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me he possessed a loyal supporter within the upper echelons of Roman society, a military veteran by the name of [[Marcius Turbo]]. Also, there are hints within certain sources that he also employed a [[secret police]] force, the [[frumentarii]], to exert control and influence in case anything should go wrong while he journeyed abroad.
Hadrian's visits were marked by handouts which often contained instructions for the construction of new public buildings. Indeed, Hadrian was willful of strengthening the Empire from within through improved infrastructure, as opposed to conquering or [[annexing]] perceived enemies. This was often the purpose of his journeys; commissioning new structures and projects and settlements. His almost evangelical belief in Greek culture strengthened his views : like many Emperors before him, Hadrian's will was almost always obeyed. His traveling court was large, including administrators and likely [[architect]]s and [[builder]]s. The burden on the areas he passed through were sometimes great. While his arrival usually brought some benefits it is possible that those who had to carry the burden were of different class to those who reaped the benefits. For example, huge amounts of provisions were requisitioned during his visit to Egypt, this suggests that the burden on the mainly [[subsistence farming|subsistence farmers]] must have been intolerable, causing some measure of [[starvation]] and [[hardship]].{{ref|travels}}
Hadrian's first tour came in [[121]] and was initially aimed at covering his back to allow himself the freedom to concern himself with his general cultural aims. He traveled north, towards [[Germania]] and inspected the Rhine-Danube frontier, allocating funds to improve the defenses. However it was a voyage to the Empire's very frontiers that represented his perhaps most significant visit; upon hearing of a recent revolt, he journeyed across the sea to Britannia.
[[Image:Hadrian's wall2.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Hadrian's Wall]], a fortification in Northern England.]]
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===Britannia===
Prior to Hadrian's arrival in Britain there had been a major revolt in Britannia, spanning roughly two years (119-121). It was here he initiated the building of [[Hadrian's Wall]] during [[122]]. The wall was built chiefly to safeguard the frontier province of Britain, by preventing future possible invasions from the northern country of [[Caledonia]] (now modern day [[Scotland]]). Caledonia was inhabited by tribes known to the Romans as [[Caledonians]]. Hadrian realized that the Caledonians would refuse to adapt to Roman life, that they were essentially barbarians for the time being. He also was aware that although Caledonia was conquerable, the harsh terrain and highlands made the venture a costly and unprofitable one for the Empire at large. Thus, he instead decided on building a wall. Hadrian is perhaps most famous for the construction of this wall which to date bears his name, furthermore its ruins still span many miles today. In many ways it represents Hadrian's will to consolidate and enforce within the [[Roman Empire|Empire]], rather than waging wars and conquering without. By the end of 122 he had concluded his visit to Britannia, and from there headed south by sea to [[Mauretania]].
===Parthia and Asia Minor===
[[Image:hadriangate.jpg|thumb|left|240px|[[Hadrian's Gate]] in [[Antalya]],Turkey.]]
In [[123]] he arrived in [[Mauretania]] where he personally led a campaign against local rebels.{{ref|1sttour}} However this visit was to be short, as reports came through that the Eastern nation of [[Parthia]] was again preparing for war, as a result Hadrian quickly headed eastwards. On his journey east it is known that at some point he visited [[Cyrene]] during which he personally made available funds for the training of the young men of well bred families for the Roman military. This might well have been a stop off during his journey East. Cyrene had already benefited from his generosity when he in [[119]] had provided funds for the rebuilding of public buildings destroyed in the recent Jewish revolt.{{ref|totheEast}}
When Hadrian arrived on the [[Euphrates]], he characteristically solved the problem through a negotiated settlement with the Parthian king (probably [[Chosroes]]). He then proceeded to check the Roman defenses before setting off West along the coast of the [[Black Sea]]{{ref|peace}}. He probably spent the winter in [[Nicomedia]], the main city of [[Bithynia]]. As Nicomedia had been hit by an earthquake only shortly prior to his stay, Hadrian was generous in providing funds for rebuilding. Indeed, thanks to his generosity he was acclaimed as the chief restorer of the province as a whole. It is more than possible that Hadrian visited [[Claudiopolis]] and there espied the beautiful [[Antinous]], a young boy who was destined to become the emperor's [[eromenos]] - his [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederastic beloved]]. Sources say nothing about when Hadrian met Antinous, however, there are depictions of Antinous that shows him as a young man of 20 or so. As this was shortly before Antinous's drowning in [[130]] Antinous would more likely have been a youth of 13 or 14.{{ref|Bithinia}} It is possible that Antinous may have been sent to Rome to be trained as [[page]] to serve the Emperor and only gradually did he rise to the status of imperial favorite. {{ref|sustainP}}
After meeting Antinous, Hadrian traveled through [[Anatolia]]. The route he took is uncertain. Various incidents are described such as his founding of a city within [[Mysia]], [[Hadrianutherae]], after a successful boar hunt. (The building of the city was probably little more than a mere whim - lowly populated wooden areas such as the location of the new city were already ripe for development). Some historians dispute whether Hadrian did in fact commission the city's construction at all. At about this time, plans to build a temple in Asia minor were written up. The new temple would be dedicated to Trajan and Hadrian and built with dazzling white marble.{{ref|HadrianutheraePer}}
===Greece===
[[Image:Athenstemplezeus.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Temple of Zeus in Athens]]
The climax of this tour was indeed the destination that the helenophile Hadrian must all along have had in mind, Greece. He arrived in the autumn of [[124]] in time to participate in the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]. By tradition at one stage in the ceremony the initiates were supposed to carry arms but this was waived to avoid any risk to the emperor among them. At the Athenians request he conducted a revision of their constitution - among other things a new [[phylae]] (tribe) was added bearing his name.{{ref|Athens124}}
During the winter he toured the [[Peloponnese]]. His exact route is uncertain, however there are some tell tale signs such as reports of [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] of temples built by Hadrian and the statue built of him by the grateful citizens of [[Epidaurus]] as thanks to their "restorer". He was especially generous to [[Mantinea]] which supports the theory that Antinous was in fact already Hadrian's lover because of the strong link between Mantinea and Antinous's home in [[Bithynia]]. {{ref|Pelopon}}
By March of [[125]] Hadrian had reached [[Athens]] presiding over the festival of [[Dionysia]]. The building program that Hadrian initiated was substantial. Various rulers had done work on building a temple to Olympian [[Zeus]] - it was Hadrian who ensured that the job would be finished. He also initiated the construction of several public buildings on his own whim and even organized the building of an aqueduct.{{ref|Athens125}}
===Return to Italy===
[[Image:Pantheon Agrippa.jpg|left|thumb|230px|The [[Pantheon (Rome)|Pantheon]] was rebuilt by Hadrian.]]
On his return to Italy, Hadrian made a detour to [[Sicily]]. Coins celebrate him as the restorer of the island though there is no record of what he did to earn this accolade. {{ref|Scilly}}
Back in Rome he was able to see for himself the completed work of rebuilding the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]]. Also completed by then was Hadrian's villa nearby at [[Tibur]] - a pleasant retreat by the [[Sabine Hills]] for when Rome got too much for him. At the beginning of March [[127]] Hadrian set off for a tour of Italy. Once again it is mainly by records of his hand outs that allows us to reconstruct his route rather than the historical records. For instance, in that year he restored the Picentine earth goddess [[Cupra]] in the town of [[Cupra Maritima]]. Less welcome than such largess was his decision to divide Italy into 4 regions under imperial legates with consular rank. Being effectively reduced to the status of mere provinces did not go down well and this innovation did not long outlive Hadrian.{{ref|italy}}
Hadrian fell ill around this time, though the nature of his sickness is not known. Whatever the illness was, it did not stop him from setting off in the spring of [[128]] to visit [[Africa]]. His arrival began with the good omen of rain ending a [[drought]]. Along with his usual role as benefactor and restorer he found time to inspect the troops and his speech to the troops survives to this day.{{ref|Africa}}
Hadrian returned to Italy in the summer of 128 but his stay was brief before setting off on another tour that would last three years{{ref|brief}}.
===Greece and Asia===
In September of [[128]] Hadrian again attended the Eleusian mysteries. This time his visit to Greece seems to have concentrated on Athens and Sparta - the two ancient rivals for dominance of Greece. Hadrian had played with the idea of focusing his Greek revival round [[Amphictyonic League]] based in Delphi but he by now had decided on something far grander. His new Panhellenion was going to be a council that would bring together Greek cities wherever they might be found. The meeting |
have been research projects on the effectiveness of prayer on recovering heart attack patients. Some of these studies have shown a small benefit to prayer or other spiritual treatment in recovery. However, it is important to note that the patients in these studies received some form of spiritual healing ''in addition to'', not instead of, conventional medical care. Additionally, later studies with larger numbers of heart patients showed prayer has no effect on recovery, hospital readmission or death [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4681771.stm].
==See also==
*[[Christian Science]] - description of the beliefs/principles termed Christian Science.
*[[Christian Science Reading Room]]
==External links==
===The Christian Science Church===
* [http://www.tfccs.com/ Home Page of The First Church of Christ, Scientist]
* [http://www.marybakereddylibrary.org/ The Mary Baker Eddy Library for the Betterment of Humanity]
* [http://www.tfccs.org/gv/csps/csj/testimonies.jhtml "Reports of Healing"] from the ''Christian Science Journal''
* [http://www.spirituality.com Spirituality.com] The official website of the [[Christian Science Publishing Society]]
* [http://www.tfccs.com/weeklybiblelesson The current weekly Bible Lesson in Webcast]
* [http://www.csmonitor.com/ The Christian Science Monitor (International Daily Newspaper)]
* [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/cs.html Christian Science Statistics: Practitioners, Teachers, and Churches]
===Writings of Mary Baker Eddy===
*[http://www.spirituality.com/dt/toc_sh.jhtml Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures (1906 edition)] official site of the [[Christian Science Publishing Society|CSPS]].
*[http://www.christianscience.org/SAH.html Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, Final 1910 Edition], independently published by [http://www.aequus.org AEQUUS]
*[http://www.christianscience.org/PWIntro.html Prose Works], Other Published Writings of MBE
*[http://www.christianscience.org/Manual.html Manual of The Mother Church], The First Church of Christ Scientist in Boston, Massachusetts (88th Edition)
*{{gutenberg|no=3458|name=Science and Health, with Key to the Scriptures}}
*{{gutenberg|no=10437|name=Pulpit and Press (6th Edition)}}
*{{gutenberg|no=12321|name=Rudimental Divine Science}}
===Christian Science Weblogs and Sites===
*[http://lauramatthewscs.blogspot.com Laura Matthews, C.S.]
*[http://tosto.com Mario Tosto, CSB]
*[http://kimckorinek.com Kim C. Korinek, C.S.]
*[http://www.christianscience.org Healing Unlimited]
*[http://www.christianscience.org/Practitioners.htm List of Practitioners], independently-maintained
*[http://www.aequus.org AEQUUS Institute]
*[http://www.endtime.org/ Christian Science Endtime Center]
*[http://www.mbeinstitute.org Mary Baker Eddy Institute]
*[http://www.longyear.org/ The Longyear Museum]
===Christian Apologetics Concerning Christian Science===
*[http://www.apologeticsindex.org/c56.html Apologetics Index on Christian Science]
*[http://www.carm.org/christian_science.htm CARM Apologetics: Christian Science]
*[http://www.christianway.org/ Christian Way: Former Christian Scientists for Jesus Christ]
*[http://www.watchman.org/profile/ChrSciProfile.htm The Watchman Expositor: Christian Science Profile]
===Outsiders' views of Christian Science===
* Willa Cather and Georgine Milmine. ''The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science'' (1909) began as a famous Muckraking magazine series 1907-08. It was based on elaborate original research and interviews. Scholars who are not Christian Scientists rely on it, but church members strongly disfavor it. It was reprinted with an important new introduction by the University of Nebraska Press in 1993.
*''God's Perfect Child: Living and Dying in the Christian Science Church'' by Caroline Fraser (2000), an outsider's analysis of the entire spectrum of Church activities. Not sold in Christian Science Reading Rooms.
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3187 ''Christian Science''] Mark Twain's famous, vitriolic 1907 polemic mocking Mary Baker Eddy, her writings, and the Church's financial arrangements; of Christian Science, Twain writes "Its god is Mrs. Eddy first, then the Dollar." Project Gutenberg classifies it as "Christian Science -- controversial literature."
[[Category:Christian Science| ]]
[[da:Christian Science]]
[[de:Christian Science]]
[[eo:Kristana Scienco]]
[[fr:Science chrétienne]]
[[it:Chiesa Scientista]]
[[hu:Keresztény Tudomány (felekezet)]]
[[nl:Christian Science]]
[[ja:クリスチャン・サイエンス]]
[[pl:Christian Science]]
[[sv:Kristen Vetenskap]]
[[zh:基督教科學派]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cell phone</title>
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<revision>
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<timestamp>2005-07-18T06:03:04Z</timestamp>
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<username>Cyrius</username>
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<comment>undo copy/paste page move alltogether</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[mobile phone]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Connecticut</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:09:23Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Famous residents */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{US state |
Name = Connecticut |
Fullname = State of Connecticut |
Flag = Connecticut state flag.png |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Connecticut]] |
Seal = Connecticut state seal.png |
Map = Map of USA highlighting Connecticut.png |
Nickname = The Constitution State |
Capital = [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] |
LargestCity = [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]] |
Governor = [[M. Jodi Rell]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]])|
Senators = [[Chris Dodd]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
[[Joe Lieberman]] (D) |
PostalAbbreviation = CT |
OfficialLang = ''English'' |
AreaRank = 48<sup>th</sup> |
TotalArea = 14,371 |
LandArea = 12,559 |
WaterArea = 1,809 |
PCWater = 12.6 |
PopRank = 29<sup>th</sup> |
2000Pop = 3,405,565 |
DensityRank = 4<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 271.40 |
AdmittanceOrder = 5<sup>th</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[January 9]], [[1788]] |
TimeZone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-5/[[Daylight saving time|-4]] |
Longitude = 71°47'W to 73°44'W |
Latitude = 40°58'N to 42°3'N |
Width = 113 |
Length = 177 |
HighestElev = 725 |
MeanElev = 152 |
LowestElev = 0 |
ISOCode = US-CT |
Website = www.ct.gov
}}
'''Connecticut''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/kə&#712;n&#603;t&#618;kət/; the second C is silent}}) is a [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States]], part of the [[New England (U.S.)|New England]] region, as well as the southernmost state in New England and the wealthiest state in the country. Connecticut was one of the [[13 colonies|thirteen colonies]] that revolted against British rule in the [[American Revolution]].
[[USS Connecticut|USS ''Connecticut'']] was named in honor of this state.
== History ==
{{main|History of Connecticut}}
The name "Connecticut" comes from the [[Mohegan]] Indian word "Quinnehtukqut" meaning "Long River Place" or "Beside the Long Tidal River." Connecticut is the fifth of the original thirteen states. The first Europeans to settle permanently in Connecticut were English [[Puritan]]s from Massachusetts in 1633. Its first constitution, the "[[Fundamental Orders of Connecticut|Fundamental Orders]]," was adopted on [[January 14]], [[1639]], while its [[Connecticut Constitution|current constitution]], the third for Connecticut, was adopted in [[1965]]. The traditional abbreviation of the state's name is "Conn." Connecticut's official nickname, adopted in 1959, is "The Constitution State." Another popular nickname for Connecticut is "The Nutmeg State," so a resident of Connecticut is known as a "[[Nutmegger]]."
The western boundaries of Connecticut have been subject to dramatic changes over time. According to a [[1650]] agreement with the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], the western boundary of Connecticut ran north from the west side of [[Greenwich Bay]] "provided the said line come not within 10 miles of Hudson River." On the other hand, Connecticut's original Charter in [[1662]] granted it all the land to the "South Sea," i.e. the Pacific Ocean. This probably added confusion to the early forefathers because the Pacific Ocean is located on the west coast of the United States. Agreements with New York, the "[[Pennamite Wars]]" with [[Pennsylvania]] over [[Westmoreland County, Connecticut|Westmoreland County]], followed by Congressional intervention, and the relinquishment and sale of the [[Western Reserve]] lands brought the state to its present boundaries.
== Law & Government ==
[[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] has been the sole capital of Connecticut since [[1875]]. Prior to that, [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and Hartford alternated as capitals. Unlike most other states, Connecticut does not have [[county]] governments or [[county seat]]s; rather, there is only the state government and the governments of the local municipalities. The associated [[state marshal]] system, however, is still divided by county, the judicial system being divided, at the trial court level, into judicial districts, and, within those, geographical areas, and the [[list of Connecticut counties|eight counties]] are still widely used for purely geographical purposes, ''e.g.'' in [[weather report]]s. There are 169 |
attempt at settlement. In 1770, [[James Cook]] sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named [[New South Wales]] and claimed for Britain. The expedition's discoveries provided impetus for the establishment of a [[penal colony]] there following the loss of the American colonies that had previously filled that role.
[[Image:Port Arthur Seeseite.jpg|260px|thumb|right|[[Port Arthur, Tasmania|Port Arthur]], [[Tasmania]] was Australia's largest penal colony.]]
The British [[British overseas territory|Crown Colony]] of New South Wales started with the establishment of a settlement at [[Port Jackson]] by Captain [[Arthur Phillip]] on [[26 January]] [[1788]]. This date was later to become Australia's national day, [[Australia Day]]. [[Van Diemen's Land]], now known as [[Tasmania]], was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Australia in 1829. Separate colonies were created from parts of New South Wales: [[South Australia]] in 1836, [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in 1851, and [[Queensland]] in 1859. The [[Northern Territory]] (NT) was founded in 1863 as part of the Province of South Australia. Victoria and South Australia were founded as "free colonies" — that is, they were never penal colonies, although the former did receive some convicts from Tasmania. Western Australia was also founded "free", but later accepted transported convicts due to an acute labour shortage. The transportation of convicts to Australia was phased out between 1840 and 1868.
The [[Indigenous Australian]] population, estimated at about 350,000 at the time of European settlement,{{ref|Smith1980}} declined steeply for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease, forced migration, the [[Stolen Generation|removal of children]], and other colonial government policies that some historians and Indigenous Australians have argued could be considered tantamount to [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide|genocide]] by today's understanding.{{ref|Tatz1999}} Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by some as being exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons.{{ref|wind2001}} {{ref|smh2002}} This debate is known within Australia as the [[History Wars]]. Following the [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|1967 referendum]], the Federal government gained the power to implement policies and make laws with respect to Aborigines. Traditional ownership of land — [[native title]] — was not recognised until the [[High Court of Australia|High Court]] case ''[[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)]]'' overturned the notion of Australia as ''[[terra nullius]]'' at the time of European occupation.
[[Image:Anzac1.JPG|left|thumb|240px|The [[Last Post]] is played at an [[ANZAC Day]] ceremony in [[Port Melbourne, Victoria]], [[25 April]] [[2005]]. Ceremonies such as this are held in virtually every suburb and town in Australia.]]
A [[gold rush]] began in Australia in the early 1850s, and the [[Eureka Stockade]] rebellion in 1854 was an early expression of nationalist sentiment. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained [[responsible government]], managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the [[British Empire]]. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence and international shipping. On [[1 January]] [[1901]], [[Federation of Australia|federation]] of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation and voting, and the Commonwealth of Australia was born, as a [[Dominion]] of the [[British Empire]]. The [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of [[Canberra]] ([[Melbourne]] was the capital from 1901 to 1927). The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911. Australia willingly participated in [[World War I]];{{ref|Bean1941}} many Australians regard the defeat of the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZACs) at [[Battle of Gallipoli|Gallipoli]] as the birth of the nation — its first major military action. The Gallipoli campaign is often erroneously portrayed as or conceived to have been a solely or mainly ANZAC campaign. The reality was that British deaths during the campaign were twice as high as those of ANZAC forces. Much like Gallipoli, the [[Kokoda Track Campaign]] is regarded by many as a nation-defining battle from [[World War II]].
The [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom, but Australia did not [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|adopt the Statute]] until 1942. The shock of the United Kingdom's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the [[United States]] as a new ally and protector. Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US under the auspices of the [[ANZUS]] treaty. After World War II, Australia encouraged mass immigration from Europe; since the 1970s and the abolition of the [[White Australia policy]], immigration from Asia and other parts of the world was also encouraged. As a result, Australia's demography, culture and image of itself were radically transformed. The final constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom ended in 1986 with the passing of the [[Australia Act 1986]], ending any British role in the Australian States, and ending judicial appeals to the UK Privy Council. Australian voters rejected a move to become a republic in 1999 by a 55% majority,{{ref|AEC}} but the result is generally viewed in terms of dissatisfaction with the specifics of the proposed republican model rather than attachment to the monarchy. Since the election of the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam Government]] in 1972, there has been an increasing focus on the nation's future as a part of the Asia-Pacific region.
==Politics==
{{main articles|[[Government of Australia]] and [[Politics of Australia]]}}
[[Image:NewParliamentHouseInCanberra.jpg|thumb|right|240px|New [[Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House]] in [[Canberra]] was opened in 1988 replacing the [[Old Parliament House, Canberra|provisional Parliament House building]] opened in 1927.]]
The Commonwealth of Australia is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and has a [[parliamentary system]] of government. [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is the [[Queen of Australia]], a role that is distinct from her position as Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. The Queen is nominally represented by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]; although the [[Constitution of Australia|Constitution]] gives extensive [[Executive (government)|executive powers]] to the Governor-General, these are normally exercised only on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]]. The most notable exercise of the Governor-General's [[reserve power]]s outside the Prime Minister's direction was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975|constitutional crisis of 1975]].{{ref|PL1997}}
There are three branches of government.
*The legislature: the [[Parliament of Australia|Commonwealth Parliament]], comprising the Queen, the Senate, and the House of Representatives; the Queen is represented by the Governor-General, who in practice exercises little or no power over the Parliament.
*The executive: the [[Federal Executive Council]] (the Governor-General as advised by the executive councillors); in practice, the councillors are the prime minister and ministers of state, whose advice the Governor-General accepts, with rare exceptions.
*The judiciary: the [[High Court of Australia]] and other [[Australian court hierarchy|federal courts]]. The State courts became formally independent from the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] when the ''[[Australia Act]]'' was passed in 1986.
The [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] Commonwealth Parliament consists of the Queen, the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] (the upper house) of 76 senators, and a [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] (the lower house) of 150 members. Members of the lower house are elected from single-member constituencies, commonly known as 'electorates' or 'seats'. Seats in the House of Representatives are allocated to states on the basis of population. In the Senate, each state, regardless of population, is represented by 12 senators, with the ACT and the NT each electing two. Elections for both chambers are held every three years; typically only half of the Senate seats are put to each election, because senators have overlapping six-year terms. The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms Government, with its leader becoming Prime Minister.
There are three major political parties: the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]], the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] and the [[National Party of Australia|National Party]]. Independent members and several minor parties — including the [[Australian Greens|Greens]], [[Family First Party|Family First]] and the [[Australian Democrats]] — have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses, although their influence has been marginal. Since the [[Australian legislative election, 1996|1996 election]], the [[Coalition (Australia)|Liberal/National Coalition]] led by the Prime Minister, [[John Howard]], has been in power in Canberra. In the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 election]], the Coalition won control of the Senate, the first time that a party (or coalition of governing parties) has done so while in government in more than 20 years. The Labor Party is in power in every state and territory. [[Compulsory voting|Voting is compulsory]] in |
Zone]]'', ''The [[Andy Griffith Show]]'', ''[[Dr. Kildare]]'', ''Hennessey'', among many others. He also joined the cast of ''The [[Joey Bishop]] Show'' in 1962.
===''My Favorite Martian''===
Bixby auditioned in [[1963]] for a new sitcom, ''[[My Favorite Martian]]'' on CBS, where he received a co-starring role as young news reporter, Tim O’Hara, who befriended an extraterrestrial played by [[Ray Walston]]. The show was a ratings winner in its first year, and it was ranked #10 for primetime programming. Also, Bixby often had the knack of comedic timing. But by 1966, bad scripts and high production costs forced the series to come to an end after 107 episodes.
