==Franchise history==
===The NFL seeks a 32nd team===
After the 1995 [[Cleveland Browns]] relocation controversy, and the establishment of both the [[Baltimore Ravens]] and a newly reactivated Browns club, the NFL sought another expansion team to give the league an even number of 32 clubs.
The NFL's newest team was originally destined for [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], as the league desired a franchise in the United States's second-largest [[media market]] (having lost both the [[Saint Louis Rams|Rams]] and the [[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]] to relocation). Thus, initially the NFL was dealing exclusively with Los Angeles-based groups. For reasons unknown and unexplained (one possibility was overconfidence, seeing that the NFL was dealing with Los Angeles exclusively), Los Angeles seemed to be indifferent with the prospect of being awarded an NFL franchise. No real progress seemed to be made toward securing a suitable stadium (both the [[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]] and the [[Rose Bowl (stadium)|Rose Bowl]] are aging facilities).
Seeing this, Houston (which itself lost the [[Tennessee Titans|Oilers]] to relocation) took a highly aggressive approach toward gaining the franchise for itself, marketing its size (Houston is the fourth-largest city and tenth-largest media market in the United States) and the fact that it too had lost a franchise to relocation. Having learned from the loss of the Oilers that an aging stadium (the [[Astrodome]]) would not sway the NFL, Houston put together a package which included a new [[Reliant Stadium|stadium]]. Houston's aggressiveness (and LA's slothfulness) paid off, and thus the Houston Texans were born.
===On the field: 2002-2004===
The Texans made NFL history by becoming the first expansion team to win consecutive season openers: first in 2002, defeating its established NFC in-state rival [[Dallas Cowboys]] in its first regular season game by a score of 19-10; then in 2003, beating the [[Miami Dolphins]] 21-20. In 2004, the Texans were the host team for [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]].
Until 2005, the team had steadily improved with each successive season with a record of 4-12 in its first season, 5-11 in 2003, and 7-9 in 2004. In 2004, they cleared some major hurdles and won two consecutives games twice in that season after failing to do so in either 2002 or 2003. The team could have won three in a row to end the season, but they were stymied by the [[Cleveland Browns]]. During one notable series in 2004, the Texans won several competitions against the [[Tennessee Titans]] (the previous Houston franchise) and the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]]. As of 2005, they have not yet won a game against the [[Indianapolis Colts]] (a [[bellwether]] of the [[AFC South]] division). Texans fans were pleased with the progress made up to this point, even though they booed the team for its dreadful performance in the aforementioned Browns game that ended the 2004 season.
===2005 Fallout===
In 2005, there were expectations for a .500 season or even a playoff berth. However, the team got off to a slow start and with the offense not playing well, offensive coordinator [[Chris Palmer (football coach)|Chris Palmer]] was fired and replaced by [[Joe Pendry]]. This marked the first major shakeup of the Texans' coaching staff in franchise history. In the [[2005 NFL Draft]] the Texans drafted seven players but only one [[offensive lineman]], long considered the team's weakest area. In December 2005, the (at the time) 1-12 Texans hired former Broncos, Giants, and Falcons coach [[Dan Reeves]] as a "consultant". With their loss to the [[San Francisco 49ers]] in the last game of the season, called by many the ''[[Reggie Bush|Bush]] Bowl'', the ''Toilet Bowl'' or the ''Stupor Bowl'', the Texans ended their season with a 2-14 record, the worst record in the NFL in the 2005 season (a record some have laid blame on the Texans' front office or a certain [[Curse of Judge Hofheinz|curse]]), and earned the right to the first selection in the [[2006 NFL Draft]]. As of January 2006, many sports commentators expect that Reggie Bush, the [[Heisman Trophy]] winning running back from the University of Southern California, will be the top pick in the draft (though rumors persist that [[Vince Young]], a Houston native, may be chosen).
On January 2, 2006, head coach [[Dom Capers]] was fired by owner Bob McNair. General Manager Charley Casserly, rumored to also be a target for firing, will remain with the team. Dan Reeves will continue in his consultant role as the team searches for a new coach and prepares for the 2006 NFL draft. On January 22, 2006 |
[[Head-Up Display]], advanced [[radar]], inertial navigation system, flight instruments, [[ultra high frequency]] communications, tactical navigation system and [[Instrument Landing System]]. It also has an internally mounted, tactical electronic-warfare system, "[[identification friend or foe]]" system, electronic countermeasures suite and a central digital computer.
The head-up display projects through a combiner, all essential flight information gathered by the integrated avionics system. This display, visible in any light condition, provides the pilot information necessary to track and destroy an enemy aircraft without having to look down at cockpit instruments.
The F-15's versatile [[APG-63 & APG-70 F-15 Radars|APG-63/70]] [[Pulse-doppler]] radar system can look up at high-flying targets and down at low-flying targets without being confused by ground clutter. It can detect and track aircraft and small high-speed targets at distances beyond visual range down to close range, and at altitudes down to treetop level. The radar feeds target information into the central computer for effective weapons delivery. For close-in dogfights, the radar automatically acquires enemy aircraft, and this information is projected on the head-up display. The F-15's electronic warfare system provides both threat warning and automatic countermeasures against selected threats. Because of the advanced electronics deployed on the F-15, the aircraft was given the nickname "Starship" by users.
A variety of air-to-air weaponry can be carried by the F-15. An automated weapon system enables the pilot to perform aerial combat safely and effectively, using the head-up display and the avionics and weapons controls located on the engine throttles or control stick. When the pilot changes from one weapon system to another, visual guidance for the required weapon automatically appears on the head-up display.
[[Image:F-15s_formation.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Two F-15 Eagles]]
The Eagle can be armed with combinations of four different air-to-air weapons: [[AIM-7 Sparrow|AIM-7F/M Sparrow]] missiles or [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] advanced medium range air-to-air missiles on its lower fuselage corners, [[AIM-9 Sidewinder|AIM-9L/M Sidewinder]] or AIM-120 missiles on two pylons under the wings, and an internal 20 mm Gatling gun in the right wing root.
Low-drag, [[Conformal Fuel Tanks]] were especially developed for the F-15C and D models. Conformal fuel tanks can be attached to the sides of the engine air intake trunks under each wing and are designed to the same load factors and airspeed limits as the basic aircraft. Each conformal fuel tank contains about 114 cu. ft. (3,200 L) of usable space. These tanks reduce the need for [[in-flight refueling]] on global missions and increase time in the combat area. All external stations for munitions remain available with the tanks in use. Sparrow or AMRAAM missiles, moreover, can be attached to the corners of the conformal fuel tanks. Because the CFTs degrade performance (although not as much as normal external tanks), and cannot be jettisoned in-flight (unlike normal external tanks) air combat F-15s (A/B/C/D) typically fly without them, while the F-15E typically flies with them.
The [[F-15E Strike Eagle]] is a two-seat, dual-role, totally integrated fighter for all-weather, air-to-air and deep interdiction missions. The rear cockpit is upgraded to include four multi-purpose CRT displays for aircraft systems and weapons management. The digital, triple-redundant Lear Siegler flight control system permits coupled automatic terrain following, enhanced by a ring-laser gyro inertial navigation system.
For low-altitude, high-speed penetration and precision attack on tactical targets at night or in adverse weather, the F-15E carries a high-resolution [[APG-63 & APG-70 F-15 Radars|APG-70]] radar and low-altitude navigation and targeting infrared for night pods.
==Service history==
The original and largest operator of the F-15 is the [[United States Air Force]].
[[Image:F-15 vertical deploy.jpg|thumb|200px|F-15D from the 325 Fighter Wing based in Tyndall AFB, FL releasing flares]]
The first '''F-15A''' flight was made in July [[1972 in aviation|1972]], and the first flight of the two-seat '''F-15B''' (formerly '''TF-15A''') trainer was made in July [[1973 in aviation|1973]]. The first Eagle (F-15B) was delivered in [[November]] [[1974 in aviation|1974]]. In January [[1976 in aviation|1976]], the first Eagle destined for a combat squadron was delivered. These initial aircraft carried the [[Hughes Aircraft]] (now [[Raytheon]]) [[APG-63 & APG-70 F-15 Radars|APG-63]] radar.
The single-seat '''F-15C''' and two-seat '''F-15D''' models entered the Air Force inventory beginning in [[1979 in aviation|1979]]. These new models have Production Eagle Package (PEP 2000) improvements, including 2,000 lb (900 kg) of additional internal fuel, provision for carrying exterior conformal fuel tanks and increased maximum takeoff weight of up to 68,000 lb (30,700 kg).
The F-15 Multistage Improvement Program was initiated in February [[1983 in aviation|1983]], with the first production MSIP F-15C produced in [[1985 in aviation|1985]]. Improvements included an upgraded central computer; a Programmable Armament Control Set, allowing for advanced versions of the AIM-7, AIM-9, and AIM-120A missiles; and an expanded Tactical Electronic Warfare System that provides improvements to the ALR-56C radar warning receiver and ALQ-135 countermeasure set. The final 43 included the enhanced-capability Hughes APG-70 radar which was carried forward into the F-15E. The earlier MSIP F-15C's with the APG-63 were later upgraded to the APG-63(V)1, which significantly improves reliability and maintainability while providing performance similar to the APG-70. A limited number of F-15C aircraft have also been fitted with the APG-63(V)2 [[AESA]] radar.
F-15A and B models were utilized by Israel during the [[1982 Lebanon War|Bekaa Valley]] operation.
F-15C, D, and E models were deployed to the Persian Gulf in 1991 in support of Operation [[Desert Storm]] where they accounted for 36 of the 39 Air Force air-to-air victories. F-15Es were operated mainly at night, hunting SCUD missile launchers and artillery sites using the LANTIRN system.
They have since been deployed to support Operation Southern Watch, the patrolling of the [[Iraqi no-fly zones|No-Fly Zone]] in Southern Iraq; Operation Provide Comfort in Turkey; in support of NATO operations in Bosnia, and recent air expeditionary force deployments.
===Inventory===
The USAF has an active force of 396 aircraft, with a further 126 in the [[Air National Guard]].
===Users===
The F-15 is also operated by [[Israeli Air Force]] (F-15 and F15I Thunder), [[Japan Air Self-Defence Force|Japanese Air Force]] (F-15J) and [[Royal Saudi Air Force]] (F-15C, F-15S). In May 2005, [[Republic of Singapore Air Force|Singapore]] made the decision of replacing its fleet of outdated [[A-4 Skyhawk|A-4 Skyhawks]] with the [[F-15SG]]. Negotiations for contract signing are still underway. A special version of the F-15E, the [[F-15K]] has been ordered by [[Republic of Korea Air Force|South Korea]], with final assembly of the first example beginning in June, 2004. It will be the first to sport twin [[General Electric F110|F110-GE]] engines from General Electric, with additional thrust. All previous F-15s had engines from Pratt and Whitney.
===Controversy===
Some members of the military, most infamously the 'Fighter Mafia', a group of strategists that formed in response to early losses in the air-battles of [[Vietnam]], felt that the F-15 was merely an updated version of the [[F-4]], a plane that suffered losses dogfighting in Vietnam.
Criticisms of the F-15's close combat maneuverability, large size and cost led to the development of the [[F-16]], an airplane that complements the F-15 by having strengths in those areas listed.
===Kill record===
[[Image:USAF F-15C fires AIM-7 Sparrow.jpg|right|thumb|250px|F-15C fires AIM-7 Sparrow]]
As of 2005, the F-15 in all air forces has a combined kill record of 104 kills to zero (confirmed) losses in air combat (exluding the case of a Japanese F-15J that shot down another F-15J in 1995 due to an AIM-9 Sidewinder safety malfunction during [[Live fire exercise|air-to-air combat training with live weapons]]). To date, the air superiority version of the F-15 (F-15A/B/C/D models) has never been shot down by an enemy aircraft, although some F-15s have been claimed by [[surface-to-air missiles]] of the Syrian Air Force (however, most sources say that, to date, no F-15s have been shot down in [[air-to-air combat]]).
Over half of the F-15's kills were made by [[Israeli Air Force]] pilots during the [[1982 Lebanon War]]. The Israeli Air Force shotdown dozens of Syrian-piloted Russian [[MiG-21]]s (the reported figure varies from 80-92) and several [[MiG-25]]s. A substantial fraction of these MiGs were shot down by F-15s.
Royal Saudi Air Force F-15 pilots shot down two [[F-4 Phantom]]s flown by the Iranian Air Force in a border skirmish in 1984, and shot down two Iraqi Mirage F1 during the [[Gulf War]].
Thirty-four aircraft kills were by USAF F-15Cs in the 1991 Gulf War, mostly by missile fire. After F-15s shot down all of the top Iraqi pilots in the first 3 days of the conflict, many of the later kills were reportedly of Iraqi aircraft fleeing, rather than actively trying to engage US planes. The single-seat F-15C was used for air superiority, and the F-15E was heavily used in air-to-ground attacks.
An F-15E achieved an aerial kill of an Iraqi helicopter using a laser-guided bomb during the air war. The F-15E sustained two losses to ground fire in the Gulf War in 1991. One F-15E was lost in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Invasion of Iraq]], likely due to crew error, but possibly ground fire.
USAF F-15Cs also scored several Serbian MiG-29 kills during NATO's [[O |
smith.org.uk/frasier/multimedia/cheers_theme.mp3 ''Cheers'' Theme Song (.mp3 format)]
*[http://expage.com/theweddingcampaign ''Cheers'' Reunion/Wedding Campaign]
*[http://wannabe.at/cheers The Unofficial ''Cheers'' fansite]
*[http://www.tvseriesfinale.com/2006/01/cheers_tvs_favorite_bar_closes.html TV Series Finale - Cheers page & podcast]
{{featured article}}
[[Category:1980s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Cheers]]
[[Category:Drama television series]]
[[Category:Fictional bars and inns]]
[[Category:NBC network shows]]
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[[Category:Nielsen Ratings winners]]
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[[sv:Skål (TV-serie)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Counter Point</title>
<id>5908</id>
<revision>
<id>15904083</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Counterpoint]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Counterpoint</title>
<id>5909</id>
<revision>
<id>41442942</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T09:49:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.163.21.4</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the concept of counterpoint in [[music]]. For the ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' episode of the same title, see [[Counterpoint (Voyager episode)]].''
'''Counterpoint''' is a [[music|musical]] technique involving the simultaneous sounding of separate musical lines. It is especially prominent in Western music. In all eras, writing of counterpoint has been subject to rules, sometimes strict. Counterpoint written before approximately [[1600]] is usually known as [[polyphony]].
The term comes from the Latin ''punctus contra punctum'' ("note against note"). The adjectival form ''contrapuntal'' shows this Latin source more transparently.
By definition, [[Chord (music)|chords]] occur when multiple notes sound simultaneously; however, chordal, harmonic, "[[vertical (music)|vertical]]" features are considered secondary and almost incidental when counterpoint is the predominant textural element. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction rather than harmonic effects generated when melodic strands sound together. It was elaborated extensively in the [[Renaissance_music|Renaissance]] period, but composers of the [[Baroque_music|Baroque]] period brought counterpoint to a kind of culmination, and it may be said that, broadly speaking, [[harmony]] then took over as the predominant organising principle in musical composition. The late Baroque composer [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] wrote most of his music incorporating counterpoint, and explicitly and systematically explored the full range of contrapuntal possibilities in such works as [[The Art of Fugue]].
Given the way terminology in music history has evolved, such music created from the [[Baroque_music|Baroque]] period on is described as contrapuntal, while music from before Baroque times is called [[polyphony|polyphonic]]. Hence, the earlier composer [[Josquin Des Prez]] is said to have written polyphonic music.
[[Homophony]], by contrast with polyphony, features music in which [[chord (music)|chord]]s or vertical [[interval (music)|intervals]] work with a single melody without much consideration of the melodic character of the added ''accompanying'' elements, or of their melodic interactions with the melody they accompany. As suggested above, most popular music written today is predominantly homophonic &mdash; governed by considerations of chord and harmony. But these are only strong general tendencies, and there are many qualifications one could add.
The form or compositional genre known as [[Fugue (music)|fugue]] is perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention. Other examples include the [[round (music)|round]] (familiar in folk traditions) and the [[Canon (music)|canon]].
In musical composition, counterpoint is an essential means for the generation of musical ''ironies''; a melodic fragment, heard alone, may make a particular impression, but when it is heard simultaneously with other melodic ideas, or combined in unexpected ways with itself, as in a canon or fugue, surprising new facets of meaning are revealed. This is a means for bringing about ''[[Musical development|development]]'' of a musical idea, revealing it to the listener as conceptually more profound than a merely pleasing melody.
Excellent examples of counterpiont in jazz include [[Gerry Mulligan]]'s ''Young Blood'' and [[Bill Holman]]'s ''Invention for Guitar and Trumpet'' and his ''Theme and Variations'' as well as recordings by [[Stan Getz]], [[Bob Brookmeyer]], [[Johnny Richards]] and [[Jimmy Giuffre]]. (Corozine 2002, p.34)
== Species counterpoint ==
Species counterpoint is a type of strict counterpoint, developed as a pedagogical tool, in which a student progresses through several "species" of increasing complexity, gradually attaining the ability to write free counterpoint according to the rules at the given time. The idea is at least as old as [[1532]], when [[Giovanni Maria Lanfraco]] described a similar concept in his ''Scintille di musica''. The late [[16th century]] [[Venetian school|Venetian]] theorist [[Gioseffe Zarlino|Zarlino]] elaborated on the idea in his influential ''Le institutioni harmoniche'', and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by [[Lodovico Zacconi]] in his ''Prattica di musica''. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques as species, for example [[invertible counterpoint]].
By far the most famous pedagogue to use the term, and the one who made it famous, was [[Johann Fux]]. In [[1725]] he published ''Gradus ad Parnassum'' (''Step by Step Up Mount Parnassus'') a work intended to help teach students how to compose, using counterpoint &mdash; specifically, the contrapuntal style as practiced by [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina|Palestrina]] in the late 16th century &mdash; as the principal technique. Fux described five ''species'':
#Note against note;
#Two notes against one;
#Four notes against one;
#Notes offset against each other (as suspensions);
#All the first four species together, as "florid" counterpoint.
===Considerations for all species===
Students of species counterpoint usually practice writing counterpoint in all the modes (Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian and Aeolian). The following rules apply to melodic writing in all species:
#The counterpoint must begin and end on a perfect consonance.
#The final must be approached by step. If approached from below, the leading tone must be raised, except in the case of the Phrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C# is necessary at the cadence.
#Permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. When the ascending minor sixth is used it must be immediately followed by motion downwards.
#If writing two skips in the same direction--something which must be done only rarely--the second must be smaller than the first, and the interval between the first and the third note may not be dissonant.
#If writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in the other direction.
#Contrary motion should predominate.
#The interval of a tenth should not be exceeded between the two parts, unless necessary.
#The interval of a [[tritone]] in three notes is to be avoided (for example, a melodic motion F - A - B natural), as is the interval of a seventh in three notes.
===First species===
In ''first species'' counterpoint, each note in an added part* (or parts) sounds against one note in the cantus firmus. Notes in all parts are sounded simultaneously, and move against each other simultaneously. The species is said to be ''expanded'' if any of the added notes is broken up (simply repeated).
A few further rules given by Fux, by study of the Palestrina style, and usually given in the works of later counterpoint pedagogues, are as follows. Some are vague, and since good judgement and taste have been regarded by contrapuntists as more important than strict observance of mechanical rules, there are many more cautions than prohibitions.
#Begin and end on either the unison, octave, or fifth, unless the added part is underneath, in which case begin and end only on unison or octave.
#Use no unisons except at the beginning or end.
#Avoid hidden or parallel fifths or octaves.
#Attempt to keep the two parts within a tenth of each other, unless an exceptionally pleasing line can be written outside of that range.
#Avoid moving in parallel thirds or sixths for too long.
#Avoid having both parts move in the same direction by skip.
#Attempt to have as much contrary motion as possible.
In the following examples, all in two voices, the [[cantus firmus]] &mdash; the given part &mdash; is in the lower voice. The same cantus firmus is used for each, and each is in the [[Dorian mode]].
[[Image:species1.png|center|500px|thumb|Short example of "First Species" counterpoint]]
===Second species===
In ''second species'' counterpoint, two notes in the added part (or parts) work against each longer note in the given part. The species is said to be expanded if one of the two shorter notes differs in length from the other.
Additional considerations in second species counterpoint are as follows, and are in addition to the considerations for first species:
#It is permissible to begin on an upbeat, leaving a half-rest in the added voice.
#The accented beat must have only consonance (perfect or imperfect). The unaccented beat may have dissonance, but only as a passing tone, |
; according to the former writer, "was nothing more than a carefully thought out personification of the different degrees of life and intelligence which they perceived in external nature. All natural growths, forces, and phenomena are thus typified." The outline here furnished needs only to be extended indefinitely in order to take in quite easily the countless generations of Gnosticism. The whole moral and physical world, analyzed and classified with an inconceivable minuteness, will find place in it. Thence, also, will issue the bewildering catalogues of Gnostic personalities.
The chief difficulty, however, arises from the nomenclature of Gnosticism, and here the "Sepher Raziel" supplies a first and valuable hint. "To succeed in the operations of divination", it says, "it is necessary to pronounce the mystic names of the planets or of the earth." In fact, stones of Gnostic origin often show designs made up out of the initial letters of the planets. Another parallel is still more suggestive. The [[Jew]]s, as is well known, would never pronounce the Ineffable Name, [[Jehovah]], but substituted either another name or a paraphrase; a rule which applied, not only to the Ineffable Name and its derivatives, but to others as well, ending, in order to evade the difficulty which arose, in a series of fantastic sounds which at first seem simply the outcome of a hopeless confusion. It became necessary to resort to permutations, to the use of other letters, to numerical and formal equivalents. The result was an outlandish vocabulary, only partially accounted for, yet one which nevertheless reveals in Gnosticism the existence of something more than mere incoherences. Very many secrets of Gnosticism remain unexplained, but it may be hoped that they will not always be shrouded in mystery.
{{1911}}
{{Catholic}}
===Quotes===
====Tertullian :====
'Afterwards broke out the heretic Basilides. He affirms that there is a supreme Deity, by name Abraxas, by whom was created Mind, which in Greek he calls Nous; that thence sprang the Word; that of Him issued Providence, Virtue, and Wisdom; that out of these subsequently were made Principalities, powers, and Angels; that there ensued infinite issues and processions of angels; that by these angels 365 heavens were formed, and the world, in honour of Abraxas, whose name, if computed, has in itself this number. Now, among the last of the angels, those who made this world, he places the God of the Jews latest, that is, the God of the Law and of the Prophets, whom he denies to be a God, but affirms to be an angel. To him, he says, was allotted the seed of Abraham, and accordingly he it was who transferred the sons of Israel from the land of Egypt into the land of Canaan; affirming him to be turbulent above the other angels, and accordingly given to the frequent arousing of seditions and wars, yes, and the shedding of human blood. Christ, moreover, he affirms to have been sent, not by this maker of the world, but by the above-named Abraxas; and to have come in a phantasm, and been destitute of the substance of flesh: that it was not He who suffered among the Jews, but that Simon was crucified in His stead: whence, again, there must be no believing on him who was crucified, lest one confess to having believed on Simon. Martyrdoms, he says, are not to be endured. The resurrection of the flesh he strenuously impugns, affirming that salvation has not been promised to bodies.'
====Carl Jung : The Seven Sermons to the Dead====
"Abraxas speaketh that hallowed and accursed word which is life and death at the same time. Abraxas begetteth truth and lying, good and evil, light and darkness in the same word and in the same act. Wherefore is Abraxas terrible."
====E. A. Wallis Budge : ====
"Abrasax represented the 365 Aeons or emanations from the First Cause, and as a Pantheus, i.e. All-God, he appears on the amulets with the head of a cock (Phoebus) or of a lion (Ra or Mithras), the body of a man, and his legs are serpents which terminate in scorpions, types of the Agathodaimon. In his right hand he grasps a club, or a flail, and in his left is a round or oval shield”
==External links==
*[http://www.occultopedia.com/a/abraxas.htm Occultopedia entry]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=633&letter=A Jewish encyclopedia entry]
*[http://altreligion.about.com/library/graphics/bl_abraxas.htm Images of Abraxas]
*[http://www.gnosis.org/library/7Sermons.htm The Seven Sermons to the Dead]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/navanath/seven_sermons.html SEPTEM SERMONES AD MORTUOS]
== References ==
*[[Abraxas Foundation]]
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<page>
<title>Absalom</title>
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<username>Gaurav1146</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Absalom, Absalom!]] is also a novel by [[William Faulkner]].''
:''Absalom is also a name given by [[Dryden]] to the [[Duke of Monmouth]], son of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. See [[Absalom and Achitophel]]''
:"Absalom" is the name of a science fiction story by [[Henry Kuttner]] anthologized in the collection ''[[Tomorrow, the Stars]]''.
[[Image:Absalom.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Hanging of Absalom - Weft-silk watercolor by Faith Robinson Trumbull (1718-1780)]]
'''Absalom''' or '''Avshalom''' ('''&#1488;&#1463;&#1489;&#1456;&#1513;&#1473;&#1464;&#1500;&#1493;&#1465;&#1501;''' "Father/Leader of/is peace", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Av&#X161;alom''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#702;A&#7687;&#X161;&#257;lôm'''), in the
[[Bible]], is the third son of [[David]], king of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]. He was deemed
the handsomest man in the kingdom.
His sister [[Tamar (biblical figure)|Tamar]] had
been raped by David's eldest son, [[Amnon]], who was in love with her. Absalom, after waiting two years, revenged by sending his servants to murder Amnon at a feast to which he had invited all the king's sons (2 [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] 13):
"18. ''And she had a garment of divers colours upon her: for with such robes were the king's daughters that were virgins apparelled. Then his servant brought her out, and bolted the door after her.''
19. ''And Tamar put ashes on her head, and rent her garment of divers colours that was on her, and laid her hand on her head, and went on crying''.
20. ''And Absalom her brother said unto her, Hath Amnon thy brother been with thee? but hold now thy peace, my sister: he is thy brother; regard not this thing. So Tamar remained desolate in her brother Absalom's house''....
22. ''And Absalom spake unto his brother Amnon neither good nor bad: for Absalom hated Amnon, because he had forced his sister Tamar.''
23. ''And it came to pass after two full years, that Absalom had sheepshearers in Baalhazor, which is beside Ephraim: and Absalom invited all the king's sons.''
28. ''Now Absalom had commanded his servants, saying, Mark ye now when Amnon's heart is merry with wine, and when I say unto you, Smite Amnon; then kill him, fear not: have not I commanded you? be courageous, and be valiant.''"
After this deed he fled to Talmai, "king" of [[Geshur]] (see Joshua 12:5 or 13:2), his maternal grandfather, and it was not until three years later that he was fully reinstated in his father's favour (see [[Joab]].)
Four years after this he raised a revolt at [[Hebron]], the former capital. Absalom was now the eldest surviving son of David, and the present position of the narratives (15-20)--after the birth of [[Solomon]] and before the struggle between Solomon and Adonijah---may represent the view that the suspicion that he was not the destined heir of his father's throne excited the impulsive youth to
rebellion.
All Israel and Judah flocked to his side, and David, attended only by the [[Cherethites]] and [[Pelethites]] and some recent recruits from Gath, found it expedient to flee.
The priests remained behind in Jerusalem, and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as his spies. Absalom reached the capital and took counsel with the renowned [[Ahithophel]].
The pursuit was continued and David took refuge beyond the [[Jordan River]].
A battle was fought in the "wood of Ephraim" (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan) and Absalom's army was completely routed. He himself, having long hair, was caught by his hair in the boughs of an oak-tree, and as David had strictly charged his men to deal gently with the young man, Joab was informed.
What a common soldier refused to do even for a thousand shekels of silver, the king's general at once undertook.
Joab thrust three spears through the heart of Absalom as he struggled in the branches and his ten armour-bearers came around and slew him.
Despite the revolt, David was overwhelmed with [[grief]] and ordered a great heap of stones to be erected where he fell, whilst another monument near [[Jerusalem]] (not the modern "Absalom Tomb" - "[[Yad Avshalom]]" which is of later origin was erected by Avshalom in his lifetime to perpetuate his name 2 Samuel 18:
"18. ''Now Absalom in his lifetime had taken and reared up for himself a monument, which is in the king's dale: for he said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance: and he called the pillar after his own name: and it is called unto this day, Absalom's monument''."
[[Category:History of Jerusalem]]
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[ |
Tansley]] (see [[Ecology (history)|ecology history]]). Vernadsky defined [[ecology]] as the science of the biosphere. It is an [[interdisciplinary]] concept for integrating [[astronomy]], [[geophysics]], [[meteorology]], [[biogeography]], [[evolution]], [[geology]], [[geochemistry]], [[hydrology]] and, generally speaking, all life and earth sciences.
=== Narrow definition ===
Some life scientists and earth scientists use ''biosphere'' in a more limited sense. For example, geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms (the "[[biomass]]" or "[[biota]]" as referred to by biologists and ecologists). In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being ''lithosphere'', ''hydrosphere'', and ''atmosphere''. The narrow meaning used by geochemists is one of the consequences of specialization in modern science. Some might prefer the word '''ecosphere''', coined in the [[1960s]], as all encompassing of both biological and physical components of the planet.
The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined '''biospherics''' as the science and technology of analogs and [[model (abstract)|model]]s of [[Earth]]'s biosphere; i.e., artificial Earth-like biospheres. Others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres&mdash;for example, human-centered biospheres or a native [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] biosphere&mdash;in the field of biospherics.
=== Gaia's biosphere ===
The concept that the biosphere is itself a living organism, either actually or metaphorically, is known as [[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theory]].
== Extent of the earth's biosphere ==
Some theorists have postulated that the Earth is poorly suited to life, although nearly every part of the planet, from the [[polar region|polar]] ice caps to the [[Equator]], supports life of some kind. Indeed, recent advances in [[microbiology]] have demonstrated that microbes live deep beneath the Earth's terrestrial surface, and that the total mass of microbial life in so-called "uninhabitable zones" may, in biomass, exceed all animal and plant life on the surface.
The actual thickness of the biosphere on earth is hard to measure. Birds typically fly at altitudes of 650 to 2000 meters, and fish that live deep underwater can be found down to -8,372 meters in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]].
There are more extreme examples for life on the planet: [[Ruppell's Vulture]] has been found at altitudes of 11,300 meters; [[Bar-headed Goose|Bar-headed Geese]] migrate at altitudes of at least 8,300 meters (over [[Mount Everest]]); Yaks live at elevations between 3,200 to 5,400 meters above sea level; mountain goats live up to 3,050 meters. Herbivorous animals at these elevations depend on lichens, grasses, and herbs but the biggest tree is the Tine palm or mountain coconut found 3,400 meters above sea level.
Microscopic organisms (e.g., bacteria) live at such extremes that, taking them into consideration puts the thickness of the biosphere much greater, but at minimum it extends from 5,400 meters above sea level to at least 9,000 meters below sea level.
== Biosphere 1, Biosphere 2, Biosphere 3 ==
When the word ''Biosphere'' is followed by a number, it is usually referring to a specific system. Thus:
#Biosphere 1 - The planet [[Earth]].
#[[Biosphere 2]] - A laboratory in Arizona which contains 3.15 acres (13,000 m&sup2;) of closed ecosystem.
#[[BIOS-3|Biosphere 3]] - Experiment conducted by Russians in 1967-8. [http://www.permanent.com/s-bios3.htm][http://www.biospherics.org/russia.html][http://www.biospheres.com/hisbios3fax.html]
---
''See also:'' [[biome]], [[cryosphere]], [[Biosphere Reserve]], [[noosphere]], [[geosphere]], [[eco-evolution]], [[homeostasis]], [[life support system]]
===Biosphere 1===
Our biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]]. On land, biomes are separated primarily by [[latitude]]. Terrestrial biomes lying within the [[Arctic Circle|Arctic]] and [[Antarctic Circle]]s are relatively barren of [[plant]] and [[animal]] life, while most of the more populus biomes lie near the [[Equator]]. Terrestrial organisms in temperate and arctic biomes have relatively small amounts of total biomass, smaller energy budgets, and display prominent adaptations to cold, including world-spanning migrations, social adaptations, [[homeothermy]], [[estivation]] and multiple layers of insulation.
For important major components of Earth's biosphere, see: [[Ocean]]; [[Forest]]; [[Desert]]; [[Steppe]]; [[Lake]]; [[River]].
== External links ==
*[http://www.globio.info GLOBIO], an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of human activities on the biosphere
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<page>
<title>Biological membrane</title>
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<username>Karol Langner</username>
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<comment>cat update & fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''biological membrane''' or '''biomembrane''' is a [[membrane]] which acts as a barrier within or around a [[cell (biology)|cell]]. It is, almost invariably, a [[lipid bilayer]] (except for [[Archaea]] which have [[isoprene]] membranes), being composed of a double layer of [[lipid]]-class [[molecules]], specifically [[phospholipid]]s, with occasional [[integral membrane protein|proteins]] intertwined, some of which function as [[ion channel|channels]].
Such [[membrane]]s typically define enclosed spaces or [[compartment]]s in which cells may maintain a [[chemistry|chemical]] or [[biochemistry|biochemical]] [[natural environment|environment]] that differs from the outside. For example, the membrane around [[peroxisome]]s shields the rest of the cell from [[peroxide]]s, and the [[plasma membrane]] separates a cell from its surrounding medium. Most [[organelle]]s are defined by such membranes, and are called '''membrane-bound''' organelles.
Probably the most important feature of a biomembrane is that it is a [[selectively permeable]] structure. This means that the size, [[charge]] and other [[chemical properties]] of the [[atoms]] and molecules attempting to cross it will determine whether they succeed to do so. Selective permeability is essential for effective separation of a cell or organelle from its surroundings.
If a particle is too large or otherwise unable to cross the membrane by itself, but is still needed by a cell, it could either go through one of the protein channels, or be taken in by means of [[endocytosis]].
== Types of biological membranes ==
* [[Cell membrane]]
* [[Mucous membrane]]
* [[S-layer]]
==Structure==
==Composition==
<p>The three major classes of membrane lipids are [[phospholipid]]s, [[glycolipid]]s, and [[cholesterol]].</p><br />
[[Image:membrane_lipids.png|thumb|center|579px|'''The major membrane lipids'''<br />'''PtdCho''' - Phosphatidylcholine; '''PtdEtn''' - Phosphatidylethanolamine; '''PtdIns''' - Phosphatidylinositol; '''PtdSer''' - Phosphatidylserine.]]
<br /><p>Phospholipids and glycolipids consist of two long, nonpolar (hydrophobic) hydrocarbon chains linked to a hydrophilic head group. In the phospholipids the head consist of <span style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">phosphorylated</span> either:
:*<span style="color: green; font-weight: bold;">Glycerol</span> (and hence the name '''phosphoglycerides''' given to this group of lipids).
:*<span style="color: CornflowerBlue; font-weight: bold;">Sphingosine</span> (with only one member - [[sphingomyelin]]).
</p><br />
<p>In the glycolipids the head contains of sphingosine with <span style="color: Goldenrod; font-weight: bold;">one or several sugar units</span> attached to it. The hydrophobic chains belong either to:
:*two [[fatty acid|FA]]s - in the case of the phosphoglycerides.
:*one FA and the hydrocarbon tail of [[sphingosine]] - in the case of sphingomyelin and the glycolipids.
</p><br />
<p>The FAs in phospho- and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 14 and 24. The 16- and 18-carbon FAs are the most common ones. FAs may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always ''cis''. The length and the degree of unsaturation of FAs chains have a profound effect on membranes fluidity.</p><br />
<p>In phosphoglycerides, the hydroxyl groups at C-1 and C-2 of glycerol are esterified to the carboxyl groups of the FAs. The C-3 hydroxyl group is esterified to phosphoric acid. The resulting compound, called [[phosphatidate]], is the simplest phosphoglycerate. Only small amounts of phosphatidate are present in membranes. However, it is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of the other phosphoglycerides.</p><br />
<p>Sphingosine is an amino alcohol that contains long, unsaturates hydrocarbon chain. In sphingomyelin and glycolipids, the amino group of sphingosine is linked to a FAs by an amid bond. In sphingomyelin the primary hydroxyl group of sphingosine is esterified to phosphoryl [[choline]]. In glycolipids, the sugar component is attached t |
e unable to change his body momentum in time to reach the shuttlecock.
'''Doubles:''' In doubles, each side has two players. Both sides will try to gain and maintain the attack, hitting downwards as much as possible. Usually one player will strive to stay at the back of the court and the other at the front, which is an optimal attacking position: the back player will smash and occasionally drop the shuttlecock to the net, and the front player will try to intercept any flat returns or returns to the net. Typical play involves hitting the shuttle in a trajectory as low and flat as possible, to avoid giving away the attack. A side that hits a high shot must prepare for a smash and retreat to a side-by-side defensive position, with each player covering half of the court. The first serve is usually a low serve to force the other side to lift the shuttle. A "flick serve", in which the player will pretend to serve low but hit it high to catch the receiver off-guard, is sporadically used throughout the game. Doubles is a game of speed, aggression, and agility.
'''Singles:''' Players will serve high to the far back end of the court, although at the international level low serves are now frequently used as well. The singles court is narrower than the doubles court, but the same length. Since one person needs to cover the entire court, singles tactics are based on forcing the opponent to move as much as possible; this means that singles shots are normally directed to the corners of the court. The depth of the court is exploited by combining clears (high shots to the back) with drops (soft downwards shots to the front). Smashing is less prominent in singles than in doubles because players are rarely in the ideal position to execute a smash, and smashing out of position leaves the smasher very vulnerable if the shot is returned. At high levels of play, singles demands extraordinary fitness. It is a game of patient tactical play, unlike the all-out aggression of doubles.
'''Mixed doubles:''' In this discipline, a man and a woman play as a doubles pair. Mixed doubles is similar to "level" doubles (where pairs are of the same gender), but important changes in tactics are usually made in order to accommodate the difference in strength between men and women. In mixed doubles, both pairs try to maintain an attacking formation with the woman at the front and the man at the back. This is because the male players are substantially stronger, and can therefore produce more powerful smashes. As a result, mixed doubles requires greater tactical awareness and subtler positional play. Clever opponents will try to reverse the ideal position, by forcing the woman towards the back or the man towards the front. In order to protect against this danger, mixed players must be careful and systematic in their shot selection.
==History==
An early ancestor of the game may have been the Chinese game of [[jianzi]] which involves using a shuttlecock but no racquet. Instead the object was manipulated with the feet. The object of the game is to keep the shuttlecock from touching the ground as long as possible without using the hands.
[[Image:Battledore-and-shuttlecock.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Battledore and shuttlecock, an antecedent to the modern game of Badminton. <br>''1854, from the [[John Leech]] Archive'' [http://www.john-leech-archive.org.uk/] ]]
In [[England]] since medieval times a children's game called ''Battledores and Shuttlecocks'' was popular. Children would use paddles (Battledores) and work together to keep the Shuttlecock up in the air and prevent it from reaching the ground. It was popular enough to be a nuisance on the street of London in [[1854]] when the magazine [[Punch magazine|Punch]] published this cartoon.
The British took the game to [[Japan]], [[China]] and [[Siam]] as they colonised [[Asia]], and it soon became a children's game there.
The competitive sport of badminton was invented by [[British Army]] officers in [[Pune]], [[India]] in the [[19th century]] when they added a net and played it competitively. As the city of Pune was formerly known as Poona, the game was also known as Poona at that time.
Soldiers brought the game back to [[England]] in the [[1850]]s. The sport got its current name in [[1860]] in a pamphlet by [[Isaac Spratt]], a London toy dealer, entitled "Badminton Battledore - a new game". This described the game as played at [[Badminton House]], the Duke of Beaufort's estate in [[Gloucestershire]], England.
The first official set of rules was written by the Bath Badminton Club in [[1877]]. The Badminton Association of England was formed in 1893 and the first international championship took place in [[1899]] with the [[Yonex All-England Open Badminton Championships|All England Championships]].
Badminton became a popular sport in the world, primarily in East and [[Southeast Asia]], which currently dominates the sport, and in the [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] countries.
The International Badminton Federation (IBF) was established in [[1934]] and had England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Denmark, Holland, Canada, New Zealand and France as by founding members. India joined as an affiliate in [[1936]]. In the Extraordinary General Meeting of December 2004, a proposal to move the IBF office from the UK to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia was tabled and subsequently approved amid heated discussion.
It became a [[Summer Olympic]] sport at the [[1992 Summer Olympics|Barcelona Olympics]] in [[1992]]. [[Indonesia]] and [[Korea]] shared the gold medal with two each that year.
The IBF has been tinkering with the scoring system in an effort to commercialize the sport. A recent experiment of playing a match of 5 games of 7 points instead of the current 3 games of 15 points failed to garner the support of the fans, players and coaches after a year. The next experiment is to have 3 games of 21 points where every rally will result in a point being awarded (just like volleyball) which will debut in the next World Cup to be held in December 2005 in China. The experiment will last until May 2006, when the IBF General Meeting will decide if the rules of the experiment will become permanent.
==Sources==
"Badminton- Schlagarten und Flugkurven aus: Badminton in der Schule. Eine Informationsmappe für Lehrer; Deutscher Badminton-verband e.V. (1. Auflage, Mühlheim an der Ruhr, 1991) "
Cartoon taken from the [http://john-leech-archive.org.uk John Leech Archive] which gave the artist as John Leech and the date as 1854.
==See also==
* [[China Open]]
* [[Denmark Open]]
* [[Djarum Indonesia Open]]
* [[List of Badminton World Champions]]
* [[Speed Badminton]]
* [[World Badminton Championships|World Championships in Badminton]]
* [[All England Open Badminton Championships]]
==External links==
* [http://www.worldbadminton.com/ WorldBadminton.com]
* [http://www.badders.com/ Badders.com]
* [http://www.badmintoncentral.com/ Badminton Central]
* [http://www.badmintonforum.com/ Badminton Forum]
* [http://badminton.on-topic.net/ Badminton Topics]
* [http://www.intbadfed.org/ International Badminton Federation]
* [http://www.worldbadminton.net/ WorldBadminton.net]
* [http://www.eurobadminton.org/ European Badminton Union]
* [http://www.badmintonliga.be/ Belgian Badminton Association]
* [http://www.yumaoclub.com/ Chinese Badminton Site(&#32701;&#27611;&#29699;&#25293;)]
* [http://www.tradgames.org.uk/games/Battledore-Shuttlecock.htm History of the game]
* [http://badminton-indonesia.com/ Indonesian Badminton Site]
* [http://dmoz.org/Sports/Badminton/ Badminton] from the [[Open Directory Project]]
* [http://www.usabadminton.org/ USA Badminton]
* [http://www.schsb.com.com/ SCHSB.COM]
* [http://www.ocbadmintonclub.com/ OCBadminton.com]
* [http://lesboys.minidns.net/badminton/ Junior Badminton Club of Orléans (Ontario, Canada)]
* [http://www.badminton.ca Badminton Canada]
* [http://www.valebadminton.co.uk Vale Badminton UK]
[[Category:Racquet sports]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Badminton]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baroque</title>
<id>3957</id>
<revision>
<id>41609602</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:09:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aksi great</username>
<id>504572</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41422804 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rubens.adoration.650pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Adoration,'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]: dynamic figures spiral down around a void: draperies blow: a whirl of movement lit in a shaft of light, rendered in a free bravura handling of paint.]]
In the [[the arts|arts]], '''Baroque''' (or '''baroque''') is both a period and the artistic [[style]] that dominated it. The Baroque style used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in [[sculpture]], [[painting]], [[literature]], and [[music]]. The style started around 1600 in [[Rome]], [[Italy]] and spread to most of [[Europe]]. In music, the Baroque applies to the final period of dominance of imitative [[counterpoint]].
(The name adapted a [[French language|French]] [[adjective]] that is derived from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[noun]] "barroco"; both described a [[pearl]] of irregular shape. Some confusion can occur in using for the period an |
n="2" | [[Image:Glucose.png|Chemical structure of Glucose]]
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| 6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-2,3,4,5-tetrol
|-
| Synonym for D-glucose
| dextrose
|-
| Varieties of D-glucose
| &alpha;-D-glucose; &beta;-D-glucose
|-
| Abbreviations
| '''Glc'''
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| [[Carbon|C]]<sub>6</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>12</sub>[[Oxygen|O]]<sub>6</sub>
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 180.16 g mol<sup>&minus;1</sup>
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| &alpha;-D-glucose: 146°C<br/>&beta;-D-glucose: 150°C
|-
| [[Density]]
| ? g cm<sup>-3</sup>
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 50-99-7 (D-glucose)
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 921-60-8 (L-glucose)
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| C(C1C(C(C(C(O1)O)O)O)O)O
|-
|}
</div>
'''Glucose''' (Glc), a [[monosaccharide]], is one of the most important [[carbohydrate]]s. The cell uses it as a source of energy and metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of [[photosynthesis]] and starts [[cellular respiration]]. The natural form (<small>D</small>-glucose) is also referred to as '''dextrose''', especially in the food industry. This article deals with the D-form of glucose (see '''''Isomers'''''-section below)
==Structure==
[[Image:D-glucose.png|frame|right|''The chain form of <small>D</small>-glucose'']]
[[Image:Space-filling_Glucose.jpg|thumb|left|80px|''A space-filling model of glucose'']]
Glucose contains six [[carbon]] [[atom]]s and an [[aldehyde]] group and is therefore referred to as an aldo[[hexose]]. The glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) and ring (cyclic) form, the latter being the result of an intramolecular reaction between the aldehyde C atom and the C-5 [[hydroxyl]] group to form an intramolecular [[hemiacetal]]. In water solution both forms are in equilibrium, and at [[pH]] 7 the cyclic one is the predominant. As the ring contains 5 carbon and one oxygen atoms, which resembles the structure of [[pyran]], the cyclic form of glucose is also referred to as glucopyranose. In this ring, each carbon is linked to an hydroxyl side group with the exception of the fifth atom, which links to a sixth carbon atom outside the ring, forming a CH<sub>2</sub>OH group.
===Isomers===
Glucose has 4 optic centers which means that in theory glucose can have 15 [[Optical isomerism|optical stereoisomers]]. Only 7 of these are found in living organisms, and of these [[galactose]] (Gal) and [[mannose]] (Man) are the most important. These eight isomers (including glucose itself) are all [[diastereoisomer]]s in relation to each other and all belong to the [[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|<small>D</small>-series]].
An additional asymmetric center at C-1 (called ''the anomeric carbon atom'') is created when glucose cyclizes and two ring structures, called [[anomer]]s, can be formed &mdash; &alpha;-glucose and &beta;-glucose. They differ structurally in the orientation of the hydroxyl group linked to C-1 in the ring. When <small>D</small>-glucose is drawn as a [[Haworth projection]], the designation ''&alpha;'' means that the hydroxyl group attached to C-1 is below the plane of the ring, ''&beta;'' means it is above. The &alpha; and &beta; forms interconvert over a timescale of hours in aqueous solution, to a final stable ratio of &alpha;:&beta; 36:64, in a process called ''[[mutarotation]]''. [[Image:Glucose Fisher to Haworth.gif|thumb|right|Glucose shifting from [[Fischer projection]] to [[Haworth projection]].]]
==Production==
===Natural===
#Glucose is one of the products of [[photosynthesis]] in [[plants]] and some [[prokaryote]]s.
#In animals and fungi, glucose is the result of the breakdown of [[glycogen]], a process known as [[Glycogenolysis|glycogenolysis]]. In plants - the breakdown substrate is [[starch]].
#In animals, glucose is synthesized in the [[liver]] and [[kidney]]s from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as [[pyruvate]] and [[glycerol]], by a process known as [[gluconeogenesis]].
===Commercial===
Glucose is produced commercially via the [[enzyme|enzymatic]] [[hydrolysis]] of [[starch]]. Many crops can be used as the source of starch [[Maize]], [[rice]], [[wheat]], [[potato]], [[cassava]], [[arrowroot]], and [[sago]] are all used in various parts of the world. In the [[United States]], [[cornstarch]] (from maize) is used almost exclusively.
This enzymatic process has two stages. Over the course of 1-2 hours near 100 &deg;C, these enzymes hydrolyze starch into smaller carbohydrates containing on average 5-10 glucose units each. Some variations on this process briefly heat the starch mixture to 130 &deg;C or hotter one or more times. This heat treatment improves the solubility of starch in water, but deactivates the enzyme, and fresh enzyme must be added to the mixture after each heating.
In the second step, known as '''''saccharification''''', the partially hydrolyzed starch is completely hydrolyzed to glucose using the [[glucoamylase]] enzyme from the [[fungus]] ''[[Aspergillus niger]]''. Typical reaction conditions are [[pH]] 4.0&ndash;4.5, 60 &deg;C, and a carbohydrate concentration of 30&ndash;35% by weight. Under these conditions, starch can be converted to glucose at 96% yield after 1&ndash;4 days. Still higher yields can be obtained using more dilute solutions, but this approach requires larger reactors and processing a greater volume of water, and is not generally economical. The resulting glucose solution is then purified by [[filtration]] and concentrated in a [[multiple-effect evaporator]]. Solid D-glucose is then produced by repeated [[crystallization]]s.
==Function==
We can speculate on the reasons why glucose, and not another monosaccharide such as [[fructose]] (Fru) , is so widely used. Glucose can form from [[formaldehyde]] under [[abiotic]] conditions, so it may well have been available to primitive [[biochemical]] systems. Probably more important to advanced life is the low tendency of glucose, by comparison to other hexose sugars, to non-specifically react with the [[amino]] groups of [[protein]]s. This reaction ([[glycosylation]]) reduces or destroys the function of many [[enzyme]]s. The low rate of glycosylation is due to glucose's preference for the less reactive cyclic [[isomer]]. Nevertheless, many of the long-term complications of [[diabetes]] (e.g., [[blindness]], [[renal failure|kidney failure]], and [[peripheral neuropathy]]) are probably due to the glycosylation of proteins.
===As an energy source===
Glucose is a ubiquitous fuel in [[biology]]. Carbohydrates are the human body's key source of energy, providing 4 [[kilocalorie]]s (17 [[kilojoule]]s) of [[food energy]] per [[gram]]. Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g. [[starch]]) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose. Through [[glycolysis]] and later in the reactions of the [[Citric acid cycle]] (TCAC), glucose is [[oxidize|oxidized]] to eventually form [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] and [[water]], yielding energy, mostly in the form of [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]].
===As a precursor===
Glucose is critical in the production of [[protein]] and in [[lipid]] metabolism.</p> Also, in plants and most animals, it is a precursor for [[Vitamin C]] (ascorbic acid) production.
Glucose is used as a precursor for the synthesis of several important substances. [[Starch]], [[cellulose]], and [[glycogen]] ("animal starch") are common glucose [[polymer]]s ([[polysaccharide]]s). [[Lactose]] - the milk sugar, is a Glc-[[Galactose|Gal]] disaccharide. In [[sucrose]], another important disaccharide, glucose is joined to fructose.
==Sources and absorption==
All major dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block, as in starch and glycogen, or together with another monosaccharide, as in sucrose and lactose. In the lumen of the duodenum and small intestine the oligo- and polysaccharides are broken down to monosaccharides by the pancreatic and intestinal glycosidases. Glucose is then transported across the apical membrane of the enterocytes by [[SLC5A1]] and later across their basal membrane by [[SLC2A2]] ([http://www.biochemj.org/bj/360/0265/bj3600265.htm ref]). Some of glucose goes directly to fuel [[brain cells]] and erythrocytes, while the rest makes its way to the [[liver]] and [[muscle]]s, where it is stored as glycogen, and to [[adipose tissue|fat cells]], where it is stored as [[fat]]. Glycogen is the body's auxiliary energy source, tapped and converted back into glucose when there is needs for energy.
==See also==
*[[HbA1c]]
==External links==
* {{EINECSLink|200-075-1}} (D-glucose)
* {{EINECSLink|213-068-3}} (L-glucose)
* {{PubChemLink|5793}} (D-glucose)
* {{PubChemLink|206}} (L-glucose)
* [http://www.evowiki.org/index.php/Glucose More on the chemistry and function of glucose in biology at EvoWiki]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Glucose Computational Chemistry Wiki]
{{Link FA|id}}
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[[tr:Glukoz]]
[[uk:Глюкоза]]
[[zh:葡萄糖]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grand Theft Auto (game)</title>
<id>12952</id>
<revision>
<id>42091424</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:46:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Flamingspinach</username>
<id> |
;Romance" is regarded by most Western scholars as the source of the [[account of Alexander given in the Qur'an]] ([[Sura]] ''The Cave''). It is the source of many incidents in [[Ferdowsi]]'s "[[Shahnama]]". A [[Mongol]]ian version is also extant.
Some believe that, excepting certain religious texts, it is the most widely-read work of pre-modern times.
===Alexander's legend in non-Western sources===
{{main|Alexander in the Qur'an (Theory)}}
Alexander was often identified in Persian and Arabic-language sources as [[Dhul-Qarnayn]], Arabic for the "Two-Horned One", possibly a reference to the appearance of a horn-headed figure that appears on coins minted during his rule and later imitated in ancient Middle Eastern coinage. If this theory is followed, [[Islamic]] accounts of the Alexander legend, particularly in the [[Qur'an]] and in Persian legends, combined the [[Pseudo-Callisthenes]] legendary, pseudo-religious material about Alexander. The same legends from the Pseudo-Callisthenes were combined in Persia with [[Sasanid]] [[Pahlavi languge|Persian]] ideas about Alexander in the [[Iskandarnamah]].
==Main towns founded by Alexander==
Around seventy towns or outposts are claimed to have been founded by Alexander. Some of the main ones are:
* [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]
* [[Alexandria Asiana]], [[Iran]]
* [[Alexandria in Ariana]], [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Alexandria of the Caucasus]], [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Alexandria on the Oxus]], [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Alexandria of the Arachosians]], [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Alexandria on the Indus]] (Alexandria Bucephalous), [[Pakistan]]
* [[Alexandria Eschate|Alexandria Eschate, "The furthest"]], [[Tajikistan]]
* [[Iskenderun]] (Alexandretta), [[Turkey]]
* [[Kandahar]] (Alexandropolis), [[Afghanistan]]
==Alexander in popular media==
[[Image:Rogue shield.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The ''Smallville'' version of the Shield of Alexander the Great, as seen in the first season episode, "Rogue"]]
*A [[1956]] movie starring [[Richard Burton]] titled ''[[Alexander the Great (1956 film)|Alexander the Great]]'' was produced by [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]].
*A [[1941]] [[Hindi]] movie ''Sikandar'' directed by [[Sohrab Modi]] depicts Alexander the Great's Indian conquest.
*[[Bond (band)|Bond]]'s 2000 album ''Born'' includes a song titled ''Alexander the Great''.
*[[Oliver Stone]]'s film ''[[Alexander (film)|Alexander]]'', starring [[Colin Farrell]], was released on [[November 24]], [[2004]].
*[[Baz Luhrmann]] had been planning to make a very different film about Alexander, starring [[Leonardo DiCaprio]], but the release of Stone's film eventually persuaded him to abandon the project. [http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2004-11-01#2]
*Numerous [[television program|television series]] about Alexander have been created.
*The British heavy metal band [[Iron Maiden]] had a song entitled "[[Alexander the Great (song)|Alexander the Great]]" on their album ''[[Somewhere in Time (album)|Somewhere in Time]]'' ([[1986]]). The song describes Alexander's life, but contains one inaccuracy: in the song it is stated that Alexander's army would not follow him into India.
* Brazilian musician [[Caetano Veloso]]'s [[1998]] album ''Livro'' includes an epic song about Alexander called "Alexandre."
*From [[1969]] to [[1981]], [[Mary Renault]] wrote a historical fiction [[trilogy]], speculating on the life of Alexander: ''Fire from Heaven'' (about his early life), ''The Persian Boy'' (about his conquest of Persia, his expedition to India, and his death, seen from the viewpoint of a Persian [[eunuch]]), and ''Funeral Games'' (about the events following his death). Alexander also appears briefly in Renault's novel ''The Mask of Apollo''. In addition to the fiction, Renault also wrote a non-fiction biography, ''The Nature of Alexander''.
*A 1965 [[Hindi]] movie ''Sikandar-e-Azam'' directed by [[Kedar Kapoor]] starring [[Dara Singh]] as Alexandar depicts Alexandar's Indian conquest with Porus.
*A further trilogy of novels about Alexander was written in [[Italian language|Italian]] by [[Valerio Massimo Manfredi]] and subsequently published in an English translation, entitled ''The Son of the Dream'', ''The Sands of Ammon'' and ''The Ends Of The Earth''.
* David Gemmel's "Dark Prince" features Alexander as the chosen vessel for a world-destroying demon king. ISBN 0345379101.
*[[Steven Pressfield]]'s [[2004]] book ''The Virtues of War'' is told from the [[first-person narrative|first-person]] [[point of view (literature)|perspective]] of Alexander.
*An [[epic poetry|epic]] [[science fiction]] [[animation|animated]] retelling of the story called ''[[Reign (anime)|Reign: The Conqueror]]'', based on the novel ''Alexander Senki'' by [[Hiroshi Aramata]], with character designs by [[Peter Chung]] of ''[[Aeon Flux]]'' fame, debuted in [[Japan]] in [[1997]] and on the [[Cartoon Network]]'s ''[[Adult Swim]]'' block variety show in [[2003]].
* Alexander is a character in the [[computer game]] [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]].
* The ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'' season 1 episode "Rogue", [[Lex Luthor]] shows [[Superman|Clark Kent]] the shield that Alexander the Great wore in battle. The shield is gold, with red and blue diamonds (the colors that represent [[Superman]]), and a snake shaped like the letter S.
* The [[1975]] film ''[[The Man Who Would Be King (film)|The Man Who Would Be King]]'' starring [[Sean Connery]] and [[Michael Caine]] is based on the [[Rudyard Kipling]] [[The Man Who Would Be King|story]] of two British adventurers who cross the Hindu Kush to the land of [[Kafiristan]], once conquered by Alexander. Daniel (Connery) is believed by the natives to be the return of Alexander and is crowned King.
==Notes==
{{ent|1|MvsG1}} Whether the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]] of Alexander's time and before were [[Hellenes]] (Greeks) is disputed by scholars. The question largely depends on the classification of the [[Ancient Macedonian language]]. By separating Macedonians and Greeks in this sentence and others, no position in this debate is implied.
{{ent|2|MvsG2}} See note 1.
==References==
*[[J.F.C. Fuller|Fuller, J.F. C]]; ''A Military History of the Western World: From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto''; New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988. ISBN 0306803046
*De Santis, Marc G. “At The Crossroads of Conquest.” <u>[[Military Heritage]]</u>. December 2001. Volume 3, No. 3: 46-55, 97 (Alexander the Great, his military, his strategy at the Battle of Gaugamela and his defeat of Darius making Alexander the King of Kings).
==External links==
'''Primary Sources'''
*[http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources] from Livius.org
*[http://www.thegreatalexander.com Alexander the Great - O Megas Alexandros] Alexander the Great forum, articles, and referenced information.
*Wiki Classical Dictionary, [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Alexander_the_Great%2C_extant_sources extant sources] and [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Alexander_the_Great%2C_Fragmentary_and_lost_sources fragmentary and lost sources]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/home.html Plutarch, ''Life of Alexander''] (in English)
*[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/index.html Justin, ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus''] (in English)
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri*/home.html Plutarch, ''Of the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander the Great''] (in English)
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Curtius/home.html Quintus Curtius Rufus, ''Histories of Alexander''] (in Latin)
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/alexander/5.html Alexander's Death] from Alexander the Great on the Web: 1,000 resources about Alexander the Great
*[http://www.3dsrc.com/alexandrelegrand/multimedia.php Alexander The Great in the french museum Le Louvre]
'''Projects'''
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/Alexanderama.html Alexander the Great on the Web], a comprehensive directory of some 1,000 sites
*[http://www.petersommer.com/alexander.html In the footsteps of Alexander the Great]: an archaeological adventure across Turkey, with travel article and archaeological links
*[http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander00.html Livius Project] articles on Alexander by Jona Lendering
*[http://www.pothos.org Pothos.org: Alexander's Home on the Web]
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Category:Alexander_the_Great Wiki Classical Dictionary: Category Alexander the Great], a Mediawiki based project, with stricter guidelines and editors
*[http://rg.ancients.info/alexander/ Alexander the Great Coins], a site depicting Alexander's coins and later coins featuring Alexander's image
*[http://www.thegreatalexander.com Alexander the Great Site], a site dedicated to Alexander. Features Articles about Alexander, his life, armies, mysteries surrounding his death, and the Hellenistic Period that came after this great Hellenic Leader.
'''Narratives'''
*[http://www.1stmuse.com/frames/ Alexander the Great of Macedon], a project by John J. Popovic
*[http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Biographies/Alexander/Alexander.htm The loves of Alexander III of Macedon]
'''Discussion'''
*[http://www.pothos.org/forum Pothos Forum]
*[http://www.thegreatalexander.com/alexander-forum/ Alexander the Great Forum], a forum for Alexander the Great and the history surrounding him.
'''Bibliography'''
*[http://hum.ucalgary.ca/wheckel/bibl/alex-bibl.pdf PDF: A Bibliography of Alexander the Great] by Waldemar Heckel
{{start box}}
|-
| width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:<br />'''[[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Kings of Macedon|King of Macedon]]'''<br />336&ndash;323 BC
| width |
ons, that can destroy most vehicles in a single shot, as well as causing a large explosion that could kill more than just the original target. This can be a downside, as if the rocket accidentally hits something close to the player such as a pedestrian who walks into the line of fire at the wrong moment, the player can get caught in the explosion.
'''[[Body armor]]''' is not a weapon, but is very useful in combat. Normally being shot once is enough to kill the player, but body armour will protect from three shots before its protection wears out. On the Game Boy version, the body armor seems to only protect the player from two shots.
====Powerups====
Some of the powerups are self-explanatory, such as the [[extra life]] and (bonus)multiplier increase. However, there are some more interesting bonuses, that deserve more of a mention:
The '''Police Bribe''' is useful if the police are looking for the player, as it reduces his wanted level to zero, in a similar manner to going to a respray shop, so they suddenly ignore him. However, once a Police Bribe has been picked up, it's gone forever, so the player has to weigh up the odds of taking it straight away for convenience or going all the way to a respray shop to save it for a later mission when they have greater need of it.
On picking up a '''Kill Frenzy''' (called a Rampage in later games), a timer starts counting down; the player must obtain a certain number of points within this time and is usually given a weapon to do this with. This encourages the player to cause carnage by blowing up cars and killing people, attracting the attention of the police. This increases the challenge, as the player has to avoid (or kill) the police while getting the points. Although killing the police earns more points than killing civilians, the police will then be after the player, and he may have a weapon, such as a rocket launcher, that is unsuitable for killing the police as they close in.
If the player is successful, he gets a monetary reward, and in addition his wanted level is reduced to zero, so the police ignore the player despite the incredible destruction he just caused. This provides an incentive to complete the challenge, particularly as failure will leave the player with whatever wanted level he had acquired, often quite a high one due to the killings and destruction usually involved in an attempted killing spree.
These missions sometimes provide the player with a vehicle to complete the frenzy. These include tanks, and [[remote control]] cars packed with explosives.
The '''Speed Up''' and '''Car speed up''' powerups are similar, in that the former allows the player to run faster, whilst the latter speeds up any cars the player drives. Both of these are therefore useful if the player is in a hurry, and as a secondary benefit will allow the player to complete the game faster. The '''Car speed up''' powerup does display one disadvantage - the cars, being far faster than usual, are harder to control and are more susceptible to damage with high-speed impacts, increasing the risk of the car exploding - with the player inside.
The '''Get Outta Jail Card''', unlike the other powerups, is not used immediately. Instead, it is used when the player is arrested, and means he keep any weapons carried, as well as the score multiplier.
===Vehicles===
In the game, there are a large number of [[vehicle]]s, each with their own characteristics, from fast [[sports car]]s, to slow but resilient [[truck]]s. These can be stolen by throwing the occupant onto the street, or breaking into those that are parked. Some vehicles are also provided in missions, or hidden in various parts of each city. Also, each city has a [[train]] service, that lets you travel quickly around it.
Much of the [[traffic]] of each city consists of [[automobile|car]]s of various sorts. These vary considerably in speed. The more sensible cars are fairly slow, and have appropriate names such as the Bug. The sports cars however are much faster, and have names like Jugular{{ref|1}} which reflect their more adventurous nature. These are more suitable for high speed chases, whereas the slower cars are more suited to missions with no time-limit. [[Van]]s are also similar to cars as well, although they usually are at the slower end of the scale.
Some of the vehicles are longer and more unwieldy than cars. These include [[limousine]]s, [[bus]]es and [[coach]]es, but the biggest of these is the [[tanker truck]]. Due to their bulk each one takes a long time to speed up, or slow down, and they have similar difficulties in turning, having a wider [[turning radius]]. This bulk also gives such vehicles more pushing power, making them ideal for ramming cars out of the way, and also makes them very difficult to ram. They also tend to be more resilient, taking more damage before they are destroyed.
In contrast, [[motorbike]]s are small and much more maneuverable, with a smaller turning circle, and are able to speed up and slow down very quickly. They also tend to have high top speeds. Their lack of bulk, however, means that they are more vulnerable. They can take less damage, and are easier to ram, whilst having very little ramming power of their own, and a violent enough collision can throw the player off the bike (in the Game Boy version the player was never thrown off the bike).
Some vehicles, however, such as ones given for missions, may be more sensitive to damage, such as ones loaded with explosives.
The emergency services also have vehicles, that can be stolen. [[Fire engine]]s are large vehicles, similar in handling to tankers. They are called out whenever there is a fire, usually as a result of an explosion. [[Ambulance]]s are similar to small vans, and are called out in the case of someone being injured. Both of these are frequently the result of the player's actions. Finally the police in their [[squad car]]s are called out to chase criminals, the player in particular. Unlike other drivers, the police cannot be simply thrown out of their vehicles, but their cars can be stolen if their drivers are killed or lured out of their vehicles. None of these vehicles can have their plates changed to reset the wanted level.
One exception to this is the [[tank]]. This, as would be expected, can simply drive over other vehicles on the road, and cannot be rammed by other vehicles. It can take a lot of damage before being destroyed, although it isn't quite invincible. Tank are very rare, and are usually hidden, on levels that have them.
== Ports ==
The original ''Grand Theft Auto'' was first available for [[DOS]], and then later ported to [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Sony PlayStation]], and [[Game Boy Color]]. Surprisingly, the Game Boy Color version was unabridged, which was quite a technical achievement due to the sheer size of the cities, converted tile-for-tile from the PC original, making them many times larger than most Game Boy Color game worlds were because of the handheld's limited hardware. To cater for the target younger generation, however, the game was heavily censored, with gore and swearing removed.
== Controversy ==
The game, with its violent subject matter, generated a great deal of controversy. However, this was deemed to be intentional, and was the first game known to have been publicised in such a way. Take 2 Games, the publishers of ''Grand Theft Auto'', hired publicist [[Max Clifford]] to generate an aura of controversy about the game in the local media. As a result, politicians stepped into the foray. Whatever the impact on game censorship and the perception of video gaming, the publicity worked - the title was hugely successful simply because those attempting to ban the game were inadvertently generating publicity for it. This has been a known and recognised phenomenon of violent video games ever since.
==Trivia==
* One of the hidden [[Easter egg]]s in the game is the now famous "[[Gouranga]]" bonus, given for swiftly killing an entire group of [[Hare Krishna]] monks.
* The parts of the cities are based on their real-life counterparts, such as Liberty City's neighborhoods. There are neighborhoods like the Brix, which is based on [[The Bronx]], Brocklyn (obviously based on [[Brooklyn]]). Vice City has the same thing, featuring districts such as Vice Beach and Banana Grove, which are based on Miami Beach and Coconut Grove.
* El Burro, the man players would take missions from in the second part of the San Andreas missions, also appears in ''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'', he is the man that provide jobs in Portland island, Liberty City, and is the leader of the [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]] Diablos gang.
* Head Radio is one (if not the only) original station left. It was in this game, and it was also a station in ''Grand Theft Auto III'' as well as in ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories]]''.
== See also ==
*''[[Grand Theft Auto: London, 1969]]''
*''[[Grand Theft Auto: London, 1961]]''
==Footnotes==
*{{note|1}} The name Jugular is the game's take on the [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]]. Quite a few of the cars have such names, such as the Bug, a name based on the [[VW Beetle]], and the Mundaneo, a take on the [[Ford Mondeo]] but giving a sense of it being "mundane". Also the "Cossie", which was a performance car inspired by the Escort Cosworth with its whaletail spoiler.
==External links==
* [http://www.rockstargames.com/classics/ Free download of ''GTA'' and ''GTA2'' as ''Rockstar Classics'']
* [http://www.gamefaqs.com/computer/doswin/data/197476.html GameFAQs entry on the game, with FAQs and walkthroughs]
* {{moby game|id=/grand-theft-auto|name=''Grand Theft Auto''}}
=== Fan sites ===
* [http://www.gtaclassics.com GTA Classics]
* [http://www.gtagaming.com GTAGaming]
* [http://www.planetgrandtheftauto.com/gta/ ''Grand Theft Auto'' in PlanetGrandTheftAuto]
<!-- * [http://www.gtaforum.no/ GTAForum.no], Norways biggest GTA related forum
-->
{{Grand Theft Auto series}}
< |
ns and much of the U.S. public assumed that government spendings and deficits were key to economic growth. On the other hand, according to economist [[Robert Higgs]], when looking only at the supply of consumer goods significant GDP growth only resumed in 1946. (Higgs assumes that collective goods like victory in the war were not valued by consumers.) (Source: Robert Higgs (1992), 'Wartime Prosperity? A Reassessment of the U.S. Economy in the 1940s,' ''The Journal of Economic History'' 52(1):41-60.)
From 1932 onward Roosevelt argued that a restructuring of the economy--a "reform" would be needed to prevent another depression. New Deal programs sought to stimulate [[demand]] and provide work and relief for the impoverished through increased government spending, by:
* instituting regulations which ended what was called "cut throat competition" (in which large players supposedly used [[predatory pricing]] to drive out small players);
* creating regulations which would raise the [[wages]] of ordinary workers, to redistribute wealth so that more people could purchase products.
The original implementation, in the form of the [[National Recovery Act]], brought in direct unemployment relief, and allowed:
* business to set price codes;
* the NRA board to set labor codes and standards;
* the Federal government to [[underwrite|insure]] the banking system and provide [[price support]]s for [[agriculture]] and [[mining]].
This is referred to as the [[First New Deal]]. It was centered around the use of the [[alphabet soup]] of agencies set up in 1933 and 1934, along with the use of previous agencies, to regulate and stimulate the economy.
The theories behind the New Deal matched the later prescriptions of British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]], who advocated increased government spending in a financial crisis. In 1929, federal expenditures constituted only 3% of the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditure tripled, and Roosevelt's critics accused him of turning America into a socialist, or even [[Stalinist]] state. The aims of the New Deal were as follows: to prevent the economy and banking system from going into a free fall; to provide effective relief until larger economic forces would end the slump; and to prevent those factors which had exacerbated the slump. The New Deal was both a program of national [[recovery]] and of [[reform movement|reform]]. An interesting insight into what motivated Roosevelt came from the transition from the Hoover administration &mdash; both men agreed that it was a global maladjustment of prices, debts and production that was causing the slump. The disagreement came over whether the US government should act first to try and negotiate an end to the root causes internationally, which was Hoover's view, or act for domestic recovery and reform until the international situation could be resolved, which was FDR's view.
The New Deal was rooted in new ideas, but also in economic orthodoxy of balanced budgets, and restraint of federal power. It represented bigger and broader government than ever before, but not as big as government would later become: spending on the New Deal was far smaller than on the war effort. In short, federal expenditures went from 3% of the GDP in 1929 to about 33% in [[1945]]. The big surprise was just how productive America became: spending financially cured the depression. Between 1939 and 1944 (the peak of wartime production), the nation's output more than doubled. Consequently, unemployment plummeted&mdash;from 19% in 1938 (already down from 1933's 24.9% peak) to 1.2% in 1944&mdash;as the labor force grew by ten million. The [[war economy]] showed just how large the fiscal stimulus required to end the downturn of the Depression was, and it led, at the time, to fears that as soon as America demobilized, that it would return to Depression conditions and industrial output would fall to its pre-war levels. There is general agreement that it was [[World War II]] which finally provided the United States Federal Government with the political will to buy its way out of the Depression and resolve the global [[monetary]] crisis by the imposition of the [[Bretton Woods system]].
Others like [[Milton Friedman]] and [[Friedrich von Hayek]], argued that the Great Depression did not resolve itself until after World War II, where the country's economy saw some form of normalcy: reductions in tariffs, lower taxes/spending, reduction of price controls, an end to rationing of goods. They, along with other microeconomists and free market thinkers, argue that the Great Depression was perpetuated by the New Deal's government influence into the economy, and also argued that the policy prescriptions under the Bretton Woods accord would create new economic problems of their own rather than solve current ones. They also argued that much of the regulation, legislation, and court rulings that came about during the great depression resulted in not the protection of competition but the protection of competitors at the expense of competition and consumers.
==Political Perspectives on Causes and Cures==
There are multiple competing interpretations about what caused the Great Depression. The debate is important because the public and policy makers ever since 1929 have demanded that such a disaster never again happen, so it is imperative to explain why. Economists do not agree on what caused the depression or what prolonged it. The '''political''' interpretations especially important in the USA are as follows:
====Microeconomists: restrictions to blame====
Many economists at the time argued that the sharp decline in international trade after 1930 helped to worsen the depression. Some also argued that the growing body of economic intervention after 1932 contributed to the markets inability to react to abrupt changes and kept unemployment high in some countries, such as the US. The British Empire promoted trade inside the Empire (and not with the U.S.A.) Germany promoted economic autarky in which countries received benefits (or threats) for trading with Germany.
====Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act to blame====
Most historians and economists assign the [[Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act]] of 1930 part of the blame for worsening the depression by reducing international trade and causing retaliation. As for the United States, foreign trade was a small part of overall economic activity; it was a much larger factor in most other countries. [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/depress.htm] The average ad valorem rate of duties on dutiable imports for 1921-1925 was 25.9% but under the new tariff it jumped to 50.0% in 1931-1935. In spite of the objection of more than a thousand members of the American Economic Association Hoover signed the tariff for several reasons. It embodied his recommendations of increased agricultural protection, and reorganizing the Tariff Commission. Hoover constantly praised the law for helping American farmers and the American home market; he ignored the threat to exporters. It became a major campaign issue in 1932, but Hoover rejected Roosevelt's charges that "the Hawley-Smoot Tariff is one of the most important factors in the present world-wide depression," and that
"it has destroyed international commerce." Hoover responded, "So they would have us believe this world catastrophe and this destruction of foreign trade happened because the United States increased tariff on one-fourth of one-third of one-eighth of the world's imports. Thus we pulled down the world, so they tell us, by increases of less than one per cent of the goods being imported by the world." [''Hoover State Papers'', II, 343]
In dollar terms American exports declined from $5.2 billion in 1929 to $1.7 billion in 1933; but prices also fell so the physical volume of exports did not decline as much. Hardest hit were farm commodities such as wheat, cotton, tobacco, and lumber. According to this theory, the collapse of farm exports caused many American farmers to default on their loans leading to the bank runs on small rural banks that characterized the early years of the Great Depression.
=====Monetarism: Federal reserve to blame=====
[[Milton Friedman]] and [[Ben Bernanke]] stress the negative role of the Federal Reserve System. It cut the money supply by one-third from 1929 to 1932. There was much less money to go around, businessmen could not get new loans--and could not even get their old loans renewed. They had to stop investing. Not because they did not want to (as the Keynesian model said), but because banks could not lend them the money they needed. This interpretation blames the government and calls for a much more careful Federal Reserve policy. Bernanke became the Chairman of the Federal Reserve System in 2006.
====The Far Left: capitalism to blame====
The revolutionary left, including some socialists, together with communists and anarchists, saw the Great Depression as the beginning of capitalism's final collapse. Their remedy was to build up their movements to take over the labor unions, and perhaps eventually the government. The New Deal did change the laws to help unions grow--but they split into warring AFL and CIO factions and neutralized much of their potential political influence. Unions grew even faster during the war.
====New Dealers: Business to Blame====
Roosevelt and most of the New Dealers primarily blamed the excesses of big business for causing an unstable bubble-like economy. The problem was that business had too much power, and the New Deal intended to remedy that by empowering labor unions and farmers (which they did), and by raising taxes on corporate profits (they tried and failed). Regulation of the economy was a favorite remedy. Some of those regulations, such as establishing the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] which regulates Wall Street, won widespread support a |
ce of Free Democrats]] (''Szabad Demokratak Szövetsege '')
{{IRL}}
*[[Progressive Democrats]]
{{ITA}}
*[[Italian Radicals|The Radicals]] (''I Radicali'')
*[[Italy of Values-List Di Pietro]] (''Italia dei Valori - Lista Di Pietro'')
*[[European Republican Movement]] (''Movimento Repubblicani Europei'')
*[[Italian Republican Party]] (''Partito Repubblicano Italiano'')
{{LVA}}
*[[Latvian Way]] (''Latvijas Ceļš'')
{{LIT}}
*[[Liberal and Centre Union]] (''Liberalų ir centro sąjunga'')
*[[New Union Social Liberals]] (''Naujoji sąjunga (socialliberalai)'')
{{LUX}}
*[[Democratic Party (Luxembourg)]] (''Demokratesch Partei'') (Democratic Party)
{{MKD}}
*[[Liberal Party of Macedonia]] (''Liberalna Partija na Makedonija'')
{{NLD}}
*[[Democrats 66]] (''Democraten 66'')
*[[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy]] (''Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie'')
{{NOR}}
*[[Left (Norway)|Liberal Party]] (''Venstre'')
{{POL}}
*[[Democratic Party - demokraci.pl]] (''Partia Demokratyczna - demokraci.pl'')
{{ROU}}
*[[National Liberal Party (Romania)|National Liberal Party]] (''Partidul Naţional Liberal'')
{{SCG}}
*[[Civic Alliance of Serbia]] (''Građjanski Savez Srbije'')
*[[Liberals of Serbia]] (''Liberali Srbije'')
{{SCG}} - [[Kosovo]]
*[[Liberal Party of Kosovo]] (''Partia Liberale e Kosoves'')
{{SVK}}
*[[Alliance of the New Citizen]] (''Aliancia Nového Občana'')
{{SVN}}
*[[Liberal Democracy of Slovenia]] (''Liberalna demokracija Slovenije'')
{{ESP}}
*[[Democratic Convergence of Catalonia]] (''Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya'')
{{SWE}}
*[[Centre Party (Sweden)|Centre Party]] (''Centerpartiet'')
*[[Liberal People's Party (Sweden)|Liberal People's Party]] (''Folkpartiet Liberalerna'')
{{CHE}}
*[[Free Democratic Party of Switzerland]] (''Freisinnig-Demokratische Partei/Parti Radical Démocratique'')
{{UK}}
*[[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]
*[[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland]]
== See also ==
* [[Political parties of the world]]
* [[Liberal International]]
* [[European Liberal Youth]]
==External links==
*[http://www.eldr.org/ European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (ELDR)] official site
*[http://www.lymec.org/ European Liberal Youth (LYMEC)]
{{EU_politics}}
[[Category:International liberal organizations]]
[[Category:Political parties in Europe|Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]]
[[cs:Evropská liberální, demokratická a reformní strana]]
[[da:ELDR]]
[[de:Europäische liberale demokratische und Reformpartei]]
[[es:Partido Europeo Liberal Demócrata Reformista]]
[[eo:Eŭropa Liberala Demokrata Reforma Partio]]
[[fr:Parti européen des libéraux, démocrates et réformateurs]]
[[nl:ELDR]]
[[pl:Partia Porozumienia Liberałów i Demokratów na rzecz Europy]]
[[fi:Euroopan liberaali- ja demokraattipuolue]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European People's Party - European Democrats</title>
<id>9866</id>
<revision>
<id>38829777</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T22:41:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gabbe</username>
<id>5894</id>
</contributor>
<comment>.png -> .svg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Epp-ed logo.jpg|right|EPP-ED logo]]
The '''European People's Party (Christian Democrats) and European Democrats''' is a group in the [[European Parliament]]. It is comprised of the '''[[European People's Party]]''' and the non-party subgroup '''[[European Democrats]]''' (not to be confused with the centrist [[European Democratic Party]]). The name of the grouping is abbreviated to '''EPP-ED'''.
In broad terms, EPP-ED is an alliance of [[Christian democrat]] and [[conservative]] parties.
The partnership between the EPP and ED began in May 1992. After the European Parliament elections in [[1999]] it became the largest faction with 233 of the 626 seats. After the elections of [[2004]] it remained the largest party with 268 of the 732 seats.
==Group members==
The EPP-ED is currently made up of the following parties:
{|border=1 cellpadding=5
|-
|'''Country'''||Party||[[List of Members of the European Parliament 2004-2009|MEPs]]||Subgroup
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Austria.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Austria|Austria]]||[[Österreichische Volkspartei]] (Austrian Peoples Party)|| 6 || [[European People's Party|EPP]]
|-
|rowspan=4 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Belgium.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Belgium|Belgium]]||([[Politics of Flanders|Flanders]]): [[Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams]] (Christian Democratic & Flemish)|| 3 || EPP
|-
|([[Politics of Flanders|Flanders]]): [[Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie]] (New Flemish Alliance)||1|| EPP
|-
|([[Wallonia]]): [[Centre démocrate Humaniste]] (Humanist Center Democrats)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|([[German-speaking community of Belgium|German]]): [[CSP-EVP|Christlich Soziale Partei]] (Christian Social Party)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Cyprus.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Cyprus|Cyprus]]||[[Democratic Rally|Dimokratikos Sinagermos]] (Democratic Rally)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[For Europe (Cyprus)|Gia tin Evropi]] (For Europe)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=4 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|20px]] [[Politics of the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]]||[[European Democrats (Czech Republic)|Evrop&scaron;tí demokraté]] (European Democrats)||2 || EPP
|-
|[[Christian Democratic Union - Czechoslovak People's Party|K&#345;es&#357;ansko-demokratická unie - &#268;eskoslovenská strana lidová]] (Christian Democratic Union - Czechoslovak People's Party)||2 || EPP
|-
|bgcolor=#DDDDDD|[[Civic Democratic Party|Ob&#269;anská demokratická strana]] (Civic Democratic Party) ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| 9 ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| [[European Democrats|ED]]
|-
|[[Union of Independents (Czech Republic)|SNK sdru&#382;ení nezávislých]] (Union of Independents)||1 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Denmark.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Denmark|Denmark]]||[[Det Konservative Folkeparti]] (The Conservative People's Party)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Estonia.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Estonia|Estonia]]||[[Isamaaliit]] (Fatherland Union)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Finland.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Finland|Finland]]||[[Kansallinen Kokoomus]] (National Coalition Party)|| 4 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of France.svg|20px]] [[Politics of France|France]]||[[Union pour un Mouvement Populaire]]|| 17 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Germany|Germany]]||[[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands]] (Christian Democratic Union)|| 40 || EPP
|-
|[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|Christlich Soziale Union in Bayern]] (Christian Social Union in Bavaria)|| 9 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Greece.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Greece|Greece]]||[[Nea Demokratia]] (New Democracy)|| 11 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Hungary.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Hungary|Hungary]]||[[Hungarian Civic Party|Fidesz - Magyar Polgári Szövetség]] (Hungarian Citizens' Party)|| 13 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Ireland.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Ireland|Ireland]]||[[Fine Gael]]|| 5 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=5 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Italy|Italy]]||[[Cristiani Democratici Uniti]] (United Christian Democrats)|| 5 || EPP
|-
|[[Forza Italia]] (Forward Italy)|| 16 || EPP
|-
|[[Alleanza Popolare-UDEUR]] (Popular Alliance)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|bgcolor=#DDDDDD|[[Partito dei Pensionati]] (Pensioners' Party)||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| 1 ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| ED
|-
|[[Südtiroler Volkspartei]] (South Tyrol People's Party)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Latvia.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Latvia|Latvia]]||[[New Era Party|Jaunais Laiks]] (New Era Party)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Tautas Partija]] (People's Party)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Lithuania.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Lithuania|Lithuania]]||[[TS-LK|T&#279;vyn&#279;s s&#261;junga -Lietuvos konservatoriai]] ((Homeland Union-Lithuanian Conservatives))|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Luxembourg.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]]||[[Christian Social People's Party|Chrëstlich Sozial Vollekspartei]] (Christian Social People's Party)|| 3 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Malta.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Malta|Malta]]||[[Partit Nazzjonalista]] (Nationalist Party)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px]] [[Politics of the Netherlands|Netherlands]]||[[Christen-Democratisch Appèl]] (Christian Democratic Appeal)|| 7 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 center=valign|[[Image:Flag of Poland.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Poland|Poland]]||[[Platforma Obywatelska]] (Citizens Platform)|| 15 || EPP
|-
|[[Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe]] (Polish Peasants' Party)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Portugal.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Portugal|Portugal]]||[[Partido Social Democrata]] (Party of Social Democrats)|| 7 || EPP
|-
|bgcolor=#DDDDDD|[[People's Party (Portugal)|Partido Popular]] (People's Party)||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| 2 ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| ED
|-
|rowspan=3 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Slovakia.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Slovakia|Slovakia]]||[[Magyar Koalicio Partja|Magyar Koalíció Pártja]] (Party of the Hungarian Coalition)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Krestansko-demokraticke hnutie|Kres&#357;ansko-demokratické hnutie]] (Christian Democratic Movement)|| 3 || EPP
|-
|[[Slovenská demokraticka a krestanska unia|Slovenská demokratická a kres&#357;anská únia]] (Slovak Democratic and Christian Union)|| 3 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=3 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Slovenia.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Slovenia|Slovenia]]||[[Nova Slovenija]] (New Slovenia, Christian People's Party)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Slovenska demokratska stranka]] (Slovenian Democratic Party)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Slovenska ljudska stranka]] (Slovene People's Party)|| 0 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Spain.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Spain|Spain]]||[[Partido Popular]] (People's Party)|| 24 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Sweden.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Sweden|Sweden]]||[[Moderaterna]] (Moderates)|| 4 || EPP
|-
|[[Kristdemokraterna]] (Christian D |
erve">[[Image:Hadrien-ven.JPG|thumb|A bust of Hadrian.]]
'''Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus''' ([[January 24]] [[76]]&ndash;[[July 10]] [[138]]), known as '''Hadrian''' in [[English language|English]], was [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[Roman Emperors|emperor]] from [[117]]&ndash;[[138]], and a member of the ''[[gens]]'' ''[[Aelius|Aelia]]''. Hadrian was the third of the "[[Five Good Emperors]]."However, he was, according to [[Elizabeth Speller]], the first Emperor whose assessment moved beyond the stereotype of good and bad emperors - his reign has a faltering beginning, a glorious middle but a tragic conclusion.{{ref|3phase}}.
Hadrian was born in [[Italica]], [[Baetica]] (originally [[Hispania]] Ulterior), to a well-established settler family which had originated in [[Picenum]] in [[Italy]]. He was a distant relative of his predecessor [[Trajan]]. Trajan never officially designated a successor, but, according to his wife, Trajan named Hadrian emperor immediately before his death. However, Trajan's wife was well-disposed toward Hadrian, and he may well have owed his succession to her.
==Early life==
Hadrian was born in [[Italica]], [[Baetica]], which today is near modern Seville, Spain. He was the son of the prominent [[Hispania Baetica|Baetican]] Publius Hadrianus Afer. His mother was Domitia [[Paulina]] of [[Gades]]. After his father died (probably in [[85]]) Hadrian became the ward of Acilius Attianus and the future Emperor Trajan{{ref|ward}}. Hadrian was schooled in various subjects particular to young [[aristocrat]]s of the day, and was so fond of learning [[Greece|Greek]] literature that he was nicknamed ''Graeculus'' ("Little Greek").
Hadrian enlisted in the army sometime in the reign of [[Domitian]]. His first service was as a [[tribune]] of the [[Legio II Adiutrix|Legio II ''Adiutrix'']]. Later, he was to be transferred to the [[Legio I Minervia|Legio I ''Minervia'']] in [[Germany]]. When [[Nerva]] died in [[98]], Hadrian rushed to inform Trajan personally. He later became [[legate]] of a [[Roman legion|legion]] in Upper [[Pannonia]] and eventually governor of said province. He was also [[archon]] in [[Athens]] for a brief time, and was elected an Athenian citizen.
Hadrian was active in the wars against the [[Dacia]]ns (as legate of the [[Legio V Macedonica|V ''Macedonica'']]) and reputedly won awards from Trajan for his successes. Due to an absence of military action in his reign, Hadrian's military skill is not well attested, however his keen interest and knowledge of the army and his demonstrated skill of administration show possible strategic talent.
Hadrian joined Trajan's expedition against Parthia as a legate on Trajan’s staff{{ref|legate}}. Neither during the initial victorious phase, nor during the second phase of the war when rebellion swept Mesopotamia did Hadrian do anything of note. However when the governor of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] had to be sent to sort out renewed troubles in Dacia, Hadrian was appointed as a replacement, giving him an independent command{{ref|syria}}. By now Trajan was seriously ill and he decided to return to Rome while Hadrian remained in [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] to guard the Roman rear. Trajan only got as far as [[Selinus]] before he became too ill to go further. Hadrian, however much he was the obvious successor had still not been adopted as Trajan's heir. As Trajan lay dying, nursed by his wife, a supporter of Hadrian, Plotina, he at last adopted Hadrian as heir. Then he died. Allegations that the order of events was the other way round have never quite been resolved{{ref|Allegations}}.{{ref|Allegations}}.
==Securing power==
Hadrian quickly secured the support of the legions - one potential opponent, [[Lusius Quietus]], was instantly dismissed{{ref|Quietus}}. The Senate's endorsement followed when possibly falsified papers of adoption from Trajan were presented. Nevertheless, this rumor of a falsified document of adoption carried little weight. The real source of Hadrian's legitimacy arose from the endorsement of the armies of Syria and the Senate ratification. It is speculated that Trajan's wife [[Plotina]] forged the papers as historical documents and show she was quite fond of Hadrian.
Hadrian did not at first go to Rome. He had his hands tied sorting out the East and suppressing the Jewish revolt that had broken out under Trajan--then moving to sort out the [[Danube]] frontier. Instead, Attianus, Hadrian's former guardian, was put in charge in Rome. There he "discovered" a plot involving four leading Senators including Lusius Quietus and demanded of the Senate their deaths. There was no question of a trial-- they were hunted down and killed out of hand. Because Hadrian was not in Rome at the time, he was able to claim that Attianus had acted on his own initiative. According to [[Elizabeth Speller]] the real reason for their deaths was that they were Trajan's men{{ref|thefour}}.
==Hadrian and the military==
[[Image:Hadrian.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Onyx cameo portrait of Hadrian]]
Despite his own excellence as a military administrator, Hadrian's reign was marked by a general lack of major military conflicts. He surrendered Trajan's conquests in [[Mesopotamia]], considering them to be indefensible. There was almost a war with [[Parthia]] around [[121]], but the threat was averted when Hadrian succeeded in negotiating a peace. Hadrian's army crushed a massive [[Bar Kokhba's revolt|Jewish uprising]] in [[Judea]] ([[132]]-[[135]]) led by [[Bar Kokhba]].
The peace policy was strengthened by the erection of permanent fortifications along the empire's borders (''limites'', [[singular|sl.]] ''limes''). The most famous of these is the massive [[Hadrian's Wall]] in [[Britain]], and the [[Danube]] and [[Rhine]] borders were strengthened with a series of mostly wooden [[fortification]]s, forts, [[outpost]]s and [[watchtower (fortification)|watchtower]]s, the latter specifically improving communications and local area security. To maintain morale and keep the troops from getting restive, Hadrian established intensive drill routines, and personally inspected the armies. And his coins showed military images almost as often as peaceful ones, Hadrian's policy was peace through strength, even threat{{ref|coin}}.
==Cultural pursuits and patronage==
[[Image:Mauzoleum Hadriana.jpg|thumb|[[Castel Sant'Angelo]], the ancient Hadrian [[Mausoleum]].]]
Above all Hadrian patronized the arts: [[Hadrian's Villa]] at Tibur ([[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]]) was the greatest Roman example of an [[Alexandria|Alexandrian]] garden, recreating a sacred landscape, lost in large part to the despoliation of the ruins by the [[Cardinal d'Este]] who had much of the marble removed to build [[Villa d'Este|his gardens]]. In [[Rome]], the [[Pantheon, Rome]] built by [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]] was enriched under Hadrian and took the form in which it remains to this day.
Hadrian took his architectural designs very seriously but it seems no one else did. [[Apollodorus of Damascus]], architect of the [[Forum of Trajan]], dismisses his designs. When [[Trajan]], predecessor to Hadrian, consults Apollodorus about an architectural problem, Hadrian interrupts to give advice to which Apollodorus replies, "Go away and draw your pumpkins. You know nothing about these problems." The pumpkins referred to Hadrian's drawings of domes like the Serapeum in his Villa. Once Hadrian succeeded Trajan to become emperor, he had Apollodorus exiled and later put to death.
Another one of Hadrian's contributions to the arts was the beard. The portraits of emperors up to this point were all clean shaven, idealized images of Greek athletes. Hadrian wore a beard as evidenced by all his portraits. Subsequent emperors would be portrayed with beards for more than a century and a half.
Hadrian was a humanist and deeply [[Hellenism|Hellenophile]] in all his tastes. While visiting Greece in [[125]] he attempted to create a kind of provincial [[parliament]] to bind all the semi-autonomous former city states across all Greece and [[Ionia]] (in [[Asia Minor]]). This parliament, known as the [[Panhellenion]], failed despite spirited efforts to instill cooperation among the Hellenes. Hadrian was especially famous for his [[Pederasty in Ancient Greece|love relationship]] with a Greek youth, [[Antinous]]. While touring [[Aegyptus (province)|Egypt]], Antinous mysteriously drowned in the [[Nile]] in [[130]]. Deeply saddened, Hadrian founded the Egyptian city of [[Antinopolis]]. Hadrian drew the whole Empire into his mourning, making Antinous the last new [[deity|god]] of [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]].
Hadrian died at his villa in [[Baiae]]. He was buried in a [[mausoleum]] on the western bank of the [[Tiber]], in [[Rome]], a building later transformed into a fortress, [[Castel Sant'Angelo]].
A fragment from the ''Roman History'' of [[Dio Cassius]] as translated by [[Earnest Cary]] in [[1925]] reads:
"After Hadrian's death there was erected to him a huge equestrian statue representing him with a four-horse chariot. It was so large that the bulkiest man could walk through the eye of each horse, yet because of the extreme height of the foundation persons passing along on the ground below believe that the horses themselves as well as Hadrian are very small."
==Hadrian's travels==
Much of Hadrian's reign was spent traveling. Even prior to becoming Emperor, he had traveled abroad with the Roman military, giving him much experience in the matter. More than half his reign was spent outside of Italy. Other emperors often left Rome to simply go to war, returning soon after conflicts concluded. A previous Emperor, [[Nero]], once traveled through Greece and was condemned for his self indulgence. Hadrian, by contrast, traveled as a fundamental part of his governing, and made this clear to the Roman senate and the people. He was able to do this because at Ro |
rcial failure when it was released and critics were divided.
The [[screenplay]] which the film was based was written by [[Colin Higgins]], and published as a [[novel]] in 1971. The movie was shot in Palo Alto, California, when it was a green, sleepy college town barely dotted with technology companies.
The movie has given two new words "harolding" (to hang around cemeteries) described by [[Douglas Coupland]] in "Harolding in [[West Vancouver]]" (1996) and "maudism" or "maudianism", the philosophy of living each day to the fullest.[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/madhayes/maude.html].
{{spoiler}}
==Summary==
The film first introduces us to Harold, an alienated 20 year-old young man from a [[wealth]]y family who lives in a large [[mansion]] with his dominating mother. Harold stages realistic mock-[[suicide]]s. This has evidently been going on for so long that his mother takes no notice, other than when Harold causes a particular mess with his fake [[blood]]. For amusement, Harold attends [[funeral]]s of people he doesn't know. At these he repeatedly sees Maude, a 79 year-old woman who befriends him. Maude is very much his opposite: a senior citizen, energetic, impulsive, and light-hearted. The two form an unlikely friendship, then romance. But on her 80th birthday, Maude decides to end her life by taking pills. Harold, sad at first, decides to crash his hearse off a cliff. But then you look up the cliff and see Harold, happy, on his way to live life just as Maude advised him to.
==Themes==
[[Hal Ashby]], the [[director (film)|director]] of the film, was part of the [[San Francisco]] [[youth]] culture, and his film posits the doomed youth of the alienated against the vital age of [[the Holocaust]] survivors. (At one point, Harold and the audience quickly see blue numbers [[tattoo]]ed on Maude's arm.) While Harold is part of a society where he can have no importance and no meaning, Maude has survived against [[totalitarianism]]. Against the backdrop of the [[Vietnam War]], Harold can only feel significant by dying. Maude, on the other hand, is a fictionalizer and a dreamer. She sees beauty where others see none, believes in the innate goodness of people (but not the State), and practices what she calls her own individual [[revolution]]. Her backstory is only hinted at in the film. She tells Harold at one point about [[Alfred Dreyfus]] seeing fantastic birds on [[Devil's Island]] and finding out later that they were only seagulls. She says that to her they would always be glorious birds.
==Cast==
* Marjorie Chardin (Maude): [[Ruth Gordon]]
* Harold Chasen: [[Bud Cort]]
* Mrs. Chasen: [[Vivian Pickles]]
* Glaucus: [[Cyril Cusack]]
* Uncle Victor: [[Charles Tyner]]
* Sunshine Doré: [[Ellen Geer]]
* Priest: [[Eric Christmas]]
* Psychiatrist: [[G. Wood]]
* Candy Gulf: [[Judy Engles]]
* Edith Phern: [[Shari Summers]]
* Motorcycle Officer: [[Tom Skerritt]] (as M. Borman)
==Crew==
* Cinematography by: [[John Alonzo]]
===Music===
The soundtrack is by [[Cat Stevens]], and includes two songs which he composed specifically for the movie and which were unavailable for several decades on vinyl or cassette (they were later released on the [[compact disc]] ''Footsteps in the Dark'').
==See Also==
*[[List of Counterculture Films]]
==External links==
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0067185/ The IMDb entry on ''Harold and Maude'']
*[http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/5862/harold.htm Harold and Maude, the unofficial homepage] by Mike Sullivan
*[http://ceh.kitoba.com/hook/kierkegaard.html Kierkegaard's Narrative]: Harold and Maude
*[http://www.norcalmovies.com/HaroldAndMaude/ Guide to shoot locations]
*[http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/01/10/BAGC5GKONG1.DTL Real Life Harold & Maude, San Francisco Chronicle, 1/10/06]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Habitus</title>
<id>13291</id>
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<id>42004618</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:08:19Z</timestamp>
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<ip>130.220.79.99</ip>
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<comment>/* Habitus in Bourdieu's Social Theory */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Habitus''' is a complex concept referring primarily to the non-discursive aspects of culture that bind individuals to larger groups.
==Origin of Concept==
Introduced by [[Marcel Mauss]] and further developed by [[Norbert Elias]] in the 1930s, habitus can sometimes be understood as those aspects of culture that are anchored in the body or daily practices of individuals, groups, societies, and nations. It includes the totality of learned habits, bodily skills, styles, tastes, and other non-discursive knowledges that might be said to "go without saying" for a specific group. One work that employs the concept of habitus in a specific context is James F. English's The Economy of Prestige: Prizes, Awards, and the Circulation of Cultural Value (Harvard UP 2005).
[For balance, more discussion of Elias, Mauss and others on Habitus needed here.]
==Habitus in Bourdieu's Social Theory==
The concept is sometimes (incorrectly) said to originate in the "genetic" structuralist theory of [[Pierre Bourdieu]], who adopts the concept and considerably expands its meaning. Bourdieu extended the scope of the term to include a person's [[belief]]s and dispositions.
The concept of habitus is foundational to Bourdieu’s theory of [[social research]]. Bourdieu combined a [[structuralist]] framework with close attention to [[subjectivity]] in [[social context]]. A key relationship in bridging [[objectivism]] and [[subjectivism]] in social research, for Bourdieu, is that between habitus and field via practices. To study the subjective-objective nature of [[social practices]], the researcher may take on the perspectives of both research subject and observer in kind of double participant observation, which combines the objective study of the world with [[reflexivity (sociology)|reflexive]] knowledge of the subject(s) of the study. The double objectification in his method is described by Jenkins (1992:50), “First, there is the work done in the act of observation and the objectification or distortion of social reality which it is likely to produce. Second, there is an awareness of that distortion and of the observer as a competent social actor in his/her own right.”
A problem with the conceptualization of habitus can be seen to enter in Bourdieu’s view of [[social life]] (or perhaps this is a strength). In Bourdieu's focus on practices and habitus, they are neither objectively [[determinism|determined]] nor products of [[free will]]. Habitus are cultural structures that exist in people’s bodies and minds. Fields are sets of relations in the world. Through practices, fields condition habitus and habitus inform fields. Practices mediate between the inside and outside. But, habitus cannot be directly observed, and habitus are conditioned structures.
In Bourdieu's theory, [[human agency|agency]] is not directly observable in practices or in the habitus, but only in the experience of subjectivity. Hence, some argue that Bourdieu’s project could be said to retain an objectivist bias from [[structuralism]]. Further, some critics charge that Bourdieu's "habitus" governs so much of an individual's social makeup that it significantly limits the concept of human agency. In Bourdieu's references to "habitus" it sometimes seems as if so much of an individual's disposition is predetermined by the social habitus that such pre-dispositions cannot be altered or left behind.
Defenders of Bourdieu argue that such critics have misunderstood and exaggerated the conservative extent of "habitus" in Bourdieu. Bourdieu allows agency its location within the bounded structures of society and self. And, Bourdieu advocates a method for researchers to include diverse cultural voices in their work.
Bourdieu's methodology, if imperfect in some theory aspects, and the [[structuration]] theory of [[Anthony Giddens|Giddens]] are two important contemporary efforts to advance social research methods which reconcile the division of subjectivity and objectivity which plagues the [[social sciences]].
==Further Reading==
*Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press.
*Elias, Norbert. The Civilizing Process.
*Jenkins, Richard. 1992. Pierre Bourdieu. London: Routledge.
*Mauss, Marcel. 1936. "Les techniques du corps," Sociologie et anthropologie. Paris: PUF.
[[Category:Sociology]]
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<page>
<title>Hypoxia (medical)</title>
<id>13292</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:54:40Z</timestamp>
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<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|hypoxemia}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Hypoxia |
ICD10 = |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|799.0}} |
}}
'''Hypoxia''' is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole ('''generalized hypoxia''') or region of the body ('''tissue hypoxia''') is deprived of adequate [[oxygen]] supply. Hypoxia in which there is complete deprivation of oxygen supply is referred to as '''anoxia'''.
Hypoxia is often associated with high altitudes, where it is called [[altitude sickness]]. Hypoxia can also occur while diving underwater, especially with closed-circuit [[rebreather]] systems that control the amount of oxygen i |
France<br>
Greece<br>
Morocco<br>
Poland<br>
Romania<br>
Slovakia<br>
Slovenia<br>
Sweden<br>
Thailand<br>
Uruguay<br>
|<!-- 16 -->
Algeria<br>
Andorra<br>
Antigua<br>
Argentina<br>
Australia<br>
Belgium<br>
Finland<br>
Great Britain<br>
Hong&nbsp;Kong<br>
India<br>
Israel<br>
Jersey<br>
Latvia<br>
Netherlands<br>
New Zealand<br>
Norway<br>
Puerto&nbsp;Rico<br>
Russia<br>
Singapore<br>
South&nbsp;Africa<br>
Switzerland<br>
Taiwan<br>
Ukraine<br>
United&nbsp;States<br>
Venezuela<br>
|<!-- 17 -->
Indonesia<br>
Ireland<br>
Northern&nbsp;Ireland<br>
|<!-- 18 -->
Egypt<br>
Kazakhstan<br>
Pakistan<br>
Tanzania<br>
Turkey<br>
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Vietnam<br>
|<!-- 20 -->
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|}
Age of consent in various countries:
<!-- Attention editors: if you alter any information in this section please provide a link to an authority or cite the appropriate law. See talk page heading "The Age of Consent Challenge" -->
* [[Albania]]: 14
* [[Algeria]]: 16; homosexual relationships are illegal
* [[Andorra]]: 16
* [[Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua]]: 16; homosexual relationships are illegal
* [[Argentina]]:
** 13 (below that it's considered [[rape]] - ''See Art. 119 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#17 Argentine Penal Code (in spanish)]'');
** 16, if abusing sexual immaturity or in some other cases ("''Estupro''", which is less severe than [[rape]] - ''See Art. 120 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#17 Argentine Penal Code (in spanish)]'').
** Prosecutable only after a complaint by the minor, or by their parents/guardians. (Article 72 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#12 Argentine Penal Code])
** No "corruption" of minors (below 18) - ''See Art. 125 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#17 Argentine Penal Code (in spanish)]''.
* [[Australia]]:
** Australia is a Federation of States and Territories. Australia's Constitution protects and retains certain residual powers for the States and so the Australian Federal Government (the Commonwealth) has constitutional limitations on what issues it can legislate. This means that each State has its own laws regarding AOC. However, it is worth mentioning that a 1997 Federal Government and the United Nations Human Rights Committee ruling caused each State to repeal any differences in homo/heterosexual AOC. This is due to International Affairs being a power of the Commonwealth.
** Federal Laws (Laws that apply to all Australians): It is an offence for an Australian Citizen, Resident or Body Corporate [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50ad.html {s50AD}] ''while outside of Australia'' to have sexual intercourse with a child '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50ba.html {s50BA}] or to induce a child under 16 to have sexual intercourse [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50bb.html {s50BB}], or be somehow involved in a similar sexual act [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50bc.html {s50BC}]&[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50bd.html {s50BD}]
** [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT): It is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/act/consol_act/ca190082/s55.html {s55(2)}]. However the law in the ACT does permit as a defence if brought to court, an age difference of 2 years for those older than 10 years [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/act/consol_act/ca190082/s55.html {s55(3b)}].
** [[New South Wales]]: It is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s66c.html {s66C}] or attempt such an offence [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s66d.html {s66d}]. Further it is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s73.html {s73}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera).
** [[Northern Territory]]: It is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/cca115/sch1.html {s127}] or attempt such an offence [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/cca115/sch1.html {s131}]. Further it is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/cca115/sch1.html {s128}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera).
** [[Queensland]] (Qld.): It is an offence to have carnal knowledge with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/qld/consol_act/cc189994/s215.html {s215}]. '''Note''' that in Qld. “carnal knowledge” does not include “sodomy”. Sodomy ([[anal sex]]) is not permitted with any person '''under the age of 18''', regardless of gender or what position is taken by which individual [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/qld/consol_act/cc189994/s208.html {s208}].
** [[South Australia]]: It is an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 17''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(3)}]. However it is a defence if both parties were 16 at the time of the offence [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(4)}] or if both parties are married to one another [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(8)}]. Further it is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(5)}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera).
** [[Tasmania]]: It is an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 17''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/tas/consol%5fact/cca1924115/s13.html {s13-124}]. However it is a defence if no anal sex occurred and the younger person was of or above 12 years and the older was not more than 3 years their senior or, if no anal sex occured and the younger person was of or above 15 years and the older was not more than 5 years their senior [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/tas/consol%5fact/cca1924115/s13.html {s13-124(3)}].
** [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]: It is an offence to take part in sexual penetration with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s45.html {s45(1)}]. However it is a defence if the younger party was aged 10 or more years and the older party was not more than 2 years older [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s45.html {s45(4)(b)}]. Further it is an offence to take part in sexual penetration with a '''16 or 17''' year old person if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s48.html {s48}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera).
** [[Western Australia]]: It is an offence to sexually penetrate a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/cc94/s321.html {s321}]. Further it is an offence to sexually penetrate a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/cc94/s322.html {s322}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera).
* [[Austria]]: 14 (as of [[August 13]], [[2002]])
* [[Belgium]]: 16 (possible restrictions apply under 18)
* [[Brazil]]:
** 18;
** 14-17 prosecutable only after a complaint by the minor.
** Under 14 there seems to be some confusion regarding the age below which the state may unilaterally bring charges without a complaint from the child or parent. Some sources suggest it is 12, others 10.
* [[Bulgaria]]: 14
* [[Canada]]: 14 (18 for anal sex between persons not married to each other in all provinces except Ontario and Quebec; 18 for anyone in a position of "trust or authority")
** Courts in Ontario (1995) and Quebec (1998) independently declared Section 159 of the Criminal Code of Canada (Anal Intercourse) unconstitutional. Although not binding in other provinces, these rulings have set a precedent that would make successful prosecution elsewhere in Canada unlikely.
** Persons under 18 are still deemed unable to consent to sexual activity in certain contexts, such as prostitution or pornography; or with certain persons in a position of authority.
** Sex between partners that are within two years of age of each other is always legal unless the age of consent is 18 due to one of the conditions specified above. (14 and 15 year olds are granted an exemption if their partner is less than two years younger than them, 12 and 13 year olds specifically cannot be charged with a violation of the age of consent law, and 11 year olds and under cannot be charged with a crime in Canada.)
* [[Chile]]: 14
* [[China|China, People's Republic of]]: 14
** [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong S.A.R.]]: male homosexual 21 (and both the older AND younger partners can be prosecuted and liable to imprisonment for life) [gay sex laws recently overturned by court], lesbian 16, heterosexual 16.
* [[Republic of China|China, Republic of; (Taiwan)]]: 16, including heterosexual and homosexual relationships
* [[Colombia]]: 14
* [[Croatia]]: 14 or 18
* [[Czech Republi |
pede]] was inaugurated in 1912 by [[Guy Weadick]], an American trick roper. Weadick wanted to put on a world-class rodeo event and Wild West show that would bring the best cowboys from across the continent. The first Stampede was the richest rodeo competition in North America with prize money totaling $20,000. It drew more than 100,000 spectators. In 1923, the Stampede was combined with the Calgary Exhibition and the chuckwagon races were added. In 2004, the rodeo prize money was doubled to $1 million to put the Stampede on par with other major rodeos such as the National Finals Rodeo.
In 2005, attendance at the 10-day rodeo and exhibition totalled 1,242,928, which set a new record. Attendance at the "Stampede Parade" (North America's second longest parade), which takes place downtown on opening day is usually somewhere between 300,000 and 400,000. During Stampede Week, many of the city's residents dress in country attire, and many businesses decorate their stores and offices in this "western" style.
==Sights==
[[Image:Stephen_Avenue.jpg |thumb|left|Stephen Avenue]]
[[Downtown Calgary|Calgary's downtown]] can easily be recognized by its numerous [[List of Calgary's 10 tallest skyscrapers|skyscrapers]]. To connect many of the downtown office buildings, the city also boasts the world's most extensive [[skyway]](skywalk) network (elevated indoor pedestrian bridges), officially called the [[Plus 15|+15]]. The name derives from the fact that the bridges are usually 15 feet above grade. The city's downtown also features an eclectic mix of restaurants and bars, cultural venues, shopping (most notably, TD Square, [[Eaton Centre (Canada)|Calgary Eaton Centre]], Stephen Avenue, and [[Beltline#Uptown 17th Avenue|17th Avenue]]), and public squares such as Olympic Plaza. Downtown tourist attractions include the [[Calgary Zoo]], the [[TELUS World of Science, Calgary|TELUS World of Science]], the [[TELUS Convention Centre]], the [[Chinatown, Calgary|Chinatown]] district, the [[Glenbow Museum]], the [[Calgary Tower]], the Art Gallery of Calgary (AGC), the [[EPCOR Centre for the Performing Arts]], and Eau Claire Market. At 2.5 acres (10,000 m&sup2;), the [[Devonian Gardens]] is one of the largest urban indoor gardens in the world, and it is located on the 4th floor of TD Square (above the shopping). The [[Downtown Calgary|downtown region]] is also home to Prince's Island Park, an urban park located just north of the Eau Claire district. Directly to the south of downtown is [[Beltline#Midtown|Midtown]] and the [[Beltline]]. This area is quickly becoming one of the city's densest and most active mixed use areas. At the district's core is the popular "[[Beltline#Uptown 17th Avenue|17th Avenue]]", which is known for its many bars and nightclubs, restaurants, and shopping venues. During the [[Calgary Flames]]' playoff run in 2004, 17th Avenue was frequented by over 50,000 fans and supporters per game night. The concentration of notorious red jersey-wearing fans led to the street's playoff moniker, the "Red Mile". [[Downtown Calgary]] is easily accessed using the city's [[C-Train]] rapid transit system.
On the west side of the city, on the banks of the [[Glenmore Reservoir]], is [[Heritage Park|Heritage Park Historical Village]]. Highlights include a working steam train, a historic Calgary streetcar shuttle from the lower parking lots, and an antique midway. The village is comprised of historic buildings relocated from Southern Alberta towns, or in many cases, replicas of these buildings. Other major city attractions include [[Canada Olympic Park]] (and the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame), Calaway Park amusement park, and Race City Motorsport Park. In addition to the many shopping areas in the city centre, there are a number of large suburban shopping complexes in Calgary. Among the largest are [[Chinook Centre]] and Southcentre in the south, WestHills and Signal Hill in the southwest, Market Mall in the northwest, and Sunridge Mall in the northeast.
===Attractions and landmarks===
{| width = 75% border="1" cellpadding="4" align="center" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
| width = 30% align="left"| <center>'''''Northwest'''''</center>
*[[University of Calgary]]
*[[Southern Alberta Jubilee Auditorium]]
*[[McMahon Stadium]] <small>- Home of <br>[[Calgary Stampeders]] ([[Canadian Football League|CFL]])</small>
| width = 30% align="left" | <center>'''''North'''''</center>
*[[Nose Hill Park]]
<br>
<br>
| width = 30% align="left" | <center>'''''Northeast'''''</center>
* [[Calgary International Airport]]
<br>
|-
| width = 30% align="left"| <center>'''''West'''''</center>
*[[Canada Olympic Park]] and <br>Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame
*[[Calaway Park]]<br> Amusement Park
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
| width = 30% align="left" | <center>'''''[[Downtown Calgary|Downtown]]'''''</center>
*[[TELUS World of Science, Calgary]]
*[[Fairmont Palliser Hotel|Palliser Hotel]]
*[[Calgary Tower]]
*[[Devonian Gardens]]
*[[TELUS]] Convention Centre
*[[Fort Calgary|Fort Calgary Historic Site]]
*City Hall and Olympic Plaza
*[[Glenbow Museum]]
*[[Petro-Canada Centre]]
*[[Police Interpretive Centre]]
*[[EPCOR Centre for the Performing Arts]]
| width = 30% align="left" | <center>'''''East'''''</center>
*[[Calgary Zoo]]
[[Image:CalgaryzooRain.JPG|175px|center]]
<br>
<br>
|-
| width = 30% align="left" | <center>'''''Southwest'''''</center>
*[[Glenmore Reservoir]]
*[[Heritage Park|Heritage Park Historical Village]]
*[[Spruce Meadows]]
*[[Battalion Park]]
<br>
<br>
<br>
| width = 30% align="left" | <center>'''''South'''''</center>
*[[Calgary Stampede|Calgary Stampede Grounds]]
*[[Pengrowth Saddledome]] <small>- Home of <br>[[Calgary Flames]] ([[National Hockey League|NHL]])</small>
*[[Museum of the Regiments]]
*[[Naval Museum of Alberta]]
*[[Chinook Centre]] Mall
*[[Fish Creek Provincial Park]]
| width = 30% align="left" | <center>'''''Southeast'''''</center>
*[[Race City Speedway]]
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
|}<br />
==== Calgary's skyline ====
[[Image:Calgary-22.jpg |thumb|right|Calgary's skyline as seen from the east]]
{{main|List of Calgary's 10 tallest skyscrapers}}
Calgary's skyline is very recognizable. This is due in large part to the presence of numerous skyscrapers in and around [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]]. Some of these structures, such as the [[Calgary Tower]] are unique enough to be symbols of Calgary. As a major business centre with a population of just over a million people, this is not suprising. Office buildings tend to concentrate within the commercial core while residential towers occur most frequently within the Downtown West End and the [[Beltline]], south of downtown. These buildings are iconographic of the city's booms and busts, and it is easy to recognize the various phases of development that have shaped the image of downtown. The first skyscraper building boom occured during the late 1950s and continued through to the 1970s. After 1980, during a major recession, many highrise construction projects were immediately halted. It was not until the late 1980s and through to the early 1990s that major construction began again.
In total, there are 8 office towers that are 40 floors or higher. The tallest of these (the [[Petro-Canada Centre]]), is the tallest office tower in Canada outside of [[Toronto]].
==Demographics==
According the 2001 [[Statistics Canada]] federal census, there were '''878,866''' people living within the City of Calgary proper. Of this population, 49.9 per cent were male and 50.1 per cent were female. Children under five accounted for approximately 6.0 per cent of the resident population of Calgary. This compares with 6.2 per cent in [[Alberta]], and almost 5.6 per cent for [[Canada]] overall.
In 2001, 9.0 per cent of the resident population in Calgary were of retirement age (65 and over for males and females) compared with 13.2 per cent in [[Canada]], therefore, the average age is 34.9 years of age comparing to 37.6 years of age for all of Canada.
In the five years between 1996 and 2001, Calgary's population grew by 15.8 percent. This is contrasted with an increase of 10.3 percent for the province of [[Alberta]]. The population density of Calgary averaged 1,252.3 persons per square kilometre, compared with an average of 4.6, for the province.
*[[Caucasian race|Caucasian]]: 688,465 or 79.0%
*[[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]]: 51,540 or 5.9%
*[[Asia|Other Asian]] (Including [[Indies|East Indian]]): 59,295 or 6.8%
*[[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]]: 19,765 or 2.3%
*[[Philippines|Filipino]]: 16,245 or 1.9%
*[[Black (people)|Black]]: 13,370 or 1.5%
*[[Latin American]]: 8,525 or 1.0%
*Other: 18,955 or 2.2%
(based on single responses)
Calgary is the main city of [[Division No. 6, Alberta|Census Division No. 6]] and the [[Calgary Region|Calgary Regional Partnership]].
''Statistics are from the 2001 [[Statistics Canada]] census [http://www.statcan.ca/].''
''A city-administered census, conducted annually to assist in negotiating financial agreements with the provincial and federal governemnts, showed a population of just over '''956,000''' in 2005. The population of the Calgary [[Census Metropolitan Area]] is just over '''1.05 million'''. The [[Calgary Region|Calgary Economic Region]] posted a population of just under '''1.15 million''' in 2005.''
==Political scene==
[[Image:CalgaryCityHall.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[clock tower]] of Calgary's ''Old City Hall'' (built in 1911), with |
nary attitudes).
From the disciplinary perspective, much interdisciplinary work is "soft," lacking in rigor, or ideologically motivated; these beliefs place barriers in the career paths of those who choose interdisciplinary work. For example, interdisciplinary grant applications are often refereed by [[peer review|peer reviewers]] drawn from established [[Academic discipline|disciplines]]; not surprisingly, interdisciplinary researchers may experience difficulty getting funding for their research. In addition, untenured researchers know that, when they seek [[promotion]] and [[tenure]], it is likely that some of the evaluators will lack commitment to interdisciplinarity. They may fear that making a commitment to interdisciplinary research will increase the risk of being denied tenure.
Interdisciplinary programs may fail if they are not given sufficient autonomy. For example, it is a common practice to recruit new interdisciplinary faculty to a [[joint appointment]], with responsibilities in both an interdisciplinary program (such as [[women's studies]]) and a traditional discipline (such as [[history]]). If the traditional discipline makes the tenure decisions, new interdisciplinary faculty will be hesitant to commit themselves fully to interdisciplinary work.
Due to the existence of these and other barriers, interdisciplinary research areas are strongly motivated to become disciplines themselves. If they succeed, they can establish their own research funding programs and make their own tenure and promotion decisions. In so doing, they lower the risk of entry. Examples of former interdisciplinary research areas that have become disciplines include [[neuroscience]], [[biochemistry]], and [[biomedical engineering]].
==New interdisciplinary programs==
Universities worldwide recognize that, in order to address the problems facing humanity today, they must increase their commitment to interdisciplinarity. For example, a grass-roots effort by faculty and students at [[Stanford University]] resulted in a new program called [[Bio-X]], which explores the intersections among biology, computer science, medicine, and engineering. The program is housed in the [[Clark Center]], which opened in 2003. Situated along the pathways between the university and the medical center, the Clark Center is designed to both express and facilitate the concept of interdisciplinarity. Each lab is equipped with at least two scientists from each of the participating disciplines, but they are by no means fixed: for example, walls can be moved (or eliminated), and all equipment is on wheels. The entire building is designed to facilitate interdisciplinary communication and to accommodate new, rapid, and unexpected growth as it occurs.
A similar program has recently been instituted at [[Truman State University]] in Kirksville, Missouri. Undergraduate students must apply for acceptance into the program, and in the process design their own major using available courses in disciplinary programs. The major requires students take only two courses: an introductory course to interdisciplinary studies (focusing on the theory of interdisciplinarity) and a senior capstone (focusing on synthesis/praxis). The first class of IDSM majors at the school were: Rhetoric and Power, Philosophy in Literature, and Gender in Politics, though recently Biochemistry, Medieval Studies, and East Asian Studies were proposed.
== Relation to holism ==
Interdisciplinarity is a typical trait of [[Holism|holistic]] approaches in science. Not all scientists that are committed to interdisciplinarity consider themselves holists, however, as the term "holism" can carry negative connotations. {{See|Holism in science}}
== See also ==
Highly interdisciplinary fields (see also: [[:Category:Interdisciplinary fields]])
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[American studies]]
* [[Biomedical engineering]]
* [[Biomedical informatics]]
* [[Biomedical technology]]
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Computer graphics]]
* [[Cybernetics]]
* [[Film studies]]
* [[Integrative learning]]
* [[Intelligence (information gathering)|Intelligence analysis]]
* [[Liberal arts college|Liberal arts]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Library and information science]]
* [[Media studies]]
* [[Nanotechnology]]
* [[Nativist theorizing]]
* [[Political economy]]
* [[Science studies]]
* [[Science and technology studies]]
* [[Systems theory]]
* [[Women's studies]]
{{col-end}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.units.muohio.edu/aisorg/ Association for Integrative Studies]
* [http://members.door.net/arisbe/menu/library/aboutcsp/awbrey/integrat.htm Awbrey, S. and Awbrey, J. (1999), "Integrative Universities"], ''2nd International Conference of the Journal "Organization"'', UMASS, Amherst, 17-[[19 September]] [[1999]].
* [http://www.manchester.ac.uk/cidra/ Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in the Arts (University of Manchester)]
* [http://www.shef.ac.uk/philosophy/department/hangseng/ Hang Seng Centre for Cognitive Studies]
* [http://sciencecareerst.sciencemag.org/career_development/issue/articles/2100/interdisciplinarity_and_tenure/ Interdisciplinarity and tenure]
* Johnston, R. (2003). [http://www.cia.gov/csi/kent_csi/pdf/v47i1a06p.pdf Integrating methodologists into teams of substantive experts]. ''Studies in Intelligence 47''(1).
[[de:Interdisziplinarität]]
[[nl:Interdisciplinariteit]]
[[sl:interdisciplinarnost]]
[[Category:Interdisciplinary fields| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Immediate subordinate</title>
<id>15202</id>
<revision>
<id>15912693</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-10T21:42:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.158.106.24</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Hierarchy]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hierarchy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Immediate superior</title>
<id>15203</id>
<revision>
<id>15912694</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-10T21:42:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.158.106.24</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Hierarchy]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hierarchy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet in Art</title>
<id>15204</id>
<revision>
<id>15912695</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-15T07:17:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[internet art]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[internet art]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Insertion sort</title>
<id>15205</id>
<revision>
<id>41979239</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:37:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Allan McInnes</username>
<id>647621</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ link to LiteratePrograms implementations</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Insertion sort''' is a simple [[sort algorithm]], a [[comparison sort]] in which the sorted array (or list) is built one entry at a time. It is much less efficient on large lists than the more advanced algorithms such as [[quicksort]], [[heapsort]], or [[merge sort]], but it has various advantages:
* Simple to implement
* Efficient on (quite) small data sets
* Efficient on data sets which are already substantially sorted
* More efficient in practice than most other simple [[big O notation|O]](''n''<sup>2</sup>) algorithms such as [[selection sort]] or [[bubble sort]]: the average time is ''n''<sup>2</sup>/4 and it is linear in the best case
* [[Stable sort|Stable]] (does not change the relative order of elements with equal keys)
* [[In-place algorithm|In-place]] (only requires a constant amount O(1) of extra memory space)
* It is an [[online algorithm]], in that it can sort a list as it receives it.
In abstract terms, each iteration of an insertion sort removes an element from the input data, inserting it at the correct position in the already sorted list, until no elements are left in the input. The choice of which element to remove from the input is arbitrary and can be made using almost any choice algorithm.
Sorting is typically done in-place. The result array after ''k'' iterations contains the first ''k'' entries of the input array and is sorted.
In each step, the first remaining entry of the input is removed, inserted into the result at the right position, thus extending the result:
[[Image:insertionsort-before.png | The array right before insertion of x]]
becomes:
[[Image:insertionsort-after.png | The array right after insertion of x]]
with each element > ''x'' copied to the right as it is compared against ''x''.
The most common variant, which operates on arrays, can be described as:
# Suppose we have a method called ''insert'' designed to insert a value into a sorted sequence at the beginning of an array. It operates by starting at the end of the sequence and shifting each element one place to the right until a suitable position is found for the new element. It has the side effect of overwriting the value stored immediately after the sorted sequence in the array.
# To perform insertion sort, start at the left end of the array and invoke ''insert'' to insert each element encountered into its correct position. The ordered sequence into which we insert it is stored at the beginning of the array in the set of indexes already examined. Each insertion overwrites a single value, but this is okay because it's the value we're inserting.
A simple pseudocode version of the complete algorithm follows, where the arrays are zero-based:
<u>insert</u>(''array'' a, ''int'' length, value) {
''int'' i := length - 1;
'''while''' (i &ge; 0 '''and''' a[i] > value) {
a[i + 1] := a[i];
i := i - 1;
}
a[ |
[[Doctor Who spin-offs|spin-off]] novels seem to take the stance that Gallifrey is in the relative past.
==Geography==
From space, Gallifrey is seen as a yellow-orange planet. The Doctor's granddaughter [[Susan Foreman|Susan]] described it as having bright, silver-leafed trees and a burnt orange sky. This casts an amber tint on anything outside the city, as seen in ''[[The Invasion of Time]]'' ([[1978]]), although Gallifrey's sky appeared blue and [[Earth]]-like in ''[[The Five Doctors]]'' ([[1983]]). It is close enough to central space lanes for spacecraft to require clearance from Gallifreyan Space Traffic Control as they pass through its system. The planet was also seen for a few seconds on the TARDIS display in the [[Doctor Who (1996)|1996 ''Doctor Who'' television movie]].
Gallifrey is surrounded by an impenetrable force field called the transduction barrier. This prevents all outsiders (with hostile intent, or otherwise) from approaching the planet and allows the Time Lords to maintain their status of absolute neutrality, letting them observe the actions of the rest of the Universe without actually taking part in its affairs. The barrier was breached once during ''The Invasion of Time'' by the [[Sontaran]]s, when it was sabotaged from within.
Gallifrey is also the name of its major city, the Citadel, which holds the Capitol of the Time Lords. The Capitol is also known as the [[Panopticon]], under which the [[Eye of Harmony]], the [[Black_hole#The_singularity|nucleus]] of a [[black hole]], is kept. The Eye provides the power required for [[time travel]], and all Time Lord [[TARDIS]] time machines draw their power from it. Also situated in the Capitol is the [[Matrix (Doctor Who)|Matrix]], the vast extradimensional computer network which acts as the repository of all Time Lord knowledge as well as containing the memories of dead Time Lords.
Outside the city lie wastelands where the Shobogans, or "Outsiders", Gallifreyans who do not belong to the Time Lord elite, live in less technological tribal communities. The wastes of Gallifrey include the Death Zone, an area that was used as a [[gladiator|gladiatorial]] arena by the first Time Lords, pitting various species kidnapped from their respective time zones against each other (although [[Dalek]]s and [[Cyberman|Cybermen]] were considered too dangerous to use). Inside the Death Zone stands the Tomb of [[Rassilon]], the founder of Time Lord society.
==History==
Various [[Doctor Who spin-offs|spin-off]] novels and audio plays have expanded on the history and nature of Gallifrey, although many fans do not consider the information in them to be [[canon (fiction)#Doctor Who|canon]]. For more on general Time Lord history, see [[Time Lord#History within the show|here]].
{{spoiler}}
In the [[BBC Books]] novel ''[[The Ancestor Cell]]'' by [[Peter Anghelides]] and [[Stephen Cole (writer)|Stephen Cole]], Gallifrey was destroyed as a result of the [[Eighth Doctor]]'s desire to prevent the voodoo cult [[Faction Paradox]] from starting a war between the Time Lords and an unnamed Enemy. This also apparently (and retroactively) wiped the Time Lords from history. It is unclear what the attitude of the new ''Doctor Who'' television series is toward the information in the novels and audio plays, the latter produced by [[Big Finish Productions]]. However, a number of writers of the novels and audio plays are also writing for the new television series.
In the last regular Eighth Doctor novel, ''[[The Gallifrey Chronicles]]'' by [[Lance Parkin]], it was revealed that while Gallifrey was destroyed, the Time Lords were not erased from history. However, the cataclysm set up an [[event horizon]] in time that prevented anyone from entering Gallifrey's relative past or travelling from it to the present or future. The Time Lords also survived within the Matrix, which had been downloaded into the Eighth Doctor's mind, but their reconstruction required a sufficiently advanced computer. At the novel's end, the question of whether or not the Time Lords would be restored remained unanswered. However, it can be assumed that both they and the planet were restored at some point before the start of [[2005]] series if the novels are to remain consistent with the new series' continuity.
In the 2005 season episode ''[[The End of the World (Doctor Who)|The End of the World]]'', the [[Ninth Doctor]] stated that his home planet &mdash; not mentioned by name, but presumably Gallifrey &mdash; was destroyed in a war and that he is the last of the Time Lords. However, the episode also indicated that the Time Lords are remembered in the far future.
Subsequently, in ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'', it was revealed that the last great [[Time War (Doctor Who)|Time War]] was fought between the Time Lords and the [[Dalek]]s, ending in the obliteration of both sides and with only two apparent survivors; the Doctor and a lone Dalek that had somehow fallen through time and crashed on [[Earth]]. At the conclusion of that episode, that surviving Dalek self-destructed, leaving the Doctor believing that he was the sole survivor of the Time War. However, as the Daleks returned in the two-part 2005 series finale, ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'', the fate of the Time Lords may not be as definitive as well.
==''Gallifrey'' audio series==
''Gallifrey'' is also the umbrella title of a line of audio plays set in the ''Doctor Who'' universe, produced by [[Big Finish Productions]], featuring [[Louise Jameson]] as [[Leela (Doctor Who)|Leela]], [[Lalla Ward]] as President [[Romana#Romana II|Romana]], and [[John Leeson]] as two [[K-9 (Doctor Who)|K-9]] units, Mark I and Mark II. Two series have been released.
The ''Gallifrey'' series focuses on political struggles within the leadership of the Time Lords, centred around Romana's presidency. In the first series, Romana's progressive policies and desires to open Gallifrey up to the outside universe are faced with opposition from more conservative cultures. In addition, a terrorist group known as "Free Time", who want to break the monopoly on time travel technology shared among the Time Lords and the few other temporal powers, steals a timeonic fusion device. The inquiry into the Romana's handling of the incident reveals a dark secret surrounding the Time Lords' policy of non-intervention.
The second series sees the admission of non-Gallifreyans into the Time Lord Academy, leading to even more tension within the Time Lord political elite. Romana has to deal with Free Time infiltrators as well as an attempted coup by [[Inquisitor (Doctor Who)|Inquisitor Darkel]] (from ''[[The Trial of a Time Lord]]'', played once again by [[Lynda Bellingham]]). In addition, an ancient Gallifreyan evil returns: Pandora, a megalomaniacal former President who lives on in the Matrix and manipulates Romana and others with the goal of regaining life and power. At the end of the second series, Pandora manages to manifest herself in the form of Romana's [[Romana#Romana I|first incarnation]] (played once again by [[Mary Tamm]]). Both Romanas claim the title of Imperiatrix, absolute ruler of Gallifrey, and this sets the planet on the verge of civil war.
A third (and possibly final) series is currently being written, but is as yet unscheduled.
==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/willbswift/ Rassilon, Omega, and that Other guy] &mdash; every fact about Gallifrey no matter how apocryphal
[[Category:Doctor Who planets]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gymnastics</title>
<id>12551</id>
<revision>
<id>41590158</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:45:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tlusťa</username>
<id>649807</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+[[cs:Gymnastika]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gymnastics''' is a [[sport]] involving the performance of sequences of movements requiring physical strength, flexibility, and kinesthetic awareness, such as [[handspring (Gymnastics)|handspring]]s and [[handstand]]s. It developed from fitness exercises used by ancient [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] soldiers, including skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and circus performance skills. It is often considered a dangerous sport, as the difficult acrobatic maneuvers often performed on equipment high above the ground puts the athlete at risk of serious injury.
Modern gymnastics, as regulated by the [[Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique]] incorporates six distinct disciplines:
*[[Artistic gymnastics]] (further classified as MAG and WAG)
*[[Rhythmic gymnastics]]
*[[Aerobics|Sports aerobics]]
*[[Sports acrobatics]]
*[[Trampolining]]
*[[General gymnastics]]
Of these disciplines, the two sub-disciplines of ''artistic'' and ''rhythmic'' gymnastics are the best known, having been part of [[Summer Olympic Games]] competitions. ''Individual Trampoline'' has been included in the Summer Olympics since 2000.
The discipline of [[rhythmic gymnastics]] is competed only by women (although there is a new version of this discipline for men being pioneered in [[Japan]], see [[Men's rhythmic gymnastics]]), and involves the performance of five separate routines with the use of five apparatus - ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, rope - on a floor area, with a much greater emphasis on the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic. Rhythmic routines are scored out of a possible 20 points.
[[Aerobics|Sports aerobics]] involves the performance of routines by individuals or pairs,
emphasizing strength, flexibility, and aerobic fitness rather than acrobatic
or balance skills. Routines are performed on a small floor area and generally last 60-90 seconds, being judged out of a total of 10 points.
[[Trampolining]] consists of four events, individual, synchronized, double mini trampoline and power tumbling. Only individual trampoline is included in the Olympics. Individual routines |
may react with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a [[hemiacetal]] or [[hemiketal]], in which case there is an oxygen bridge between the two carbon atoms, forming a heterocyclic ring. Rings with five and six atoms are called furanose and pyranose forms and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form.
It should be noted that the ring form has one more optically active carbon than the straight-chain form, and so has both an ''alpha'' and a ''beta'' form, which interconvert in equilibrium. However, the carbohydrate may further react with an alcohol to form an [[acetal]] or [[ketal]], in which case the two forms become distinct. This is the basic type of link between the monosaccharide units of larger carbohydrates.
==Disaccharides==
[[Disaccharide]]s are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a [[covalent]] [[glycosidic]] bond. The binding between the two sugars results in the loss of a hydrogen atom (H) from one molecule and a [[hydroxyl group]] (OH) from the other.
The most common disaccharides are [[sucrose]] (cane or beet sugar - made from one glucose and one fructose), [[lactose]] (milk sugar - made from one glucose and one galactose) and [[maltose]] (made of two glucoses). The [[chemical formula|formula]] of these disaccharides is C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>.
==Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides==
[[Oligosaccharide]]s and [[polysaccharide]]s are composed of longer chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic bonds. The distinction between the two is based upon the number of monosaccharide units present in the chain. Oligosaccharides typically contain between three and nine monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides contain greater than ten monosaccharide units. Definitions of how large a carbohydrate must be to fall into each category vary however.
Oligosaccharides are found as a common form of [[protein]] [[Posttranslational modification|posttranslational modification]]. Polysaccharides represent an important class of biological [[polymer]]. Examples include [[starch]], [[cellulose]] and [[chitin]].
==Nutrition==
[[Image:starchy-foods..jpg|thumb|Unrefined [[cereal|grain]] products are rich sources of complex carbohydrates]]
Strictly speaking, carbohydrates are not necessary for [[human nutrition]] because [[protein]]s can be converted to carbohydrates. The traditional diet of some [[culture]]s consists of very little carbohydrate, and these people remain relatively healthy. However, carbohydrates require less water to digest than [[protein]]s or [[fat]]s and are the most abundant source of energy. Proteins and fat are vital building components for body [[biological tissue|tissue]] and [[cell (biology)|cells]], and thus it could be considered advisable not to deplete such resources by necessitating their use in energy production.
Based on evidence for risk of heart disease and obesity, the [[Institute of Medicine]] recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 40-65% of [[food energy|dietary energy]] from carbohydrates.<ref>Food and Nutrition Board (2002/2005). ''[http://newton.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids]''. Washington, DC: The [[National Academies Press]]. Page [http://newton.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html/769.html 769]. ISBN 0-309-08537-3</ref> The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] and [[World Health Organization]] jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55-75% of total energy from carbohydrates.<ref>Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (2003). ''[http://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases]'' ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]). Geneva: [[World Health Organization]]. Pages 55-56. ISBN 92-4-120916-X</ref>.
Very low carbohydrate diets can slow down [[brain]] and [[neuroscience|neural]] function because the [[nervous system]] especially relies on glucose<!--References needed:, and the conversion of protein into carbohydrates or relying on glycerol in triglycerides as energy is a complicated and lengthly process, and they do not 'burn as clean' as carbohydrates do. Part of these symptoms could also be due to nutrient deficiencies in lacking a varied diet-->.
Some problems have been cited for the long term effects of a no-carbohydrate diet for some individuals. Athletes, for instance, or those that participate in high intensity activities, will have a considerable reduction in performance, due to having little or no glycogen supplies stored in muscle tissue. Additionally, [[nephrotoxicity]] may occur, particularly in persons that are not very well hydrated.
===Classification===
[[Dietitian]]s and [[nutritionist]]s commonly classify carbohydrates as simple ([[monosaccharide]]s and [[disaccharide]]s) or complex ([[oligosaccharide]]s and [[polysaccharide]]s), depending on their chemical structure. The term ''complex carbohydrate'' was first used in the Senate Select Committee publication ''Dietary Goals for the United States'' (1977), where it denoted "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains".<ref>Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (1998), ''Carbohydrates in human nutrition'', [http://www.fao.org/docrep/W8079E/w8079e07.htm chapter 1]. ISBN 92-5-104114-8.</ref> Dietary guidelines generally recommend that complex carbohydrates and nutrient-rich simple carbohydrates such as [[fruit]] and [[dairy product]]s should make up the bulk of carbohydrate consumption. The [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]]'s ''Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005'' dispenses with the simple/complex distinction, instead recommending fiber-rich foods and whole grains.<ref>[[United States Department of Health and Human Services|DHHS]] and [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]], ''Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005'', [http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/document/html/chapter7.htm Chapter 7 Carbohydrates]</ref>
The [[glycemic index]] and [[glycemic load]] systems are popular alternative classification methods which rank carbohydrates based on their effect on [[blood glucose]] levels.