== Film work ==
After the cancellation of ''Martian'', Bixby starred in four box-office movies: ''[[Ride Beyond Vengeance]]'' ([[1966 in film|1966]]), on which he played the evil, Johnsy Boy Hood, ''[[You’ve Got to Be Kidding]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]]), and two of [[Elvis Presley]]’s movies, ''[[Clambake]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]]), and ''[[Speedway (film)|Speedway]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]]). Bixby turned down the role as [[Marlo Thomas]]’s boyfriend in ''[[That Girl]]'' and starred in two failed pilots.
===''The Courtship of Eddie's Father''===
In [[1969]], Bixby starred as Tom Corbett in another successful sitcom, ''[[The Courtship of Eddie's Father]]'' for [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], about a widowed father who wants to spend more time with his son while dating women. It was based on the popular [[1963]] movie, starring [[Glenn Ford]] and [[Ron Howard]]. His co-star on the show was [[Brandon Cruz]], with whom he developed a close relationship. He was nominated for a [[Emmy Award]] for Lead Actor in a Comedy Series, but did not win. The following year, he won the [[Parents Without Partners]] Exemplary Service Award for 1972. By its final season, ''Courtship'' started to lose points in the ratings, and Bixby had an argument with [[James Komack]] which caused more friction. It was cancelled in 1972 after 78 episodes.
==After ''Courtship''==
In [[1973]], Bixby starred in ''The Magician'', playing Anthony Dorian, which lasted one season. As a game show panelist, he appeared mostly on [[Password]] and [[The Hollywood Squares]]. An accomplished amateur magician, Bixby also hosted several specials in the mid-1970s that featured other amateur magicians.
===''The Incredible Hulk''===
In late [[1977]], after working on two comedy series, Bixby starred in a two-hour pilot movie called ''[[Hulk (comics)|The Incredible Hulk]]''. The producers convinced CBS to turn it into a weekly science-fiction series beginning in early [[1978]]. His character, Dr. David Banner, was a scientist/physician who turned into a green monster (played by [[Lou Ferrigno]]) when he became angry. A hit, the series was seen in over 70 countries as Bixby's character rips his shirts apart before becoming the ''Hulk.'' Bixby felt that the make-up requirements for his part were onerous however. More than a courageous move to star in a [[science]]-[[fiction]] series, but he decided to take a risky one after finished reading the entire script. On the pilot episode of the ''Hulk'', his catch-phrase became popular as he uttered, "Don't make me angry, you wouldn't like me when I'm angry," as this one became one of Bixby's better hit series, and making him a [[pop icon|pop]] [[icon]] of the [[1970]]s. During the show's run, he also invited two of his long-time friends (Ray Walston from ''My Favorite Martian'' and Brandon Cruz from ''The Courtship of Eddie's Father'') from two of his previous hit series to [[guest]]-[[star]] with him on several different episodes of the ''Hulk''. In 1981, Bixby not only acted, but served one time as director of the show. The series was cancelled that following year. Bixby was disappointed that his character was not cured of his condition in the final episode.
After he starred in three successful TV series, he wanted to concentrate on directing, from his own short-lived comedy, ''[[Goodnight, Beantown]]'' with [[Mariette Hartley]] (when she guest-starred with Bixby on ''[[The Incredible Hulk]]''), to the successful, ''[[Sledgehammer]]''. In addition to ''Hulk,'' Bixby directed two of the three TV movie revivals which he also produced. Prior to his death he was the lead director of the TV sitcom ''[[Blossom (television)|Blossom]]''.
==Private and later life==
Bixby had been married three times. He married actress and former MISS USA [[Brenda Benet]] in [[1971]], and the couple gave birth to Christopher, a few years later. They were divorced in [[1980]]. In 1981, Bixby's six-year-old son Christopher died suddenly after an accident at the actor's [[Brentwood, Los Angeles, CA]] home. Shortly afterwards, Benet committed suicide.
Nine years later in [[1989]], he met and fell in love with Laura Michaels, who used to work on the set of one of his ''Hulk'' movies. The couple married a year later in Hawaii. In early [[1991]], Bixby was diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]] and underwent treatment for the disease. He was divorced in the same year. In late [[1992]], friends introduced him to an artist named Judith Kliban, the widow of [[B. Kliban]], a cartoonist who died of cancer. He married Judith in late [[1993]], just six weeks before he collapsed on the set of ''Blossom''.
Eventually, Bixby's cancer recurred and was diagnosed as inoperable. Six days after his final assignment, directing an episode of ''Blossom'', Bill Bixby passed away from complications arising from prostate cancer in [[Century City, California]] on November 21, 1993.
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0084642|name=Bill Bixby}}
*{{nndb name|id=162/000026084|name=Bill Bixby}}
[[Category:1934 births|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American film directors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American magicians|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American musical theatre actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American television directors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American television personalities|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American television producers|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Character actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Film actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Hulk|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Phi Delta Theta brothers|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:San Franciscans|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Stage actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Television actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[de:Bill Bixby]]
[[sv:Bill Bixby]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beast</title>
<id>4970</id>
<revision>
<id>41942428</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:02:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ronvelig</username>
<id>170450</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added UK sitcom</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|beast}}
'''Beast''' is another name for [[animal]], usually one that is particularly large and dangerous. It may also refer to:
__NOTOC__
=== Popular entertainment ===
* [[Beast (comics)]], a superhero in the Marvel X-Men and Avengers comics
* The Beast, a character from the [[France|French]] folktale ''[[Beauty and the Beast]]'' and the films inspired by it
* [[The Beast of War]], a 1989 film
* [[The Beast (2006)]], a 2006 film
* [[Beast (Buffyverse)]], a monster from the TV series ''Angel''
* [[The Beast (game)]], an alternate reality game
* [[Beast ASCII Game]], a 1984 ASCII game,
* [[The Beast (Homeworld)]], the antagonist in the computer game ''Homeworld: Cataclysm''
* "The Beast", a song by Twisted Sister from their album ''[[Stay Hungry]]'' (1984)
* [[Beast (Sitcom)]], a [[UK]] sitcom, based in a [[Veterinary medicine|Veterinary Surgery]] (2000-01)
=== Religion ===
* The [[Antichrist]], from the Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible
* [[The Number of the Beast]], from the Book of Revelation
=== Books ===
* [[Beast (novel)]], a 1991 novel by [[Peter Benchley]]
* ''The Beast'', an autobiography of [[Paul Di'Anno]], former vocalist of [[Iron Maiden]]
* Beast, 2002 novel by [[Donna Jo Napoli]]
=== Other ===
* [[The Beast (Newspaper)]], a biweekly serving Buffalo, New York
* [[Beasts (plays)]], a series of plays on the UK's independent TV channel in 1976
* [[Beast (roller coaster)]], a roller coaster at Paramount's Kings Island amusement park
* The Great Beast, a nickname for magician [[Aleister Crowley]]
===See also===
* [[Number of the Beast (disambiguation)]]
{{Disambig}}
[[ja:獣]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boer</title>
<id>4971</id>
<revision>
<id>41300599</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T11:08:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rebelguys2</username>
<id>406178</id>
</contributor>
<comment>create dab link to [[Boer goat]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Boer people. For the animal, see [[Boer goat]].''
'''Boer''' is the [[Afrikaans]] (and [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) word for [[farmer]] which came to denote the descendants of the Afrikaans-speaking migrating farmers of the expanding eastern [[Cape of Good Hope|Cape]] frontier. The Boers are descended mainly from [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[Calvinist]], [[Frisian]] Calvinist, [[French people|French]] [[Huguenot]], [[Walloon]], [[Flemings|Flemish]] and [[German people|German]] [[Protestant]] origins dating from the [[1650s]] and into the [[1700s]]. Smaller but significant numbers of [[Scandinavians]], [[Scottish ethnicity|Scots]], [[English people|English]], [[Demographics of India|Indians]], [[Malays]] & [[Khoi]] have been absorbed as well. Those Boers who trekked into and inhabited the eastern Cape frontier were semi-nomadic. The term Boer is sometimes used in general to refer to an [[Afrikaner]]. When used in an historical context, it may refer to an inhabitant of the [[Boer republic]]s as well as those who were cultural Boers. The Boers were largely, though n |
EX<br>
IBM<br>
IBM 1403<br>
IBM 1620 '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
IBM 1710 '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
IBM 2741<br>
IBM 3270<br>
IBM 360 '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
IBM 3720 '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
IBM 650 '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
IBM 704<br>
IBM 7040<br>
IBM 705<br>
IBM 709<br>
IBM 7090<br>
IBM 7094<br>
IBM 801<br>
IBM compatible<br>
IBM Customer Engineer<br>
IBM discount<br>
IBM PC -- '''DONE'''<br>
IBM PC AT<br>
IBM PCjr<br>
IBM PC XT<br>
IBM Systems Engineer<br>
Ibpag2<br>
Iburg<br>
IC<br>
ICAM<br>
I-CASE<br>
ICBM address<br>
ICE<br>
icebreaker<br>
ICES<br>
ICETRAN<br>
ICI<br>
ICL<br>
ICMP<br>
ICMP Router Discovery Protocol<br>
I-Comm<br>
iCOMP<br>
Icon '''DONE''' as either [[Unisys ICON]] or [[Icon programming language]]<br>
icon<br>
Iconicode<br>
ICONIX Software Engineering, Inc.<br>
IC-Prolog<br>
IC Prolog II<br>
ICQ<br>
ICSI<br>
ICT<br>
ICW<br>
ICWS<br>
Id<br>
id<br>
I-D<br>
IDAMS<br>
IDE<br>
IDEA<br>
IDEAL<br>
ideal<br>
Idealized CSP<br>
Idealized Instruction Set<br>
IDEF<br>
idempotent<br>
IDF<br>
I didn't change anything!<br>
IDL<br>
IDMS<br>
IDMSX<br>
Id Nouveau<br>
IDOL<br>
IDS/I<br>
id Software<br>
IDSS<br>
IE<br>
ie<br>
IEC<br>
IEC 559<br>
IEEE<br>
IEEE 1076<br>
IEEE 1394 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Firewire)<br>
IEEE 488<br>
IEEE 754<br>
IEEE 802<br>
IEEE 802.2 -- '''DONE'''<br>
IEEE 802.3<br>
IEEE 802.3u<br>
IEEE 802.3z<br>
IEEE 802.4<br>
IEEE 802.5<br>
IEEE Computer Society<br>
IEEE Floating Point Standard -- '''DONE'''<br>
IEEE Standard 1149.1<br>
IEF<br>
IEN<br>
IEPG<br>
IESG<br>
IETF<br>
IF1<br>
IF2<br>
IFAC<br>
ifdef out<br>
IFDL<br>
IFF<br>
[[IFIP]]<br>
IFP<br>
IFS<br>
IFX<br>
If you want X, you know where to find it.<br>
IGC<br>
IGES<br>
IGL<br>
IGMP<br>
IGP<br>
IGPL<br>
IGU<br>
IHS<br>
IHV<br>
IIcx<br>
IIDMS/R<br>
IINREN<br>
IIOP<br>
IIR<br>
IIRC<br>
IIS<br>
IIT<br>
IITF<br>
IITRAN<br>
il<br>
ILBM<br>
ILF<br>
ILIAD<br>
I-Link<br>
ILISP<br>
ill-behaved<br>
ILLIAC<br>
Illiac IV<br>
ILOC<br>
Ilog Solver<br>
image<br>
image formats<br>
image map<br>
image processing<br>
image recognition<br>
imaging<br>
Imago Europe plc<br>
Imago On-line<br>
imake<br>
IMAO<br>
IMAP<br>
imc<br>
IMD<br>
IMHO<br>
IML<br>
immediate version<br>
Imminent Death Of The Net Predicted!<br>
IMNSHO<br>
IMO<br>
IMP<br>
impact printer<br>
imperative language<br>
Imperial Software Technology<br>
IMPlementation language<br>
implicit parallelism<br>
implicit type conversion<br>
implies<br>
imprecise probability<br>
IMProved Mercury autocode<br>
IMR<br>
IMS<br>
IMS 6100<br>
Imsai<br>
IMS/Data Base<br>
IMS/Data Communications<br>
IMSE<br>
IMTC<br>
in<br>
Ina Jo<br>
InARP<br>
in-band<br>
inc<br>
incantation<br>
include<br>
include war<br>
inclusive<br>
incomparable<br>
incremental analysis<br>
incremental backup<br>
incremental constraint solver<br>
Incremental Prototyping Technology for Embedded Realtime Systems<br>
[incr Tcl]<br>
indel<br>
indent style<br>
Independent Logical File<br>
Independent Verification and Validation<br>
index<br>
Index Data<br>
Indexed Sequential Access Method<br>
indices<br>
indirect address<br>
indirect addressing<br>
indirection<br>
induction<br>
inductive inference<br>
inductive relation<br>
Industrial Programming, Inc.<br>
Industrial Robot Language<br>
Industry Standard Architecture -- '''DONE'''<br>
inetd<br>
inews<br>
infant mortality (computer)<br>
infeasible path<br>
inference<br>
inference engine<br>
inference rule<br>
infimum<br>
infinite<br>
Infinite Impulse Response<br>
infinite loop<br>
Infinite Monkey Theorem<br>
infinite set<br>
infinity<br>
infix notation<br>
infix syntax<br>
inflate<br>
INFN<br>
Infobahn<br>
Info BASIC<br>
infobot<br>
Informatics Corporation<br>
Information Algebra<br>
Information and Communication Technology<br>
Information Appliance<br>
Information Builders<br>
Information Engineering Facility<br>
information highway<br>
Information Innovation<br>
information island<br>
Information Management<br>
Information Management System<br>
Information Processing Language<br>
Information Resource Management<br>
information superhighway<br>
Information Systems Factory<br>
Information Technology<br>
Information Technology Infrastructure Library<br>
Informix<br>
InfoSeek<br>
InfoStreet, Inc.<br>
InfoWord Office<br>
infrared<br>
Infrared Data Association<br>
infrastructure<br>
Inglish<br>
INGRES<br>
inheritance<br>
initgame<br>
initialise<br>
Initial Microprogram Load<br>
Initial Operational Test and Evaluation<br>
Initial Program Load<br>
Initial Program Loader<br>
initiator<br>
injection<br>
inkjet printer<br>
ink printer<br>
inline<br> - '''DONE'''
inline image<br>
INMOS transputer<br>
inner join<br>
inner product<br>
InnovAda<br>
inode<br>
Inprise Corporation<br>
Input<br>
input<br>
input device<br>
input/output<br>
input/output redirection<br>
inquiry/response system<br>
INRIA<br>
insanely great<br>
insertion sort<br>
INSIGHT<br>
Insignia Solutions, Inc.<br>
inspection<br>
installable file system<br>
installed user base<br>
installer<br>
instance<br>
instance variable<br>
instantiate<br>
instantiation<br>
Institute for Global Communications<br>
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.<br>
Institut National de Recherche en Informatique et Automatique<br>
Instruction Address Register<br>
instruction mnemonic<br>
instruction prefetch<br>
instruction scheduling<br>
instruction set<br>
instruction set architecture<br>
Instruction Set Processor<br>
instrument<br>
int<br>
INTCODE<br>
integer<br>
Integer SPECbaserate<br>
Integer SPECbaseratio<br>
Integer SPECrate<br>
Integer SPECratio<br>
integrated circuit<br>
Integrated Database Management System<br>
Integrated Drive Electronics<br>
Integrated Information Technology<br>
Integrated Modelling Support Environment<br>
Integrated Project Support Environment<br>
Integrated Services Digital Network<br>
Integrated Systems Architecture<br>
integration<br>
integration testing<br>
integrity constraint<br>
Intel 4004<br>
Intel 4040<br>
Intel 486<br>
Intel 486DX<br>
Intel 486SX<br>
Intel 487SX<br>
Intel 8008<br>
Intel 80186<br>
Intel 80188<br>
Intel 80286<br>
Intel 80386<br>
Intel 80386SX<br>
Intel 8048<br>
Intel 80486<br>
Intel 8051<br>
Intel 8080<br>
Intel 8085<br>
Intel 8086<br>
Intel 8088<br>
Intel 80x86<br>
Intel 8751<br>
Intel Comparative Microprocessor Performance index<br>
Intel Corporation<br>
IntelDX4<br>
Intel i960<br>
INTELLECT<br>
intellectual property<br>
intelligent backtracking<br>
intelligent database<br>
Intelligent Input/Output<br>
Intelligent I/O<br>
intelligent key<br>
intelligent terminal<br>
IntelliMouse<br>
Intel Literature Sales<br>
Intelsat<br>
intensional<br>
Intent to Package<br>
INTERACTIVE<br>
interactive<br>
Interactive CourseWare<br>
Interactive Data Entry/Access<br>
Interactive Data Language<br>
interactive development environment<br>
Interactive Development Environments<br>
Interactive Software Engineering<br>
Interactive System Productivity Facility<br>
Interactive Voice Response<br>
Interagency Interim National Research and Education Network<br>
InterBase<br>
INTERCAL<br>
Interchange File Format<br>
INTERCOM<br>
Interest Group in Pure and Applied Logics<br>
interesting<br>
interface<br>
interface analysis<br>
Interface Architect<br>
Interface Definition Language<br>
Interface Description Language<br>
Interface Message Processor<br>
Interior Gateway Protocol<br>
interlace<br>
interlaced image<br>
interlacing<br>
Interlan<br>
Interleaf<br>
interleave<br>
interleaving<br>
INTERLINK<br>
Interlisp<br>
Interlisp-10<br>
Interlisp-D<br>
Intermedia<br>
Intermedia Interchange Format<br>
Intermediate Distribution Frame<br>
Intermediate Programming Language<br>
Intermediate System<br>
In |
ic are. However, from a European influenced musicological analysis, or from the standpoint of an untrained European influenced listener, Koran chanting is structurally similar to classical singing (Nettl, 1989).
==Music as organized sound==
An oft cited definition of music, made by [[Wynton Marsalis]] among others, is that it is "sound organized in time." Apart from objections that "organization" is not required, this definition is seen by many as being too broad. The fifteenth edition of the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' pinpoints the problem by saying that "while there are no sounds that can be described as inherently unmusical, musicians in each culture have tended to restrict the range of sounds they will admit." Organization would seem to be a crucial restricting criterion in this context, after all.
"Organization" also seems necessary because it implies ''human'' organization. This human organizing element seems crucial to the common understanding of music. Sounds produced by non-human agents, such as waterfalls or birds, are often described as "musical", but rarely as "music".
This definition determines music according to the poetic and the neutral levels (it must be composed sonorities), or more aesthetically, 'the [[art]]ful or pleasing organization of sound and [[silence]]', which determines music according to the esthesic. This definition is widely held to from the late [[19th century]] forward, which began to [[science|scientifically]] analyze the relationship between sound and [[perception]].
Additionally, Schaeffer (1968: 284) describes that the sound of classical music "has decays; it is granular; it has attacks; it fluctuates, swollen with impurities&mdash;and all this creates a musicality that comes before any 'cultural' musicality." Yet the definition according to the esthesic level does not allow that the sounds of classical music are complex, are noises, rather they are regular, periodic, even, musical sounds. Nattiez (1990, p.47-8): "My own position can be summarized in the following terms: ''just as music is whatever people choose to recognize as such, noise is whatever is recognized as disturbing, unpleasant, or both''." (see "[[#music as social construct|music as social construct]]" below)'''''
==Music as subjective experience==
Another commonly held definition of music holds that music must be 'pleasant' (determined by the esthesic level) or '[[melodic]]' (determined by the neutral and/or esthesic levels). This view is often used to argue that some kinds of organized sound 'are not music', while others are, based on type of organization or its aesthetic effect. Since the range of what is accepted as music varies from culture to culture and from time to time, more elaborate versions of this definition admit some kind of cultural or social evolution of music, granting that definitions may vary but universals hold. This definition was the predominant one in the [[18th century]], where, for example, [[Mozart]] stated that "music must never forget itself, it must never cease to be music." One example of shifts in the music/noise dichotomy, what organization is considered musical, is the [[emancipation of the dissonance]], while Luciano Berio (1976) describes how the [[Tristan chord]] was noise in 1859 since it was a sonority unexplainable by contemporary harmonic conventions.
This view of music is most heavily criticized by proponents of the view that music is a social construction (directly below), defined in opposition to "unpleasant" "noise", though this view may be subsumed in the one below in that a listener's idea of pleasant sounds may be considered socially constructed.
==Music as social construct==
[[Post-modern]] and other theories argue that, like all art, music is defined primarily by [[social]] context. According to this view, music is what people call music, whether it is a period of [[silence]], [[found sound]]s, or [[performance]]. Famously [[John Cage]]'s work [[4'33"]] is rooted in this conception of music. According to Nattiez, Cage, Kagel, Schnebel, and others, "now perceive them[certain of their pieces] (even if they do not say so publicly) as a way of "speaking" in music about music, in the second degree, as it were, to expose or denounce the institutional aspect of music's functioning." (p.43)
Cultural background factors in determining music from noise or unpleasant experiences. The experience of only being exposed to a particular type of music influences perception of any music. Cultures of European descent are largely influenced by music making use of the [[Diatonic scale]]. Most modern music still uses this scale and due to constant exposure, the music of other cultures is not held with the same regard. What would be accepted as music in [[Indonesia]] may be dismissed by many westerners as just "a din."
It might be added that as well as cultural background, historical era is also a determining factor in what is regarded as music. What would today be accepted as music in the west without the blinking of an eye, would have been ridiculed in the [[17th century]]. And what would be music to [[The Sex Pistols]]' [[Sid Vicious]], who is said to have commented, "you just pick a chord, go twang, and you've got music," would almost certainly not have been music to [[William Congreve (playwright)|William Congreve]], who wrote that, "Musick has charms to sooth a savage breast" (''The Mourning Bride'', 1697). All of which is to say that there can be no absolute definition of music that will be accepted by everybody.
Many people do, however, share a general idea of music. The Websters definition of music is a typical example: "the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity" (''Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', online edition). There are a number of potential objections to such a definition.
While some may find this definition too restrictive, arguing that "unity" and "continuity" are unnecessary, it is likely that more will find it too broad, thinking of music as being made of pitched sounds, and containing [[melody]], [[harmony]] and [[rhythm]]. The idea that music must contain these elements is widespread, but there are several examples of what would be widely regarded as music, which lack one or more of them. [[Plainsong]] for instance, or monophonic music in general, has no harmony. Much [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]] music lacks both harmony and melody; it is true that [[drum]]s are tuned, but their pitches are indefinite, and they cannot be said to produce a melody in the traditional sense. If one takes rhythm to mean a regular pulse underpinning music, then many kinds of modern [[electronic music]] can be said to lack rhythm.
Some attempts to define music concentrate on the method of producing it. Even though some of the first "instruments" in prehistory must have been rocks and bits of wood, it is only in the past one hundred years or so that the idea that music could only be produced by a singer or a traditional musical instrument (such as a [[violin]] in Europe, a [[sitar]] in India or a [[koto (musical instrument)|koto]] in Japan) has been challenged. [[Erik Satie]] challenged what constituted a musical instrument, and therefore a musical sound, when he wrote the ballet ''Parade'' which included a part for a typewriter. His justification was that since the typewriter made a noise, it was a musical instrument. In a lighter vein, [[Leroy Anderson]] also wrote music that included a manual typewriter, played with strict rhythm.
The composer [[John Cage]] challenged traditional ideas about music in his ''4' 33"'', which is notated as three movements, each marked ''Tacet'' (that is, "do not play"). The implication, as expanded upon by Cage himself, is that the background noises which are normally a distraction from the music (the humming of the lights, the shuffling of the audience, the sound of traffic outside) are to be regarded as the actual music in this case. Some also consider to be part of the music the potential differences in the collection of sounds present if the piece had been only four minutes, or if it had been five, although Cage may have never intended this interpretation.