==Catabolism==
There are two major [[metabolic pathway]]s of carbohydrate [[catabolism]]:
# [[Glycolysis]]
# [[Citric acid cycle]]
==See also==
* [[Biochemistry]]
* [[Macromolecules]]
* [[Glycolysis]]
* [[Gluconeogenesis]]
* [[Pentose phosphate pathway]]
==References==
<references/>
==External links==
* [http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/iupac/2carb/ IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN): Carbohydrate Nomenclature]
* [http://www.vitamins-minerals-supplements.org/nutritional-supplements/carbohydrates.htm Carbohydrates Information]
* [http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/carbhyd.htm Carbohydrates detailed]
* [http://www.carbohydrate-counter.org/about-carbohydrates.php Carbohydrates Overview]
* [http://www.biochemweb.org/carbohydrates.shtml Carbohydrates and Glycosylation - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
* [http://www.functionalglycomics.org/static/consortium/ Consortium for Functional Glycomics]
[[Category:Carbohydrates| ]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[bg:Въглехидрат]]
[[ca:Hidrat de carboni]]
[[cs:Sacharid]]
[[da:Kulhydrat]]
[[de:Kohlenhydrate]]
[[el:Υδατάνθρακας]]
[[es:Hidrato de carbono]]
[[eo:Karbonhidrato]]
[[fa:کربوهیدرات]]
[[fr:Glucide]]
[[ko:탄수화물]]
[[id:Karbohidrat]]
[[it:Glucidi]]
[[he:פחמימה]]
[[lv:Ogļhidrāti]]
[[lt:Angliavandenis]]
[[hu:Szénhidrát]]
[[mk:Јаглехидрат]]
[[nl:Koolhydraat]]
[[ja:炭水化物]]
[[no:Karbohydrat]]
[[nn:Karbohydrat]]
[[pl:Węglowodan]]
[[pt:Carboidrato]]
[[ru:Углеводы]]
[[sl:Ogljikov hidrat]]
[[sr:Угљени хидрати]]
[[su:Karbohidrat]]
[[fi:Hiilihydraatti]]
[[sv:Kolhydrat]]
[[th:คาร์โบไฮเดรต]]
[[tr:Karbonhidrat]]
[[zh:糖类]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CSS Virginia</title>
<id>5933</id>
<revision>
<id>41444267</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T10:09:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Added image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Ship table | Ship name = CSS ''Virginia''
| NavyColor=gray
| Ship image = [[Image:Ch14CSSVirginia.jpg|300px|CSS Virginia]]
| Ship flag = [[Image:Confederate Battle Flag.svg|52px|Confederate Navy Jack]]
| Ship ordered = 1861
| Ship laid down = 1862
| Ship commissioned = 1862
| Ship decommissioned =
| Ship fate = scuttled by crew
| Ship displacement = approx. 3200 tons (the data differ, 800 tons is unlikely)
| Ship length = 275 ft (84 m)
| Ship beam = 38.6 ft (11.8 m)
| Ship draft = 22 ft (6.7 m)
| Ship speed = 9 knots (17 km/h)
| Ship complement = 320 officers and men
| Ship armament = two 7 in (178 mm) rifles<br/>two 6 in (152 mm) rifles<br>six 9 in (229 mm) Dahlgren smoothbores<br/>two 12-pounder (5 kg) howitzers
| Ship armor = Iron
}}
'''CSS ''Virginia''''' was an [[ironclad warship]] of the [[Confederate States Navy]] during the [[American Civil War]] (built using the remains of the scuttled [[USS Merrimack (1855)|USS ''Merrimack'']]).
She was one of the participants in the '''[[Battle of Hampton Roads]]''' in March, [[1862]] opposite the [[USS Monitor|USS ''Monitor'']]. The battle is chiefly significant in naval history as the first battle between two powered [[ironclad warship]]s, which came to be known as ''ironclads''.
Prior to then, nearly all warships were made primarily of wood. Afterwards, the design of ships and the nature of naval warfare changed dramatically.
== USS ''Merrimack'' becomes CSS ''Virginia'' ==
When the Commonwealth of [[Virginia]] seceded from the Union in [[1861]], one of the important federal military bases threatened was Gosport Shipyard (now [[Norfolk Naval Shipyard]]) in [[Portsmouth, Virginia]]. Accordingly, the order was sent to destroy the base rathe |
ates were determined by the Council of the European Union, based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on [[31 December]] [[1998]], so that one ECU ([[European Currency Unit]]) would equal one euro. (The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right.) These rates were set by Council Regulation 2866/98 (EC), of [[31 December]] [[1998]]. They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally the [[pound sterling]]) that day.
[[Greece]] failed to meet the criteria for joining initially, so it did not join the common currency on [[1 January]], [[1999]]. It was admitted two years later, on [[1 January]] [[2001]], at the following exchange rate:
*340.750 Greek [[drachma]]s (GRD)
The procedure used to fix the irrevocable conversion rate between the drachma and the euro was different, since the euro by then was already two years old. While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand, in Council Regulation 1478/2000 (EC), of [[19 June]] [[2000]].
The currency was introduced in non-physical form (travellers' cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.) at midnight on [[1 January]], [[1999]], when the national currencies of participating countries (the eurozone) ceased to exist independently in that their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other, effectively making them mere non-decimal subdivisions of the euro. The euro thus became the successor to the [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU). The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as [[legal tender]] until new notes and coins were introduced on [[1 January]] [[2002]].
The changeover period during which the former currencies' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until [[28 February]] [[2002]]. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in [[Germany]]; the [[Deutsche mark|mark]] officially ceased to be legal tender on [[31 December]] [[2001]], though the exchange period lasted two months. The final date was [[28 February]] [[2002]], by which all national currencies ceased to be legal tender in their respective member states. (Note that some of these dates were earlier than was originally planned.) However, even after the official date, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for several years up to forever (Austria, Germany, Ireland, Spain). The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after [[31 December]] [[2002]], although banknotes do remain exchangeable until 2022.
Although some countries are not printing the &euro;500 and &euro;200 banknotes, all banknotes are legal tender throughout the eurozone. Finland decided not to mint or circulate one-cent and two-cent coins, except in small numbers for collectors. All cash transactions in Finland ending in one, two, six or seven cents are rounded down, and those ending in three, four, eight or nine cents are rounded up. Despite this convention, the one-cent and two-cent coins are still legal tender in Finland.
===Current eurozone (1999-2007)===
{{main|Eurozone}}
[[Image:Euro map de.png|thumb|right|300px|
{{legend|#4068b8|Eurozone countries}}
{{legend|#f0b261|ERM II countries}}
{{legend|#c55050|other EU countries}}
{{legend|#976dc6|unilaterally adopted euro}}]]
*The euro is sole currency in the following EU member states: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Finland]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]]. These 12 countries together are frequently referred to as the "[[eurozone]]", or more infomally "euroland" or the "eurogroup". The euro is also legal currency in the eurozone overseas territories of [[French Guiana]], [[Réunion]], [[Saint-Pierre et Miquelon]] and [[Martinique]].
*By virtue of some bilateral [http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l25040.htm agreements] the European mini states of [[Monaco]], [[San Marino]], and [[Vatican City]] mint their own euro coins on behalf of the [[European Central Bank]].
*[[Andorra]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Kosovo]] adapted the foreign euro as their legal currency for movement of capital and payments without participation in the [[ESCB]] or the right to mint coins. Andorra is in the process of entering a monetary agreement similar to Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City.
===Future prospects (2007-)===
====Pre-2004 EU members====
From the launch of the euro in [[1999]] until [[2004]] [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]] and the [[United Kingdom]] were the only EU member states outside the monetary union. The situation for the three older member states also looks different than for the ten new EU members; all three have no clear roadmap for adopting the euro:
[[Image:Anti.emu.sweden.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Swedish anti-euro propaganda from 2003 by the [[Green Youth (Sweden)|Green Party's youth organization]]. The text translates as "[[Economic and monetary union|EMU]] and solidarity".]]
* [[Sweden]]: According to the [[1995]] accession treaty, Sweden is required to join the euro and therefore must convert to the euro at some point. Notwithstanding this, on [[14 September]] [[2003]], a consultative Swedish [[Referenda in Sweden|referendum]] was held on the euro, the result of which was a rejection of the common currency. The Swedish government has argued that such a line of action is possible since one of the requirements for eurozone membership is a prior two-year membership of the ERM II. By simply choosing to stay outside the exchange rate mechanism, the Swedish government is provided a formal loophole avoiding the theoretical requirement of adopting the euro. Some of Sweden's major parties continue to believe that it would be in the national interest to join, but they have all pledged to abide by the results for the time being and show no interest in raising the issue again.
* the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[eurosceptics]] believe that the single currency is merely a stepping stone to the formation of a unified European superstate, and that removing Britain's ability to set its own interest rates will have detrimental effects on its economy. Others in the UK, usually joined by eurosceptics, advance several economic arguments against membership: the most cited one concerns the large unfunded pension liabilities of many continental European governments (unlike in the UK) which would, with a greying population, depress the currency in the future against the UKs interests. The contrary view is that, since intra-European exports make up to 50% of the UK's total, it eases the Single Market by removing currency risk, although financial derivatives are becoming more accessable to small UK businesses thereby allowing businesses to offset this risk. An interesting parallel can be seen in the 19th century discussions concerning the possibility of the UK joining the [[Latin Monetary Union]] [http://www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-924366-2.pdf]. The UK government has set [[five economic tests]] that must be passed before it can recommend that the UK join the euro; however, given the relatively subjective nature of these tests it seems unlikely that they would be held to be fulfilled whilst public opinion remains so strongly against participation.
* [[Denmark]] negotiated a number of opt-out clauses from the [[Maastricht treaty]] after it had been rejected in a first referendum. In 2000, another referendum was held in Denmark regarding the euro; once more, the population decided to stay outside the [[eurozone]] for now. However, Danish politicians have suggested that debate on abolishing the four opt-out clauses may possibly be re-opened in 2006. In addition, Denmark has pegged its [[krone]] to the euro (&euro;1 = DKr7.460,38 ± 2.25%) as the krone remains in the [[ERM]].
====Post-2004 EU members====
In [[2004]] the 10 new EU member states had a currency other than the euro, however those countries are required by their [[Treaty on the Accession of 10 new Member States|Accession Treaties]] to join the euro.
Since some of them already comply with the [[convergence criteria]], these countries have already joined the [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]], ERM II and are set to join the euro ([[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU III]]) as follows:
*[[1 January]], [[2007]] for [[Estonia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Lithuania]].
*[[1 January]], [[2008]] for [[Cyprus]], [[Latvia]] and [[Malta]]
*[[1 January]], [[2009]] for [[Slovakia]]
*[[January|Mid-january]] [[2009]] for [[Bulgaria]]
*[[1 January]], [[2010]] for the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Hungary]].
*[[2011]] or later for [[Poland]] and [[Romania]]
([http://www.lb.lt/news/pg.dll?lng=EN&did=1014 1]; [[Estonian euro coins|Estonia]], [[Lithuanian euro coins|Lithuania]], [[Slovak euro coins|Slovakia]] and [[Slovenian euro coins|Slovenia]] have already finalised the design for the country's coins' obverse side.[http://www.eestipank.info/pub/en/majandus/euroopaliit/euro/kavand/_1kava.html 1] [http://www.eestipank.info/pub/en/yldine/press/pressiteated/pt2004/_20041215.html 2]
[http://www.bsi.si/html/eng/projects/euro/evro01.pdf 3]
[http://www.lb.lt/eng/euro/euro.htm 4]).
[[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] are not yet members of the EU, but being scheduled to enter on [[January 1]] [[2007]].
* The [[Bulgarian National Bank]] and the Bulgarian government have agreed on the introduction of the euro in mid-2009, when the [[Bulgarian National Bank]] is expected to become part of t |
ines their [[impulse response]], and ''vice versa''. From a mathematical viewpoint, continuous-time IIR filters may be described in terms of linear [[differential equation]]s, and their impulse responses considered as [[Green's function]]s of the equation. Continuous-time filters can also be described in terms of the [[Laplace transform]] of their impulse response in a way which allows all of the characteristics of the filter to be easily analyzed by considering the pattern of [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]]s and [[zero (complex analysis)|zero]]s of their Laplace transform in the [[complex plane]].
Before the advent of computer filter synthesis tools, graphical tools such as [[Bode plot]]s and [[Nyquist plot]]s were extensively used as design tools. Even today, they are invaluable tools to understanding filter behavior.
Many different analog filter designs have been developed, each trying to optimise some feature of the system response. For practical filters, a custom design is sometimes desirable, that can offer the best tradeoff between different design criteria, which may include component count and cost, as well as filter response characteristics.
Some classic IIR filter types include the following:
* [[Bessel filter]]s
* [[Butterworth filter]]s
* [[Chebyshev filter]]s
* [[Elliptic filter|Cauer filters]] ([[elliptic filter]]s)
These descriptions refer to the ''mathematical'' properties of the filter (that is, the frequency and phase response). These can be ''implemented'' as analog circuits (for instance, using a [[Sallen Key filter]] topology, a type of [[active filter]]), or as algorithms in [[digital signal processing]] systems.
Digital filters are much more flexible to synthesize and use than analog filters, where the constraints of the design permits their use. Notably, there is no need to consider component tolerances, and very high Q levels may be obtained.
FIR digital filters may be implemented by the direct [[convolution]] of the desired impulse response with the input signal.
IIR digital filters are also easy to design. However, IIR digital filters do have their own mathematical design problems, in particular relating to dynamic range and roundoff nonlinearity problems.
==See also==
* [[Filter design]]
* [[Laplace transform]]
* [[Green's function]]
* [[Z-transform]]
* [[System theory]]
** [[LTI system theory]]
* [[Non-linear filter]]
* [[Wiener filter]]
==External links and references==
* {{cite book|author=Williams, Arthur B & Taylor, Fred J|title=Electronic Filter Design Handbook|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1995|id=ISBN 0-07-070441-4}} The Bible for practical electronic filter design.
* [http://www.national.com/an/AN/AN-779.pdf National Semiconductor AN-779] application note describing analog filter theory
[[Category:Linear filters|*]]
[[fr:Filtre linéaire]]
[[pt:Filtro linear]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ergative case</title>
<id>9976</id>
<revision>
<id>37095455</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T17:05:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.53.142.78</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Cases}}
In [[ergative-absolutive language]]s, the '''ergative case''' identifies the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] of a [[transitive verb]]. In such languages, the ergative case is typically [[Markedness|marked]] (most salient), while the [[absolutive case]] is unmarked. New work in [[case theory]] has vigorously supported the idea that the ergative case identifies the agent (intentful doer of action) of a verb (Woolford 2004). Furthermore, the agent has been shown to have a fixed location in which it is base-generated in the specifier of a light-verb projection within [[X-bar theory]].
Ergative languages may be syntactically or morphologically ergative, or both.
[[Basque language|Basque]] is ergative-absolutive language.
Certain [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] (e.g., [[Warlpiri language|Warlpiri]]) possess an [[intransitive case]] and an [[accusative case]] along with an ergative case, and lack an [[absolutive case]]; such languages are called [[ergative-accusative language]]s or [[tripartite language]]s.
== See also ==
* [[Morphosyntactic alignment]]
== Reference ==
[http://people.umass.edu/ellenw/ Woolford, Ellen.] ''Lexical Case, Inherent Case, and Argument Structure.'' August 2004.
{{ling-stub}}
[[Category:Grammatical cases]]
[[cs:Ergativ]]
[[de:Ergativ]]
[[es:Caso ergativo]]
[[eo:Ergativo]]
[[gl:ergativo]]
[[ja:能格と絶対格]]
[[fi:Ergatiivi]]
[[pl:Ergativus]]
[[sv:Ergativ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ewe</title>
<id>9977</id>
<revision>
<id>28671715</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-18T14:20:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jannex</username>
<id>160206</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+:fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*'''Ewe''' is an [[ethnic group]] from West Africa, in [[Ghana]], [[Benin]] and [[Togo]]. See [[Ewe (people)]] and [[Ewe music]].
*'''Ewe''' is also the name of the [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] language spoken by the Ewe people; see [[Ewe language]].
*The [[English language|English]] word "'''ewe'''" ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ju:/}}) is also the singular form for a female [[sheep]].
{{disambig}}
[[fi:Ewe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Essenes</title>
<id>9978</id>
<revision>
<id>40600496</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:15:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palica</username>
<id>188933</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ca</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Essenes''' (es'-eenz) were followers of a religious way of living in [[Judaism]] that flourished from the [[2nd century BC]] to the [[1st century|1st century AD]]. Many scholars today argue that there were a number of separate but related groups that had in common [[mysticism|mystic]], [[Jewish eschatology|eschatological]], [[Jewish Messiah|messianic]], and [[asceticism|ascetic]] beliefs that were referred to as the "Essenes". There are also contemporary movements which identify themselves as Essenes, including the "Orthodox" [[Christian Essenes]].
== Contemporary ancient sources ==
The main source of information about the life and belief of Essenes is the detailed account contained in a work of the 1st century Jewish historiographer [[Josephus]] entitled [[The Jewish War]] written about 73-75 CE (''War'' 2.119-161) and his shorter description in his [[The Antiquities of the Jews|Antiquities]] finished some 20 years later (''Ant.'' 18.11 & 18-22). Claiming first hand knowledge (''Life'' §§10-11), he refers to them by the name ''Essenoi'' and lists them as the followers of one of the three "choices" in "Jewish Philosophy'" (''War'' 2.119) alongside the [[Pharisees]] and the [[Sadducee|Sadduccees]]. The only other known contemporary accounts about the Essenes are two similarly detailed ones by the Jewish philosopher [[Philo]] (fl. c. 20 BCE - c. 54 CE; ''Quod Omnis Probus Liber Sit'' XII.75-87, and the excerpt from his ''Hypothetica'' 11.1-18 preserved by [[Eusebius]], ''Praep. Evang.'' Bk VIII), who, however, admits to not being quite certain of the Greek form of their name that he recalls as ''Essaioi'' (''Quod Omn. Prob.'' XII.75), and the brief reference to them by the Roman [[equestrian]] [[Pliny the Elder]] (fl. 23 CE - 79 CE; ''Natural History'', Bk 5.73).
The [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], found in caves at [[Qumran]], are widely but not universally believed to be the work of Essenes or to reflect Essene beliefs. See [[#Scholarly discussion|below]].
== Name ==
Josephus uses the name ''Essenes'' in his two main accounts (''War'' 2.119, 158, 160; ''Ant.'' 13.171-2) as well as in some other contexts ("an account of the Essenes", ''Ant.'' 13.298; "the gate of the Essenes", ''War'' 5.145; "Judas of the Essene race", ''Ant.'' 13.311, but some mss read here ''Essaion''; "holding the Essenes in honour", ''Ant.'' 15.372; "a certain Essene named Manaemus", ''Ant.'' 15.373; "to hold all Essenes in honour", ''Ant.'' 15.378; "the Essenes", ''Ant.'' 18.11 & 18; ''Life'' 10). In several places, however, Josephus has ''Essaios'', which is usually assumed to mean ''Essene'' ("Judas of the ''Essaios'' race", ''War'' I.78; "Simon of the ''Essaios'' race", ''War'' 2.113; "John the ''Essaios''", ''War'' 2.567; 3.11; "those who are called by us ''Essaioi''", ''Ant.'' 15.371; "Simon a man of the ''Essaios'' race", ''Ant.'' 17.346). Philo's usage is ''Essaioi'', although he admits this Greek form of the original name that according to his etymology signifies "holiness" to be inexact (''NH'' XII.75). Pliny's Latin text has ''Esseni''.
The origin of the name ''Essenes'' is debated. Some credible possibilities are either a version of the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "[[holy]]", or an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] [[dialect]] term for "pious". [[Geza Vermes]], a scholar and writer on religious history, traces the word to the Aramaic "Esaoin", meaning "followers of Esa". Vermes identifies this with [[Isa]], an early name for [[Jesus]]; other scholars disagree with this etymology.
Hitherto no ancient texts have been discovered where their authors admit to being themselves followers of the Essene way of religious living, or claim to commit Essene thoughts and doctrine to writing. If, however, the inhabitants of the settlement at Qumran had indeed been Essenes, and if certain scrolls discovered in the caves near Qumran have Essenes for their authors, or at least contain Essene texts, then it may be said from those scrolls that the Essenes referred to |
ome and see a film, and that it is the hope of attaining this quality that inspires the director to make the film in the first place."]]''
|-
! '''Born''' || [[23 March]], [[1910]]<br />[[Ota, Tokyo]], [[Japan]]
|-
! '''Died''' || [[6 September]], [[1998]]<br />[[Setagaya, Tokyo]], [[Japan]]
|}
'''Akira Kurosawa''' (黒澤 明 ''Kurosawa Akira'', also 黒沢 明 in [[Wiktionary:Shinjitai|Shinjitai]], [[23 March]], [[1910]] &ndash; [[6 September]], [[1998]]) was a prominent [[Japan|Japanese]] [[film director]], [[film producer]], and [[screenwriter]].
Few filmmakers have had a career so long or so acclaimed as Akira Kurosawa, perhaps Japan's best-known filmmaker. His films greatly influenced an entire generation of filmmakers the world over, ranging from George Lucas to Sergio Leone.
His first credited film (''[[Sanshiro Sugata (1943 film)|Sugata Sanshiro]]'') was released in 1943; his last (''[[Madadayo]]'') in 1993. His many awards include the [[Legion d'Honneur]] and an [[Academy Awards|Oscar]] for Lifetime Achievement.
== Early Career ==
Kurosawa was born in [[Ota, Tokyo|Omori]], [[Tokyo]], the youngest of seven children. He trained as a painter and began work in the film industry as an assistant director to Kajiro Yamamoto in 1936. He made his directorial debut in 1943 with ''[[Sanshiro Sugata (1943 film)|Sugata Sanshiro]]''. His first few films were made under the watchful eye of the wartime Japanese government and sometimes contained nationalistic themes. For instance, ''[[The Most Beautiful|The Most Beautiful]]'' is a propaganda film about Japanese women working in an armaments factory. ''[[Sanshiro Sugata Part II|Judo Saga 2]]'' has been held to be explicitly anti-American in the way that it portrays Japanese [[judo]] as superior to western (American) [[boxing]].
His first post-war film ''No regrets for our youth'', by contrast, is critical of the old Japanese regime and is about the wife of a left-wing dissident arrested for his political leanings. Kurosawa made several more films which deal with contemporary Japan, most notably ''[[Drunken Angel]]'' and ''[[Stray Dog]]''. However it was a period film ''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]]'' which made him internationally famous and won the Grand Prix at the [[Venice Film Festival]].
== Characteristics ==
Kurosawa is best-known for his period pieces or {{nihongo|''[[jidaigeki]]''|時代劇|}} like ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' and ''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'', but several of his films dealt with contemporary Japan: for example ''[[Stray Dog]]'', which looks at the criminal underworld just after the end of the war, and ''[[Ikiru]]'', which deals with a Japanese bureaucrat who discovers that he is suffering from cancer but eventually steps out of depression and struggles against bureacratic inertia to leave his small contribution to the world in the form of a small community park before he dies.
Kurosawa had a distinctive cinematic technique, which he had developed by the 1950s, and which gave his films a unique look. He liked using telephoto lenses for the way they flattened the frame and also because he believed that placing cameras farther away from his actors produced better performances. He also liked using multiple cameras, which allowed him to shoot an action from different angles. Another Kurosawa trademark was the use of weather elements to heighten mood: for example the heavy rain in the final battle in ''Seven Samurai'' and the fog in ''Throne of Blood''. Kurosawa also liked using left-to-right frame wipes as a transition device.
He was known as "Tenno", literally "Emperor", for his dictatorial directing style. He was a perfectionist who spent enormous amounts of time and effort to achieve the desired visual effects. In ''[[Rashomon]]'', he dyed the rain water black with calligraphy ink in order to achieve the effect of heavy rain, and ended up using up the entire local water supply of the location area in creating the rainstorm. In ''[[Throne of Blood]]'', in the final scene in which Mifune is shot by arrows, Kurosawa used real arrows shot by expert archers from a short range, landing within centimetres of Mifune's body.
Other stories include demanding a stream be made to run in the opposite direction in order to get a better visual effect, and having the roof of a house removed, later to be replaced, because he felt the roof's presence to be unattractive in a short sequence filmed from a train.
== Influences ==
A notable feature of Kurosawa's films is the breadth of his artistic influences. Some of his plots are adaptations of [[William Shakespeare]]'s works. ''[[The Bad Sleep Well]]'' is based on ''[[Hamlet]]'', ''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'' is based on ''[[King Lear]]'' and ''Throne of Blood'' is based on ''[[Macbeth]]''. Kurosawa also directed film adaptations of Russian novels, including ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'' by [[Dostoevsky]] and ''[[The Lower Depths]]'' by [[Maxim Gorky]]. ''Ikiru'' was based on [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Death of Ivan Ilyich]]''. ''[[High and Low]]'' was based on ''[[King's Ransom]]'' by [[United States|American]] [[crime]] writer [[Ed McBain]]. ''[[Stray Dog]]'' was inspired by the detective novels of [[Georges Simenon]]. The American film director [[John Ford]] also had a large influence on his work.
Despite criticism by some Japanese critics that Kurosawa was "too Western", he was deeply influenced by Japanese culture as well, including the [[Kabuki]] and [[Noh]] theaters and the jidaigeki (period drama) genre of Japanese cinema.
== His influence ==
Kurosawa's films had a huge influence on world cinema. Most explicitly, ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' was remade as the [[western movie|western]] ''[[The Magnificent Seven]]'', [[science fiction]] movie ''[[Battle Beyond the Stars]]'', and Pixar's ''[[A Bug's Life]]''. It also inspired two [[Hindi films]], [[Ramesh Sippy]]'s ''[[Sholay]]'' and Rajkumar Santhoshi's ''[[China Gate]]'', with similar plots. The story has also inspired [[novel]]s, among them [[Stephen King]]'s fifth ''[[The Dark Tower (series)|Dark Tower]]'' novel, ''[[Wolves of the Calla]]''.
''[[Yojimbo (film)|Yojimbo]]'' was the basis for the [[Sergio Leone]] western ''[[A Fistful of Dollars]]'', the [[Coen Brothers]] film ''[[Miller's Crossing (film)|Miller's Crossing]]'', and the [[Bruce Willis]] prohibition-era ''[[Last Man Standing (film)|Last Man Standing]]''.
''[[The Hidden Fortress]]'' had an influence on [[George Lucas]]'s earliest ''[[Star Wars]]'' film, especially in the characters of R2-D2 and C3PO.
''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]]'' not only helped open Japanese cinema to the world but virtually entered the English language as a term for fractured, inconsistent narratives as well as influencing other works, including episodes of television series and many motion pictures.
== Collaboration ==
During his most productive period, from the late 40s to the mid-60s, Kurosawa often worked with the same group of collaborators. [[Fumio Hayasaka]] composed music for seven of his films; notably ''Rashomon'', ''Ikiru'' and ''Seven Samurai''. Many of Kurosawa's scripts, including ''Throne of Blood'', ''Seven Samurai'' and ''Ran'' were co-written with [[Hideo Oguni]]. [[Yoshiro Muraki]] was Kurosawa's [[production designer]] or [[art director]] for most of his films after ''Stray Dog'' in 1949 and [[Asakazu Naki]] was his [[cinematographer]] on 11 films including ''Ikiru'', ''Seven Samurai'' and ''Ran''. Kurosawa also liked recycling the same group of actors, especially [[Takashi Shimura]] and [[Toshiro Mifune]]. His collaboration with the latter is one of the greatest director-actor combinations in cinema history. It began with 1948's ''[[Drunken Angel]]'' and ended with 1964's ''[[Red Beard]]''.
== Later films ==
Red Beard marked a turning point in Kurosawa's career in more ways than one. In addition to being his last film with Mifune, it was his last in black-and-white. It was also his last as a major director within the Japanese studio system making roughly a film a year. Kurosawa was signed to direct a Hollywood project, ''[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]''; but [[20th Century Fox]] replaced him with [[Kinji Fukasaku]] before it was completed. His next few films were a lot harder to finance and were made at intervals of five years. The first, ''[[Dodesukaden]]'', about a group of poor people living around a rubbish dump, was not a success.
After an attempted suicide, Kurosawa went on to make several more films although arranging domestic financing was highly difficult despite his international reputation. ''[[Dersu Uzala]]'', made in the [[Soviet Union]] and set in Siberia in the early 20th century, was the only Kurosawa film made outside Japan and not in Japanese. It is about the friendship of a Russian explorer and a nomadic hunter. It won the [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Oscar]] for Best Foreign Language Film. ''[[Kagemusha]]'', financed with the help of the director's most famous admirers, [[George Lucas]] and [[Francis Ford Coppola]], is the story of a man who is the double of a medieval Japanese lord and takes over his identity. Most important was ''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'', Kurosawa's version of King Lear set in medieval Japan. It was the great project of Kurosawa's late career, and he spent a decade planning it and trying to obtain funding, which he was finally able to do with the help of the French producer Serge Silberman. The film was a phenomenal international success and is generally considered Kurosawa's last masterpiece.
Kurosawa made three more films during the 1990s which were more personal than his earlier works. ''[[Dreams (1990 film)|Dreams]]'' is a series of vignettes based on his own dreams. ''[[Rhapsody in August]]'' is about memories of the [[Nagasaki]] atom bomb and his final film: ''[[Madadayo]]'' is about a retired teacher and his former students. Kurosawa died in [[Setagaya, Tokyo]], at age 88.
==Trivia==
Kurosawa was |
n operating in the [[North Atlantic]] and in support of the [[Arctic convoys]].
Perhaps the finest moment for the escort carriers was the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]]'s [[Battle of Leyte Gulf#Battle off Samar|Battle off Samar]], where three escort carrier groups fended off the [[battleships]] of the Japanese [[Combined Fleet]], allowing General [[Douglas MacArthur]]'s Army to complete the liberation of [[Leyte (island)|Leyte]]. The hero of the battle was [[Clifton Sprague]].
One of these escort carriers, the USS ''Guadalcanal'', was instrumental in the capture of the German submarine ([[U-boat]]) [[U-505]] off North Africa in 1944. The Guadalcanal, and her task force, was commanded by Captain (later Admiral) [[Daniel V. Gallery]]. In 1955 the U-505 was moved to Chicago,
restored, and made a permanent exhibit at the [[Chicago Museum of Science and Industry]].
Over 100 escort carriers were launched or converted during the war. Of these, six ([[HMS Nairana (1944)|HMS ''Nairana'']], [[HMS Campania|HMS ''Campania'']], [[HMS Activity|HMS ''Activity'']], [[HMS Pretoria Castle|HMS ''Pretoria Castle'']], [[HMS Vindex|HMS ''Vindex'']], and [[HMS Audacity (D10)|HMS ''Audacity'']]) were British conversions of merchant ships, the rest being new construction in the USA (the first US escort carriers were conversion of unfinished merchant vessels).
For complete lists see:
* [[list of escort aircraft carriers of the United States Navy]]
* [[List of escort carriers of the Royal Navy]]
==Escort carrier tactics when escorting convoys==
There is a choice when operating escort carriers about where the ship operates with respect to the [[convoy]].
* It can be within the convoy, which gives it the protection of the convoy's own escort but brings the problem of space to turn into the wind to operate aircraft.
* Or it can be near the convoy which eliminates the operating space problem but loses the advantage of the convoy escort (forcing the carrier to have its own escort). It also brings the problem of the carrier being easily spotted by forces attacking the convoy and perhaps presenting them with a juicy (and possibly easy) target.
* Or it can be some way off from the convoy. While this adds the problem of the time needed for aircraft to travel to the convoy this is a fairly minor problem compared with the matter of being spotted by forces attacking the convoy.
''HMS Audacity'' was sunk while operating in the second position, the one that was later banned by the [[Admiralty]] as too risky.
==Relative carrier sizes in World War II ==
<table align=center cellpadding=5>
<caption>'''Relative carrier sizes'''<br />
(typical examples)<br /></caption>
<th style="background:#efefef;"></th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Escort carrier</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Fleet carrier</th>
</tr>
<tr><td>'''Length:'''</td><td>150 m</td><td>260 m</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Beam:'''</td><td>20 m</td><td>28 m</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Displacement:'''</td><td>7500 t</td><td>25,000 t</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Aircraft:'''</td><td>15 - 30</td><td>over 80</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Speed:'''</td><td>19 knots (35 km/h)</td><td>33 knots (61 km/h)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Crew:'''</td><td>850</td><td>3000 and over</td></tr>
</table>
==Post World War II==
Following the war, this class of ship was retired, primarily because as the navies were reduced in size it was better to keep the larger and more useful fleet carriers in preference to them.
Just about every important class of ship or patrol boat from World War II can be found in a museum or in a port, somewhere in the United States, except for the escort carrier and the light carrier. There are no survivors from either type of ship: all were destroyed during the war or broken up in the decades following it. The last escort carrier, [[USS Gilbert Islands (CVE-107)|USS ''Gilbert Islands'' (CVE-107)]] was broken up for scrap starting in 1976.
==See also==
* [[CAM ship]]
*[[Merchant aircraft carrier]]
==References==
*Galuppini, Gino. ''Le guide des porte-avions''. Paris: Fernand Nathan, 1981
*Poolman, Kenneth. ''Escort carrier 1941-1945: An account of British Escort Carriers in Trade Protection''. London: Ian Allan, 1972
*Warrilow, Betty. ''Nabob, the first Canadian-manned aircraft carrier''. Owen Sound, Ont. : Escort Carriers Association, 1989.
*Gallery, Daniel V. ''20 Million Tons Under The Sea''. Ballentine, 1965.
[[Category:Ship types]]
[[fi:saattuetukialus]]
[[ja:&#35703;&#34907;&#31354;&#27597;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Extreme sport</title>
<id>9933</id>
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<id>41907449</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:05:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wayward</username>
<id>184087</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.243.125.2|199.243.125.2]] ([[User talk:199.243.125.2|talk]]) to last version by Flume</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Extreme sport''' (practically synonymous with the term '''action sport''' and also called adventurous sports) is a general term for [[sport]]s featuring speed, height, danger or spectacular stunts. A feature of such activities in the view of some is their alleged capacity to induce a so-called ‘‘[[adrenaline]] rush’’ in participants (a misnomer, since often the rush or high obtained is a product of increased levels of [[dopamine]] [[endorphin]]s and [[serotonin]]).
Extreme sports are often associated with young adults wishing to push themselves to the limits of their physical ability and fear, in turn pushing the boundaries of a particular sport. This youthful demographic accounts too for extreme sports’ frequent association with [[youth culture]], including its clothing, [[fashion]]s, and [[music]].
Some contend that the distinction between an extreme sport and a conventional one is as much to do with [[marketing]] as it is to do with perceptions about levels of danger involved or the amount of adrenaline generated. [[Snowboarding]] thus has a more extreme ‘‘image’’ than [[skiing]] due to differing marketing strategies and the fact of being a newer sport, even though skiing is a faster and at least equally dangerous activity. Furthermore a sport like [[Rugby Union]], though dangerous and adrenaline-inducing, would not fall into the category of extreme sports due to its traditional image.
The term gained popularity with the advent of the [[X Games]], a made-for-television collection of events. [[Advertisers]] were quick to recognise the appeal of the event to the public, as a consequence competitors and organisers are not wanting for sponsorship these days. The high profile of extreme sports and the culture surrounding them has also led people to invent jokey parodies, such as [[Extreme ironing]], [[urban housework]], [[extreme croquet]], [[extreme unicycling]], ''''house gymnastics'''', and [[extreme wheelbarrow]].
Some purists repudiate the [[stereotype|stereotypical]] "adrenaline junkie" tag. The practitioners would claim they enjoy developing their physical and/or mental skills, seek mastery of inhospitable environments, look to escape from the mundane rigours of day-to-day existence, or simply love the wilderness environment in which many of these sports take place. ''''Bob Drury'''', a [[paragliding|paraglider]] pilot says "We do these things not to escape life, but to prevent life escaping us" -- even though accidents in these sports could be fatal. Many participants also don't think of their activities as either ''extreme'' or ''sports'' at all. To the most passionate purists, the ''sport'' label doesn't fit because they aren't competing to win anything. Worse, the ''extreme'' label has frequently been blamed for stereotyping participants in these activities as stupid, reckless, and even suicidal.
Some of the sports have existed for decades and their proponents span generations, some going on to become well known personalities. [[Rock climbing]] and [[ice climbing]] have spawned publicly recognisable names such as [[Edmund Hillary]], [[Chris Bonington]] and more recently [[Joe Simpson (mountaineer)|Joe Simpson]]. Another example is [[surfing]], which was originally invented centuries ago by the native inhabitants of [[Hawaii]].
Several so-called extreme sports, including snowboarding, were included in the [[2002 Winter Olympic Games]].
==List of some extreme sports==
The following are sometimes classed as extreme sports:
* [[BASE jumping]]
* [[BMX|BMX freestyle]]
* [[Bouldering]]
* [[Buildering]]
* [[Bungee jumping]]
* [[Caving]]
* [[Cave diving]]
* [[Climbing]]
* [[Drag_Racing|Drag Racing]]
* [[Elevator surfing]]
* [[Extreme skiing]]
* [[Free-diving]]
* [[Whitewater kayaking]]
* [[Kitesurfing]]
* [[Kiteboarding]]
* [[Kneeboarding (towsport)|Kneeboarding]]
* [[Mountain biking]]
* [[Mountain Boarding|Mountain boarding]]
* [[Paragliding]]
* [[Paramotoring]]
* [[Parkour]]
* [[Poweriser]]
* [[Rafting|Whitewater rafting]]
* [[Rock Climbing]]
* [[Roller Derby]]
* [[Skateboarding]]
* [[Skiboarding]]
* [[Skydiving]]
* [[Skysurfing]]
* [[Slamball]]
* [[Snowboarding]]
* [[Street luge]]
* [[Stunt Pogo]]
* [[Surfing]]
* [[Unicycling]]
* [[Wakeboarding]]
* [[Walking]]
* [[Water skiing]]
* [[Windsports]]
* [[Windsurfing]]
==External links==
* [http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/0000000CAD26.htm What's so extreme about extreme sports?] Extreme sports as part marketing hype and part individualism.
* [http://www.madwings.com Extreme sport fan site]
[[Category:Ext |
eltic Timeless Myths - Celtic Mythology] provides information and tales from Irish and Welsh literature.
*[http://www.unc.edu/celtic/catalogue/Gundestrup/kauldron.html Celtic Art & Cultures]: a detailed description of the [[Gundestrup cauldron]]
*[http://draeconin.com/database/celtreli.htm Celtic Religion - What Information do we really have]<Br>
*[http://www.conjure.com/whocelts.html What We Don't Know About the Ancient Celts]
* [http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/CelticMyth.htm CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology]
[[Category:Celtic mythology|*]]
[[ca:Mitologia celta]]
[[de:Keltische Mythologie]]
[[es:Mitología celta]]
[[fi:Kelttiläinen mytologia]]
[[fr:Mythologie celtique]]
[[he:מיתולוגיה קלטית]]
[[ja:ケルト神話]]
[[nl:Keltische mythologie]]
[[pl:Mitologia celtycka]]
[[ro:Mitologie celtică]]
[[ru:Кельтская мифология]]
[[sr:Келтска митологија]]
[[sv:Keltisk mytologi]]
[[zh:克爾特神話]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christiania</title>
<id>7206</id>
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<id>39903194</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T18:30:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>B4hand</username>
<id>3241</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed self-link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Depending on context, '''Christiania''' can refer to:
* Christiania, capital of Norway &ndash; what [[Oslo]] was called from [[1624]] to [[1877]], named after [[Christian IV of Denmark and Norway|King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway]]; subsequently, the city was called [[Kristiania]] (q.v.). It wasn't before [[1925]] the city was named [[Oslo]] again, 20 years after their separation from [[Sweden]].
* [[Freetown Christiania]] &ndash; a partially self-governing neighborhood in Denmark's capital, [[Copenhagen]].
{{disambig}}
[[de:Christiania]]
[[fr:Christiania (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Christiania]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Charles d'Abancourt</title>
<id>7207</id>
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<id>36053308</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T05:15:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FeanorStar7</username>
<id>160806</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Xavier Joseph de Franque Ville d'Abancourt''' ([[1758]] &ndash; [[1792]]) was a [[France|French]] [[statesman]], and a nephew of [[Calonne]].
He was [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]]'s last [[List of Defence Ministers of France|minister of war]] (July 1792), and organised the defence of the [[Tuileries]] for [[August 10]]. Commanded by the [[Legislative Assembly]] to send away the [[Swiss guard]]s, he refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation and sent to [[Orléans]] to be tried.
At the end of August the Assembly ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orléans to be transferred to [[Paris]] with an escort commanded by [[Claude Fournier]], ''the American''. At [[Versailles]] they learned of the massacres at Paris, and Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners were murdered in cold blood on [[September 8]], [[1792]]. Fournier was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abancourt, Charles Xavier Joseph de Franque Ville D'}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:1758 births|Abancourt, Charles d']]
[[Category:1792 deaths|Abancourt, Charles d']]
[[Category:French politicians|Abancourt, Charles d']]</text>
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<page>
<title>Corvallis Oregon</title>
<id>7208</id>
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<id>15905286</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-13T14:00:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rootbeer</username>
<id>1297</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Corvallis, Oregon]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Corvallis, Oregon]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cubic feet</title>
<id>7210</id>
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<id>15905288</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-24T12:20:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JohnOwens</username>
<id>4558</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>ah ha, this one did exist though, #REDIRECT [[cubic foot]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cubic foot]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Curtiss P-40</title>
<id>7211</id>
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<id>40747035</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T19:27:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:curtiss.p40.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|Curtiss P-40K Warhawk]]
The '''Curtiss P-40''' was an American single-engine, single-seat, low-wing, all-metal [[fighter aircraft|fighter]] and ground attack aircraft which first flew in 1938 and was used in great numbers in [[World War II]].
Developed from the pre-war radial-engined [[P-36 Hawk]], the P-40 was used by Allied air forces all over the world. '''Warhawk''' was the name the USAAF adopted for all models, thus it is the official USAAF name of the airplane series as a whole. The British [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] air forces designated it the '''Tomahawk''' (models equivalent to P-40B and P-40C), or the '''Kittyhawk''' (models equivalent to P-40E and all later versions).
The first '''XP-40''' was simply a P-36A Hawk with its [[Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp]] radial engine replaced by a liquid-cooled, supercharged [[Allison V-1710]] V-12 engine. The V engine offered no more power than the radial, but its smaller frontal area led to considerably lower drag. In April 1939 the [[USAAC]], no doubt looking over its shoulder at the sleek, new, high-speed, in-line engined fighters of Europe, placed the largest single fighter order it had ever made for fighters: 524 aircraft.
==Operational history==
[[France]], already fielding a large number of Curtiss [[P-36 Hawk]] fighters, ordered 140 as the '''Hawk 81A-1''' but the French military had been defeated by the German ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'' before they had left the factory, and the aircraft were diverted to British Commonwealth service, as the '''Tomahawk I''' &mdash; in some cases complete with metric instruments. Deemed unsuitable for use as a fighter in Europe, where it was thought inferior to the [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]], [[Hawker Hurricane|Hurricane]] and [[Messerschmitt Bf 109|Bf 109]], the Tomahawk was used for training and some low-level tactical reconnaissance.
It proved more useful as fighter bomber with Commonwealth air forces in the [[Desert Air Force]] during the [[North African Campaign]], where Allied air superiority made enemy fighters a minor threat, the P-40's poor high-altitude performance mattered less, and its bomb load and good range were valuable. [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] No. [[No. 112 Squadron RAF|112 Squadron]] was the first to fly Tomahawks in the Western Desert, mainly for ground attack. The squadron copied the famous shark mouth markings under the spinner from [[Luftwaffe]] [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]] ''Zerstörer'' units, and the logo was later adopted by the [[Flying Tigers]] in China.
[[Image:flying tigers.jpg|thumb|280px|"A Chinese soldier guards a line of American P-40 fighter planes, painted with the shark-face emblem of the `Flying Tigers,' at a flying field somewhere in China.".]]
The [[Flying Tigers]] were a unit of the [[Republic of China]]'s air force, bearing the official name American Volunteer Group, being led by the retired USAAC officer and military observer [[Claire Chennault]], and employing P-40 fighters in combat against the Japanese air forces. While the P-40 couldn't match the manoeuvrability of the Japanese [[Ki-27]] and [[Ki-43]] monoplanes they were facing, Chennault trained the AVG pilots to use the performance advantage the P-40 held over the Japanese fighters to gain the upper hand in combat. The P-40 had a higher dive speed than the Japanese fighters, for example, and would often be used in one-pass attacks. The AVG was highly successful, and accordingly their exploits were widely published in order to boost the morale of the American public. The reputation of the P-40 was shaped to large degree by the success of the AVG in China. According to the American count, the Flying Tigers destroyed 297 aircraft for the loss of only 21 pilots and their aircraft. Alternative counts have been as low as 115-21, but never any lower. A significant margin of victory none the less.
As the first mass-produced US fighter aircraft of WW2, the P-40 served on every single front of World War II. Despite its success in the hands of the Flying Tigers, the characteristics of the Allison engine (the single-stage, single-speed supercharger) meant that it could not compete with modern &mdash; enemy or allied &mdash; types as a high-altitude fighter. Among USAAF pilots in the Pacific, the P-40 &mdash; just like the [[P-39 Airacobra|P-39]] which was equipped with a similar Allison engine &mdash; was considered an inferior air-superiority fighter, and the replacement with the turbo-supercharged [[P-38 Lightning|P-38]] was greeted with relief. However, when transferred to ground-attack duties where the high-altitude characteristics were less important, the P-40 still proved a useful fighter bomber aircraft in all theatres of war. In this role, the P-40 offered the additional advantage of a low price tag, and consequently it was kept it production as a ground-attack aircraft long after it was actually obsolete as a fighter. Of all the fighter-bomber aircraft built by the US during WWII, it was the third most-built. [[image:Kittyhawkdamaged.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Evidence of the P-40's durability: in 1944, this Kittyhawk was flown more than 200 miles (320 kilometres) after losing its port aileron and 25% of its wing area. F/O T. R. Jacklin (pictured) of No. 75 Squadron [[Royal Australian Air Force|RAAF]] |
e is sometimes appealed to in political debates, particularly when other arguments have been exhausted. [[Civil rights]] for [[African Americans]], [[women's suffrage]], and [[homosexuality]]—to name just a few—have all been attacked as being contrary to common sense. Similarly, common sense has been invoked in opposition to many scientific and technological advancements. Such misuse of the notion of common sense is fallacious, being a form of the ''[[Appeal to belief|argumentum ad populum]]'' (appeal to the masses) [[logical fallacy|fallacy]].
==Projects to collect common sense==
The [[Cyc]] project is an attempt to provide a basis of commonsense knowledge for [[artificial intelligence]] systems. The [[Open Mind Common Sense]] project is similar except, like other on-line collaborative projects like [[Wikipedia]], was built from the contributions of thousands of individuals across the Web.
== See also ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[Antonio Gramsci]]
*[[appeal to tradition]]
*[[common sense and the Diallelus]]
*[[common sense conservative]]
*[[convention]]
*[[counterintuition]]
*[[frame problem]]
*[[John Ralston Saul]]
*[[Norm_(sociology)|social norm]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:epistemology]]
[[de:Gesunder Menschenverstand]]
[[es:Sentido común]]
[[hu:Józan ész]]
[[ja:常識]]
[[pt:Senso comum]]
[[ru:Здравый смысл]]
[[sv:Common sense]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ComputerHardware</title>
<id>5149</id>
<revision>
<id>15903379</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer hardware]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/FamousPlayers</title>
<id>5150</id>
<revision>
<id>15903380</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-05T02:22:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-> List of notable chess players</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of notable chess players]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/King</title>
<id>5151</id>
<revision>
<id>15903381</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-03T20:23:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[King (chess)]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/Pieces</title>
<id>5152</id>
<revision>
<id>15903382</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-04T11:12:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chess piece]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/Board</title>
<id>5153</id>
<revision>
<id>15903383</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-03T18:09:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chessboard]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/Queen</title>
<id>5154</id>
<revision>
<id>15903384</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-03T21:41:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Queen (chess)]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/Bishop</title>
<id>5155</id>
<revision>
<id>15903385</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-04T10:59:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bishop (chess)]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/Knight</title>
<id>5156</id>
<revision>
<id>15903386</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-04T11:14:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Knight (chess)]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/Rook</title>
<id>5157</id>
<revision>
<id>15903387</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-04T10:55:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Rook (chess)]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/Pawn</title>
<id>5158</id>
<revision>
<id>15903388</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-04T11:34:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pawn (chess)]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/WorldChampions</title>
<id>5159</id>
<revision>
<id>15903389</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:36:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[List of chess world championship matches]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of chess world championship matches]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/Clock</title>
<id>5160</id>
<revision>
<id>15903390</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-05T17:05:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Game clock]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chess/Strategy and Tactics</title>
<id>5162</id>
<revision>
<id>15903392</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-03T10:38:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>De-subpaging</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chess strategy and tactics]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The World Factbook</title>
<id>5163</id>
<revision>
<id>41271339</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T05:08:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vedek Dukat</username>
<id>695203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>non-governmental*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wfbcover.jpg|thumb|World Factbook 2005 cover]]
'''''The World Factbook''''' is an annual publication by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the [[United States]] with basic [[almanac]]-style information about the various [[countries of the world]]. The factbook gives a two- to three-page summary of the [[demography|demographics]], location, [[telecommunication]]s capacity, [[government]], [[industry]], [[military]] capability, ''etc'', of all [[diplomatic recognition|US-recognized]] countries and territories in the world.
As ''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of [[Federal Government of the United States|U.S. Government]] officials, the style, format, coverage and content are primarily designed to meet their specific requirements. However, it is frequently used as a resource for student papers, web sites and various non-governmental publications. As a work of the U.S. government, it is considered to be in the [[public domain]] (see copyright status below).
==Sources==
Information is provided by:
* [[Antarctic Information Program]] ([[National Science Foundation]]),
* [[Bureau of the Census]] ([[United States Department of Commerce|Department of Commerce]]),
* [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] ([[United States Department of Labor|Department of Labor]]),
* [[Central Intelligence Agency]],
* [[Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs]],
* [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] ([[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]),
* [[United States Department of State|US Department of State]],
* [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|US Fish and Wildlife Service]] ([[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]]),
* [[United States Maritime Administration|US Maritime Administration]] ([[United States Department of Transportation|Department of Transportation]]),
* [[National Imagery and Mapping Agency]] ([[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]),
* [[Naval Facilities Engineering Command]] ([[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]),
* [[Office of Insular Affairs]] ([[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]]),
* [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] ([[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]),
* [[United States Board on Geographic Names]] ([[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]]), and
* other public and private sources.
==Copyright==
[[Image:Wfb_webby.png|thumb|320px|left|The World Factbook website as it appeared in February and March 2005]]
Because the Factbook is in the [[public domain]], people are free to redistribute and modify it in any way they like, without permission of the CIA.
The official seal of the CIA, however, may not be copied without permission as required by the [[Central Intelligence Agency Act|CIA Act of 1949]] (50 U.S.C. section 403m). Misuse of the official seal of the CIA could result in civil and criminal penalties:
: ''Federal law prohibits use of the words "Central Intelligence Agency," the initials "CIA," the |
t:Georgius Agricola]]
[[fr:Georgius Agricola]]
[[it:Georg Agricola]]
[[nl:Georgius Agricola]]
[[ja:ゲオルク・アグリコラ]]
[[no:Georgius Agricola]]
[[pl:Georgius Agricola]]
[[ru:Агрикола, Георг]]
[[sk:Georgius Agricola]]
[[sv:Georgius Agricola]]
[[zh:阿格里科拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greek Architecture</title>
<id>12476</id>
<revision>
<id>31538630</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-15T23:43:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JamesTeterenko</username>
<id>73471</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>update redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Architecture of Ancient Greece]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Germanicus</title>
<id>12478</id>
<revision>
<id>41792537</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:05:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: eu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Germanicus.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Bust of Germanicus.]]
'''Iulius Caesar Claudianus Germanicus''', possibly '''Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus''' or '''Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus''' before adoption ([[24 May]] [[15 BC]]&ndash;[[October 10]],[[19|AD 19]]) was a member of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] of the early [[Roman Empire]].
Germanicus' parents were [[Nero Claudius Drusus]], son of [[Livia Drusilla]], wife of [[Caesar Augustus]], and [[Antonia Minor]], daughter of [[Marc Antony]] and [[Octavia]], sister of Caesar Augustus. [[Claudius]] was his brother. Germanicus married [[Agrippina the Elder]], a granddaughter of Augustus, who gave him nine children. Two died whilst very young, another Gaius Iulius Caesar died in early childhood. The other six survived to grown age:
* [[Julia Livilla]]
* [[Drusilla]]
* [[Agrippina the Younger]], mother of the emperor [[Nero]]
* [[Drusus Caesar]] and [[Nero Caesar]], assassinated by [[Tiberius]]
* Gaius Caesar ([[Caligula]]), who became emperor
Germanicus was very popular among the citizens of [[Rome]], who celebrated enthusiastically all his victories. He was also a favourite with Augustus, his grandfather in law, who, for some time, considered him as heir to the Empire. In [[4]], he finally decided in favour of [[Tiberius]], his stepson, but compelled him to adopt Germanicus as a son and name him his heir.
Germanicus assumed several military commands leading the army in the campaigns in [[Pannonia]] and [[Dalmatia]]. He is recorded to be an excellent soldier and inspired leader, loved by the [[Roman legion|legions]]. In the year [[12]] he was appointed [[consul]] after five mandates as [[quaestor]].
After the death of Augustus in [[14]], the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] appointed Germanicus commander of the forces in [[Germania]]. A short time after, the legions rioted on the news that the succession befell on the unpopular Tiberius. Refusing to accept this, the rebel soldiers cried for Germanicus as emperor. But he chose to honor Augustus' choice and put an end to the mutiny, preferring to continue only as a general. In the next two years, he subdued the Germanic tribes east of the [[Rhine]], and assured their defeat in the [[Battle of the Weser River]] in [[16]]. Whilst on the Rhine frontier, Germanicus found the remains of the three legions massacred in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in [[9]], buried them with high honors and recovered two of the legion's eagles.
After the victories in Germania, which gave him the appellative "Germanicus", he was sent to [[Asia Province|Asia]], where in the year [[18]] he defeated the kingdoms of [[Cappadocia]] and [[Commagena]], turning them into [[Roman provinces]].
In the following year, Germanicus died in [[Antioch]], [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]]. His death was surrounded with speculations, and several sources refer to claims that he was poisoned by [[Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso]], governor of Syria, under orders of the emperor Tiberius. This was never proven and Piso later commits suicide, but [[Suetonius]] suggests Tiberius' jealousy and fear of his adopted son's popularity and increasing power as a motive.
The death of Germanicus in what can only be described as dubious circumstances greatly destabilized Tiberius in Rome, leading to increased paranoia and the creation of a climate of fear in Rome itself.
==See also==
*[[Julio-Claudian family tree]]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Germanicus}}
[[Category:15 BC births]]
[[Category:19 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
[[Category:Roman generals]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]
[[be:Германікус]]
[[de:Germanicus]]
[[es:Julio César Claudiano]]
[[eu:Germaniko]]
[[fr:Germanicus]]
[[hr:Germanik]]
[[it:Germanico (storia romana)]]
[[he:גרמאניקוס יוליוס קלאודיאנוס קיסר]]
[[hu:Germanicus]]
[[nl:Germanicus Julius Caesar]]
[[ja:ゲルマニクス]]
[[pl:Germanik]]
[[pt:Germânico]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giulio Alberoni</title>
<id>12479</id>
<revision>
<id>33944085</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-05T06:41:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mairi</username>
<id>95631</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Category:Italian cardinals</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alberoni.JPG|thumb|right|Cardinal Alberoni]]
'''Giulio Alberoni''' ([[May 30]], [[1664]] OS - [[June 26]] NS, [[1752]]), [[Italy|Italian]] [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] and
[[statesman]] in the service of [[Philip V of Spain]], was born near [[Piacenza]], probably at the village of [[Fiorenzuola d'Arda]] in the [[Duchy of Parma]].
==Early years==
His father was a gardener, and he himself became first connected with the church in the humble position of a bellringer and verger in the cathedral of Piacenza, where he gained the notice of Bishop Barni, took priest's orders, and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron to [[Rome]].
During the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] Alberoni laid the foundation of his political success by the services he rendered to [[duke of Vendôme|Louis-Joseph, duc de Vendôme]], commander of the French forces in Italy, to whom the [[duke of Parma]] had sent him; and when these forces were recalled in 1706 he accompanied the duke to [[Paris]], where he was favourably received by [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]].
==Middle years==
In [[1711]] he followed Vendôme into [[Spain]] as his secretary. He was very active in furthering the accession of the French candidate for the throne of Spain, [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]]. Two years later, Vendôme having died in the interval, Alberoni was appointed consular agent for Parma at Philip's court, where he was the royal favourite, being raised at the same time to the dignity of count. On his arrival at [[Madrid]] he found the [[Marie-Anne de la Trémoille, princesse des Ursins|princesse des Ursins]] all but omnipotent with the king, and for a time he judged it expedient to use her influence in carrying out his plans. Upon the death of the Queen ([[Maria Luisa of Savoy]]), Alberoni in concert with La Trémoille arranged for a marriage in 1714 between the widowed King and [[Elizabeth Farnese|Elisabetta Farnese]], daughter of the Duke of Parma.
The influence of the new queen being actively exerted on Alberoni's behalf, within not much more than a year he was made a duke and [[Grandee|grandee of Spain]], a member of the king's council, appointed bishop of [[Málaga]], and in [[1715]] prime minister, and was made cardinal by [[Pope Clement XI]], under pressure from the court of Spain, in July [[1717]]. His vigorous internal policy mixed the economic reforms of [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert|Colbert]] for Louis XIV with some conservative Spanish aspects: a regular mail service to the Americas was instituted, yet the school of navigation he founded was reserved for the sons of the nobility. By a series of decreees in 1717, Alberoni reduced the powers of the grandees in royal councils. His main purpose was to produce an economic revival in [[Spain]] by abolishing internal custom-houses, throwing open the trade of the Indies and reorganizing the finances along lines that had been established by the French economist [[Jean Orry]].
With the resources thus gained he undertook to enable Philip V to carry out an ambitious foreign policy to undo the [[Treaty of Utrecht]], with the aim of countering the [[Habsburgs]] and recovering Spanish possessions in [[Italy]], where he was responsible for unwarranted invasions of [[Sardinia]] (November 1717) and [[Sicily]] (July [[1718]]), in spite of promises made to the Pope, while pressing Spanish causes in France. Another extravagant scheme of Alberoni's was the plotted restoration of the Stuarts to the British throne in two [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] expeditions to Scotland in the spring of [[1719]]. By provoking [[England]], [[France]], [[the Netherlands]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire|Empire]] to form the [[Quadruple Alliance]], his hasty and ambitious plans brought a flood of disaster to Spain, for which Alberoni was held responsible. On [[December 5]], [[1719]], with Philip V fast becoming the common enemy of all Europe, Alberoni was ordered to leave Spain, Elizabeth herself having taken an active part in procuring the decree of banishment.
==Later years==
He went to Italy, escaped from arrest at Genoa, and had to take refuge among the [[Apennines]], [[Pope Clement XI]], who was his bitter enemy, having given strict orders for his arrest. On the death of Clement in [[1721]], Alberoni boldly appeared at the conclave, and took part in the election of [[Pope Innocent XIII|Innocent XIII]], after which he was for a short time imprisoned by the new pontiff on the demand of Spain, but was cleared of all charges by a commission of his fellow Cardinals. At the next election ([[1724]]) he was himself proposed for the papal chair, and secured ten votes at the conclave that elec |
et had filed with the company. However, despite all of the evidence that the two auditors had collected, they were told to drop the investigation by Enron's [[president]], Mick Seidl, and the [[Chief Financial Officer]], Keith Kern. Unfortunately for Woytek and Beard, Borget had brought in tens of millions of dollars to the company. Enron had given both Woytek and Beard the impression that the annual profits that Borget brought in to the corporation were more important than maintaining legal practices.
===The Recent Insider Trading===
If the Enron traders were indeed participating in insider trading during the 1980s, they apparently did not learn their lesson from nearly being caught by David Woytek and John Beard. To the auditors, it seemed that Enron would become caught up in the race for higher profits and would pursue them even if it meant using illegal practices.
Enron had created [[offshore entities]], a unit which may be used for planning and avoidance of [[tax|taxes]], raising the profitability of a business. This provided ownership and management with full freedom of [[currency]] movement, and full anonymity, that would hide losses that the company was taking. These entities made Enron look more profitable than it actually was, and created a dangerous spiral in which each quarter, corporate officers would have to perform more and more contorted financial wizardry to create the illusion of billions in profits while the company was actually bleeding cash. This practice drove up the [[stock]] price to new levels at which point the executives began to work on insider information and trade millions of dollars worth of Enron stock. The executives and insiders at Enron knew about the offshore accounts that were hiding losses for the company, however, the investors knew nothing of this. Chief Financial Officer [[Andrew Fastow]] led the team which created the off-books companies, and manipulated the deals to provide himself, his family and his friends with hundreds of millions of dollars in guaranteed revenue, at the expense of the corporation he worked for and its stockholders.
In August of 2000, Enron's stock price hit its highest value of $90. It was at this point in time that Enron's executives, who possessed the inside information of the hidden losses, began to sell their stock. At the same time, the general public and Enron's [[investors]] were told to buy the stock, as the sky was the limit. Enron's executives told the investors that the stock would continue to climb until it reached possibly into the $130 to $140 range, while secretly unloading their shares as they knew the opposite to be true.
As executives were selling off their shares of stock, the price continued to drop. As the price dropped, investors were told to continue buying stock or hold steady if they already owned Enron because the stock price would rebound in the near future. Kenneth Lay's strategy for responding to Enron's continuing problems was in his appearance. As he did many times, Lay would issue a statement or make an appearance to calm investors and assure them that Enron was headed in the right direction.
By [[August 15]], [[2001]], Enron's stock price had fallen to $42 compared to its high of $90 just a year prior. Many of the investors trusted what Lay was telling them and still believed that Enron would rule the market. The investors continued to buy or hold onto their stock and lost more money every day. As October closed, the stock had fallen to $15 per share and many investors saw this as a great opportunity to buy Enron stock because of what Kenneth Lay had been telling them in the [[media]]. Just under a month later, on [[November 28]], the stock price would slip below one dollar as the public was finally made aware of the millions of dollars in losses that Enron had been hiding.
Enron CEO Kenneth Lay has been accused of selling over $70 million worth of stock at this time, which he used to repay cash advances on line of [[credit (finance)|credit]]. He sold another $20 million worth of stock in the open market. Also, Lay's wife, Linda, has been accused of selling 500,000 shares of Enron stock totaling $1.2 million on [[November 28]], [[2001]]. The money earned from this sale did not go to the family but rather to [[charitable organizations]], which had already received pledges of contributions from the foundation. Records show that Mrs. Lay placed the sale order sometime between 10:00 and 10:20 AM, while the news of Enron's problems went public about 10:30 that morning.
Former Enron executive Paula Rieker has been charged with criminal insider trading. Rieker obtained the 18,380 Enron shares for $15.51 a share. She sold that stock for $49.77 a share in July 2001, a week before the public was told what she already knew about the $102 million loss.
===Aftermath===
Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling, both former Enron chief executive officers, went on [[trial (law)|trial]] for their part in the Enron scandal in January 2006. Former [[chief accounting officer]] Richard Causey were on trial along with Lay and Skilling. The 53-count, 65-page [[indictment]] covers a broad range of financial crimes, including [[bank fraud]], making false statements to banks and auditors, [[securities fraud]], [[wire fraud]], [[money laundering]], money laundering conspiracy and insider trading. U.S. [[United States federal judge|District Judge]] Sim Lake has previously denied motions by the defendants to hold separate trials and to move the case out of Houston, where the defendants argued the negative publicity surrounding Enron's demise would make it impossible to get a fair trial.
Mr. Lay pleaded not guilty to the eleven criminal charges. Lay has stated that he is innocent and that he was misled by those around him. The [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] (SEC) is seeking more than $90 million from Lay in addition to civil fines. The SEC would like to see that Mr. Lay is barred from ever serving as a director or an officer for a [[publicly held company]].
The case surrounding Mrs. Linda Lay is a difficult one. Mrs. Lay sold roughly 500,000 shares of Enron thirty minutes to ten minutes before the information that Enron was collapsing went public on [[November 28]], [[2001]]. This was information that Enron executives had known for over a year. This timeline of events presents a very good case for the prosecution.
However, there are two specific points that make the case against Mrs. Lay a difficult one. The largest hurdle for the prosecution is that the Lays did not profit from the sale of this stock. It instead went to their family foundation and in the months following, the proceeds were given away to charity. The second hurdle is that even if Mr. Lay had come home and told his wife about Enron's troubles, this communication is a marital confidence and its disclosure cannot be forced. This would mean the government would have to find a third party witness to testify that Mrs. Lay did have insider knowledge at the time of the sale.
Former managing director of [[investor relations]] for Enron Paula Rieker plead guilty in [[federal court]] to a criminal insider trading charge. The one [[felony]] charge against Rieker carries a maximum penalty of ten years in prison and a $1 million fine. Rieker agreed to never again serve as an officer or director of a public company. If a federal court approves the settlement, Rieker will pay the SEC $499,333, the profit from the sale of 18,380 share of Enron stock. Rieker has been a valuable witness for the government as she prepared earnings releases and conference calls with Enron analysts.
On [[December 28]], [[2005]], former [[chief accounting officer|CAO]] [[Richard Causey]] pleaded guilty to securities fraud. He will have to serve 7 years in prison and pay $1.25 million to the US Government. Causey has the possibility of only serving 5 years in prison if he cooperates and testifies against former Chairmen and CEO, [[Kenneth Lay]] and former CEO and COO, [[Jeffrey Skilling]].
On [[January 13]], [[2006]] lobbyist [[William "Art" Roberts]] pleaded guilty to impersonating Senate staff members during the investigation.
Roberts was hired by a German bank in June 2004 to get a letter from a Senate subcommittee stating the bank had done their [[due dilligence]] investigating the Enron collapse, as part of the bank's defense in a suit filed against it by a London bank. [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=aKHHN.3en36I&refer=us]
==Fallout==
The long-term implications of Enron's collapse are somewhat unclear, but there is considerable political fallout both in the US and in the UK relating to the money Enron gave to political figures (around US$6 million since 1990). The fallout from the scandal quickly extended beyond Enron and all those formerly associated with it. The trial of [[Arthur Andersen]] on charges of [[obstruction of justice]] related to Enron also helped to expose its accounting fraud at [[WorldCom]]. The subsequent bankruptcy of that telecommunications firm quickly set off a wave of other [[accounting scandals]]. This wave engulfed many companies, exposing high-level corruption, accounting errors, and [[insider trading]]. Though at the time of its collapse, Enron was the largest bankruptcy in history, since then it has been eclipsed by the collapse of [[WorldCom]].
Former Enron CFO [[Andrew Fastow]], the [[mastermind]] behind Enron's complex network of [[Offshoring|offshore]] partnerships and questionable accounting practices, was [[indict]]ed on [[November 1]], [[2002]], by a federal [[grand jury]] in Houston on 78 counts including [[fraud]], [[money laundering]], and [[conspiracy (criminal)|conspiracy]]. He and his wife [[Lea Fastow]], former assistant treasurer, accepted a [[plea agreement]] on [[January 14]], [[2004]]. Andrew Fastow will serve a ten-year prison sentence and forfeit US $23.8 million, while Lea Fastow will serve a fi |
<TD ALIGN=center>'''72'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''32'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-25'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''9'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
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<TD ALIGN=center>'''6'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''6'''</td>
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<TD ALIGN=center>'''1987-88'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
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<TD ALIGN=center>'''20'''</td>
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<TD ALIGN=center>'''89'''</td>
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<TD ALIGN=center>'''-12'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''9'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''10'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''6'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''8'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''18'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1988-89'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''St. Louis Blues'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''66'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''22'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''45'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''67'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''54'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-20'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''9'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''6'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''10'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''4'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''8'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''12'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1989-90'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''Detroit Red Wings'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''73'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''17'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''40'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''57'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''24'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-8'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''3'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''0'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''-'''</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>'''14 seasons'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''NHL career'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center></td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1000'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''369'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''761'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''1130'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''487'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center></td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''119'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''2'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''40'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''91'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''35'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''66'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''101'''</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>'''83'''</td>
</tr>
</table>
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Brian Sutter]] | title = [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)#Team captains|St. Louis Blues captains]] | years = [[1988]]-[[1989]] | after = [[Rick Meagher]]}}
{{end box}}
==See also==
*[[List of NHL players]]
*[[List of NHL seasons]]
*[[List of NHL players with 1000 points]]
*[[Hockey Hall of Fame]]
*[[List of NHL statistical leaders]]
==References==
*''Total Hockey'' (Second Edition), Editor - Dan Diamond, ISBN 1-892129-85-X
==External links==
*[http://www.legendsofhockey.net/html/ind02federko.htm Legends of Hockey]
*[http://www.hockeydraftcentral.com/1976/76007.html Hockey Draft Central]
*[http://www.stlouisblues.com/history/retired/retired_ferderko.html St. Louis Blues Website]
*[http://www.hockeydb.com/ihdb/players/data04/00001634.html HockeyDB]
[[Category:1956 births|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Living people|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Hockey Hall of Fame|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Detroit Red Wings players|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:St. Louis Blues players|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Saskatoon Blades alumni|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Canadian ice hockey players|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:NHL 100-point seasons|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Saskatchewan sportspeople|Federko, Bernie]]
[[ja:バーニー・フェデルコ]]
[[fi:Bernie Federko]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buffalo, New York</title>
<id>3985</id>
<revision>
<id>42116250</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:52:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sfahey</username>
<id>92164</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved overly fine detail to new article "Buffalo Public Schools"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = Buffalo, New York |
image_skyline = Downtownbuffalony.jpg |
[[buffalonight.jpg]]
nickname = City of Good Neighbors |
image_flag = BuffaloNYFlag.jpg |
image_seal = BuffaloNYSeal.jpg |
image_map = NewYorkMapwithBuffalo.jpg|
map_caption = Location of Buffalo in New York State|
subdivision_type = [[County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]] |
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Byron Brown]] |
area_note = |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 136.0|
area_land = 105.2 |
area_water = 30.8|
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note = |
population_total = 292,648 |
population_density = 2782.4 |
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset = &minus;5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]] |
utc_offset_DST = &minus;4 |
latitude = 42&deg;54'17" N |
longitude = 78&deg;50'58" W |
website = [http://www.ci.buffalo.ny.us/ Buffalo, NY] |
footnotes = |
}}
{{dablink|See [[Buffalo]] for other places with this name.}}
'''Buffalo''' is an [[United_States|American]] city in western [[New York]]. With a population of approximately 280,000 as of 2005 [http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2004-01.xls], it is the state's second-largest city, after [[New York City]], and is the [[county seat]] of [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]]{{GR|6}}. The Buffalo-Niagara metropolitan area has a population of 1.1 million. Despite its cold, industrial image, Buffalo is home to a diverse population and thriving arts, cultural, and nightlife scenes.
Buffalo lies on the [[Niagara River]], which connects [[Lake Erie]] and [[Lake Ontario]]. European-Americans first settled there in the late-18th century. Growth was slow until the city became the western terminus of the [[Erie Canal]] some 40 years later. By the turn of the next century, Buffalo was one of the country's leading cities, and by far its largest inland port. The huge grain elevators and industrial plants that the canal spawned began to disappear in the mid-20th century as the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] enabled water traffic to bypass the city.
Distancing itself from its industrial past, Buffalo is redefining itself as a cultural, educational, and medical center. The city was named by ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' as the third cleanest city in [[United States|America]] in 2005. [http://www.rd.com/content/openContent.do?contentId=15223&pageIndex=3] In 2001 [[USA Today]] named Buffalo the winner of its "City with a Heart" contest, proclaiming it the nation's "friendliest city." Also in [[1996]] & [[2002]] Buffalo won the [[All-America City Award]].
== History ==
=== Origin of name ===
It is a well known fact that the City of Buffalo received its name from the creek of the same name, however, there are several unproven theories as to the origin of the name of the creek. Early [[France|French]] explorers reported the abundance of [[American Bison|Buffalo]] on the south shore of Lake Erie but their presence on the banks of Buffalo Creek is still a matter of debate, so the origin of the name of the creek is still uncertain. Neither the [[North American Indians|Native American]] name ("Place of the Basswoods") or the French name ("River of Horses") survived so the current name likely dates to the British occupation which began with the capture of Fort Niagara in 1759. The first known appearance of the name was in 1764 in the Journal of British military engineer John Montressor who explored Buffalo Creek before choosing the site of Fort Erie on the opposite side of the Niagara River. Another claim is that the creek is named after a Native American, who once lived in that area. The argument that the name is an anglicized form of the name ''Beau Fleuve'' (''beautiful river''), which was supposedly an exclamation uttered by Louis Hennipin when he first saw the stream, is the least likely explanation.
=== Early history of Buffalo ===
Most of western [[New York]] was granted by [[Charles II of England]] to the [[Duke of York]] (later known as [[James II of England]]), but the first European settlement in what is now Erie County was by the French, at the mouth of [[Buffalo River (New York) |Buffalo Creek]] in [[1758]]. Its buildings were destroyed a year later by the evacuating French after the British captured Fort Niagara. The B |
ng [[Kyle MacLachlan]] as a self-obsessed yuppie version of J.K. with [[Anthony Hopkins]] in a cameo role.
* {{imdb title|id=0093530 |title=Metamorphosis (1987)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0174019 |title=Die Verwandlung (1975)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0074561 |title=Förvandlingen (1976/I)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0328279 |title=Prevrashcheniye (2002)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0411641 |title=Menschenkörper (2004)}} [http://www.menschenkoerper.de]
*''Naked Lunch'' (1991) by [[David Cronenberg]] contains a reference to Kafka. An intravenous injection of insecticide is described as a "Kafka high".
*''Director's Cut'' (2001) by [[Brendon Small]] is an episode of [[Home Movies (cartoon series)|Home Movies]] where they film a rock opera based on [[The Metamorphosis|Metamorphosis]].
==Online texts==
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7849 The Trial]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5200 Metamorphosis]
==Bibliography==
===Short Stories===
* ''[[Description of a Struggle]]'' (''Beschreibung eines Kampfes'' - [[1904]]-[[1905]])
* ''[[Wedding Preparations in the Country]]'' (''Hochzeitsvorbereitungen auf dem Lande'' - [[1907]]-[[1908]])
* ''[[The Judgment]]'' (''Das Urteil'' - September 22-23, [[1912]])
* ''[[The Penal Colony|In the Penal Colony]]'' (''In der Strafkolonie'' - October [[1914]])
* ''[[The Village Schoolmaster (The Giant Mole)]]'' (''Der Dorfschullehrer'' or ''Der Riesenmaulwurf'' - [[1914]]-[[1915]])
* ''[[Blumfeld, an Elderly Bachelor]]'' (''Blumfeld, ein älterer Junggeselle'' - [[1915]])
* ''[[The Warden of the Tomb]]'' (''Der Gruftwächter'' - [[1916]]-[[1917]]), the only play Kafka wrote
* ''[[A Country Doctor]]'' (''Ein Landarzt'' - [[1917]])
* ''[[The Hunter Gracchus]]'' (''Der Jäger Gracchus'' - [[1917]])
* ''[[The Great Wall of China]]'' (''Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer'' - [[1917]])
* ''[[A Report to an Academy]]'' (''Ein Bericht für eine Akademie'' - [[1917]])
* ''[[The Refusal]]'' (''Die Abweisung'' - [[1920]])
* ''[[A Hunger Artist]]'' (''Ein Hungerkünstler'' - [[1922]])
* ''[[Investigations of a Dog]]'' (''Forschungen eines Hundes'' - [[1922]])
* ''[[A Little Woman]]'' (''Eine kleine Frau'' - [[1923]])
* ''[[The Burrow (story)|The Burrow]]'' (''Der Bau'' - [[1923]]-[[1924]])
* ''[[Josephine the Singer, or The Mouse Folk]]'' (''Josephine, die Sängerin, oder Das Volk der Mäuse'' - [[1924]])
Many collections of the stories have been published, and they include:
*Kafka, Franz (ed. Nahum N. Glatzer). ''The Complete Stories.'' New York: Schocken Books, 1971.
===Novellas===
* ''[[The Metamorphosis]]'' (''Die Verwandlung'' - November-December [[1915]])
===Novels===
* ''[[The Trial]]'' (''Der Prozeß'' - [[1925]]) (includes short story [http://www.pith.net/pithfiles/b4law.htm Before the law])
* ''[[The Castle]]'' (''Das Schloß'' - [[1926]])
* ''[[Amerika (novel)|America]]'' (''Amerika'' - [[1927]])
===Diaries and notebooks===
*''Diaries of Franz Kafka''
*''The Blue Octavo Notebooks''
===Letters===
*''Letters to Felice''
*''Letters to Ottla''
*''Letters to Milena''
*''Franz Kafka: Letters to Family, Friends, and Editors''
===On Kafka===
*Brod, Max. ''Franz Kafka: A Biography.'' New York: Da Capo Press, 1995.
*Brod, Max. ''The biography of Franz Kafka'', tr. from the German by G. Humphreys Roberts. London: Secker & Warburg, 1947.
* [[Pietro Citati|Citati, Pietro]], ''Kafka'', 1987.
* [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze, Gilles]] & [[Félix Guattari]]. ''Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature (Theory and History of Literature, Vol 30).'' Minneapolis, University of Minnesota, 1986.
*Greenberg, Martin, ''The terror of art; Kafka and modern literature''. New York, Basic Books, 1968.
*Hayman, Ronald. ''K, a Biography of Kafka''., London: Phoenix Press, 2001.
*Murray, Nicholas. ''Kafka.'' New Haven: Yale, 2004.
*Pawel, Ernst. ''The Nightmare of Reason: A Life of Franz Kafka.'' New York : Vintage Books, 1985.
*Thiher, Allen (ed.). ''Franz Kafka: A Study of the Short Fiction'' (Twayne's Studies in Short Fiction, No. 12).
==See also==
* [[Asteroid]] [[3412 Kafka]], named after the author.
* [[Kafkaesque]]
* [[Max Brod]]
* [[List of Austrians|List of famous Austrians]]
* [[List of Austrian writers]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{commons|Franz Kafka}}
* [http://www.kafka.org/ The Kafka Project] Project initiated in 1998 with the purpose of publishing online all Kafka texts in German, in the form of the manuscripts
* [http://www.themodernword.com/kafka/ Das Schloss] The Modern Word's Kafka site, with an in-depth biography and various links to reviews, articles, and other Kafka info
* [http://www.levity.com/corduroy/kafka.htm Franz Kafka (1883-1924)]
* [http://dnausers.d-n-a.net/dnetrgoA/critlist.htm Kafka Critics] <!-- this is about Kafka but quite low on actual content -->
<!-- * [http://www.k-eins.de/ Essay on Kafka] I found almost no text on this site but perhaps someone can provide better link into it -->
* [http://endeavor.med.nyu.edu/lit-med/lit-med-db/webdocs/webauthors/kafka91-au-.html Kafka at the Literature, Arts, and Medicine Database] including brief, insightful summaries and essays of several of his stories
*[http://victorian.fortunecity.com/vermeer/287/nabokov_s_metamorphosis.htm Vladimir Nabokov's lecture on "The Metamorphosis"]
* [http://uk.imdb.com/title/tt0102181/ Kafka in Film] Internet Movie Database listing of Soderbergh's film, Kafka.
* [http://www.wpunj.edu/~newpol/issue23/lowy23.htm Franz Kafka and Libertarian Socialism] A look at Kafka and anarchism.
* [http://www.metameat.net/kafka/index.php?en The Diaries of Franz Kafka serialised as a weblog]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Franz+Kafka | name=Franz Kafka}}
* [http://www.abc.net.au/gameon/kafkamesto/ Kafkamesto] Online game inspired by the life and work of Franz Kafka.
[[Category:1883 births|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:1924 deaths|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:Czech writers|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:German language writers|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:Austrian writers|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:Short story writers|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:Novelists|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:People with social anxiety disorder|Kafka, Franz]]
[[ast:Franz Kafka]]
[[bg:Франц Кафка]]
[[bs:Franz Kafka]]
[[ca:Franz Kafka]]
[[cs:Franz Kafka]]
[[da:Franz Kafka]]
[[de:Franz Kafka]]
[[et:Franz Kafka]]
[[es:Franz Kafka]]
[[eo:Franz KAFKA]]
[[eu:Franz Kafka]]
[[fa:فرانتس کافکا]]
[[fr:Franz Kafka]]
[[gl:Franz Kafka]]
[[ko:프란츠 카프카]]
[[hr:Franz Kafka]]
[[io:Franz Kafka]]
[[is:Franz Kafka]]
[[it:Franz Kafka]]
[[he:פרנץ קפקא]]
[[lv:Francs Kafka]]
[[hu:Franz Kafka]]
[[mk:Франц Кафка]]
[[nl:Franz Kafka]]
[[ja:フランツ・カフカ]]
[[ka:კაფკა, ფრანც]]
[[no:Franz Kafka]]
[[pl:Franz Kafka]]
[[pt:Franz Kafka]]
[[ro:Franz Kafka]]
[[ru:Кафка, Франц]]
[[simple:Franz Kafka]]
[[sk:Franz Kafka]]
[[sr:Франц Кафка]]
[[fi:Franz Kafka]]
[[sv:Franz Kafka]]
[[tr:Franz Kafka]]
[[uk:Кафка, Франц]]
[[zh:弗兰兹·卡夫卡]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fields Medal</title>
<id>10859</id>
<revision>
<id>39797912</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T23:02:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bwithh</username>
<id>472456</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Laureates */ Removing false info. the 2006 Fields Medals will not be awarded until the summer!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The ''' Fields Medal''' is a prize awarded to up to four [[mathematician]]s (not over forty years of age) at each [[International Congress of Mathematicians|International Congress]] of [[International Mathematical Union]] (therefore once every four years), since [[1936]] and regularly since [[1950]] at the initiative of the Canadian mathematician [[John Charles Fields]]. The purpose is to give recognition and support to young mathematical researchers having already made important contributions.
The Fields Medal is often described as the "[[Nobel Prize]] of mathematics". The comparison is not very accurate, in particular because the age limit is applied strictly. Fields Medals are awarded for a body of work, rather than for a particular result, though there is clearly consensus that some individual theorems can and should be recognised in this way. (That is not to say that some awards from the past have not been in some ways contentious or controversial&mdash;they have.)
Since the institution of the [[Wolf Prize]]s in [[1978]], there has been a high-profile "lifetime achievement" award in mathematics; this has to some extent redressed perceived imbalances in the weight given to different kinds of merit and the movements of intellectual fashion across mathematics as a whole.
In 2003, the first [[Abel Prize]] was awarded - this award, established by the Norwegian government, is specifically intended as a "mathematics Nobel".
== Laureates ==
* [[2002]]: [[Laurent Lafforgue]] (France), [[Vladimir Voevodsky]] (Russia/US)
* [[1998]]: [[Richard Ewen Borcherds]] (GB), [[William Timothy Gowers]] (GB), [[Maxim Kontsevich]] (Russia), [[Curtis T. McMullen]] (US), and a silver plate was given to [[Andrew Wiles]] (GB)
* [[1994]]: [[Efim Isakovich Zelmanov]] (Russia), [[Pierre-Louis Lions]] (France), [[Jean Bourgain]] (Belgium), [[Jean-Christophe Yoccoz]] (France)
* [[1990]]: [[Vladimir Drinfeld]] (USSR), [[Vaughan Frederick Randal Jones]] (New Zealand), [[Shigefumi Mori]] (Japan), [[Edward Witten]] (US)
* [[1986]]: [[Simon Donaldson]] (GB), [[Gerd Faltings]] (West Germany), [[Michael Freedman]] (US)
* [[1982]]: [[Alain Connes]] (France) , [[William Thurston]] (US), [[Shing-Tung Yau]] (China)
* [[1978]]: [[Pierre Deligne]] (Belgium), [[Charles Fefferman]] (US), [[Grigory Margulis]] (USSR), [[Daniel Quillen]] (US)
* [[1974]]: [[Enrico Bombieri]] (Italy), [[David Mumford]] (US)
* [[1970]]: [[Alan Baker]] (GB), [[Heisuke Hironaka]] (Japan), [[Sergei Petrovich Novikov]] (USSR), [[John Griggs Thompson]] (GB)
* [[1966]]: [[Michael Francis Atiyah]] (GB), [[Paul Cohen|Paul Joseph Cohen]] (US), [[Alexander Grothendieck]] (France |
d by a sharp drop in the state's rural population.
*Although Iowa's primary industry is agriculture, it also produces [[refrigerator]]s, [[washing machine]]s, [[fountain pen]]s, [[farm implement]]s, and food products that are shipped around the world.
*Iowa is also a major producer of [[ethanol]] and [[biodiesel]].
* Bergman, Marvin, ed. ''Iowa History Reader'' (1996) essays by scholars.
* Ross, Earl D. ''Iowa Agriculture: An Historical Survey'' (1951)
* Sage, Leland. ''A History of Iowa'' (1974)
* Schwieder, Dorothy. ''Iowa: The Middle Land'' (1996) excellent scholarly history
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106261030 Wall, Joseph Frazier. ''Iowa: A Bicentennial History'' (1978)]
===Famous Iowans===
The following is an alphabetical list of famous people born in Iowa (who don't necessarily live in Iowa) as well as famous Iowans in general.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Occupation !! Description
|-
| [[James Van Allen]] || Scientist || Born in [[Mount Pleasant, Iowa|Mount Pleasant]] in [[1914]].
|-
| [[Tom Arnold]] || Film actor || Born in [[Ottumwa, Iowa|Ottumwa]] on [[6 March]] [[1959]].
|-
| [[Buffalo Bill]] || || Born William Frederick Cody near [[Le Claire, Iowa|Le Claire]] in [[1846]].
|-
| [[Bill Bryson]] || Popular writer of travel books || Born in [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]] in [[1951]].
|-
| [[Norman Ernest Borlaug]] || [[Nobel Peace Prize]] laureate || Born near [[Cresco, Iowa|Cresco]] on March 25, [[1914]].
|-
| [[Johnny Carson]] || Comedian || Born in [[Corning, Iowa|Corning]] on [[23 October]] [[1925]].
|-
| [[Mamie Eisenhower]] || Wife of [[President Dwight D. Eisenhower]] || Born in [[Boone, Iowa|Boone]] in [[1896]].
|-
| [[Hayden Fry]] || [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|College football]] coach of the [[Iowa Hawkeyes Football|Iowa Hawkeyes]] || Coached into national prominence with several [[Rose Bowl Game]] appearances and high national rankings throughout his tenure.
|-
| [[George Gallup]] || American statistician; inventor of the [[Gallup poll]] || Born in [[Jefferson, Iowa|Jefferson]] in [[1901]].
|-
| [[Chad Hennings]] || [[NFL|American football]] player and US Air Force officer || Born in [[Elberon, Iowa|Elberon]] on [[October 20]], [[1965]].
|-
| [[Herbert Hoover]] || 31<sup>st</sup> [[President of the United States]] || Born in [[West Branch, Iowa|West Branch]] in [[1874]]. He is also buried there.
|-
| [[Ashton Kutcher]] || Film and television actor || Born in [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa|Cedar Rapids]] on [[February 7]], [[1978]].
|-
| [[William D. Leahy]] || [[Five star admiral]] || Born in [[Hampton, Iowa|Hampton]] on [[May 6]], [[1875]].
|-
| [[F. L. Maytag|Frederick L. Maytag]] || [[Maytag]] founder || Lived his childhood years near [[Laurel, Iowa|Laurel]].
|-
| [[Robert Millikan]] || Physicist || Measured the charge of the [[electron]], spent part of his childhood in [[Maquoketa, Iowa|Maquoketa]].
|-
| [[Charles Murray]] || Co-author of the controversial best-seller ''[[the Bell Curve]]'' || Born in [[Newton, Iowa|Iowa]] on [[January 8]], [[1943]].
|-
| [[Harry Reasoner]] || Journalist || Born 17 Apr 1923 at [[Dakota City, Iowa]]
|-
| [[Sage Rosenfels]] || [[NFL]] quarterback || Born in [[Maquoketa, Iowa|Maquoketa]] in [[1978]] and played college football at [[Iowa State University]].
|-
| [[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]] || Alternative metal/nu metal band || Formed in [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]].
|-
| [[Sullivan brothers]] || || Died together on the [[USS Juneau (CL-52)|USS Juneau]] during the [[Battle of Guadalcanal]], were born in [[Waterloo, Iowa|Waterloo]].
|-
| [[Billy Sunday]] || a professional [[baseball]] player; [[evangelism|evangelist]] || Born in [[Bina, Iowa|Bina]] in [[1862]] and lived in [[Glenwood, Iowa|Glenwood]], [[Nevada, Iowa|Nevada]], and [[Ames, Iowa|Ames]].
|-
| [[Grant Wood]] || [[Artist]] || Known mostly for his painting ''[[American Gothic]]'', was born in [[Anamosa, Iowa|Anamosa]] on [[13 February]], [[1891]].
|-
| [[Wright Brothers]] || || Lived for a short time in [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa|Cedar Rapids]] while their father was posted there as a bishop with the [[Church of the Brethren]].
|-
| [[Kurt Warner]] || [[NFL|American football]] player || Born in [[1971]] in [[Burlington, Iowa|Burlington]].
|-
| [[John Wayne]] || Film actor || Born as Marion Morrison in [[Winterset, Iowa|Winterset]] in [[1907]].
|-
| [[Elijah Wood]] || Film actor || Born in [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa|Cedar Rapids]] on [[January 28]], [[1981]].
|}
== Geography ==
[[Image:Iowa neighbors.jpg|thumb|Iowa neighbors]]
[[Image:National-atlas-iowa.png|thumb|Iowa map]]
[[Image:Iowa counties with names.jpg|thumb|Iowa counties]]
:''See [[List of counties in Iowa]], [[List of cities in Iowa]], [[List of townships in Iowa]] and [[List of Iowa rivers]]''
Iowa is bordered by [[Minnesota]] on the north, [[Nebraska]] and [[South Dakota]] on the west, [[Missouri]] on the south, and [[Wisconsin]] and [[Illinois]] on the east.
The [[Mississippi River]] forms the eastern boundary of the state. The boundary along the west is formed by the [[Missouri River]] south of [[Sioux City, Iowa|Sioux City]] and by the [[Big Sioux River]] north of Sioux City. There are several natural lakes in the state, most notably [[Spirit Lake (Iowa)|Spirit Lake]], [[West Okoboji Lake]], and [[East Okoboji Lake]] in northwest Iowa (''see [[Iowa Great Lakes]]''). Man-made lakes include Lake Odessa[http://www.iowadnr.com/fish/fishing/lakes/ode58.html], Saylorville Lake, Lake Red Rock, and Rathbun Lake.
The topography of the state is gently rolling [[plains]]. [[Loess]] hills lie along the western border of the state. Some of these are several hundred feet thick. In the northeast along the Mississippi River is a section of the [[Driftless Zone]], which in Iowa consists of low rugged hills covered with conifers&mdash;a landscape not usually associated with this state.
The point of lowest elevation (146 [[metre|m]]) is [[Keokuk, Iowa|Keokuk]] in southeastern Iowa. The point of highest elevation (509 [[metre|m]]) is Hawkeye Point, located in a feedlot north of [[Sibley, Iowa|Sibley]] in northwest Iowa. The mean elevation of the state is 335 [[metre|m]]. Considering the size of the state (145,743 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]), there is very little elevation difference.
Iowa has 99 [[county|counties]]. The state capital, [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]], is located in [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk County]] ([[:Image:Iowa counties with numbers.jpg|#60]]).
National parks, etc.
*[[Effigy Mounds National Monument]]
*[[Herbert Hoover National Historical Site]]
=== Climate ===
Iowa experiences a highly [[Continental climate|continental]] climate, with extremes of both heat and cold being present. The average annual temperature at [[Des Moines]] is 50.0° F (10.0° C); for some locations in the north the figure is under 45°, while Keokuk, on the [[Mississippi River]], averages 52.1°. Winters are brisk and snowfall common, the capital receiving an average of 36.3 inches per season. [[Spring]] ushers in the beginning of the [[severe weather]] season, as well as bringing increased precipitation and warming temperatures. The Iowan [[summer]] is known for heat and humidity, with daytime temperatures sometimes exceeding 100° F (37.8° C).
=== Interstate highways ===
These are the [[interstate highways]] that go through Iowa:
*[[Interstate 29|29]], [[Interstate 35|35]], [[Interstate 74|74]], [[Interstate 80|80]], [[Interstate 129|129]], [[Interstate 235 (Iowa)|235]], [[Interstate 280 (Illinois-Iowa)|280]], [[Interstate 380 (Iowa)|380]], [[Interstate 480 (Iowa-Nebraska)|480]], [[Interstate 680 (Iowa-Nebraska)|680]]
=== US highways ===
These are the [[U.S. Highway system|United States highways]] that go through Iowa:
*[[U.S. Highway 6|6]], [[U.S. Highway 18|18]], [[U.S. Highway 20|20]], [[U.S. Highway 30|30]], [[U.S. Highway 34|34]], [[U.S. Highway 52|52]], [[U.S. Highway 59|59]], [[U.S. Highway 61|61]], [[U.S. Highway 63|63]], [[U.S. Highway 65|65]], [[U.S. Highway 67|67]], [[U.S. Highway 69|69]], [[U.S. Highway 71|71]], [[U.S. Highway 75|75]], [[U.S. Highway 77|77]], [[U.S. Highway 136|136]], [[U.S. Highway 151|151]], [[U.S. Highway 169|169]], [[U.S. Highway 218|218]], [[U.S. Highway 275|275]]
=== Animals ===
These are some of the wild animals that can be found in Iowa:
{|-
|
*[[White-tailed deer]]
*[[Pheasant]]
*[[Quail]]
*[[Muskrat]]
*[[Raccoon]]
*[[Red fox]]
*[[Hare|Jackrabbit]]
*[[Cottontail]]
*[[Fox squirrel]]
*[[Gray squirrel]]
*[[Coyote]]
*[[American Beaver|Beaver]]
||
*[[Badger]]
*[[Weasel]]
*[[American Mink|Mink]]
*[[Eastern spotted skunk]]
*Striped [[skunk]]
*[[Gray fox]]
*[[Opossum]]
*[[Gopher]]
*[[Groundhog]]
*Mississauga [[rattlesnake]]
*[[Prairie rattlesnake]]
*[[Timber rattlesnake]]
|}
Iowa is home of 49 endangered & 35 threatened animal species as well as 64 endangered & 89 threatened plant species [http://www.iowadnr.com/education/wldresbs.html].
== Economy ==
[[Image:Bales of hay.jpg|thumb|right|Bales of hay on a farm near Ames, Iowa.]]
[[Image:Iowa quarter, reverse side, 2004.jpg|thumb|Iowa [[State Quarters|state quarter]] by [[Grant Wood]]]]
The state's total gross state product for 2003 was $103 billion. Its [[per capita income]] for 2003 was $28,340. Iowa's main agricultural outputs are [[pig|hogs]], [[maize|corn]], [[soybean]]s, [[oat]]s, [[cattle]] and [[dairy]] products. Its industrial outputs are food processing, machinery, electric equipment, chemical products, publishing and primary metals. Iowa produces the nation's largest amount of [[ethanol]]. Des Moines also serves as a center for the insurance industry.
== Demographics ==
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%; clear:right;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! ali |
ffy Lewis]], baseball player (d. [[1979]])
*[[1897]] - [[Ardito Desio]], Italian topographer and mountaineer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1902]] - [[Giuseppe Pella]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (d. [[1981]])
*[[1904]] - [[Pigmeat Markham]], American comedian (d. [[1981]])
*[[1905]] - [[George H. Hitchings]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1998]])
*[[1907]] - [[Miklós Rózsa]], Hungarian-born composer (d. [[1995]])
*[[1917]] - [[Ty LaForest]], Canadian baseball player (d. [[1947]])
*[[1918]] - [[Cliff Hillegass]], American publisher (d. [[2001]])
*[[1921]] - [[Jean Richard]], French actor (d. [[2001]])
*[[1924]] - [[Clarence Gatemouth Brown|Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown]], American musician
*1924 - [[Henry Hyde]], American politician
*[[1927]] - [[Samuel P. Huntington]], American political scientist
*[[1936]] - [[Tommy Ivo]], American race car driver
*[[1939]] - [[Thomas J. Moyer]], Chief Justice of the Ohio Supreme Court
*[[1940]] - [[Joseph L. Goldstein]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*1940 - [[Robert N. Kucey]], Canadian author
*[[1945]] - [[Margaret Hassan]], Irish-born aid worker (d. [[2004]])
*[[1946]] - [[Hayley Mills]], English actress
*[[1947]] - [[Kathy Acker]], American author (d. [[1997]])
*1947 - [[Dorothy Lyman]], American actress, director, producer
*1947 - [[Cindy Pickett]], American actress
*1947 - [[James Woods]], American actor and poker player
*[[1949]] - [[Geoff Bodine]], American race car driver
*[[1954]] - [[Rick Moranis]], Canadian comedian
*[[1956]] - [[Anna Kathryn Holbrook]], American actress
*1956 - [[Eric Roberts]], American actor
*1956 - [[Melody Thomas Scott]], American actress
*[[1958]] - [[Malcolm Marshall]], West Indian cricketer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1961]] - [[Jane Leeves]], British actress
*[[1963]] - [[Eric McCormack]], Canadian actor
*1963 - [[Conan O'Brien]], American comedian
*[[1964]] - [[Niall Ferguson]], British historian
*[[1966]] - [[Trine Hattestad]], Norwegian athlete
*[[1967]] - [[Maria Bello]], American actress
*[[1968]] - [[David Hewlett]], Canadian actor
*[[1969]] - [[Princess Sayako]] of Japan
*[[1970]] - [[Greg Eklund]], American musician ([[Everclear (band)|Everclear]])
*[[1971]] - [[David Tennant]], Scottish actor
*[[1973]] - [[Haile Gebrselassie]], Ethiopian athlete
*[[1976]] - [[Melissa Joan Hart]], American actress
*[[1979]] - [[Vahid Rahbani]], Iranian actor and director
*1979 - [[Michael Bradley (basketball)|Michael Bradley]], American basketball player
*1979 - [[Matthew Upson]], English footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Audrey Tang]], [[Taiwan]]ese [[free software]] [[programmer]]
*[[1989]] - [[Alia Shawkat]], American actress
==Deaths==
*[[1161]] - [[Theobald of Bec]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[1552]] - [[John Leland]], English antiquarian (b. [[1502]])
*[[1556]] - [[Luigi Alamanni]], Italian poet (b. [[1495]])
*[[1567]] - [[Wilhelm von Grumbach]], German adventurer (b. [[1503]])
*[[1558]] - [[Roxelana]], wife of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]
*[[1636]] - [[Julius Caesar (judge)|Julius Caesar]], English judge
*[[1650]] - [[Simonds d'Ewes]], English antiquarian and politician (b. [[1602]])
*[[1674]] - [[John Graunt]], English statistician (b. [[1620]])
*[[1689]] - [[George Jeffreys]], British Chief Justice (b. [[1648]])
*[[1690]] - [[Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine]], general of the Holy Roman Empire (b. [[1643]])
*[[1794]] - [[Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden]], Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. [[1714]])
*[[1796]] - [[Johan Wilcke]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1732]])
*[[1802]] - [[Erasmus Darwin]], English physician and botanist (b. [[1731]])
*[[1873]] - [[Justus von Liebig]], German chemist (b. [[1803]])
*[[1898]] - [[Gustave Moreau]], French painter (b. [[1826]])
*[[1935]] - [[Panait Istrati]], Romanian writer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1936]] - [[Ottorino Respighi]], Italian composer (b. [[1879]])
*[[1943]] - [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], Japanese admiral. (b. [[1884]])
*[[1945]] - [[John Ambrose Fleming]], English physicist and electrical engineer (b. [[1849]])
*1945 - [[Ernie Pyle]], American journalist (b. [[1900]])
*[[1947]] - [[Josef Tiso]], Slovakian leader (b. [[1887]])
*[[1955]] - [[Albert Einstein]], German-born Jewish physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1879]])
*[[1964]] - [[Ben Hecht]], American playwright and screenwriter (b. [[1894]])
*[[1976]] - [[Henrik Dam]], Dutch biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1996]] - [[Piet Hein (Denmark)|Piet Hein]], Danish mathematician and inventor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1998]] - [[Terry Sanford]], American politician (b. [[1917]])
*[[2002]] - [[Thor Heyerdahl]], Norwegian explorer (b. [[1914]])
*2002 - [[Wahoo McDaniel]], American football player and wrestler (b. [[1938]])
*[[2003]] - [[Edgar F. Codd]], English computer scientist (b. [[1923]])
*2003 - [[Daijiro Kato]], Japanese motorcycle racer (b. [[1976]])
*[[2004]] - [[Kamisese Mara|Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara]], first [[Prime Minister of Fiji]] and [[President of Fiji]] (b. [[1920]])
*[[2005]] - [[Sam Mills]], [[American football]] [[linebacker]] (b. [[1959]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Feast day]]s of
** [[Saint Apollonius]] (d. [[186]])
** [[Perfecto|Saint Perfecto]] (d. [[850]])
** [[Galdino|Saint Galdino]] (d. [[1176]])
** [[Eusebius]] (d. [[526]])
** [[Agia|Saint Agia]] (d. [[707]])
** [[Marie de l'Incarnation]] ([[1566]] &ndash; [[1618]])
* [[Zimbabwe]] &ndash; Independence Day
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/18 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050418.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=18 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[April 17]] - [[April 19]] - [[March 18]] - [[May 18]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:18 April]]
[[ar:18 أبريل]]
[[an:18 d'abril]]
[[ast:18 d'abril]]
[[bg:18 април]]
[[be:18 красавіка]]
[[bs:18. april]]
[[ca:18 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 18]]
[[cv:Ака, 18]]
[[co:18 d'aprile]]
[[cs:18. duben]]
[[cy:18 Ebrill]]
[[da:18. april]]
[[de:18. April]]
[[et:18. aprill]]
[[el:18 Απριλίου]]
[[es:18 de abril]]
[[eo:18-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 18]]
[[fo:18. apríl]]
[[fr:18 avril]]
[[fy:18 april]]
[[ga:18 Aibreán]]
[[gl:18 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 18일]]
[[hr:18. travnja]]
[[io:18 di aprilo]]
[[id:18 April]]
[[ia:18 de april]]
[[ie:18 april]]
[[is:18. apríl]]
[[it:18 aprile]]
[[he:18 באפריל]]
[[jv:18 April]]
[[ka:18 აპრილი]]
[[csb:18 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:18'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 18]]
[[lb:18. Abrëll]]
[[li:18 april]]
[[hu:Április 18]]
[[mk:18 април]]
[[ms:18 April]]
[[nap:18 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:18 april]]
[[ja:4月18日]]
[[no:18. april]]
[[nn:18. april]]
[[oc:18 d'abril]]
[[pl:18 kwietnia]]
[[pt:18 de Abril]]
[[ro:18 aprilie]]
[[ru:18 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 18.]]
[[sq:18 Prill]]
[[scn:18 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 18]]
[[sk:18. apríl]]
[[sl:18. april]]
[[sr:18. април]]
[[fi:18. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:18 april]]
[[tl:Abril 18]]
[[tt:18. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 18]]
[[th:18 เมษายน]]
[[vi:18 tháng 4]]
[[tr:18 Nisan]]
[[uk:18 квітня]]
[[ur:18 اپریل]]
[[wa:18 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 18]]
[[zh:4月18日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 23</title>
<id>1827</id>
<revision>
<id>41983889</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:11:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.130.221.252</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=23}}
|}
'''[[April 23]]''' is the 113th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (114th in [[leap year]]s). There are 252 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[215 BC]] - A temple is built on the [[Capitoline Hill]] dedicated to [[Venus Erycina]] to commemorate the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] defeat at [[Battle of Lake Trasimene|Lake Trasimene]].
*[[1014]] - [[Battle of Clontarf]]: [[Brian Boru]] defeats [[Viking]] invaders, but is killed in battle.
*[[1348]] - The founding of the [[Order of the Garter]] by King [[Edward III of England]] is announced on [[Saint George|St George's Day]].
*[[1521]] - [[Battle of Villalar]]: [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|King Charles I of Spain]] defeats the [[Comuneros]].
*[[1533]] - The [[Church of England]] annuls the marriage between [[Catherine of Aragon]] and [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] of England.
*[[1597]] - Shakespeare's ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'' is first performed, with Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] in attendance.
*[[1660]] - [[Treaty of Oliwa]] is established between [[Sweden]] and [[Poland]].
*[[1661]] - King [[Charles II of England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] is crowned in [[Westminster Abbey]].
*[[1827]] - [[William Rowan Hamilton]] presents his ''Theory of systems of rays''.
*[[1867]] - [[William Lincoln]] patents the [[zoetrope]], a machine which shows animated pictures by mounting a strip of drawings in a wheel.
*[[1920]] - The national council in [[Turkey]] denounces the government of [[Sultan]] [[Mehmed VI]] and announces a temporary constitution.
*[[1923]] - Inauguration ceremonies take place of [[Gdynia]] as a temporary military port and fishers' shelter.
*[[1932]] - The 153-year old [[De Adriaan]] Windmill in [[Haarlem]], [[the Netherlands]] burns down.
*[[1935]] - [[Polish Constitution of 1935]] is adopted.
*[[1940]] - A fire at a dance hall in [[Natchez, Mississippi]] kills 198 people.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Baedeker Blitz]] &ndash; [[Germany|German]] bombers hit [[Exeter]], [[Bath]] and [[York]] in retaliation for the British raid on [[Lübeck]].
*[[1948]] - [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]: [[Haifa]], the major port of [[Israel]], is captured from Palestinian forces.
*[[1954]] - [[Hank Aaron]] hits his first major league [[home run]].
*[[1956]] - [[Elvis Presley]] makes his first a |
e separate branches, the judicial, executive and legislative. The [[Florida Legislature]] enacts legislation, such as those in the [[Florida Statutes]], which are signed into law by the [[Governor of Florida]].
The [[Florida Legislature]] has a Senate of 40 members and a House of 120 members. The current governor is [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[Jeb Bush]], brother of President [[George W. Bush]] and son of former President [[George H. W. Bush]].
Though Florida has traditionally been a [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] state, in recent years the reallignment of the [[Solid South]] has meant that traditionally conservative Democrats have moved en masse to the Republican Party. Combined with explosive population growth which has brought with it many [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]], the state has been left with a small Republican edge. Despite this demographic near-parity, Republicans control the governorship and most other statewide elected offices, both houses of the state legislature, 18 of the state's 25 seats in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], and one of the state's two [[United States Senate|Senate]] seats. The [[U.S. presidential election, 2000, in Florida|2000 Presidential election in Florida]] was extremely close. As such, and because of its high population and large number of electoral votes, Florida is considered by political analysts to be a key [[swing state]] in [[President of the United States|Presidential]] elections. The [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]] area, once a major center of Democratic [[trade union|union]] support, is now almost evenly split between registered Republicans and Democrats, making it part of the important [[Interstate 4|I-4]] Corridor swing region.
Democrats outnumber Republicans in Florida in voter registration with Democrats 43% to Republicans' 39%.
{{see also|List of Florida Governors|U.S. presidential election, 2000, in Florida|U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Florida}}
==Taxation==
Florida is one of the nine states which do not impose a personal [[income tax]] ([[list of U.S. states without personal income tax|list of others]]). The state [[sales tax]] rate is 6 (six) percent [http://www.myflorida.com/dor/taxes/sales_tax.html]. Local governments may levy an additional local option sales tax of up to 1.5 percent. A locale's [[use tax]] rate is the same as its sales tax rate, including local options if any. Use taxes are payable for purchases made out-of-state and brought into Florida within 6 months of the purchase date. Other taxes are mostly levied on businesses. They include the following taxes: Corporate Income, Communication Services, Intangibles, Unemployment, Solid Waste, Documentary Stamps, Insurance Premium, Pollutants, and various fuel taxes. For more information visit the Florida Department of Revenue website at [http://www.myflorida.com/dor].
==Geography==
{{ussm|florida.PNG|fl}}
{{further|[[List of counties in Florida]]}}
Florida consists of the [[Florida Panhandle|panhandle]] extending along the northern [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the large [[peninsula]] with the [[Atlantic Ocean]] as its eastern border and the Gulf of Mexico as its western border. It is bordered on the north by the states of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Alabama]] and on the west, at the end of the panhandle, by Alabama. It is near the countries of the [[Caribbean]], particularly the [[Bahamas]] and [[Cuba]].
At 345 feet (105 metres) [[above mean sea level]], [[Britton Hill]] is the highest point in Florida. This is also the lowest highpoint of any U.S. state. Contrary to popular belief, however, Florida is not an entirely "flat" state. Some places, such as Clearwater, feature relatively high vistas rising 50 to 100 feet (15&ndash;30&nbsp;m) above the water. Much of the interior of Florida, typically 25 miles (40&nbsp;km) or more away from the coastline, features rolling hills with elevations ranging from 100 to 250 feet (30&ndash;76&nbsp;m) in many locations. Lake County holds the highest point of peninsular Florida, [[Sugarloaf Mountain, Florida|Sugarloaf Mountain]] , at 312 feet (95&nbsp;m). The amount of topographical change will surprise many visitors.
==Boundaries==
The state line begins at the Atlantic, traveling west, south, and north up the [[thalweg]] of the [[Saint Mary's River (Florida/Georgia)|Saint Mary's River]]. At the origin of that river, it then follows a straight line nearly due-west and slightly north, to the point where the [[confluence]] of the [[Flint River (Georgia)|Flint River]] (from Georgia) and the [[Chattahoochee River]] (down the Alabama/Georgia line) used to form Florida's [[Apalachicola River]]. (This point is now under Lake Seminole since Woodruff Dam was built.) The border with Georgia continues north through the lake for a short distance up the former thalweg of the Chattahoochee, then with Alabama runs due west along [[latitude]] 31°N to the [[Perdido River]], then south along its thalweg to the Gulf via Perdido Bay.
==Climate==
[[Image:Hurricane Frances, September 2nd.jpg|right|thumb|Hurricane Frances near peak strength.]]
[[Image:nasa.florida.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|Florida taken from [[NASA]] Shuttle Mission [[STS-95]] on [[31 October]] [[1998]].]]
[[Image:Coldsunday.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The "Cold Sunday" of January 1982 ruined most of the orange crop in Florida.]]
The climate of Florida is tempered somewhat by its proximity to water. Most of the state has a humid subtropical climate with the extreme tip of Florida and the [[Florida Keys]] bordering on a true tropical climate. Cold fronts can occasionally bring high winds and cool to cold temperatures to the entire state during late Fall, and Winter. One such front swept through the peninsula on [[November 25]], [[1996]] bringing cold temperatures and winds up to 95 mph, knocking out power to thousands, and damaging mobile homes. However, Florida averages 300 days of full sunshine a year. The seasons in Florida often called "Hot and Hotter" are actually determined more by [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] than by temperature with warm, relatively dry [[winter|winters]] and [[autumn|autumns]] (the dry season) and hot, wet [[spring (season)|springs]] and especially the [[summer|summers]] (the wet season). The [[Gulf Stream]] has a moderating effect on Florida climate and although it is common for much of Florida to see a high summer temperature over 90 degrees [[Fahrenheit]] (32&nbsp;&deg;C), it is not common for the mercury to go above 100 degrees Fahrenheit (39&nbsp;&deg;C) in Florida. The hottest temperature ever recorded in the state was 109 &deg;F (43&nbsp;&deg;C) set on [[June 29]], [[1931]] in [[Monticello, Florida|Monticello]]. The coldest was 2 &deg;F below zero (&minus;19&nbsp;&deg;C), on [[February 13]], [[1899]] just 25 miles (40&nbsp;km) away, in [[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]]. Mean high temperatures for late July are primarily in the low 90's Fahrenheit (32&ndash;35&nbsp;&deg;C). Mean low temperatures for late January range from the low 40's Fahrenheit (4&ndash;7&nbsp;&deg;C) in North Florida to the mid-50's (≈13&nbsp;&deg;C)in South Florida.
While Florida's nickname is the "Sunshine State", severe weather is a common occurrence in Florida. [[Central Florida]] is known as the [[lightning]] capital of the U.S. as it experiences more lightning strikes than anywhere else in the country. Statewide, Florida has the highest average precipitation of any state, due in large part to afternoon [[thunderstorms]] which are common throughout most of the state from late spring until the early autumn. However, a sunny day may be interrupted with a storm only to return to regular gorgeous weather. These thunderstorms, which are caused by airflow from the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] colliding over the peninsula, seemingly "pop up" in the early afternoon and can often bring heavy downpours, high winds and sometimes [[tornado]]es. This is frequently due to "onshore flow," or a collision of sea breezes from the east and west coasts. Florida leads the nation in tornadoes per square mile, although the tornadoes in Florida do not get as large as those in the [[Midwest]] or [[Great Plains]]. [[Hail]] is not an uncommon occurrence in some of the more severe thunderstorms.
[[Snow]] is a rare occurrence in Florida. During the [[Great Blizzard of 1899]], Florida experienced [[blizzard]] conditions for possibly the first time since explorers had arrived. During that time, the [[Tampa Bay Area]] had "Gulf effect" snow, similar to [[lake effect]] snowfall. The Great Blizzard of 1899 was also the only time the temperature has fallen below 0 degrees Fahrenheit (&minus;18&nbsp;&deg;C), registering -2° F (&minus;18.9&nbsp;&deg;C)in [[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]] on [[February 13]], [[1899]]. The most widespread snowfall in Florida history happened in February 1978 with snow falling over much of the state in different times of the month, extending as far south as [[Homestead, Florida|Homestead]]. Snow [[flurries]] fell on [[Miami Beach]] for the only time in recorded history. 1982's [[Cold Sunday]], which saw freezing conditions throughout much of the country, ruined that year's orange crops. In 1989, there was a severe hard freeze that created lots of ice and also caused minor flurries in sections of the state and resulted in rolling blackouts due to power failures caused by massive demands on the power grid for heating.
Although some storms have formed out of season, [[Hurricane|hurricanes]] pose a threat during hurricane season, which is from [[June 1]] to [[November 30]]. Florida saw a slew of destruction in 2004 when it was hit by a record four hurricanes. Hurricanes [[ |
[[Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System|AMPS]] [[mobile phone]]s between 800 and 900 MHz to transfer data. Speeds up to 19.2 kbit/s are possible.
In the early 1990's, CDPD was large on the horizon as a future technology. However, it had difficulty competing against existing slower but less expensive [[Mobitex]] and [[DataTac]] systems, and never quite gained widespread acceptance before newer, faster standards such as [[GPRS]] became dominant.
As of the year 2004, major carriers in the [[United States]] are threatening to shut down CDPD service. As of [[July]] [[2005]], the former [[AT&T Wireless]] CDPD network is no longer active, and [[Cingular Wireless]] CDPD customers have been informed that as of the end of the year, it will be down as well.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chimera</title>
<id>7333</id>
<revision>
<id>40886631</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T17:48:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marudubshinki</username>
<id>190816</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* In fiction */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], the '''''Chimera''''' (or, as in [[Latin language|Latin]], '''''Chimaera''''') is a monstrous creature made of the parts of multiple animals. See [[Chimera (mythology)]].
The term '''''chimera''''' (alternatively '''''chimaera''''') or ''chimeric'' is often used [[metaphor]]ically to describe things that have combined attributes from different sources. In [[genetics]], for example, an [[organism]] or [[biological tissue|tissue]] created from two or more different genetic sources is called chimeric, as in [[transplant]] [[patient]]s with [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s from other donors. Most other usages are related to this metaphor.
The word ''chimera'' is also generally accepted to mean an unreal ambition, a fanciful scheme, or even a castle in the air. This is in clear contrast with its old meaning of a bogey or an irrational fear.
==In geography==
* In the geography of the ancient world, [[Chimaera (geography)|Chimaera]] is the name of one or more volcanic sites in or near [[Lycia]].
==In science==
* In zoology, a [[Chimera (genetics)|chimera]] is a single animal organism with genetically distinct cells from two different zygotes.
** In ichthyology (the study of fish), a [[Chimaera (fish)|chimaera]] is a member of group of cartilaginous fish related to sharks.
* In botany, a [[Chimera (plant)|chimera]] is a single plant organism with genetically distinct cells.
* In virology, a '''chimera ''' is a virus containing genetic material from other organisms.
* In biochemistry, a [[Chimera (protein)|chimera]] is a hybrid protein made by splicing two genes.
* In paleontology, a chimera is a fossil with elements from more than one creature, like the ''[[Ultrasauros]]'' and perhaps the ''[[Protoavis]]''.
* In [[Computational Fluid Dynamics]], a chimera grid method is a technique to use overlapping non-aligned grids to simplify grid generation.
==In art and design==
[[Image: OtterChimera_7828.jpg|right|thumb|Architectural otter chimera]]
* In architecture, a chimera is ornamental sculpture attached to a building similar to a [[gargoyle]] but which does not work as a water spout and is only decorative in nature.
* In art and design, chimera is a very pale purple or lavender color&mdash;a term mainly used when referring to painting. Chimera, known as a base color, is made up of a mixture of two or more colors. Another base color is magnolia, which is also a common color used to paint the walls of houses, etc. when they are first built.
* As a noun, chimera means a grotesque product of the imagination.
==In business==
* In the automobile industry, the [[TVR Chimaera|Chimaera]] is a model of sports car made by [[TVR]].
* On the internet, Chimera is the older name of a Mozilla-based web browser for Mac OS X. It is now called [[Camino]].
* Chimera is a brand of lighting equipment used in photography and the film/video industry.
==In fiction==
<!-- Before adding to this section, please read the editorial consensus on the article discussion page. -->
* ''[[Chimera (novel)|Chimera]]'' was a 1972 novel by [[John Barth]].
* In the [[Star Wars]] universe, the ''[[Chimaera (Star Wars)|Chimaera]]'' was an [[Galactic Empire (Star Wars)|Imperial]] [[Star Destroyer]].
*The Chimera is an APC of the Imperial Guard in the table-top wargame [[Warhammer 40,000]]. (see [[Vehicles of the Imperium (Warhammer 40,000)]])
* In the movie ''[[Mission: Impossible II]]'', Chimera was the name of the virus on which the plot was based.
* In the video game ''[[Resident Evil 1|Resident Evil]]'', a chimera is a mutated insect-like creature with long arms and claws that hangs from ceilings.
* In the sci-fi series ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'', "[[Chimera (Stargate SG-1)|Chimera]]" is a season 7 episode.
* The anime series [[Fullmetal Alchemist]] features [[Chimeras of Fullmetal Alchemist|chimeras]] in many [[story arc]]s. In the series they are created by the combination of multiple species through the use of [[alchemy]].
* The title of a season 7 ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' episode, "[[Chimera (DS9 episode)|Chimera]]."
* The title of a season 7 ''[[The_X-Files_%28season_7%29#Chimera|X-files]]'' episode, ''Chimera''.
* On the TV show [[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]], a human chimera who is made of two embryos commits a murder, the team has difficulty identifying him because he has two sets of [[DNA]].
* A chimera is the heavy flying unit in the [[Night Elf]] army in the game [[Warcraft III]].
==In music==
<!---
Before adding to this section, please read the editorial consensus on the article discussion page.
-->
* Chimera is a song by the punk band [[Bad Religion]] off their album [[Generator (album)|Generator]].
* In New Age or electronica music,
**''Chimera'' is an album by [[Delerium]].
**''Chimera'' is also a compilation album by [[Bill Nelson]].
* In metal music,
**''Chimera'' is an album by [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]].
**[[Chimaira]] is a band from Cleveland, Ohio.
* In folk music, Chimera was a short-lived English band that released one album in 1969.
* ''Chimera'' is the title of a song by Canadian rock band [[The Tea Party]].
{{commons|Chimera}}
{{disambig}}
[[da:Kimære]]
[[de:Chimera]]
[[eo:Ĥimero]]
[[es:Quimera]]
[[fr:Chimère]]
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[[hu:Kiméra]]
[[pl:Chimera]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Creature of statute</title>
<id>7335</id>
<revision>
<id>35890234</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T01:16:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mion</username>
<id>724747</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">A '''creature of statute''' is a legal entity such as a [[corporation]] created by [[statute]]. Thus, when a statue in some fashion requires the formation of a corporate body—often for governmental purposes—such bodies when formed are known as "creatures of statue".
As a legal term, the meaning of "creature of statue" is most common to the [[United States]]: in the [[United Kingdom]] these bodies are simply called 'statutory corporations' or 'statutory bodies' and generally have some governmental function, ''e.g.'' the [[United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority|UK Atomic Energy Authority]]. In a wider sense, most companies in the UK are created under statute since the [[Companies Act 1985]] specifies how a company may be created by a member of the public, but these companies are not called 'statutory corporations'. Oftentimes, in American legal and business documents that speak of governing bodies (''e.g.'', a board that governs small businesses in China) these bodies are described as "creatures of statue" to inform readers of their origins and format although the national governments that created them may not term them as creatures of statue. [[Australia]] also uses the term "creature of statue" to describe some governmental bodies.
The importance of a corporate body, regardless of its exact function, when such a body is a creature of statue is that its active functions can only be within the scope detailed by the statue which created that corporation. Thereby, the creature of statue is the tangible manifestation of the functions or work described by a given statue. The jurisdiction of a body that is a creature of statue is also therefore limited to the functional scope written into the laws that created that body. Unlike most (private) corporate bodies, creatures of statue cannot expand their business interests into other diverse areas.
==See also==
*[[Competition regulator]]
{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Legal terms]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>CPGM</title>
<id>7336</id>
<revision>
<id>15905409</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-28T03:06:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Urhixidur</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Convention of the Metre</title>
<id>7337</id>
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<username>Urhixidur</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Convention du Mètre]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Corsica</title>
<id>7338</id>
<restrictions>edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41885924</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:28:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: an, eu, id, ro</comment>
<text xml:space=" |
primary setting for the role-playing game [[RuneQuest]] and, now, [[Hero Wars]].
The rules of RuneQuest, Chaosium's first role-playing game, were distilled down into a generic, genre-agnostic format known as [[Basic Role-Playing]] ([[BRP]]). These generic rules formed the basis of many, if not most, of Chaosium's later RPGs, such as [[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]], [[Stormbringer]], [[Nephilim (RPG)|Nephilim]], and [[RingworldRPG|Ringworld]].
Chaosium and [[Greg Stafford]] are also responsible for [[Pendragon RPG|Pendragon]], an Arthurian RPG now published by [[Green Knight Publishing]]. Other games of note include [[Mythos (role-playing game)|Mythos]], [[Elfquest]], [[Worlds of Wonder]], [[Superworld]], [[Hawkmoon]], and the frequently forgotten [[Prince Valiant]].
Some Chaosium products have been translated into [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Italian language|Italian]], and were available in [[France]] from [[Jeux Descartes]], in [[Germany]] from [[Pegasus Press]], in [[Spain]] from [[La factoría de ideas]] and in [[Italy]] from ''Stratelibri'' and ''Grifo Edizioni''.
In the mid-1980s, Chaosium entered into a complex arrangement with [[Avalon Hill]] to publish RuneQuest material while Chaosium maintained editorial control over Glorantha-based material for the game (which Avalon Hill would publish). While this agreement reportedly kept the company in existence, it also left RuneQuest moribund, leading to products of questionable quality, long gaps with no products published at all, and, eventually, the death of the game altogether.
In the late 1990s, Chaosium effectively split up into various successor companies, each maintaining its focus on a few of the company's products. [[Green Knight Publishing]] formed to focus on Pendragon, Chaosium "proper" retained Call of Cthulhu, Stormbringer, and Mythos, while Greg Stafford founded [[Issaries]] to publish [[Hero Wars|Hero Quest]] and focus on bringing new [[Glorantha]] related material into print. Also, [[Wizard's Attic]] was formed in order to act as a fulfillment house.
Several notable RPG authors have written material for Chaosium, including [[Arduin]] creator [[David A. Hargrave]]. The infamous [[Arduin]] spell '''[[Stafford's Star Bridge]]''' was in fact ''named'' after Chaosium founder [[Greg Stafford]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.chaosium.com Chaosium's official website]
[[Category:Role-playing game publishing companies]]
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[[zh:混沌元素]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Ciconiiformes</title>
<id>6609</id>
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<id>41853489</id>
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<username>Chobot</username>
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<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Ciconiiformes
| image = 2002313 Saddlebilled Stork.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = '''Ciconiiformes'''
| ordo_authority = [[Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], 1854
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
*[[Ardeidae]]
*[[Cochlearidae]] (the [[Boat-billed Heron]])
*[[Balaenicipitidae]] (the [[Shoebill]])
*[[Scopidae]] (the [[Hammerkop]])
*[[Ciconiidae]]
*[[Threskiornithidae]]
*[[Cathartidae]]
}}
Traditionally, the [[order (biology)|order]] '''Ciconiiformes''' has included a variety of large, long-legged wading birds with large bills: [[stork]]s, [[heron]]s, [[egret]]s, [[ibis]]es, [[spoonbill]]s, and several others. Ciconiiformes are known from the Late [[Eocene]].
Following the development of research techniques in [[molecular biology]] in the late [[20th century]], in particular methods for studying [[DNA-DNA hybridisation]], a great deal of new information has surfaced, much of it suggesting that many birds, although looking very different to one another, are in fact more closely related than was previously thought. Accordingly, the radical and influential [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]] greatly enlarged the Ciconiiformes, adding many more families, including most of those usually regarded as belonging to the Sphenisciformes ([[penguin]]s), Gaviiformes ([[diver (bird)|diver]]s). Podicipediformes ([[grebe]]s), Procellariiformes ([[tubenose|tubenosed seabirds]]), [[Charadriiformes]], ([[wader]]s, [[gull]]s, [[tern]]s and [[auk]]s), [[Pelecaniformes]] ([[pelican]]s, [[cormorant]]s, [[gannet]]s and allies), and the [[Falconiformes]] ([[bird of prey|diurnal birds of prey]]). The [[flamingo]] family, Phoenicopteridae, is related, and is sometimes classed as part of the Ciconiiformes.
However, morphological evidence suggests that the traditional Ciconiiformes should be split between two lineages, rather than expanded, although some non-traditional Ciconiiformes may be included in these two lineages.
For example, the [[New World vulture]]s (Cathartidae) are now usually included in the Ciconiiformes. This is not unequivocally accepted, but the vast majority of ornithologists believe it to be accurate based on morphological, behavioral and molecular evidence.
Some official bodies, notably the [[American Ornithologists' Union]], have adopted the proposed Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy almost entirely, however a more common approach worldwide has been to retain the traditional groupings, and modify rather than replace them in the light of new evidence as it comes to hand. The family listing here follows this more conservative practice. Bird taxonomy has been in a state of flux for some years, and it is reasonable to expect that the large differences between different classification schemes will continue to gradually resolve theselves as more evidence becomes available.
In most cultures, at least some members of the Ciconiiformes -- herons, storks, ibis, egrets and so on -- have always had an unusual status as objects of religious or artistic veneration. The attraction is certainly not phylogenetic. The morphologically similar, but unrelated, [[crane (bird)|crane]]s are treated in the same way.
Sometimes hauntingly beautiful evocations of these birds are known from antiquity in, for example, Greece, Africa, Egypt, China and Japan. In Indo-European cultures the long-legged water bird tends to be a comical or even evil figure. The cultural phylogeny of these symbols would be an interesting study in itself, and their relative stability over millennia is surprising.
[[image:Great-Egret.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Great Egrets.]]
Certainly one of the reasons for the attention given the ciconiiformes is their strange and alien way of moving. That special style of movement, whether perceived as graceful or comically awkward, is emphasized in the behavioral rituals common in the group. Some ciconiiforms are completely silent, and vocalization in most species is fairly limited. Thus, rituals and displays are the primary means of communication.
These behaviors seem to be almost completely genetically determined. In fact, one study analyzed the ritual behaviors of storks as if they were anatomical characters and reconstructed a taxonomic tree almost identical to the trees arrived at by anatomical or biochemical characteristics.
The rituals associated with initial mate selection, such as the male's "advertising" of his nest site and the female's expression of interest in the male's real estate, were quite extraordinarily stable.
Behaviours related to later events, such as copulation and pair-bond affirmation seem to be more phylogenetically plastic. Finally, behaviors not related to mating, such as the "anxiety stretch" or aggression displays, were quite variable, but still clearly inherited. This contrasts strongly with the song behaviors of [[passerine]] birds, which are strongly influenced by learning and individual experience.
==Physical characters==
Ciconiiformes have only a single pair of sternotracheal muscles in the syrinx; 16-20 cervical vertebrae; are diastataxic (the fifth secondary feather is absent, but fifth secondary covert is present); the feet are not webbed; the middle claw is laterally expanded, (pectinate in some families); intestinal ceca present, nearly always very small.
Ciconiiformes are primarily occupy fresh water or terrestrial habitat, they are not filter feeders, and mostly feed on fish, [[crustacean]]s, insects, and carrion. They do not swim for food, and the northerly species [[bird migration|migrate]]. They are strong flyers with broad wings.
[[image:Yellow-billed-spoonbill.jpg|thumb|250px|Yellow-billed Spoonbill.]]
Most nest in trees although some build nests in swamps or on the ground. The young are [[altricial]]. Most species are generally colonial but the use of sound is uncommon. Social communication is by displays and rituals.
== References ==
* Slikas, B (1998), "Recognizing and testing homology of courtship displays in storks (Aves: Ciconiiformes: Ciconiidae)". <u>Evolution</u> 52: 884-893.
[[Category:Ciconiiformes|*]]
[[bg:Щъркелоподобни]]
[[da:Storkefugle]]
[[de:Schreitvögel]]
[[el:Πελαργόμορφα]]
[[eo:Cikonioformaj birdoj]]
[[fr:Ciconiiformes]]
[[ko:황새목]]
[[it:Ciconiiformi]]
[[he:חסידאים]]
[[lt:Gandriniai paukščiai]]
[[li:Storkechtege]]
[[nl:Ooievaarachtigen]]
[[ja:コウノトリ目]]
[[pl:Brodzące]]
[[pt:Ciconiiformes]]
[[ru:Голенастые]]
[[sl:Močvirniki]]
[[fi:Haikaralinnut]]
[[sv:Storkfåglar]]
[[zh:鹳形目]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carolina Panthers</title>
<id>6610</id>
<revision>
<id>41921183</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:05:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FamousBobby</username>
<id>1003430</id>
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<comment>/* Not to be forgotten */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | |
.
They rejected therefore, as early as 1416, everything
that they believed had no basis in the Bible, such as the veneration of
saints and images, [[fasting|fasts]], superfluous holidays, the
oath, intercession for the dead, auricular confession,
[[indulgence]]s, the sacraments of [[Confirmation]] and
the [[Anointing of the Sick]]; they admitted laymen and women to
the preacher's office, and chose their own priests. But
before everything they clung to Wyclif's doctrine
of the [[Lord's Supper]], denying [[transubstantiation]],
and this is the principal point by which they are
distinguished from the moderate party.
== The Four Articles of Prague==
The program of the more conservative Hussites
is contained in the four articles of [[Prague]], which
were agreed upon in July, 1420, and
promulgated in the Latin, Czech, and
German languages:
#Freedom to preach the Word of God.
#Celebration of the Lord's Supper in both kinds (bread and wine to priests and laity alike).
#No profane power for the clergy.
#The same law for laity and priests.
(Please note that this is only a widely accepted abbreviation - the full text of the four articles is about two pages long.)
==Calixtines or Utraquists, and Taborites==
The views of the moderate Hussites were
represented at the university and among the citizens of
Prague; therefore they were called
the Prague party; they were also
called Calixtines or [[Utraquists]], because
they emphasized the second article,
and the chalice became their emblem.
The radicals had their gathering-place
in the small town of Usti, on the river Luznice,
south of Prague. But as the place was not
defensible, they founded a city upon a neighboring hill,
which they named [[T%C3%A1bor]] (after the traditional name of the mountain on which Jesus was expected to return; see Mark 13); hence they were called
[[Taborites]]. They comprised the essential force of
Hussism. Their aim was to destroy the enemies
of the law of God, and to extend his kingdom by
the sword. For the latter purpose they waged
bloody wars, for the former purpose they established
a strict jurisdiction, inflicting the severest
punishment not only upon heinous crimes like murder and
adultery, but also upon faults like perjury and
[[usury]], and tried to apply the conditions required
in the law of God to the social relations of the world.
== The [[Hussite Wars]]==
The news of the death of King Wenceslaus
produced the greatest commotion among the people of
Prague. A revolution swept over the
country; churches and monasteries
were destroyed, and the ecclesiastical
possessions were seized by the Hussite
nobility. Sigismund could get
possession of his kingdom only by force of arms.
Pope Martin V called upon all Christians of the Occident
to take up arms against the Hussites, and there
followed twelve years of [[Hussite Wars | warfare]]. The Hussites initially campaigned defensively, but after 1427
they assumed the offensive. Apart from their
religious aims, they fought for the national interests
of the Czechs. The moderate and radical parties
were united and they not only repelled the attacks
of the army of [[crusade]]rs, but entered the neighboring
countries.
In 1430, [[Joan of Arc]] dictated a [http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_letter_march_23_1430.html letter on [[March 23]]] that threatened to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic Faith; but her capture by English and Burgundian troops two months later would keep her from carrying out this threat.
==The Council of Basel and Compacta of Prague==
Eventually the opponents of the Hussites found themselves forced to consider an amicable settlement. They invited a Bohemian embassy to appear at the [[Council of Basel]]. The
discussions began on [[January 10]], [[1432]], centering chiefly
in the four articles of [[Prague]]. No agreement emerged. After repeated negotiations between the Basel Council and Bohemia, a Bohemian-Moravian state assembly in Prague accepted the
''Compacta'' of Prague on [[November 30]], [[1433]]. The agreement granted communion in both kinds to all who desired it, but with the understanding that Christ was entirely present in each kind. Free preaching was granted conditionally: the Church hierarchy had to approve and place priests, and the power of the bishop must be considered. The article which prohibited the secular power of the clergy was almost reversed.
The Taborites refused to conform, and the Calixtines united with the Roman Catholics and destroyed the Taborites in a [[battle of Lipany|battle]] near Lipany ([[May 30]], [[1434]]). From that time the Taborites lost their importance. The state assembly of Jihlava in [[1436]] confirmed the ''Compactata'' and gave them the sanction of law. This accomplished the reconciliation of Bohemia with Rome and the Western Church, and now Sigismund first obtained possession of the Bohemian crown. His reactionary measures caused a ferment in the whole country, but he died in [[1437]]. The state assembly in Prague rejected Wyclif's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, which was obnoxious to the [[Utraquists]], as heresy in [[1444]]. Most of the Taborites now went over to the party of the
Utraquists; the rest joined the "Brothers of the Law of Christ" (''Unitas Fratrum'' in the Latin)(see [[Unity of the Brethren]]; also [[Bohemian Brethren]] and [[Moravians (religion)|Moravians]]).
==Disappearance of the Hussites==
The Utraquists had retained hardly anything of
the doctrines of Hus except communion in both
kinds. In [[1462]] [[Pope Pius II]] declared the
''Compactata'' null and void, prohibited
communion in both kinds, and
acknowledged [[George of Podebrady]] as
king under the condition that he would
promise an unconditional harmony
with the Roman Church. This he refused, but his
successor, King [[Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary|Vladislaus II]], favored the Roman
Catholics and proceeded against some zealous
clergymen of the Calixtines. The troubles of the
Utraquists increased from year to year. In 1485, at the
[[diet of Kutná Hora]], an agreement between the
Roman Catholics and Utraquists was obtained
which lasted for thirty-one years. But it was
considerably later, at the diet of 1512, that the equal
rights of both religions were permanently
established. Luther's appearance was hailed by the
Utraquist clergy, and [[Martin Luther]] himself was astonished to find so many points of agreement between the
doctrines of Hus and his own. But not all Utraquists
approved of the German [[Reformation]]; a schism
arose among them, and many returned to the
Roman doctrine, while other elements had long
before joined the ''Unitas Fratrum''. Under
[[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]], the Bohemian state assembly established
the ''Confessio Bohemica, '' upon which Lutherans,
Reformed, and Bohemian Brethren agreed. From
that time Hussism began to die out; but it was - for a time - completely eradicated only after the [[battle of the White Mountain]] ([[November 8]], [[1620]]) and the Roman Catholic reaction which fundamentally changed the ecclesiastical conditions of Bohemia and Moravia.
==Rebirth of the Czechoslovak Hussite Church==
Astoundingly, the Hussite movement was to be reborn in the twentieth century as the Czechoslovak Hussite Church (Církev československá husitská - CCH). The Czechoslovak Hussite Church (until 1971 the Czechoslovak Church) was refounded in 1919 during the Christmas season, when for the first time in many Catholic churches the Divine service was celebrated in Czech rather than Latin - a move designed to outrage Czech hierarchy. Its forerunner was the Jednota (Union of the Catholic Czechoslovak Clergy), founded in 1890 to promote such reforms as use of the vernacular in the liturgy and voluntary clerical celibacy. Officially the Czechoslovak Hussite Church was reestablished on January 8, 1920 in Prague. Its founders, headed by ThDr. Karel Farský, who later became the new church´s first patriarch, belonged to the radical wing of the modernist reform movement of Roman Catholic clergy.
Relations between the Church and its fellow members of the ecumenical movement are cordial, but remained strained with the country's Roman Catholic leadership. The first female bishop of the Czechoslovak-Hussite church was elected to a 7-year term of office in April 1999. In January 1999, Catholic Archbishop Miloslav Vlk initially made a public statement of disapproval, warning against election of a woman to this position and saying that it would cause deterioration of ecumenical relations. Following criticism by the Czech-Hussite Church for interfering in their affairs, Vlk retracted his remarks later in January and stated that the Roman Catholic Church would exert no pressure against her election.
The Czech-Hussite Church accepted the Archbishop's apology.The Church is a member of the [[World Council of Churches]], the Ecumenical Council of Churches in the Czech Republic, the Conference of European Churches, and the Leuenberg Community of Churches. The CHC has 180.000 adherents. In 307 congregations divided into five dioceses situated in Prague, Pilsen, Hradec Králové, Brno and Olomouc. There are approximately 266 priests in active ministry, of which 130 are women. Candidates of ministry are prepared at the Hussite Faculty of Theology at [[Charles University]] in Prague
{{Schaff-Herzog}}
==External links==
* [http://www.husitstvi.cz/ Hussites - the gods' warriors], in Czech
* [http://www.ekumenickarada.cz/erceng/ccsh.html Ecumenical Council of Churches in the Czech Republic]
* [http://www.ccsh.cz/new/default.asp Official Website of the Czechoslovak Hussite Church]
* [http://www.ekumenickarada.cz/erceng/cl34.htm Eightieth Anniversary of Refoundation of the Czech Hussite Church: Address by Prof. ThDr. Zdeněk Sázava]
* [http://www.htf.cuni.cz/ Hussite Faculty of Theology at Charles University, Prague]
* [http://www.husiti.cz/ccshpd/index.htm CHC Diocese of Pra |
various other proprietary platforms, however, the motive for developing these programs was to contribute to replacing those systems with free software, not to enhance them.
A list of packages that are well known in the free software and Unix communities includes:
*[[System software]]
**[[GNU_bison|Bison]] &ndash; [[parser generator]] intended to replace [[yacc]]
**[[Bash]] &ndash; [[Unix shell|command shell]]
**[[Binary File Descriptor|BFD]] &ndash; object file [[Library (computer science)|library]]
**[[Classpath]] &ndash; libraries for [[Java programming language|Java]]
**[[Coreutils]] &ndash; basic Unix utilities such as [[cat (Unix)|cat]], [[ls]], and [[rm (Unix)|rm]]
**[[Emacs]] &ndash; extensible, self-documenting [[text editor]]
**[[glibc]] &ndash; [[C standard library|Standard]] [[POSIX]] [[C programming language|C]] [[library (computer science)|library]], plus additional functionality
**[[gzip]] &ndash; a library and program for [[data compression]]
**The [[GNU toolchain]] for software development:
***[[GNU Binutils]] &ndash; [[assembler]], [[linker]], and related tools
***[[GNU build system]] &ndash; [[Automake]], [[Autoconf]], [[Libtool]]
***[[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] &ndash; optimizing [[compiler]] for many [[programming language]]s, including [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]], [[Fortran]], [[Ada programming language|Ada]], and [[Java programming language|Java]]
***[[GNU Debugger|GDB]] &ndash; [[debugger]]
**[[GNU MDK]] &ndash; a development kit for programming in [[MIX]]
**[[GNU Screen|Screen]] &ndash; a terminal multiplexer
**[[Texinfo]] &ndash; documentation system for producing online and printed manuals
**[[wget|GNU wget]] &ndash; advanced file retrieval from networks and the Internet
**[[GNUnet]] &ndash; decentralized, peer-to-peer communication network designed to be resistant to censorship
**[[DotGNU]] &ndash; replacement for [[.NET Framework|.NET]]
**[[GNU Hurd]] &ndash; a [[microkernel]]-based set of servers that perform the same function as a Unix kernel
*[[Application software]]
**[[GIMP]] &ndash; GNU Image Manipulation Program
**[[GLPK]] &ndash; package intended to solve [[linear programming]] (LP), [[mixed integer programming]] (MIP), and other related problems.