This is contrary to the usual view that music is, if nothing else, deliberate. Furthermore, Cage does not state the length of the piece - the duration of the first performance (given by [[David Tudor]] seated at a [[piano]]) was arrived at by consulting the ''[[I Ching]]'', but it is not stated in the score (although whenever the piece is performed nowadays, the original duration is usually maintained). The total time of [[silence]] is 273 [[second]]s, which has a parallel in the temperature -273 degrees [[Celsius]], [[absolute zero]]. This is pure coincidence, however.
Some people deal with the challenges posed by ''4' 33"'' by simply refusing to consider it as music.
Of course, even in conventional music, the "silent" gaps between notes are part of the music. The pianist [[Artur Schnabel]], when asked what made him a great pianist, said "The notes I handle no better than many pianists. But the pauses between the notes? Ah, that is where the art resides!" There is also at least one piece of music, a string quartet, in which the players stop suddenly while the sheet music shows a long rest at the end.{{citation needed}} When skillfully performed, the silence at the end is quite obviously part of the music. In [[Joseph Haydn]]'s ''[[Symphony No. 45 (Haydn)|Symphony No. 45]]'', ''Farewell'', the entire composition anticipates the silence at the end as the musicians one by one stop playing |
al sounds (Bindi and Tippi) and one symbol which duplicates the sound of any consonant (Addak). In addition, four conjuncts are used: three subjoined forms of the consonants Rara, Haha and Vava, and one half-form of Yayya. Use of the conjunct forms of Vava and Yayya is increasingly scarce in modern contexts.
Gurmukhi has been adapted to write other languages, such as [[Braj Bhasha]], [[Hindi]], [[Sanskrit]] and [[Sindhi]].
== Origins ==
Like most of the North Indian writing systems, the Gurmukhi script is a descendant of the [[Brahmi]] script. The ''Proto-Gurmukhi letters'' evolved through the [[Gupta script]], from 4th to 8th century, followed by the [[Sharada script]], from 8th century onwards, and finally adapted their archaic form in the ''Devasesha'' stage of the Later Sharada script, dated between the 10th and 14th centuries.
The traditional accounts, such as the references found in the ''Janamsakhi'' literature, say that the Gurmukhi script was invented by the second [[Sikh]] Guru, [[Guru Angad Dev]]. However, it would be correct to say that the script was standardised, rather than invented, by the Sikh Gurus. E.P. Newton (''Panjabi Grammar'', 1898) writes that at least 21 Gurmukhi characters are found in ancient manuscripts: 6 from 10th century, 12 from 3rd century BC and 3 from 5th century BC. Apparently, the first Sikh Guru, [[Guru Nanak Dev]] also used the Gurmukhi script for his writings.
There are two major theories on how the ''Proto-Gurmukhi script'' emerged in the 15th century. G.B. Singh (1950), while quoting Abu Raihan [[Al-Biruni]]'s ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' (1030 AD), says that the script evolved from [[Ardhanagari]]. Al-Biruni writes that the [[Ardhanagari]] script was used in [[Bathinda]], including [[Sindh]] and western parts of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] in the 10th century. For some time, Bhatinda remained the capital of the kingdom of [[Bhatti]] Rajputs of the Pal clan, who ruled North India before the Muslims occupied the country. Because of its connection with the Bhattis, the [[Ardhanagari]] script was also called [[Bhatachhari]]. According to Al-Biruni, [[Ardhanagari]] was a mixture of [[Nagari]], used in [[Ujjain]] and [[Malwa]], and ''Siddha Matrika'' or the [[Siddham]] script, a variant of the [[Sharada script]] used in [[Kashmir]].
Pritam Singh (1992) has also traced the origins of Gurmukhi to the ''Siddha Matrika''.
Tarlochan Singh Bedi (1999) writes that the Gurmukhi script developed in the 10-14th centuries from the ''Devasesha'' stage of the [[Sharada script]]. His argument is that from the 10th century, regional differences started to appear between the [[Sharada script]] used in Punjab, the Hill States (partly Himachal Pradesh) and Kashmir. The regional [[Sharada script]] evolves from this stage till the 14th century, when it starts to appear in the form of Gurmukhi. Indian epigraphists call this stage Devasesha, while Bedi prefers the name ''Pritham Gurmukhi'' or Proto-Gurmukhi.
Gurus adopted the ''Proto-Gurmukhi script'' to write the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], the religious scriptures of the Sikhs. Other contemporary scripts used in the Punjab were [[Takri]] and the [[Lande]] alphabets. Also ''Takri'' was a script that developed through the ''Devasesha'' stage of the [[Sharada script]], and is found mainly in the Hill States, such as [[Chamba]], where it is called ''Chambyali'' and in [[Jammu]], where it is known as ''Dogri''. The local ''Takri'' variants got the status of official scripts in some of the [[Punjab Hill States]], and were used for both administrative and literary purposes until the 19th century. After 1948, when Himachal Pradesh was established as an administrative unit, the local ''Takri'' variants were replaced by [[Devanagari]].
Meanwhile, the mercantile scripts of Punjab known as the [[Lande]] were normally not used for literary purposes. ''Landa'' means alphabet "without tail", applying that the script did not have vowel symbols. In Punjab, there were at least ten different scripts classified as [[Lande]], [[Mahajani]] being the most popular. The [[Lande]] alphabets were used for household and trade purposes. Compared to the [[Lande]], Sikh Gurus favoured the use of ''Proto-Gurmukhi'', because of the difficulties involved in pronouncing words without vowel signs.
The usage of Gurmukhi letters in [[Guru Granth Sahib]] meant that the script developed its own orthographical rules. In the following epochs, Gurmukhi became the prime script applied for literary writings of the Sikhs. Later in the 20th century, the script was given the authority as the official script of the Eastern [[Punjabi]] language. Meanwhile, in Western Punjab a form of the ''Urdu script'', known as [[Shahmukhi]] is still in use.
=== ''Gurmukhi'' etymology ===
The word ''Gurmukhi'' is commonly translated as "from the Mouth of the Guru". However, the term used for the ''Punjabi script'' has somewhat different connotations. The opinion given by traditional scholars is that as the Sikh holy writings, before they were scribed, were uttered by the Gurus, they came to be known as Gurmukhi or the "''Utterance'' of the Guru". And consequently, the script that was used for scribing the ''utterance'' was also given the same name. However, the prevalent view among Punjabi linguists is that as in the early stages the Gurmukhi letters were primarily used by ''Gurmukhs'', or the Sikhs devoted to the Guru, the script came to be associated with them. Another view is that as the ''Gurmukhs'', in accordance with the Sikh belief, used to meditate on the letters &#2613;, &#2617;, &#2583;, &#2608; which jointly form &#2613;&#2622;&#2617;&#2623;&#2583;&#2625;&#2608;&#2626; or God in Sikhism, these letters were called ''Gurmukhi'' or the "''speech'' of the Gurmukhs". Subsequently, the whole script came to be known as Gurmukhi.
== Alphabet ==
The Gurmukhi alphabet contains thirty-five distinct letters. The first three letters are unique because they form the basis for vowels and are not consonants. Except for Aira, the first three characters are never used on their own. See the section on vowels for further details.
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center"
! colspan="2" | Name !! Pron.
! colspan="2" | Name !! Pron.
! colspan="2" | Name !! Pron.
! colspan="2" | Name !! Pron.
! colspan="2" | Name !! Pron.
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2675; || Ura ||
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2565; || Aira ||
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2674; || Iri ||
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2616; || Sussa || ''Sa''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2617; || Haha || ''Ha''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2581; || Kakka || ''Ka''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2582; || Khukha || ''Kha''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2583; || Gugga || ''Ga''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2584; || Ghugga || ''Gha''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2585; || Ungga || ''Nga''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2586; || Chuchaa || ''Ca''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2587; || Chhuchha || ''Cha''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2588; || Jujja || ''Ja''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2589; || Jhujja || ''Jha''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2590; || Yanza || ''Nya''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2591; || Tainka || ''Tta''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2592; || Thutha || ''Ttha''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2593; || Dudda || ''Dda''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2594; || Dhudda || ''Ddha''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2595; || Nahnha || ''Nna''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2596; || Tutta || ''Ta''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2597; || Thutha || ''Tha''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2598; || Duda || ''Da''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2599; || Dhuda || ''Dha''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2600; || Nunna || ''Na''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2602; || Puppa || ''Pa''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2603; || Phupha || ''Pha''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2604; || Bubba || ''Ba''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2605; || Bhubba || ''Bha''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2606; || Mumma || ''Ma''
|- align="center"
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2607; || Yaiyya || ''Ya''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="font-size:24px" | &#2608; || Rara || ''Ra''
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC |
ll for clean-in-place (CIP) operation should also be included for periodical deep cleaning. Sanitation is not a major concern before wort boiling, so a rinse-down should be all that is necessary between batches.
Smaller breweries often use the boil kettle for mashing, or use the lauter tun. The latter case either limits the brewer to single-step infusion mashing, or leaves the brewer with a lauter tun which is not completely appropriate for the lautering process.
====Grain milling====
The grain used for making beer must first be [[milling|milled]]. Milling increases the surface area of the grain, making the starch more accessible, and separates the seed from the [[husk]]. Care must be taken when milling to ensure that the starch reserves are sufficiently milled without damaging the husk and providing coarse enough grits that a good filter bed can be formed during lautering.
Grains are typically dry milled. Dry mills come in four varieties: two-, four-, five-, and six-roller mills. Hammer mills, which produce a very fine mash, are often used when mash filters are going to be employed in the Lautering process because the grain does not have to form its own filterbed. In modern plants, the grain is often conditioned with water before it is milled to make the husk more pliable, thus reducing breakage and improving lauter speed.
=====Two-roller mills=====
Two-roller mills are the simplest variety, in which the grain is crushed between two rollers before it continues on to the mash tun. The spacing between these two rollers can be adjusted by the operator. Thinner spacing usually leads to better extraction, but breaks more husk and leads to a longer lauter.
=====Four-roller mills=====
Four-roller mills have two sets of rollers. The grain first goes through rollers with a rather wide gap, which separates the seed from the husk without much damage to the husk, but leaves large grits. Flour is sieved out of the cracked grain, and then the coarse grist and husks are sent through the second set of rollers, which further crush the grist without damaging the crusts. There are three-roller mills, in which one of the rollers is used twice, but they are not recognized by the German brewing industry.
=====Five- and Six-roller mills=====
Six-roller mills have three sets of rollers. The first roller crushes the whole kernel, and its output is divided three ways: flour immediately is sent out the mill, grits without a husk proceed to the last roller, and husk, possibly still containing parts of the seed, go to the second set of rollers. From the second roller flour is directly output, as are husks and any possible seed still in them, and the husk-free grits are channeled into the last roller. Five-roller mills are basically six-roller mills in which one of the rollers performs double-duty.
====Mashing-in====
Mixing of the strike water, water used for mashing in, and milled grist must be done in a such a way as to minimize clumping and oxygen uptake. Traditionally this was done by first adding water to the mash vessel, and then introducing the grist from the top of the vessel in a thin stream. This unfortunately led to a lot of oxygen absorption, and loss of flour dust to the surrounding air. A premasher, which mixes the grist with mash-in temperature water while it is still in the delivery tube, reduces oxygen uptake and prevents dust from being lost.
Mashing in is typically done between 35 &deg;C and 45 &deg;C, but for single-step infusion mashes mashing in must be done between 62 &deg;C and 67 &deg;C for amylases to break down the grain's starch into sugars. The weight-to-weight ratio of strike water and grain varies from 1:2 for dark beers in single-step infusions to 1:4 or even 1:5, ratios more suitable for light-colored beers and decoction mashing, where much mash water is boiled off.
====Enzymatic rests====
{| border=1 align=right |
|+ <small>Optimal rest temperatures for major mashing enzymes</small>
! Temp !! Enzyme !! Breaks down
|-
| 40 &deg;C || &beta;-Glucanase || &beta;-Glucan
|-
| 50 &deg;C || Protease || Protein
|-
| 62 &deg;C || &beta;-Amylase || Starch
|-
| 72 &deg;C || &alpha;-Amylase || Starch
|}
In step-infusion and decoction mashing, the mash is heated to different temperatures, at which specific enzymes work optimally. The table at right shows displays the optimal temperature for the enzymes brewers most pay attention to, and what material those enzymes break down. There is some contention in the brewing industry as to just what the optimal temperature is for these enzymes, as it is often very dependent on the [[pH]] of the mash, and its thickness. A thicker mash acts as a buffer for the enzymes. Once a step is passed, the enzymes active in that step are denatured, and become permanently inactive. The time between rests is preferably as short as possible, but if the temperature is raised more than 1 &deg;C per minute, enzymes may be prematurely denatured in the transition layer near heating elements.
=====&beta;-glucanase rest=====
&beta;-glucan is a chain of the [[beta isomer]] of [[glucose]] molecules, and found mainly in the cell walls of plants, and in this context is also known as [[cellulose]]. A &beta;-glucanase rest done at 40 &deg;C is practiced in order to break down cell walls and make starches more available, thus raising the extraction efficiency. Should the brewer let this rest go on too long, it is possible that a large amount of &beta;-glucan will dissolve into the mash, which can lead to a stuck mash on brew day, and cause filtration problems later in beer production.
=====Protease rest=====
[[Protein]] degradation via a protease rest plays many roles: production of free-amino nitrogen (FAN) for yeast nutrition, freeing of small proteins from larger proteins for foam stability in the finished product, and reduction of haze-causing proteins for easier filtration and increased beer clarity. In all-malt beers, the malt already provides enough protein for good head retention, and the brewer needs to worry more about more FAN being produced than the yeast can metabolize, leading to off flavors. The haze causing proteins are also more prevalent in all-malt beers, and the brewer must strike a balance between breaking down these proteins, and limiting FAN production.
=====&beta;-amylase rest=====
Starch is an enormous molecule made up of branching chains of glucose molecules. &beta;-amylase breaks down these chains from the end molecules forming links of two glucose molecules, i.e. [[maltose]]. &beta;-amylase cannot break down the branch points, although some help is found here through low &alpha;-amylase activity and enzymes such as limit dextrinase. The maltose will be the yeast's main food source during fermentation. During this rest starches also cluster together forming visible bodies in the mash. This clustering eases the lautering process.
=====&alpha;-amylase rest=====
The &alpha;-amylase rest is also known as the scarification rest, because during this rest the &alpha;-amylase breaks down the starches from the inside, and starts cutting off links of glucose one to four glucose molecules in length. The longer glucose chains, along with the remaining branched chains, give body and fullness to the beer.
=====Decoction "rests"=====
In decoction part of the mash is taken out of the mash tun and placed in a cooker, where it is boiled for a predetermined amount of time. This caramelizes some of the sugars, given the beer a deeper flavor and color, and frees more starches from the grain, making for a more efficient extraction from the grains. The portion drawn off for decoction is calculated so that the next rest temperature is reached by simply putting the boiled portion back into the mash tun. Before drawing off for decoction, the mash is allowed to settle a bit, and the thicker part is typically taken out for decoction, as the enzymes have dissolved in the liquid, and the starches to be freed are in the grains, not the liquid. This thick mash is then boiled for around 15 minutes, and returned to the mash tun.
The mash cooker used in decoction should not be allowed to scorch the mash, but maintaining a uniform temperature in the mash is not a priority.
====Mash-out====
After the enzyme rests, the mash is raised to its mash out temperature. This frees up about 2% more starch, and makes the mash less [[viscosity|viscous]], allowing the lauter to process faster. It would be nice to raise the mash to 100 &deg;C for mash out and have a very viscous liquid, but &alpha;-Amylase quickly denatures above 78 &deg;C and any starches extracted above this temperature cannot be broken down and will cause a starch haze in the finished product, or in larger quantities an unpleasantly harsh taste can evolve. Therefore the mash out temperature rarely exceeds 78 &deg;C.
If the lauter tun is a separate vessel from the mash tun, the mash is transferred to the lauter tun at this time. If the brewery has a combination mash-lauter tun, the agitator is stopped after mash-out temperature is reached and the mash has mixed enough to ensure a uniform temperature.
===Lautering===
Lautering is the separation of the extracts won during mashing from the spent grain. It is achieved in either a [[Lauter tun]], a wide vessel with a false bottom, or a [[mash filter]], a plate-and-frame filter designed for this kind of separation. Lautering has two stages: first wort run-off, during which the extract is separated in an undiluted state from the spent grains, and sparging, in which extract which remains with the grains is rinsed off with hot water.
====Lauter tun====
A lauter tun is the traditional vessel used for separation of the extracted wort.
While the basic principle of its operation has remained the same since its first use, technological advance |
in AD [[405]].
The Armenian alphabet is one of six European alphabetic scripts identified in the [[Unicode]] standard (see [http://www.unicode.org/charts/ Unicode Code Charts] and [http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode4.0.0/ch07.pdf Unicode Standard, Chapter 7]).
Various scripts have been credited with being the prototype for the Armenian alphabet, including [[Pahlavi]], [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]], and [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]]. However, the order of the letters, the use of the [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] ''ou'' for the vowel {{IPA|[u]}}, and a noticeable similarity of letter forms to cursive Greek suggests that it was likely based on the [[Greek alphabet]].
As Bedross Der Matossian from [[Columbia University]] informs, for about 250 years, from the early [[18th century]] until around [[1950]], more than 2000 books were printed in the [[Turkish language]] using letters of the Armenian alphabet. Not only Armenians read Armeno-Turkish, but also the non-Armenian (including the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turkish) elite.
[[Image:Matenadaran Armenian alphabet.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Armenian alphabet in Matenadaran]]
Armenian has two different dialects: Eastern and Western. Both use the same alphabet, however some of the letters have different names and pronunciations. For example, the second letter in Eastern Armenian is "ben" and makes a 'b' sound while in Western Armenian, the second letter is "pen" and makes a 'p' sound.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Alphabet:'''
! !! Name Eastern/Western !! [[Lowercase]] !! [[Uppercase]] !! [[Transliteration Eastern/Western]] !! num. Value
|- align="center"
| 1 || Ayb/Ayp || {{Hayeren|ա}} || {{Hayeren|Ա}} || a || 1
|- align="center"
| 2 || Ben/Pen || {{Hayeren|բ}} || {{Hayeren|Բ}} || b/p || 2
|- align="center"
| 3 || Gim/Keem || {{Hayeren|գ}} || {{Hayeren|Գ}} || g/k || 3
|- align="center"
| 4 || Da/Ta || {{Hayeren|դ}} || {{Hayeren|Դ}} || d/t || 4
|- align="center"
| 5 || Yech` || {{Hayeren|ե}} || {{Hayeren|Ե}} || ye/ye || 5
|- align="center"
| 6 || Za || {{Hayeren|զ}} || {{Hayeren|Զ}} || z || 6
|- align="center"
| 7 || Eh || {{Hayeren|է}} || {{Hayeren|Է}} || ē/eh || 7
|- align="center"
| 8 || Ët`/Ut || {{Hayeren|ը}} || {{Hayeren|Ը}} || ə/ut || 8
|- align="center"
| 9 || T`o/Toh || {{Hayeren|թ}} || {{Hayeren|Թ}} || t&#x1ffe;/t || 9
|- align="center"
| 10 || Zhe || {{Hayeren|ժ}} || {{Hayeren|Ժ}} || ž/zh (as in azure) || 10
|- align="center"
| 11 || Ini/Eenee || {{Hayeren|ի}} || {{Hayeren|Ի}} || i/i or e || 20
|- align="center"
| 12 || Liun || {{Hayeren|լ}} || {{Hayeren|Լ}} || l || 30
|- align="center"
| 13 || Xeh/Kheh (aspirated) || {{Hayeren|խ}} || {{Hayeren|Խ}} || x/kh || 40
|- align="center"
| 14 || C'a/Dzah || {{Hayeren|ծ}} || {{Hayeren|Ծ}} || tz/dz || 50
|- align="center"
| 15 || Ken/Gen (hard g) || {{Hayeren|կ}} || {{Hayeren|Կ}} || k/g || 60
|- align="center"
| 16 || Ho || {{Hayeren|հ}} || {{Hayeren|Հ}} || h || 70
|- align="center"
| 17 || Dz'a/Tsah || {{Hayeren|ձ}} || {{Hayeren|Ձ}} || dz/ts || 80
|- align="center"
| 18 || Ghat/Ghad (French r) || {{Hayeren|ղ}} || {{Hayeren|Ղ}} || ł/gh (French r) || 90
|- align="center"
| 19 || Cheh/Djeh || {{Hayeren|ճ}} || {{Hayeren|Ճ}} || č/j || 100
|- align="center"
| 20 || Men || {{Hayeren|մ}} || {{Hayeren|Մ}} || m || 200
|- align="center"
| 21 || Yi/Hee || {{Hayeren|յ}} || {{Hayeren|Յ}} || y/h or combined with other letters || 300
|- align="center"
| 22 || Nu || {{Hayeren|ն}} || {{Hayeren|Ն}} || n || 400
|- align="center"
| 23 || Sha || {{Hayeren|շ}} || {{Hayeren|Շ}} || sh/sh || 500
|- align="center"
| 24 || Vo || {{Hayeren|ո}} || {{Hayeren|Ո}} || vo/vo or o || 600
|- align="center"
| 25 || Ch`a || {{Hayeren|չ}} || {{Hayeren|Չ}} || ch/ch || 700
|- align="center"
| 26 || Peh/Beh || {{Hayeren|պ}} || {{Hayeren|Պ}} || p/b || 800
|- align="center"
| 27 || Jheh/Cheh || {{Hayeren|ջ}} || {{Hayeren|Ջ}} || j/ch || 900
|- align="center"
| 28 || Rra (rolled) || {{Hayeren|ռ}} || {{Hayeren|Ռ}} || rr/ r (rolled) || 1000
|- align="center"
| 29 || Seh || {{Hayeren|ս}} || {{Hayeren|Ս}} || s || 2000
|- align="center"
| 30 || Vew/Vev || {{Hayeren|վ}} || {{Hayeren|Վ}} || v || 3000
|- align="center"
| 31 || Tiun/Deoon || {{Hayeren|տ}} || {{Hayeren|Տ}} || t/d || 4000
|- align="center"
| 32 || Reh || {{Hayeren|ր}} || {{Hayeren|Ր}} || r || 5000
|- align="center"
| 33 || C`o/Tzoh || {{Hayeren|ց}} || {{Hayeren|Ց}} || č/tz || 6000
|- align="center"
| 34 || Hiun/hyun || {{Hayeren|ւ}} || {{Hayeren|Ւ}} || w/v or combined with other letters || 7000
|- align="center"
| 35 || P`iur/Pure || {{Hayeren|փ}} || {{Hayeren|Փ}} || p&#x1ffe;/p || 8000
|- align="center"
| 36 || K`eh/Keh || {{Hayeren|ք}} || {{Hayeren|Ք}} || q/k || 9000
|- align="center"
| 37 || Oh || {{Hayeren|օ}} || {{Hayeren|Օ}} || ō/o || 10000
|- align="center"
| 38 || Feh || {{Hayeren|ֆ}} || {{Hayeren|Ֆ}} || f || 20000
|}
<!-- the following should probably NOT be a table, since basically it is 3 lists merged together -->
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Modifiers and punctuation:'''
|-
! Name !! Character
|-
| Small Ligature Ech` Wiwn (functions as an ampersand)
| {{Hayeren|և}}
|-
! colspan="2" | Modifier letters
|-
| Modifier Letter Left Half Ring || {{Hayeren|ՙ}}
|-
| Apostrophe = Armenian Modifier Letter Right Half Ring
| {{Hayeren|՚}}
|-
| Modifier Emphasis Mark = Shesht || {{Hayeren|՛}}
|-
! colspan="2" | Punctuation
|-
| Exclamation Mark = Bac`aganch`akan Nshan
| {{Hayeren|՜}}
|-
| Comma = Bowt` || {{Hayeren|՝}}
|-
| Question Mark = Harc`akan Nshan || {{Hayeren|՞}}
|-
| Abbreviation Mark = Patiw || {{Hayeren|՟}}
|-
| Full Stop = Verjhaket || {{Hayeren|։}}
|-
| Hyphen = Ent`amnay || {{Hayeren|֊}}
|}
==See also==
*[[Armenian language]]
*[[ISO 9985]]
==External links==
* [http://www.theiling.de/schrift/#armenian theiling.de]: Learn the Armenian alphabet online
* [http://www.stnersess.edu/currentEvents/pressRelease/pr.php?id=116 stnersess.edu]: Bedross Der Matossian on the use of Armeno-Turkish
Unicode Support for Armenian
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0530.pdf Unicode Character Code Chart for Armenian]
[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
[[Category:Armenian alphabet]]
[[Category:Monolingual writing systems]]
[[br:Lizherenneg an armenieg]]
[[cs:Arménské písmo]]
[[de:Armenische Schrift]]
[[es:Alfabeto armenio]]
[[fa:الفبای ارمنی]]
[[fr:Alphabet arménien]]
[[gl:Alfabeto armenio]]
[[lv:Armēņu alfabēts]]
[[nl:Armeens alfabet]]
[[ja:アルメニア文字]]
[[ru:Армянский алфавит]]
[[sl:Armenska abeceda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alan Baker</title>
<id>2850</id>
<revision>
<id>38188330</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T20:26:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alan Baker''' (born on [[August 19]] [[1939]]) is an [[England|English]] [[mathematician]]. He was born in [[London]]. He is known for his work on effective methods in [[number theory]], in particular those arising from [[transcendence theory]]. He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1970]], at age 31. His academic career started as a student of [[Harold Davenport]], at University College London and later at Cambridge. He is a fellow of [[Trinity College, Cambridge]].