**[[Gnash]] &ndash; a player for movies in [[Shockwave Flash]] format. Both stand-alone and as a plugin for [[Mozilla Firefox]].
**[[GNU Multi-Precision Library|GMP]] &ndash; [[arbitrary precision]] numerical calculation programming [[Library (computer science)|library]]
**[[GNOME]] &ndash; graphical desktop environment
**[[GNU LilyPond]] &ndash; a sheet music engraving program
**[[GNU Octave]] &ndash; a program for numerical computations similar to [[MATLAB]]
**[[GNU Privacy Guard|GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG)]] &ndash; a free encryption tool which can replace [[PGP]]
**[[GNU Robots]] &ndash; small but addictive game for computer programmers
**[[GSL]] &ndash; the GNU Scientific Library
**[[GNUstep]] &ndash; implementation of the [[OpenStep]] standard for a set of libraries and development tools for graphical applications
**[[Guile]] &ndash; embeddable [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] interpreter
The GNU project also distributes and assists with the development of other packages which originated elsewhere, e.g.:
*[[DDD]] &ndash; graphical frontend for debuggers
*[[ECos|eCos]] &ndash; small operating system for embedded devices
*[[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]] &ndash; source code control
[[As of 2005|As of January 2005]], there are a total of 288 GNU packages hosted on the GNU hosting site [http://savanah.gnu.org/search/?type_of_search=soft&words=%%%&type=1]. Others are hosted elsewhere.
==Distributions of GNU==
*[[Bee GNU/Hurd]] [http://bee.es.gnu.org/]
*[[Debian GNU/Hurd]] [http://www.debian.org/ports/hurd/]
*[[Unofficial Gentoo/Hurd Project]] [http://hurd.rustedhalo.net/]
*[http://www.superunprivileged.org/hurd/live-cd Superunprivileged.org]'s ''[[Hurd Live CD]]''
*[[GNUAB]] mini-CD distro [http://www.gnuab.org/]
*[[Gnuppix]] - which uses GNU Hurd running on the L4 microkernel.
===Distributions of GNU using Linux kernel===
{{main|GNU/Linux}}
This is by far the most popular variant of GNU. There are over 300 distributions based on GNU with the [[Linux kernel]]. Some of the most widely used are:
<!-- I suppose 5 is a good number to cap this list at -->
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*[[Debian GNU/Linux]]
*[[Red Hat Linux]]
*[[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]]
*[[SuSE Linux]]
*[[Mandriva Linux]]
*[[Gentoo Linux]]
*[[Slackware Linux]]
A complete list can be found at [http://www.distrowatch.com Distrowatch.com]
=== Distributions of GNU using kernels of *BSD ===
*[[GNU/kFreeBSD]]: [[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD]]
*[[GNU/NetBSD]]: [[Debian GNU/NetBSD]]
===Distributions of GNU using Solaris kernel===
*[[GNU/Solaris]]: [[Nexenta]]
==See also==
{{Commons|GNU}}
*[[Free Software Foundation]]
*[[Free software movement]]
*[[Free content]]
*[[Open standards]]
*[[Copyleft]]
*[[GNU Free Documentation License]]
*[[List of GNU packages]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/ The official GNU website]
*[http://lists.gnu.org/mailman/listinfo/gnu-system-discuss/ gnu-system-discuss mailing list, technical discussion about the GNU system]
*[http://www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html Stallman's 1983 announcement of the GNU project]
*[http://www.gnu.org/gnu/thegnuproject.html Stallman gives a lengthy personal account of the project and its history]
*[http://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/free-encyclopedia.html ''The Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource'', Stallman's essay concerning a GNU encyclopedia]
*[http://unxutils.sourceforge.net/ Ports of GNU utilities for Microsoft Windows]
*[https://savannah.gnu.org/ Savannah: the GNU project's www portal to its CVS repository - a substitute for Sourceforge]
*[http://ciaran.compsoc.com/texts/15-years-of-free-software.html 15 Years of Free Software] Richard Stallman on the 15th Birthday of GNU
*[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/use-free-software.html The Free Software Community After 20 Years: With great but incomplete success, what now?]
*[http://hurd.gnufans.org/ The HURD Wiki]
*[http://people.debian.org/~neal/FOSDEM-2005/ FOSDEM 2005 Hurd Developers' Mini-Symposium]
*[http://www.superunprivileged.org/hurd/live-cd/ GNU Hurd Live CD]
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<title>Gradualism</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gradualism''' is a [[theory]] which holds that profound change is the cumulative product of slow but continuous processes. The theory was proposed in [[1795]] by [[James Hutton]], a Scottish geologist, and was later incorporated into [[Charles Lyell]]'s theory of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]]. Tenets from both theories were applied to [[biology]] and formed the basis of early [[evolution]]ary theory. (See [[phyletic gradualism]].)
Gradualism is frequently contrasted with [[catastrophism]].
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<title>Gravity</title>
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'''Gravity''' is a [[force]] of [[attraction]] that acts between bodies that have [[mass]]. It is a physical phenomenon of fundamental importance, profoundly affecting the workings of the world around us and the universe beyond. Most familiarly, it is the gravitational attraction of the earth that endows objects with [[weight]] and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped. In fact, gravity is also the reason for the very existence of the [[earth]], the [[sun]] and other [[celestial bodies]]; without it matter would not have coalesced into these bodies and life as we know it would not exist. Gravity is also responsible for keeping the earth and the other planets in their orbits around the sun, the [[moon]] in its orbit around the earth, for the [[tides]], and for various other natural phenomena that we observe.
In common usage "gravity" and "gravitation" are either used interchangeably, or the distinction is sometimes made that "gravity" is specifically the attractive force of the earth, while "gravitation" is the general property of mutual attraction between bodies of |
ave intercourse with the best women as frequently as possible, and the opposite is true of the very inferior." Plato proposed that selection be performed by a fake lottery so people's feelings wouldn't be hurt by any awareness of selection principles. Other ancient examples include the city of [[Sparta]]'s mythical practice of leaving weak babies outside of city borders to die. ''See [[Infanticide]].''
[[Image:Francis Galton 1850s.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sir [[Francis Galton]] initially developed the ideas of eugenics.]]
During the 1860s and 1870s Sir Francis Galton systematized these ideas and practices according to new knowledge about the evolution of man and animals provided by the theory of his cousin [[Charles Darwin]]. After reading Darwin's ''[[Origin of Species]]'', Galton noticed an interpretation of Darwin's work whereby the mechanisms of [[natural selection]] were potentially thwarted by human [[civilization]]. He reasoned that, since many human societies sought to protect the underprivileged and weak, those societies were at odds with the natural selection responsible for extinction of the weakest. Only by changing these social policies, Galton thought, could society be saved from a "reversion towards mediocrity", a phrase that he first coined in statistics, and which later changed to the now common, "regression towards the mean."
Galton first sketched out his theory in the [[1865]] article "Hereditary Talent and Character," then elaborated it further in his [[1869]] book ''Hereditary Genius''. He began by studying the way in which human intellectual, moral, and personality traits tended to run in families. Galton's basic argument was that "genius" and "talent" were hereditary traits in humans (although neither he nor Darwin yet had a working model of this type of heredity). He concluded that, since one could use [[artificial selection]] to exaggerate traits in animals, one could expect similar results when applying such models to humans. As he wrote in the introduction to ''Hereditary Genius'':
<Blockquote>I propose to show in this book that a man's natural abilities are derived by inheritance, under exactly the same limitations as are the form and physical features of the whole organic world. Consequently, as it is easy, notwithstanding those limitations, to obtain by careful selection a permanent breed of dogs or horses gifted with peculiar powers of running, or of doing anything else, so it would be quite practicable to produce a highly-gifted race of men by judicious marriages during several consecutive generations.</Blockquote>
According to Galton, society already encouraged [[Dysgenics|dysgenic]] conditions, claiming that the less intelligent were out-reproducing the more intelligent. Galton did not propose any selection methods: rather, he hoped that a solution would be found if social mores changed in a way that encouraged people to see the importance of breeding.
Galton first used the word ''eugenic'' in his 1883 ''Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development'', a book in which he meant "to touch on various topics more or less connected with that of the cultivation of race, or, as we might call it, with 'eugenic' questions." He included a footnote to the word "eugenic" which read:
<Blockquote>That is, with questions bearing on what is termed in Greek,'' eugenes ''namely, good in stock, hereditarily endowed with noble qualities. This, and the allied words,'' eugeneia'', etc., are equally applicable to men, brutes, and plants. We greatly want a brief word to express the science of improving stock, which is by no means confined to questions of judicious mating, but which, especially in the case of man, takes cognisance of all influences that tend in however remote a degree to give to the more suitable races or strains of blood a better chance of prevailing speedily over the less suitable than they otherwise would have had. The word'' eugenics ''would sufficiently express the idea; it is at least a neater word and a more generalised one than'' viriculture ''which I once ventured to use.''</Blockquote>
In 1904 he clarified his definition of eugenics as:
<Blockquote>the science which deals with all influences that improve the inborn qualities of a race; also with those that develop them to the utmost advantage. [http://www.mugu.com/galton/essays/1900-1911/galton-1904-am-journ-soc-eugenics-scope-aims.htm] </Blockquote>
Galton's formulation of eugenics was based on a strong [[statistics|statistical]] approach, influenced heavily by [[Adolphe Quetelet]]'s "social physics." Unlike Quetelet however, Galton did not exhalt the "average man," but decried him as mediocre. Galton and his statistical heir [[Karl Pearson]] developed what was called the [[biometrics|biometrical]] approach to eugenics, which developed new and complex statistical models (later exported to wholly different fields) to describe the heredity of traits. However, with the re-discovery of [[Gregor Mendel]]'s hereditary laws, two separate camps of eugenics advocates emerged. One was made up of statisticians, the other of biologists. Statisticians thought the biologists had exceptionally crude mathematical models while biologists thought the statisticians knew little about biology.
Eugenics eventually referred to human selective reproduction with an intent to create children with desirable traits, generally through the approach of influencing [[differential birth rates]]. These policies were mostly divided into two categories: ''Positive eugenics'', the increased reproduction of those seen to have advantageous hereditary traits and ''negative eugenics'', the discouragment of reproduction by those with hereditary traits perceived as poor. Negative eugenic policies in the past have ranged from attempts at [[segregation]] to [[compulsory sterilization|sterilization]] and even [[genocide]]. Positive eugenic policies have typically taken the form of awards or bonuses for "fit" parents who have another child. Relatively innocuous practices like [[marriage counseling]] had early links with eugenic ideology.
Eugenics differed from what would later be known as [[Social Darwinism]]. While both claimed intelligence was hereditary, eugenics asserted that new policies were needed to actively change the status quo towards a more "eugenic" state, while the Social Darwinists argued society itself would naturally "check" the problem of "dysgenics" if no welfare policies were in place (for example, the poor might reproduce more but would have higher mortality rates).
=== Eugenics and the state, 1890s-1945 ===
One of the earliest modern advocates of eugenic ideas (before they were labeled as such) was [[Alexander Graham Bell]]. In 1881 Bell investigated the rate of [[deaf]]ness on [[Martha's Vineyard]], Mass. From this he concluded that deafness was hereditary in nature and recommended a marriage prohibition against the deaf ("Memoir upon the formation of a deaf variety of the human Race"). Like many other early eugenicists he proposed controlling immigration for the purpose of eugenics and warned that boarding schools for the deaf could possibly be considered as breeding places of a deaf human race.
Though eugenics is today often associated with [[racism]], it was not always so; both [[W.E.B. DuBois]] and [[Marcus Garvey]] supported eugenics or ideas resembling eugenics as a way to reduce [[African American]] suffering and improve the stature of African Americans.
[[Image:Wir stehen nicht allein.jpg|thumb|200px|"We do not stand alone": Nazi poster from 1936 with flags of other countries with [[compulsory sterilization]] legislation.]]
[[Nazi Germany]] under [[Adolf Hitler]] was infamous for eugenics programs which attempted to maintain a "pure" German race through a series of programs which ran under the banner of "[[racial hygiene]]." Among other activities, the Nazis performed extensive experimentation on live human beings to test their genetic theories, ranging from simple measurement of physical characteristics to the more ghastly experiments carried out by [[Josef Mengele]] for [[Otmar von Verschuer]] on twins in the concentration camps. During the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] the Nazi regime [[compulsory sterilization|forcibly sterilized]] hundreds of thousands of people whom they viewed as mentally and physically "unfit" and killed tens of thousands of the institutionalized disabled through compulsory "[[euthanasia]]" programs.
[[Image:EnthanasiePropaganda.jpg|thumb|left|Nazi propaganda for their compulsory [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|"euthanasia" program]]: "This person suffering from hereditary defects costs the community 60,000 Reichsmark during his lifetime. Fellow German, that is your money, too."]]
They also implemented a number of "positive" eugenics policies, giving awards to "[[Aryan race|Aryan]]" women who had large numbers of children and encouraged a service in which "racially pure" single women were impregnated by [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] officers ([[Lebensborn]]). Many of their concerns for eugenics and racial hygiene were also explicitly present in their systematic killing of millions of "undesirable" Europeans including [[Jew]]s, [[Roma (people)|gypsies]] and [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] during [[the Holocaust]] (and much of the killing equipment and methods employed in the death camps were first developed in their euthanasia program). The scope and coercion involved in the German eugenics programs along with a strong use of the rhetoric of eugenics and so-called "racial science" throughout the regime created an indelible cultural association between eugenics and the [[Third Reich]] in the postwar years.
The second |
n character of the [[Irangate|Iran-Contra affair]], had been in contact with [[Manuel Noriega]], Panama's drug-lord, whom he personally met.
The [[Reagan administration]]'s support for the Contras continued to stir controversy well into the 1990s. In [[August 1996]], ''[[San Jose Mercury News]]'' reporter [[Gary Webb]] published a series titled ''Dark Alliance'' [http://www.narconews.com/darkalliance/drugs/start.htm], allegedly linking the origins of [[crack cocaine]] in California to the Contras. [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/nsaebb2.htm] Webb's controversial and highly damaging revelations were disputed at the time; subsequent revelations largely confirmed some of his findings. [[Freedom of Information Act]] inquiries by the National Security Archive and other investigators unearthed a number of documents showing that White House officials, including Oliver North, knew about and supported using money raised via [[drug trafficking]] to fund the Contras. Sen. John Kerry's report in 1988 came to the same conclusions.[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/north06.pdf] However, major media outlets and the Justice Department denied the allegations.
== Notes ==
# [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/icases/inus/inus_ijudgment/inus_ijudgment_toc.htm ICJ Judgement] on the case: "Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua" (Nicaragua v. United States Of America)
==Further reading==
* Belli, Humberto. (1985). ''Breaking Faith: The Sandinista Revolution and Its Impact on Freedom and Christian Faith in Nicaragua.'' Crossway Books/The Puebla Institute.
* Brody, Reed. (1985). ''Contra Terror in Nicaragua: Report of a Fact-Finding Mission: September 1984-January 1985''. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 0896083136.
* Brown, Timothy. (2001). ''The Real Contra War: Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua''. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0806132523.
* [[Edgar Chamorro|Chamorro, Edgar]]. (1987). ''Packaging the Contras: A Case of CIA Disinformation''. New York: Institute for Media Analysis. ISBN 0941781089; ISBN 0941781070.
* Christian, Shirley. (1986) ''Nicaragua, Revolution In the Family.'' New York: Vintage Books.
* Cox, Jack. (1987) ''Requiem in the Tropics: Inside Central America.'' UCA Books.
* Cruz S., Arturo J. (1989). ''Memoirs of a Counterrevolutionary''. (1989). New York: Doubleday.
* Dickey, Christopher. (1985, 1987). ''With the Contras: A Reporter in the Wilds of Nicaragua''. New York: Simon & Schuster.
* Garvin, Glenn. (1992). ''Everybody Had His Own Gringo: The CIA and the Contras''. Washington: Brassey's.
* Horton, Lynn. ''Peasants in Arms: War and Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979-1994''. (1998). Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
* Kirkpatrick, Jean. (1982) ''Dictatorships and Double Standards.'' Touchstone.
* Miranda, Roger, and William Ratliff. (1993, 1994) "The Civil War in Nicaragua: Inside the Sandinistas." New Brunswick, NY: Transaction Publishers.
* Moore, John Norton (1987). ''The Secret War in Central America: Sandinista Assault on World Order.'' university Publications of America.
* Pardo-Maurer, Rogelio. (1990) ''The Contras, 1980-1989: A Special Kind of Politics''. New York: Praeger.
* Persons, David E. (1987) ''A Study of the History and Origins of the Nicaraguan Contras''. Nacogdoches, Texas: Total Vision Press. Stephen Austin Univ. Special Collections.
* [[Gary Webb|Webb, Gary]] (1998). ''Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion'', Seven Stories Press. ISBN 1888363681 (hardcover, 1998), ISBN 1888363932 (paperback, 1999).
==See also==
*[[Iran-Contra affair]]
*[[Oliver North]]
*[[Gary Webb]]
*[[Ronald Reagan]]
*[[Sandinista National Liberation Front]]
==External links==
*[http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Blum/Nicaragua_KH.html "Nicaragua 1981-1990: Destabilization in slow motion], by [[William Blum]]
*[http://www.mega.nu:8080/ampp/webb.html "Dark Alliance"], by [[Gary Webb]], ''San Jose Mercury News'', August 1996
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/nsaebb2.htm The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations], [[National Security Archive]]
*[http://www.piratesandemperors.com/ Pirates and Emperors], Political satire, Schoolhouse Rock style
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<title>Craig Venter</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Venter-janich2.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Dr. Venter (right) with Michael Janich on his visit in Hong Kong in December 2004]]
'''John Craig Venter''' (born [[October 14]], [[1946]], [[Salt Lake City]]) is an American [[biologist]] and businessman. He began his academic career at a [[community college]], [[College of San Mateo]] (California), after enlisting in the [[United States Navy|navy]] and serving a tour of duty during the [[Vietnam War]]. On returning, he received his [[bachelor's degree]] in [[biochemistry]] in [[1972]], and his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[physiology]] and [[pharmacology]] in [[1975]], both from the [[University of California, San Diego]]. After working at the [[University at Buffalo|State University of New York at Buffalo]], he joined the [[National Institutes of Health]] in 1984.
While at NIH, Venter learned of a technique for rapidly identifying all of the [[mRNA]]s present in a cell, and began to use it to rapidly identify human brain genes. The short [[Complementary DNA|cDNA]] sequence fragments discovered by this method are called [[Expressed sequence tag]]s, or ESTs, a name coined by Anthony Kerlavage at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]]. In a controversial court case, Venter tried to patent these gene fragments and lost the case.
He was the former president and founder of [[Celera Genomics]], which became famous for running a [[Human Genome Project]] of its own for commercial purposes, using [[shotgun sequencing]] technology in [[1999]]. [[DNA]] from 5 individuals was used by Celera to generate the sequence of the human genome; one of the 5 individuals used in this project was Venter. Venter was fired by Celera in early 2002 after it became clear that selling genome data would not become profitable and Venter resisted efforts by the company board to change the strategic direction of the company.
Venter founded [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR) in [[1992]]. Venter is currently the president of the [[J. Craig Venter Institute]], created and funded by TIGR's board (which Venter chairs). In June of 2005, he co-founded [[Synthetic Genomics]], a firm dedicated to using modified [[microorganisms]] to produce [[ethanol]] and [[hydrogen]] as [[alternative fuel|alternative fuels]].
Venter has been the subject of several articles, notably in ''[[Wired magazine|Wired]]'' and ''[[The Economist]]'' in [[December 2004]], and Australian science magazine [[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] in 2005.
==External links==
*[http://www.venterinstitute.org/ J Craig Venter Institute]
*[http://www.sorcerer2expedition.org/ Sourcerer II Expedition]
*[http://www.genomicresource.org/ JTC Genomic Resources]
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<title>Chemical Evolution</title>
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<title>Chemical evolution</title>
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<comment>/* See also */ [[Hypercycle]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemical evolution''' has two meanings and uses. The first refers to the theories of evolution of the [[chemical element]]s in the universe following the [[Big Bang]] and through [[nucleosynthesis]] in [[star]]s and [[supernova]]s.
The second use of '''chemical evolution''' or ''chemosynthesis'' is as a hypothesis to explain how [[life]] might possibly have developed or evolved from non-life (see [[abiogenesis]]). Various experiments have been made to show certain aspects of this process, the first ones were done by [[Stanley L. Miller]] in the [[1950s]]. For that they are now called [[Miller experiment]]s. However only very basic organic building blocks were obtained. The challenge is getting complex molecules organized consistently.
The hypothesis is that simple chemical compounds could catalyze the creation of copies of themselves (somewhat similar to the formation of a [[crystal]] or [[polymer]]) in an environment rich with the necessary building block compounds or elements. As the |
n just one die.
Craps features a plethora of bets, but the most fundamental is the "pass line" wager, which nearly all players make. On a come-out roll, the pass line bettors win when either a 7 or 11 is rolled. A 2, 3, or 12 loses, and is called "craps". When any other number (4, 5, 6, 8, 9, or 10) is rolled it's called the '''point'''. Once a point has been set, the pass-line bettor wins if the point is rolled again, and loses if a 7 is rolled first ("seven-out"). After a seven-out the dice pass to the next shooter for a new come-out roll.
The opposite of a pass line bet is the "don't pass" bet, which wins on a come-out roll of 2 or 3, loses on 7 or 11, ties on 12, and goes to the point round when any other number is rolled. In the point round the don't pass bet wins if a 7 is rolled and loses if the point is rolled. People who bet on the don't pass are called <i>wrong bettors</i>, while those who bet on the pass are called <i>right bettors</i>, only because most craps players make the pass line bet instead of the don't pass bet.
A casino craps table is run by four casino employees: a '''boxman''' who guards the chips, supervises the dealers and handles coloring out players; two '''dealers''' who stand to either side of the boxman and collect and pay bets; and a '''stickman''' who stands directly across the table from the boxman and announces the results of each roll and then collects the dice with an elongated wooden stick. He is also in charge of managing the bets made on the center of the table (hardways, yo, horn, etc). For clarity, the number 11 is referred to as "yo" so as not to be confused with the number 7.
A new shooter, who must bet the table minimum on either the '''pass line''' or the '''don't pass line''' to play, is presented five dice by the '''stickman''' and picks two.
The dealers will usually insist that the shooter roll with one hand and that the dice bounce off the wall surrounding the table. These requirements are meant to retard cheating attempts by players switching the dice or making a "controlled shot." If a die leaves the table, the shooter will usually be asked to select another die from the remaining three but can request using the same die if it passes the boxman's inspection. This requirement is used in an effort to reduce cheating the game by players substituting [[loaded dice]] for the regulation dice.
==Types of craps bets==
The fundamental bet in craps is the '''pass line''' bet, in which one bets that the dice will '''pass''' (that is, roll the point number before rolling a 7). The following discussion assumes that the shooter, as is usually the case, is betting on the pass line.
If a point is made, most casinos allow pass line bettors to take '''odds''' by placing from one to five times (and at some casinos, up to 100 times) the pass line bet behind the line. This additional bet pays at the true [[odds]], 2-to-1 if 4 or 10 is the point, 3-to-2 if 5 or 9 is the point, and 6-to-5 if 6 or 8 is the point. While the house has a small (1.4%) advantage on pass line bets, the house has no advantage at all on odds bets. Therefore, taking the maximum odds (which vary by casino) can lower the house percentage for any given bet down to as low as 0.5%.
Odds bets in craps are one of the few bets offered at a casino that are completely free of any house advantage. Another such bet is the "double-up" option offered to the player in some forms of [[video poker]] after winning a hand.
Let's see why that is. There are 36 possible permutations (ways to roll a pair of 6-sided dice):
1-1 = 1 way to make a 2
1-2 2-1 = 2 ways to make a 3
1-3 2-2 3-1 = 3 ways to make a 4, true odds pays 2-1
1-4 2-3 3-2 4-1 = 4 ways to make a 5, true odds pays 3-2
1-5 2-4 3-3 4-2 5-1 = 5 ways to make a 6, true odds pays 6-5
1-6 2-5 3-4 4-3 5-2 6-1 = 6 ways to make a 7
2-6 3-5 4-4 5-3 6-2 = 5 ways to make an 8, true odds pays 6-5
3-6 4-5 5-4 6-3 = 4 ways to make a 9, true odds pays 3-2
4-6 5-5 6-4 = 3 ways to make a 10, true odds pays 2-1
5-6 6-5 = 2 ways to make an 11
6-6 = 1 way to make a 12
There are a total of 36 possible combinations. So on the come-out roll there are 8 ways to win, 4 ways to lose and (36-12=) 24 ways to start a point.
The odds of making the point are the ratio of the number of ways to make a 7 to the number of ways to make the point. For example, there are five ways to make a 6 or 8, so the odds of making a point of 6 or 8 are 6-5. Therefore an odds bet of $5 on 6 or 8 pays out $6.
Most experienced craps players only make pass line and odds bets since the odds are much more favourable to the player than any other bets in craps, and in fact most casino games.
The rules for the '''come''' wagers are the same as for the '''pass''' line except that they can only be made after the come-out roll. Effectively, they represent starting a new game using the same stream of numbers being generated by the existing (pass line) game.
Because of the '''come''' bet, if the shooter makes their point, a player can find themselves in the situation where they have a '''come''' bet with odds on it, and yet be rooting for the shooter to roll a 7 on their next come-out roll. Because of this, it is usual that odds bets on '''come''' wagers are presumed to be '''not working'''. That means that if the shooter rolls a 7 on the '''come-out''' roll, any players with active '''come''' bets lose their initial wager but will have their odds money returned to them, unless they tell the dealer that they want their odds '''working'''. Conversely, if the shooter rolls a number that matches an active come bet, the original bet is paid off at even money and the odds money is returned to the player (unless they told the dealer that they wanted their odds working, in which case they are paid at the true odds).
There is also a '''don't come''' box in which one can place bets that the dice will not pass on the next sequence starting with the immediate roll as a virtual come-out roll; even the shooter may bet that he or she will miss out. '''Don't pass''' and '''don't come''' bets are basically the opposite of '''pass''' and '''come''' bets; the player is betting that a 7 will be rolled before the point. On the come-out roll a 7 or an 11 is a loss, whereas a 3 and either a 2 or a 12 is a win. Casino craps layouts '''bar''' either 2 or 12 on the '''don't pass''' and '''don't come''' bets. This means that if 2 is barred and the shooter rolls a 2 on the come-out roll, the wager is a stand off and the player's money is returned.
When betting against the shooter, the bettor must put up the long side of the bet. Thus a '''don't pass''' bettor who bets $10 when the point is a 4 could place an odds bet of $20 behind the line. If the shooter rolls a 7 before achieving their point, the bettor would receive $10 for the '''don't pass''' bet plus $10 for their odds bet. Even though the house advantage on the '''don't pass''' and '''don't come''' bets are almost identical to the '''pass line''' and '''come''' bets, for most players the disadvantage of putting up the long side of the bet makes the '''don't pass''' line less desirable. Additionally, many craps players consider '''don't pass''' and '''don't come''' bets to be in poor taste, or even "taboo".
===Other types of bets===
One roll bets that the shooter will make an 11 (pays 15-1, actual odds 17-1); Bets that a shooter will make a '''hardway''' number such as 4-4 (before throwing a 7 or an 8 the '''easy way''' such as 6-2 or 5-3) (pays 9-1, actual odds 10-1). Indeed you can bet on any combination of the dice on the next roll, this is called a '''hop''' bet, example ''hard 8 on the hop'' pays 31-1 (actual odds 35-1).
'''Craps''' is a bet that the shooter will roll 2, 3 or 12 on the next roll. The true odds are 8-1 and the casino pays 7-1.
'''C & E''' is actually two bets. A player is betting one unit on ''craps'' and another unit on 11. One of the two bets will always lose, and the other will pay off as above.
'''Horn''' is a bet that involves betting on 1 unit each for 2, 3, 11 and 12 at the same time for the next roll. Most players do a "Horn High" bet which involves betting an additional $1 on one of the 4 choices, with the most frequent being a $5 "horn high yo" bet (which means $2 on the 11, $1 each on 2, 3 & 12).
The '''field''' bet is a wager that one of the numbers in the box (usually 2, 3, 4, 9,10,11,12) will be rolled on the next roll of the dice. This bet pays even money, but the true odds are 4-5. Often 2 and/or 12 will pay 2-1. Some casinos pay 3-1 on either the 2 or 12.
Most of the one roll bets, hard way bets, and other bets in the center of the layout are very costly/disadvantageous to the player, the house percentage on these bets can be 11.1% and up. The best advice for prospective craps players is to bet either on the pass line or don't pass line with full odds. More aggressive players can also bet on the Come/Don't Come with full odds which can make you or break you quickly, but in statistical terms is identical to the pass/don't pass bet.
Players can '''place''' or '''buy''' individual '''numbers''' (4,5,6,8,9,10) by placing their wager in the '''come''' area and telling the dealer, for example, "place the 6" or "buy the 8". Both are bets that the number will be rolled before a 7. Place bets are paid at reduced odds. Buying the number results in a payoff at the true odds, but requires a 5% commission to be paid to the casino.
Place Buy
Number Payoff Payoff
------ ------ ------
6 or 8 7-6 6-5
5 or 9 7-5 |
]]
{{Proteobacteria-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ECG</title>
<id>10254</id>
<revision>
<id>15908077</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-28T08:59:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to new stub (was empty)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electrocardiogram]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eccentricity</title>
<id>10256</id>
<revision>
<id>40557768</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T12:08:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Drat</username>
<id>142227</id>
</contributor>
<comment>bypass redirect.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eccentric''' is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for ''out of the [[centre]]'', as opposed to [[concentric]], ''in the centre''.
* In [[mathematics]], '''[[Eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]]''' is a parameter associated with every [[conic section]]. It can be thought of as a measure of how much the conic section deviates from being circular.
*For the eccentricity of a vertex in a graph, see [[Distance (graph theory)]]
* In [[astrodynamics]], the '''[[Eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity of an orbit]]''' can be calculated from [[orbital state vectors]] as an absolute value of [[eccentricity vector]] or using other methods based on [[orbital energy]] and [[angular momentum]].
* In [[mechanical engineering]], an '''[[Eccentric (mechanism)|eccentric]]''' is a [[wheel]] that rotates on an [[axle]] that is displaced from the focus of the circle described by the wheel &mdash;in other words, a mechanical motion that can operate either as a [[cam]] or a [[crank]], depending upon how it is driven.
* In sport, '''[[Eccentric (Sport)|eccentric movements]]''' are those exercise movements involving the lengthening of muscle fibers.
* In popular usage, '''[[Eccentricity (behavior)|eccentricity]]''' refers to unusual or odd [[behaviour]] on the part of a person, as opposed to being "[[normal (behavior)|normal]]". There is a saying that "If you're rich, you're eccentric; if you're poor, you're crazy." See also [[List of people widely considered eccentric]].
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[[tr:Dışmerkezlik]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Essendon Football Club</title>
<id>10257</id>
<revision>
<id>40678498</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T06:11:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lightdarkness</username>
<id>130135</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/192.165.166.4|192.165.166.4]] ([[User talk:192.165.166.4|Talk]]) to last version by Lightdarkness</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox aus sport club | clubname = Essendon
| image = [[Image:Essendonfc logo small.png|center]]
| fullname = Essendon Football Club
| emblem = The Bombers
| strip = Black guernsey with red sash, black shorts, red and black hooped socks
| founded = [[1871]]
| sport = [[Australian rules football]]
| league = [[Australian Football League]]
| ground = [[Telstra Dome]]
| capacity = 50,000
| song = ''[[See the Bombers Fly Up]]''
| president = [[Neil McKissock]]
| coach = [[Kevin Sheedy]]
| season = 2005
| position = 13th of 16
}}'''Essendon Football Club''', nicknamed '''The Bombers''', is an [[Australian rules football]] club that is part of the [[Australian Football League]]. Formed in 1871 as a junior club and as a senior club in 1873, it is headquartered at the Essendon Recreation Reserve, commonly known as [[Windy Hill, Essendon|Windy Hill]] in the [[Melbourne]] [[suburb]] of [[Essendon, Victoria|Essendon]], but plays its home matches at the [[Telstra Dome]] and the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]].
It is one of the richest, most popular, and most successful clubs in the league, with a new generation of fans springing up due to their recent success and the presence of charismatic players such as captain [[Matthew Lloyd]], superstar [[James Hird]] and forward [[Scott Lucas]]. It is coached by [[Kevin Sheedy]] (the longest serving currently active coach in the AFL, having held the position since [[1981]]), a famously crafty coach who in latter years has developed a persona as football's eccentric philosopher.
The club has worn a black guernsey with red sash as its uniform since 1873 (the longest period that any sporting club in the world has worn the same primary guernsey design).
==History==
===The Pre-[[Victorian Football League|VFL]] years ([[1871]] - [[1896]])===
Essendon was already a successful club in the [[Victorian Football Association|VFA]] before the VFL was formed in [[1897]]. The club was part of many innovations that shaped the modern game, as well as being the first to achieve several milestones. Essendon was involved in the first match where the goal umpires used white flags to signal scores, they were the first team to wear white shorts in away matches, and they were involved in the first match played on what would be considered by modern standards to be a full sized field. Essendon was also the first side to record ten goals in a single senior match, and one of its players, [[Charles Pearson]], was the first to bring the skill of overhead [[marking]] to the game.
The team performed very well in the VFA competition of the [[1890s]], winning four premierships in a row from [[1891]] through to [[1894]]. This on-field success is one of the factors that caused Essendon to be invited to take part in the break-away VFL competition, despite being relatively new to the VFA compared to some of the other teams involved, such as [[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne]] and [[Geelong Football Club|Geelong]].
===From the formation of the VFL until the first world war ([[1897]] - [[1915]])===
Essendon tasted immediate success upon joining the new eight team VFL competition, winning the premiership in the first year of the competition. A grand final was not played in the first year, instead a round-robin system was employed between the top four teams, with Essendon finishing on top of the finals ladder.
The side was generally well performed during this period, winning a second premiership in [[1901]], becoming the first team to score over 1000 points in a season with 1085 in [[1901]] and winning their first back to back premierships in [[1911]] (a year in which they become the first side to score 20 goals in a match) and [[1912]]. The 1912 [[grand final]] was remarkable in that 54,000 people turned out to watch, which was a record for an Australian sporting event for the time.
Although the side had many great players during this period, perhaps the most remarkable was [[Albert Thurgood]], who in [[1899]] kicked a football in excess of 107 yards (98.48m), a record that still stands today.
===The years between the wars ([[1918]] - [[1938]])===
Essendon was one of several clubs not to field a side in [[1916]] and [[1917]] due to the war. By [[1922]], the side had taken on its modern nickname of "the bombers" (as well as "the dons"), dropping the nicknames of "the same olds", "the sash wearers" and "the Essendonians" that had variously been used up until then.
One of Essendon's most famous sides, dubbed the "mosquito fleet", won the premiership in [[1923]]. This side was so named due to the number of small, very fast players in the side: six of the premiership side were less than five and a half feet (167 cm) tall.
Essendon again managed to win back-to-back premierships in [[1924]]. This premiership was unusual because the league opted for a round robin system of finals rather than a grand final. The low crowds for the finals meant this was never attempted again, resulting in Essendon having the unique record of winning the only two premierships without a grand final.
The 1924 season was not without controversy however, with rumours of numerous players accepting bribes. Regardless of the accuracy of these allegations, the club's image was tarnished, and the side experienced its lowest period during the decade that followed, with poor results on the field and decreased support off it.
The [[1933]] season was probably the start of the Essendon revival, seeing the debut of the player widely regarded as Essendon's, if not the league's, greatest: [[Dick Reynolds]]. Reynolds had an immediate impact; in only his second season, aged only 19, he won the [[Brownlow Medal]], the league's highest individual honour. He later repeated that feat in [[1938]] and [[1939]]. His three Brownlow victories still stand as an equal record to this day.
===The Dick Reynolds years ([[1939]] - [[1960]])===
In [[1939]] Dick Reynolds was appointed captain of the side. Unlike today, it was not unusual for a side to have a playing coach, and midway through the season Reynolds also took over as coach. Regarded as having a sound tactical knowledge of the game and being an inspirational leader, he led the side into the finals in [[1940]] for the first time since [[1926]].
The club's rise continued over the following years, with the side winning premierships in [[1942]], [[1946]], [[1949]] and [[1950]]. Reynolds retired at the end of the 1950 season, handing the captaincy over to his close friend [[Bill Hutchinson]], who would also go onto win two Brownlow medals in [[1952]] and [[1953]]. Reynolds stayed on as a non-playing coach until [[1960]].
The 1949 season also saw the emergence of one of the great full forwards of the game in [[John Coleman]]. In his debut season, Coleman kicked 100 goals, an unprecedented feat. Coleman led the club in goal kicking every year until his early retirement through injury in [[1954]], additionally he still holds club records for most goals in a season (120 in 1950) and most goals in a match (14 in [ |
grammar.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Asynchronous Transfer Mode''', or '''ATM''' for short, is a [[cell relay]] [[network protocol]] which encodes data traffic into small fixed-sized (53 byte; 48 bytes of data and 5 bytes of header information) cells instead of variable sized ''packets'' as in [[packet switching|packet-switched networks]] (such as the [[Internet Protocol]] or [[Ethernet]]). It is a [[connection-oriented]] technology, in which a connection is established between the two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.
==Introduction==
ATM was intended to provide a single unified networking standard that could support both [[Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Signalling|synchronous]] channel networking ([[PDH]], [[SDH]]) and packet-based networking ([[Internet Protocol|IP]], [[Frame relay]], etc), whilst supporting multiple levels of [[quality of service]] for packet traffic.
ATM sought to resolve the conflict between [[circuit switching|circuit-switched]] networks and [[packet switching|packet-switched]] networks by mapping both bitstreams and packet-streams onto a stream of small fixed-size 'cells' tagged with [[virtual circuit]] identifiers. The cells are typically sent on demand within a synchronous time-slot pattern in a synchronous bit-stream: what is asynchronous here is the sending of the cells, not the low-level bitstream that carries them.
In its original conception, ATM was to be the enabling technology of the 'Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network' ([[B-ISDN]]) that would replace the existing [[PSTN]]. The full suite of ATM standards provides definitions for [[physical layer|layer 1]] (physical connections), [[data link layer|layer 2]] (data link layer) and [[network layer|layer 3]] (network) of the classical [[Open Systems Interconnection|OSI]] [[OSI model|seven-layer networking model]]. The ATM standards drew on concepts from the telecommunications community, rather than the computer networking community. For this reason, extensive provision was made for integration of most existing [[Telephone company|telco]] technologies and conventions into ATM.
As a result, ATM provides a highly complex technology, with features intended for applications ranging from global telco networks to private local area computer networks. ATM has been a partial success as a technology, with widespread deployment, but generally only used as a transport for IP traffic; its goal of providing a single integrated technology for LANs, public networks, and user services has largely failed.
== Successes and Failures of ATM Technology ==
Numerous [[telephone company|telco]]s have implemented wide-area ATM networks, and many [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]] implementations use ATM. However, ATM has failed to gain wide use as a [[Local area network|LAN]] technology, and its great complexity has held back its full deployment as the single integrating network technology in the way that its inventors originally intended.
Many people, particularly in the Internet protocol-design community, considered this vision to be mistaken. Their argument went something like this: We know that there will always be both brand-new and obsolescent link-layer technologies, particularly in the LAN area, and it is fair to assume that not all of them will fit neatly into the [[SDH]] model that ATM was designed for. Therefore, some sort of protocol is needed to provide a unifying layer over both ATM and non-ATM link layers, and ATM itself cannot fill that role. Conveniently, we have this protocol called "IP" which already does that. Ergo, there is no point in implementing ATM at the network layer.
In addition, the need for cells to reduce jitter has disappeared as transport speeds increased (see below), and improvements in [[voice over IP]] have made the integration of speech and data possible at the IP layer, again removing the incentive for ubiquitous deployment of ATM. Most telcos are now planning to integrate their voice network activities into their IP networks, rather than their IP networks into the voice infrastructure.
Many technically sound ideas from ATM were adopted by [[MPLS]], a generic [[Layer 2]] packet switching protocol. ATM remains widely deployed, and is used as a [[multiplexing]] service in [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]] networks, where its compromises fit DSL's low-data-rate needs well. In turn, DSL networks support IP (and IP services such as VoIP) via [[Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM|PPP over ATM]].
ATM will remain deployed for some time in higher-speed interconnects where carriers have already committed themselves to existing ATM deployments; ATM is used here as a way of unifying [[PDH]]/SDH traffic and packet-switched traffic under a single infrastructure.
However, ATM is increasingly challenged by speed and traffic shaping requirements of [[converged networks]]. In particular, the complexity of [[Segmentation and Reassembly|SAR]] imposes a performance bottleneck, as the fastest SARs known run at 2.5 Gbit/s and have limited traffic shaping capabilities.
Currently it seems like [[Ethernet]] implementations (10Gbit-Ethernet, [[MetroEthernet]]) will
replace ATM in many locations.
Enables convergence of Voice, Video, Data on one network
== Recent Developments ==
Interest in using native ATM for carrying live video and audio has increased recently. In these environments, low latency and very high quality of service are required to handle linear audio and video streams. Towards this goal standards are being developed such as [[AES47]] ([[IEC 62365]]), which would compete with [[professional video over IP]].
==ATM Concepts==
===Why Cells?===
The motivation for the use of small data ''cells'' was the reduction of [[jitter]] (delay variance, in this case) in the multiplexing of data streams; reduction of this (and also end-to-end round-trip delays) is particularly important when carrying voice traffic.
This is because the conversion of digitized voice back into an analog audio signal is an inherently [[real time|real-time]] process, and to do a good job, the [[codec]] that does this needs an evenly spaced (in time) stream of data items. If the next data item is not available when it is needed, the codec has no choice but to produce silence - and if the data does arrive, but late, it is useless, because the time period when it should have been converted to a signal has already passed.
Now consider a speech signal reduced to packets, and forced to share a link with bursty data traffic (i.e. some of the data packets will be large). No matter how small the speech packets could be made, they would always encounter full-size data packets, and under normal queuing conditions, might experience maximum queuing delays.
At the time ATM was designed, 155 Mbit/s [[SDH]] (135 Mbit/s payload) was considered a fast optical network link, and many [[PDH]] links in the digital network were considerably slower, ranging from 1.544 to 45 Mbit/s in the USA (2 to 34 Mbit/s in Europe).
At this rate, a typical full-length 1500 byte (12000 bit) data packet would take 89 [[microsecond|µs]] to transmit. In a lower-speed link, such as a 1.544 Mbit/s T1 link, a 1500 byte packet would take up to 7.8 milliseconds.
A queueing delay induced by several such data packets might be several times the figure of 7.8 ms, in addition to any packet generation delay in the shorter speech packet. This was clearly unacceptable for speech traffic, which needs to have low jitter in the data stream being fed into the codec if it is to produce good-quality sound. A packet voice system can produce this in a number of ways:
* Have a playback buffer between the network and the codec, one large enough to tide the codec over almost all the jitter in the data. This allows smoothing out the jitter, but the delay introduced by passage through the buffer would be such that echo cancellers would be required even in local networks; this was considered too expensive at the time. Also, it would have increased the delay across the channel, and human conversational mechanisms tend not to work well with high-delay channels.
* Build a system which can inherently provide low-jitter (and minimal overall delay) to traffic which needs it.
* Operate on a 1:1 user basis (i.e., a dedicated pipe).
ATM was designed to implement a low-jitter network interface. However, to be able to provide short queueing delays, but also be able to carry large datagrams, it had to have cells. ATM broke all packets, data, and voice streams up into 48-byte chunks, adding a 5-byte routing header to each one so that they could be reassembled later. It multiplexed these 53-byte cells instead of packets. Doing so reduced the worst-case queuing jitter by a factor of almost 30, removing the need for echo cancellers.
===Cells In Practice===
The rules for segmenting and reassembling packets and streams into cells are known as [[ATM Adaptation Layers]]. The most important two are AAL 1, used for streams, and [[ATM Adaptation Layer 5|AAL 5]], used for most types of packets. Which AAL is in use for a given cell is not encoded in the cell. Instead, it is negotiated by or configured at the endpoints on a per-virtual-connection basis.
Since ATM was designed, networks have become much faster. As of 2001, a 1500 byte (12000 bit) full-size Ethernet packet will take only 1.2 µs to transmit on a 10 Gbit/s optical network, removing the need for small cells to reduce jitter. Some consider that this removes the need for ATM in the network backbone. Additionally, the hardware for implementing the service adaptation for IP packets is expensive at very high speeds. Specifically, the cost of segmentation and reassembly (SAR) hardware at [[OC-3]] and above speeds makes ATM less competitive for IP than [[Packet over SONET/SDH|Packet Over SONET]] (POS). SAR performance limits mean that the fastest IP router ATM interfaces are OC12 - OC48 (STM4 - STM16), while (as of 20 |
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<ip>81.199.48.181</ip>
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Thank you for choosing textamerica
www.textamerica.com
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== chukwebuka =='''</text>
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<page>
<title>Garry Kasparov</title>
<id>12810</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42135452</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:29:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Kernow</username>
<id>445578</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Chess against computers */ syntax correction</comment>
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[[Image:Garry kasparov.jpg|thumb|Garry Kasparov]]
'''Garry Kimovich Kasparov''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ga'ɹi kasˈparˌɑf]}}; [[Russian language|Russian]]: ''Га́рри Ки́мович Каспа́ров'') (born [[April 13]], [[1963]]) is a [[chess]] grandmaster and is arguably the strongest chess player in history[http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/meet/html/d.1.html]. His 2851 [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] in the July 1999 [[FIDE]] rating list is the highest rating ever achieved. [[As of 2006|As of January 2006]], Kasparov's 2812 [[ELO rating system|ELO]] rating places him highest on the [[Fédération Internationale des Échecs|FIDE]] listing [http://www.fide.com/ratings/top.phtml]. Ranked first in the world for nearly all of the 20 years from 1985 to 2005, Kasparov was the last undisputed [[World Chess Championship|World Chess Champion]] from 1985 until 1993; and continued to be "classical" World Chess Champion (of the [[Professional Chess Association|PCA]] and [[World Chess Association|WCA]]) until his defeat by [[Vladimir Kramnik]] in 2000. He also won the [[Chess Oscar]] eleven times.
Kasparov announced his retirement from professional chess on [[March 10]] [[2005]], instead devoting time to politics and to opposing [[Vladimir Putin]], whom he has called a "fascist" and a "brutal dictator". [http://www.google.co.in/url?sa=U&start=2&q=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4163439.stm&e=9797] He is a leading member of the [[Committee 2008]]: and the liberal groups [[United Civil Front]] and [[Free Choice]]. According to the 2005 December edition of [[Atlantic Monthly]], Kasparov will run against Putin in the 2008 election for the [[Russian_president| Russian Presidency]]. Putin has to change the constitution to run a third term [http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/prem/200512/kasparov].
Garry Kasparov was born as '''Garry Vajnshtejn''' (the given name analogous to [[English language|English]] "Harry" and surname analogous to [[German language|German]] "Weinstein" ) in [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]] (at that time republic of [[Soviet Union]]) to an [[Armenia]]n mother and a [[Jew]]ish father. He first began the serious study of [[chess]] after he came across a chess problem set up by his parents and proposed a solution{{fact}}. When he was 7, his father died, and he adopted his mother's surname as soon as was legally possible, at the age of 12. His mother Klara is an [[Armenia]]n woman whose surname is "Kasparian", and "Kasparov" is the Russianised version of this name.
===Early career===
After leaving Tiffin School at the age of 8, Kasparov trained at [[Mikhail Botvinnik]]'s chess school. He won the Soviet Junior Championship at [[Tbilisi]] in 1976, scoring 7 points out of 9, at the age of 13. He repeated the feat the following year, winning with a score of 8.5/9.
In 1978 Kasparov participated in the Sokolsky Memorial tournament at [[Minsk]]. He had been invited as an exception but took the first place and became a [[chess master|master]]. Kasparov has repeatedly said that this event was a turning point in his life, and that it convinced him to choose chess as his career. "I will remember the Sokolsky Memorial as long as I live", he wrote. He has also said that after the victory, he thought he had a very good shot at the World Championship{{fact}}.
Kasparov rose quickly through the FIDE rankings. Starting with an oversight by the [[Russian Chess Federation]], Garry Kasparov participated in a [[International Grandmaster|Grandmaster]] tournament in [[Banja Luka]] while still unrated (the federation thought it was a junior tournament). He emerged from this top-class encounter with a provisional rating of 2595, enough to catapult him into the top group of chess players.
The next year, 1980, he won the [[World Junior Chess Championship]] in [[Dortmund]], [[West Germany]].
Kasparov sought to challenge world champion [[Anatoly Karpov]] &mdash; a firm favourite of the Russian Chess Federation. But first Kasparov had to pass the test of the [[Candidates Tournament]] to qualify.
His first Candidates match was against [[Alexander Beliavsky]], from which Kasparov emerged surprisingly victorious (Beliavsky was an exceptionally tough opponent). Politics threatened Kasparov's next match against [[Viktor Korchnoi]], which was scheduled to be played in Pasadena, California. Korchnoi defected from Russia in the late 1970s, and was at that time the strongest non-Soviet player. Various political manoeuvres prevented Kasparov from playing Korchnoi, and Kasparov forfeited the match.
This was resolved by Korchnoi's allowing the match to be replayed in [[London]]. Kasparov won.
Kasparov's final Candidates match was against the resurgent [[Vassily Smyslov]] (who was randomly selected to advance after a 7-7 tie against [[Robert Huebner|Huebner]] by the spin of a roulette wheel at the quarterfinals, but soundly defeated Hungarian GM Zoltan Ribli at the semifinals). Smyslov was the seventh world champion in 1957, but later years saw his willingness to fight for wins greatly diminished. Kasparov won with 4 wins and 9 draws.
===1984 World Championship===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Karkas1.jpg|thumb|right|The 1984 [[World Chess Championship]] was between [[Anatoly Karpov]] (right) and [[Garry Kasparov]] (left).]] -->
The [[1984]] World Championship match between [[Anatoly Karpov]] and Garry Kasparov had its fair share of ups and downs, as well as the most controversial finish to a competitive match ever. Karpov started off in very good form, and after nine games Kasparov found himself 4-0 down in a "first to six wins" match. Fellow players predicted a 6-0 whitewash of Kasparov within 18 games.
For Karpov, the result so far would go some way toward exorcising the ghost of [[Bobby Fischer]]'s Candidates results in 1970, and would further cement Karpov as a true World Champion.
Kasparov dug in, with inspiration from a Russian poet before each game, and battled with Karpov into seventeen successive draws. Karpov duly won the next decisive game before Kasparov fought back with another series of draws until game 32, Kasparov's first win against the World Champion.
At this point Karpov, twelve years older than Kasparov, was close to exhaustion, and not looking like the player who started this match. Kasparov won games 47 and 48 to bring the scores to 5-3 in Karpov's favour. Then the match was ended without result by [[Florencio Campomanes]], the President of FIDE, and a new match was announced to start a few months later.
The termination of the match was a matter of some controversy. At the press conference at which he announced his decision, Campomanes cited the health of the two players, which had been put under strain by the length of the match, despite that both Karpov and Kasparov stated that they would prefer the match to continue. Karpov had lost 10 [[Kilogram|kg]] (22 [[Pound (weight)|lb]]) over the course of the match and had been hospitalized several times. Kasparov, however, was in excellent health and extremely resentful of Campomanes' decision, asking him why he was abandoning the match if both players wanted to continue. It would appear that Kasparov, who had won the last two games before the suspension, felt the same way as some commentators &mdash; that he was now the favourite to win the match despite his 5-3 deficit. He appeared to be physically stronger than his opponent, and in the later games seemed to have been playing the better chess.
As National Master [[Dan Heisman]] of Philadelphia humorously commented on this confusing situation: "Kasparov was losing the match to Karpov 5-3 but found it stopped by FIDE, Kasparov said he was winning because Karpov was only ahead 5-3. Karpov, from his hospital bed, protested that he felt fine and wanted to continue, but the doctors were not letting him."
The match became the first, and so far only, world championship match to be abandoned without result. Kasparov's relations with Campomanes and FIDE were greatly strained, and the feud between the two would eventually come to a head in 1993 with Kasparov's complete break-away from FIDE.
===World Champion===
The second Karpov-Kasparov match in 1985 was organized as the best of 24 games, where first player to 12.5 points would claim the title (in the event of a 12-12 draw, the title would go to Karpov as the reigning champion). Kasparov showed he had learned some valuable lessons in the previous match, and although the score was quite even down to the final wire, a few spectacular games involving the [[Sicilian defence]] secured the World Championship for Kasparov at the age of 22 by a score of 13-11. This broke the existing record of youngest winner held for over twenty years by [[Mikhail Tal]] (he was 23 when he beat Botvinnik in 1960).
With the World Champion title in his grasp, Kasparov switched to battling against FIDE &mdash; as [[Bobby Fischer]] had done twenty years earlier, but this time from within FIDE. He created an organisation to represent chess players, the [[GrandMaster's Association]] (GMA) to give players more of a say i |
n separate frequencies.
As the CDMA phone roams through the network, it detects the PN offsets of the neighbouring cells and reports the strength of each signal back to the reference cell of the call (usually the strongest cell). If the signal from a neighbouring cell is strong enough, the mobile will be directed to "add a leg" to its call and start transmitting and receiving to and from the new cell in addition to the cell (or cells) already hosting the call. Likewise, if a cell's signal becomes too weak the mobile is directed to drop that leg. In this way, the mobile can move from cell to cell and add and drop legs as necessary in order to keep the call up without ever dropping the link.
In practice there are frequency boundaries, often between different carriers or sub-networks. In this situation, the CDMA phone behaves in the same way as TDMA or analog and performs a hard handoff in which it breaks the existing connection and tries to pick up on the new frequency where it left off.
==CDMA features==
* Narrowband message signal multiplied by wideband spreading signal or [[pseudorandom noise|pseudonoise code]]
* Each user has his own pseudonoise (PN) code
* Soft capacity limit: system performance degrades for all users as number of users increases
* Cell frequency reuse: no frequency planning needed
* Soft [[handoff]] increases capacity
* [[Near-far problem]]
* Interference limited: power control is required
* Wide bandwidth induces diversity: [[rake receiver]] is used
* It would take all the computers ever made as much time as humans have been on earth to crack or decode a single second of CDMA conversation{{fact}}
==See also==
* [[Near-far problem]]
* [[CDMA2000]]
* [[GSM]]
* [[Frequency-division multiplexing]]
* [[Time-division multiple access]]
==External links==
* [http://www.3gpp2.org/ The Third Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2)]
* [http://www.3gpp.org/ The Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) ]
* [http://www.cdg.org/ CDMA Development Group (CDG)]
* [http://www.freewebs.com/telecomm/cdma.html Links to CDMA Whitepapers/Tutorials (CDG)]
* [http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/ Radio-Electronics.Com]
* [http://www.cdmatech.com/ Qualcomm CDMA Technologies (QCT)]
* [http://www.mobileafrica.net/cdma.php CDMA in Africa ]
* [http://www.cdg.org/ CDMA Development Group]
* [[PN Sequences]]
* [http://www.vias.org/simulations/simusoft_dscdma.html Learning by Simulations] Direct Sequence CDMA Simulation
==Further reading==
* Andrew J. Viterbi. (1995) ''CDMA : Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication'' (1st edition) Prentice Hall PTR ISBN 0201633744
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</page>
<page>
<title>Censorware</title>
<id>7144</id>
<revision>
<id>39974532</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T05:09:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.110.197.196</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Issues */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Screenshot-whitehouse_com.png|thumb|right|200px||[[DansGuardian]] censoring Whitehouse.com]]
'''Censorware''' is a term for content-filtering [[Computer software|software]], especially when it is used to filter content delivered over the [[World Wide Web|Web]]. Censorware determines what content will be available on a particular machine or network; the motive is often to protect children. [[pornography|Pornography]], [[gambling]], [[alternative lifestyles]], [[sexuality]], and religious web sites may be filtered. Censorware can also be used to block Internet access entirely.
==Issues==
The term "censorware" is valuative; companies usually do not refer to their software as "censorware," preferring terms such as '''internet filter''' or '''internet nanny'''. Filters can be implemented in many different ways: by a software program on a personal computer or by servers providing internet access. Choosing an [[internet service provider]] (ISP) that blocks objectionable material before it enters the home over software run on their own computer can help parents who worry about their children viewing objectionable content.
Those who believe censorware is useful may still not agree with certain ways it is used, or with mandatory general regulation of information. For example, many would disapprove of filtering viewpoints on moral or political issues, agreeing that this could become support for [[propaganda]]. Many would also find it unacceptable that an ISP, whether by law or by the ISP's own choice, should deploy such software without allowing the users to disable the filtering for their own connections. In addition, some argue that using censorware may violate sections 13 and 17 of the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]].
== History ==
As the World Wide Web rose to prominence, parents, led by a series of sensational stories in the mass media, began to worry that allowing their children to use the Web might expose them to indecent material. The US Congress responded by passing the [[Communications Decency Act]], banning indeceny on the Internet. Civil liberties groups challenged the law under the [[First Amendment]] and the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled in their favor. Part of the civil liberties argument, especially from groups like the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]], was that parents who wanted to block sites could use their own content-filtering software, making government involvement unnecessary.
Critics then argued that while content-filtering software might make government [[censorship]] less likely, it would do so only by allowing unaccountable private companies to censor as they pleased. They further argued that government encouragement of content filtering, or legal requirements for content-labeling software, would be equivalent to censorship. Groups such as [[The Censorware Project]] began reverse-engineering the censorware software and decrypting the blacklists to determine what kind of sites the software blocked. They discovered that such tools routinely blocked unobjectionable sites while also failing to block intended targets. An example of this tendency was the filtering of all sites containing the word "[[breast]]", on the assumption that this word could only be mentioned in a sexual context. This approach had the consequence of blocking sites that discuss [[breast cancer]], women's clothing, and even chicken recipes. Similarly, over-zealous attempts to block the word "sex" would block words such as "[[Essex]]" and "[[Sussex]]".
Some censorware companies responded by claiming that their filtering criteria were backed by intensive manual checking. The companies' opponents argued, on the other hand, that performing the necessary checking would require resources greater than the companies possessed and that therefore their claims were not valid.
== Use in public libraries ==
Censorware such as [[SonicWALL]] is used in many public libraries in the United States to block content classed as objectionable because of pornography or advocacy of violence. Some libraries that employ censorware allow the software to be deactivated on a case-by-case basis on application to a librarian.
Many legal scholars believe that a number of legal cases [http://www.spectacle.org/cs/library.bak], in particular ''Reno v. ACLU'' [http://www2.epic.org/cda/cda_decision.html], establish that the use of censorware in libraries is a violation of the First Amendment. The [[American Library Association]] has taken a stance opposing internet filtering.
== Bypassing filters ==
Some software may be bypassed successfully by using alternative protocols such as [[ftp]], conducting searches in a different language, or using a [[Proxy_server|proxy server]].
Some of the more poorly-designed filters can be shut down by killing their processes; for example, in Microsoft Windows through the Windows Task Manager, or in Mac OS X using Activity Monitor.
==Content-filtering software products==
As described above, many censorware products as well as the concept of censorware in general, especially in government-funded services or those not age-restricted, can be controversial. Many ISPs offer parental control options, among them [[Earthlink]], [[Yahoo!]], and [[AOL]]; and more general software such as [[Norton Internet Security]] includes "parental controls". The upcoming [[Windows Vista]] operating system may also include "parental controls." See the [[:Category:Censorware|Censorware category]] for a number of articles on censorware products.
==See also==
* [[Internet pornography]]
* [[Censorship in cyberspace]]
* [[Censorship]]
* [[Image retrieval]]
* [[Geolocation]]
* [[Geolocation software]]
* [[Computer surveillance]]
==External links==
* http://censorware.net Censorware Project: Exposing the secrets of censorware since 1997
* http://www.peacefire.org/ Open Access for the Net Generation
* [http://sethf.com/anticensorware/ Seth Finkelstein's Anticensorware Investigation]
* [http://censorware.net/reports/liza.html Protecting Judges against Liza Minelli]
* [http://www.peacefire.org/bypass/ Bypassing Censorware]
===Opinions for and against censorware===
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Science_and_Technology/Computers/Internet/Content_Filtering/Pro/ DMoz category: Pro-censorware opinions]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Science_and_Technology/Computers/Internet/Content_Filtering/Con/ DMoz category: Anti-censorware opinions]
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<page>
<title>Chambered cairn</title>
<id>7145</id>
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<id>39518339</ |
Columbia Liberal Party]] under [[Gordon Campbell]], widely perceived as conservative along the lines of the [[Ralph Klein|Klein]] or [[Mike Harris|Harris]] governments, although Campbell claims to be a centrist. While many Liberal backbenchers and one or two cabinet ministers are, in fact, liberal, the party behaves as a rightist party and makes no secret of their ties to conservative economic policies and conservative governments in other jurisdictions. For a decade before the Campbell government took power, B.C. was governed by the [[social democratic]] [[New Democratic Party of British Columbia|New Democratic Party]] (NDP). Before that, the government was led by the [[right-wing]] [[British Columbia Social Credit Party|Social Credit Party]] from [[1975]] to [[1991]]. However, due to the increasing unpopularity of leader [[Bill Vander Zalm]] and mounting scandals, the party was roundly defeated at the polls and collapsed in 1991. From [[1972]] to [[1975]] an NDP government led by [[Dave Barrett]] held power but was defeated after a showdown with organized labour. Its predecessor was the original Social Credit regime of [[W.A.C. Bennett]], a populist who espoused conservative policies but frequently resorted to state intervention and nationalization of key infrastructure.
Prior to [[1903]] there were no [[political parties]] in British Columbia, other than at the federal level. Sir [[Richard McBride]] was the first [[British Columbia Premier|Premier]] to declare a party affiliation ([[Conservative Party of Canada]]) and institute conventional party/caucus politics.
===Recall and Initiative===
British Columbia is the only province in Canada with [[recall election]] and initiative legislation.
Only one recall petition was ever deemed to have had any success, compelling MLA [[Paul Reitsma]] to resign his seat hours before he would have been removed from office.
===Electoral Reform===
A [[Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform (British Columbia)|Citizens' Assembly]] in [[2004]] recommended replacing the [[First Past the Post]] system with a [[Single Transferable Vote]] system to be implemented in [[2009]], and a [[referendum]] was held on [[May 17]], [[2005]] to determine if this change should go ahead. The proposal received majority support (58% of the [[popular vote]]), but the government had required 60% to make the proposal binding on them. A second requirement was a [[simple majority]] in 60% of the current ridings and 77 of the 79 ridings achieved this, far more than the 48 minimum. The close result has provoked further interest in [[electoral reform]]. As a result of this, the Provincial Government has promised a second referendum on the issue to be held in November 2008.
{{seealso|List of British Columbia general elections}}
==Parks and Protected Areas==
There are 14 designations of parks and protected areas in the province that reflects the different administration and creation of these areas in a modern context. There are 141 ecological Reserves, 35 provincial marine parks, 7 Provincial Heritage Sites, 6 National Historic Sites, 4 National Parks and 3 National Park Reserves. 12.5% (114,000 km&sup2;) of BC is currently considered 'protected' under one of the 14 different designations that includes over 800 distinct areas.
British Columbia contains seven of [[Canadian National Parks|Canada's national parks]]:
*[[Glacier National Park (Canada)|Glacier National Park]]
*[[Gulf Islands National Park Reserve]]
*[[Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site]]
*[[Kootenay National Park]]
*[[Mount Revelstoke National Park]]
*[[Pacific Rim National Park Reserve]]
*[[Yoho National Park]]
BC also contains a large network of provincial parks, run by [http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/ BC Parks] of the Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection.
==Recreation==
Given its varied mountainous terrain and its coasts, lakes, rivers, and forests, British Columbia has long been enjoyed for pursuits like hiking and camping, rock climbing and mountaineering, hunting and fishing.
Much of the province is wild or semi-wild, so that populations of very many mammalian species that have become rare in much of the United States still flourish in B.C. Watching animals of various sorts, including a very wide range of [[bird]]s, has also long been popular. [[Bear]]s ([[grizzly bear|grizzly]] and [[black bear|black]]) live here, as do [[deer]], [[Red Deer|elk]], [[moose]], [[caribou]], big-horn [[sheep]], [[mountain goat]]s, [[beaver]]s, [[muskrat]], [[coyote]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[mountain lion]]s, [[eagle]]s, [[osprey]]s, [[heron]]s, Canada [[geese]], [[swan]]s, [[loon]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[owl]]s, [[ravens]], and many sorts of ducks. Smaller birds ([[robin]]s, [[jay]]s, [[grosbeak]]s, [[chickadee]]s, etc.) also abound.
Healthy populations of many sorts of [[fish]]es are found in the waters (including, of course, salmonids such as several species of [[salmon]], [[trout]], [[char]], etc.). Besides salmon and trout, sport-fishers in B.C. also catch [[halibut]], [[steelhead]], [[bass (fish)|bass]], and [[sturgeon]].
Water sports, both motorized and non-motorized, are enjoyed in many places. Sea [[kayak]]ing opportunities abound on the B.C. coast with its [[fjords]]. [[Whitewater rafting]] and kayaking are popular on many inland rivers. [[Sailing]] and [[sailboarding]] are widely enjoyed.
In winter, cross-country and telemark skiing are much enjoyed, and in recent decades high-quality downhill skiing has been developed in the Coast Mountain range and the Rockies, as well as in the southern areas of the Shuswap Highlands and the Columbia Mountains. Snowboarding has mushroomed in popularity since the early 1990s. The [[2010 Winter Olympics]] downhill events will be held in [[Whistler-Blackcomb]] area of the province, while the indoor events will be in the [[Vancouver]] area.
In Vancouver and Victoria (as well as some other cities), opportunities for joggers and bicyclists have been developed. Cross-country bike touring has been popular since the ten-speed bike became available many years ago. Since the advent of more robust mountain bikes, trails in more rugged and wild places have been developed for them. Some of the province's retired rail beds have been converted and maintained for hiking, biking, and cross-country skiing.
[[Horseback riding]] is enjoyed by many British Columbians. Opportunities for [[trail riding]], often into especially scenic areas, have been established for tourists in numerous areas of the province.
Of course, British Columbians have not failed to enjoy all the traditional sports, like [[golf]], [[tennis]], [[soccer]], [[ice hockey|hockey]], [[rugby union|rugby]], [[softball]], [[basketball]], [[curling]], [[figure skating]], and so on. B.C. has produced many outstanding athletes, especially in aquatic and winter sports. Also, today programs of training and toning systems like [[aerobics]] and [[hatha yoga]] are widespread. Most communities of several thousand people or more have developed facilities for these (as, in some cases, have communities of even a few hundred).
Consistent with both increased [[tourism]] and increased participation in diverse recreations by British Columbians themselves has been the proliferation of [[lodge]]s, [[chalet]]s, [[bed and breakfast|bed and breakfasts]], [[motel]]s, [[hotel]]s, fishing camps, and park-camping facilities in recent decades.
In certain areas, there are businesses, non-profit societies, or municipal governments dedicated to promoting [[ecotourism]] in their region.
===Recreational Cannabis===
In recent years there has also been a rise of '[[marijuana]] culture' in many parts of BC, to the extent that the production and sale of the drug is now estimated by the provincial Organized Crime Agency to be among the province's largest industries[http://www.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Law/Marijuana/2003/04/30/76393.html]. In Vancouver there are several open-to-the-public "[[brown cafe]]"-style coffee houses where people can meet and openly smoke marijuana. Though police may tend to turn a blind eye to pot use in some urban areas, the drug remains illegal throughout the province, and controlling its spread remains an ongoing and much-debated legal issue in the province. Issues such as the rise of marijuana "grow ops" in sburban communities and their related ties to [[organized crime]] continue to be a concern, though there is also a large and vocal pro-legalization lobby. Nevertheless, the quality, assortment and price of marijuana in BC sometimes makes it a destination for those taking an interest in [[cannabis]].
==Famous British Columbians==
*[[Bryan Adams]], musician
*[[Pamela Anderson]], actress
*[[Gil Bellows]], actor
*[[Earle Birney]], poet
*[[Michael Bublé]], singer
*[[Raymond Burr]], actor
*[[Kim Campbell]], politician
*[[Yvonne de Carlo]], actress
*[[Kim Cattrall]], actress
*[[Hayden Christensen]], actor
*[[James Doohan]], actor
*[[Peter Dyakowski]], athlete
*[[Atom Egoyan]], screenwriter/director
*[[Arthur Erickson]], architect
*[[Judith Forst]], opera singer (contralto)
*[[David Foster]], musician
*[[Matthew Good]], musician
*[[Michael J. Fox]], actor and Parkinson's activist
*[[Terry Fox]], athlete
*[[Don Francks]], actor
*[[Nelly Furtado]], singer/songwriter
*[[Nancy Greene]]-Raine, Olympic medalist (skiing)
*[[Rick Hansen]], former [[Paralympics|Paralympian]] and [[disability]] activist
*[[Doug Hepburn]], Empire Games medalist and founder of the sport of powerlifting
*[[Ben Heppner]], opera singer (tenor)
*[[Joshua Jackson]], actor
*[[Paul Kariya]], hockey player
*[[Joe Keithley]], punk singer/songwriter
*[[Gene Kiniski]], professional wrestler
*[[Diana Krall]], musician
*[[Kristin Kreuk]], actress
*[[Silken Laumann]], Olympic medalist (rower)
*[[Malcolm Lowry]], novelist
*[[Sarah McLachlan]], musician
*[[Leon Mandrake]], magician ("Mandrake the Magician")
*[[Greg Moore (race car driver)|G |
ry or harmony of appearance, and favoured an aggressive look. The main battleship nations during this period were the United Kingdom, France and Russia, plus newcomers Germany, [[Austria-Hungary]] and Italy, while Turkey and Spain built small numbers of armoured [[frigate]]s and [[cruiser]]s, and Sweden, Denmark, Norway and the Netherlands built smaller "coastal battleships" ([[Panzership|"Pantserschip" or "Panzership" depending on the language]]) of up to 5,000 tons. Some navies experimented with "second class battleships," vessels which were designed to be less expensive than full battleships but also at the cost of power; these were not, however, particularly popular, especially in navies of nations with global ambitions. The United States experimented with four such ships, including the first two American battleships, [[USS Maine (ACR-1)|''Maine'']] and [[USS Texas (1895)|''Texas'']].
[[Image:JBMikasa.jpg|thumb|300px|Pre-''Dreadnought'' battleship [[Japanese battleship Mikasa|''Mikasa'']], flagship of the Japanese fleet at the [[Battle of Tsushima]], in [[1905]].]]
The first warships resembling modern battleships were built in the United Kingdom around 1870 with the [[Devastation class battleship|''Devastation'' class]] of low-freeboard [[turret ship]]s, a few years after the first battle between [[ironclad]] warships (the [[USS Monitor|USS ''Monitor'']] and [[CSS Virginia|CSS ''Virginia'']] at [[Hampton Roads]], [[Virginia]]). However, it was not until around 1880 that battleship design became stable enough for larger classes to be built to a single design. Later in the period battleship displacement grew rapidly as more powerful engines and more armour and minor guns were added. Many experimental ships were built, but all navies finally converged on a design known after-the-fact as [[Pre-dreadnought]]s, which were battleships built in the period 1890&ndash;1905 and usually having a displacement of 9,000&ndash;16,000 tons, a speed of 13&ndash;18 [[knot (speed)|knot]]s, and an armament of four "big guns", usually 12" (305mm) in bore diameter, in two centreline turrets, fore and aft, plus a heavy intermediate battery of typically eight 8" guns carried in double turrets on the superstructure corners, and a secondary battery of smaller guns. The 12" mains and 8" intermediates were generally used for battleship to battleship combat, while the secondaries (typically 7" to 5") were reserved for smaller threats, [[cruiser]]s and the new [[destroyer]]s. A small number of designs, including the American [[Kearsarge class battleship|''Kearsarge'']] and [[Virginia class battleship|''Virginia'']] classes, experimented with all or part of the 8" intermediate battery superimposed over the 12" primary, with less than stellar results (nearly universally, recoil factors resulted in the 8" battery being completely unusable). Turrets, armour plate, and steam engines were all improved over the years, and [[torpedo]] tubes were introduced. However, events in 1906 sparked off another naval arms race.
==="All-big-guns"===
In [[1905]] the [[Russia]]n Navy was decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Tsushima]] by the modern [[Japan]]ese Navy, which was equipped with the latest battleships. The events of the battle revealed to the world that only the biggest guns mattered in modern naval battles. As secondary guns grew in size, spotting gun splashes (and aiming) between main and secondary guns became problematic. The Battle of Tsushima demonstrates that damage from the main guns was much greater than secondary guns. In addition, the battle demonstrated the practicability of gun battles beyond the range of secondary guns (12,000 yards).
[[Image:IJN Satsuma.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Imperial Japanese Navy|IJN]]'s [[Japanese battleship Satsuma|''Satsuma'']], the first ship to be designed and laid down as an "all-big-gun" battleship]]
The United States, Japan, and the United Kingdom all realized this and launched plans for all-big-gun ships. The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'s ''[[Japanese battleship Satsuma|Satsuma]]'' was the first battleship in the world to be designed and laid down as an all-big-gun battleship, although gun shortages only allowed her to be equipped with four of the twelve 12-in guns that had been planned.
The United Kingdom, led by the efforts of the [[First Sea Lord]] (head of the [[Admiralty]]), [[John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher|Jackie Fisher]], took the lead and completed [[HMS Dreadnought (1906)|''Dreadnought'']] in only 11 months. ''Dreadnought'' carried ten 12-inch guns in 5 turrets, and was powered not by reciprocating engines, but by revolutionary (for large ships) [[steam turbines]]. Previous ships powered by reciprocating steam engines were, in practice, limited by engine vibration to 18 knots. Even at that speed vibration limited aiming ability and the engines wore out quickly. ''Dreadnought'' had a top speed of 21 knots. It was the first of the new breed of "all-big-gun" battleships. Major naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts to avoid being overtaken by the United Kingdom. The Royal Navy, labouring under the expectation that it should be able to match any two of its competitors combined, began demanding increasingly unaffordable sums from the government for dreadnought construction. The government, already burdened with financial crises caused by the [[Second Boer War]] and a voting population demanding more government expenditure on welfare and public works, could not afford to squander precious money on even more dreadnoughts, allowing rival navies (particularly the [[Kaiserliche Marine]]) to catch up with the United Kingdom's battleship forces. Even after ''Dreadnought'''s commission, battleships continued to grow in size, guns, and technical proficiency as countries vied to have the best ships. By [[1914]] ''Dreadnought'' was outmoded. This expensive arms race would not end until the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] of [[1922]]. This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess.
==The Dreadnought era==
[[Image:HMS_Dreadnought_1906_H63367.jpg|thumb|right|300 px|HMS ''Dreadnought'']]
With advances in [[gun laying]] and aiming, engagement ranges had increased from 1000 yards or less to 6000 yards or more over the previous few years, in part as a consequence of the devastating, but short-ranged firepower of the recently invented [[torpedo]]. This had caused a move away from mixed calibre armament, as each calibre required a different aiming calibration, something which unnecessarily complicated gunnery techniques. At longer ranges, the higher maximum rate of fire of the smaller calibres was negated by the need to wait for shell splashes before firing the next salvo and the determination of those from the other calibres. This negated the advantage of small-calibre guns; heavier weapons were effectively as fast and packed a much greater punch.
The French navy solved the problem of identifying the results of individual ships in a clever way; each ship added color to its shells.{{fact}} Other nations adopted this measure as well.
Partially as a consequence of this new philosophy, and partially as a consequence of its powerful new turbine engine, ''Dreadnought'' dispensed completely with the smaller calibre secondary armament carried by her immediate predecessors, allowing her to carry more heavy calibre guns than any other battleship built up to that time. She carried ten 12-inch guns mounted in five turrets; three along the centreline (one forward and two aft) and two on the wings, giving her twice the broadside of anything else afloat. The first large warship equipped with [[steam turbine]]s, she could make 21 [[knot (speed)|knots]] in a calm sea, allowing her to outrun existing battleships (with a typical speed of 18 kts). Her armour was strong enough that she could conceivably go head-to-head with any other ship afloat in a gun battle and win.
Although there were some problems with the ship &mdash; the design's [[wing turrets]] strained the hull when firing broadsides, and the top of the thickest armour belt lay below the waterline when the ship was fully loaded &mdash; ''Dreadnought'' was so revolutionary that battleships built before her were afterward known as "pre-Dreadnoughts", and those following as "Dreadnoughts". Vessels built within a few years that were bigger and mounted more powerful guns were referred to as "Superdreadnoughts". In a stroke, ''Dreadnought'' had made all existing battleships obsolete; including those of the Royal Navy, which embarked on a programme of building ever-more-powerful Dreadnought designs.
National pride in the early 20th Century was largely based on how many of these ships a navy had, and details were published in the newspapers for the public to avidly follow; the naval arms race which ''Dreadnought'' sparked, especially between the United Kingdom and the young German empire, was to create powerful shockwaves. Whereas Germany before the commissioning of ''Dreadnought'' had been behind the British Empire by more than twenty battleships of the highest class, they were now behind by only one.
''Dreadnought'' was powered with steam turbines, which enabled her to sustain a higher maximum speed for longer, and with less maintenance than her [[triple-expansion engine]] powered predecessors. Being more compact, the turbines also allowed for a lower hull, which had the side-effect of reducing the amount of armour the ship had to carry. Although turbines had been used in [[destroyer]]s for some years previously, ''Dreadnought'' was the first large warship to use them. As a consequence of the turbines, ''Dreadnought'' was actually slightly cheaper than the previous [[Lord Nelson class battleship|''Lord Nelson'' class]] of p |
ecent [[TV Games]] series of old Atari games have included either the 2600 or arcade versions of ''Asteroids''. Atari has also used the game for its other late '90s anthology series. Essentially, if one looks for this game, one will be able to find it somewhere.
In 2005, ''Asteroids'' (Including both [[Atari 2600]] and the arcade original, along with [[Asteroids Deluxe]]) were included as part of ''[[Atari Anthology]]'' for both [[XBox]] and [[Playstation 2]], using Digital Eclipse's emulation technology..
===Unofficial clones and variants===
[[Image:NovaBombs.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Avenger class fighter unleashes nova bombs in Starscape.]]
There have been countless unofficial versions of ''Asteroids'' produced. These include near-copies such as [[Acornsoft|Acornsoft's]] ''[[Meteors (game)|Meteors]]'', as well as those with expanded gameplay and background, such as ''[[Stardust (game)|Stardust]]'' and ''[[Starscape]]''.
==Record breaking gameplay==
In March 2004, [[Portland, Oregon]] resident '''Bill Carlton''' attempted to break the world record for playing an arcade version of ''Asteroids'', playing over 27 hours before his machine malfunctioned, ending his record run. He scored 12.7 million points, putting him in 5th place in the all-time ''Asteroids'' rankings. In November 1982 '''Scott Safran''' set the still unbroken record of 41 million points.
==Song==
In 1982, [[Buckner and Garcia]] recorded a song titled "Hyperspace", using sound effects from the game, and released it on the album ''[[Pac-Man Fever (album)|Pac-Man Fever]]''.
==External links==
*[http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?letter=A&game_id=6939 The Killer List of Video Games entry on ''Asteroids'']
*[http://www.ataritimes.com/features/asteroids.html Atari Times: All About ''Asteroids'']
*{{moby game|id=/asteroids|name=''Asteroids''}}
*[http://forums.krazyletter.com/index.php?act=Arcade&do=play&gameid=1 ''Asteroids'' - Flash Version]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play2sta2.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], featuring a history of Asteroids
*[http://www.edepot.com/game.html ''Asteroids'' written for Sony PSP]
*[http://www.moonpod.com/starscape ''Starscape'' ] Asteroids game for PC with heavily advanced gameplay.
[[Category: 1979 computer and video games]]
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[[it:Asteroids]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asparagales</title>
<id>786</id>
<revision>
<id>40166879</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T17:57:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Berton</username>
<id>549980</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>italics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Asparagales
| image = Illustration Asparagus officinalis0.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Asparagus officinalis]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Asparagales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Edward French Bromhead|Bromhead]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
<small>''according to the <br />[[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]''</small><hr>
*[[Agapanthaceae]]
*[[Agavaceae]]
*[[Alliaceae]]
*[[Amaryllidaceae]]
*[[Aphyllanthaceae]]
*[[Asparagaceae]]
*[[Asphodelaceae]]-
<small>(optional synonym of Xanthorrhoeaceae)</small>
*[[Asteliaceae]]
*[[Blandfordiaceae]]
*[[Boryaceae]]
*[[Doryanthaceae]]
*[[Hemerocallidaceae]]
*[[Hyacinthaceae]]
*[[Hypoxidaceae]]
*[[Iridaceae]]
*[[Ixioliriaceae]]
*[[Lanariaceae]]
*[[Laxmanniaceae]]
*[[Orchidaceae]]
*[[Ruscaceae]]
*[[Tecophilaeaceae]]
*[[Themidaceae]]
*[[Xanthorrhoeaceae]]
}}
'''Asparagales''' is an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[monocot]]s which includes a number of families of non-woody plants. In older classification systems, the families now included in the Asparagales were included in order [[Liliales]], and some genera of which were even included in family [[Liliaceae]]. Some classification systems separate some of the families listed below into additional orders, including orders [[Orchidales]] and [[Iridales]], while other systems, especially the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]'s classification system, include the Orchidales and Iridales within the Asparagales. The order is named after the genus ''[[Asparagus (genus)|Asparagus]]''.
The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group's classification system is widely used by botanists, and was updated as the APG II in 2002 to include recent findings, especially in [[DNA]] analysis. Their 1998 scheme identified 29 families in order Asparagales. The APG II consolidates some families, and recognizes an alternative system of fewer, larger families, in which certain smaller families can be grouped within other larger families based on close genetic affinities and still follow the 'APG system'. Under the new classification system one could, for example, correctly include daylilies (''[[Hemerocallis]]'') in family [[Hemerocallidaceae]], or in family [[Xanthorrhoeaceae]]. The APG II classification of the Asparagales is as follows:
*[[Alliaceae]]
**[[Agapanthaceae]]
**[[Amaryllidaceae]]
*[[Asparagaceae]]
**[[Agavaceae]]
**[[Aphyllanthaceae]]
**[[Hesperocallidaceae]]
**[[Hyacinthaceae]]
**[[Laxmanniaceae]]
**[[Ruscaceae]]
**[[Themidaceae]]
*[[Asteliaceae]]
*[[Blandfordiaceae]]
*[[Boryaceae]]
*[[Doryanthaceae]]
*[[Hypoxidaceae]]
*[[Iridaceae]]
*[[Ixioliriaceae]]
*[[Lanariaceae]]
*[[Orchidaceae]]
*[[Tecophilaeaceae]]
*[[Xanthorrhoeaceae]]
**[[Asphodelaceae]]
**[[Hemerocallidaceae]]
Classification systems that separate the Asparagales, Orchidales and Iridales are generally organized as follows:
* Asparagales, narrow sense
** Family [[Asparagaceae]] ([[asparagus]] family)
** Family [[Alliaceae]] (onion family)
*** [[Chives]]
*** [[Garlic]]
*** [[Onion]]
** Family [[Agavaceae]] (agave family)
*** [[Agave]]
*** [[Yucca]]
** Family [[Amaryllidaceae]] ([[amaryllis]] family)
** Family [[Asphodelaceae]] (asphodel family)
*** [[Aloe]]
*** [[Asphodel]]
** Family [[Hyacinthaceae]] (hyacinth family)
*** [[Hyacinthoides|Bluebell]]
*** [[Hyacinth (flower)|Hyacinth]]
** ''Cetera''
* [[Orchidales]]
** Family [[Geosiridaceae]]
** Family [[Burmanniaceae]]
** Family [[Corsiaceae]]
** Family [[Orchidaceae]] (orchid family)
* [[Iridales]]
** Family [[Iridaceae]] (Iris family)
==Asparagales ''sensu'' Kubitzki (1998)==
*[[Orchidaceae]]
*[[Iridaceae]]
*[[Doryanthaceae]]
*[[Lanariaceae]]
*[[Ixioliriaceae]]
*[[Hypoxidaceae]]
*[[Johnsoniaceae]]
*[[Hemerocallidaceae]]
*[[Tecophilaeaceae]]
*[[Blandfordiaceae]]
*[[Asteliaceae]]
*[[Boryaceae]]
*[[Asphodelaceae]]
*[[Xanthorrhoeaceae]]
*[[Aphyllanthaceae]]
*[[Anemarrhenaceae]]
*[[Amaryllidaceae]]
*[[Agapanthaceae]]
*[[Alliaceae]]
*[[Themidaceae]]
*[[Asparagaceae]]
*[[Hyacinthaceae]]
*[[Lomandraceae]]
*[[Herreriaceae]]
*[[Hostaceae]]
*[[Anthericaceae]]
*[[Agavaceae]]
*[[Eriospermaceae]]
*[[Ruscaceae]]
*[[Behniaceae]]
*[[Dracaenaceae]]
*[[Convallariaceae]]
*[[Nolinaceae]]
==Reference==
*Kubitzki, K.:Conspectus of Families treated in this Volume (1998).Kubitzki, K.(Editor): ''The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants'', Vol.3. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Germany. ISBN 3-540-64060-6
==External links==
[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm Asparagales] in [http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb Angiosperm Phylogeny Website]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alismatales</title>
<id>787</id>
<revision>
<id>41221508</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T21:58:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.224.239.235</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Alismatids
| image = Lemna trisulca0.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Ivy Duckweed (''Lemna trisulca'')
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Alismatales''' <small>Dumort. ([[1829]])</small>
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
[[Alismataceae]]<br/>
[[Aponogetonaceae]]<br/>
[[Araceae]]<br/>
[[Butomaceae]]<br/>
[[Cymodoceaceae]]<br/>
[[Hydrocharitaceae]]<br/>
[[Juncaginaceae]]<br/>
[[Limnocharitaceae]]<br/>
[[Posidoniaceae]]<br/>
[[Potamogetonaceae]]<br/>
[[Ruppiaceae]]<br/>
[[Scheuchzeriaceae]]<br/>
[[Tofieldiaceae]]<br/>
[[Zosteraceae]]
}}
The order '''Alismatales''' contains the alismatids, a group of [[monocotyledon]]s (class [[Liliopsida]]). The order contains about 165 genera in 14 families, with cosmopolitic distribution. Most families are comprised of [[herb]]aceous non-[[succulent]] plants. These plants are commonly found in aquatic environmments. The [[flower]]s are usually arranged in [[inflorescence]]s, and the mature seeds lack [[endosperm]].
Traditionally, the order Alismatales was restricted to contain just three families (Alismataceae, Butomaceae and Limnocharitaceae). The other families were not considered as alismatids, and were assigned to various distinct orders, but this approach produced [[polyphyletic]] groups, and so the whol |
h]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]), and Wes Craven's supernatural slasher ''[[A Nightmare on Elm Street]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]]) were the popular face of horror films in the 1980s, a trend reviled by most critics.
Nevertheless, original horror films continued to appear sporadically: [[Clive Barker]]'s ''[[Hellraiser]]'' ([[1987 in film|1987]]) and [[Tom Holland]]'s ''[[Child's Play]]'' ([[1988 in film|1988]]) were both critically praised, although their success again launched multiple inferior sequels.
As the cinema [[box office]] returns for serious, gory modern horror began to dwindle (as exemplified by John Carpenter's ''[[The Thing]]'' (1982)), it began to find a new audience in the growing [[home video]] market, although the new generation of films was less sombre in tone. ''[[Motel Hell]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]) and [[Frank Henenlotter]]'s ''[[Basket Case (film)|Basket Case]]'' (1982) were the first 1980s films to campily mock the dark conventions of the previous decade (zombie films like ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]'' and ''[[Dawn of the Dead]]'' had contained [[black comedy]] and [[satire]], but were in general more dark than funny). [[Stuart Gordon]]'s ''[[Re-Animator]]'', [[Dan O'Bannon]]'s ''[[The Return of the Living Dead]]'', and [[Lloyd Kaufman]]'s ''[[The Toxic Avenger]]'' (all [[1985 in film|1985]]), soon followed. In ''[[Evil Dead II]]'' (1987), [[Sam Raimi]]'s explicitly [[slapstick]] sequel to the relatively sober ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' ([[1981 in film|1981]]), the laughs were often generated by the gore, defining the archetypal [[splatter film|splatter]] comedy. New Zealand director [[Peter Jackson]] followed in Raimi's footsteps with the ultra-gory micro-budget feature ''[[Bad Taste]]'' (1987).
Horror films continued to cause controversy: in the UK, the growth in home video led to growing public awareness of horror films of the types described above, and concern about the ease of availability of such material to children. Many films were dubbed "[[video nasties]]" and banned. In the USA, ''[[Silent Night, Deadly Night]]'', a very controversial film from [[1984 in film|1984]], failed at theatres and was eventually withdrawn from distribution due to its subject matter: a killer [[Santa Claus]].
=== 1990s ===
[[Image:Blair witch project ver3.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Poster art for ''[[The Blair Witch Project]]'' (1999)]]
In the first half of the [[1990s]], the genre continued with themes from the 1980s. It managed mild commercial success with films such as continuing sequels to the ''[[Child's Play]]'' and ''[[Leprechaun (film)|Leprechaun]]'' series. The [[Cinema of Canada|Canadian film]] ''[[Cube (film)|Cube]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]]) was perhaps one of the few horror films of the 1990s to be based around a relatively novel concept; it was able to evoke a wide range of different fears, and touched upon a variety of social themes (such as fear of [[bureaucracy]]) that had previously been unexplored.
However, the adolescent audience which had feasted on the blood and morbidity of the previous two decades had by now grown up, and the replacement audience for films of an imaginative nature were being captured instead by the explosion of [[science fiction film|science-fiction]] and heroic fantasy films laden with [[computer-generated imagery]] and nonstop violent action. [http://www.mediaknowall.com/Horror/eighties.html]
To re-connect with its audience, horror became more self-mockingly [[irony|ironic]] and outright [[parody|parodic]], especially in the latter half of the 1990s. Peter Jackson's ''[[Braindead (1992 film)|Braindead]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]) (known as ''Dead-Alive'' in the USA) took the [[splatter film]] to ridiculous excesses for comic effect. [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992), featured an ensemble cast and the style of a different era, harking back to the sumptuous look of [[1960s]] [[Hammer Horror]]. Wes Craven's ''[[Scream (film)|Scream]]'' movies, starting in [[1996 in film|1996]], featured teenagers who were fully aware of, and often made reference to, the history of horror movies, and mixed ironic humour with the shocks. It re-ignited the dormant [[slasher film]] genre.
Among the popular English-language horror films of the late 1990s, only [[1999 in film|1999]]'s surprise independent hit ''[[The Blair Witch Project]]'' attempted straight-ahead scares. But even then, the horror was accomplished in the ironic context of a [[mockumentary]], or mock-documentary. Together with the international success of [[Hideo Nakata]]'s ''[[Ring (film)|Ringu]]'' in [[1997 in film|1997]], it launched a trend in horror films to go "low-key", concentrating on more on unnerving and unsettling themes than on gore. [[M. Night Shyamalan]]'s ''[[The Sixth Sense]]'' (1999) was a spectacularly successful example.
===Millennial horror===
''Ringu'' launched a revival of serious horror filmmaking in [[Cinema of Japan|Japan]] ("[[J-Horror]]") leading to such films as [[Shimizu_Takashi|Takashi Shimizu's]] ''[[Ju-on]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) and [[Kiyoshi Kurosawa]]'s ''[[Pulse (film)|Pulse]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]). Other advances in horror were in [[anime|Japanese animation]] (for example the gruesome '[[guro]]' animation), as [[Culture of Japan|Japanese culture]] reached new heights of popularity in the West (although the first horror-themed anime had begun appearing in the West by the late [[1980s]]).
The plundering of horror film history gained steam, including sequels, [[homage]]s and [[remake]]s of films long established from previous decades. Some notable box office revivals included the merging of two old franchises in ''[[Freddy vs. Jason]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]), the re-imagining of the [[Universal Horror|Universal monsters]] in ''[[Van Helsing]]'' ([[2004 in film|2004]]), the [[Exorcist: The Beginning|prequel to ''The Exorcist'']], as well as further entries in the ''Halloween'' and ''Child's Play'' series. Remakes of previous successes included [[Gore Verbinski]]'s American version of ''Ringu'' (''[[The Ring]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])), and remakes of ''[[Dawn of the Dead (2004 film)|Dawn of the Dead]]'' (2004) and ''[[The Amityville Horror (2005 film)|The Amityville Horror]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]). The [[zombie]] genre enjoyed a revival around the world, fuelled, in part, by the success of the "[[survival horror]]" genre of videogames (themselves inspired by films). Some of these games were also turned into films (for example ''[[Resident Evil]]'' (2002)). [[Rob Zombie]]'s ''[[House of 1000 Corpses]]'' and [[Eli Roth]]'s ''[[Cabin Fever (film)|Cabin Fever]]'' were both homages to the horror films of the late 1970s and early 1980s, with the latter using [[body horror]] as its primary method of scare.
Original horror entries in the [[2000s]] were a mixed bag of teen [[Exploitation film|exploitation]] like the ''[[Final Destination]]'' movies, starting in 2000, and more serious attempts at mainstream horror, notably the further horror-suspense films of M. Night Shyamalan.
There was also a small revival in [[Cinema of the United Kingdom|British]] horror film production, with some of the more successful examples including ''[[28 Days Later]]'' (2002), ''[[Dog Soldiers]]'' (2002), ''[[Shaun of the Dead]]'' (2004) and ''[[The Descent]]'' (2005).
== Other notable items ==
=== Notable directors ===
*[[Dario Argento]]
*[[Tim Burton]]
*[[Clive Barker]]
*[[Mario Bava]]
*[[Tod Browning]]
*[[John Carpenter]]
*[[William Castle]]
*[[Larry Cohen]]
*[[Roger Corman]]
*[[Don Coscarelli]]
*[[Wes Craven]]
*[[David Cronenberg]]
*[[Sean S. Cunningham]] - also producer
*[[Ruggero Deodato]]
*[[Terence Fisher]]
*[[Freddie Francis]]
*[[Jesus Franco]]
*[[Lucio Fulci]]
*[[John Gilling]]
*[[Stuart Gordon]]
*[[Michael Haneke]]
*[[Frank Henenlotter]]
*[[Alfred Hitchcock]]
*[[Tobe Hooper]]
*[[Peter Jackson]]
*[[Kiyoshi Kurosawa]]
*[[Herschell Gordon Lewis]]
*[[David Lynch]]
*[[Takashi Miike]]
*[[F.W. Murnau]]
*[[Hideo Nakata]]
*[[Sam Raimi]]
*[[George A. Romero]]
*[[James Whale]]
*[[Robert Wiene]]
*[[Jacques Tourneur]]
*[[Shinya Tsukamoto]]
*[[Ed Wood]]
=== Notable actors ===
''See also: [[List of scream queens]], [[List of final girls]]''
*[[Ralph Bates]]
*[[Doug Bradley]]
*[[Bruce Campbell]]
*[[John Carradine]]
*[[Lon Chaney, Sr.]]
*[[Lon Chaney, Jr.]]
*[[Jamie Lee Curtis]]
*[[Peter Cushing]]
*[[Robert Englund]]
*[[Michael Gough]]
*[[Lance Henriksen]]
*[[Boris Karloff]]
*[[Udo Kier]]
*[[Christopher Lee]]
*[[Peter Lorre]]
*[[Bela Lugosi]]
*[[Jack Nicholson]]
*[[Anthony Perkins]]
*[[Donald Pleasence]]
*[[Vincent Price]]
*[[Claude Rains]]
*[[Oliver Reed]]
===Notable studios===
*[[American International Pictures]]
*[[Amicus Productions|Amicus]]
*[[Dimension Films]]
*[[Hammer Film Productions]]
*[[New Line Cinema]]
*[[Tigon British Film Productions|Tigon]]
*[[Troma]]
*[[Universal Horror|Universal]]
== Bibliography ==
* ''A Pictorial History of Horror Movies'' (1973) - [[Denis Gifford]]
==See also==
*[[Exploitation film]]
*[[Final Girl]]
*[[List of horror films]]
*[[List of horror film killers]]
== External links ==
{{cleanup-spam}}
*[http://framingbusiness.net/php/2005/americanhorror.php The Decline of American Horror]
*[http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/asianhorror1.jsp GreenCine primer on Hong Kong Horror Comedies]
*[http://www.the7thlevel.com/archives/000250.php The Top 100 Horror Films at The 7th Level]
*[http://www.imdb.com/chart/horror IMDB Entry on Best/Worst "Horror" Titles]
*[http://www.horrorfilmhistory.com Decade-by-decade guide to the horror film genre]
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Horror films|*]]
[[de:Horrorfilm]]
[[es:Cine de terror]]
[[he:סרט אימה]]
[[nl:Horrorfilm]]
[[ja:ホラー映画]]
[[pl:Horror]]
[[ru:Фильм ужасов]]
[[fi:Kauhuelokuva]]
[[sv:Skräckfilm]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hellenic Greece</title>
<id>13452</id>
<revision>
<id>15911 |
Republican Governor [[George Pataki]] named Clinton and the other living former presidents ([[Gerald Ford]], [[Jimmy Carter]], and [[George H. W. Bush]]) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the [[World Trade Center]].
On [[December 8]] [[2004]], Clinton announced that he was the new spokesperson for [[Accoona]], an [[internet]] [[search engine]] company.
===Humanitarian===
====Tsunami in Asia====
There had been reported signs of a friendship growing between Clinton and George W. Bush. After the official unveiling of his White House portrait in June 2004, the Asian Tsunami disaster, Hurricane Katrina, and the [[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004 election]], Clinton and Bush met on occasion, although the nature of the friendship did not appear to be a reconciliation of political opinions.
On [[January 3]] [[2005]], President George W. Bush named Clinton and George H. W. Bush to lead a nationwide campaign to help the victims of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]. On [[February 1]] [[2005]], he was picked by UN Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]] to head the [[United Nations]] [[Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|earthquake and tsunami relief and reconstruction effort]]. Five days later, he and Bush both appeared on the [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] pre-game show on [[Fox Television Network|Fox]] in support of their bipartisan effort to raise money for relief of the disaster through the [[USA Freedom Corps]], an action which Bush described as "transcending politics." Thirteen days later, they both traveled to the affected areas to see how the relief efforts were going.
====Katrina====
On [[August 31]] 2005, following the devastation of the [[Gulf Coast]] by [[Hurricane Katrina]], Clinton again teamed with George H. W. Bush to coordinate private relief donations, in a campaign similar to their earlier one in response to the [[Indian Ocean tsunami]]. Clinton was highly critical of the federal government response to the hurricane, saying that the government "failed" the people affected, and that an investigation into the response was warranted. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/09/05/clinton.katrina/index.html Clinton: Government 'failed' people] - [[CNN]], [[September 5]], [[2005]]</ref>
===2005===
====Pope====
Following the [[death of Pope John Paul II]] on [[April 2]] [[2005]] Clinton stirred up a mini-controversy saying the late pontiff, "may have had a mixed legacy…there will be debates about him. But on balance, he was a man of God, he was a consistent person, he did what he thought was right." Clinton sat with both President George W. Bush and former President George H.W. Bush as the first current or former American heads of state to attend a papal funeral.
====Since====
On [[September 16]] 2005, Clinton appeared on ''[[Larry King Live]]'' to talk about Senator Clinton's political career.
On [[December 9]] 2005, speaking at the [[United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in [[Montreal]], Clinton publicly criticized the Bush Administration about its handling of emissions control.
===2006===
On [[February 7]], [[2006]], Clinton appeared at [[Coretta Scott King]]'s funeral.
Whilst in [[Sydney]] to attend a Global Business Forum, Clinton signed a memorandum of understanding on behalf of his presidential foundation with the Australian government to boost HIV/AIDS programs in the Asia-Pacific region.
==Trivia==
[[Image:Clinton_Buddy_120597.jpg|thumb|125px|right|Buddy]]
* Clinton is 6' 2½" (1.89m) tall.
* Clinton is left-handed (as were Harry Truman and George H.W. Bush).
* Clinton's Secret Service codename is "Eagle."
* Clinton is an amateur saxophonist. (other recent musical presidents include pianists Harry Truman and Richard Nixon)
* Clinton is allergic to dust, mold, pollen, and cat dander, mildly allergic to beef and dairy products. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/health/article-page.html?res=9E0CEFDB1431F934A25755C0A964958260&amp;n=Top%2fNews%2fHealth%2fDiseases%2c%20Conditions%2c%20and%20Health%20Topics%2fAllergies]
* Clinton was a brother of [[Alpha Phi Omega]], a service fraternity and [[Kappa Kappa Psi]], a band service fraternity.
* Clinton is fluent in [[German language|German]]; he studied German in college as his language-of-choice.
* Clinton owned two pets during his presidency: a male chocolate-colored [[Labrador Retriever]] named "[[Buddy (dog)|Buddy]]" and a [[cat]] named "[[Socks (cat)|Socks]]". Socks arrived in 1993 and was the first cat to live in the White House since President Carter's daughter's cat [[Misty Malarky Ying Yang]]. Clinton acquired Buddy as a puppy in 1997 and named him after his late uncle. Buddy and Socks fought frequently at the White House and were kept in separate quarters. Since this would be no longer possible in the Clintons' smaller home in [[Chappaqua, New York]], Socks was given away to Clinton's secretary when he left office. Buddy died after being run over by a car near the Clintons' Chappaqua house in 2002. {{seealso|List of U.S. Presidential pets}}
* [[Centraal Beheer]], a Dutch insurance company famous for its humorous commercials, once had a TV commercial involving Clinton and a [[voodoo doll]]. This commercial was taken down after a few weeks at the request of the White House.
* Clinton reportedly owned a 1970 El Camino at one time. Speaking to a group of GM employees, Clinton joked, "It had astro-turf in the back. You don't want to know why."
* In November of [[1997]] President Clinton made history by being the first sitting President to speak to a [[gay rights]] organization. He gave a speech at a formal dinner hosted by the [[Human Rights Campaign]] [http://www.portal.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml?html=/archive/1997/11/10/wgay10.html].
==Further reading==
* '''Bill Clinton''' ''My Life''. (2004). ISBN 0-37-541457-6. autobiography
* [[Peter Baker]] ''The Breach : Inside the Impeachment and Trial of William Jefferson Clinton'' (2000) ISBN 0-68-486813-X
* [[Sidney Blumenthal]] ''The Clinton Wars''. (2003). ISBN 0-37-412502-3
* [[James Bovard]] ''Feeling Your Pain: The Explosion and Abuse of Government Power in the Clinton-Gore Years'' (2000) ISBN 0-31-223082-6
* [[Joe Conason]] and Gene Lyons. ''The Hunting of the President: The Ten-Year Campaign to Destroy Bill and Hillary Clinton''. (2003) ISBN 0-31-227319-3
* [[Elizabeth Drew]] ''On the Edge: The Clinton Presidency''. [[Simon &amp; Schuster]] (1994) ISBN 0-67-187147-1
* [[Nigel Hamilton]] ''Bill Clinton: An American Journey: Great Expectations''. Random House. (2003) ISBN 0-37-550610-1
* [[John F. Harris]] ''The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House''. (2005) ISBN 0-37-550847-3, biography
* [[Christopher Hitchens]] ''No One Left to Lie to: The Triangulations of William Jefferson Clinton''. (1999). ISBN 1-85-984736-6
* [[William G. Hyland]]. ''Clinton's World: Remaking American Foreign Policy'' (1999) ISBN 0275963969
* [[Michael Isikoff]] ''Uncovering Clinton: A Reporter's Story''. (1999) ISBN 0-60-960393-0
* [[Fard Johnson]] "Politics, Propaganda and Public Opinion: The Influence of Race and Class on the 1993 - 1994 Health Care Reform Debate". (2004). ISBN 1-4116-6345-4
* [[Joe Klein]] ''The Natural: The Misunderstood Presidency of Bill Clinton''. (2003). ISBN 0-76-791412-0
* [[Nicholas Laham]], ''A Lost Cause: Bill Clinton's Campaign for National Health Insurance'' (1996)
* [[David Maraniss]], ''First In His Class : A Biography Of Bill Clinton'', (1996). ISBN 0-68-481890-6
* [[David Maraniss]] ''The Clinton Enigma: A Four and a Half Minute Speech Reveals This President's Entire Life'' (1998) ISBN 0-68-486296-4
* [[Dick Morris]] with Eileen McGann ''Because He Could'' (2004) ISBN 0060784156
* [[Roger Morris]]. ''Partners in Power: The Clintons &amp; Their America''. (1996). ISBN 0-89-526302-5
* [[Richard A. Posner]]. ''An Affair of State: The Investigation, Impeachment, and Trial of President Clinton'' (2000)
* [[Mark J. Rozell]] ''The Clinton Scandal and the Future of American Government'' (2000) ISBN 0-87-840777-4
* [[Mark E. Rushefsky]] and Kant Patel. ''Politics, Power &amp; Policy Making: The Case of Health Care Reform in the 1990s'' (1998) ISBN 1563249561
* [[Harvey L. Schantz]]. ''Politics in an Era of Divided Government: Elections and Goverance in the Second Clinton Administration'' (2001) ISBN 0815335830
* [[Kenneth W. Starr]] ''The [[Starr Report]]: The Findings of Independent Counsel Kenneth W. Starr on President Clinton and the Lewinsky Affair'' (1998) ISBN 1-89-162024-X
* [[George Stephanopoulos]] ''All Too Human: A Political Education'' (1998) ISBN 0316929190
* [[Michael Waldman]]. ''POTUS Speaks: Finding the Words That Defined the Clinton Presidency'' (2000) ISBN 0-74-320020-9.
* [[The Washington Times|Washington Times]] articles [[January 21]], [[1999]]
* [[USA TODAY]], [[11 March]] [[1993]], page 2A
==Notes==
<references/>
==See also==
{{further|[[:Category:Bill Clinton]]}}
==External links==
{{commons|Bill Clinton}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Bill+Clinton | name=Bill Clinton}}
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/bc42.html White House biography]
* [http://www.clintonlibrary.gov/ Clinton Presidential Library] official website
* [http://www.clintonfoundation.org/ William J. Clinton Foundation] official website
* [http://www.clintonglobalinitiative.org Clinton Global Initiative] official website
* [http://www.clintonschool.uasys.edu/ Clinton School of Public Service]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu The American Presidency Project at UCSB: The Most Comprehensive Resource on the Web]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/clinton1.htm First Inaugural Address], via [[Yale Law School]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/clinton2.htm Second Inaugural Address], via [[Yale Law School]]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=ClintonB Audio |
a, now widespread through [[Siberia]] and the [[Urals]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Rusyns]] (Ruthenes)
*[[Rutuls]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Ryukyuans]] - the native inhabitants of the [[Ryukyus]], a chain of islands starting about 200km southwest of the [[Japanese mainland]]. They are usually subgrouped as follows: [[Northern Ryukyuans]] are further subdivided into [[Amamians]] and [[Okinawan|Okinawans]], and [[Southern Ryukyuans]] are further subdivided into [[Miyakoans]], [[Yaeyamans]], and [[Yonagunians]]
==S==
*[[S'Klallam]]
*[[Sami people|Sami]] - indigenous people of northern [[Scandinavia]] and [[Siberia]]
*[[Samoa]]n - [[Polynesia]]n island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Sadang]]
*[[Saek]]
*[[Salar]]
*[[Salish]] - of [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] and [[British Columbia]]
*[[Samaritan]]
*[[Samtao]]
*[[Bushmen|San]]
*[[San Chay]]
*[[San Diu]]
*[[Sardinian|Sardinians]] - inhabitants of an island in the Mediterranean
*[[Sauk]]
*[[Sauk-Suiattle]]
*[[Scandinavia]]n
*[[Scottish people|Scottish]] - a British people from the north of [[Great Britain]]
*[[Scotch-Irish]] - descendants of [[Ulster-Scots]] who migrated to North America
*[[Sekani]]
*[[Seminole]] - natives of [[Florida]]
*[[Sena people|Sena]]
*[[Seneca tribe|Seneca]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the [[New York (state)|New York]] area
*[[Serbs]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[southeastern Europe]] ([[Balkans]])
*[[Serer]]
*[[Serer-Ndut]]
*[[Shangaan]]
*[[Shasta tribe]]
*[[Shawnee (tribe)|Shawnee]]
*[[She (ethnic group)|She]]
*[[Sherpa (people)|Sherpa]] - group in [[Nepal]] and the [[Himalaya]]
*[[Shetland Island|Shetlander Islanders]] - a British people from the Shetland Islands
*[[Shinnecock]]
*[[Shoalwater Bay Tribe]]
*[[Shoshone]]
*[[Shui]]
*[[Si La]]
*[[Sicily|Sicilian]] - inhabitants of an island in the Mediterranean
*[[Sidamo]] - [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Siksika]]
*[[Siletz]]
*[[Sindhi people|Sindhis]] - [[Indo-Aryans]] inhabiting Pakistan and India
*[[Singmun]]
*[[Sinhalese]] - [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] group inhabiting the majority of [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Sinti]] - one of the two main groups of Gypsies, who are of [[North Indian]]/[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] descent
*[[Sioux]] - Northern Central [[United States]]
*[[Siuslaw]]
*[[Slavic peoples|Slavic]]
*[[Slovaks|Slovak]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[central Europe]]
*[[Slovenes|Slovene]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[central Europe]]
*[[Slovincian]] - in [[Pomerania]]
*[[Skokomish]]
*[[Somali]] - eastern [[Africa]]
*[[Somba]]
*[[Sorbs|Sorbic]] - concentrated [[Slavic people|Slavic]] minority in [[Germany]]
*[[Soso]]- [[Guinea]], [[Conakry]]
*[[Souei]]
*[[Spaniards|Spanish]] - southwestern [[Europe]]
*[[Spokane (people)|Spokane]]
*[[Squaxin Island Tribe]]
*[[Stillaguamish]]
*[[Sundanese]] - western part of [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Indonesia]]
*[[Suquamish]]
*[[Swazi]] - [[southern Africa]], [[Swaziland]]
*[[Swinomish]]
*[[Syriacs]]
==T==
*[[Ta Oi]]
*[[Tabasarans]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Tache]]
*[[Tachi]]
*[[Tagish]]
*[[Tahiti]]an - [[Pacific Ocean]] island, [[Polynesia]]
*[[Taíno]] - natives of the [[Caribbean]]
*[[Tajiks|Tajik]] - specific ethnic group of [[central Asia]]
*[[Tajik (China)|Tajik]] - one of [[Nationalities of China|56 nationalities]] officially recognized by the [[People's Republic of China]]
*[[Taliang]]
*[[Tamil people|Tamil]] - [[Dravidian]] group widespread in [[Southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Tanana]]
*[[Taos]]
*[[Tapuia]]
*[[Tarascan]]
*[[Tatars]] - [[Turkic people]]
*[[Tats]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Tay (people)|Tay]]
*[[Tehuelche]]
*[[Tejano]] - [[Latino]] immigrants to [[Texas]]
*[[Teotihuacan]]
*[[Terena]]
*[[Tetons]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] area
*[[Tewa]]
*[[Texan]]
*[[Thailand|Thai]] - southeast [[Asia]]
*[[Tharu]]
*[[Thin]]
*[[Tho]]
*[[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] - currently under [[China|Chinese]] rule, [[Central Asia]]
*[[Ticuna]]
*[[Tigre]] - [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Tigua]]
*[[Tlakluit]]
*[[Tlingit]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Pacific Northwest]]
*[[Tobago|Tobagonian]]
*[[Tohono O'odham]]
*[[Tokelau]]an - [[Polynesia]]n island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Tolowa]]
*[[Toltec]] - [[Central America]]
*[[Tonkawa]]
*[[Tonga]]n - [[Polynesia]]n island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Tongva]]
*[[Topachula]]
*[[Totonac]]
*[[Trinidad|Trinidadian]]
*[[Tsakhurs]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Tsetsaut]]
*[[Tsimishian]] - [[Pacific Northwest]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]
*[[Shangaan|Tsonga]] - [[Southern Africa]]
*[[Tsuu T'ina]]
*[[Tswana]] - [[Southern Africa]] (see also [[Batswana]])
*[[Tualalip]]
*[[Tuareg]]
*[[Tujia]]
*[[Tukanoan]]
*[[Toucouleur|Tukolor]]
*[[Tulutni]]
*[[Tum]]
*[[Tumbuka]]
*[[Tungus]]
*[[Tunica-Biloxi]]
*[[Tupian]]
*[[Turkish people|Turks]] - [[Turkic people]] of [[Anatolia]] and [[Balkans|Southeastern]] [[Europe]]
*[[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] - [[Turkic people]] of [[Central Asia]]
*[[Tutchone]]
*[[Tutsi]] - of [[Rwanda]] and southern [[Africa]]
*[[Tuva]]n - [[Central Asia]]n group in [[Russia]]
*[[Tuvalu]]an - [[Polynesia]]n island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Twa]]
*[[Tzigane]]
==U==
*[[Ubykh people|Ubykh]] - minority [[Northwest Caucasian]] people of Manyas, [[Turkey]]
*[[Uighur]] - large [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] [[Muslim]] minority in [[China]]
*[[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] - widespread [[Slavic people]] north of the [[Black Sea]], [[Ukraine]]
*[[Ulster-Scots]] descendants of Scots who migrated to [[Ulster]]
*[[Umatilla]]
*[[Umpqua (Native Americans)|Umpqua]]
*[[Upper Skagit]]
*[[Ute (tribe)|Ute]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] area
*[[Uzbek]] - [[Turkic people]] of [[central Asia]], [[Uzbekistan]]
==V==
*[[Vacceos]] - ancient people group in Northern [[Spain]]
*[[Vaturanga]] - a people of the [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]]
*[[Venda]] - [[South Africa]]
*[[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] or [[Kinh]] or [[Jing]] or archaically [[Annamites]]- a people of South Mongolian origin living in Vietnam as the dominant majority.
==W==
*[[Wa]]
*[[Waccamaw]]
*[[Wailaki]]
*[[Welsh people|Welsh]] - [[Great Britain|British]] people of the west of [[Great Britain]]
*[[Walla Walla (ethnic group)|Walla Walla]]
*[[Wampanoag]]
*[[Wasco]]
*[[Washoe (tribe)|Washoe]]
*[[West Indies|West Indian]]
*[[White Mountain Apache]]
*[[Wichita (ethnic group)|Wichita]]
*[[Wintun]]
*[[Wiyot people|Wiyot]] - northern [[California]]
*[[Wolof people|Wolof]] - [[Senegal]] and elsewhere in western [[Africa]]
*[[Wyandot]]
==X==
*[[Xacriaba]]
*[[Xavante]]
*[[Xerente]]
*[[Xhosa]] - of South [[Africa]]
*[[Xibe]]
*[[Xinh Mun]]
*[[Xo Dang]]
*[[Xtieng]]
*[[Xucuru]]
*[[Xueda]]
==Y==
*[[Yae people|Yae]]
*[[Yakama]]
*[[Yakima]]
*[[Yakut]] - in eastern [[Russia]]
*[[Yang]]
*[[Yanomami]] - the [[Amazon River]] basin, [[Brazil]]
*[[Yao people|Yao]]
*Yavapai: [[Yavapai-Apache Nation]], [[Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe]]
*[[Yawanawa]]
*[[Yezidi]]
*[[Yi]]
*[[Yocha-Dehe]]
*[[Yokut]]
*[[Yoruba]] - western [[Africa]]
*[[Yugur]]
*[[Yuki tribe|Yuki]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of northwestern [[California]]
*[[Yupik]]
*[[Quechan|Yuma]]
*[[Yumbri]]
*[[Yurok]]
==Z==
*[[Zaghawa]] of Northeast Africa.
*[[Zapotec]] - [[Central America]]
*[[Zaza]]
*[[Zeibeks]]
*[[Zhonghua minzu]] - Chinese pseudo-ethnic group.
*[[Zhuang]]
*[[Zomi]]
*[[Zulu]] - of southern [[Africa]]
*[[Zuni]] - of the southwestern [[United States]]
==See also==
*[[List of people by nationality]]
*[[List of indigenous peoples]]
*[[Indigenous peoples in the United States]]
*[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
*[[Native Americans in the United States]]
*[[Alaska Natives]]
*[[Native Hawaiians]]
*[[Pacific Islanders]]
*[[Aboriginal peoples in Canada]]
*[[List of active autonomist and secessionist movements]]
*[[List of Chinese ethnic groups]], [[Ethnic groups in Chinese history]]
*[[Indigenous people of Brazil]]
*[[Indigenous cultures, kingdoms and ethnic groups of Senegal]]
*[[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
*[[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
*[[Northern indigenous peoples of Russia]]
[[Category:Culture lists|Ethnic groups]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups|*]]
[[be:Сьпіс этнасаў паводле сем'яў і групаў]]
[[bs:Spisak naroda svijeta]]
[[de:Liste von Ethnien]]
[[eo:Listo de etnoj]]
[[et:Rahvad ja hõimud]]
[[hr:Popis naroda]]
[[ru:Список народов мира]]
[[sh:Spisak naroda sveta]]
[[sl:Seznam ljudstev]]
[[sr:Списак народа света]]
[[uk:Список націй]]
[[zh:世界民族列表]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edda</title>
<id>9993</id>
<revision>
<id>41909665</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:28:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nolanuss</username>
<id>379510</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[cs:Edda]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This page refers to the Eddas, narrated folk-tales of Norse Mythology. For Edda, the ancestress of serfs in the Rígsthula, see [[Ríg]]. For the Hungarian rock group, see [[Edda művek]].''
The '''Edda''' are collections of poetically narrated folk-tales relating to [[Norse Mythology]] or Norse heroes. These are fragmentary parts of a (presumably) much larger [[Skald|scaldic]] tradition of oral narration which has been written down by scholars prior to the tales being lost absolutely.
==Etymology==
There are a number of theories concerning the origins of the word ''edda''. One theory holds that it is identical to the word that seems to mean "great-grandmother". (See '''[[Ríg]]'''.) Another theory holds that edda means "[[poetics]]". A third is that it means "the book of Oddi", [[Oddi]] being the place where [[Snorri Sturluson]] was educated.
==The Poetic Edda==
{{main|Poetic Edda}}
The '''Poetic Edda''', also known as Sæmundar Edda or the Elder Edda, is a collection of [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] poems from the [[Iceland|Icelandic]] mediaeval [[manuscript]] [[Code |
[[Category:Music from Birmingham, England]]
[[Category:Rock music groups]]
[[bg:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[da:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[de:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[fr:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[nl:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[ja:エレクトリック・ライト・オーケストラ]]
[[pl:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[pt:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[sk:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[fi:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[sv:Electric Light Orchestra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edward Kasner</title>
<id>10485</id>
<revision>
<id>40694099</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T10:06:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Edward Kasner''' (1878–1955) was a prominent [[United States|American]] [[mathematician]], best remembered today for popularizing the term ''[[googol]]''.
Kasner studied at [[Columbia University]] under [[Cassius Keyser]]. He received his Ph.D. in [[1899]]; his dissertation was titled ''The Invariant Theory of the Inversion Group''.
Around 1920, in order to pique the interest of children, Kasner wanted a catchy name for a very large number: one, followed by a hundred zeros. On a walk in New Jersey's Palisades with his nephews, Milton (c. 1911–1980) and Edwin Sirotta, Kasner asked for their ideas. Nine-year-old Milton suggested "googol". The Internet search engine [[Google]] was named as a play on the number googol. Kasner also coined the term "[[googolplex]]" for the number written as one followed by a googol zeros; the Google offices are called Googleplex for this reason.
In 1940, with James Roy Newman, Kasner authored a semi-popular book surveying the entire field of mathematics called ''Mathematics and the Imagination'' ISBN 0486417034. It was in this book that the term "googol" was introduced.
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Kasner | first = Edward
| year = 1980
| chapter = Differential-geometric aspects of dynamics
| origyear = 1934
| editor = C.Carpelan, A.Parpola P.Koskikallio (ed.)
| title = The Logarithmic potential and other monographs
| pages = pp. 235-263
| location = New York
| publisher = Chelsea
| id = ISBN 0-828-40305-8
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kasner | first = Edward
| coauthors = Newman, James Roy
| title = Mathematics and the Imagination
| origyear = London: Penguin, [[1940]]; New York: Simon and Schuster, [[1967]]
| publisher = Dover Pubns
| year = April [[2001]]
| id = ISBN 0486417034
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Kasner | first = Edward
| title = Geometrical theorems on Einstein's cosmological equations
| journal = Amer. J. Math.
| year = 1921 | volume = 43 | pages = 217
}}
* {{cite journal
| title = There Could Be No Google Without Edward Kasner
| first = Carl | last = Bialik
| journal = The Wall Street Journal Online
| date = [[June 14]] [[2004]]
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.google.com/corporate/history.html History from the Google website]
[[Category:1878 births|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:1955 deaths|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:Contributors to differential geometry|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:Contributors to general relativity|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Kasner, Edward]]
[[de:Edward Kasner]]
[[lb:Edward Kasner]]
[[nl:Edward Kasner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ELO</title>
<id>10486</id>
<revision>
<id>37272496</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T22:59:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mxn</username>
<id>10795</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+vi:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ELO''' or '''Elo''' has several meanings:
* [[Electric Light Orchestra]], a [[Rock and roll|rock music]] group.
* [[ELO rating system]] for measuring relative strength of [[chess]] players.
* A contraction for "[[hello]]", frequently used on the [[Internet]].
* [[Electronic Literature Organization]], a nonprofit organisation promoting electronic literary works.
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:ELO]]
[[nl:ELO]]
[[vi:Elo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evil Dead II</title>
<id>10487</id>
<revision>
<id>41578928</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T07:04:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sean Black</username>
<id>294714</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Section header tweaks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Evil Dead II |
image = Evil Dead2 poster.jpg |
director = [[Sam Raimi]] |
producer = [[Robert Tapert]]<br>[[Alex De Benedetti]]<br>[[Irvin Shapiro]]<br>[[Bruce Campbell]] |
writer = [[Sam Raimi]]<br>[[Scott Spiegel]] |
starring = [[Bruce Campbell]] |
movie_music = [[Joe LoDuca]] |
distributor = [[Paramount Pictures]] |
released = [[March 13]], [[1987]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
runtime = 85 min. |
language = [[English language|English]] |
imdb_id = 0092991 |
music = |
awards = |
budget = $3,500,000 |
preceded_by = ''[[The Evil Dead]]''|
followed_by = ''[[Army of Darkness]]''|
}}
'''''Evil Dead II''''' (also known as '''''Evil Dead 2: Dead by Dawn ''''' and '''''Evil Dead II, the Sequel to the Ultimate Experience in Grueling Terror''''') is a sequel to the movie ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' by [[Sam Raimi]] and starring [[Bruce Campbell]]. The story is largely a re-hash of the first film, but more humorous, displaying a [[Three Stooges]] influence.
In [[2000]], readers of ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine voted ''Evil Dead II'' the 34th greatest comedy film of all time.
== Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
Ash and his girlfiend Linda take a romantic vacation to a seemingly abandoned cabin in the woods. While in the cabin, Ash plays a tape of a professor, the previous inhabitant, reciting passages from the [[Necronomicon]], or "Book of the Dead", which he has discovered during an archaeological dig. The replaying of this incantation unleashes an evil force, which kills and later possesses the body of Linda. While Ash is dealing with this force, the professor's daughter and her boyfriend/research partner return from the dig with more pages of the necronomicon in tow, only to find the bridge leading to the part of the woods where the cabin resides destroyed. They enlist the help of a local man and woman to guide them to the cabin, where the four of them find an embattered Ash, who is slowly being driven insane due to his encounter with the evil force. Over the course of his battle, he has dismembered his girlfriend's corpse, severed his possessed hand (which he later is forced to battle with using a shotgun to comic effect), and witnessed various household appliances laughing at him. He eventually attaches a chainsaw to the stump of his arm to help fight the "evil dead," a fight joined by the other four (one of whom Ash has accidentally shot). Eventually, as his allies die off one by one, Ash is forced to find the scattered pages of the Necronomicon in the basement (thrown down there by the local man in a failed attempt to take control of the group) where he battles the possessed dead body of the professor's wife. With these pages, the professor's daughter is able to chant an incantation that will send the evil back to where it came from, and dies in the process. The incantation, however, opens up a portal to the 13th century and send Ash, the sole survivor, back with it.
== Notes ==
===Sequel or remake?===
There is some question as to whether the film is a sequel or a remake, since the first film ends with [[Ash Williams|Ash]] (Campbell) apparently being run down by the invisible demon which killed all the other characters in the first film. However, after the recap at the beginning (which condenses the story to include only Ash and Linda, the only two characters from the first film important to the story of the sequel) Ash is hit by the same invisible force and the story continues from there.
Differences between the recap and the actual events of the first movie are mainly attributed to Raimi's inability to obtain footage from the first movie due to the rights being owned by several different companies in different worldwide territories. Following that, he decided to take a few creative licences with the story to help the flow of the plot. This is the film which introduces the famous chainsaw attached to Ash's arm.
The film was followed by ''[[Army of Darkness]]'', which continues with Ash's adventures in the medieval fantasy world into which he was transported at the end of ''Evil Dead II''.
==External links==
*[http://www.badmovies.org/movies/2evildead/index.html Review, Screencaps & Short Video Clip] at Badmovies.org
*[http://www.withinthewoods.co.uk/ Within the Woods] - Largest UK based appreciation site for ALL things Evil Dead.
*[http://www.deadites.net Deadites Online] - Web site with details and information about the Evil Dead trilogy
*[http://www.houseofhorrors.com/evildead2.htm Evil Dead II Information] at House of Horrors
*{{imdb title|id=0092991|title=Evil Dead II}}
{{Evil Dead}}
[[Category:1987 films]]
[[Category:Horror films|Evil Dead 2]]
[[Category:Zombie films|Evil Dead 2]]
[[Category:Cult films|Evil Dead 2]]
[[Category:Evil Dead|Evil Dead 2]]
[[Category:Films directed by Sam Raimi]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[es:Evil Dead II]]
[[fr:Evil Dead 2]]
[[no:Evil Dead II]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edgar Varèse</title>
<id>10488</id>
<revision>
<id>24680601</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-03T22:44:34Z</timestamp>
|
layers in the box means bringing in a defensive back, normally the strong safety, to help stop the offensive team's running game
==C==
;[[Center (American football)|center]] :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on [[offensive team|offense]]. The center snaps the ball.
;centre :Canadian "center"
;chains :the 10-yard long chain that is used by the [[chain crew]] to measure for a new series of downs.
;check-off: see [[#A|audible]]
;chuck and duck : a style of offense with minimal pass protection requiring the Quarterback to "chuck" the ball then "duck" to avoid a defensive lineman.
;clipping :an illegal block in which the victim is blocked from the back and below the waist; the penalty is 15 yards. Originally, clipping was defined as any block from the back, but is now restricted to blocks below the waist. Other blocks from the back are now punished with 10-yard penalties.
;coffin corner :the corner of the field of play. A punter, if he is close enough, will often attempt to kick the ball out of bounds close to the receiving team's goal line and pin them back near their own end zone.
;contain :a defensive assignment. On outside runs such as the sweep, one defensive player (usually a [[cornerback]] or outside linebacker) is assigned to keep the rusher from getting to the edge of the play and turning upfield. If executed properly, the rusher will have to turn upfield before the play calls for it, giving the linebackers a better chance of stopping the play for little or no gain.
;[[cornerback]] (CB):a [[defensive back]] who lines up near the line of scrimmage across from a '''wide receiver'''. Their primary job is to disrupt passing routes and to defend against short and medium passes in the passing game, and to contain the rusher on rushing plays.
;counter :a running play in which the running back will take a step in the apparent direction of the play (ie, the direction the line is moving), only to get the handoff in the other direction. '''Weak side''' linemen will sometimes '''pull''' and lead the back downfield (sometimes called a '''counter trap'''), but not necessarily. The play is designed to get the defense to flow away from the action for a few steps as they follow the linemen, allowing more room for the running back.
;crackback block :an illegal block delivered below the opponent's waist by an offensive player who had left the area of close line play and then returned to it, or was not within it at the snap. The term is also used to describe a legal block (delivered from the front, or from the side with the offensive player's helmet in front of the blocked player) by a wide receiver on a player who lined up inside of him.
;cut
# a sharp change of direction by a running player. Also called a [[Cutback (football move)|cutback]].
# see "cut blocking" below
;cut blocking: a blocking technique in which offensive linemen, and sometimes other blockers, block legally below the waist (i.e., from the front of the defensive player) in an attempt to bring the defenders to ground, making them unable to pursue a running back for the short time needed for the back to find a gap in the defense. The technique is somewhat controversial, as it carries a risk of serious leg injuries to the blocked defenders. The [[NFL]]'s [[Denver Broncos]] are especially famous (or infamous) for using this technique.
==D==
;[[dead ball]] :a ball which is no longer in play.
;[[defensive back]] :a cornerback or safety [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on the defensive team; commonly defends against wide receivers on passing plays. Generally there are 4 defensive backs playing at a time; but see '''nickel back''' and '''dime back'''.
;[[defensive end]] (DE):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[defensive team| defense]] who lines up on the outside of the defensive line.
;[[defensive tackle]] (DT):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[defensive team| defense]] on the inside of the defensive line. When a defensive tackle lines up directly across from the center, he is known often as a [[nose tackle]].
;[[defensive team]] :the team that begins a play from scrimmage not in possession of the ball.
;[[dime back]] :the second extra, or sixth total, defensive back. Named because a [[dime (U.S. coin)|dime]] has the same value as two [[nickel (U.S. coin)|nickel]]s.
;double reverse: a play in which the ball reverses direction twice behind the line of scrimmage. This is usually accomplished by means of two or three hand-offs, each hand-off going in an opposite direction as the previous one. Such a play is extremely infrequent in football.
:Some people confuse the ''double reverse'' with a ''reverse'', which is a play with two hand-offs instead of three.
;[[down (football)| down]] :one of a series of plays in which the offensive team must advance at least 10 yards or lose possession. '''First down''' is the first of the plays; fourth is the last down in American, and third in Canadian, football. A first down occurs after a change of possession of the ball, after advancing the ball 10 yards following a previous first down or after certain penalties.
;down lineman: a player stationed in front of his line of scrimmage and who has either one (three-point stance) or two (four-point stance) hands on the ground.
;[[draw play]] :a play in which the quarterback drops back as if to pass, then hands off to a running back or runs with the ball himself. Contrast with '''scramble'''
;drive
*A continuous set of offensive plays gaining substantial yardage and several first downs, usually leading to a scoring opportunity.
*A blocking technique - "drive block" - in which an offensive player through an advantaged angle or with assistance drive a defensive player out of position creating a hole for the ball carrier.
;[[drop kick]] :a kick in which the ball is dropped and kicked once it hits the ground and before it hits it again; a half-volley kick.
==E==
;[[eligible receiver]]s :players who may legally touch a forward pass. On the passer's team, these are: the '''ends''' (see below), the '''backs''', and (except in the NFL), one player in position to take a hand-to-hand '''snap''', i.e. a T '''quarterback'''; provided the player's shirt displays a number in the ranges allowed for eligible receivers. All players of the opposing team are eligible receivers, and once the ball is touched by a player of the opposing team (anywhere in American, or beyond the lines of scrimmage in Canadian football), all players become eligible.
;encroachment: an illegal action by a player: to cross the [[line of scrimmage]] and make contact with an opponent before the ball is snapped, or to line up offside and remain there when the ball is put in play.
;[[End (football)|end]] :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]], either on [[offensive team| offense]] or [[defensive team| defense]] -- see '''linemen'''.
;[[end zone]] :the area between the end line (or deadline in Canadian amateur football) and the goal line, bounded by the sidelines.
;[[extra point]] :a single point scored in a conversion attempt by making what would be a field goal or a safety during general play.
==F==
;[[fair catch]] :An unhindered catch of an opponent's kick. The player wanting to make one must signal for a fair catch by waving an arm overhead while the ball is in the air. After that signal, if he gains possession of the ball it is dead immediately and opponents will receive a fifteen yard penalty for hitting him.
;[[fantasy football (American)]] :A game in which the participants (called "owners") each draft on their own or with the aid of software [http://www.thecoordinator.com] a team of real-life NFL players and then score points based on those players' statistical performance on the field.
;field of play: the area between both the goal lines and the sidelines, and in some contexts the space vertically above it.
;[[field goal]] :score of 3 points made by place- or drop-kicking the ball through the opponent's goal other than via a kickoff or free kick following a safety; formerly, "goal from the field".
;flanker :a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on offense. A wide receiver who lines up 1 or more yards off the line of scrimmage outside of another receiver.
;flat :an area on the field between the line of scrimmage and 10 yards into the defensive backfield, and within 15 yards of the sideline. Running backs often run pass routes to the flat when they are the safety valve receiver.
;[[flea flicker (American football)|Flea flicker]] :a trick play in which a [[running back]] laterals the ball back to the [[quarterback]], who then throws a pass to a [[wide receiver]] or [[tight end]].
;formation :An arrangement of the offensive skill players. A formation usually is described in terms of how the running backs line up (e.g. [[I formation]], which refers to the half back is lined up about 7 yard deep, and the fullback is lined up about 5 yards deep, both directly behind the quarterback) or how the wide receivers line up (e.g. Trips left, in which three wide receivers line up to the left of the linemen). Frequently, the formation will allude to both, such as with Strong I Slot Right, in which the halfback is lined up 7 yards deep behind the quarterback, the fullback is 5 yards deep behind the guard or tackle on the strong side, and both wide receivers are lined up on the right side of the offensive line.There are rules limiting what is legal in a formation. All five offensive linemen must be on the line of scrimage (a small amount of leeway is given to tackles when lined up for pass protection). Also, there must be one receiver (usally one tight end and one wide receiver) lined up on the line on either side of the offensive line (it doesn't matter how cl |
heory often makes a distinction between YES answers and NO answers.
For example, the set NP is defined as the set of problems where the YES instances can be checked "quickly" (i.e. in polynomial time). The set Co-NP is the set of problems where the NO instances can be checked quickly. The "Co" in the name stands for "complement". The ''[[complement (complexity)|complement]]'' of a problem is one where all the YES and NO answers are swapped, such as ''IS-COMPOSITE'' for ''IS-PRIME''.
An important result in complexity theory is the fact that no matter how hard a problem can get (i.e. how much time and space resources it requires), there will always be even harder problems. For time complexity, this is determined by the [[time hierarchy theorem]]. A similar [[space hierarchy theorem]] can also be derived.
==Complexity classes==
The [[Complexity class|complexity class]] [[P (complexity)|P]] is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a [[Deterministic Turing machine|deterministic machine]] in polynomial time. This class corresponds to an intuitive idea of the problems which can be effectively solved in the worst cases.
The complexity class [[NP (complexity)|NP]] is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a [[Non-deterministic_Turing_machine|non-deterministic machine]] in polynomial time. This class contains many problems that people would like to be able to solve effectively, including the [[Boolean satisfiability problem]], the [[Hamiltonian path problem]] and the [[Vertex cover problem]]. All the problems in this class have the property that their solutions can be checked effectively.
Many complexity classes can be characterized in terms of the [[mathematical logic]] needed to express them; see [[descriptive complexity]].
==The P<nowiki> = </nowiki>NP question==
The question of whether P is the same set as NP is the most important open question in theoretical computer science. There is even a [[Clay Mathematics Institute|$1,000,000 prize]] for solving it. (See '''[[complexity classes P and NP]]''' and '''[[oracle machine|oracles]]''').
Questions like this motivate the concepts of ''hard'' and ''complete''. A set of problems ''X'' is hard for a set of problems ''Y'' if every problem in ''Y'' can be transformed easily into some problem in ''X'' with the same answer. The definition of "easily" is different in different contexts. The most important hard set is [[NP-hard]]. Set ''X'' is complete for ''Y'' if it is hard for ''Y'', and is also a subset of ''Y''. The most important complete set is [[NP-complete]]. See the articles on those two sets for more detail on the definition of "hard" and "complete".
==Intractability==
Problems that are [[Decidability|solvable in theory]], but can't be solved in practice, are called ''intractable''. What can be solved "in practice" is open to debate, but in general only problems that have polynomial-time solutions are solvable for more than the smallest inputs. Problems that are known to be intractable include those that are [[EXPTIME]]-complete. If NP is not the same as P, then the NP-complete problems are also intractable.
To see why exponential-time solutions are not usable in practice, consider a problem that requires 2<sup>n</sup> operations to solve (n is the size of the input). For a relatively small input size of n=100, and assuming a computer that can perform 10<sup>10</sup> (10 [[giga]]) operations per second, a solution would take about 4*10<sup>12</sup> years, much longer than the current [[age of the universe]].
==Notable researchers==
* [[Manindra Agrawal]]
* [[Sanjeev Arora]]
* [[Laszlo Babai]]
* [[Manuel Blum]], who developed an axiomatic complexity theory based on his [[Blum axioms]]
* [[Allan Borodin]]
* [[Stephen Cook]]
* [[Lance Fortnow]]
* [[Juris Hartmanis]]
* [[Russell Impagliazzo]]
* [[Richard Karp]]
* [[Marek Karpinski]]
* [[Leonid Levin]]
* [[Richard Lipton]]
* [[Noam Nisan]]
* [[Christos H. Papadimitriou]]
* [[Alexander Razborov]]
* [[Walter Savitch]]
* [[Michael Sipser]]
* [[Richard Stearns]]
* [[Madhu Sudan]]
* [[Leslie Valiant]]
* [[Umesh Vazirani]]
* [[Avi Wigderson]]
* [[Andrew Yao]]
* [[Eugene Yarovoi]]
==See also==
*[[Complexity]]
*[[List of important publications in computer science#computational complexity theory| List of important publications in computational complexity theory]]
*[[List of open problems in computer science#computational complexity theory| List of open problems in computational complexity theory]]
*[[List of computability and complexity topics]]
*[[Game complexity]]
==References==
* L. Fortnow, Steve Homer (2002/2003). [http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~fortnow/papers/history.pdf A Short History of Computational Complexity]. In D. van Dalen, J. Dawson, and A. Kanamori, editors, ''The History of Mathematical Logic''. North-Holland, Amsterdam.
==External links==
* [http://qwiki.caltech.edu/wiki/Complexity_Zoo The Complexity Zoo]
* [http://weblog.fortnow.com/ Computational Complexity]
{{ComplexityClasses}}
[[Category:computational complexity theory|*]]
[[de:Komplexitätstheorie]]
[[el:&#920;&#949;&#969;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#928;&#959;&#955;&#965;&#960;&#955;&#959;&#954;&#972;&#964;&#951;&#964;&#945;&#962;]]
[[es:Complejidad computacional]]
[[fr:Complexité algorithmique]]
[[he:&#1505;&#1497;&#1489;&#1493;&#1499;&#1497;&#1493;&#1514;]]
[[ja:&#35336;&#31639;&#35079;&#38609;&#24615;&#29702;&#35542;]]
[[lt:Algorithų sudėtingumas]]
[[nl:Complexiteitstheorie]]
[[pl:Z&#322;o&#380;ono&#347;&#263; obliczeniowa]]
[[sv:Komplexitetsteori]]
[[th:&#3607;&#3620;&#3625;&#3598;&#3637;&#3588;&#3623;&#3634;&#3617;&#3595;&#3633;&#3610;&#3595;&#3657;&#3629;&#3609;&#3651;&#3609;&#3585;&#3634;&#3619;&#3588;&#3635;&#3609;&#3623;&#3603;]]
[[zh:&#35336;&#31639;&#35079;&#38620;&#24615;&#29702;&#35542;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cadence</title>
<id>7544</id>
<revision>
<id>40162665</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T17:18:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ravn</username>
<id>47881</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[MoS:DP]] formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|Cadence|cadence}}
'''Cadence''' may refer to:
In music:
*[[Cadence (music)]], a [[chord progression]] that comes at the closing of a musical phrase
*[[Military cadence]], a chant that is sung by military personnel while running or marching
*[[Cadenza]], a long, unaccompanied, freely played, and sometimes [[improvisation|improvised]] solo passage in a [[concerto]].