His interests are:
# [[Number theory]],
# [[Transcendence]],
# [[Logarithmic form]]s,
# [[Effective results in number theory|Effective methods]],
# [[Diophantine geometry]],
# [[Diophantine analysis]].
His students include [[John Coates]], [[David Masser]], [[Roger Heath-Brown]], and [[Cameron Stewart]].
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Baker_Alan}}
{{Fields medalists}}
[[Category:1939 births|Baker, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Baker, Alan]]
[[Category:English mathematicians|Baker, Alan]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Baker, Alan]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Baker, Alan]]
[[fr:Alan Baker]]
[[ko:앨런 베이커]]
[[pl:Alan Baker]]
[[sl:Alan Baker]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abraham Joshua Heschel</title>
<id>2851</id>
<revision>
<id>40360168</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Rabbi '''Abraham Joshua Heschel''' ([[January 11]], [[1907]], [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] &ndash; [[December 23]], [[1972]]) was considered by many to be one of the most significant [[Jew]]ish theologians of the 20th century.
Heschel was a descendant of preeminent [[rabbi]]nic families of [[Europe]], both on his father's (Moshe Mordechai Heschel, who died of influenza in 1916) and mother's (Reizel Perlow Heschel) side. He was the youngest of six children including his siblings: Sarah, Dvora Miriam, Esther Sima, Gittel, and Jacob. In his teens he received a traditional [[yeshiva]] education, and obtained traditional [[semicha]], rabbinical ordination. He then studied at the [[University of Berlin]], where he obtained his doctorate, and at the [[Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums]], where he earned a second liberal rabbinic ordination.
Heschel's teachers included some of the best German-Jewish teachers: [[Chanoch Albeck]], [[Ismar Elbogen]], [[Julius Guttmann]], and [[Leo Baeck]]. He later taught the [[Talmud]] there. Escaping from the Nazis, he found refuge both in [[England]] and [[United States|America]], where he briefly serve |
orever]]'' (2005&mdash;)
*''[[Pokémon]]'' (1998&mdash;)
*''[[The Powerpuff Girls]]'' (1998&ndash;2004)
*''[[The Proud Family]]'' (2001&ndash;2005)
*''[[Ren & Stimpy Adult Party Cartoon]]''
*''[[Rocket Power]]''(1999&mdash;2004)
*''[[Roobarb|Roobarb and Custard Too]]'' (2005)
*''[[Sabrina's Secret Life]]'' (2003&ndash;2004)
*''[[Samurai Jack]]'' (2001&ndash;2003)
*''[[Sealab 2021]]''(2001&mdash;2005)
*''[[Sheep in the Big City]]'' (2000&ndash;2001)
*''[[Silverwing]]''
*''[[Sonic X]]
*''[[South Park]]''(1997&mdash;)
*''[[Static Shock]]''
*''[[Stripperella]]''
*''[[Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go!]]'' (2004&mdash;)
*''[[Teacher's Pet]]'' (2000&ndash;2002)
*''[[Teamo Supremo]]'' (2002&ndash;2004)
*''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]'' (2003&ndash;2006)
*''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2003 TV series)|Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]'' (2003&mdash;)
*''[[This Just In]]''
*''[[The Tofus]]''
*''[[The Secret Files of the Spy Dogs]]''
*''[[Time Squad]]''
*''[[Totally Spies]]''
*''[[Transformers Armada]]''
*''[[Tutenstein]]''
*''[[Ultimate M.U.S.C.L.E.]]''
*''[[Un Posto al Sole Cartoon - UPASC]]''
*''[[Turboman: The Animated Series)|Turboman: The Animated Series]]'' (2005&mdash;)
*''[[The Venture Bros.]]''(2004&mdash;)
*''[[The Weekenders]]'' (2000&ndash;2004)
*''[[What About Mimi|What About Mimi?]]''
*''[[What's New Scooby-Doo|What's New Scooby Doo?]]'' (2002&mdash;)
*''[[What's with Andy?]]''
*''[[Whatever Happened to Robot Jones|Whatever Happened to Robot Jones?]]''
*''[[Winx Club]]''
*''[[W.I.T.C.H.]]''
*''[[X-Men: Evolution]]''
*''[[Xiaolin Showdown]]''
*''[[Yu-Gi-Oh]]''(1999&mdash;)
*''[[Zeroman]]''
==See also==
*[[Adult animation]]
*[[Animation in the United States in the television era]]
*[[Anime]]
*[[Cartoon Network]]
*[[Cartoon Network Studios]] (formerly Hanna-Barbera Productions)
*[[Children's television series]]
*[[Disney Channel]]
*[[Filmation]]
*[[Klasky-Csupo, Inc.]]
*[[Modern animation of the United States]]
*[[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]]
*[[Saturday morning cartoon]]
*[[Toon Disney]]
*[[Voice actor]]
*[[Walt Disney Television Animation]]
==External links==
* [http://www.toonopedia.com/ Don Markstein's Toonopedia] - very large index page
* [http://www.bcdb.com/ The Big Cartoon Database]
* [http://www.tv.com/ TV.com]
* [http://80scartoons.net/toons/ 80sCartoons] nostalgia for those who grew up in the 80s in [[Western world|the West]]
* [http://www.seriesweb.com/indexing.asp SeriesWev] All cartoon series episode lists and ringtones
[[bg:&#1040;&#1085;&#1080;&#1084;&#1072;&#1094;&#1080;&#1086;&#1085;&#1077;&#1085; &#1092;&#1080;&#1083;&#1084;]]
[[Category:Animation]]
[[Category:Lists of television series|Animated series]]
[[Category:Animated television series|*]]
[[pt:Lista de desenhos animados]]
[[zh:&#21160;&#30011;&#24433;&#38598;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atlanta Braves</title>
<id>2140</id>
<revision>
<id>41646713</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:47:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hikui87</username>
<id>987652</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Minor league affiliates */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Braves}}
The '''Atlanta Braves''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. They are in the [[National League East|Eastern Division of the National League]]. They are most recently known for their ongoing record of 11 consecutive division championships from [[1995]] to [[2005]] and 14 out of 15 (except the strike-shortened 1994 season), the most in any professional North American sport. However, they have not been as successful in the World Series, having won only one and losing four during that time. The Braves have won 16 divisional titles, 17 National League pennants, and 3 World Series championships ([[1914 World Series|1914]], [[1957 World Series|1957]], and [[1995 World Series|1995]]).
== Franchise history ==
===The Boston years===
The Boston franchise that became known as the Braves took part in some of baseball's most memorable moments, achievements, and pennant races. None were more remarkable than the mid-season last-to-first transformation of the 1914 "Miracle" Braves. After a dismal 4-18 start to the season, the fanbase was turned off, as it looked like the Braves were headed for another bottom-feeder season. Everything that could have gone wrong, did go wrong. After losing both games of a doubleheader to the visiting [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] on July 4, Boston's record stood at 26-40, 15 games behind the league-leading [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]]. The only man left believing was the team's manager, "Miracle Man" [[George Stallings]]. Slowly, the team began to turn itself around. It had solidified around the phenomenal double-play tandem of [[Rabbit Maranville]] and [[Johnny Evers]] (of "Tinker to Evers to Chance" fame), and a strong starting rotation led by [[Lefty Tyler]], [[Dick Rudolph]], and [[Bill James (baseball player)|Bill James]]. When the team rallied to sweep the [[Cincinnati Reds]] in a doubleheader on July 19, Stallings declared that the team was playing ball better than any other in the league, and was ready to catch New York. From there came a romp unmatched in baseball history. When the Giants came to Boston for a three-game series on September 7-8, the Braves had won 41 of 53 games since July 4. Boston won two of the three contests to take sole possession of first place. From that point, the Braves won 25 of their final 31 games, while the Giants went 16-16. The Braves went 68-19 after July 4; not only did they finish first, but they ended up 10.5 games ahead of the second place Giants.
The team entered the World Series as a heavy underdog to [[Connie Mack (baseball)|Connie Mack]]'s [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia A's]]. Nevertheless, the Braves dominated the series in every phase, and swept away the favored Athletics. They were now World Champions. The turnaround was complete. The team was at the top of the league in both pitching, and hitting, and its leader, Evers, won the Chalmers Award, which is equivalent to today's MVP. A miraculous season of these proportions has never been seen since in professional sports.
In 1948 the team won the pennant, behind the pitching of [[Warren Spahn]] and [[Johnny Sain]] who won 39 games between them. The remainder of the rotation was so thin that in September the Boston Post journalist Gerald Hern characterized them by the poem
:''First we'll use Spahn''
:''then we'll use Sain''
:''Then an off day''
:''followed by rain''
:''Back will come Spahn''
:''followed by Sain''
:''And followed''
:''we hope''
:''by two days of rain.''
The poem received such a wide audience that the sentiment, usually now paraphrased as ''"Spahn and Sain and pray for rain"'', entered the baseball vocabulary. Ironically, in the 1948 season, the Braves actually had a better record in games that Spahn and Sain ''did not'' start than in games they did.
===The Milwaukee years===
Their two pennants notwithstanding, the Braves term in Boston was not a successful time. Attendances steadily dwindled until, on [[March 13]] [[1953]], then-owner [[Lou Perini]] announced he was moving the team to [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], where the Braves had their top farm club, the [[Milwaukee Brewers minor league|Brewers]]. Milwaukee had long been a possible target for relocation - [[Bill Veeck]] had tried to move his [[St. Louis Browns]] there years earlier but was voted down by the other [[American League]] owners.
As the [[1950s]] progressed the reinvigorated Braves became increasingly competitive. Sluggers [[Eddie Mathews]] and [[Hank Aaron]] drove the offense (they would hit a combined 863 home runs as Braves), whilst Spahn, [[Lew Burdette]] and [[Bob Buhl]] anchored the rotation. In 1957, the Braves celebrated their first pennant in nine years led by Aaron's [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|MVP season,]] leading the National League in home runs and RBIs. The postseason culminated in the Braves' first [[World Series]] win in over 40 years, defeating the [[New York Yankees]] of [[Yogi Berra|Berra]], [[Mickey Mantle|Mantle]] and [[Whitey Ford|Ford]] in seven games. Burdette, the Series MVP, threw three complete game victories, giving up only two earned runs.
In 1958, the Braves again won the National League pennant and jumped out to a three games to one lead in the World Series against New York once more, thanks in part to the strength of Spahn's and Burdette's pitching. But the Yankees stormed back to take the last three games, in large part to World Series MVP [[Bob Turley|Bob Turley's]] pitching. The 1959 season saw the Braves finish the season in a tie with the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], but Milwaukee fell in a three-game playoff with two straight losses to Los Angeles. The Dodgers would go on to defeat the [[Chicago White Sox]] in the World Series. Many residents of Chicago and Milwaukee had been hoping for a Sox-Braves Series, as the cities are only about 75 miles apart, but it was not to be.
The next six years were the very definition of up-and-down for the Braves. The 1960 season featured two no-hitters by Burdette and Spahn, and Milwaukee finished seven games behind the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in second place. The 1961 season saw a drop in the standings for the Braves (fourth), despite Warren Spahn recording his 300th victory and pitching another no-hitter that year.
Hank Aaron hit 45 home runs in 1962, a Milwaukee career high for him, but that didn't translate in wins for the Braves as they finished fifth. In 1963, Aaron led the league with 44 home runs and Spahn was once again the ace of the staff, going 23-7. However, none of the other Braves produced at that level, and the te |
erages an 80% combat ready rate.
==Features==
In a conventional conflict, the B-52 can perform strategic attack, air interdiction, offensive counter-air and maritime operations. During [[Operation Desert Storm]], B-52s delivered 40 percent of all the weapons dropped by coalition forces.
All B-52s are equipped with an electro-optical viewing system that uses [[platinum silicide]] forward-looking [[infrared]] and high resolution low-light-level television sensors to augment targeting, battle assessment, and flight safety, thus further improving its combat ability and low-level flight capability.
Pilots wear [[night vision goggles]] (NVGs) to enhance their vision during night operations. Night vision goggles provide greater safety during night operations by increasing the pilot's ability to visually clear terrain, avoid enemy radar and see other aircraft in a covert/lights-out environment.
Starting in [[1989]], on-going modifications incorporates the [[Global Positioning System]], heavy stores adapter beams for carrying 2,000 pound (900 kg) munitions, and a full array of advanced weapons currently under development.
The use of [[aerial refueling]] gives the B-52 a range limited only by crew endurance, or in the extreme, required maintenance. It has an unrefueled combat range in excess of 8,800 statute miles (14,000 km). 555 [[KC-135]] and 59 [[KC-10]] air-refueling tankers currently exist. The B-52 is refueled by means of a small fuel tank cover above the cockpit.
It is highly effective when used for ocean surveillance, and can assist the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] in anti-ship and mine-laying operations. Two B-52s, in two hours, can monitor 140,000 square miles (364,000 km²) of ocean surface. If on land, this area is [[:Image:B-52 coverage.png|about as large as a circle]] centered at [[New York, New York|New York City]] and covered as far as [[Washington, DC]], [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] ([[radius]] = 212 statute miles or 340 km). However, the actual shape of coverage would vary.
The aircraft's flexibility was evident in [[Operation Desert Storm]] and again during [[Operation Allied Force]]. B-52s struck wide-area troop concentrations, fixed installations and bunkers, and ruined the morale of [[Iraq]]'s [[Iraqi Republican Guard|Republican Guard]]. The Persian Gulf War involved the longest strike mission in the history of aerial warfare when B-52s took off from [[Barksdale Air Force Base]], [[Louisiana]], launched conventional air launched cruise missiles and returned to Barksdale&mdash;a 35 hour, non-stop combat mission. During Operation Allied Force, B-52s opened the conflict with conventional cruise missile attacks and then transitioned to delivering general purpose bombs and cluster bomb units on [[Serbia]]n army positions and [[staging area]]s.
==General characteristics==
[[image:aspect.ratio.b52.arp.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A B-52H over the ocean]]
* Contractor: Boeing Military Airplane Co.
* Speed: 650 mph, 1000 km/h (Mach 0.86)
* Range: Unrefueled 8,800 statute miles (14,200 km), Refueled unlimited (subject to crew limitations)
* Armament: Approximately 70,000 lb (31,500 kg) mixed ordnance&mdash;[[bomb]]s, [[land mine]]s and [[missile]]s. (Modified to carry [[ALCM|air-launched cruise missiles]], [[AGM-84 Harpoon]] anti-ship and [[AGM-142 Have Nap]] missiles.)
**The nuclear weapons capacity has previously included [[B28 nuclear bomb|B28]], [[B43 nuclear bomb|B43]], [[B53 nuclear bomb|B53]], [[B61 nuclear bomb|B61]], and [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83]] free-fall nuclear bombs, or various combinations of twelve [[AGM-129 ACM|AGM-129 Advanced Cruise Missiles (ACMS)]], 20 [[AGM-86|AGM-86A]] Air Launched Cruise Missiles (ALCM) and eight [[bomb]]s.
**The B-52A through F carried a tail-mounted armament of four .50 cal (12.7 mm) machine guns with the gunner sitting in the tail, The B-52G retained the quad .50 cals but the gunner moved up front with the rest of the crew and controlled the guns via remote. The B-52H replaced the quad .50's with a single 20 mm M61A1 Vulcan which offered much greater defensive fire power. In the mid-1990s, the tail gun was removed from all of the B-52H aircraft to reduce weight and because a gun is ineffective against guided-missile firing fighter aircaft.
**The G and H models are distinguishable from previous models due to their shorter (by 8 feet) vertical tailplane. This configuration had previously been tested on a B-52A.
**The H model is distinguishable from all previous variants by having visually different engine pods. The B-52H uses [[TF33-3]] turbofan engines, which provided 20% greater range, 70% more thrust and are considerably quieter than the [[J57]] engine which had been used on all previous variants
**The B-52 is the only known bomber to have shot down jet-powered fighter aircraft; one unit of the type shot down two [[MiG-17]] fighter planes during the [[Vietnam War]].
* Accommodations: Five (Pilot, Co-Pilot, Navigator, Radar Navigator (AKA Bombardier) & Electronic Warfare Officer) with all sitting in [[ejection seat]]s
* Unit Cost: $74 million
* Date Deployed: February 1955
· Inventory: Active force, 85; ANG, 0; Reserve, 9
==Production==
*'''XB-52''' - The first B-52 prototype. 1 built
*'''YB-52''' - The second protoype. 1 built
*'''B-52A''' - The first production model. 3 built
*'''B-52B''' - 50
*'''RB-52B''' - 27 B-52Bs converted into reconnaissance aircraft. 2X 20mm Cannon Replaced 4X .50 cal in tail
*'''B-52C''' - 35
*'''B-52D''' - 170
*'''B-52E''' - 100
*'''B-52F''' - 89
*'''B-52G''' - 193
*'''B-52H''' - 102
**'''Total produced''' - 744
==Specifications (B-52H)==
[[Image:B-52 3-view.jpg|300px|right]]
{{airtemp|
<!-- please answer the following questions -->
|include 'capacity' field?=no
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet
|include 'armament' field?=yes
|switch order of units?=no
<!-- Now, fill out the specs. Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses).
If an item doesn't apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your
alt units with a right paranthesis ")" and start a new, fully-formatted line -->
|crew=5 (Pilot, Copilot, Radar Navigator (Bombardier), Navigator and Electronic Warfare Officer). Originally the B-52 had a crew of 6, with a Gunner sitting in the tail in all models up to the G. In the B-52 G/H, the Gunner position was moved to the front cockpit, with the gun remotely controlled.
|capacity=
|length main=159 ft 4 in
|length alt=48.5 m
|span main=185 ft 0 in
|span alt=56.4 m
|height main=40 ft 8 in
|height alt=12.4 m
|area main=4,000 ft²
|area alt=370 m²
|empty weight main=185,000 lb
|empty weight alt=83,250 kg
|loaded weight main=265,000 lb
|loaded weight alt=120,000 kg
|max takeoff weight main=488,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=220,000 kg
|engine (jet)=[[Pratt & Whitney TF33]]-P-3/103
|type of jet= [[turbofan]]s
|number of jets=8
|thrust main=17,000 lbf
|thrust alt=76 kN
|engine (prop)=
|type of prop=
|number of props=
|power main= hp
|power alt= kW
|max speed main=650 mph
|max speed alt=1,000 km/h
|cruise speed main=
|cruise speed alt=
|range main=<!-- comment to force linebreak --><br>
** Combat radius: 7,600 nm
|range alt=8,800 mi, 7,652 km)
** Ferry range: 9,600 nm (11,000 mi, 17,700 km)
|ceiling main=50,000 ft
|ceiling alt=15,000 m
|climb rate main= ft/min
|climb rate alt= m/s
|loading main=30 lb/ft&sup2;
|loading alt=150 kg/m&sup2;
|thrust/weight=0.51
|power/mass main= hp/lb
|power/mass alt= kW/kg
|armament=
* '''Guns:''' All models up to the H had a pod of four .50-caliber guns which could be loaded with armor-piercing/indendiary ammunition. The H model had one 6-barrel 20-mm Vulcan [[autocannon|gatling cannon]]. Now, the tail guns have been removed on all operating B-52s.
* '''Bombs:''' 70,000 lb (32,000 kg)
[[Image: Tail gun of B-52.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Tail gun in Anachrome-compatible 3D.]]
}}
==USAF Stations==
The '''B-52''' is stationed at two USAF bases
* [[Barksdale AFB]] in [[Louisiana]]
* [[Minot AFB]] in [[North Dakota]]
==Trivia==
* Among its crew, the B-52 is affectionately known as the "BUFF", an acronym for "Big Ugly Fat Fucker" (or "Big Ugly Fat Fellow" in more polite company).
* The BUFF carries a total fuel load of about 300,000 pounds (roughly 50,000 US gallons).
* BUFF flies unlike other aircraft. It takes off nose-low or level. This looks strange to most pilots, who are used to seeing aircraft take off nose-high. BUFF handles unlike other aircraft because it turns by means of [[spoiler (aeronautics)|spolier]]s instead of [[aileron]]s. Despite the fact that an aircraft of this massive size, power and weight necessitates [[hydraulic]]ally-boosted control surfaces, it requires a surprisingly high level of physical force on the part of the pilots.
* Each B-52 has a name. Usually the maintenance crew chief has the privilege of naming her (aircraft and ships are regarded as female). Some of the more interesting names are "The Need for Speed", "Heavy Metal II", "Conceived for Liberty", "Death from Above", and "Night Stalker". One is even named "Memphis Belle IV," in honor of the original [[Memphis Belle]], a [[Boeing B-17]] Flying Fortress.
* BUFF has small wingtip [[landing gear]] which do not touch the ground except when the aircraft is fully loaded with fuel and weapons.
* The B-52's skin looks wrinkled when the aircraft is on the ground. However, in flight, the wrinkles disappear and she becomes smooth.
* BUFF's means of [[de-icing]] its wings in flight is simple and effective. The wings are built to flex, thereby breaking off ice. Without a full fuel and weapons load, the wings can flex up to 15 feet. This is normal.
* The B-52 was built for war, not for comfort. The crew compartment (cockpit) is quite cramped, especi |
isotopes of different masses, they can be distinguished by [[mass spectrometry]] or [[infrared spectroscopy]] (see "Properties"). If radioactive isotopes are used, they can be detected by the radiation they emit (this is [[radioisotopic labelling]]).
* A technique similar to radioisotopic labelling is [[radiometric dating]] (most famously [[radiocarbon dating]]). It can be used to study chemical processes that the experimenter does not witness, by using naturally-occurring isotopic tracers.
* Isotopic substitution can be used to determine the mechanism of a reaction via the [[kinetic isotope effect]].
=== Use of nuclear properties ===
* Several forms of spectroscopy rely on the unique nuclear properties of specific isotopes. For example, [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) spectroscopy can be used only for isotopes with a nonzero nuclear spin. The most common isotopes used with NMR spectroscopy are <sup>1</sup>H, <sup>2</sup>D,<sup>15</sup>N, <sup>13</sup>C, and <sup>31</sup>P.
* [[Mossbauer spectroscopy|Mössbauer spectroscopy]] also relies on the nuclear transitions of specific isotopes, such as <sup>57</sup>Fe.
* [[Radionuclide]]s also have important uses. [[Nuclear power]] and [[nuclear weapon]]s development require relatively large quantities of specific isotopes. The process of [[isotope separation]] represents a significant technological challenge.
==See also==
*[[Isotope table (divided)]] - table of all known isotopes
*[[Isotope table (complete)]]
*[[Table of nuclides]]
*[[List of particles]]
* Isotopes are nuclides having the same number of protons; compare:
** [[Isotone]]s are nuclides having the same number of neutrons.
** [[Isobar]]s are nuclides having the same mass number, i.e. sum of protons plus neutrons.
** [[Nuclear_isomer|Nuclear isomer]]s are different excited states of the same type of nucleus. A transition from one isomer to another is accompanied by emission or absorption of a [[gamma ray]], or the process of [[internal conversion]]. (Not to be confused with chemical [[isomer]]s.)
==External links==
*[http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some Atomic weights of all isotopes]
*[http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ Atomgewichte, Zerfallsenergieen und Halbwärtszeiten aller Isotope]
*[http://ie.lbl.gov/education/isotopes.htm Exploring the Table of the Isotopes] at the [[LBNL]]
<!--Categories-->
<!--Interwiki-->
[[Category:Isotopes|*]]
[[Category:Nuclear chemistry]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[af:Isotoop]]
[[ar:نظائر عناصر كيميائية]]
[[bg:Изотоп]]
[[br:Izotop]]
[[ca:Isòtop]]
[[cs:Izotop]]
[[da:Isotop]]
[[de:Isotop]]
[[et:Isotoop]]
[[es:Isótopo]]
[[eo:Izotopo]]
[[fa:ایزوتوپ]]
[[fr:Isotope]]
[[ko:동위 원소]]
[[id:Isotop]]
[[is:Samsæta]]
[[it:Isotopo]]
[[he:איזוטופ]]
[[lt:Izotopas]]
[[hu:Izotóp]]
[[mk:Изотоп]]
[[ms:Isotop]]
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[[ja:同位体]]
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[[zh:同位素]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Islamic calendar</title>
<id>14810</id>
<revision>
<id>40272178</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T11:38:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Margana</username>
<id>58148</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Kerbii|Kerbii]] to last version by PFHLai</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{islam}}
The '''Islamic calendar''' or '''Muslim calendar''' (also called "'''Hijri calendar'''", [[Arabic language|Arabic]] &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1610;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1580;&#1585;&#1610;) is the [[calendar]] used to date events in many predominantly [[Muslim]] countries, and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic holy days. It is a [[lunar calendar]] having 12 lunar months in a year of about 354 days. Because this lunar year is about 11 days shorter than the solar year, Islamic holy days, although celebrated on fixed dates in their own calendar, usually shift 11 days earlier each successive solar year, such as a year of the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Islamic years are also called ''Hijra years'' because the first year was the year during which the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] occurred&mdash; [[Muhammad]]'s emigration from [[Mecca]] to [[Medina]]. Thus each numbered year is designated either H or AH, the latter being the initials of the [[Latin]] ''anno Hegirae'' (in the year of the Hijra).
==Pre-Islamic calendar==
The predecessor to the Islamic calendar was a [[lunisolar calendar]] which used lunar months, but was also synchronized with the seasons by the insertion of an additional, [[Intercalation|intercalary month]], when required. Whether the intercalary month (Nasi) was added in the spring like that of the [[Hebrew calendar]] or in autumn is debatable. It is assumed that the intercalary month was added between the twelfth month (the month of the pre-Islamic [[Hajj]]) and the first month ([[Muharram]]) of this pre-Islamic year. The two Rabi' months denote grazing and the ''modern'' Meccan rainy season (only slightly less arid than normal), which would promote the growth of grasses for grazing, occurs during autumn. These imply a pre-Islamic year beginning near the [[autumnal equinox]]. However, the rainy season after which these months are named may have been different when the names originated (before Muhammad's time) or the calendar may have been imported from another region which did have such a rainy season. On the other hand, Muhammad forbade the intercalary month (released the calendar from the seasons) near the end of his life, which implies a pre-Islamic year beginning near the [[vernal equinox]] because that is when the modern lunar year began during his last year.
==Numbering the years==
Abraha, a governor of [[Yemen]], then a province of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (modern [[Ethiopia]]), attempted to destroy the [[Kaaba]] with an army which included an [[elephant]] (possibly several). Although the raid was unsuccessful, the elephant so impressed the Meccans that that year became known as the ''[[Year of the Elephant]]'', which is also the year that Muhammad was born. (See [[sura]]t [[al-Fil]].) Although most Muslims equate it with the [[Western world|Western]] year 570, a minority equate it with 571. Later years were numbered from the ''Year of the Elephant'', whether for the years of the pre-Islamic lunisolar calendar, the lunisolar calendar used by Muhammad before he forbade the intercalary month, or the first few years of the lunar calendar thus created. In 638 (AH 17), the second Caliph [[Umar]] began numbering the years of the Islamic calendar from the year of the Hijra, which was postdated AH&nbsp;1. The first day of the first month (1&nbsp;Muharram) of that proleptic Islamic year, that is, after the removal of all intercalary months between the Hijra and Muhammad's prohibition of them nine years later, corresponded to [[July 16]], [[622]] (the actual emigration took place in September). The first surviving attested use of the Hijri calendar is on a [[papyrus]] from [[Egypt]] in 22 AH, [[PERF 558]].
==Months==
Each [[month]] has either 29 or 30 days, but usually in no discernible order. Traditionally, the first day of each month was the day (beginning at sunset) of the first sighting of the lunar crescent (the ''hilal'') shortly after sunset. If the hilal was not observed immediately after the 29th day of a month, either because clouds blocked its view or because the western sky was still too bright when the moon set, then the day that began at that sunset was the 30th. Such a sighting had to be made by one or more trustworthy men testifying before a committee of Muslim leaders. Determining the most likely day that the hilal could be observed was a motivation for Muslim interest in [[astronomy]], which put Islam in the forefront of that science for many centuries. This traditional practice is still followed in a few parts of the world, like [[Pakistan]] and [[Jordan]]. However, in most Muslim countries astronomical rules are followed which allow the calendar to be determined in advance, which is not the case using the traditional method. [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and a few others begin each month at sunset on the first day that the moon sets after the sun (moonset after sunset). In [[Egypt]], the month begins at sunset on the first day that the moon sets at least five minutes after the sun.
The official [[Umm al-Qura]] calendar of [[Saudi Arabia]] used a substantially different astronomical method until recent years [http://www.jas.org.jo/sau.html]. Before AH 1420 (before [[April 18]], [[1999]]), if the moon's age at sunset in [[Riyad]] was at least 12 hours, then the day ''ending'' at that sunset was the first day of the month. This often caused the [[Saudi]]s to celebrate holy days one or even two days before other predominantly Muslim populated countries, including the dates for the [[Hajj]], which can only be dated using Saudi dates because it is performed in Mecca. During one memorable year during the AH 1380s (the 1970s), different Muslim countries ended the fast of Ramadan on each of four successive days. The celebrations became more uniform beginning in AH 1420. For AH 1420-22, if moonset occurred after sunset at Mecca, then the day beginning at that sunset was the first day of a Saudi month, essentially the same rule used by Malaysia, Indonesia, and others (except for the location from which the hilal was observed). Since the beginning of AH 1423 ([[March 16]], [[2002]]), the rule has been clarified a little by requir |
[[Rollo of Normandy|Rollo]], the [[10th century]] founder of the dynasty of the dukes of [[Normandy]], comes from the community of Giske, north west of Ålesund.
In the night of [[January 23]], [[1904]], the city was the scene of the [[Ålesund Fire]], one of the most terrible of the many conflagrations to which Norwegian towns, once built largely of wood, have been subjected. Practically the whole town was destroyed, a gale aiding the flames, and the population had to leave the place in the middle of the night with only a few minutes' notice.
[[Wilhelm II of Germany|Kaiser Wilhelm]] of [[Germany]] had often vacationed in Sunnmøre. After the fire, the Kaiser sent 4 ships with material to aid in the reconstruction. The town was rebuilt in the [[Jugendstil]] architectural style (the German version of Art Noveau) with turrets, spires, and ornamentation. The structures were designed by Norwegian architects educated in Trondheim, drawing inspiration from various styles throughout Europe, i.e Germany, Scotland, France, Belgium and Spain. The style was at its peak in Europe in 1900 and visitors can enjoy an unusually consistent architectural style.
The local newspaper is [[Sunnmørsposten]].
The local [[football (soccer)|football]] team, [[Aalesunds Fotballklubb]] (AaFK), founded in 1914, played in the [[Norwegian Football League teams|Norwegian premier league]] for the first time in the 2003 season, and after 1 year in the 1. division in 2004, they are now back in the Tippeliga. The team's new arena, Color Line Stadion, opened 16th April 2005, a beautiful arena only 1 km outside town center.
The opening match was against Odd, and took place at 19.00 hours the same date. Ålesund won 2-1.
The local supporter club for Aafk is called "Stormen" or "The Storm" and the members are about 2000 local supporters living all over Norway showing off impressive patriotism at all home games, and also, in lesser numbers, at away games.
Unfortunately the 2005 season turned out bad for Aafk, and in spite of heroic fights at the end of the season, the team has to prepare for another season i 1.sivisjon in 2006. However, the support from the people and industry in the region is quite impressive, and the goal is quite clear: Tippeligaen in 2007, and there to stay.
Several new players have been bought to strengthen the team, and the new coach, Per Joar Hansen(ex. RBK), seem to have what it takes to take the step again, into the top-team league in Norway. Good Luck, Aafk!
== Economy ==
[[Image:hurtigr_aalesund_MH5Y3639_2.jpg|thumb|240px|MS Polarlys in Ålesund (December 2005)]]
Today Ålesund has one of the largest and important fishing harbors in Norway. Their fishing fleet belongs to one of the most modern in Europe.
Ålesund is also one of the harbours the [[Hurtigruten]] is arriving a few times a week. The Hurtigruten, once known as the post ship fleet of Norway, is a favorite way to travel around Norway's coast.
<br clear="right" />
== Tourism ==
Ålesund is adjacent to the [[Hjørundfjord|Hjørund]] and [[Geirangerfjord|Geiranger]] [[fjord]]s, frequented by tourists. From Øye at the head of [[Hjørundfjord]] a road strikes south to the [[Nordfjord]], and from Maråk on [[Geiranger]]fjord another strikes inland to [[Otta]]. From [[Åndalsnes]], 120 km east of Ålesund, the railway line ''[[Raumabanen]]'' goes to Dombås, then southwards on the ''[[Dovrebanen]]'' railway to [[Lillehammer]] and [[Oslo]]. Ålesund is a port of call for passenger and freight vessels travelling between [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], [[Kingston upon Hull]], [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]], [[Hamburg]], and [[Trondheim]], including the daily [[Hurtigruta]] (Norwegian Coastal Express ships).
Ålesund is the site of an annual Norwegian Food Festival.
== Sightseeing/Interesting places ==
* Aksla with [http://www.fjellstova.no/ Fjellstova]
* [http://www.atlanterhavsparken.no/ Atlanterhavsparken Ålesund Akvarium]
{| border="1" style="border-collapse:collapse" cellpadding="2"
|-
| [[Image:Alesund_harbour.jpg|thumb|none|160px|The inner harbour in winter]]
| [[Image:Photo_Aalesund_petite.jpg|thumb|none|200px|Ålesund]]
|}
<br clear="right" />
== Institutions of higher learning ==
* [[Aalesund University College]] (Høgskolen i Ålesund)
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aalesund}}
==Nature==
Ålesund is surrounded by beautiful natural scenery, including tall mountains and deep fjords.
==External link==
*[http://www.jugendstil.no/galleri/gall.html Pictures of the buildings of Ålesund]. This web site is mostly in Norwegian, but there is some text in German, French, and English.
{{Møre_og_Romsdal}}
{{25 biggest cities of Norway}}
[[Category:Møre og Romsdal]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Norway]]
[[Category:Cities in Norway]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aarau</title>
<id>2466</id>
<revision>
<id>35211398</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T00:42:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Japanese Searobin</username>
<id>153340</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ja:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aarau Altstadt.jpg|thumb|left|Aarau]]
{{Infobox_Swiss_town|subject_name=[[Image:Aarau blason.png|89px|none|center|An eagle on a white shield with red band above depicts Aarau's coat of arms]]|
canton=Aargau|
district=[[Aarau (district)]]|
nd=47|nm=24|ed=8|em=03|
postal_code=5000|
population=15649|populationof=June 2005|
area=8.94|altitude=381|
mayor=Marcel Guignard <small>(2004 [[Free_Democratic_Party_of_Switzerland|FDP]])</small>|
website=www.aarau.ch|
neighboring_municipalities= [[Rohr (Aargau)|Rohr]], [[Buchs (Aargau)|Buchs]], [[Suhr (Aargau)|Suhr]], [[Unterentfelden]], [[Eppenberg-Wöschnau]], [[Erlinsbach]] |
map=[[Image:Aarau_location.png|120px]]}}
<div style="clear: right; float: right"></div>
{{CHdot|Aarau}}
'''Aarau''' is the capital of the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] canton of [[Aargau]]. It is predominantly [[German language|German]]-speaking and [[Protestantism|Protestant]]. Aarau is situated in the valley of the [[Aar]], on the river's right bank, and at the southern foot of the [[Jura mountains]].
An ancient fortress, Aarau was taken by the [[Bern]]ese in [[1415]], and in [[1798]] became for six months (March to [[September]]) the capital of the [[Helvetic Republic]].
{{Commons|Aarau}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aarau}}
{{Switzerland-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Cities in Switzerland]][[Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland]][[Category:Municipalities of Aargau]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[als:Aarau]]
[[cs:Aarau]]
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[[ja:アーラウ]]
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[[sv:Aarau]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aargau</title>
<id>2467</id>
<revision>
<id>41555770</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T03:10:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sidious1701</username>
<id>657229</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{otheruses}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Canton|short_name=Aargau|
local_names=Aargau|
coa_img_path=Aargau.png|
locatormap_img_path=Swiss_Canton_Map_AG.png|
cantonalmap_img_path=Karte Kanton Aargau.png|
capital=[[Aarau]]|
area=1404|area_rank=10th|area_scale=9|
population=550900|population_rank=4th|population_asof=2003|
population_density=392|
since=1803|
abbr=AG|
languages=[[German language|German]]|
executive=Regierungsrat|executive_members=5|
legislative=[[Grosser Rat]]|parliament_members=140|
highest=Geissfluegrat|highest_m=908|
municipalities_number=232|
districts_designation=Bezirke|districts_number=11|}}
{{otheruses}}
'''Aargau''' ([[German language|German]] '''Aargau''', [[French language|French]] '''Argovie''', [[Italian language|Italian]] '''Argovia''', [[Romansh]] '''Argovia'''; anglicized '''Argovia''') is one of the more northerly [[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]] of [[Switzerland]]. It comprises the lower course of the [[river]] [[Aar]], which is why the canton is called Aargau (meaning ''Aar district'').
==Geography==
Its total area is 1,404 km&sup2;, its population is 550,000 (as of 2002). The capital is [[Aarau]]. It borders [[Germany]] to the north. To the west lie the cantons of [[Basel-Landschaft]], [[Canton of Solothurn|Solothurn]] and [[Canton of Bern|Bern]]. The canton of [[Canton of Lucerne|Lucerne]] lies south of the canton of Aargau, [[Canton of Zürich|Zürich]] and [[Canton of Zug|Zug]] to the east.
The canton of Aargau is one of the least mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of the [[Alps]] and the east of the [[Jura mountains|Jura]], above which rise low hills. The surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aar and its tributaries. The valleys alternate with pleasant hills, most of which are wooded.
It contains the famous hot sulphur springs of [[Baden, Switzerland|Baden]] and [[Schinznach]], while at [[Rheinfelden]] there are very extensive saline springs. Just below [[Brugg]] the [[Reuss River|Reuss]] and the [[Limmat]] join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined castle of [[Habsburg]], the old convent of [[Koenigsfelden]] (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the [[ancient Rome|Roman]] settlement of ''Vindonissa'' ([[Windisch]]).
==History==
Argovia was the border region between [[Alamannia]] and [[Burgundy]], and was a disputed territory between these duchies. From the end of the [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty up to 1415, it was ruled by the [[Habsburgs]], and many historical old castles can be foun |
xt xml:space="preserve">:''This article describes how security can be achieved through design and engineering. Please see the [[computer insecurity]] article for an alternative approach that describes the current battlefield of computer security exploits and defenses.''
'''Computer security''' is a field of computer science concerned with the control of risks related to computer use.
The means traditionally taken to realize this objective is to attempt to create a '''secure computing''' platform, designed so that agents (users or programs) can only perform [[action (philosophy)|action]]s that have been allowed. This involves specifying and implementing a [[security policy]]. The actions in question can be reduced to operations of access, modification and deletion. Computer security can be seen as a subfield of [[security engineering]], which looks at broader security issues in addition to computer security.
In a secure system the legitimate users of that system are still able to do what they should be able to do. While one might be able to secure a computer beyond misuse using extreme measures (locked in a vault without any means of [[Electric power|power]] or [[communication]] for example), this would not be regarded as a useful secure system because of the above requirement.
It is important to distinguish the techniques employed to increase a system's security from the issue of that system's security status. In particular, systems which contain fundamental flaws in their security designs cannot be made secure without compromising their utility. Consequently, most computer systems cannot be made secure even after the application of extensive "computer security" measures.
== Computer security by design ==
There are two different approaches to [[security]] in [[computing]]. One focuses mainly on external [[threat]]s, and generally treats the [[computer system]] itself as a [[trusted system]]. This philosophy is discussed in the [[computer insecurity]] article.
The other, discussed in this article, regards the computer system itself as largely an untrusted system, and redesigns it to make it more secure in a number of ways.
This technique enforces [[privilege separation]], where an entity has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way, even if an [[attacker]] has subverted one part of the system, fine-grained security ensures that it is just as difficult for them to subvert the rest.
Furthermore, by breaking the system up into smaller components, the complexity of individual components is reduced, opening up the possibility of using techniques such as [[automated theorem proving]] to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems. Where formal correctness proofs are not possible, rigorous use of [[code review]] and [[unit testing]] measures can be used to try to make modules as secure as possible.
The design should use "[[defense in depth]]", where more than one subsystem needs to be compromised to compromise the security of the system and the information it holds. Subsystems should default to secure settings, and wherever possible should be designed to "fail secure" rather than "fail insecure" (see [[fail safe]] for the equivalent in safety engineering). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure. What constitutes such a decision and what authorities are legitimate is obviously controversial.
In addition, security should not be an all or nothing issue. The designers and operators of systems should assume that security breaches are inevitable in the long term.
Full [[audit trail]]s should be kept of system activity, so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks. Finally, [[full disclosure]] helps to ensure that when bugs are found the "[[window of vulnerability]]" is kept as short as possible.
== Early history of security by design ==
The early [[Multics]] operating system was notable for its early emphasis on computer security by design, and Multics was possibly the very first operating system to be designed as a secure system from the ground up. In spite of this, Multics' security was broken, not once, but repeatedly. This led to further work on computer security that prefigured modern [[security engineering]] techniques.
== Techniques for creating secure systems ==
The following techniques can be used in engineering secure systems. These techniques, whilst useful, do not of themselves ensure security. One security maxim is "a security system is no stronger than its weakest link"
* [[Automated theorem proving]] and other verification tools can enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications.
* Thus simple [[microkernel#Microkernels|microkernels]] can be written so that we can be sure they don't contain any bugs: eg EROS[http://www.eros-os.org/] and Coyotos[http://coyotos.org/].
* A bigger OS, capable of providing a standard API like POSIX, can be built on a microkernel using small API servers running as normal programs. If one of these API servers has a bug, the kernel and the other servers are not affected: eg [[GNU Hurd|Hurd]].
* [[Cryptography|Cryptographic]] techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that data exchanged between systems can be intercepted or modified.
* Strong [[authentication]] techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are.
* [[Secure cryptoprocessor]]s can be used to leverage [[physical security]] techniques into protecting the security of the computer system.
* [[Chain of trust]] techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers.
* [[Mandatory access control]] can be used to ensure that privileged access is withdrawn when privileges are revoked. For example, deleting a user account should also stop any processes that are running with that user's privileges.
* [[Capability (computers)|Capability]] and [[access control list]] techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. The next sections discuss their use.
<i>Some of the following items may belong to the [[computer insecurity]] article:</i>
<div id="unpatched"></div> <!-- the previous div tag is needed by some articles that link to that part of the article -->
* In a production system when an [[application software|application]] provides no way to patch already known security flaws, don't use it or use another one (at least until the fix is available). Publicly known flaws are the main entry used by [[Computer worm|worms]] to automatically break into a system and then spread to other systems connected to it. The security website [[Secunia]] provides a search tool for unpatched known flaws in popular products.
[[Image:encryption_decryption.PNG|right|frame|[[Cryptography|Cryptographic]] techniques involve transforming information, scrambling it so it becomes unreadable during transmission. The intended recipient can unscramble the message, but eavesdroppers cannot.]]
* [[Backup]]s are a way of securing your information; they are another copy of all your important computer files kept in another location. These files are kept on hard disks, [[CD-R]]s, [[CD-RW]]s, and [[tape]]s. Backups can be kept in a multitude of locations, some of the suggested places would be a fireproof, waterproof, and heat proof safe, or in a separate, offsite location than that in which the original files are contained. Some individuals and companies also keep their backups in [[safe deposit box]]es inside the [[vault]]s of [[bank]]s. There is also a fourth option, which involves using one of the companies on the [[Internet]] that backs up files for both business and individuals.
** Backups are also important for reasons other than security. Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or tornadoes, may strike the building where the computer is located. The building can be on fire, or an explosion may occur. There needs to be a recent backup at an alternate secure location, in case of such kind of disaster. The backup needs to be moved between the geographic sites in a secure manner, so as to prevent it from being stolen.
* [[Anti-virus software]] consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart and eliminate [[computer viruses]] and other malicious software ([[malware]]).
* [[Firewall (networking)|Firewalls]] are systems which help protect computers and computer networks from attack and subsequent intrusion by restricting the network traffic which can pass through them, based on a set of system administrator defined rules.
* Access [[authorization]] restricts access to a computer to group of users through the use of [[authentication]] systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer - such as through a interactive [[logon]] screen - or individual services, such as an [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as [[password]]s, [[identification card]]s, and, more recently, [[smart card]]s and [[biometric]] systems.
* [[Encryption]] is used to protect your message from the eyes of others. It can be done in several ways by switching the characters around, replacing characters with others, and even removing characters from the message. These have to be used in combination to make the encryption secure enough, that is to say, sufficiently difficult to [[Cryptanalysis|crack]]. [[Public key encryption]] is a refined and practical way of doing encryption. It allows for |
Used in many contexts, both 'Socrates' and 'the Moon' denote individuals; 'grapefruit' and 'redness' (generally) do not. 'Individual' as a piece of philosophical jargon is much-bandied and often to be found in the company of ''[[particular]]'' -- indeed, often treated as ''synonymous with'' 'particular' (though one wonders if abstract particulars can count as individuals) -- and contrasted with '[[universal]]'.
== References ==
* Gracia, Jorge J. E. (1988). Individuality: An Essay on the Foundations of Metaphysics. : State Univ of New York Pr.
*Klein, Anne Carolyn (1995). ''Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the Art of the Self''. ISBN 0807073067.