*[[Ring cadence]], in [[telephony]], refers to the ringing pattern heard by called party, before they pick up the call
Other:
*[[Cadence (cycling)]], the number of revolutions of the [[crank]]s per minute
*[[Cadence (film)]], a 1990 film directed by Martin Sheen.
*[[Cadence Design Systems]], an electronic design automation company
*''Cadence'', a girls name, growing popularity as featured in such films as 'Shallow Hal' and 'American Wedding'
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Kolkota</title>
<id>7545</id>
<revision>
<id>15905608</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-24T22:44:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Woohookitty</username>
<id>159678</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kolkata]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Camelot</title>
<id>7546</id>
<revision>
<id>41914336</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:10:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LtPowers</username>
<id>749490</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv. vandalism by [[User:216.170.88.138|216.170.88.138]] ([[User_talk:216.170.88.138|talk]]).</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the mythical Castle}}
'''Camelot''' is the name of the [[castle|stronghold]] of the [[legend]]ary [[King Arthur]], from which he fought many of the battles that made up his life. Its specific location is currently unknown and may be a fictionalized [[Romano-British]] province of post-Roman Britain. The city is first named in [[Chrétien de Troyes]]' poem ''[[Lancelot]]'', where it does not seem as important as it would become in Arthurian legend. Since the location of Camelot is still a mystery, the truth about it&mdash;if there is one&mdash;is still unknown.
==Geographical references==
Possible locations of Camelot include:
* Saltwell Park, in [[Gateshead]]
* [[Cadbury Castle]]
* [[Tintagel Castle]]
* [[Viroconium]]
* [[Caerleon]]-on-Usk, in South Wales
* [[Dinerth Castle]] near the River Arth, West Wales
Though the name "Camelot" may be derived from [[Camulodunum]] (modern Colchester), the stronghold of the [[Catuvellauni]] kings, and later the provincial capital of Roman Britannia, its Essex location (in East Anglia) places it in the wrong Anglo-Saxon kingdom.
==In popular culture==
The phrase 'Camelot' is often used to refer to the period in [[United States history|US history]] of [[1960]]-[[1963]]. More specifically, it refers to the presidency of [[John F. Kennedy]], as his term was said to have a lot of potential and promise for the future and the period was idyllic for many in the world, encouraged by Kennedy. The period was ended by Kennedy's tragic assassination, which is often compared to the fall of King Arthur. The line "Don't let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief shining moment, that was known as Camelot" from the musical ''[[Camelot (musical)|Camelot]]'', has been used in pop cult |
(thus years 15, 19, 23, 27...) with the leap day added before each year divisible by four, except most century years.
Below are the Gregorian calendar dates several Republican years begin according to these methods:
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccf;"
! Year
! Equinox
! Romme Fixed
! Continuous Fixed
|-
|
CCXIV (214)
|
[[September 22]] [[2005]]*
|
[[September 22]] [[2005]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2005]]
|-
|
CCXV (215)
|
[[September 23]] [[2006]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2006]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2006]]*
|-
|
CCXVI (216)
|
[[September 23]] [[2007]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2007]]*
|
[[September 23]] [[2007]]
|-
|
CCXVII (217)
|
[[September 22]] [[2008]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2008]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2008]]
|-
|
CCXVIII (218)
|
[[September 22]] [[2009]]*
|
[[September 22]] [[2009]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2009]]
|}* Leap year, extra day added at end of year
== The French Republican calendar in fiction ==
The [[shared world]] of [[Liavek]] uses a calendar which is a simple adaptation of the French Republican calendar. It consists of twelve months of 30 days, called Snow, Rain, Wind, Buds, Flowers, Meadows, Reaping, Heat, Fruit, Wine, Fog and Frost. The year begins at the winter solstice, with five days of festival (Festival Week). Every four years is the Grand Festival, which lasts an extra day. There are six weeks of five days: Sunday, Moonday, Windday, Rainday, and Luckday.
==See also==
* [[Decimal Time]]
==External links==
{{Commonscat|French Republican Calendar}}
* [http://prairial.free.fr/calendrier/sommaire.html Summary of the Republican Calendar] (''fr es en eo pt de nl'')
* [http://www.calendarhome.com/converter Date converter for numerous calendars, including this one]
* [http://prairial.free.fr/calendrier/discoursromme.html Leap Year Proposal by Romme]
* [http://www.antiquorum.com/html/vox/vox2004/revolutionary.htm Antique Decimal Watches]
* [http://www.antique-horology.org/_Editorial/RepublicanCalendar/default.htm Dials & Symbols of the French revolution. The Republican Calendar and Decimal time.]
[[Category:French Republican Calendar|*]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]
[[ca:Calendari republicà francès]]
[[da:Den franske republikanske kalender]]
[[de:Französischer Revolutionskalender]]
[[eo:Franca respublika kalendaro]]
[[es:Calendario republicano francés]]
[[fi:Vallankumouskalenteri]]
[[fr:Calendrier républicain]]
[[he:לוח השנה המהפכני בצרפת]]
[[hu:Francia forradalmi naptár]]
[[io:Revoluciona kalendario]]
[[it:Calendario rivoluzionario francese]]
[[ja:フランス革命暦]]
[[lt:Prancūzų revoliucinis kalendorius]]
[[nl:Franse Republikeinse Kalender]]
[[pl:Francuski kalendarz rewolucyjny]]
[[pt:Calendário Revolucionário Francês]]
[[ru:Французский республиканский календарь]]
[[sv:Franska revolutionskalendern]]
[[uk:Французький революційний календар]]
[[wa:Calindrî republikin]]
[[zh:共和曆]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freeman Dyson</title>
<id>11397</id>
<revision>
<id>41688101</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:49:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WAREL</username>
<id>950501</id>
</contributor>
<comment>correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Freeman_Dyson.jpg|thumb|Freeman Dyson in San Francisco in 2005 (Photo: Jacob Appelbaum) ]]
'''Freeman John Dyson''' (born [[December 15]], [[1923]]) is an [[England|English]]-born [[USA|American]] [[physicist]] and [[mathematician]], famous for his work in quantum mechanics, [[nuclear weapons]] design and policy, and for his serious theorizing in [[futurism]] and [[science fiction]] concepts, including the [[SETI|search for extraterrestrial intelligence]].
== Career ==
Dyson worked as an analyst for [[British Bomber Command]] during [[World War II]]. After the war, he obtained a degree in mathematics from [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] ([[1945]]) and was a Fellow at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] from [[1946]] to [[1949]]. In [[1947]] he moved to the US, on a fellowship at [[Cornell University]] and then joined the faculty there as a physics professor in [[1951]]. In [[1953]], he took up a post at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton, NJ]]. In [[1957]], he became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the [[United States]].
In the years following the war, Dyson was responsible for demonstrating the equivalence of the two formulations of [[quantum electrodynamics]] which existed at the time - [[Richard Feynman]]'s [[path integral formulation]] and the [[variational methods]] developed by [[Julian Schwinger]] and [[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga]] ([[Dyson operator]]).
From [[1957]] to [[1961]] he worked on the [[Project Orion|Orion Project]], which proposed the possibility of space-flight using [[nuclear propulsion]]. A prototype was demonstrated using conventional [[explosives]], but a [[Partial Test Ban Treaty|treaty]] banning the use of nuclear weapons in space caused the project to be abandoned.
In [[1977]], Dyson supervised Princeton undergraduate [[John Aristotle Phillips]] in a term paper that outlined a credible design for a nuclear weapon. This earned Phillips the nickname ''The A-Bomb Kid''.
Dyson has published a number of collections of speculations and observations about technology, science, and the future:
* ''The Sun, The Genome and The Internet''
* ''Imagined Worlds''
* ''From Eros to Gaia''
* ''Disturbing the Universe''
Dyson was awarded the [[Max Planck medal]] in [[1969]]. In the 1984&ndash;85 academic year he gave the [[Gifford lectures]] at [[University of Aberdeen|Aberdeen]], which resulted in the book ''[[Infinite In All Directions]]''.
In [[1998]], Dyson joined the board of the [[Solar Electric Light Fund]]. In [[2000]], Dyson was awarded the [[Templeton Prize]] for Progress in Religion.
[[As of 2003]], Dyson is the president of the [[Space Studies Institute]], the space research organization founded by [[Gerard K. O'Neill]].
Dyson was a long time member of the [[JASON]] defense advisory group.
=== Concepts ===
==== Dyson sphere ====
''Main article:'' [[Dyson sphere]]
In [[1960]] Dyson wrote a short paper for the journal [[Science (journal)|Science]], entitled "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation". In it, he theorized that a technologically advanced [[society]] might completely surround its native star in order to maximize the capture of the star's available energy. Eventually, the civilization would completely enclose the star, intercepting [[electromagnetic radiation]] with wavelengths from visible light downwards and radiating waste heat outwards as [[infrared]] radiation. Therefore, one method of [[SETI|searching for extraterrestrial civilisations]] would be to look for large objects radiating in the infrared range of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].
Dyson conceived that such structures would be clouds of [[asteroid]]-sized [[space habitat]]s, though [[science fiction]] writers have preferred a solid structure: either way, such an artifact is often referred to as a [[Dyson sphere]], although Dyson himself used the term "shell". Dyson says (20 minutes into [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=350379535220823176&q=genome a video]) that he used the word "artificial biosphere" in the article meaning a habitat, not a shape. Imaginitive science fiction writers (specifically [[Olaf Stapleton]]) then expanded on what Dyson says was really his humor tacked on at the end of the article. Dyson says it should really be called the Stapleton Sphere. One of the most famous science fiction examples was illustrated in an episode of ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', in which retired Engineer [[Scotty]] (from the original ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]'') was found to have crash-landed on an abandoned Dyson sphere. [[Larry Niven]]'s novel ''[[Ringworld]]'' was based on Dyson's concept, and was a scientifically detailed attempt to visualize a much simpler structure.
==== Dyson tree ====
''Main article:'' [[Dyson tree]]
Dyson has also proposed the creation of a ''Dyson tree'', a [[genetic engineering|genetically-engineered]] plant capable of growing on a [[comet]]. He suggested that comets could be engineered to contain hollow spaces filled with a breathable atmosphere, thus providing self-sustaining habitats for humanity in the outer [[solar system]].
====Dyson's transform====
Dyson also has some credits in [[Elementary number theory]]. His concept "Dyson's transform" lead one of the most important [[lemma]]s of [[Olivier Ramaré]]'s theorem that every integer is a sum of at most six primes.
== Personal ==
He has six children. One daughter is [[Esther Dyson]], the noted digital technology consultant. His son is the historian of technology [[George Dyson (science historian)|George Dyson]], one of whose books is ''Project Orion: The Atomic Spaceship 1957-1965''. His wife, Imme Dyson, is an accomplished masters runner. Dyson's father was the renowned English composer [[George Dyson (composer)|George Dyson]]. Despite sharing a last name, he is not related to early 20th-century astronomer [[Frank Watson Dyson]]. However, as a small boy, Freeman Dyson was aware of Frank Watson Dyson; Freeman credits the popularity of someone with the same last name with inadvertently helping to spark Freeman's interest in [[science]]. Dyson received a Sc.D. from [[Bates College]] in 1990.
==See also==
*[[A.I. Shlyakhter]]
*[[Dyson's eternal intelligence]]
*[[Astrochicken]]
*[[Dyson sphere]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.sns.ias.edu/~dyson/ Freeman J. Dyson's homepage]
*[http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/bios/dysonf.html Freeman Dyson Biography]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/6.02/dyson.html Wired magazine interview: Freeman Dyson's Brain ]
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=350379535220823176&q=genome A google video: interviewer: Robert Wright editor: Greg Dingle ]
*[http://www.radiophiles.org listen |
sion>
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<page>
<title>Al-Manamah</title>
<id>2479</id>
<revision>
<id>15900888</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-11T04:21:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WhisperToMe</username>
<id>15708</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Manama]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Arc de Triomphe</title>
<id>2482</id>
<revision>
<id>41795021</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:24:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.70.37.9</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Arc de triomphe frontsimple.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Arc de Triomphe]]
The '''Arc de Triomphe''' is a monument in [[Paris]] that stands in the centre of the [[Place de l'Étoile]], at the western end of the [[Champs-Élysées]]. Coordinates: {{coor dms|48|52|25.5|N|2|17|41.5|E|}}. It is the linchpin of the historic axis (''L'[[Axe historique]]'') leading from the courtyard of the [[Louvre]] Palace, a sequence of monuments and grand thoroughfares on a route leading out of Paris. The monument's iconographic program pitted heroically nude French youths against bearded Germanic warriors in chain mail and set the tone for public monuments with triumphant nationalistic messages until [[World War I]].
The monument stands over [[1 E1 m|51&nbsp;metres]] (165&nbsp;feet) in height and is 45&nbsp;metres wide. It is the second largest [[triumphal arch]] in existence ([[North Korea]] built a [[Arch of Triumph (Pyongyang)|slightly larger Arch of Triumph]] in [[1982]] for the 70th birthday of [[Kim Il-Sung]]); the Arc de Triomphe is so colossal that an early daredevil flew his plane through it.
[[Image:250px-Arc-de-triomphe-paris.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Arc de Triomphe by night]]
It was commissioned in [[1806]] after the victory at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]] by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] at the peak of his fortunes and finally completed &mdash; after a long pause during the [[Bourbon Dynasty, Restored|Restoration]] &mdash; in the reign of [[Louis-Philippe of France|King Louis-Philippe]], in 1833-36. The sculpture representing ''Peace'' was now interpreted as commemorating the ''Peace of 1815'' &mdash; not the original intention.
The astylar design is by [[Jean Chalgrin]] (1739-1811), in the [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] version of ancient [[Roman architecture]]. Major [[academy|academic]] sculptors of France are represented in the sculpture of the Arc de Triomphe: [[Jean-Pierre Cortot|Cortot]], [[François Rude|Rude]], [[Antoine Étex|Étex]], [[James Pradier|Pradier]] and [[Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire|Lemaire]]. The main sculptures are not integral friezes but are treated as independent trophies applied to the vast ashlar masonry masses, not unlike the gilt-bronze appliqués on Empire furniture. The four sculptural groups at the base of the Arc are ''The Triumph of 1810'' (Jean-Pierre Cortot), ''Resistance'' and ''Peace'' (both by [[Antoine Étex]]) and the most renowned of them all, ''Departure of the Volunteers of '92'' commonly called ''[[La Marseillaise]]'' ([[François Rude]]). The face of the allegorical representation of France calling forth her people on this last was used as the belt buckle for the seven-star rank of [[Marshal]] of France.
[[Image:IMG_0082(arc de triomphe).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Under the coffered vault : heroic bas-reliefs above the tablets of names]]
In the attic above the richly sculptured [[frieze]] of soldiers are 30 shields engraved with the names of major [[French Revolutionary Wars|Revolutionary]] and [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic military victories]]. The inside walls of the monument list the names of 558 French generals. The names of those who died in battle are underlined (''illustration, right'').
The Place de l'Étoile was extensively redesigned by [[Baron Haussmann]], who increased the number of avenues radiating from this star to twelve. In the [[1860s]] he ran a circular road (''rue de Tilsitt-Presbourg'') round the outside of the houses fronting the ''Étoile,'' a planning feature intended to free the Place itself from the crush of carriages that might be expected where so many stylish tenants lived so closely together. Haussmann imposed a uniform design on the house fronts with small gardens at the back giving on to this circular road. Haussmann's memoirs publicly noted that the official façade design, from [[Jacques Ignace Hittorff|Hittorff]] in his own office, was so poor that he had to mask the fronts with trees. But the uniformity complements the Arc's monumental presence. The traffic problem was not resolved, however.
[[Image:Arc de Triomphe1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Arc de Triomphe and the Champs Elysées]]
The sword carried by the ''Republic'' in the ''Marseillaise'' relief broke off, on the day, it is said, that the [[Battle of Verdun]] began in [[1916]]. The relief was immediately hidden by tarpaulins to conceal the accident and avoid any undesired ominous interpretations.
Famous victory marches past the Arc included the Germans in [[1871]], the French in [[1918]], the Germans in [[1940]], and the French and Allies in [[1944]] and [[1945]]. [[Charles de Gaulle]] survived an attack upon him at the Arc during a parade.
[[Image:Unknownsoldier_paris.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tomb of the Unknown Soldier beneath the Arc de Triomphe, Paris]]
Beneath the Arc is the [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] from the [[World War I|First World War]]. Interred here on [[Armistice Day]] [[1920]], it has the first [[eternal flame]] lit in Western Europe since the [[Vestal Virgin]]s' fire was extinguished in the year [[391]]. It burns in memory of the dead who were never identified, now in both World Wars. France took the example of the [[United Kingdom]]'s tomb of [[The Unknown Warrior]] in [[Westminster Abbey]]. A ceremony is held there every [[November 11]] on the anniversary of the [[armistice]] signed between France and Germany in [[1918]]. It was originally decided in [[November 12]], [[1919]] to bury the unknown soldier's remains in the [[Panthéon, Paris|Panthéon]], but a public letter-writing campaign led to the decision to bury him beneath the Arc. The coffin was put in the chapel on the first floor of the Arc on [[November 10]], [[1920]], and put in its final resting place on [[January 28]], [[1921]]. The slab on top carries the inscription <small>ICI REPOSE UN SOLDAT FRANÇAIS MORT POUR LA PATRIE 1914–1918</small> ("Here lies a French soldier who died for his country 1914–1918").
[[Image:lamarseillaise.500px.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Cast of the head of a figure from François Rude's sculpture "La Marseillaise"]]
==Miscellaneous==
* The [[Tour de France]] race culminates here every year.
* Pedestrian access to the Arc de Triomphe is via an underpass. [[Paris Metro|Metro]] access is [[Charles de Gaulle - Étoile (Paris Metro)|Charles-de-Gaulle–Étoile]]. From the top there is an excellent view of all of Paris, of the twelve major avenues leading to the Arc and of the exceptionally busy roundabout in which the Arc lies.
* The Arch is destroyed by the [[Eiffel Tower]] in ''[[Team America: World Police]]''. In ''Rugrats in Paris: The Movie'', the babies inside the giant Reptar [[invention]] move fast under the arch. In the [[Godzilla]] film ''[[Destroy All Monsters]]'' it is destroyed by [[Gorosaurus]] who had dug underneath it.
* A smaller, highly detailed replica of the Arc was constructed at the [[Paris Las Vegas]] resort.
==See also==
*[[Gallery of Arc de Triomphe photographs]]
==External links==
{{commons|Arc de Triomphe}}
* [http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/CDG2001/Arc_de_Triumph.htm Pictures]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=48.873796,2.294780&spn=0.006620,0.010214&t=k&hl=en Google Maps satellite view of Arc de Triomphe]
* [http://www.insecula.com/musee/M0107.html/ Arc de Triomphe at ''Insecula'' (French)]
* [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Paris/Monuments-Paris/Arc-CDG.shtml Arc de Triomphe at ''Discover France'' (English)]
* [http://gallery.sjsu.edu/paris/architecture/Haussman.html Georges Haussmann]
* [http://www.parisrama.com/thematiques/thematique_arcdetriomphe.htm Inscriptions on the Arc de Triomphe]
* [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/arnauld.divry/arc_de_triomphe.htm The Names of 660 persons inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Paris]]וטטטטטטטטטטטט de Triomphe (Parijs)]]
[[id:Arc de triomphe de l'Étoile]]
[[ja:エトワール凱旋門]]
[[no:Triumfbuen]]
[[pl:Łuk Triumfalny w Paryżu]]
[[pt:Arco do Triunfo]]
[[ro:Arcul de Triumf, Paris]]
[[ru:Триумфальная арка (Париж)]]
[[fi:Riemukaari (Pariisi)]]
[[sv:Triumfbågen, Paris]]
[[zh:巴黎凯旋门]]</text>
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<page>
<title>April 21</title>
<id>2483</id>
<revision>
<id>41580221</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T07:22:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rhymeless</username>
<id>58267</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/130.126.131.120|130.126.131.120]] ([[User talk:130.126.131.120|talk]]) to last version by Rhymeless</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
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|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=21}}
|}
'''[[April 21]]''' is the 111th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (112th in [[leap year]]s). There are 254 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[753 BC]] - [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]] founds [[Rome]] ([[founding of Rome|traditional]]).
*[[1792]] - [[Tiradentes]], a revolutionary who was leading a movement for Brazil's independence, is hanged.
*[[1836]] - [[Texas Revolution]]: [[Battle of San Jacinto]] &ndash; [[Republic of Texas]] forces under [[Sam Houston]] defeat troops under [[Mexico|Mexican]] General [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]].
*[[1863]] - [[Bahá'u'lláh]] declares his mission |
o restrict the Principle only to require the explanation of ''explainable'' facts. These restrictions would require arguments, respectively, that the universe is contingent or that the universe's existence is explicable.
If the Principle of Sufficient Reason does not hold, then the "selection" among potential alternatives must be random or a "brute fact". Defenders of the Principle will insist that neither option really makes sense.
===Scientific positions===
Modern [[quantum physics]] is sometimes interpreted to deny the validity of the first premise of this argument (that everything has a cause), showing that subatomic particles such as [[electron]]s, [[positron]]s, and [[photon]]s, can come into existence, and perish, by virtue of spontaneous energy [[Vacuum_fluctuations|fluctuations in a vacuum]]. Though such occurrences do not violate the [[Conservation of energy|Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy]], [[Bell's theorem]] shows that these are impossible to predict. Because the "nothingness" from which the subatomic particles arise from a sea of fluctuating [[vacuum energy]], it may be that such processes contradict the assertion that all effects have causes.
Modern [[cosmology]] is sometimes taken to be neutral on the second premise, asserting that while [[spacetime]] as observed tends toward a singularity giving the universe an observed [[Age of the universe|finite age]], this does not discount the possibility that the stochastic processes that govern the early evolution of the universe actually cause the universe to be eternal. In particular, the lack of a consistent theory of [[quantum gravity]] has meant that there is no physical theory and no meaningful prediction can be made about what character the universe had before the [[Planck time]]. Indeed the supposed [[singularity]] from which the universe is said to have originated in the classic [[Big Bang]] picture is actually a [[physical paradox]] - an indication that current theory is not an adequate description. This era of the universe and its associated energy regime remains one of the [[unsolved problems in physics]] and as such does not lend itself either to the existence of a "first cause" or lack thereof.
<!-- Commented out pending verification/sources
Some proponents of [[String Theory]] state that there are more dimensions than the ones we experience. In this argument, two universes existed outside of [[time]], our fourth dimension. They collided with each other and dropped down into the lower four dimensions, x, y, z, and time. The universes in the other dimensions both existed forever and never existed, as they are not fettered by time and thus require no "first cause".
-->
Recently, newer, speculative theories have been offered by a number of theorists, but there is no scientific consensus as of yet on whether the universe necessarily began to exist or whether it is eternal.
A commonly stated workaround for the argument is the nature of [[time]]. The [[Big Bang]] is said to be the start of both [[space]] and ''[[time]]'', so the question "What was there before the universe?" makes no sense; the concept of "before" becomes meaningless when considering a situation without time. This has been put forward by [[Stephen Hawking]], who said that asking what occurred before the Big Bang is like asking what is north of the [[North Pole]] (it should be noted, however, that this comment was made in reference to cosmology and not theology).
==See also==
* [[Biblical cosmology]]
* [[Cosmogony]]
* [[Creation belief]]
* [[Creator god]]
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Creation (theology)]]
* [[Dating Creation]]
* [[Day-Age Creationism]]
* [[Evolutionary Creationism]]
* [[Existence]]
* [[Gap Creationism]]
* [[Infinitism]]
* [[Intelligent design]]
* [[Old Earth Creationism]]
* [[Teleological argument]]
* [[Theism]]
* [[Timeline of the Big Bang]]
* [[Young Earth Creationism]]
==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmological-argument/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Christian philosophy]]
[[Category:Philosophy of religion]]
[[he:הטיעון הקוסמולוגי]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Clutch</title>
<id>6517</id>
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<id>41754193</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:32:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nolanuss</username>
<id>379510</id>
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<minor />
<comment>+interwiki +cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of the word '''clutch''', see [[clutch (disambiguation)]].''
:''For the rock band, see [[Clutch (band)|Clutch]].
{| align=right border=0
|-
|[[Image:Ford Cologne V6 2.9 back.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Rear side of a Ford V6 engine, looking at the clutch housing on the flywheel]]
|-
|[[Image:Clutchdisc.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Single, dry, clutch friction disc. The hub is attached to the disc with spring dampeners]]
|}
A clutch is any mechanism for transmitting rotation, which can be engaged and disengaged.
In everyday use, the term '''clutch''' refers to a subcomponent of motor vehicle [[engine]]'s [[Transmission (mechanics)|transmission]] designed to allow engagement or disengagement of the engine to the gearbox or whatever apparatus is being driven.
There are many different vehicle clutch designs, but most are based on one or more [[friction]] discs, pressed tightly together or against a [[flywheel]] using [[spring (device)|springs]]. The friction material is very similar to the material used in [[brake]] shoes and pads and used to contain [[asbestos]]. The spring [[pressure]] is released when the clutch pedal is depressed and the discs are held less tightly and allowed to rotate freely. A '''wet clutch''' is immersed in [[lubricating fluid]] to keep the surfaces clean and to cool it, for improved performance and longer life; while a '''dry clutch''' is not. Since the surfaces of a wet clutch can be slippery (as with a motorcycle clutch bathed in engine oil), stacking multiple clutch disks can compensate for slippage.
In a [[automobile|car]] it is operated by the left-most [[pedal]] using [[hydraulics]] or a [[cable]] connection from the pedal to the clutch mechanism. No pressure on the pedal means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while depressing the pedal will disengage the clutch plates, allowing the driver to shift [[gear]]s.
There are other clutches found in a car. For example, the radiator fan may have a clutch that is heat-activated. One such design is a special fluid coupling. When the temperature is low, the special fluid is thin and so the clutch slips. When the temperature is high, the fluid thickens, causing the fan to spin.
A [[manual transmission]] contains clutches for selecting gears. These clutches have matching teeth, so-called dog teeth, which means that the rotation speeds of the two parts have to match for engagement. This speed matching is achieved by a secondary clutch called a synchromesh, a device that uses frictional contact to bring the two parts to the same speed, and a locking mechanism called a blocker ring to prevent engagement of the teeth (full movement of the shift lever into gear) while the speeds are not synchronized.
On most [[motorcycle]]s, the clutch is operated by the clutch lever, located on the left handlebar. No pressure on the lever means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while pulling the lever back towards the rider will disengage the clutch plates, allowing the rider to shift. Some cars and [[moped]]s have an automatic clutch, using [[centrifugal]] [[force]]s to engage the clutch above certain [[rpm]], see [[Saxomat]].
When engaging the clutch, the engine speed may need to be increased from idle, using the manual [[throttle]], so that the engine does not stall. However, raising the engine speed too high will cause excessive clutch plate wear and cause a harsh, jerky start. This kind of start is desired in [[drag racing]] and other competition, however.
A clutch may also be a device on a shaft that will "slip" when higher than normal resistance is encountered on a machine. An example of a clutch such as this may be mounted on the driving shaft of a large grass mower. The clutch will "slip" or "give" if the blades were to hit a rock, stump, or other immobile object.
==See also==
Racing motorcycles often use [[slipper clutch]]es to eliminate the effects of [[engine braking]].
==External links==
* [http://auto.howstuffworks.com/clutch.htm HowStuffWorks] has a detailed explanation of the working of a clutch.
[[Category:Automotive transmission technologies]]
[[Category:Auto parts]]
[[af:Koppelaar]]
[[cs:Spojka (stroj)]]
[[de:Kupplung]]
[[es:Embrague]]
[[eo:Kluĉilo]]
[[fa:کلاچ]]
[[fr:Embrayage]]
[[it:Frizione (meccanica)]]
[[he:מצמד]]
[[nl:Koppeling]]
[[ja:クラッチ]]
[[no:Kobling]]
[[pl:Sprzęgło]]
[[zh:離合器]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Computer graphics</title>
<id>6518</id>
<revision>
<id>41919811</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:55:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Intgr</username>
<id>246230</id>
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<comment>Replaced text with the Otheruses4 template.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|computer graphics in general|the [[ACM SIGGRAPH]] journal|Computer Graphics (Publication)}}
'''Computer graphics''' ('''CG''') is the field of visual [[computing]], where one utilizes [[computers]] both to generate visual images synthetically and to integrate or alter visual and spatial information sampled from the real world.
The first major advance in computer [[graphics]] was the development of the [[Sketchpad]] in 1962 by [[Ivan Sutherland]].
This field can be divided into several areas: real-time 3D [[rendering]] (often used in video games), [[computer animation]], video capture an |
ey was in the hands of bookies. Reportedly the team was told to lose Game 8 "or else", and they were trounced by the Reds to end the Series.
It is reasonable to speculate that the Sox would have won the Series had they played honestly. But in later years the Cincinnati Reds, a group of proud professionals led by Hall of Fame hitting star [[Edd Roush]], asserted that they could have won the Series even if it had been played honestly. Ironically, it would be another two decades before the Reds returned to the Series themselves.
A number of people have taken up Shoeless Joe Jackson's cause (notably in the movie ''[[Field of Dreams]]''), campaigning for reversal of his ban from baseball, and thus clearing the way for his [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] induction, which would be a reasonable possibility if it were to be allowed to be voted upon. They point to sketchy evidence that he had acted to throw the World Series; his performance prior to his ban, and the fact that he was, most likely, driven to agreeing to fix the World Series by the lack of respect accorded to him by Comiskey. They also point to the fact that, immediately after the World Series, Jackson attempted to turn over his take from throwing the World Series to Comiskey's lawyer (a scene echoed in the movie version of ''[[The Natural]]''); however, the lawyer would not take the money, telling Jackson to "go home to South Carolina" and that the episode would blow over before long.
In fact, until the [[Pete Rose]] scandal, players who had been permanently banned from baseball were still technically eligible for the Hall of Fame (which is run privately and independently from Major League Baseball), though there was a strong consensus among the voters that such players would not be considered. In the Rose scandal's aftermath, the ban was codified and the loophole closed before it became an issue.
===The lean years===
The White Sox had been the league's dominant team at the time, but were severely crippled by losing seven of their best players in the middle of their prime. The team dropped into seventh place in [[1921 in sports|1921]] and would not contend again until [[1936 in sports|1936]]. During that stretch, only the [[1925 in sports|1925]] and [[1926 in sports|1926]] teams even managed to top .500. During this period, the Sox featured stars such as third baseman [[Willie Kamm]], shortstop [[Luke Appling]] and pitcher [[Ted Lyons]]. However, an outstanding team was never developed around them, or a deep pitching staff. Led from [[1934]] to [[1946]] by popular manager [[Jimmie Dykes]], the White Sox didn't completely recover from their malaise until the team was rebuilt in the 1950s under managers [[Paul Richards (baseball)|Paul Richards]], [[Marty Marion]], and [[Al Lopez]].
Between the dumping of star players by the [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]] and the [[Boston Red Sox]], and the decimation of the White Sox, a baseball "power vacuum" was created, into which the [[New York Yankees]] would soon move.
It is interesting to note that since 1920, although the White Sox have won fewer pennants than the [[Chicago Cubs]] or the [[Boston Red Sox]] - whose fans can be considered among the most angst-riddled fans in all of sports - as well as being responsible for perhaps the biggest scandal in baseball history, the White Sox' fan base has largely shrugged off their relative lack of success over the years, blaming it more on inferior teams, poor management and bad luck rather than some other-worldly "curse". Even the players who conspired to fix the 1919 World Series seem not to have been reviled or held responsible for the White Sox' lack of success as much as certain Cubs and Red Sox icons have been. Rightly or wrongly, those Sox players have often been seen as victims, and Comiskey himself has often been seen as bearing a large part of the blame for what happened.
==="Go-Go White Sox" ===
Following Charles Comiskey's death in 1931, the team continued to be operated by his family &ndash; first by his son Louis, then by Louis' widow Grace, and finally by their daughter Dorothy. Not until 1959 did the team pass out of the family (thanks in part to feud between Dorothy and her brother Chuck) to a new ownership group, led by [[Bill Veeck]], who had previously run both the [[Cleveland Indians]] and the [[Baltimore Orioles|St. Louis Browns]]; it has recently been claimed that Veeck also tried to buy the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] during World War II, with the stated intention of stocking the team with players from the [[Negro Leagues]], but was rejected.
Veeck's arrival in 1959 brought an organizational approach which emphasized the entertainment aspect of the sport without sacrificing quality on the field, and [[Comiskey Park]] became home to a series of fan-friendly promotional stunts which helped draw record crowds, the most obvious being the exploding [[fireworks]] Veeck installed in the scoreboard to celebrate home runs and victories. Unlike Charles Comiskey, Veeck was also considered a player-friendly owner, and players enjoyed playing for him.
During the 1950s, the team had begun to restore its respectability utilizing an offensive philosophy emphasizing speed and a spectacular style of defense. Perennial All-Star [[Minnie Miñoso]], a former [[Negro league baseball|Negro Leaguer]] who became the Sox' first black player in [[1951 in sports|1951]], personified both aspects, leading the league in [[stolen base]]s while hitting over .300 and providing terrific play in left field. The additions of rookie shortstop [[Luis Aparicio]] in 1956 and manager [[Al Lopez]] in 1957 continued the strengthening of the team, joining longtime team standouts such as [[Nellie Fox]] at second base, pitcher [[Billy Pierce]] and catcher [[Sherm Lollar]].
In [[1959 World Series|1959]], the team won its first pennant in 40 years, thanks to the efforts of several eventual Hall of Famers &ndash; Lopez, Aparicio, Fox (the league MVP), and pitcher [[Early Wynn]], who won the [[Cy Young Award]] at a time when only one award was presented for both leagues. The White Sox would also acquire slugger [[Ted Kluszewski]], a local area native, from the [[Cincinnati Reds]] for the final pennant push. Kluszewski gave the team a much-needed slugger for the stretch run, and he hit nearly .300 for the White Sox in the final month. Lopez had also managed the Cleveland Indians to the World Series in [[1954 World Series|1954]], making him the only manager to interrupt the [[New York Yankees]] pennant run between 1949 and 1964.
After the pennant-clinching victory, Chicago Mayor [[Richard J. Daley]], a life-long White Sox fan, ordered his fire chief to set off the city's [[civil defense siren|air raid sirens]]. Many Chicagoans became fearful and confused, since 1959 was the height of the [[Cold War]]; however, they relaxed somewhat upon realizing it was part of the White Sox' celebration. The Sox won Game 1 of the World Series 11-0 on the strength of Kluszewski's two home runs, their last postseason home win until [[2005 American League Division Series|2005]]. The [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], however, won four of the next five games and captured their first World Series championship since moving to the west coast. 92,706 fans witnessed Game 5 of the World Series at the [[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]], the most ever to attend a World Series game. The White Sox won that game 1-0 over the Dodgers' 23-year-old pitcher [[Sandy Koufax]], but the Dodgers clinched the series by beating the Sox 9-3 two days later at Comiskey Park.
Although the White Sox had winning records every season from 1951 through 1967, the Yankees dynasty of the era often left the Sox frustrated in second place; they were league runner-up 5 times between 1957 and 1965. Health problems forced Veeck to sell the team to brothers Arthur and John Allyn in 1961, and while the team continued to play well, many of the ballpark thrills seemed to be missing.
The [[1964 in baseball|1964]] season was especially frustrating, as the team won 98 games, four more than 1959, including their last nine in a row &ndash; yet finished one game behind the pennant-winning Yankees, who had a late-season ''eleven''-game win streak that opened up just enough room to stave off the Sox's final charge. The White Sox were also involved in one of the closest pennant races in history in [[1967 in baseball|1967]]. After leading the American League for most of the season, on the final weekend, the White Sox, [[Boston Red Sox]], [[Minnesota Twins]] and [[Detroit Tigers]] all had a shot at the pennant. However, the Red Sox would assert themselves in the final weekend, beating the Twins to take the pennant by a single game. The White Sox would finish in 4th at 89-73, three games behind.
===The Milwaukee White Sox?===
In 1968, Bud Selig, a former minority owner of the [[Milwaukee Braves]] who had been unable to stop the relocation of his team three years earlier, contracted with the Allyn brothers to host nine home games at [[Milwaukee County Stadium]] as part of an attempt to attract an expansion franchise to Milwaukee.
The experiment was staggeringly successful - those nine games drew 264,297 fans. In Chicago that season, the Sox drew 539,478 fans to their remaining 58 home games. In just a handful of games, the Milwaukee crowds accounted for nearly one-third of the total attendance at White Sox games.
In 1968, the Sox schedule in Milwaukee was expanded to include 11 home games (one against every other franchise in the American League at the time). Although those games were attended by slightly fewer fans (198,211 fans, for an average of 18,019) they represented a greater percentage of the total White Sox attendance than the previous year - over one-third of the fans who went to Sox games did so at County Stadium (in the remaining 59 home dates in Chicago, the Sox drew |
- production:'''
69,960 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
78.72%
<br>''hydro:''
21.28%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
54,000 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats; fish
'''Exports:'''
$8.7 billion (f.o.b., 2003 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals
'''Exports - partners:'''
EU 47%, US 14%, Turkey 8% (1998)
'''Imports:'''
$14.7 billion (f.o.b., 2003 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, foods, chemicals, wood products, fuels
'''Imports - partners:'''
EU 42%, US 16%, Japan 5% (1998)
'''Debt - external:'''
$30 billion (1999 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA, $2.25 billion (1999)
'''Currency:'''
1 Egyptian pound = 100 piasters
'''Exchange rates:'''
Egyptian pounds per US$1 - market rate - 5.7700 (September 2005), 3.4050 (January 2000), 3.4050 (1999), 3.3880 (1998), 3.3880 (1997), 3.3880 (1996), 3.3900 (1995)
'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 July]] - [[30 June]]
==See also==
* [[Egypt]]
* [[List of Egyptian companies]]
*[http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/ Business Today Egypt] magazine
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Egypt]]
[[Category:Economy of Egypt| ]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Egypt]]
[[es:Economía de Egipto]]
[[pt:Economia do Egipto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Egypt</title>
<id>9352</id>
<revision>
<id>42091157</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:44:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bwithh</username>
<id>472456</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Television */ MBC moved to Dubai a few years ago.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Egypt]] has long been the cultural and informational centre of the [[Arab]] world, and [[Cairo]] is the region's largest [[publishing]] and [[broadcasting]] centre.
== Television ==
Egyptian ground-broadcast television (ETV) is government controlled and depends heavily on commercial revenue. ETV sells its specially produced programs and soap operas to the entire Arab world. In addition to Egyptian programming, the [[Middle East Broadcasting Center]], a Saudi television station transmitting from [[Dubai]] (MBC), [[Arab Radio and Television]] (ART), [[Al Jazeera]] television, and other Gulf stations are available, as well as Western networks, to Egyptians who own satellite receivers.<BR>
<BR>
ETV has two main channels, six regional channels, and three satellite channels. Of the two main channels, Channel I uses mainly Arabic, while Channel II is dedicated to foreigners and more cultured viewers, broadcasting news in English and French as well as Arabic.<BR>
<BR>
Egyptian Satellite channels broadcast to the [[Middle East]], [[Europe]], and the [[United States]] East Coast. In April 1998, Egypt launched its own satellite known as [[NileSat 101]]. Seven specialized channels cover news, culture, sports, education, entertainment, health, and drama. A second, digital satellite, Nilesat 102, was launched in August 2000. Many of its channels are rented to other stations.<BR>
<BR>
Three new private satellite-based TV stations were launched in November 2001, marking a great change in Egyptian government policy. Dream TV 1 and 2 produce cultural programming, broadcast contemporary video clips and films featuring Arab and international actors, as well as [[soap opera]]s; another private station focuses on business and general news. Both private channels transmit on NileSat.
== Radio ==
Radio in Egypt also is mainly government controlled, using 44 short-wave frequencies, 18 medium-wave stations, and four [[FM station]]s. There are seven regional radio stations covering the country. [[Egyptian Radio]] transmits 60 hours daily overseas in 33 languages and three hundred hours daily within Egypt. The Local European Service of Radio Cairo provides transmission throughout Egypt to foreign expatriates and foreign-language speaking communities in 6 languages, including Armenian, [http://www.cairoradio.net English], French, German, Greek and Italian.<BR>
In 2000, [[Radio Cairo]] introduced new specialized (thematic) channels on its FM station. So far, they include news, music, and sports. Radio enjoys more freedom than TV in its news programs, [[talk show]]s and analysis.<BR>
In 2003, Nile Radio Productions (NRP), a private enterprise obtained license to establish two private music channels broadcasting to the Greater Cairo Area; [http://www.nilefmonline.com NileFM] (English speaking dedicated for new western music) and [[NogoomFM]] (Arabic-speaking dedicated to modern Arabic pop). Both stations won almost immediate boost in popularity among the cairo residents.
== Printed Media ==
There are eight daily newspapers with a total circulation of more than 2 million, and a number of monthly newspapers, magazines, and journals. The majority of political parties have their own newspapers, and these papers conduct a lively, often highly partisan, debate on public issues.<BR>
* [http://www.ahram.org.eg// Al-Ahram Daily Newspaper]
* [http://www.ahram.org.eg/weekly/ Al-Ahram Weekly]
* [http://hebdo.ahram.org.eg/ Al-Ahram Hebdo]
* [http://www.akhbarelyom.org.eg/ Akhbar elyom]
* [http://www.elakhbar.org/ Al-Akhbar]
* [http://www.algomhuria.net.eg/ Al-Gomhuria]
* [http://www.elosboa.com/ Al-Osboa]
* [http://www.egyptdailynews.com/ Egypt Daily News]
* [http://www.cairotimes.com/ Cairo Times]
* [http://www.siyassa.org.eg/esiyassa/default.htm/ The International Politics Journal]
* [http://www.egypttoday.com// Egypt Today]
* [http://www.al-araby.com/ Al-Araby Newspaper]
* [http://www.algomhuria.net.eg/gazette/ The Egyptian Gazette]
* [http://www.metimes.com/ Middle East Time]
* [http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/ Business Today]
* [http://www.kelmetnaonline.com/ Kelmetna Online]
* [http://www.al-ahaly.com/ Al-Ahaly Newspaper]
* [http://www.campus-magazine.com/ Campus Magazine Egypt]
* [http://www.egyptinsight.com/ Egypt Insight]
* [http://www.mayoeg.net/ Mayo Newspaper]
* [http://www.sinaitimes.com/ Sinai Times]
* [http://www.watani.com.eg Watani Newspaper]
* [http://www.egysportsmagazine.com/ Egypt Sports]
* [http://www.alkaheranews.gov.eg/ Al-Kahera Newspaper]
* [http://www.rosaonline.net/ Rosa El-Yousef Magazine]
* [http://www.teenstuffonline.com/ Teen Stuff Magazine]
* [http://www.al-mydan.com/ Al-Maydan Newspaper]
* [http://www.charisma-magazine.com/ Charisma Lifestyle Magazine]
* [http://www.elfagr.org/ El-Fagr Newspaper]
* [http://www.arabambassador.org/ Arab Ambassador Newspaper]
* [http://www.alwafd.org/front/index.php?PHPSESSID=61ed4d2f48e9c67afd66d49929b827c1/ Al-Wafd Newspaper]
== Statistics ==
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
8.735 million (2003)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
5,797,500 (2003)
'''Telephone system:'''
large system; underwent extensive upgrading during 1990s and is reasonably modern; Internet access and cellular service are available; [[Internet]] access available
<br>''domestic:''
principal centers at [[Alexandria]], [[Cairo]], [[Al Mansurah]], [[Ismailia]], [[Suez]], and [[Tanta]] are connected by [[coaxial cable]] and [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Indian Ocean]]), 1 [[Arabsat]], and 1 [[Inmarsat]]; 5 coaxial submarine cables; tropospheric scatter to [[Sudan]]; microwave radio relay to [[Israel]]; a participant in [[Medarabtel]] and a signatory to [[Project Oxygen]] (a global submarine [[fiber-optic cable]] system)
'''Radio [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 42 (plus 15 repeater stations), FM 14, shortwave 3 (1999)
'''Radios:'''
20.5 million (1997)
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
98 (September 1995)
'''Televisions:'''
7.7 million (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
31 (1999)
'''[[Country code]]:''' EG
:''See also :'' [[Egypt]]
==References==
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm Public domain text from State.gov]
* [http://www.arabo.com/links/,227,213,209/,213,205,221/ List of Egyptian Newspapers and Magazines]
[[Category:Communications by country|Egypt]]
[[Category:Communications in Egypt| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Egypt</title>
<id>9353</id>
<revision>
<id>37832528</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T11:53:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Transportation in Egypt]] to [[Transport in Egypt]]: part of a series</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Transport]] facilities in [[Egypt]] are centered in [[Cairo]] and largely follow the pattern of settlement along the [[Nile]]. The main line of the nation's 4,800-kilometer (2,800-mi.) [[railway]] network runs from [[Alexandria]] to [[Aswan]]. The well-maintained road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, covering the [[Nile Valley]] and [[Nile Delta]], [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and [[Red Sea]] coasts, the [[Sinai]], and the Western oases.
[[Egypt Air]] provides reliable domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub, in addition to overseas routes. The Nile River system (about 1,600 km. or 1,000 mi.) and the principal canals (1,600 km.) are important locally for transport. <BR>
The [[Suez Canal]] is a major waterway of international commerce and navigation, linking the [[Mediterranean]] and [[Red Sea]]. The ministry of transportation, along with other governmental bodies are responsible for [[Transportation in Egypt|transportation in Egypt]]. Major ports are [[Alexandria]], [[ |
osers|Sullivan, Arthur]]
[[Category:Operetta|Gilbert and Sullivan]]
[[Category:English writers|Gilbert, W. S.]]
[[de:Gilbert und Sullivan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Garfield</title>
<id>13022</id>
<revision>
<id>42112789</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:27:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.103.98.172</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Characters */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Garfield and Odie.gif|right|frame|Garfield (right) and Odie]]
'''''Garfield''''' is a comic strip created by [[Jim Davis (cartoonist)|Jim Davis]] featuring the [[cat]] Garfield, the pet [[dog]] [[List of Garfield characters#Odie|Odie]], and their socially inept owner [[List of Garfield characters#Jon Arbuckle|Jon Arbuckle]]. As of 2006, it is syndicated in roughly 2,570 newspapers and journals and it currently holds the [[Guinness World Record]] for being the world's most widely [[Print syndication|syndicated]] [[comic strip]] [http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=47967]. The popularity of the strip has led to a children's cartoon show, several television specials and a feature-length film, as well as a large amount of ''Garfield''-related [[merchandise]].
The main character is named after Davis' grandfather, James Garfield Davis, who was named after former [[Presidents of the United States|U.S. president]] [[James Garfield]].
==Overview==
''Garfield'' had its debut on [[June 19]], [[1978]], which is also considered Garfield's birthday. The strip pokes fun at pet owners and their relationship with their pets - often portraying the pet as the true master of the home. Garfield also struggles with human problems, such as [[dieting|diet]]s, loathing of Mondays, [[apathy]], [[boredom]], and so on.
Garfield is able to understand anything that Jon or other humans say, but doesn't talk to humans (he communicates to the reader in thought balloons, and Jon reacts to Garfield's thoughts). However, Garfield is able to talk to Odie and the other animals. Odie understands what Garfield says to him, but in general can not communicate back to Garfield except by barking. Most of the other animals (Arlene, Nermal, mice, and the other dogs) are capable of a two-way conversation with Garfield. Garfield apparently is able to type and a few times has written messages that Jon has read and understood (typically letters to [[Santa Claus]]), however this happens very rarely.
Over the course of the strip, Garfield's behavior and appearance evolved. Initially, he was drawn grossly obese with flabby jowls and small round eyes. Later, his appearance was slimmed down and his eyes enlarged. By 1983, his familiar appearance—featuring [[oval]]-shaped eyes—had taken shape. By this time, Garfield was walking on two feet, and the strip emphasized [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] situations such as Garfield making fun of Jon's stupidity and Jon's inability to make social connections. A number of the strip's readers feel that the quality of the writing has lessened, even as the artwork retained a consistent level of quality. Like many comic strips, ''Garfield'' is not exclusively drawn and written by its creator. Jim Davis's company, Paws Inc., employs cartoonists and writers who do most of the work of scripting, drawing, and inking the strip, while Davis's work is usually confined to approving and signing the finished strip. Davis spends most of his time managing the business and merchandising aspects of Garfield.
Learning from the indifference met with his previous comic strip creation [[Gnorm Gnat]], Jim Davis has made a conscious effort to include all readers in Garfield; keeping the jokes broad and the humour general and applicable to everyone. As a result the strip typically avoids the social or political commentary present in some of Garfield's contemporaries, such as ''[[Boondocks]]'', ''[[Doonesbury]]'', ''[[Dilbert]]'', and ''[[Cathy]]''. Although a couple of strips in 1978 addressed inflation and, arguably, [[organized labor]], as well as Jon frequently smoking a pipe or subscribing to a "bachelor magazine", these elements were ultimately pruned from the product with the intent of maintaining a more universal appeal. Davis adamantly disavowed social commentary in an interview published at the beginning of one of the book compilations, joking that he once believed that [[OPEC]] was a [[denture]] adhesive.
The characters and situations in Garfield are often constant, with no change or development for the past several years. While this is not unique to Garfield, as Calvin in ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]'' and the children of ''[[Peanuts]]'' never age, other strips such as ''[[For Better or For Worse]]'', ''Cathy'', and ''Doonesbury'' maintain a continuity with characters who develop, age, and may even die as the strip proceeds.
The comic strip was turned into a cartoon special for television in [[1982 in television|1982]] called ''[[Here Comes Garfield]]''. Actor [[Lorenzo Music]], previously known as the voice of Carlton the doorman on the show ''[[Rhoda]]'', was hired to portray the voice of Garfield. [[Soul music|Soul singer]] [[Lou Rawls]] provided musical accompaniment. Twelve television specials were made (through [[1991 in television|1991]]) as well as a television series, ''[[Garfield and Friends]]'', which ran from [[1988 in television|1988]] to [[1995 in television|1995]].
A live-action movie version of the comic strip, ''[[Garfield (film)| Garfield: The Movie]]'' had its debut in the United States on [[June 11]], [[2004]]. The film employed a [[Computer-generated imagery|computer-animated]] Garfield and live-action Odie. Lorenzo Music had passed away prior to the filming of the movie, and [[Bill Murray]] was cast as the voice of Garfield. Murray's laid-back, deadpan delivery has often been compared to Music's; indeed, Music provided the voice of Murray's [[Peter Venkman]] character in the cartoon version of ''[[Ghostbusters]]''. Murray became the fourth actor to provide a voice for the Garfield: [[Tommy Smothers]] voiced the role in a cat food commercial, and an unnamed Music soundalike was used in another TV spot. Prior to Murray being cast, it was widely reported that actor [[John Goodman]] had been picked to provide Garfield's voice for the film.
For his work on the strip, creator Jim Davis received the [[National Cartoonist Society]] Humor Strip Award for 1981 and 1985, and their [[Reuben Award]] for 1989.
On [[June 7]], [[1999]], newspapers began to be offered full-color ''Garfield'' weekday strips.
==Garfield's Marketing==
* His album: ''[[Am I Cool or What?]]''
* His suction-cupped kitties: "Stuck on You" phenomenon across America and takes several years for production met the demand. The concept was created after an idea trade with [[Scott Adams]] in 1990, which involved what type of object could hold the thing other than sticky items.
* His Fantasy Books: Garfield and friends appear in a series of fantasy books called ''Garfield's Pet Force'' where Garfield, Nermal, Arlene, Odie and Pooky were given [[List of powers in superhero fiction|super powers]] in an alternate dimension.
Garfield's inoffensive, merchandising-oriented approach has been criticized by a number of commentators including ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]'' creator [[Bill Watterson]], whose views against merchandising were explained at great detail in ''The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book''. Watterson, when asked for his opinion of fellow cartoonists, including Jim Davis, once tactfully described Garfield as "consistent". [http://ignatz.brinkster.net/chonk.html] Chris Sullentrop of [[Slate]] accuses Davis of creating Garfield merely for the merchandising [http://www.slate.com/id/2102299/] while internet humorist [[The Best Page in the Universe|"Maddox"]] charges Davis with "traumatizing millions with his bland humor week after tragic week". [http://www.thebestpageintheuniverse.net/c.cgi?u=garfield_sucks]
==Characters==
{{main|List of Garfield characters}}
Major characters in ''Garfield'' include:
; Garfield : The main character. A lazy, overweight, orange [[cat]] who likes eating and sleeping above all. He considers himself to be more intelligent than humans or dogs. Also, he hates Mondays. It was also revealed on [[February 10]] [[1999]] that he has a criminal record.
; Jon : Garfield's owner. He has poor social skills and his attempts at dating women always fail, but Garfield is happy as long as he keeps him fed. His birthday was [[July 28]] [[1950]] as was revealed in the 2005 strip on that date and a strip on [[December 23]] [[1980]] where he declares that he is 30 years old, making Jon currently 55 years old.
; Odie : Jon's pet [[dog]] (although technically owned by Jon's friend Lyman, who hasn't been seen in the strip in well over a decade). A yellow, long-eared dog who is always drooling. He is very stupid and naïve and because of this, Garfield likes to play tricks on him. Sometimes Odie is smart enough to play tricks on Garfield. Odie walks on two legs. Odie didn't appear on the very first comics, debuting on [[August 8]], the day after Lyman.
; Arlene : Garfield's on-and-off girlfriend. A [[pink]] cat with a long neck and a gap in her teeth. She truly loves Garfield, but he's too in love with himself to care.
; Nermal : "The world's cutest [[kitten]]". Garfield hates him when he comes to show everyone how cute he is. Garfield often tries to mail him to [[Abu Dhabi]].
; Liz : A [[veterinarian]]. Garfield hates going to the vet's, but Jon often forces him to. Sometimes the visit is just an excuse for Jon to ask the beautiful Liz out for a date. Also, she claims that Liz is short for Lizard. She may have been joking.
; Pooky : Garfield's teddy bear and best friend. He gives the best hugs in the world.
; Lyman : Once was Jon's roommate and Odie's owner. Stopped appea |
] and is regarded by some as the instrument producing the sound most resembling the human voice.
==Playing Technique==
===Body Position===
The cello is played sitting, with the knees apart and the instrument between them. The scroll, or top, of the instrument is placed by the player's left ear, making the C string closest to the ear and the A string furthest from the ear. The shoulders should be square but relaxed and the arms loose and able to move freely.
In early times, when the cello was played by women, it was positioned to the side of both legs. It was considered improper for a lady to spread her legs in public.
===Left Hand Technique===
The left hand determines the pitch of the note when the cello is played. The hand is positioned either so the thumb is against the back of the neck and the other four fingers are available to depress the strings on the fingerboard or with all five fingers above the fingerboard, the side of the thumb being used as well as the tips of the other fingers (known as "thumb position"). The fingers are usually held curved with each knuckle bent. In fast playing, the fingers contact the strings at the tip, almost at the nail. In slower, or more expressive playing, the flat of the fingerpad is used, allowing a richer tone and fuller vibrato. If the string is depressed further down the string, closer to the bridge, the resulting pitch will be higher because the string has been shortened. If it is depressed further up the string, closer to the scroll of the instrument, the pitch will be lower.
====Additional Left Hand Techniques====
; Vibrato : [[Vibrato]] consists of oscillating the finger of the left hand up and down while playing a note. As a result, the pitch of the note will waver slightly, much as a singer's voice on a sustained note. A well developed vibrato technique is a key expressive device and an essential element of an accomplished cello player. In some styles of music, such as that of the [[Romantic Music|Romantic]] period, vibrato is used on almost every note. However, in other styles, such as [[Baroque]] pieces, vibrato is not used, or used only rarely. A good vibrato comes from the arm, not the fingers or wrist, and requires a loose shoulder. Typically, the lower the pitch of the note played, the wider the vibrato used.
; Glissandi : [[Glissandi]] are notes played by sliding the finger up or down the fingerboard without releasing the string. This causes the pitch to rise and fall smoothly, without [[discrete]] steps.
; Harmonics : [[Harmonics]] are produced by touching, but not depressing, the string with the finger at certain places, and then bowing or plucking the string. For example, the halfway point of the string will produce a harmonic that is one octave above the unfingered string. There also exist fingered, or artificial harmonics, in which the player depressed the string with one finger and presses light to produce a harmonic further up the string with a second finger.
===Right Hand Technique===
In cello playing, the bow is much like the breath of a [[wind instrument]] player. Arguably, it is the major determinant in the expressiveness of the playing. The right hand holds the bow and controls the duration and character of the notes. The bow is drawn over along the strings in the area between the [[fingerboard]] and bridge, in a direction perpendicular to the strings. The bow is gripped with all five fingers of the right hand. The shape of the hand should resemble that of its relaxed state, with all fingers curved, including the thumb, and the wrist pronated. The index finger, and to a lesser degree the middle finger transmit most of the arm weight into the bow. The other two fingers help to control the bow.
On a "down-bow", the bow is drawn towards the right, moving the hand away from the bridge. On an "up-bow", the bow is drawn the other way, bringing the hand closer to the bridge. The bow is always held perpendicular to the string being played. Each string requires a slightly different angle of the bow. The wrist is kept extremely flexible, and cushions the movement of the bow to avoid abrupt changes, especially during the switch from up-bow to down-bow and vice versa. For very fast bow movements, the wrist is used to accomplish the horizontal movement of bow. For longer strokes, the arm is used as well as the wrist.
Tone production and volume of sound depend on a combination of several factors, including bow speed, the amount of weight applied to the string, and the bow placement, or spot on the string touched by the bow hair. A good player will be capable of a very even tone, and will counter the natural tendency to play with the most force with the part of the bow nearest to the frog or heel, and the least force near the tip. The closer to the bridge the string is bowed, the louder and brighter the tone, with the extreme (''sul ponticello'') producing a metalic, shimmery sound. If it is bowed closer to the fingerboard (''sul tasto''), the sound produced will be softer, more mellow, and less defined.
====Additonal Right Hand Techniques====
; Double Stops : [[Double stop|Double stops]] involve the playing of two notes at the same time. Two strings are fingered simultaneously, and the bow is drawn at an angle so as to sound them both at once. Triple and quadruple stops may also be played, but are difficult to sustain.
; Pizzicato : In [[pizzicato]] playing, the string is plucked with the right hand fingers, or very rarely those of the left hand, and the bow is simply held away from the strings by the rest of the hand or even set down. A single string can be played ''pizzicato,'' or double, triple, or quadruple stops can be played. Ocassionally, a player must bow one string with the right hand and simultaneously pluck another with the left.
; Col Legno : [[Col legno]] is technique in which the player taps the wooden stick of the bow on the strings, which gives a light percussive sound that is quite often used in contemporary music.
; Spiccato : In [[Spiccato]], or "bouncy bow" playing, the strings are not "drawn" by the bow but struck by it, while still retaining some horizontal motion, to form a more percussive, crisp sound. It may be performed by using the wrist to "dip" the bow into the strings. Spiccato is usually associated with lively playing. On a violin, ''spiccato'' bowing comes off the string, but on a cello, the wood of the bow may rise briskly up without the hair leaving the string.
==Tuning and range==
The cello has four [[Vibrating string|strings]] referred to by their standard tuning, which is in [[perfect fifth]] intervals: the A-string, D-string, G-string, and C-string. The A-string is tuned to the pitch A3 (which is three [[half-step|half-steps]] lower than [[middle C]]), the D-string a fifth lower at D3, the G-string a fifth below that at G2, and the C-string tuned to C2 (two [[octave|octaves]] lower than [[middle C]]). Cellos are usually tuned to a reference pitch of A4 at 440 [[hertz|Hz]], though tuning to other frequencies, such as 442 [[hertz|Hz]] or 444 [[hertz|Hz]] is also common. Some pieces, notably the 5th of Bach's ''[[Cello Suites (Bach)|6 Suites for Unaccompanied Cello]]'', require an altered tuning of the strings, known as [[scordatura]].
While the lower range is constrained by the tuning of the lowest string (typically C2, two octaves below [[middle C]]), the upper range of the cello can vary according to the skill of the player. A general guideline when writing for professional cellists sets the upper limit at C6 (two octaves above middle C). Because of the enormous range of the instrument, written music for the cello frequently alternates between the bass [[clef]], tenor clef, and treble clef. Some romantic composers also wrote notes in [[treble clef]], but intended them to be played an octave lower than written.
==Sizes==
Standard cellos are referred to as "full-sized", or "four-fourths". However, cellos come in smaller sizes, from "seven-eighths" and "three-quarter" down to "one-sixteenth" sized cellos. The smaller-sized cellos are identical to standard cellos, but are simply 'scaled-down' for the benefit of children and shorter adults. Many smaller female cellists prefer to play a "seven-eighths" cello as the hand stretches in the lower positions are less taxing. Although rare, cellos in sizes larger than four-fourths do exist. Cellists with large enough hands may play a slightly larger full-sized cello, or even a five-fourths size. The cellos of the 17th- and 18th-century masters (e.g. [[Stradivarius]] and [[Guarneri]]) tend to be slightly smaller than what is today considered full-sized.
==Accessories==
There are many accessories to the cello, (some more essential than others).
*[[Case]]s are used to protect the cello and bow when traveling, and for safe storage.
*[[Rosin]] is applied to the bow hairs to increase the effectiveness of the friction and allow proper sound production.
*[[Rockstop]]s or endpin straps keep the cello from sliding if the endpin does not have a rubber piece on the end (used on wood floors).
*[[Wolf tone eliminator]]s are sometimes placed on cello strings between the tailpiece and the bridge in order to eliminate noises known as [[wolf tone|wolf tones]] or "wolfs".
*[[Mute (music)|Mutes]] are used to change the sound of the cello by removing [[overtones]].
*[[Metronome]]s provide a steady [[tempo]] by sounding out a certain number of beats per minute. Many models can also produce a [[tuning]] pitch of A4 (440 Hz).
*[[Humidifier]]s are used to control the humidity around the cello.
*[[Frequency counter|Tuners]] are used to [[tuning|tune]] the instrument.
==Current use==
===Orchestral===
Cellos are part of the standard [[symphony orchestra]]. Usually, the orchestra includes eight to twelve cellists. The cello |
f the Titans
*[[Zeus]] - god of sky and air, chief Olympian
See also [[Demigod]]s, the [[Dryad|Dryads]], the [[Fates]], the [[Erinyes]], the [[Graces]], the [[Horae]], the [[Muses]], the [[Nymph|Nymphs]], the [[Pleiades (mythology)|Pleiades]], the [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]]
==[[Gnosticism|Gnostic]]==
* [[Sophia]]
* [[Christ]]
* [[Yaldabaoth]], [[YHWH|Yao]], Saklas, [[Samael]], the Demiurge
* [[Aeon]]s
* [[Archon]]s
== [[Guarani mythology|Guarani]] ==
*[[Abaangui]]
*[[Jurupari]]
*[[Tupa]]
== [[Haida mythology|Haida]] ==
*[[Gyhldeptis]]
*[[Lagua]]
*[[Nankil'slas]]
*[[Sin (Haida)|Sin]]
*[[Ta'axet]]
*[[Tia]]
== [[Hindu]] ==
*[[Brahman]], the one and only (formless) supreme aspect of God. The Universe in Potential Static Energy
*[[Bhagavan]], the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Superior to God's formless aspect.
* Adi - Shakti, the Female aspcet of Supreme Divine in Kinetic Dynamic Form.
* The Three Maha Shaktis (Super Powers) of the Universe or the Super Goddesses In Hinduism
** MahaSaraswati (Great Saraswati) - Universal Force of Creation
** MahaLakshmi (Great Lakshmi) - Universal Force of Preservation
** MahaKali (Great Kali) - Universal Force of Disolussion
*[[Saguna Brahman]], or God with attributes, symbolized as The [[Ishvar]]s (known collectively as the [[Trimurti]]):
**[[Brahma (god)|Brahmâ]], the creator
**[[Vishnu]], the sustainer
*** Avatats(Incarnations) of Vinshnu
**** Matsya Avatar - Fish Incarnation
**** Kurma Avatrar - Tortoise Incarnation
**** Varah Avatar - Boar Incarnation
**** Vaman Avatar - Dwarf Incarnation
**** Narashima Avatar - Man-Lion Incarnation
**** Rama Avatar - Incarnation as the Epic King in Ramayana
**** Krishna Avatar - Incarnation as the Epic Prince in Maha Bharata
**** Budha Avatar - Incarnation as Gautam Buddha - Founder of Buddhism
**** Kalki Avatar - The Avatar yet to come on the onset of Apocalpse
** [[Shiva]], the destroyer
*The [[Adityas]]
**[[Indra]] - god of weather and war
**[[Mitra]] - god of honesty, friendship and contracts
**[[Ravi]], [[Surya]] - [[solar deity|the Sun gods]]
**[[Varuna]] - god of the oceans and rivers
**[[Yama]] - god of death
Some of the most important [[Deva]]s:
*[[Agni]] - god of fire
*The [[Asura]]
*The [[Aswini]] - gods of sunrise and sunset
*[[Dyaus-pitar]] - ('Heaven-father') cognate of the [[Roman mythology|Roman]] god [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]]
*[[Ganesh]] - god of wisdom, intelligence, education and prudence
*[[Hanuman]]
*[[Kali]], the fearsome dark goddess
*[[Khatushyamji]] - [[Kaliyuga]] ''[[avatar]]'' of [[Krishna]]
*[[Krishna]] - eighth ''[[avatar]]'' of [[Vishnu]]. Krishna is seen as the original form of God by [[Gaudiya Vaishnavas]].
*[[Lakshmi]] - goddess of fortune, luck, beauty and fertility
*[[Parjanya]]
*[[Parvati]] or [[Parvathi]], [[wife]] of [[Shiva]]
*[[Prithivi mata]] - the Earth goddess
*[[Purusha]] - the Cosmic-Man
*The [[Rudras]] - the storm deities
*[[Saraswathi|Saraswati]] - goddess of intelligence, consciousness and cosmic knowledge
*[[Soma]] - the [[lunar deity]]
*[[Ushas]]
*[[Vasu|Vasus]], the
*[[Vayu]] - god of wind
* The [[Visvedevas]]
** [[Ishvara]] - One who gives prosperity.
** [[Hari]] - One who destroys sins (obstacles on the way to Moksha (liberation from the cycles of birth-death-birth)).
** [[Narayana]] - The final destination towards which all individual souls are travelling.
== [[Ho-Chunk mythology|Ho-Chunk]] ==
*[[Kokopelli]]
== [[Hopi mythology|Hopi]] ==
*[[Aholi]]
*[[Angwusnasomtaka]]
*[[Kokopelli]]
*[[Koyangwuti]]
*[[Muyingwa]]
*[[Taiowa]]
*[[Toho]]
See also [[kachina]]
== [[Huron mythology|Huron]] ==
*[[Iosheka]]
*[[Airesekui]]
*[[Heng]]
== [[Ibo mythology|Ibo]] ==
*[[Aha Njoku]]
*[[Ala (mythology)|Ala]]
*[[Chuku]]
== [[Incan mythology|Incan]] ==
*[[Inti|Inti/Punchau]]
*[[Inca mythology|Kon]]
*[[Mama Cocha]]
*[[Mama Quilla]]
*[[Manco Capac]]
*[[Pacha Camac]]
*[[Viracocha]]
*[[Inca mythology|Zaramama]]
== [[Inuit mythology|Inuit]] ==
*[[Igaluk]]
*[[Nanook]]
*[[Nerrivik]]
*[[Pinga]]
*[[Sedna (deity)|Sedna]]
*[[Torngasoak]]
== [[Iroquois mythology|Iroquois]] ==
*[[Adekagagwaa]]
*[[Gaol]]
*[[Gendenwitha]]
*[[Gohone]]
*[[Hahgwehdaetgan]]
*[[Hahgwehdiyu]]
*[[Onatha]]
== [[Islam]]ic ==
*[[Allah]]
== [[Isoko mythology|Isoko]] ==
*[[Cghene]]
== [[Japanese mythology|Japanese]] ==
*[[Aji-Suki-Taka-Hiko-Ne]] - god of thunder
*[[Amaterasu]] - sun goddess
*[[Amatsu Mikaboshi]] - god of evil
*[[Ama-no-Uzume]] - fertility goddess
*[[Chimata-No-Kami]] - god of crossroads, highways and footpaths
*[[Ho-Musubi]] - god of fire
*[[Inari (mythology)]] - god of rice
*[[Izanagi]] - creator god
*[[Izanami]] - creator goddess
*[[Kagu-tsuchi]] - god of fire <!-- "Kawa no kami" is not a proper noun but a direct translation of "god of rivers"; there are many "Kawa no kami" and more and more many "Something no kami" in Japan. But they are less known.-->
*[[Kura-Okami]] - god of rain
*[[Nai-No-Kami]] - god of earthquakes
*[[O-Kuni-Nushi]] - god of sorcery and medicine
*[[O-Wata-Tsu-Mi]] - god of the sea
*[[Sengen-Sama]] - goddess of the [[Mt. Fujiyama]]
*[[Seven Gods of Fortune]]
**[[Benzaiten|Benzai-ten]] or Benten - goddess of money, eloquent persuasion, and knowledge
**[[Bishamonten|Bishamon-ten]] - god of happiness and war
**[[Daikokuten|Daikoku-ten]]
**[[Fukurokuju]]
**[[Hotei|Hotei-osho]]
**[[Jurojin]]
**[[Yebisu]] or Ebisu
*[[Shina-Tsu-Hiko]] - god of wind
*[[Shina-To-Be]] - goddess of wind
*[[Sojobo]] - king of the [[tengu]]
*[[Susanoo]] - god of storms and thunder, snakes and farming.
*[[Taka-Okami]] - god of rain
*[[Take-Mikazuchi]] - god of thunder
<!-- *[[Tatari aki]] - god of vengeance -->
*[[Tengu]] - minor trickster deities
*[[Tsuku-Yomi]] - god of the moon
*[[Uke-Mochi]] - goddess of food
*[[Wakahiru-Me]] - goddess of the dawn sun
:''see also'' [[Kami]], [[List of divinities in Japanese mythology]]
== [[Judaism|Judaic]] ==
*[[Adonai]]/[[Names of God in Judaism#Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh|Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh]]/[[El (god)|El]]/[[Elohim]]/[[Shaddai]]/[[Names of God in Judaism#Shalom|Shalom]]/[[Names of God in Judaism#Yah|Yah]]/[[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]]/[[Names of God in Judaism#YHWH Tzevaot/Sabaoth|YHWH Tzevaot]] (God)
*[[Shekinah]] (the Presence of God; not an independent deity, but sometimes treated as if it were by the mystically inclined)
== [[Khoikhoi mythology|Khoikhoi]] ==
*[[Gamab]]
*[[Heitsi-eibib]]
*[[Tsui'goab]]
== Modern Western mythology ==
In addition to the gods listed elsewhere, there are several mythological beings spoken of in current [[Western world|Western culture]].
*The [[Death (personification)|Grim Reaper]] - A common [[anthropomorphism]] of Death
*[[Eris]], adopted deity of [[Discordianism]]
*[[Father Time]]
*[[Gremlin|Gremlins]] - mythical beings that damage aircraft and cause other mechanical mayhem
*[[Hotei]] - A Laughing Buddha
*[[Invisible Pink Unicorn]] - From alt.[[atheism]], a fictional deity said to be the bane of theists everywhere.
*[[J. R. "Bob" Dobbs]] from the [[Church of the SubGenius]]
*[[Luck|Lady Luck]] - Invoked by [[gambling|gamblers]]
*[[Gaia (mythology)|Mother Nature]]
*[[Santa Claus]] - In most parts of the world, originally [[Nicholas of Myra]], but in the [[UK]] originally the [[Green Man]], later turned into Father Christmas.
*The [[Tooth Fairy]]
*The [[Easter Bunny]]
*The Man on the Moon
*The Acne Monster
*The [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]]
See also [[Kitchen Gods]].
== [[!Xũ mythology|!Xũ]] ==
*[[Prishiboro]]
*[[Mantis]]
== [[Kwakiutl mythology|Kwakiutl]] ==
*[[Kewkwaxa'we]]
== [[Lakota mythology|Lakota]] ==
*[[Canopus (deity)|Canopus]]
*[[Haokah]]
*[[Whope]]
*[[Wi]]
== [[Lotuko mythology|Lotuko]] ==
*[[Ajok]]
== [[Latvian mythology|Latvian]] ==
*[[Auseklis]]
*Dēkla
*[[Dievs]]
*Jumis
*Kārta
*[[Laima]]
*[[Māra (goddess)|Māra]]
*[[Perkūnas|Pērkons]]
*Saule
*Ūsiņš
etc.
== [[Lugbara mythology|Lugbara]] ==
*[[Adroa]]
*[[Adroanzi]]
== [[Lusitani mythology|Lusitani]] ==
[[Lusitania|Lusitanian]] (or Ancient [[Portugal|Portuguese]]) Gods were later related with the Celtic and [[Roman mythology|Roman]] invaders. The Lusitani people adopted the Celt and Roman cults and influenced them with theirs. Many Lusitani gods were adopted by the Romans.
*[[Atégina]]
*[[Ares Lusitani]]
*[[Bandonga]]
*[[Bormanico]]
*[[Cariocecus]]
*[[Duberdicus]]
*[[Endovelicus]]
*[[Mars Cariocecus]]
*[[Nabia]]
*[[Nantosvelta]]
*[[Runesocesius]]
*[[Sucellus]]
*[[Tongoenabiagus]]
*[[Trebaruna]]
*[[Turiacus]]
== [[Maya mythology|Mayan]] ==
*[[Ahaw Kin]] - Sun God
*[[Chaac]] - Rain God
*[[Yum Kaax]] - Corn God
*[[Kukulcan]] - Feathered Serpent God
*[[Xbalanque]] - God of the Jaguar
*[[Hunah Ku]] - Creator God
*[[Xi Balba]] - God of the Death
*[[Ix Chel]] - Moon Goddess
*[[Itzamna]] - Reptile Creator God
*[[Bolon tza cab]] - Ruling God of All
*[[Balac]] - War God
*[[Bacabs]] - Gods of the 4 directions
*[[Balam]] - Protector God
== [[Mesopotamian mythology|Mesopotamian]] ==
{{Mesopotamian myth (50)}}
*[[Anshar]] - father of heaven
*[[Anu]] - the god of the highest heaven
*[[Apsu]] - the ruler of gods and underworld oceans
*[[Ashur]] - national god of the Assyrians
*[[Damkina]] - Earth mother goddess
*[[Enki|Ea]] - god of wisdom
*[[Enlil]] - god of weather and storms
*[[Ninurta]] - god of war
*[[Ereshkigal]] - Goddes of Darkness, Death, and Gloom
*[[Hadad]] - weather god
*[[Ishtar]] - goddess of love (Gingira in Akkadian)
*[[Kingu]] - husband of Tiamat
*[[Kishar]] - father of earth
*[[Marduk]] - national god of the Babylonians
*[[Mummu]] - god of mists
*[[Nabu]] - god of the scribal arts
*[[Nintu]] - mother of all gods
*[[Shamash]] - god of the sun and of justice (Shapash in Ugaritic, Shamsa in Sumerian)
*[[Sin (mythology)|Sin]] - moon god
*[[Tiamat]] - dragon goddess
== [[Navaho mythology|Navaho]] ==
*[[Ahsonnutli]]
*[[Bikeh Hozho]]
*[[Estanatelhi]]
*[[Glispa]]
*[[Hasteoltoi]]
*[[Hastshehogan]]
*[[Tonenili]]
*[[Tsohanoai]]
*[[Yo |
ve the environment and reduce resource consumption, while delivering safe, economical, and effective products to the motoring public. Vehicles with this emblem are generally [[alternative fuel]] or [[flexible-fuel vehicle]]s. The alternative fuel vehicles, such as some versions of the [[Crown Victoria]] especially in fleet and taxi service, operate on [[compressed natural gas]] - or [[CNG]]. Some CNG vehicles have duel fuel tanks - one for gasoline, the other for CNG - the same engine can operate on either fuel via a selector switch. Flexible fuel vehicles are designed to operate automatically on a wide range of available fuel mixtures - from pure gasoline, to [[ethanol]]-gasoline blends such as [[E85]] (85% ethanol, 15% gasoline). Part of the challenge of successful marketing alternative and flexible fuel vehicles, is the general lack of establishment of sufficient [[infrastructure]] (fueling stations), which would be essential for these vehicles to be attractive to a wide range of consumers.
Ford was third to market with a [[hybrid car]] &mdash; the [[Ford Escape Hybrid]], and the first to market with a Hybrid SUV / Crossover. The Hybrid Escape will also be the first hybrid vehicle to market with a Flexible Fuel capability to run on [[E85]] ethanol-gasoline mixture [http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22474]. The company is on track to selling 250,000 hybrids a year by [[2010]].
Ford hybrids:
* 2004&ndash; [[Ford Escape Hybrid]]
* 2006&ndash; [[Mercury Mariner]]
* 2008&ndash; [[Ford Fusion]]/[[Mercury Milan]]
* 2009&ndash; [[Ford Five Hundred]]/[[Mercury Montego]]
* 2009&ndash; [[Ford Edge]]/[[Lincoln MKX]]
== Motorsports ==
[[Image:99officedepot-pr.jpg|right|thumb|160px|NASCAR driver [[Carl Edwards]] of [[Roush Racing]] stands by his Ford Taurus.]]
Ford has been active in a number of forms of motor sports.
===NASCAR===
Ford is one of four manufacturers in the three [[NASCAR]] series: [[Nextel Cup]], [[Busch Series]], and [[Craftsman Truck Series]]. Major teams include [[Roush Racing]] and [[Robert Yates Racing]]. Ford's racing teams debut the [[Ford Fusion (North American)|Fusion]] race car, replacing the [[Ford Taurus|Taurus]], at the 2006 [[Daytona 500]].
===Champ Car World Series===
Ford-Cosworth is currently the sole supplier of engines to the Champ Car World Series.
===Trans-Am===
Ford has a storied history in the [[Trans-Am]] series from the 1970s through today having won many championships and races with its [[Ford Mustang]].
===Drag racing===
John Force has piloted his Drag [[Ford Mustang]] to several [[NHRA]] funny-car titles in recent seasons.
===Indianapolis 500===
Ford powered racing cars have won the [[Indianapolis 500]] many times.
[[Image:Stewart gp barrichello 1998.jpg|right|thumb|160px|[[Rubens Barrichello]] driving for the [[Stewart Grand Prix]] team in 1998.]]
'''Formula One'''
Ford was heavily involved in [[Formula One]] for many years, and supplied engines to a large number of constructors from 1967 until 2004. These engines were designed and manufactured by [[Cosworth]], the racing division of which was owned by Ford from 1998 to 2004. Ford entered Formula One as a constructor in 2000 under the [[Jaguar Racing]] name, after buying out the [[Stewart Grand Prix]] team it had become increasingly involved in. The team achieved little success, and after a turbulent four seasons, Ford pulled out of F1 after the [[2004 Formula One season|2004 season]], selling both Jaguar Racing (which became [[Red Bull Racing]]) and Cosworth.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula_one/default.stm]
===Rally===
Ford has also been active many years in the [[World Rally Championship]], and has used various versions of the [[Ford Focus WRC]] since 1999 to much success. Ford has a very long history in rally racing, having previously run the [[Ford RS200]] and many versions of the [[Ford Escort]] to great success.
===Sports cars===
Ford sports cars have always been visible in the world of endurance racing. Most notably the [[GT40]] won the prestigious 24 hours of LeMans many times in the 1960s and still stands today as one of the all-time greatest racing cars.
===Touring cars===
Ford has campaigned touring cars such as the [[Ford Focus|Focus]], [[Ford Falcon|Falcon]], and [[Ford Contour|Contour]]/[[Ford Mondeo|Mondeo]] and the [[Ford Sierra|Sierra]] [[Cosworth]] in many different series throughout the years. Notably the Mondeo finished 1,2,3 in the [[BTCC]] in 2000.
==References==
#Ford Motor Company. ''2003 Annual Report''. Rochester, New York:St Ives Inc Case-Hoyt. [http://www.ford.com/en/company/investorInformation/companyReports/annualReports/]
#{{note|fordhistory}} [http://www.ford.com/en/heritage/history/default.htm Ford Motor Company - History]
#{{note|jan23-washpost}} [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/23/AR2006012300339.html Ford to Cut Thousands of Jobs and Close 14 Factories]. ''Washington Post''. [[January 23]] [[2006]].
==See also==
*[[List of Ford vehicles]]
*[[List of Ford factories]]
*[[List of Ford engines]]
*[[List of Ford platforms]]
*[[List of Ford VIN codes]]
*[[CEO of Ford Motor Company]]
*[[EPA 2004 fuel economy report appendix M2#Ford|EPA 2004 fuel economy report (Ford)]]
*[[Firestone vs Ford Motor Company controversy]]
*[[Dodge v. Ford Motor Company]]
==External links==
{{commonscat|Ford}}
*[http://www.ford.com/en/heritage/history/default.htm Ford Basic History site]
*[http://www.ford.com/en/heritage/centennial/default.htm Ford 100th Anniversary History Site]
*[http://www.ford.com/en/heritage/fordFamily/default.htm Ford Family - History]
*[http://www.ford.com/ Ford Motor Company Home Page]
*[http://www.fordvehicles.com/ Ford Vehicles Home Page]
*[http://www.forddirect.fordvehicles.com/ Ford Direct] - Get A Free Price Quote, Build Your Vehicle, Search Dealer Inventory, View Pricing Details, Compare Trims, See Latest Incentives And Offers
*[http://www.fordmuscle.com FORDMUSCLE.COM] - Webmagazine. High Performance Technical Content]
*[http://smartguide.fordvehicles.com/View.jsp?spaceName=Cars Ford Cars Smart Guide]
*[http://smartguide.fordvehicles.com/View.jsp?spaceName=SUVs Ford SUVs Smart Guide]
*[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=105&STORY=/www/story/07-27-2000/0001276963 Ford Commits to Major SUV Fuel Economy Gains]
*[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=105&STORY=/www/story/04-07-2004/0002147628 Ford Escape Hybrid Sets SUV Mileage Record in 37-Hour Non-Stop Driving Test on a Tank of Gas]
*[http://www.blueovalnews.com Blueovalnews.com a fan information site]
*[http://www.fordeurope.net FordEurope.net - independent portal site about Ford of Europe]
*[http://fordbelgium.forumactif.com/ Independent portal site about Ford of Belgium]
*[http://www.fordracing.com Ford Racing home page - Racing News and fan information site]
*[http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22465 Bill Ford's ''The Way Forward'' speech text - 23 Jan 2006]
*[http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22464 Mark Field's ''The Way Forward'' speech text - 23 Jan 2006]
{{Ford}}
{{Ford Motor Company}}
[[Category:1903 establishments]]
[[Category:Companies based in Michigan]]
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[[Category:Family business]]
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<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:20:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
<id>7580</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.169.169.189|216.169.169.189]] ([[User talk:216.169.169.189|talk]]) to last version by Wayward</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Female.svg|right|thumb|120px|The mirror of the Roman Goddess [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] is often used to represent the female sex.]]
{{otheruses}}
'''Female''' is the [[sex]] of an [[organism]], or a part of an organism, which produces [[ovum]] (egg cells). The ova are defined as the larger [[gamete]]s in a [[heterogamous]] reproduction system, while the smaller, usually [[motile]] gamete, the [[spermatozoon]] is produced by the [[male]]. A female individual cannot reproduce [[sexual reproduction|sexually]] without access to the gametes of a [[male]]. Some organisms can reproduce both [[sexual reproduction|sexually]] and [[Asexual reproduction|asexually]].
There is no single genetic mechanism behind sex differences in different species, and the existence of two sexes seems to have [[evolution|evolved]] multiple times independently in different [[lineage (evolution)|evolutionary lineages]]. Other than the defining difference in the type of gamete produced, differences between males and females in one lineage cannot always be predicted by differences in another. The concept is not limited to [[animal]]s; egg cells are produced by [[chytrid]]s, [[diatom]]s, [[water mold]]s, and [[plant|land plants]], among others. In land plants, 'female' and 'male' designate not only the egg- and sperm-producing organisms and structures, but also the structures of the [[sporophyte]]s that give rise to male and female plants.
==Sex determination==
{{main|Sex-determination system}}
The sex of a particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or environmental, or may naturally change during the course of an organism's life. Although most species with male and female sexes have indivi |
the incoming [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government in [[1997]].
==Post Cold War==
Since [[1994]], GCHQ activities have been subject to scrutiny by Parliament's [[Intelligence and Security Committee]].
Post-[[Cold War]], the aims of GCHQ were set out by the [[UK Intelligence Services Act of 1994|Intelligence Services Act]] (1994).
At the end of 2003, GCHQ moved to a new 'doughnut' shaped HQ, at the time the second largest public sector building project in Europe with an estimated cost of £337 million<ref>[http://www.designbuild-network.com/projects/gchq/]</ref>. The new building is the base for all of GCHQ's [[Cheltenham]] operations.
GCHQ gains its intelligence by monitoring a wide variety of communications and other electronic signals. For this a number of stations have been established in the UK and overseas which are run by the Composite Signals Organisation for GCHQ. The Composite Signals Organisation Station, at Morwenstow near [[Bude]], [[Cornwall]] is directly subordinate to GCHQ. The listening stations are at Cheltenham itself, GCHQ CSO Morwenstow, GCHQ CSO [[Ascension Island]], with the Americans at [[Menwith Hill]], and the [[Columbia Annex]] (CANX).
In addition to SIGINT, GCHQ provides assistance to Government Departments on their own communications security. This task is given to the '''Communications-Electronics Security Group (CESG)''' of GCHQ. CESG is the [[United Kingdom|UK]] national technical authority for [[information assurance]], including [[cryptography]]. CESG does not manufacture security equipment, but works with industry to ensure the availability of suitable products and services, while GCHQ itself can fund research into such areas, for example to the [[Centre for Quantum Computing]] at [[Oxford University]].
==ECHELON==
GCHQ, in combination with the equivalent agencies in the [[United States]] ([[NSA]]), [[Canada]] ([[Communications Security Establishment]]) and [[Australia]] ([[Defence Signals Directorate]]) and otherwise known as the [[UKUSA]] group, is believed to be responsible for, among other things, the operation of the [[ECHELON]] system. Its capabilities are suspected to include the ability to monitor a large proportion of the world's transmitted civilian telephone, fax and data traffic.
The public spotlight fell on GCHQ in late 2003 and early 2004 following the sacking of [[Katharine Gun]] after she leaked a confidential email from agents at the American [[National Security Agency]] to GCHQ agents about the wire-tapping of UN delegates in the run-up to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq war]].
==GCHQ and the constitution==
GCHQ actually determined the scope of judicial review on prerogative (residual powers from common law) in a very controversial case. This occurred in "Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 347". In this case, a prerogative order in council was used by the Prime minister to ban trade union activities by civil servants working at GCHQ. This order was issued without consultation. The House of Lords had to decide whether this was reviewable by Judicial Review. It was held that executive action is not immune from Judicial Review because it is carried out in the pursuit of power derived from common law. (i.e. prerogative is reviewable). Controversially, they also held that though the failure to consult was unfair, it was overriden by concerns of national security.
==Leadership==
The following is a list of the heads of GCHQ and GC&CS [http://archives.his.com/intelforum/2003-June/msg00019.html], [http://archives.his.com/intelforum/2003-June/msg00028.html]:
* [[Alastair Denniston]] ([[1921]]-[[1944]])
* Sir [[Edward Travis]] ([[1944]]-[[1952]])
* Sir [[Eric Jones]] ([[1952]]-[[1960]])
* Sir [[Clive Loehnis]] ([[1960]]-[[1964]])
* Sir [[Leonard Hooper]] ([[1965]]-[[1973]])
* Sir [[Arthur Bonsall]] ([[1973]]-[[1978]])
* Sir [[Brian John Maynard Tovey]] ([[1978]]-[[1983]])
* Sir [[Peter Marychurch]] ([[1983]]-[[1989]])
* Sir [[John Anthony Adye]] ([[1989]]-[[1996]])
* Sir [[David Omand]] (July [[1996]]-December [[1997]])
* [[Kevin Tebbit]] (January [[1998]]-July [[1998]])
* [[Francis Richards]] (July [[1998]]-April [[2003]])
* Sir [[David Pepper]] (April [[2003]] to present)
==See also==
* [[Bletchley Park]]
* [[MI8]]
* [[Zircon (satellite)|Zircon]], the cancelled GCHQ satellite project
* [[Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander|Hugh Alexander]] &mdash; head of cryptanalysis at GCHQ from [[1949]]&ndash;[[1971]]
* [[Alan Turing]]
==References==
* Michael Smith, Station X, Channel 4 Books, 1998, ISBN 0330419293.
<references/>
==External links==
* [http://www.gchq.gov.uk/ GCHQ homepage]
* [http://www.cesg.gov.uk/ CESG homepage]
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/world/uk/gchq/index.html Unofficial page on GCHQ]
* [http://www.secret-bases.co.uk/ UK Secret Bases]
{{Signals agency}}
{{UK Intelligence Agencies}}
[[Category:GCHQ|*]]
[[Category:Organizations in cryptography]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British organisations]]
[[Category:United Kingdom intelligence agencies]]
[[de:Government Communications Headquarters]]
[[fr:Government Communications Headquarters]]
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[[sv:Government Communications Headquarters]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>GCHQ</title>
<id>12885</id>
<revision>
<id>15910536</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Government Communications Headquarters]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Naming conventions (Polish rulers)</title>
<id>12887</id>
<revision>
<id>39321547</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T09:15:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Francis Schonken</username>
<id>85402</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Moving old table to talk page; Importing new table-by-template (=same table as on talk page)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{proposed}}
reactivating as proposal, [[List of Polish monarchs]] was not really the good place to try and sort out ''guidelines''. --[[User:Francis Schonken|Francis Schonken]] 16:30, 29 January 2006 (UTC)
----
{{Wikipedia:Naming conventions (Polish rulers)/table}}
== See also ==
* [[List of Polish rulers]]
* [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions (names and titles)]]
[[Category:Wikipedia naming conventions|Polish rulers, guidelines for the spelling of names]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gary Powers</title>
<id>12888</id>
<revision>
<id>41313889</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T14:05:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nobunaga24</username>
<id>830002</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francis-Gary-Powers model nasm.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Francis Gary Powers with a model of the U-2.]]
'''Francis Gary Powers''' ([[August 17]], [[1929]] &ndash; [[August 1]], [[1977]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Aviator|pilot]] whose [[Lockheed U-2|U-2 spy plane]] was shot down while over the [[Soviet Union]], thus causing the [[U-2 Crisis of 1960]].
He was born in [[Jenkins, Kentucky]] and was raised in [[Pound, Virginia]], on the [[Virginia]]-[[Kentucky]] border. After graduating from Milligan College in Eastern [[Tennessee]], Gary enlisted in the [[United States Air Force|USAF]] in [[1950]]. Upon completing his training (52-H) he was assigned to the 468th Strategic Fighter Squadron at Turner Air Force Base, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] as an [[F-84 Thunderjet]] pilot. He was assigned to operations in the [[Korean War]], but (according to his son) was recruited by the [[CIA]] because of his outstanding record in single engine [[jet aircraft]], soon after recovering from an illness. He left the Air Force with the rank of [[captain]] in [[1956]], to join the CIA [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] program.
U-2 pilots carried out [[espionage]] missions over hostile countries including the [[Soviet Union]], systematically photographing military installations and other important intelligence targets. Powers' U-2, which was stationed at [[Incirlik Air Base]], [[Turkey]], was shot down by a [[surface-to-air missile]] on [[1 May]] [[1960]] over [[Yekaterinburg|Sverdlovsk]]; he was convicted of espionage against the Soviet Union and sentenced to 3 years imprisonment and 7 years of hard labor. However, on [[10 February]] [[1962]], twenty-one months after his capture, he was exchanged along with American student [[Frederic Pryor]] in a spy swap for Soviet [[KGB]] [[Colonel]] [[Vilyam Genrikhovich Fisher|Vilyam Fisher]] (aka [[Rudolf Abel]]) at the [[Glienicke bridge]] in [[Potsdam]], [[Germany]].
[[Image:U2 Powers Senate model.jpg|thumb|right|Wooden U-2 model - one of two used by Powers when he testified to the Senate Committee. The wings and tail are detachable to demonstrate the aircraft's breakup upon impact.]]
On his return to the U.S., Powers was criticized for having failed to activate his aircraft's [[self-destruct]] charge to destroy the [[camera]], [[photographic film]], and related [[classified information|classified]] parts of his aircraft before capture. In addition, others criticized him for deciding not to use an optional CIA-issued [[suicide]] pin. This pin, which was concealed in a hollowed out [[silver dollar]], could be used to avoid pain and suffering in case of [[torture]]. After being debriefed extensively by the CIA, Lockheed, and the USAF, on [[6 March]] [[1962]] he appeared before a Senate Armed Services Select Committee hearing chaired by Senator [[Richard Russell, Jr.|Richard Russell]] and including Senators [[Prescott Bush]] and [[Barry Goldwater]], Sr. During the proceeding it was determined |
a floodwall along Davenport's riverfront is not feasible. Two examples of buildings that are elevated or floodproofed in Davenport are [[John O'Donnell Stadium]] and the [[Figge Art Museum]].
Several well-known annual festivals take place in Davenport. Notable festivals are the Mississippi Valley Blues Festival, The Mississippi Valley Fair, and the [[Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival]], dedicated to Davenport native [[Bix Beiderbecke]]. An internationally known seven-mile foot race called the [[Bix 7]] is run during the festival.
The [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Davenport]] is based out of Davenport. This [[diocese]] covers the southeast quarter of the state of [[Iowa]]. The current Bishop of the Diocese is Bishop William Edwin Franklin. The [[Cathedral]] [[parish]] for this Diocese is [[Sacred Heart Cathedral (Davenport|Sacred Heart Cathedral]].
== History ==
{{see|List of mayors of Davenport}}
The first railroad bridge built across the Mississippi River connected Davenport and [[Rock Island, IL]] in [[1856]]. It was built by the Rock Island Railroad Company. Steamboaters saw nationwide railroads as a threat to their business. On [[May 6]], [[1856]], just weeks after it was completed, an angry steamboater crashed the ''Effie Afton'' steamboat into the bridge. The owner of the ''Effie Afton'', John Hurd, filed a lawsuit against The Rock Island Railroad Company. The Rock Island Railroad Company selected [[Abraham Lincoln]] as their trial lawyer, this being Lincoln's first legal case and pivotal to his career.
A few decades earlier, [[Keokuk (Sauk chief)|Keokuk]] and General [[Winfield Scott]] signed a treaty to end the [[Black Hawk War]] in [[1832]] on the same spot the railroad bridge would later be built. The treaty resulted in the United States gaining 6 million acres (24,000 km&sup2;) of land.
The first female mayor in the state of Iowa, Kathy Kirschbaum, was elected in Davenport in [[1972]].
On [[November 28]], [[1986]], actor [[Cary Grant]] suffered a major stroke while performing at Davenport's Adler Theater. He died at 11:22 p.m. while admitted to St. Luke's Hospital (now the east campus of Genesis Hospital).
Davenport made national headlines on [[August 4]], [[2004]], when both of the main candidates in the [[2004]] Presidential election held events there. Both [[John Kerry]] and [[George W. Bush]] made appearances, and the events for both men were only a few city blocks away from each other.
== Geography ==
[[Image:IAMap-doton-Davenport.PNG|right|Location of Davenport, Iowa]]
Davenport is located at 41&deg;32'35" North, 90&deg;35'27" West (41.542982, -90.590745){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 168.2 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (64.9 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 162.6 km&sup2; (62.8 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 5.6 km&sup2; (2.2 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 3.31% water. Davenport has 27 parks with a total of 2,200 acres (8.9 km&sup3;) of land.
While situated squarely in the path of 'Tornado Alley' Davenport is believed to be protected by a blessing going back to the days when the indigenous population (Sauk and Fox tribes) lived in nearby Saukenuk. To this day no funnel cloud has touched within the city's boundaries.
The influence of the native Sauk and Fox tribes in the Upper Mississippi region, led British emigree George Davenport, in [[1805]], to establish a home and trading post on Rock Island (Now the US Army Rock Island Arsenal). The Davenport trading post atrracted many entrepreneurs, including part-Native American Antoine Le Claire, who founded a settlement at the bluffs across from "Colonel" Davenport's Trading Post. From a small village of traders, the town became known for transporting cargo up the famous Rock Island Rapids, and became a rough and tumble European community, with heavy German and Flemish settlement late in the [[19th Century]].
Davenport was located on the longest stretch of the Mississippi river with rapids. At this point, the river also runs east to west. Anyone who has grown up elsewhere along the river is mildly surprised to see the sun rise and set along its path. Part of the native blessing of the Sauk and Fox is that when the "Father of Waters," the spirit of the Mississippi, flowed south between this portion of Iowa and Illinois, he turned to look with wonder at the great beauty of the valley. Thus, the "nose" of the map of Iowa was created, with Davenport its leading town.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 98,359 people, 39,124 households, and 24,804 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 604.8/km&sup2; (1,566.5/mi&sup2;). There are 41,350 housing units at an average density of 254.3/km&sup2; (658.5/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 83.68% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 9.24% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.37% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.00% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.32% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.36% from two or more races. 5.36% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 39,124 households out of which 31.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 13.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% are non-families. 29.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 3.03.
In the city the population is spread out with 26.2% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 30.1% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 34 years. For every 100 females there are 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $37,242, and the median income for a family is $45,944. Males have a median income of $34,153 versus $24,634 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,828. 14.1% of the population and 10.5% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 19.2% of those under the age of 18 and 6.4% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== Transportation ==
Three interstate highways serve Davenport: [[Interstate 80]], [[Interstate 280 (Illinois-Iowa)|Interstate 280]] and [[Interstate 74]].
[[U.S. Highway 61]], U.S Highway 6 and [[U.S. Highway 67]] also go through Davenport; U.S. 67 crosses over to [[Illinois]] via the [[Rock Island Centennial Bridge|Centennial Bridge]]. Davenport is connected to the Illinois side of the Quad Cities by a total of four bridges across the [[Mississippi River]].
Other highways include [[Iowa State Highway 22]] (on the city's southwest side) and [[Iowa State Highway 130]], along Northwest Boulevard on Davenport's north edge.
For air travel, Davenport Municial Airport – located adjacent to the city's northern city limits – serves smaller aircraft, while the [[Quad City International Airport]] across the river in [[Moline, Illinois]] is the closest commercial airport.
Major railroads include the [[Iowa Interstate Railroad]] and the IC&E Rail Link.
Two national U.S. recreation trails intersect in Davenport: the [http://www.mississippirivertrail.org/ Mississippi River Trail] and the [[American Discovery Trail]].
== Law and government ==
Davenport currently uses the [[mayor-council government|mayor-council]] form of local government (when this format was adopted is not clear at present) consisting of a mayor and a ten-person council, all duly elected officials. A [[list of mayors of Davenport]] has been compiled, spanning the period 1839 to the present.
== Notable people ==
* [[Patricia White Barry]] - Actress.
* [[Bix Beiderbecke]] - Jazz musician.
* [[Isabel Bloom]] - Artist.
* [[Lara Flynn Boyle]] - Actress.
* [[Samuel Cody]] - Aviation pioneer.
* [[Roger Craig]] - NFL football Pro Bowl running back for the [[San Francisco 49ers]].
* [[Ricky Davis]] - NBA basketball player for the [[Boston Celtics]].
* [[Eugene Ely]] - Aviation pioneer.
* [[Susan Glaspell]] - Author.
* [[James Grant (of Iowa)| James Grant]] - Lawyer and business leader.
* [[Elmer Layden]] - Former commissioner of the NFL and [[University of Notre Dame]] football coach.
* [[Sue Lyon]] - Actress.
* [[Pat Miletich]] - Former champion of [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]], and founder of Miletich Fighting Systems.
* [[Michael Nunn]] - Former middleweight boxing champion.
* [[Daniel David Palmer]] - inventor of [[chiropractic medicine]].
* [[Mary Beth Peil]] - Actress and opera singer.
* [[Nat Pendleton]] - Olympic wrestler and actor.
* [[Ronald Reagan]] worked as a [[radio]] announcer at the WOC station in Davenport.
* [[Jim Skinner]] - CEO of [[McDonald's]] Corporation.
* [[Susan Glaspell]] - playwright (Trifles). Founder of Provincetown Players
== Points of interest ==
[[Image:Bridge and Ducks.jpg|thumb|300px|Bridge over the Mississippi in Davenport]]
* [[Brady Street Stadium]]
* [[Rock Island Centennial Bridge|Centennial Bridge]]
* [[Credit Island]]
* [[Davenport Central High School]]
* [[Davenport Skybridge]]
* [[Figge Art Museum]]
* [[Great Mississippi Valley Fairgrounds]]
* [[John O'Donnell Stadium]]
* [[Northpark Mall (Iowa)|Northpark Mall]]
* [[Putnam Museum and IMAX Theater]]
* [[River Music Experience]]
* [[Sacred Heart Cathedral (Davenport)]]
* [[Saint Ambrose University]]
* Stampe Lilac Garden - established and maintained by Mr. and Mrs. Wilson Stampe, later named in their honor. It contains about 250 blooming [[lilac]] bushes, [[crab apple]]s, and 30,000 spring-blooming bulbs ([[narcissus (flower)|na |
<id>41381708</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:39:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gibnews</username>
<id>640014</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* tidying up wording */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Disputed status of Gibraltar]].''
{{Politics of Gibraltar}}
'''Politics of Gibraltar''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], whereby the Chief Minister is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Gibraltar]] is an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]], with full internal self-government under its [[1969]] [[Constitution]]. The preamble to that Constitution states that ''"Her Majesty's Government will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes."''.
In a [[referendum]] on [[September 10]] [[1967]], the people Gibraltar voted by 12,138 to 44 to reject the transfer of sovereignty to [[Spain]] and to remain under British sovereignty. This day is now celebrated as Gibraltar's National Day. In a referendum organised by the Government of Gibraltar on [[November 7]] [[2002]], voters overwhelmingly rejected the principle that Spain and the United Kingdom should share sovereignty over Gibraltar, by 17,900 votes to 187 on a turnout of almost 88%.
Unlike most other British colonies, Gibraltar has not been offered independence by the UK. It has been suggested that this is on the grounds that the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)]], under which Spain ceded the territory to the British Crown, states that should the British Crown dispose of Gibraltar, it must be first offered to Spain. However the Gibraltar Government has pointed out at the UN that Article 103 of the UN Charter overrules and annuls this "reversionary clause".
Neither the United Kingdom, nor Spain seem keen to test the legal status of Clause X of the Treaty of Utrecht in court. The remaining parts of the treaty which regulated such things as the slave trade, and the transfer of Minorca to the British, have become obsolete.
Spain argues that Gibraltar's status is an anachronism, and that it should become an [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community of Spain]], similar to [[Catalonia]] or the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]]. It also argues that the principle of [[territorial integrity]], not [[self-determination]] applies, drawing parallels with the British handover of [[Hong Kong]] to [[China]] in [[1997]].
The Gibraltarians continue to assert that they are British not Spanish, and HMG repeatedly states that there can be no change in the status of Gibraltar without their democratic consent. The Gibraltar Government has asked the UN Committee of 24 to refer the issues to the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion, but Spain has lobbied against this. The Gibraltar Government has also invited the Committee to visit the territory, but so far, despite no objection from the United Kingdom, they have not.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|Queen
|[[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|Governor
|Sir [[Francis Richards]]
|
|[[2003]]
|-
|Chief Minister
|[[Peter Caruana]]
|[[Gibraltar Social Democrats|GSD]]
|[[17 May]] [[1996]]
|}
===The Governor===
[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is represented by the Governor and Commander-in-Chief, presently Sir Francis Richards (appointed [[2003]]). The Governor appoints the leader of the largest party in the [[unicameral]] [[House of Assembly]], as [[Chief Minister]], along with other members of the [[Council of Ministers]]. In addition, he appoints the Financial Development Secretary and the Attorney-General, who are ''ex officio'' members of the House of Assembly. They, along with the Governor, the Deputy Governor and the Chief Minister, are members of the advisory Gibraltar Council. The Governor is also directly responsible for the local police force, known as the Royal Gibraltar Police, while the Deputy Governor is responsible for public service appointments.
===The Executive===
The present Chief Minister is the Hon [[Peter Caruana]], QC, of the Gibraltar Social Democrats (GSD), who have been in office since [[May 17]], [[1996]], and were returned to power in elections held on [[February 10]] [[2000]], and [[November 27]] [[2003]]. The Leader of the Opposition is the Hon [[Joe Bossano]], of the Gibraltar Socialist Labour Pary (GSLP), which is in coalition with the Liberal Party of Dr Joseph Garcia. All parties support Gibraltar's right to self-determination, and reject agreements with Spain on the issue of sovereignty. Traditionally, the GSLP has been more hardline towards Madrid, the GSD more conciliatory, although less so in government than in opposition.
==The Legislature==
The [[Gibraltar House of Assembly]] consists of fifteen elected members, the Speaker, and the two ''ex officio'' members. Under the electoral system of [[partial bloc voting]] used since 1969, voters must choose eight candidates, who need necessarily not be from the same party but usually are. The winning candidates are then chosen by simple plurality; consequently, a party seeking to form a government stands eight candidates, and the result is usually that eight of the elected seats are won by the most popular party which forms the elected Government; the remaining seven are usually won by the 'best loser' which forms the opposition. The last election was held on [[November 27]], [[2003]].
See [[#Political parties and elections|below]] for recent results.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Gibraltar|Elections in Gibraltar}}
{{Gibraltar legislative election, 2003}}
Since the 2003 election the Reform Party has dissolved, with the party leader and others now involved in Friends of the Earth (Gibraltar).
The Labour Party has merged with the Gibraltar Social Democrats.
A new party, the [[New Gibraltar Democracy]] has been created unrelated to either and has announced it will contest the next election. New Gibraltar Democracy advocates the imposition of more far reaching democratic checks and balances on the exercise of power by the local government of the day, and objects to proposed new constitutional reforms which, it says would give even more unfettered powers to the executive. However, to date, NGD appears to be only made up of the one person who announced it!
==Pressure Groups==
In addition to the parties there are a number of pressure groups active in Gibraltar, not aligned to any political party.
===The Womens Association===
The Gibraltar Women's Association was founded on the 15th february 1966, by Mrs Mariola Summerfield and Mrs Angela Smith.
It was originally known as the Gibraltar Housewives Association, and subsequently, in the early eighties it was changed to the Gibraltar Women's Association keeping in with more modern times that not all women were just housewives.
===Equality Rights - GGR===
Probably one of the most interesting social phenomena in Gibraltar
was the launch in September 2000 of a gay rights organisation GGR
causing a stir in a conservative society such as Gibraltar.
However, the open and challenging campaigns this NGO has put to the fore of Gibraltar issues has meant that GGR has become Gibraltar's premier Human Rights organisation.
As such GGR is now known as Equality Rights GGR reflecting the fact
that although it still defends sexual minorities it is also highly
active on issues regarding the disabled, British residents' rights, and issues regarding the protection of children against sex abuse amongst others.
The phenomenon has meant that, increasingly, more and more sectors
of the Gibraltar community have found encouragement to bring forward their own issues in an equally forthright manner.
This can be seen not only with the growth of environmentalist groups but also citizens groups fighting against development and planning of construction projects. In a way, this NGO phenomenon is perhaps the most interesting political development in Gibraltar since the foundation of the Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights (AACR) in the 1940s as a result of the WWII experience.
Local politics has for decades revolved upon Sovereignty issues,
allowing for local politicians to construct whole careers on this
one item whilst allowing Gibraltar to stay behind on social issues
wherein the rest of Europe has moved forward.
===The Environmental Safety Group===
The ESG is a registered Gibraltar charity which works to safeguard the Environment of Gibraltar and the Bay area, including air, land and marine aspects. We campaign to protect our local ecology from pollution and contamination and to promote public safety in all matters relating to the welfare of our community.
===The Voice of Gibraltar Group===
The VOGG is a long running group which has the objective of defending the rights of Gibraltarians against external threats. It engages in public debate, and protest action where appropriate. As a non political group, its members represent a cross section of the community.
It was particularly active in canvassing a 'NO' note in the 2002 referendum, when it toured the estates with a loudspeaker van and invited guests from all parties to address the residents, culminating with the Chief Minister after the result was announced.
==Constitutional Reform==
===Select Committee Proposals===
In [[1999]], the Government of Gibraltar established a Select Committee on Constitutional Reform, to consider how the 1969 Constitution should be reformed. It envisaged decolonisation by creating a modern and non-colonial relationship with the [[ |
extra sugar is added at this stage for this purpose and also to raise the alcohol level. Racking is sometimes repeated if the liquor remains cloudy.
The cider is ready to drink at this point, though more often it is matured in the vats for up to two or three years.
=== Blending and bottling ===
For larger-scale cider production, ciders from vats produced from different varieties of apple may be blended to accord with market taste. If the cider is to be bottled, usually some extra sugar is added for sparkle. Higher quality ciders can be made using the [[champagne (beverage)|champagne method]], but this is expensive in time and money and requires special corks, bottles, and other equipment.
==Related drinks==
[[Applejack]] is a strong alcoholic beverage made in North America by concentrating cider, either by the traditional method of "[[freeze distillation]]", or by true evaporative [[distillation]]. In traditional freeze distillation, a barrel of cider is left outside during the winter. When the temperature is low enough, the water in the cider starts to freeze. If the ice is removed, the (now more concentrated) alcoholic solution is left behind in the barrel. If the process is repeated often enough, and the temperature is low enough, the alcohol concentration is raised to 30-40% alcohol. In freeze distillation, hazardous concentrations of [[methanol]] and [[fusel oil]] may develop. These toxins can be separated when regular, heat distillation is performed. Home production of applejack is illegal in most countries.
[[Cocktails]] may include cider. Besides kir and snakebite, an example is [[Black Velvet (cocktail)|Black Velvet]] in a version of which cider may replace [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]].
Other alcoholic beverages are also made from apples, such as [[apple wine]] and the distilled spirits [[apple brandy]] and [[calvados (spirit)|calvados]]. A popular apéritif in Normandy is ''[[pommeau]]''&mdash;a drink produced by blending unfermented cider and apple brandy in the barrel (the high alcoholic content of the spirit stops the fermentation process of the cider and the blend takes on the character of the aged barrel).
Other fruits can be used to make cider-like drinks. The most popular is [[perry]], known in France as ''poiré'' and produced mostly in Normandy, which is made from fermented [[pear]]-juice. A branded sweet perry known as [[Babycham]], marketed principally as a women's drink and sold in miniature Champagne-style bottles, was once popular but has now become unfashionable. Fermented peach juice can be made into "peachy".
Another related related drink is [[cyser]] (cider fermented with honey).
A few producers in [[Quebec]] have developed ''cidre de glace'' (literally "ice cider", sometimes called "apple ice wine"), inspired from [[ice wine|ice wines]], where the apples are naturally frozen either before or after harvest. The alcohol concentration of ''cidre de glace'' is 9-13%.
==Brands of cider==
*[[Martinelli's]] (sparkling, non-alcoholic, but unique from [[apple juice]])
*[http://www.acecider.com/ Ace Cider]
*[[Ashlar (cider)|Ashlar]]
*[[Aspall Cider|Aspall]]
*[http://www.beakandskiff.com/ Beak and Skiff]
*[http://www.cidery.com/ Bellweather Cider]
*[[Biddedon (cider)|Biddedon]]
*[[Blackthorn Dry Cider|Blackthorn]]
*[[Braddock (cider)|Braddock]]
*[[Bulmers (Republic of Ireland)]] (Magners in the UK)
*Cassels
*Cider Jack
*[[Crones]]
*[[Frosty Jack Cider]]
*Growers Cider Company in [[Oliver, British Columbia]]
*[[Okanagan]]
*[[Olde English cider|Olde English]]
*[[Pilchard]]
*[[Scrumpy Jack]]
*[[Strongbow Cider|Strongbow]]
*[[Symonds]]
*[http://www.tempestcider.com Tempest Cider]
*[http://www.tasteeapple.com/ Tastee] American Apple Processor in [[Newcomerstown, Ohio]]
*[[Thatcher's Cider|Thatcher's]]
*[http://www.treetop.com/ Tree Top] American Apple Processor in [[Selah, Washington]]
*[[Westons]]
*[[Wikins]]
*[[Woodchuck cider|Woodchuck]]
*[[Woodpecker cider|Woodpecker]]
==Cider by country==
In traditional cultures, just as a general line could be drawn separating wine regions from beer regions, broadly speaking, so cider has been the natural common drink of regions with strong orchard traditions. In 12th-century [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] "it would seem that a good deal of cider was drunk. The French author of the guidebook for pilgrims which forms a part of the so-called Liber Sancti Jacobi commented that it was more often to be encountered in Galicia than wine. Cider as well as wine was drunk at a king's coronation in 1111, and a render of cider was stipulated as part of the rent in a lease of 1116. ([http://libro.uca.edu/sjc/sjc.htm Fletcher 1984]).
[[Shepton Mallet]], Somerset, England, is home to the largest cider plant in Europe. This plant produces; [[Blackthorn]], [[Olde English]] but also produced the world famous Babycham.
=== Australia ===
In [[Australia]], 'cider' can be either an alcoholic drink as described above, or a sparkling non-alcoholic beverage made from apples. The most popular brands of alcoholic cider in Australia are Strongbow, and Mercury Cider made at the [[Cascade Brewery]] in Hobart, Tasmania. Cascade's 'Apple Isle' Sparkling Apple Juice is the most popular selling brand of non-alcoholic cider in Australia. Alcoholic cider is sold in [[liquor store|bottleshop]]s, while the non-alcoholic version is stocked in the [[soft drink|soft-drink]] aisles of supermarkets.
=== Canada ===
In [[Quebec]], cider is considered a traditional alcoholic beverage. Cidermaking was, however, forbidden since the early years of the British rule as it was in direct conflict with established British brewers’ interests (most notably [[John Molson]]). In recent years, a unique variety has emerged on the market: ice cider. This type of cider is made from apples with a particularly high level of sugar caused by natural frost.
In [[Ontario]], apple cider or apple hooch is often home-made. Apples are de-cored, juiced, and boiled. Sugar is dissolved into the apple/water mixture. Brewer's yeast is added and the cider is fermented for up to two weeks, or three before bottling, and then aged to taste.
=== East Asia ===
Cider in [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] sometimes means just a [[soft drink]], not necessarily made from apples.
=== France ===
[[France|French]] ''cidre'' is an alcoholic drink produced predominantly in [[Normandy]] and [[Brittany]]. It varies in strength from below 4% alcohol to considerably more. '''Cidre Doux''' is usually any cider up to 3% in strength. 'Demi-Sec' is from 3 to 5% and '''Cidre Brut''' is a strong cider of 5% alcohol and above. Most are usually sparkling. Higher quality cider is sold in [[Champagne (beverage)|Champagne]]-style bottles (''cidre bouché''), and while much of cidre is sold in corked bottles, some screw-tops bottles exist. Until the mid-[[20th century]], cidre was the second most-consumed drink in France (after wine) but an increase in the popularity of beer displaced cider's market share outside traditional cider-producing regions. In restaurants in Brittany, cider is sometimes served in traditional ceramic bowls (or wide cups) rather than glasses. A ''kir normand'' is a cocktail [[apéritif]] made with cider and [[Creme de cassis|cassis]], rather than white wine and cassis for the traditional ''[[kir]]''. Cider is still made in the [[Channel Islands]], but there is a great deal less now than there was in the past. In [[Jersey]], the only locally produced cider currently sold in shops is a strong (above 7%) variety.
=== Germany ===
''Main article: [[Apfelwein]]''
[[Germany|German]] ''cidre'', usually called ''Apfelwein'' (apple wine), and regionally known as ''Apfelmost'' (apple must), ''Viez'' (from [[Latin]] ''vice'', the second or substitute wine), or ''Saurer Most'' (sour must), has an alcohol content of 5.5% - 7 % and a tart, sour taste.
German cidre is mainly produced and consumed in [[Hessen]], particularly in the [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]], [[Wetterau]] and [[Odenwald]] areas, in [[Moselfranken]], [[Merzig]] ([[Saarland]]) and the [[Trier]] area, as well as the lower [[Saarland|Saar]] area and the region bordering on Luxembourg. In these regions, there are several large producers, as well as numerous small, private producers often using traditional recipes.
In some of these regions, there are regular cidre competitions and fairs, in which the small, private producers participate. Cidre songs are composed and sung at these events. The Merzig region crowns a Viez Queen, and the lower Saar area a Viez King.
An official Viez route, (''Rue de Cidre'') connects [[Saarburg]] with the border to Luxembourg.
=== India ===
Cider is a new introduction in India under the brand TEMPEST ,produced by Green Valley Cider located in the apple producing state of Himachal Pradesh , India. Tempest is primarily available in the carbonated form and is witnessing a resurgence in popularity.
=== Ireland ===
Cider is a popular drink in Ireland; for a long time cider production was officially encouraged and supported by a preferential tax treatment. A single cider, Bulmers, dominates sales in Ireland: owned by [[C&C]], Bulmers cider is a different cider to Bulmers in [[England]] where [[C&C]] do not own the brand, in the United Kingdom C&C brand their cider as Magners.
=== Luxembourg ===
In [[Luxembourg]], ''viez'' (pronounced feetz) is rather like [[England|English]] scrumpy. It is cloudy and varies from nonalcoholic to very alcoholic. It is made only in autumn. It is sold by the side of the road in reused plastic bottles and should be drunk within a few days of purchase. The quality can be extremely good.
=== New Zealand ===
In New Zealand, cider is fermented apple juice. The most popular brand is ''Scrumpy''.
=== South Africa ===
''Hunter's Gold'' and ''Hunter's Dry'' are popular ciders, along with ''Redd's'' and ''Savanna Dry''.
=== Spain ===
The [[Spain|Spanish]] regions |
th, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."
[[Image:Samsara.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hindus believe that every living being is an eternally existing spirit (the soul or the self). Upon physical death, this soul passes from one body to another in accordance with the laws of Karma and reincarnation. {{ref|re}}]]
=== Basic beliefs ===
What can be said to be common to all Hindus is the belief in ''[[Dharma]]'' (individual ethics, duties and obligations), ''[[Samsara|{{Unicode|Samsāra}}]]'' ([[Reincarnation]]/rebirth), ''[[Karma]]'' ("actions", leading to a cause and effect relationship), and ''[[Moksha|{{Unicode|Mokṣha}}]]'' (salvation) of every soul through a variety of paths, such as ''[[Bhakti]]'' (devotion), ''[[Karma]]'' (selfless action) and ''[[Jnana|{{Unicode|Jñāna}}]]'' (enlightenment, knowledge), and of course, belief in God (''[[Ishvara|{{Unicode|Īshvara}}]] / [[Bhagavan|{{Unicode|Bhagavān}}]]''). ''Reincarnation'' or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains [[Moksha|{{Unicode|Mokṣha}}]], is governed by ''[[Karma]]''. The philosophy of ''Karma'' lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the [[soul]] or the self, called as ''[[Atman|{{Unicode|ātman}}]]''. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the Supreme Divine, and lead to a birth with higher consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the Supreme Divine, and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. All existence, as per Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects to the eternal ''Dharma'', which is the natural law. Even [[Heaven]] (''[[swarga|Svarga Loka]]'') and [[Hell]] (''[[Naraka|Naraka Loka]]'') are temporary. Liberation from this material existence and cycle of birth and death, to join, reach or develop a relationship with the "universal spirit" (depending on belief), is known as ''{{Unicode|Mokṣha}}'', which is the ultimate goal of all Hindus.
The other principles include the ''[[Guru-shishya tradition]]'', the Divinity of Word of [[Aum|OM]] and the power of ''[[mantra]]s'', manifestations of the divine's spirit in all forms of existence ([[pantheism]]); that is an understanding that the essential spark of the ''[[Atman]]/[[Brahman]]'' is in every living being, the concept that all living beings are divine. Another interesting belief is that though the Hindu mythology mentions a class of evil beings (demons, called ''Asuras'' or ''{{Unicode|Rākṣhasas}}''), opposed to the celestial spirits (''Devas''), essential Hindu philosophy does not believe in any concept of a central [[Devil]] or [[Satan]]. This does not mean that all the evil in the world is attributed to God, but that the evil (deed or thought) is ascribed to human ignorance.
It is highly debatable whether a non-Hindu (by birth, as a foreigner) can become a Hindu or not. Hinduism certainly does not [[evangelization|evangelize]] as Christianity or Islam. Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on this issue, it rather depends upon the Hindu society whether they might consider a foreigner, who has got a ''{{Unicode|dīkṣhā}}'' into a Hindu sect, as a Hindu or not.
===Practice (Yoga Dharma) ===
Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual devotion (''[[Bhakti Yoga]]''), selfless service (''[[Karma Yoga]]''), knowledge and meditation (''Jñāna'' or ''[[Raja Yoga|{{Unicode|Rāja Yoga}}]]''). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu [[Yoga]]: The ''[[Bhagavad Gita|{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}]]'' and the ''[[Yoga Sutras|Yoga Sūtras]]''. The ''[[Upanishad]]s'' are also important as a philosophical foundation for these practices. The Yogas provide a sort of alternate path (or faiths) that links together various Hindu beliefs, and can also be used to categorize non-Hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to {{Unicode|mokṣha}}, or ''[[nirvana|{{Unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]''.
===The Four Objectives of Life===
Another major aspect of Hindu ''dharma'' that is common to practically all Hindus is that of the ''[[purusharthas|{{Unicode|puruṣhārthas}}]]'', the "four objectives of life". They are ''[[kama|{{Unicode|kāma}}]]'', ''[[artha]]'', ''[[dharma]]'' and ''[[moksha|{{Unicode|mokṣha}}]]''. It is said that all beings seek ''{{Unicode|kāma}}'' (pleasure, physical or emotional) and ''artha'' (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within the higher framework of ''dharma'' (righteousness). Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is ''{{Unicode|mokṣha}}'' (salvation), also known as ''[[Mukti]]'' (spiritual liberation), ''[[Samadhi|{{Unicode|Samādhi}}]]'', ''[[Nirvana|{{Unicode|Nirvāṇa}}]]'', or escape from ''[[Samsara|{{Unicode|Samsāra}}]]'' (the cycle of births and deaths).
===The Four Stages of Life===
Ideally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four ''[[Ashrama|{{Unicode|Āshrama}}]]s'' ("phases" or "stages"). They are ''[[Brahmacharya]]'', ''[[Grihastha|{{Unicode|Gṛihastha}}]]'', ''[[Vanaprastha|{{Unicode|Vānaprastha}}]]'' and ''[[Sanyasa|{{Unicode|Sanyāsa}}]]''. The first quarter of one's life, ''[[Brahmacharya]]'' ("meditation, or study of the ''Brahman''") is spent in [[celibate]], controlled, [[sober]] and pure contemplation under a [[Guru]], building up the mind for the realization of truth. ''[[Grihastha]]'' is the [[householder]]'s stage, alternatively known as ''[[samsara]]'', in which one marries and satisfies ''[[Kama (Hinduism)|{{Unicode|kāma}}]]'' and ''[[artha]]'' within one's married and ''[[professional]]'' life. ''[[Vanaprastha|{{Unicode|Vānaprastha}}]]'' is gradual detachment from the [[material world]], ostensibly giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in [[contemplation]] of the Divine, and making holy [[pilgrimage]]s. Finally, in ''[[sanyasa|{{Unicode|Sanyāsa}}]]'', the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as renunciation, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life, and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or, for liberation).
[[Image:Gita1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Lord Krishna]] revealing the eternal super-consciousness to [[Arjuna]]]]
===The four classes of society===
<!--Please use only proper IAST tranliteration, not casual Yahoo-chatting type spellings-->
Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, based on profession—the '''''[[Brahmin|{{Unicode|Brāhmaṇas}}]]''''': teachers and priests; the '''''[[Kshatriya|{{Unicode|Kṣhatriyas}}]]''''': warriors, kings and administrators; the '''''[[Vaishya|{{Unicode|Vaishyas}}]]''''': farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and the '''''[[Shudra|{{Unicode|Shūdras}}]]''''': servants and labourers. Each of these classes was called a '''''{{Unicode|varṇa}}''''', and the system was called '''''{{Unicode|Varṇa Vyavasthā}}'''''. It is highly debatable whether the ''{{Unicode|varṇa}}'' system is an integral part of Hinduism or not; and whether or not it is strictly sanctioned by the scriptures. The ''Shruti'' texts make very rare mentions of this system at some places, without defining things very much. The ''{{Unicode|Smṛiti}}'' texts (including the ''[[Manusmriti|{{Unicode|Manusmṛiti}}]]'') have elaborated the rules about this system. Earlier, the system was '''only''' based upon the profession (and character), and there are dozens of instances where people freely changed their professions and freely intermarried. Later, (the historians do not agree as to when) the system became fixed by '''birth'''. Thus, with the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of '''outcastes''' outside the ''{{Unicode|Varṇa Vyavasthā}}''), the system evolved into the [[caste]] system as we know of today. With modernization, caste differences are slowly fading away in modern India, but tension and prejudice still remain.
<!--ALTERNATIVE: Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, based on moral character and spiritual purity through spiritual attainment — the '''Brahmanas''': priests and spiritual teachers/advisors; the '''Kshatriyas''': warriors who protect the Dharma, kings and administrators; the '''Vaishyas''': farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and lastly the '''Shudras''' who were not initiated into Vedic learning: servants and labourers. Each of these classes was called a '''varna''', and the system was called '''Varna Vyavastha'''. The Varna system was an integral part of Hinduism and is related to spiritual attainment and duties based upon this spiritual attainment; The Shruti texts such as the Vedas make mention of the "five classes of men". The Smriti texts (including the [[Manusmriti]]) have elaborated the rules about this system. Earlier, the system was '''only''' based upon the spiritual nature and purity of the person and their ability to participate in Vedic rituals. However, there are dozens of instances where people freely changed their professions and freely intermarried. Later, (the historians do not agree as to when) the system became fixed by '''birth'''. Thus, with the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of '''outcastes''' outside the Varna Vyavastha), the system evolved into the [[caste]] system as we know of today. With modernization, caste differences are slowly fading away in modern India, but tension and prejudice still remain. THIS IS NOT HISTORICALLY CORRECT. IT IS ONLY A JUSTIFICATION OF CASTE SYSTEM BY CASTE-PROPONENTS-->
=== Nature of God ===
The Vedas depict ''[[Brahman]]'' as the Ultimate Reality, the Absolute or Universal Soul (''[[Paramatman|{{Unicode|Paramātman}}]]''). '''''Brahman''''' is the indescribable, inexhaustible, incorporeal, omniscient, omnipresent, original, first, eternal, both [[transcendent]] and [[immanen |
slands]] ([[Indonesia]]) and then the [[Spain|Spanish]] - reached the [[Carolines]] in the 16th century, with the Spanish establishing sovereignty. It passed from [[Germany|German]] control (1899), via [[Japan]]ese (1914) to the United States under [[United Nations]] auspices in 1947 as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
During [[World War II]], a significant portion of the [[Japan]]ese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon. In February 1944, [[Operation Hailstone]], one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese support vessels and aircraft were destroyed.
On [[May 10]], [[1979]], four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the Federated States of Micronesia. The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the [[United States|United States of America]], which entered into force on [[November 3]], [[1986]], marking Micronesia's emergence from trusteeship to independence.
== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''
The Federated States of Micronesia are governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The unicameral Congress has 14 members elected by popular vote. Four senators - one from each state - serve 4-year terms; the remaining 10 senators represent single-member districts based on population, and serve 2-year terms. The President and vice president are elected by Congress from among the four state-based senators to serve 4-year terms in the executive branch. Their congressional seats are then filled by special elections. The president and vice president are supported by an appointed cabinet. There are no formal political parties.
In international politics, the Federated States of Micronesia are traditionally known as keen supporters of the State of [[Israel]], voting almost consistently in its favor at the [[United Nations General Assembly]].
== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''
[[Image:CIA-FSM.jpg|thumb|right|425px|Map of the Federated States of Micronesia]]
It consists of 607 islands extending 1,800 miles across the archipelago of the [[Caroline Islands]] east of the [[Philippines]]. The four constituent island groups are [[Yap]], [[Chuuk]] (called Truk until January 1990), [[Pohnpei]] (called Ponape until November 1984), and [[Kosrae]]. These four states are each represented by a white star on the national flag. The capital is [[Palikir]], on Pohnpei.
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''
Economic activity of the Federated States of Micronesia consists primarily of subsistence farming and fishing. The islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development. Financial assistance from the US is the primary source of revenue, with the US pledged to spend $1.3 billion in the islands in 1986-2001. Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''
The indigenous population of the Federated States of Micronesia, which is predominantly Micronesian, consists of various ethnolinguistic groups. English has become the common language. Population growth remains high at more than 3%, ameliorated somewhat by net emigration.
Pohnpei is notable for the prevalence of the extreme form of [[color blindness]] known as [[maskun]].
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of the Federated States of Micronesia]].''
Each of the four States has its own culture and traditions, but there are also common cultural and economic bonds that are centuries old. For example, cultural similarities like the importance of the traditional extended family and clan systems can be found on all the islands.
[[Image:Yap_Stone_Money.jpg|thumb|A large (approximately 8 feet in height) example of Yapese stone money in the village of Gachpar.]]
The island of Yap is notable for its '''stone money''' (see photograph at right), large disks usually of calcite, up to 4 m (12 ft) in diameter, with a hole in the middle. The islanders know who owns which piece, but do not necessarily move them when ownership changes. There are five major types: ''Mmbul'', ''Gaw'', ''Ray'', ''Yar'', and ''Reng'', this last being only 0.3 m (1 ft) in diameter. Their value is based on both size and history, many of them having been brought from other islands, as far as [[New Guinea]], but most coming in ancient times from [[Palau]]. Approximately 6,500 of them are scattered around the island.
''See also: [[music of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in the Federated States of Micronesia]]
* [[Foreign relations of the Federated States of Micronesia]]
* [[Military of the Federated States of Micronesia]]
* [[Aloha Council#Scouting in the Federated States of Micronesia|Scouting in the Federated States of Micronesia]]
* [[Transportation in the Federated States of Micronesia]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.janeresture.com/fedmic/index.htm Jane's Federated States of Micronesia Home Page]
* [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/micronesia/index.html Map of Micronesia]
* [http://www.southpacific.org/micro.html Moon Handbooks Micronesia]
* [http://www.mymicronesia.com myMicronesia.com] Online resource center about the islands of Micronesia. Provides free listings and links to all Micronesian businesses, as well as civic, cultural, health and educational organizations.
* [http://www.uoregon.edu/~wsayres/NanMadol.html Nan Madol islet complex] Provides computer based reconstruction of the main islets and features.
* [http://www.paclii.org/databases.html#FM Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute - Federated States of Micronesia]
* [http://www.anytravels.com/australia/micronesia/ Travel Overview of Micronesia]
* [http://nature.org/wherewework/asiapacific/micronesia/ Environmental conservation in Micronesia]
===Official sites===
* [http://www.fsmgov.org Government of the Federated States of Micronesia]
==References==
# US-CIA. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fm.html CIA - The World Factbook: Federated States of Micronesia]. ''The World Factbook''. United States of America: Central Intelligence Agency. 2003.
{{Pacific Islands}}
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia| ]]
[[Category:Oceanic dependencies|Micronesia]]
[[Category:Freely associated states|Micronesia]]
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[[zh-min-nan:Micronesia Liân-pang-kok]]
[[ca:Estats Federats de Micronèsia]]
[[cs:Mikronésie]]
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[[de:Föderierte Staaten von Mikronesien]]
[[et:Mikroneesia Liiduriigid]]
[[es:Estados Federados de Micronesia]]
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[[fr:États fédérés de Micronésie]]
[[ko:미크로네시아 연방]]
[[id:Mikronesia]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg</title>
<id>11449</id>
<revision>
<id>42139171</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:02:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Olessi</username>
<id>220894</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm duplicate mention of Hohenzollern</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Friedrich_Wilhelm_I_of_Brandenburg.jpg|thumb|200px|Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg.]]
:''This article is about the elector of Brandenburg. For the King of Prussia, see [[Frederick William I of Prussia]].''
'''Frederick William''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Friedrich Wilhelm'') ([[February 16]] [[1620]] - [[April 29]] [[1688]]) of the House of [[Hohenzollern]], was the [[Prince-elector|Elector]] of [[Elector of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]] and the [[Duke]] of [[Ducal Prussia|Prussia]] from [[1640]] until his [[death]]. He is popularly known as the '''Großer Kurfürst''' ("'''Great Elector'''").
== Biography ==
Frederick William was born in [[Berlin]] to [[George William of Brandenburg]] and [[Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate]]. His inheritance consisted of the [[Marches|March]] of Brandenburg, ravaged during the [[Thirty Years' War]], and Ducal Prussia. During the war George William had striven to maintain with a minimal army a delicate balance between the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] forces fighting throughout the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Out of these meager beginnings Frederick William managed to rebuild the country. With the help of [[France|French]] [[subsidy|subsidies]], he built up an army to defend the country. Through the Treaties of [[Treaty of Wehlau|Wehlau]], [[Treaty of Labiau|Labiau]], and [[Treaty of Oliva|Oliva]], Frederick William succeeded in revoking [[Kingdom of Poland|Polish]] sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia, leaving the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] as his only [[liege]].
Frederick William is notable for raising an [[army]] of 40,000 [[soldier]]s by [[1678]], aided by the [[General War Commissariat]]. He was an advocate of [[mercantilism]], [[monopoly|monopolies]], subsidies, [[tariff]]s, and [[internal improvements]]. Following King [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] of France's revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]], he encouraged skilled [[French people|French]] and [[Walloons|Walloon]] [[Huguenot]]s to emigrate to [[Brandenburg-Prussia]], bolste |
out some thing, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle.
==Referents==
Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous [[referent]]s; for example, "[[happiness]]" (when used as an abstraction) can refer to as many things as there are people and events or [[states of being]] which make them happy. Likewise, "[[architecture]]" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of [[creation]] and [[innovation]] which aim at elegant solutions to [[construction]] problems, to the use of space, and at its best, to the attempt to evoke an [[emotion|emotional response]] in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.<!--See discussion pages 3 to 12 in Eugene Raskin, ''Architecturally Speaking, 2nd edition'', a Delta book, Dell (1966), trade paperback, 129 pages -->
===Instantiation===
Things that do not exist at any particular place and time are often considered abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be ''multiply instantiated'', in the sense of ''picture 1'', ''picture 2'', etc., shown above.
It is not sufficient, however, to define ''abstract'' ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define ''abstraction'' as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts 'cat' and 'telephone' abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are ''abstractions'', they are not ''abstract'' in the sense of the objects in ''graph 1'' above.
<!-- What is the following paragraph trying to clarify? -->
We might look at other graphs, in a progression from ''cat'' to ''mammal'' to ''animal'', and see that ''animal'' is more abstract than ''mammal''; but on the other hand ''mammal'' is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to ''[[marsupial]]''.
===Physicality===
A physical object (the referrent of a concept or word) is considered ''concrete'' (not abstract) if it is a ''particular individual'' that occupies a particular place and time.
Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in [[reality]] or exist only as sensory experience, like the color [[red]]. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like ''God'', ''the number three'', and ''goodness'' are real, abstract, or both.
An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use ''[[predicate]]s'' as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g. ''good''). Questions about the properties of things are then [[propositions]] about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the ''graph 1'' above, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Different levels of abstraction might be denoted by a progression of arrows joining boxes or ellipses in multiple rows, where the arrows point from one row to another, in a series of other graphs, say graph 2, etc.
==Abstraction used in philosophy==
Abstraction in [[philosophy]] is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in [[concept-formation]] of recognizing some set of common features in [[individual]]s, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding [[empiricism]] and the [[problem of universals]]. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under [[predicate abstraction]].
===Ontological status===
The way that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have [[Category of being|being]] differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have being, for example the way the [[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]], [[particular]], [[individual]]s pictured in ''picture 1'' exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in ''graph 1'' exist. That difference accounts for the [[ontology|ontological]] usefulness of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.
Perhaps confusingly, some [[philosophy|philosophies]] refer to ''[[trope]]s'' (instances of properties) as ''[[abstract particular]]s''. E.g., the particular [[red]]ness of a particular [[apple]] is an ''abstract particular''.
===Reification===
[[Reification]], also called ''hypostatization'', might be considered a [[logical fallacy]] whenever an abstract concept, such as "society" or "technology" is treated as if it were a concrete object. Reification occurs [[linguistics|linguistically]] in the [[English language]] and in many other [[language]]s wherein abstract concepts are referred to using the same sorts of [[noun]]s that signify concrete objects. That aspect of language can blur the distinction between abstract and concrete things:
:'''1805''': [[Horatio Nelson]] (''[[Battle of Trafalgar]]'') - "[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]"
===Compression===
<!-- Is this section common knowledge or original research? -->
An abstraction can be seen as a process of mapping multiple different pieces of [[constituent]] data to a single piece of abstract data based on similarities in the constituent data, for example many different physical cats map to the abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "[[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]]". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object).
:For example, ''picture 1'' above illustrates the concrete relationship "Cat sits on Mat".
Chains of abstractions can therefore be constructed moving from neural impulses arising from sensory [[perception]] to basic abstractions such as color or [[shape]] to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat to [[semantic]] abstractions such as the "idea" of a CAT to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed to "action".
:For example, ''graph 1'' above expresses the abstraction "agent sits on location".
This conceptual scheme entails no specific [[hierarchical]] [[taxonomy]] (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive [[compression]] of detail.
==The neurology of abstraction==
Some research into the human [[brain]] suggests that the left and right hemispheres differ in their handling of abstraction. One side handles collections of examples (eg: examples of a tree) whereas the other handles the concept itself.
==Abstraction in Art==
Most typically ''abstraction'' is used in the arts as a [[synonym]] of [[Abstract art]] in general. It can, however, refer to any object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed another work.
Artist Robert Stark wrote,"Ten years after abandoning formal landscape painting to explore the more direct act of freely applying paint to a surface without a representational motive, I have developed a new vocabulary; light and dark, warm and cool, making marks, brush-strokes like heart-rhythms. Every day is a test of each painting's ability to stand on its own. Each painting is subject to being changed, to being reworked or scraped and repainted as long as it remains in the studio. Where I often used to spend weeks on a painting, attempting to 'make a picture,' now my concerns are more about the energy of light, the mass of space, the emotions of shadows.
I want the painting to meet the viewer somewhere in the middle, where the viewer brings his own experiences to bear in understanding and feeling what he is seeing. I want my paintings to achieve the complexity and density of poetry or of a symphony, to build suggestive layers, implicit felt meaning, not merely to be entertaining bit of color to seduce the eye. I want my paintings to be accessible to children as well as adults, and to be so simply and directly painted that it shows the act of painting for the joy and excitement of it."
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Abstract art]]
* [[Abstraction (computer science)]]
* [[Abstraction (mathematics)]]
* [[Abstract structure]]
* [[Abstract (summary)]]
* [[Abstract interpretation]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Charles Peirce]]
* [[Gottlob Frege]]
* [[Hypostatic abstraction]]
* [[Model (abstract)]]
* [[Ontology]]
* [[Prescisive abstraction]]
{{col-end}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/frege.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gottlob Frege]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Abstract Objects]
* [http://originresearch.com/sd/sd1.cfm Discussion at The Well concerning Abstraction hierarchy]
* [http://www.cs.hmc.edu/claremont/keller/webBook/ch01/sec01.html The Purpose of Abstraction (a must read)]
==References==
* Eugene Raskin, ''Architecturally Speaking, 2nd edition'', a Delta book, Dell (1966), trade paperback, 129 pages
* ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 3rd edition'', Houghton Mifflin (1992), hardcover, 2140 pages, ISBN 0395448956
[[Category:Abstraction| ]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
[[Category:Thought]]
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