==See also==
* [[Atom (disambiguation)|Atom]]
* [[Consciousness]]
* [[Cultural identity]]
* [[Identity]]
* [[Individualism]]
* [[Person]]
* [[Self]]
[[Category:Metaphysics]]
[[da:Individ]]
[[de:Individuum]]
[[et:Indiviid]]
[[eo:Individuo]]
[[fr:Individu]]
[[hu:Individuum]]
[[io:Individuo]]
[[ja:個人]]
[[no:Individ]]
[[pt:Indivíduo]]
[[sv:Individ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet troll</title>
<id>14594</id>
<revision>
<id>42160322</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:30:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stereoisomer</username>
<id>263784</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>replaced poor examples of troll quotes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Internet_Troll.png|190px|right|Internet Troll]]
In [[Internet]] [[terminology]], a '''troll''' is a person who posts rude or offensive messages on the Internet, such as on [[Internet forum|online discussion forums]], to disrupt discussion or to upset its participants. "Troll" can also mean the message itself or be a verb meaning to post such messages. "Trolling" is also commonly used to describe the activity. For more discussion on definitions, see below.
== Etymology ==
The contemporary use of the term first appeared on [[Usenet]] groups in the late [[1980s]]. It is widely thought to be a contraction of the phrase "trolling for suckers", itself derived from the [[sport fishing]] technique of [[trolling for fish|trolling]]. The latter can be compared with [[trawling]], of which it is a near [[homophone]].
The word likely gained currency because of its apt second meaning, drawn from the "[[troll]]s", which are portrayed in [[Scandinavia]]n [[folklore]], and children's tales, as often ugly, obnoxious creatures that are bent on [[wickedness]] and mischief. The image of the troll under the bridge in the "[[Three Billy Goats Gruff]]" emphasizes the troll's negative reaction to outsiders intruding on its physical environment, particularly those who intend to graze in its domain without permission.
== Vicious circles ==
For many people, the characterising feature of trolling is the perception of intent to disrupt a community in some way. Inflammatory, sarcastic, disruptive or humorous content is posted, meant to draw other users into engaging the troll in a fruitless confrontation. The greater the reaction from the community the more likely the user is to troll again, as the person develops beliefs that certain actions achieve his/her goal to cause chaos. This gives rise to the often repeated protocol in Internet culture: "Do not feed the trolls."
Often, a person will post a sincere message about which he is emotionally sensitive. Skillful trolls know that an easy way to upset him is to disingenuously claim that he is a "troll." On other occasions, a person may not instantly understand, or fit into the [[Norm (sociology)|social norms]] of a forum where most users have similar characteristics. As a result, his acting just slightly out of the norm (often unintentionally, and for legitimate reasons) garners him the label "troll." It can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between a user who merely has different values, views or ideas, and a user who is intentionally trolling; unfortunately, many users react aggressively on a first impression to a perceived troll, which sometimes leads disgruntled [[newbie]]s or political minorities to be perceived trolls.
== Troll culture ==
The long history of trolling, and the strong support for [[Anonymity|anonymous]] and [[pseudonym]]ous discourse on the Internet, suggests that the story of the "anonymous troll" is only beginning. Whether there can be a "culture" consisting of people who do not know each other, except through a common experience of being bounced from Internet forums, is questionable, but some do claim it is possible and already occurring.
There is strong evidence for this in the existence of forums that claim to exist specifically to support trolls and trolling, to exchange troll tips, and to identify targets that other trolls might fruitfully bait or debate.
Trolling culture is best observed in trolls, who do not know each other, working together. Because the common methods of creating inflammatory posts are well known, and a subject of jokes in many places on the Internet, it is sometimes possible for a troll to identify another troll in action. A troll, trolling another troll, often creates massive amounts of pretend drama between them that are taken seriously by non-troll observers (especially if they take sides). The end result is that the two trolls can work together to force a conversation to go off topic, or center a forum's discussion around themselves, more effectively than on their own.
==Trolling as identity deception==
===Pre-history===
Prior to [[Deja News|DejaNews]]' archiving of [[Usenet]], accounts of trolling were sketchy, there being little evidence to sort through. After that time, however, the huge archives were available for researchers. Perhaps the earliest, although poorly documented, case is the [[1982]]-[[1983|83]] saga of AlexAndJoan from the [[CompuServe]] forums. Van Gelder, a reporter for [[Ms. magazine]], documented the incident in [[1996]] in an article for her publication. Alex (in [[real life]] a very shy 50 year old [[Psychiatry|psychiatrist]] from [[New York]]) pretended to be a highly bombastic, anti-religious, post-car-accident, [[wheelchair]]-bound, [[mute]] woman, named, "Joan", "in order to better relate to his female patients". This went on for two years, and "Joan" had become a hugely detailed character, with an array of emotional relationships. These only began to fall apart after "Joan" coaxed an online friend of hers into an affair with Alex.
:"''Even those who barely knew Joan felt implicated &mdash; and somehow betrayed &mdash; by Alex's deception. Many of us on-line like to believe that we're a [[utopia]]n community of the future, and Alex's experiment proved to us all that technology is no shield against deceit. We lost our [[innocence]], if not our [[faith]].''" (Van Gelder, 1996, p.534)
===Trolling in the 1990s===
One early reference to "troll" found in the [[Google#Google_Groups|Google Usenet archive]] was by user "Mark Miller", directed toward the user, "Tad", on [[February 8]], [[1990]] [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/alt.flame/browse_thread/thread/44c94ccfa7ede2bf/80135728c2dc034b?q=troll&_done=%2Fgroups%3Fhl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26q%3Dtroll%26qt_s%3DSearch+Groups%26as_drrb%3Db%26as_mind%3D8%26as_minm%3D2%26as_miny%3D1990%26as_maxd%3D11%26as_maxm%3D2%26as_maxy%3D1990%26&_doneTitle=Back+to+Search&&d#80135728c2dc034b]. However, it is unclear if this instance represents a usage of "troll" as it is known today, or if it was simply a chance choice of [[Epithet#Linguistics|epithet]]:
:"''You are so far beyond being able to understand anything anyone here says that this is just converging on uselessness. The really sad part is that you really believe that you're winning. You are a shocking waste of natural resources &mdash; kindly re-integrate yourself into the [[Food chain|food-chain]]. Just go die in your sleep you mindless [[Flatulence|flatulent]] troll."''
The more likely derivation can be found in the phrase, "trolling for newbies", popularized in the early [[1990s]] in the Usenet group, ''alt.folklore.urban''. The usage was somewhat different from the current notion of trolling; it was a relatively gentle inside joke by veteran users, presenting questions or topics that had been so overdone, only a new user would respond to them earnestly. Others expanded the term to include the practice of playing a seriously misinformed or deluded user, even in [[newsgroup]]s where one was not a regular; these were often attempts at humor, rather than provocation. In such contexts, the noun, "troll", usually referred to an act of trolling, rather than to the author.
Some long-time Usenet users continued to insist on these earlier definitions, even after the term was applied more generally to inflammatory actions, previously characterized as "[[flamebait]]".
== Identity ==
In serious [[literature]], the practice was first documented by [[Judith Donath]] ([[1999]]), who used several [[Anecdote|anecdotal]] examples from various Usenet newsgroups in her discussion. Donath's paper outlines the ambiguity of identity in a disembodied "[[virtual community]]" [http://smg.media.mit.edu/people/Judith/Identity/IdentityDeception.html]:
:"''In the physical world there is an inherent unity to the self, for the body provides a compelling and convenient definition of identity. The norm is: one body, one identity. ... The virtual world is different. It is composed of information rather than matter.''"
Donath provides a concise overview of [[identity deception]] games which trade on the confusion between physical and [[epistemic community]]:
:"''Trolling is a game about identity deception, albeit one that is played without the |
gt;[[National Basketball Association]]</td>
<td width="180px" align="left">[[Pepsi Center]]</td>
<td width="50px" align="left">[[Image:DenverNuggetsMainLogo.gif|50px|Denver Nuggets Logo]]</td>
<tr bgcolor="#ffffff'>
<td width="250px">[[Colorado Rapids]]</td>
<td width="120px" align="left">[[Soccer]]</td>
<td width="75px" align="left">[[1996]]</td>
<td width="270px" align="left">[[Major League Soccer]]</td>
<td width="180px" align="left">[[INVESCO Field at Mile High]]</td>
<td width="50px" align="left">[[Image:Colorado_Rapids_logo.gif|50px|Colorado Rapids Logo]]</td>
<tr bgcolor="#ffffff'>
<td width="250px">[[Colorado Crush]]</td>
<td width="120px" align="left">[[Arena Football]]</td>
<td width="75px" align="left">[[2003]]</td>
<td width="270px" align="left">[[Arena Football League]]</td>
<td width="180px" align="left">[[Pepsi Center]]</td>
<td width="50px" align="left">[[Image:ColoradoCrush.gif|50px|Colorado Crush Logo]]</td>
<tr bgcolor="#ffffff'>
<td width="250px">[[Colorado Mammoth]]</td>
<td width="120px" align="left">[[Lacrosse]]</td>
<td width="75px" align="left">[[2003]]</td>
<td width="270px" align="left">[[National Lacrosse League]]</td>
<td width="180px" align="left">[[Pepsi Center]]</td>
<td width="50px" align="left">[[Image:Colo1.jpg|50px|Colorado Mammoth Logo]]</td>
<tr bgcolor="#ffffff'>
<td width="250px">[[Denver Outlaws]]</td>
<td width="120px" align="left">[[Lacrosse]]</td>
<td width="75px" align="left">[[2006]]</td>
<td width="270px" align="left">[[Major League Lacrosse]]</td>
<td width="180px" align="left">[[INVESCO Field at Mile High]]</td>
<td width="50px" align="left">[[Image:557.gif|50px|Denver Outlaws Logo]]</td>
</table>
====Defunct Teams====
*[[Denver Bears]] former minor league (AAA) baseball team (1948-1992)
*[[Denver Zephyrs]] originally, the Denver Bears (moved to New Orleans, 1992)
*[[Denver Spurs]] former [[World Hockey Association]] team (1975-76)
*[[Colorado Rockies (NHL)|Colorado Rockies]] former [[National Hockey League]] team (1976-82); now known as the [[New Jersey Devils]]
*[[Denver Gold]] former [[United States Football League]] team (1983-1985)
*[[Denver Dynamite]] former [[Arena Football League]] team (1987, 1989-1991)
*[[Denver Grizzlies]] former [[International Hockey League]] team (1994-1995)
====Hosting====
*The [[National Western Stock Show]], the largest stock show in the world, is held annually every January in Denver, and attracts visitors from all over the world.
*Awarded the [[1976 Winter Olympics]], which voters rejected due to a 300 percent rise in costs and worries about environmental impact
*1990 NCAA Final Four at McNichols Arena
*1996 G7 Summit
*The [[1998]] [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game]] at Coors Field
*The 2001 [[NHL All-Star Game]] and FanFest at Pepsi Center
*[[2005]] [[NBA All-Star Game]] at the Pepsi Center
*[[2008]] NCAA [[Frozen Four]] Tournament
*The inaugural [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]] ([[November 12]],[[1993]])
*Denver is host to a yearly race on the [[Champ Car World Series]] circuit, the Grand Prix of Denver
*Denver is one of 11 cities[http://hotlineblog.nationaljournal.com/archives/2006/02/dnc_will_seek_b.html] expressing interest in hosting the [[2008 Democratic National Convention]], which would coincidently be the centennial of the city's first hosting of the convention in 1908 .
*In 1993, Denver hosted [[World Youth Day]], and welcomed [[Pope John Paul II]] in one of his rare travels to the United States.
=== Hostels ===
*[[Denver International Youth Hostel]]
*[[InnKeeper of the Rockies]]
*[[Melbourne International Hotel & Hostel]]
== Famous Denverites ==
[[Image:federico_pena.JPG|thumb|180px|Federico Fabian Peña, Denver Mayor 1983-91, was an influential figure in Denver's history]]
See [[List of famous Denverites]]
== Books on Denver ==
* {{cite book | title = Denver in Slices | author = Louisa Ward Arps | year = 1998 | publisher = | id = }}
* {{cite book | title = Denver in our time: A people's history of the modern Mile High City | author = Phil Goodstein | publisher = }}
* {{cite book | title = Rise and Dine, Breakfast in Denver & Boulder | author = Joey Porcelli | publisher = Fulcrum Publishing | location = Golden, Colorado | id = ISBN 1555915094}}
A large portion of [[Jack Kerouac]]'s beat classic ''[[On the Road]]'' takes place in Denver.
== External links ==
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Denver WikiTravel site for Denver]
* [http://www.denvergov.org Official City and County of Denver site]
* [http://www.denver.org Official Denver travel guide]
* [http://www.aboutdenver.com Denver Internet Directory]
* [http://denverlibrary.org Denver Public Library]
* [http://www.rtd-denver.com Regional Transportation District Homepage]
* [http://www.denverpost.com/ Denver Post]
* [http://www.rockymountainnews.com/ Rocky Mountain News]
* [http://www.westword.com/ Westword - Alternative newspaper for Denver]
* [http://www.haunteddenver.com/ Haunted Denver - Seasonal haunted house attractions in Denver]
* [http://www.denveruncommon.com/ Denver Uncommon - Pictures of Denver neighborhoods]
* [http://www.denverinfill.com/ DenverInfill - Overview of Downtown Denver growth and development]
==Surrounding municipalities==
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
| width = 35% align="center" |
| width = 30% align="center" |'''North:''' [[Commerce City, Colorado|Commerce City]]
| width = 35% align="center" |
|-
| width = 10% align="center" |'''West:''' [[Wheat Ridge, Colorado|Wheat Ridge]], [[Lakeside, Colorado|Lakeside]], [[Mountain View, Colorado|Mountain View]], [[Edgewater, Colorado|Edgewater]], [[Lakewood, Colorado|Lakewood]]
| width = 35% align="center" |'''Denver'''
| width = 30% align="center" |'''East:''' [[Aurora, Colorado|Aurora]], [[Glendale, Colorado|Glendale]]
|-
| width = 35% align="center" |
| width = 30% align="center" |'''South:''' [[Aurora, Colorado|Aurora]], [[Greenwood Village, Colorado| Greenwood Village]], [[Cherry Hills Village, Colorado|Cherry Hills Village]], [[Englewood, Colorado|Englewood]], [[Sheridan, Colorado|Sheridan]], [[Littleton, Colorado|Littleton]], [[Bow Mar, Colorado|Bow Mar]]
| width = 35% align="center" |
|}
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.726287|-104.965486}}
{{Colorado}}
{{United_States_state_capitals}}
<br>
{{USLargestCities}}
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[[Category:Cities in Colorado]]
[[Category:Colorado counties]]
[[Category:Denver metropolitan area]]
[[Category:Denver, Colorado]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States]]
[[bg:Денвър]]
[[da:Denver]]
[[de:Denver (Colorado)]]
[[eo:Denvero (Koloradio)]]
[[es:Denver (Colorado)]]
[[fi:Denver]]
[[fr:Denver (Colorado)]]
[[gl:Denver]]
[[he:דנוור]]
[[it:Denver]]
[[ja:デンバー]]
[[ko:덴버]]
[[nl:Denver]]
[[no:Denver]]
[[pl:Denver (Kolorado)]]
[[pt:Denver]]
[[ru:Денвер]]
[[simple:Denver, Colorado]]
[[sv:Denver]]
[[th:เดนเวอร์]]
[[zh:丹佛 (美國科羅拉多州)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Deuterium</title>
<id>8524</id>
<revision>
<id>41287077</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T08:01:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mradigan</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Stable_Isotope| <!-- Here is the template for this nuclide; skip past it to edit the text. -->
isotope_name = Hydrogen-2|
isotope_filename = hydrogen-2.png|
alternate_names = deuterium|
mass_number = 2|
symbol = H or D|
num_neutrons = 1|
num_protons = 1|
abundance = 0.015%|
mass = 2.01355321270|
spin = 1+|
excess_energy = 13135.720|
error1 = 0.001|
binding_energy = 2224.573|
error2 = 0.002|
}}
'''Deuterium''', also called '''heavy hydrogen''', is a [[stable isotope]] of [[hydrogen]] with a [[natural abundance]] of one atom in 6500 of [[hydrogen]]. The [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of deuterium, called a '''deuteron''', contains one [[proton]] and one [[neutron]], whereas a normal hydrogen nucleus just has one proton.
The [[chemical symbol]] <sup>2</sup>H identifies deuterium. The unofficial symbol D is also often used, even though deuterium is not a [[chemical element]] in its own right. It occurs naturally as deuterium gas, written <sup>2</sup>H<sub>2</sub> or D<sub>2</sub>. When bonded with a typical <sup>1</sup>H atom, the gas is called hydrogen deuteride.{{ref|IUPACelement}}
Deuterium behaves chemically identically to ordinary hydrogen, although, because of the greater atomic mass, reactions involving deuterium tend to occur at a somewhat slower [[reaction rate]] than the corresponding reactions involving ordinary hydrogen. The two isotopes can be distinguished physically by using [[mass spectrometry]]. In addition, the physical properties of deuterium compounds can be different than the hydrogen analogs; for example, D<sub>2</sub>O is more viscous than H<sub>2</sub>O.
Deuterium |
s that they should restrict themselves to literal interpretations of their sacred texts, the [[Qur'an]] and [[Hadith]]. This may describe the private religious attitudes of individuals and have no relationship with larger social groups.
* It describes a variety of religious movements and political parties in [[Muslim]] communities.
* As opposed to the above two usages, in the West "Islamic fundamentalism" is most often used to describe Muslim individuals and groups which advocate [[Islamism]], a political ideology calling for the replacement of state secular laws with [[Islamic law]]. The more radical of these Islamists may advocate violent overthrow of secular states, or even [[Islamist terrorism]].
In all the above cases, Islamic fundamentalism represents a conservative religious belief, as opposed to [[liberal movements within Islam]].
=== "Non-Abrahamic" religions ===
Some argue that the religious idea of fundamentalism is limited to "[[Abrahamic religions]]", and have connected the phenomenon specifically to the notion of revealed religion. However, the answer to the question, ''Who is a fundamentalist?'' is in the eye of the beholder. It is not uncommon for detractors to apply the ''fundamentalist'' label to ''Wiccans'' or virtually anything else religious, describing an attitude rather than a self-perception or a doctrine. In the landmark series on fundamentalism, scholars led by liberal Christian scholar [[Martin Marty]] have identified fundamentalism also in [[Hinduism]].
Followers of [[Hinduism]] generally adhere to the [[Veda|Vedic]] statement, "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously", which would seem to make relativism practically a fundamental tenet. However, a few sects within Hinduism do have a tendency to dogmatically view the Vedas as divinely inspired, superior or even flawless. Regardless, some claim that no Hindu can be found who considers his/her name of God to be that of the "only true God" or their scriptures to be the "only scriptures truly inspired by God" or their prophet to be the "final one". In fact it is normal that Hinduism is itself divided into many different sects and groups with new sects and new philosophies continuously being added; consequently, the fundamentalist enclaves identified by ''The Fundamentalism Project'', which claim to be purer than others, are regarded as aberrant within Hinduism.
The [[Japan]]ese [[Nichiren]] sect of [[Buddhism]], which believes that other forms of Buddhism are heretical, is also sometimes labelled fundamentalist. However, Nichiren Buddhism contains influences from [[Shintoism]] and a strongly nationalistic streak that would disqualify it from being fundamentalist in the strictest sense.
=== Non-religious fundamentalism ===
Some refer to any literal-minded or intolerant philosophy with pretense of being the sole source of objective truth, as ''fundamentalist'', regardless of whether it is usually called a [[religion]]. For example, when [[Albania]] under [[Enver Hoxha]] declared itself an "atheist state", it was deemed by some to be a kind of "Fundamentalist Atheism" or more accurately "[[Stalinist]] Fundamentalism". There are people who in their attempt to live according to the writings of [[Ayn Rand]] seem to detractors to transgress respect for other perspectives in propagating their views, so that they are deemed to be a kind of "[[Objectivist]] Fundamentalist", and they are spoken of derogatorily as, "Randroids." In France, the imposition of restrictions on public display of religion has been labelled by some as "Secular Fundamentalism." The idea of non-religious Fundamentalism almost always expands the definition of "Fundamentalism" along the lines of criticisms. Occasionally, it represents an idea of purity, and is self-applied as signifying a rather counter-cultural fidelity to some noble, simple, but overlooked principle, as in ''Economic fundamentalism''; but the same term can be used in a critical way.
== Arguments in favor of fundamentalist positions ==
Fundamentalists claim both that they practice their [[religion]] as the first adherents did and that this is how religion should be practiced. In other words, a Christian ought to believe and practice as those who knew and followed [[Jesus]] during his time on earth. A [[Muslim]] ought to give the same consideration to the followers of [[Muhammad]]. Analogous arguments can be made for most systems of religious belief. Fundamentalists justify this belief on the idea that the founders of the world's religions said and did things that were not written down; in other words, their original disciples knew things that we don't. For fundamentalist Christians, this claim is justified by the [[Gospel of John]], which ends with the statement "there are also many other things that Jesus did, which if they were written one by one, I suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books that would be written." (John 21:25, NKJV) Further justification is adduced from the static or falling attendance of many liberal or reformed congregations, from the scandals that have struck, for example, the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic church]], and from the increasing difficulty of distinguishing between religiously liberal and avowedly [[secularism|secularist]] views on such matters as [[homosexuality]], [[abortion]] and [[feminism|women's rights]].
Fundementalists also argue that the Bible has been shown to be 100% historically accurate when compared with other historical texts, and that every prophecy ever made in the Bible has either been fulfilled or has yet to be fulfilled. This would make the Bible, from a historical and prophetical perspective, an infallible text.
== Criticism of the fundamentalist position ==
Many criticisms of the fundamentalist position have been offered. The most common is that the theological claims made by fundamentalist groups cannot be proven. Another criticism is that the rhetoric of these groups offers an appearance of uniformity and simplicity, yet within each faith community, one actually finds different texts of religious law that are accepted; each text has varying interpretations. Consequently, each fundamentalist faith is observed to splinter into many mutually antagonistic groups. They are often as hostile to each other as they are to other religions. In addition, it has been observed that there is no such thing as a [[Muslim]], [[Jewish]], or [[Christian]] Fundamentalist. Rather, a fundamentalist's fundamentalism is their primary concern, over and above other denominational or faith considerations.
In order to carry out the fundamentalist program in practice, critics claim that one would first need a perfect understanding of the ancient language of the original text, if indeed the true text can be discerned from among variants. Furthermore, they charge that fundamentalists fail to recognize that fallible human beings are the ones who transmit this tradition. [[Elliot N. Dorff]] writes "Even if one wanted to follow the literal word of God, the need for people first to understand that word necessitates human interpretation. Through that process human fallibility is inextricably mixed into the very meaning of the divine word. As a result, it is impossible to follow the indisputable word of God; one can only achieve a human understanding of God's will." (''A Living Tree'', Dorff, 1988)
Most fundamentalists do not deal with this argument. Those that do reply to this critique hold their own religious leaders are guided by God, and thus partake of divine infallibility.
Fundamentalism is held by many to cause followers of a faith to become overly attached to their religion's leaders. Followers believe that person to be infallible, or the voice of God, and who can direct them infallibly in the interpretation of the sources of truth. Religions which have such a hold over their followers are often referred to as [[cult|cults]].
A general criticism of fundamentalism is the claim that fundamentalists are selective in what they believe and practice. For instance, the book of [[Exodus]] dictates that when a man's brother dies, he must marry his widowed sister-in-law. Yet fundamentalist Christians do not adhere to this doctrine, despite the fact that it is not contradicted in the New Testament. However, defenders of fundamentalism argue that according to New Testament theology, large parts, if not all of the Mosaic Law, are not normative for modern Christians. They may cite passages such Colossians 2:14 which describes Jesus Christ as "having wiped out the handwriting of requirements that was against us" (NKJV). Other fundamentalists argue that only certain parts of the Mosaic Law, parts that rely on universal moral principles, are normative for today. Therefore, in their view, there is no contradiction between such passages in the Old Testament and their belief in biblical infallibility.
Christian fundamentalists often insist that the Bible is infallible in its various prophetic assertions. However, in the book of [[Ezekiel]], specifically Ezekiel 26:1-14, we find a prophecy (the conquering of the city of Tyre) that, according to Ezekiel 29:18-20, seems to have not been fullfilled in exactly the way the prophet had predicted. This prophecy is the subject of much scholarly debate in regard to interpretation of the prophecy itself and the interpretation of the actual events that took place. At any rate, it is clear that Nebuchadnezzar did in fact conquer the city of Tyre as prophesied, although the spoils of the battle apparently were not as extravagant as Ezekiel predicted they would be, and the city has been rebuilt (modern day Sur, Lebanon) contrary to prophetic claims it would never stand again.
Fundamentalist teachings are criticised by questioning the |
dustry, which meant it had almost no residents who had grown up outside the area. It was known to be inhospitable towards black people.
Before becoming mayor, Charles Evers had worked as a cotton picker, dishwasher, bootlegger and short-order cook; as a soldier, cab driver, deejay, and funeral home director -- and as a foot soldier in the civil rights movement, signing up black voters. His swearing-in as mayor had enormous symbolic significance statewide and national resonance. The NAACP named Evers their 1969 Man of the Year. John Updike mentioned Evers in his popular novel "Rabbit Redux." Evers popularized the slogan "Hands that picked cotton can now pick the mayor."
He had a strong physical presence and carried his 250 pounds (113 kg) with grace. (He is quoted as saying, "I'll march, I'll picket, but I don't believe in no hunger strikes.") He had the endurance, the driving ambition and the gall of the successful politician -- but never the innate caution. Charles Evers later ran for Governor of Mississippi.
Born in [[Decatur, Mississippi]], Evers had a strong, devoutly Christian mother and a fearless father. He learned from his parents that racism was not only wrong but un-Christian, and he always saw the civil rights movement as a Christian movement teaching love and equality for all.
During [[World War II]], Charles and Medgar Evers both served in the U.S. Army. Charles fell in love with a Filipino woman overseas but could not marry her and live with her in Mississippi because she was white.
Back in Mississippi, around 1951, Charles and Medgar Evers grew very interested in [[Jomo Kenyatta]] and his use of the "mau-mau" movement to free the nation of [[Kenya]] from colonial shackles in Africa.
Around 1956, Evers's entrepreneurial gifts and his civil rights activism landed him in trouble in [[Philadelphia, Mississippi]]. He left town and moved to Chicago.
In Chicago, Evers says that he vowed to support the movement back home, and fell into a life of hustling, running numbers for the mob and managing prostitutes. The money he made is said to have been substantial, and much of it was sent back to help the movement.
Evers served many terms as mayor of Fayette. Admired by some, he alienated others with his inflexible stands on various town issues. Evers did not like to share or delegate power.
He has also attracted controversy for his support of judicial nominee [[Charles W. Pickering]], in contrast to organizations such as the Mississippi NAACP and the [[Congressional Black Caucus]]. He remains distrusted by some blacks for allegedly cooperating with the [[Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission]].
Charles Evers has befriended an astonishing range of people from sharecroppers to presidents. He was an informal advisor to politicians as diverse as [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], [[Robert Kennedy]], [[George Wallace]] and [[Ronald Reagan]].
He has also heaped scorn on black leaders who, he believes, are charlatans or have not "paid the price." Rare for a leader, he is willing to attach names to his criticisms, rather than to let them stand as a general exhortation. Charles Evers has been highly critical of such black community leaders as [[Roy Wilkins]], [[Stokely Carmichael]], [[H. Rap Brown]] and [[Louis Farrakhan]].
Charles Evers has told his life story well in the memoir "Have No Fear"
Evers is a prominent member of the [[Mississippi]] [[Republican party]].
===Quotes===
:''"Whenever you see bigotry, hypocrisy is real close by."''
:''"Have no fear."''
==External links==
*The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow, PBS [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/stories_people_evers.html]
[[Category:1922 births|Evers, Charles]]
[[Category:Living people|Evers, Charles]]
[[Category:African Americans' rights activists|Evers, Charles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Collective nouns/All sorted by collective term</title>
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<timestamp>2002-10-10T15:02:37Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ap</username>
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<page>
<title>Collective nouns/All sorted by subject</title>
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<page>
<title>Collective nouns/Mammals, non-human</title>
<id>7136</id>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Collective nouns/Birds</title>
<id>7137</id>
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<timestamp>2002-10-10T19:03:12Z</timestamp>
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<page>
<title>Collective nouns/Fish, invertebrates and plants</title>
<id>7138</id>
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<timestamp>2002-10-10T19:05:04Z</timestamp>
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<page>
<title>Collective nouns/Reptiles and amphibians</title>
<id>7139</id>
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<timestamp>2002-10-10T19:05:21Z</timestamp>
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<page>
<title>Collective nouns/People</title>
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<username>Camembert</username>
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<title>Collective nouns/Objects and concepts</title>
<id>7141</id>
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<timestamp>2002-10-09T14:08:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
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<page>
<title>CDMA</title>
<id>7142</id>
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<id>15905222</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-04T14:38:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aldie</username>
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<title>Code division multiple access</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:53:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.140.123.74|67.140.123.74]] ([[User talk:67.140.123.74|talk]]) to last version by Prodego</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Mobile phone standards}}
'''Code division multiple access''' ('''CDMA''') is a form of multiplexing (not a modulation scheme) and a method of [[multiple access]] that does not divide up the channel by [[time]] (as in [[TDMA]]), or [[frequency]] (as in [[FDMA]]), but instead encodes data with a certain code associated with a channel and uses the [[constructive interference]] properties of the signal medium to perform the multiplexing. '''CDMA''' also refers to digital [[cellular network|cellular telephony systems]] that make use of this multiple access scheme, such as those pioneered by [[Qualcomm]], or [[W-CDMA]].
== History of CDMA ==
Please see: [[direct-sequence spread spectrum]] (DSSS). <!-- This doesn't seem appropriate -->
== Usage in mobile telephony ==
A number of different terms are used to refer to CDMA implementations. The original standard spearheaded by QUALCOMM was known as [[IS-95]], the IS referring to an Interim Standard of the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA). IS-95 is often referred to as 2G or second generation cellular. The [[QUALCOMM]] brand name [[IS-95|cdmaOne]] may also be used to refer to the 2G CDMA standard.
After a couple of revisions, IS-95 was superseded by the [[CDMA2000|IS-2000]] standard. This standard was introduced to meet some of the criteria laid out in the [[IMT-2000]] specification for 3G, or third generation, cellular. It is also referred to as [[CDMA2000|1xRTT]] which simply means "1 times Radio Transmission Technology" and indicates that IS-2000 uses the same 1.2 |
nown to contradict the manga and often create new [[plot holes]]. For example, during the Freeza Saga, there is a flashback showing that Vegeta, Raditz and Nappa were already aware that Freeza destroyed their home planet long before the events in ''DBZ'' took place even though the series showed that Vegeta was not aware until Dodoria told him on Planet Namek.
==Sagas==
;'''Toei Sagas'''
#Saiyan Saga (Episodes 1~35); [[26 April]] [[1989]] - [[7 February]] [[1990]]
#Freeza Saga (Episodes 36~125); [[14 February]] [[1990]] - [[29 January]] [[1992]]
#Cell Saga (Episodes 126~199); [[5 February]] [[1992]] - [[23 June]] [[1993]]
#Buu Saga (Episodes 200~291); [[30 June]] [[1993]] - [[31 January]] [[1996]]
;'''FUNimation's Sagas'''
Saiyan Saga:
The [[Vegeta Saga]] (Formerly known as the [[Saiyan Saga]])
Freeza Saga:
*The [[Namek Saga]]
*The [[Ginyu Saga|Captain Ginyu Saga]] (Episodes 68~74)
*The [[Frieza Saga]] (Episodes 75~106)
*The [[Garlic Junior Saga]] (Episodes 107~116)
*The [[Trunks Saga]] (Episodes 117~124)
Cell Saga:
*The [[Androids Saga]] (Episodes 125~138)
*The [[Imperfect Cell Saga]] (Episodes 139~151)
*The [[Perfect Cell Saga]] (Episodes 152~164)
*The [[Cell Games Saga]] (Episodes 165~193)
Buu Saga:
*The [[Great Saiyaman Saga]] (Episodes 194~208)
*The [[World Tournament Saga]] (Episodes 209~218)
*The [[Babidi Saga]] (Episodes 219~230)
*The [[Majin Buu Saga]] (Episodes 231~252)
*The [[Fusion Saga]] (Episodes 253~274)
*The [[Kid Buu Saga]] (Episodes 275~290)
==Movies, TV Specials, & Other==
;'''''Movies'''''
;'''Toei Titles'''
#[[Return my Gohan!!]]
#[[The World's Strongest Guy]]
#[[Super Deciding Battle for the Entire Planet Earth]]
#[[Super Saiyan Son Gokū]]
#[[Cooler's Revenge|The Incredible Mightiest vs. Mightiest]]
#[[Return of Cooler|Clash!! 10,000,000,000 Powerful Warriors]]
#[[Super Android 13|Extreme Battle!! The Three Great Super Saiyans]]
#[[Broly: The Legendary Super Saiyan|Burn Up!! A Close, Intense, Super-Fierce Battle]]
#[[Bojack Unbound|The Galaxy at the Brink!! The Super Incredible Guy]]
#[[Broly: The Second Coming|The Dangerous Duo! Super-Warriors Can't Rest]]
#[[Bio-Broly|Super-Warrior Defeat!! I'm the One who'll Win]]
#[[The Rebirth Of Fusion|Fusion Reborn!! Gokū and Vegeta]]
#[[Dragon Fist Explosion!! If Gokū Won't Do It, Who Will?]]
;'''FUNimation's Titles'''
#[[Return my Gohan!!|Dead Zone]]
#[[The World's Strongest]]
#[[The Tree of Might]]
#[[Lord Slug (film)|Lord Slug]]
#[[Cooler's Revenge]]
#[[Return of Cooler]]
#[[Super Android 13!]]
#[[Broly: The Legendary Super Saiyan]]
#[[Bojack Unbound]]
#[[Broly: The Second Coming]]
#[[Bio-Broly]]
#[[Fusion Reborn]]
#[[Dragon Fist Explosion!! If Gokū Won't Do It, Who Will?]] (FUNimation's title is unknown)
;'''''TV Specials'''''
;'''Toei Titles'''
#[[A Lonesome, Final Battle: The Father of Z-Warrior Kakarrot, who Challenged Freeza]]
#[[Resistance to Despair!! The Remaining Super-Warriors, Gohan and Trunks]]
;'''FUNimation's Titles'''
#[[Bardock: The Father of Goku]]
#[[The History of Trunks]]
;'''''Other'''''
*The Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans (Video game footage)
==Uncut DVDs==
''Dragon Ball Z'' has seen 2 types of DVD releases. These releases are the uncut and edited versions. Originally, the edited versions were aired on TV and were the first DVDs to be produced by [[Geneon]] [Pioneer]. If you wish to own every episode of ''Dragon Ball Z'' right now on DVD, this can be done with the edited version. If you want the uncut version which contains extra footage, blood, and some profanity, as well as Japanese audio, you're going to want to purchase the uncut DVDs by FUNimation. Starting with episode 68, FUNimation has released all DVDs uncut. Movies 4-12 are also uncut and have been released by FUNimation. Recently, FUNimation has begun to re-release the first 67 episodes in uncut form. FUNimation is also re-releasing the first 3 movies as Ultimate Uncut Editions, but the original Pioneer dubs of these movies were actually more uncut and accurate to their original Japanese counterparts. The original dubs of the movies have the original music as well as the scripts that are much more closer to the original Japanese version.
FUNimation's DVDs have been criticised for containing only a few episodes (usually 3, sometimes 4) per disk and costing far more than they should. Every DBZ episode is about 20 minutes. It should be noted that most other animes that have 20 minute episodes usually have around 10 episodes on every DVD for 3+ hours worth of content unlike FUNimation's DVDs that have 60 or 80 minutes of content.
===Episode and Volume Numbering Descrepancy===
The original Japanese episodes totaled to 291. FUNimation dubbed the first release of DVDs which consisted of episodes 1-53 (jap. 1-67), 14 episodes worth of content were cut. FUNimation later cut one in the Freeza saga as well (Episode 80, "Piccolo the Super-Namek"). This episode was released as a "Bonus" episode on the Frieza - Transformation DVD. Because of Saban's cuts, all FUNimation released uncut DVDs have incorrect episode and volume numbering. Most of the old uncut DVDs by FUNimation (Ginyu saga and up) do not have volume numbers and if they do, the numbers are inaccurate. It is still unknown whether FUNimation will re-release all the DVDs with the correct episode and volume numbering but it is unlikely. Below is a list of every uncut DVD released (and to be released) by FUNimation. You can see the episode numbering given on the Uncut DVD releases, with the correct episode numbering listed beside it in brackets.
===Episodes===
*Vol. 1 Vegeta Saga 1: Saiyan Showdown - Episodes 1-3
*Vol. 2 Vegeta Saga 1: Piccolo's Plan - Episodes 4-6
*Vol. 3 Vegeta Saga 1: Into the Wild - Episodes 7-9
*Vol. 4 Vegeta Saga 1: Gohan's Trials - Episodes 10-12
*Vol. 5 Vegeta Saga 1: Goku Held Hostage - Episodes 13-15
*Vol. 6 Vegeta Saga 1: Doomed Heroes - Episodes 16-18
*Vol. 7 Vegeta Saga 1: Back From the Dead - Episodes 19-21
*Vol. 8 Vegeta Saga 2: Saiyan Invasion (Unreleased, coming 3/21/2006) - Episodes 22-24
*Vol. 9 Vegeta Saga 2: Ultimate Sacrifice (Unreleased, coming 5/16/2006) - Episodes 25-27
*Vol. 10 Vegeta Saga 2: ????? (Unreleased) - Episodes 28-31
*Vol. 11 Vegeta Saga 2: ????? (Unreleased)- Episodes 32-35
*Vol. 12 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 36-38
*Vol. 13 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 39-41
*Vol. 14 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 42-44
*Vol. 15 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 45-47
*Vol. 16 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 48-50
*Vol. 18 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 51-53
*Vol. 19 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 54-57
*Vol. 20 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 58-60
*Vol. 21 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 61-63
*Vol. 22 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 64-67
*Vol. 23 Captain Ginyu - Assault - Episodes 54-56 (68-70)
*Vol. 24 Captain Ginyu - Double Cross - Episodes 57-60) (71-74)
*Vol. 25 Frieza - The Summoning - Episodes 61-63 (75-77)
*Vol. 26 Frieza - Transformation - Episodes 64-66 + Bonus Episode (78-81)
*Vol. 27 Frieza - Revealed - Episodes 67-69) (82-84)
*Vol. 28 Frieza - Death of a Prince - Episodes 70-72 (85-87)
*Vol. 29 Frieza - Clash - Episodes 73-75 (88-90)
*Vol. 30 Frieza - Desperation - Episodes 76-78 (91-93)
*Vol. 31 Frieza - Super Saiyan Goku - Episodes 79-81 (94-96)
*Vol. 32 Frieza - Eleventh Hour - Episodes 82-85 (97-100)
*Vol. 33 Frieza - Fall of a Tyrant - Episodes 86-89 (101-104)
*Vol. 34 Frieza - Namek's End - Episodes 90-92 (105-107)
*Vol. 35 Garlic Jr. - Black Water Mist - Episodes 93-95 (108-110)
*Vol. 36 Garlic Jr. - Sacred Water - Episodes 96-98 (111-113)
*Vol. 37 Garlic Jr. - Vanquished - Episodes 99-102 (114-117)
*Vol. 38 Trunks - Mysterious Youth - Episodes 103-105) (118-120)
*Vol. 39 Trunks - Prelude to Terror - Episodes 106-110) (121-125)
*Vol. 40 Androids - Invasion - Episodes 111-114 (126-129)
*Vol. 41 Androids - Dr. Gero - Episodes 115-117 (130-132)
*Vol. 42 Androids - Assassins - Episodes 118-120 (133-135)
*Vol. 43 Androids - Invincible - Episodes 121-124 (136-139)
*Vol. 44 Imperfect Cell - Encounter - Episodes 125-127 (140-142)
*Vol. 45 Imperfect Cell - Discovery - Episodes 128-130 (143-145)
*Vol. 46 Imperfect Cell - Race Against Time - Episodes 131-133 (146-148)
*Vol. 47 Imperfect Cell - 17's End - Episodes 134-137 (149-152)
*Vol. 48 Perfect Cell - Hunt for 18 - Episodes 138-140 (153-155)
*Vol. 49 Perfect Cell - Temptation - Episodes 141-143 (156-158)
*Vol. 50 Perfect Cell - Perfection - Episodes 144-146 (159-161)
*Vol. 51 Perfect Cell - Unstoppable - Episodes 147-150 (162-165)
*Vol. 52 Cell Games - Ultimatum - Episodes 151-153 (166-168)
*Vol. 53 Cell Games - A Moments Peace - Episodes 154-156 (169-171)
*Vol. 54 Cell Games - A Guardians Return - Episodes 157-159 (172-174)
*Vol. 55 Cell Games - The Games Begin - Episodes 160-162 (175-177)
*Vol. 56 Cell Games - Surrender - Episodes 163-165 (178-280)
*Vol. 57 Cell Games - Earth's Last Hope - Episodes 166-168 (181-183)
*Vol. 58 Cell Games - Awakening - Episodes 169-171 (184-186)
*Vol. 59 Cell Games - Sacrifice - Episodes 172-175 (187-190)
*Vol. 60 Cell Games - Nightmares End - Episodes 176-179 (191-194)
*Vol. 61 Great Saiyaman - Opening Ceremony - Episodes 180-182 (195-197)
*Vol. 62 Great Saiyaman - Final Round - Episodes 183-185 (198-200)
*Vol. 63 Great Saiyaman - Gohan's Secret - Episodes 186-188 (201-203)
*Vol. 64 Great Saiyaman - Declaration - Episodes 189-191 (204-206)
*Vol. 65 Great Saiyaman - Crash Course - Episodes 192-194 (207-209)
*Vol. 66 World Tournament - Junior Division - Episodes 195-197 (210-212)
*Vol. 67 World Tournament - The Draw - Episodes 198-200 (213-215)
*Vol. 68 World Tournament - Blackout - Episodes 201-204 (216-219)
*Vol. 68 Babidi - Decent - Episodes 205-207 (220-222)
*Vol. 70 Babidi - Battle Royale - Episodes 208-210 (223-225)
*Vol. 71 Babidi - Dark Prince Returns - Episodes 211-213 (226-228)
*Vol. 72 Babidi - Rivals - Episodes 214-216 (229-231)
*Vol. 73 Majin Buu - The Hatching - Episodes 217- |
ve]]
|German: do'''ch'''
|{{IPA|/ k<sup>h</sup> /}}
|-align="center"
|ग़
|{{IPA|/ ʁə /}} [[voiced velar fricative]]
|Persian: Mu'''gh'''al
|/ g /
|-align="center"
|ज़
|{{IPA|/ zə /}} [[voiced alveolar fricative]]
|English: '''z'''oo
|{{IPA|/ ɟ / ''or'' / dʒ /}}
|-align="center"
|ड़
|{{IPA|/ ɽə /}} [[unaspirated]] [[retroflex flap]]
|<none>
|
|-align="center"
|ढ़
|{{IPA|/ ɽ<sup>ɦ</sup>ə /}} [[aspirated]] [[retroflex flap]]
|<none>
|
|-
|}
ड़ {{IPA|/ ɽə /}} and ढ़ {{IPA|/ ɽ<sup>ɦ</sup>ə /}} are not of Persian/Arabic origin, but they are allophonic variants of simple voiced retroflex stops of Sanskrit.
===Additional notes on the consonants===
Some additional features of Hindi consonant system are given here, as well as some useful tips to those whose native langugae is English but are interested in learning Hindi language.
*No nasal consonant except / m / and / n / can start a word in Hindi. Hence all the other nasal consonants in modern Hindi tend to be pronounced as either / m / or / n /.
*The distinction between the aspirated and the unaspirated consonants is really very strong, not only in Hindi, but also in Sanskrit and all other Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages of India.
*The distinction between the dental plosives and the retroflex plosives is also very stark in all Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages.
*The retroflex flaps cannot start a word. They did not exist as such in Sanskrit—they have sprung up as the allophonic flap variants of Sanskrit's simple [[voiced retroflex plosive]]s. The other Indo-Aryan languages and Dravidian languages tend to use retroflex flaps in their vocabulary even more frequent than Hindi does.
*Aspiration is actually a ''puff of breath'' that may follow a plosive consonant. English speakers should try to pronounce the voiceless aspirates by speaking these words in a quick but clear liason-like fashion:
**"ta'''ke h'''im", "ge'''t h'''im", "di'''tch h'''im", "sla'''p h'''im".
**One could also try speaking the words "'''k'''ite", "'''t'''ake", "'''ch'''ip" and "'''p'''at" with a greater-than-usual puff of breath after the first consonant. The corrsponding ''unaspirated'' plosives must be pronounced with '''no''' significant puff of breath at all.
*For practising the voiced aspirates, one could try: "dra'''g h'''im", "sai'''d h'''im", "enra'''ge h'''im", "gra'''b h'''im".
*The dental consonants in Hindi are as in Spanish or French. They can be pronounced by pronouncing /t/ and /d/ (of English) by pressing the tip of the tongue against the back of the teeth rather than against the back of the alveolar ridge as done by English speakers.
*The retroflex consonants are the most difficult to pronounce. They are pronounced by curling the tongue such that its tip touches the roof of the mouth, like how the Americans pronounce their "r". However in normal Hindi speech, bringing the tip of the tongue a bit above the normal alveolar ridge would also work fine. The retroflex flaps are pronounced in a similar way, by bringing the tongue's tip to the roof of the mouth and giving it a sharp flap downwards.
*Sanskrit / r / is retroflex, but Hindi / r / is alveolar [[trill]], as in Scottish English.
*The palatal plosives of Hindi do not have a sharp frictional sound following them. These are more of pure plosives than [[affricate]]s.
*Hindi has neither / v / nor / w /. Its nearest equivalent is {{IPA|/ ʋ /}}, which is very close to /v/, but does not have a friction or buzzing sound associated with it. But replacing it with / v / will also work fine.
*The retroflex sibilant {{IPA|/ ʂ /}} need not be worried about, because it has been replaced by {{IPA|/ ʃ /}} in modern Hindi pronunciation.
*It is doubtful whether Hindi has a voiced glottal fricative {{IPA|/ɦ/}} (for the alphabet ह) or not. Sanskrit does have this. But it would cause no problem to use the normal English "h" ("'''h'''ome) for it.
*The standard transliteration of Hindi into the Roman (English) alphabet) is usually the [[IAST]] scheme, whereby the retroflex consonants (retroflex ''t'', ''d'', their aspirates, ''n'', vowel-like ''r'') and the breath ''h'' are shown with a dot beneath; the long vowels are shown with a macron or a bar (as {{Unicode|ā}} above; aspiration of a plosive is shown with a following ''h'', and {{Unicode|ś}} is used for ''sh''; and ''c'' is used for ''ch''. Rest other alphabets are pronounced as in normal English. Another transliteration ([[ITRANS]]) uses capital letters of English to transcribe the long vowels and retroflex consonants. However, since English is a lingua franca of the educated Indians, and since computer keyboards do not have features for typing the IAST characters, Indians today use a casual transliteration into English for Hindi words; in such a casual transliteration, the retroflex and dental consonants are not differentiated, and neither the short and the long vowels (except that sometimes people double the alphabet to indicate a long vowel).
===Supra-segmental features===
Hindi has a stress accent, but it not so important as in English. Usually in a multisyllabic Hindi word, the stress falls on the last syllable if all the syllables are due to long vowels or all are due to short vowels. If the word contains a mixture or short and long vowels, the stress falls automatically on the long vowels almost equally. The [[schwa]] {{IPA|/ ə /}} has a strong tendency to vanish into nothing if its syllable is unaccented. Also note that although in Hindi, many words end in short / u / or short / i /, while speaking, the ending is often converted to long / i: / and long / u: /. The tone of speaking is very important in Hindi (although Hindi is not a tonal language like Chinese) —to express the sentiments of respect, politeness, question, etc.
==Writing system==
Hindi is written in the standardized [[Devanagari script]] which is written from left to right. The [[Devanagari]] script represents the sounds of spoken Hindi very closely, so that a person who knows the Devanagari letters can sound out a written Hindī text comprehensibly, even without knowing what the words mean. The entire alphabet has been discussed in the preceding section on phonogy.
The next table gives the system of combining two consonants, ie., making a consonant cluster. To write a consonant cluster {{IPA|/ XYə /}} from {{IPA|/ Xə /}} and {{IPA|/ Yə /}} syllables, Hindi usually converts the alphabetic symbol of the initial consonant X into the corresponding half-consonant (sic)—mostly achieved by cutting the right-side portion of the alphabet. To write the cluster {{IPA|/ XYZə /}}, similarly, both X and Y would be "cut". There are many variants for this consonant cluster writing in devanagari script. The most common system is shown below for the traditional table. Here the second vowel is taken to be / n /, followed by the [[schwa]].
{|class=&;quot;wikitable" border="2"
|'''ka-group'''||क्न {{IPA|/ knə /}} || ख्न {{IPA|/ k<sup>h</sup>nə /}} ||ग्न {{IPA|/ gnə /}} ||घ्न {{IPA|/ g<sup>ɦ</sup>nə /}} ||ङ्न {{IPA|/ ŋnə /}}
|-
|'''cha-group'''||च्न {{IPA|/ cnə /}} ||छ्न {{IPA|/ c<sup>h</sup>nə /}} ||ज्न {{IPA|/ ɟnə /}} ||झ्न {{IPA|/ ɟ<sup>ɦ</sup>nə /}} ||ञ्न {{IPA|/ ɲnə /}}
|-
|'''Ta-group'''||ट्न {{IPA|/ ʈnə /}} ||ठ्न {{IPA|/ ʈ<sup>h</sup>nə /}} ||ड्न {{IPA|/ ɖnə /}} ||ढ्न {{IPA|/ ɖ<sup>ɦ</sup>nə /}} ||ण्न {{IPA|/ ɳnə /}}
|-
|'''ta-group'''||त्न {{IPA|/ t̪nə /}} ||थ्न {{IPA|/ t̪<sup>h</sup>nə /}} ||द्न {{IPA|/ d̪nə /}} ||ध्न {{IPA|/ d̪<sup>ɦ</sup>nə /}} ||न्न {{IPA|/ nnə /}}
|-
|'''pa-group'''||प्न {{IPA|/ pnə /}} ||फ्न {{IPA|/ p<sup>h</sup>nə /}} ||ब्न {{IPA|/ bnə /}} ||भ्न {{IPA|/ b<sup>ɦ</sup>nə /}} ||म्न {{IPA|/ mnə /}}
|-
|'''ya-group'''||य्न {{IPA|/ ynə /}} ||र्न {{IPA|/ rnə /}} ||ल्न {{IPA|/ lnə /}} ||व्न {{IPA|/ ʋnə /}} ||
|-
|'''sha-group'''||श्न {{IPA|/ ʃnə /}} ||ष्न {{IPA|/ ʂnə /}} ||स्न {{IPA|/ snə /}} ||ह्न {{IPA|/ hnə /}} ||
|-
|}
This table gives only theoretical combination of consonant clusters. In practice, the number of allowable consonant clusters of Hindi is limited.
==Grammar==
''Main article'': [[Hindi grammar]]
Despite Hindi and English both being Indo-European languages, Hindi grammar can be very complex and is different in many ways from what English speakers are used to. Most notably, Hindi is a subject-object verb language, meaning that verbs usually fall at the end of the sentence rather than after the subject (as in English). Hindi also shows mixed ergativity so that, in some cases, verbs agree with the object of a sentence rather than the subject.
In addition, Hindi uses [[postposition]]s (so called because they are placed after nouns) where English uses prepositions. Other differences include gender, honorifics, interrogatives, use of cases, and different tenses. While being complicated, Hindi grammar is fairly regular, with irregularities being relatively limited. Despite differences in vocabulary and writing, Hindi grammar is nearly identical with Urdu. The concept of punctuation having been entirely unknown before the advent of the Europeans, Hindi punctuation uses western conventions for commas, exclamation points, and question marks. Periods are sometimes used to end a sentence, though the traditional "full stop" (a vertical line) is more generally used.
===Genders===
In Hindi (and of course in Urdu too), there are only '''two''' genders for nouns. All male human beings and male animals (or those animals and plants which are perceived to be "masculine") are '''masculine'''. All female human beings and female animals (or those animals and plants which are perceived to be "feminine") ar |
ieter. A cub is greeted with the quietest version of this sound.
; The alarm bark : This monosyllabic sound is made by an adult to warn cubs of danger. From far away it sounds like a sharp bark, but at closer range it resembles a muffled cough, like a football rattle or a stick along a picket fence.
; Gekkering : This is a stuttering, throaty noise made at aggressive encounters. It is most frequently heard in the courting season, or when kits are at play.
; The vixen's wail : This is a long, drawn-out, monosyllabic, and rather eerie wail most commonly made during the breeding season; it is widely thought that it is made by a vixen in heat summoning dog-foxes. Contrary to common belief, however, it is also made by the males, evidently serving some other purpose as well. This noise fits into neither the contact nor the interaction group.
==Ecobalance==
In some countries, such as [[Australia]], with no strong competitors, imported foxes quickly devastate native wildlife and become a serious [[invasive species | invasive]] [[pest (animal) | pest]]. On the other hand, many fox species are [[endangered species|endangered]].
Foxes can be used for helpful environmental purposes as well. They have been successfully employed to control [[pest (animal)|pest]]s on fruit [[farm]]s, leaving the fruit intact.[http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/pubs/press/foxes.html]
Historians believe foxes were being imported into non-native environments long before the colonial era. The first example of the introduction of the fox into a new habitat by humans seems to be [[Neolithic]] [[history of Cyprus|Cyprus]]. Stone carvings representing foxes have been found in the early settlement of [[Göbekli Tepe]] in eastern [[Turkey]].
==Cultural connotations==
In many [[culture]]s, the fox is a [[familiar animal]] of [[folklore]], a symbol of [[cunning]] and [[trickery]]. Some well-known stories involving foxes are found in [[Aesop]]'s [[fables]]; another is the [[medieval]] story of [[Reynard]]. In [[The Little Prince]], a fox indicates the true value of things like friendship.
In [[China|Chinese]] folklore, [[fox spirit]]s lure men away from their wives. The Chinese word for fox spirit is synonymous with the mistress in an extramarital affair.
In [[Japan]]ese folklore, the fox-like ''[[kitsune]]'' is a powerful animal spirit (''[[Yokai|Y&#333;kai]]'') that is highly mischievous and cunning.
The words "fox" or "foxy" have become synonymous slang in Western society for an individual (most often female) with sex appeal.
The fox is an especially popular animal in the [[furry fandom]].
==Famous Fictional Foxes==
* [[Miles "Tails" Prower]], from ''[[Sonic the Hedgehog]]''
* [[Fox McCloud]] from the [[Star Fox series]] of video games
* Tod in [[The Fox and the Hound]]
* [[Basil Brush]], British television personality
* Fox and his mate Vixen led [[The Animals of Farthing Wood]]
* Kyuubi, a nine-tailed fox from the anime and manga [[Naruto]].
* [[Kurama]], character from the [[anime]] [[Yu Yu Hakusho]]
* Fuse the [http://www.fusionradio.ca Fusion Radio] fox
==See also==
* [[Violet gland]]
* [[Tame Silver Fox]]
==External links==
*[http://www.vulpes.org/foxden/information/index.htm Fox information]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/newsid_4240000/newsid_4245900/4245983.stm Tame fox research]
[[Category:Foxes]]
[[Category:Fur]]
[[ast:Raposu]]
[[ca:Guineu]]
[[chr:ᏧᎳ]]
[[cy:Cadno]]
[[da:Ræv]]
[[de:Fuchs (Säugetier)]]
[[es:Zorro]]
[[fr:Renard]]
[[gd:Sionnach]]
[[ko:여우]]
[[io:Foxo]]
[[he:שועל]]
[[la:Vulpes]]
[[nl:Vossen]]
[[ja:キツネ]]
[[pl:Lis]]
[[pt:Raposa]]
[[ro:Vulpe]]
[[sv:Rävar]]
[[wa:Rinåd]]
[[zh:狐狸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foundationalism</title>
<id>11300</id>
<revision>
<id>38860599</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T03:01:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>146.201.142.35</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Foundationalism''' is any theory in [[epistemology]] (typically, [[theory of justification|theories of justification]], but also of [[knowledge]]) that holds that beliefs are justified (known, etc.) based on what are called ''[[basic belief]]s'' (also commonly called foundational beliefs). Basic beliefs are beliefs that give justificatory [[epistemic support|support]] to other beliefs, and more derivative beliefs are [[basing relation in epistemology|based]] on those more basic beliefs. The basic beliefs are said to be [[epistemic self-justification|self-justifying]] or [[self-evidence|self-evident]], that is, they are justified, although not justified ''by other beliefs.'' Typically and historically, foundationalists have held either that basic beliefs are justified by [[mental event]]s or states, such as experiences, that do not constitute beliefs (these are called [[nondoxastic]] mental states), or that they simply are not the type of thing that can be (or needs to be) justified.
Hence, generally, a foundationalist might offer the following [[theory of justification]]:
:A belief is ''epistemically justified'' [[iff |if and only if]] (1) it is justified by a basic belief or beliefs, or (2) it is justified by a chain of beliefs that is supported by a basic belief or beliefs, and on which all the others are ultimately based.
A basic belief, on the other hand, does not require justification because it is a different kind of belief than a non-foundational one.
== Arguments for foundationalism ==
Foundationalists generally tend to argue that there must be some set of epistemologically basic propositions or else the process of justification will always lead to an infinite [[regress argument|regress]], like a four-year old constantly asking "why?"
== Historical foundationalism: rationalism vs. empiricism ==
Historically, two varieties of foundationalist theories were rationalism (or [[continental rationalism]], to refer to the historical movement) and [[empiricism]] (or [[British Empiricism]]). Strictly speaking, neither empiricism nor rationalism is committed to foundationalism (it is possible to be an empiricist coherentist, for example, and that was a common epistemological position in [[20th century]] philosophy).
Rationalism is the general name for epistemological theories that maintain that reason is the source and criterion of knowledge. Rationalists generally hold that so-called truths of reason are the (most important) epistemologically basic propositions. The historical [[continental rationalism]] expounded by [[René Descartes]] rejected empiricism entirely, while modern rationalism asserts that reason is strongest when it is supported by or consistent with evidence and hence relies heavily on empirical [[science]] in analyzing justifications for belief. [[René Descartes]] famously held that some of these truths are known innately and therefore constitute epistemologically basic innate knowledge, a view not commonly held in modern rationalism.
Empiricism is the general name for epistemological theories that maintain that sensation reports are the source and criterion of knowledge. Classical empiricists generally held that such reports are indubitable and incorrigible and therefore worthy of serving as epistemologically basic propositions.
== Alternatives to foundationalism ==
Alternatives to foundationalism, usually called [[Anti-foundationalism]], include [[coherentism]] and [[reliabilism]] (though this has sometimes been construed as an unusual variant of foundationalism). [[Contextualism]] (or, in a stripped-down version, the [[blind posits theory]]) is the epistemological version of [[relativism]]; relativism is more often regarded as a theory of truth than as a theory of justification or knowledge. Also see [[Pragmatism]].
== External links ==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
{{Philosophy navigation}}
[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[Category:Philosophical theories]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Felidae</title>
<id>11302</id>
<revision>
<id>39505382</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T23:46:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.32.113.104</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the novel by Akif Pirinçci, see [[Felidae (novel)]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Felines
| image = Panthera tigris tigris.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Tiger]], the largest feline found in nature.
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = '''Felidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Johann Fischer von Waldheim|G. Fischer de Waldheim]], 1817
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision =
[[Felinae]]<br />
[[Pantherinae]]<br />
[[Cheetah|Acinonychinae]] <br />
[[Machairodontinae]] <i>(extinct)</i>
}}
[[Lion]]s, [[tiger]]s, [[cat]]s and other felines are members of the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Felidae'''. They are the most strictly carnivorous of the nine families in the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Carnivora]]. The first felids emerged during the [[Eocene]], about 40 million years ago. The most familiar feline is the [[cat|domestic cat or house cat]] (subspecies ''Felis silvestris catus''), which first became associated with humans between 7000 and 4000 years ago. Its wild relatives still live in Africa and western Asia, although [[habitat destruction]] has restricted their range.
Other well-known members of the feline family include [[big cat]]s such as the [[lion]], [[tiger]], [[leopard]], [[jaguar]], and [[cheetah]] (which appears to be descended from the small cats), and other [[wild cat]]s such as the [[lynx]], [[puma]], [[caracal]], and [[bobcat]]. All felines, the small domestic cat included, are [[apex predator|superpredators]] capable of destroying al |
of conscription]] being extended to Ireland in the [[World War I|First World War]] contributed to the creation of the [[Irish Free State]] in the 1920s. (''Also see: [[Conscription#United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] below'').
===Italy===
Until [[January 1]], [[2005]], [[Italy]] had mandatory military service for men between the ages of eighteen and forty five. Men were usually required to serve for ten months. Anyone objecting to military service for religious or ethical reasons could claim to be a conscientious objector, in which case community service was usually authorised as an alternative to the regular ten months of military service.
The [[Italian Parliament]], by a large majority, voted to abolish mandatory military service from [[1 January]] [[2005]], and the Italian armed forces will be now be entirely composed of professional volunteer troops, both male and female. [http://www.repubblica.it/2004/g/sezioni/cronaca/fineleva/fineleva/fineleva.html].
===Japan===
[[Japan]]'s [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Self Defence Forces]] have been a volunteer force since their establishment in the 1950s, following the end of the Allied occupation. As the [[Japanese constitution]] expressly prohibits Japan from maintaining any offensive military force, conscription will most likely never be an issue in the near future.
===Luxembourg===
[[Luxembourg]] has a volunteer military. See the [http://www.nat-military-museum.lu/ National Museum of Military History].
===Netherlands===
The [[Netherlands]] established conscription for a territorial militia in [[1814]], simultaneously establishing a standing army which was to be manned by volunteers only. However, lack of sufficient volunteers caused the two components to be merged in [[1819]] into a "cadre-militia" army, in which the bulk of troops were conscripts, led by professional officers and NCOs. This system remained in use until the end of the [[Cold War]]. Between [[1991]] and [[1996]], the Dutch armed forces phased out their conscript personnel and converted to an all-volunteer force. The last conscript troops were inducted in [[1995]] and demobilized in 1996. Formally, the Netherlands has not abolished conscription; that is to say, the laws and systems which provide for the conscription of armed forces personnel remain in place, and Dutch citizens who completed their military service prior to 1996 can still, theoretically, be mobilized in the event of a national emergency.
===New Zealand===
:''See main article: [[Compulsory Military Training (in New Zealand)]]''
Conscription of men into the armed forces of [[New Zealand]] came into effect in [[1940]], and was abolished in [[1972]].
===Portugal===
[[Portugal]] abolished compulsory military service on [[November 19]], [[2004]]. See [http://www.mdn.gov.pt/destaques/2004/fim_servico_militar.htm an announcement by the Minister of Defence].
===Slovakia===
[[Slovakia]] abolished compulsory military service on [[January 1]], [[2006]].
===Slovenia===
[[Slovenia]]'s [[Prime Minister]] [[Anton Rop]] abolished mandatory military service on [[September 9]] [[2003]]. See the [http://nato.gov.si/eng/press-centre/press-releases/2212/ official press release].
===Spain===
[[Spain]] abolished compulsory military service in [[2001]]. See [http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2001/03/09/espana/984145280.html an announcement by the Minister of Defence]. Military and alternative service was nine months long and in recent years the majority of conscripts chose to perform alternative, rather than military, service.
===United Kingdom===
The [[United Kingdom]] introduced conscription during both world wars. For the first two years of [[World War I]] the British relied on volunteers. But by 1916 the need for yet more soldiers to replace losses at the front, forced the British Government to introduce conscription under the [[Military Service Act]]. [[Conscientious objector]]s received relatively harsh treatment in the 1914-18 war. Most had to do war-related work of a non-military sort. Some went to jail.
[[Ireland]] was initially exempt from conscription in the First World War, but it was extended to Ireland on [[April 9]], [[1918]]. This led a [[Conscription Crisis of 1918 (Ireland)|Conscription Crisis in Ireland]] and was a decisive factor in pushing the country into seeking its [[Anglo-Irish War|independence]]. The poet [[William Butler Yeats|W.B. Yeats]] wrote to [[Richard Burdon Haldane, 1st Viscount Haldane|Lord Haldane]] in protest: "...it seems to me a strangely wanton thing that England, for the sake of 50,000 Irish soldiers, is prepared to hollow another trench between the countries and fill it with blood." Also in protest, [[Augusta, Lady Gregory|Lady Gregory]] declared "women and children will stand in front of their men and receive the bullets, rather than let them be taken to the front." [[Northern Ireland]] was exempt from conscription in the Second World War, and was also excluded from the post-war National Service.
Conscription was reintroduced in 1939 at the start of [[World War II]]. Not only was conscription used for the three branches of the armed forces, it was also introduced to aid in coal mining with the [[Bevin Boys]], and later in the war with the introduction of conscription of women into the [[Women's Land Army]] to help with agricultural production. Conscientious objectors were treated more tolerantly, but could still go to prison if they refused war-related work.
After World War II, the Government introduced [[National Service]], which was abolished in [[1960]].
===United States===
{{main|Conscription in the United States}}
The United States has employed conscription intermittently. For example, in 1863 the imposition of a draft during the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]] touched off the [[New York Draft Riots]]. Conscription was next used after the United States entered World War I in 1917. The first peacetime conscription came with the [[Selective Service Act|Selective Training and Service Act of 1940]]. Active conscription ("the draft") ended in 1973. Currently, male U.S. citizens and many male foreigners living in the U.S., if aged eighteen through twenty five, are required to register with the [[Selective Service System]], whose mission is "to provide manpower to the armed forces in an emergency; and to run an Alternative Service Program for men classified as [[conscientious objectors]] during a draft."
One of the holders of the first number (258) in the U.S. military draft lottery in 1917 was an Alden C. Flagg. His son, Alden C. Flagg, Jr., of Boston, was a holder of the first number (158) in the U.S. peacetime draft lottery of 1940.
==Arguments for conscription==
===Valuable training===
Some argue that peacetime conscription is an ideal tool for teaching a population basic, important skills such as first aid, swimming, wilderness survival and so on. However, it can be argued that these skills could better be taught in the public school system than during mandatory service.
===The draft as protection against democracy-destroying [[Coup d'état|military coups]]===
Some argue that conscription should be connected to democracy. A professional army can possibly become a dangerous state-within-a-state. Military [[virtue]]s such as obedience to orders and respect for the chain of command can possibly be abused by aspiring [[dictator]]s. Armed forces can attract - consciously or unconsciously - people who prefer [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] systems. The army can even become the only chance for a job and decent life in times of unemployment, or for despised minorities. Such people may come to regard the army as their home and elevate it above the state.
On the other hand, once in power a number of dictators such as [[Napoléon Bonaparte|Napoleon]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], and [[Saddam Hussein]] have used conscription to drive their undemocratic ambitions. The most significant [[July 20 Plot|attempt on Hitler's life]] was from the professional component of his military.
===Manpower===
Small countries have several options to raise a sizeable army. One is to put every able-bodied man under arms. This is how [[Switzerland]] managed to stay independent despite repeated attacks throughout history. The [[Swiss]] militias were so successful that their fighting style and weapons (especially the [[halberd]]) were quickly adopted by their enemies. Many rulers even raised [[Swiss Guard]]s. The rich [[Flanders (county)|Flemish]] trade cities of the early [[14th century]] raised huge militias that could even defeat armies of knights. The famous [[Battle of the Golden Spurs]] ([[1302]]) is a good example.
Other options for national defence include membership in a military alliance like [[NATO]], as is the case for countries like [[Belgium]] and [[Luxembourg]]. Switzerland started out as a military alliance between independent counties.
Also, a wealthy small country could hire a professional [[mercenary]] army. This approach does, however, require wealth and men who are willing to hire on. Moreover, it required some means to control the mercenaries if they became unruly.
===Personnel diversity===
Perhaps the kind of people who most strongly want to be in the military are not always the only kind of people who are needed in it. Conscripts come from various backgrounds and might have differing opinions and views. A diverse group is arguably more likely to succeed at any task. Still, the frequently lower morale and experience of conscripts may make them less useful in actual combat situations, especially in wars of aggression. This has been witnessed in the [[Vietnam War]] and [[Soviet-Afghan War]].
Personnel diversity might be bad for armies in some ways, by inhibiting communication and increasing social tension, but it also helps different people come together and realize the true nature of an all-inclusive society. For examp |
zed to '''incunable'''. A former term is ''fifteener'', referring to the [[15th century]].
There are two types of ''incunabula'': the ''xylographic'' (made from a single carved or sculpted block for each page) and the ''typographic'' (made with movable type on a [[printing press]] in the style of [[Johann Gutenberg]]). Many authors reserve the term ''incunabulum'' for the typographic ones only.
The ''end date'' for identifying a book as an ''incunabulum'' is convenient, but was chosen arbitrarily. It does not reflect any notable developments in the printing process around the year 1500. ''Incunabula'' usually refers to the earliest printed books, completed at a time when some books were still being hand-copied.
The gradual spread of [[printing]] ensured that there was great variety in the texts chosen for printing and the styles in which they appeared. Many early [[typeface]]s were modelled on local forms of writing or derived from the various European forms of [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] script, but there were also some derived from documentary scripts (such as most of [[William Caxton|Caxton]]'s types), and, particularly in [[Italy]], types modelled on humanistic hands. These humanistic typefaces are often used today, barely modified, in digital form.
Printers tended to congregate in urban centres where there were [[scholar]]s, [[ecclesiastic]]s, [[lawyers]], [[nobles]] and [[profession]]als who formed their major customer-base. Standard works in [[Latin]] inherited from the medieval tradition formed the bulk of the earliest printing, but as books became cheaper, works in the various [[vernacular]]s (or translations of standard works) began to appear.
Famous ''incunabula'' include the [[Gutenberg Bible]] of [[1455]] and the ''[[Liber Chronicarum]]'' of [[Hartmann Schedel]], printed by [[Anton Koberger]] in [[1493]]. Other well-known ''incunabula'' printers were [[Albrecht Pfister]] of [[Bamberg]], [[Günther Zainer]] of [[Augsburg]], [[Johann Mentelin]] of [[Strasbourg]] and [[William Caxton]] of [[Bruges]] and [[London]].
The tally of editions and titles issued before 1500 runs into thousands, and the most authoritative listing is in the German catalogue, the ''[[Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke]]'' which is still being compiled at the [[Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin]]. The [[British Library]] has compiled the [[Incunabula Short-Title Catalogue]] which includes the holdings of most libraries world-wide. Other smaller catalogs were started in the [[19th century]] and are still used as reference points (Hain, Copinger, etc.)
The largest collections, with the approximate numbers of incunabula held, include:
* [[Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]], Munich (18,550)
* [[British Library]] (12,500)
* [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] (12,000)
* [[Vatican Library]] (8,000)
* [[Oesterreichische Nationalbibliothek]], Vienna (8,000)
* [[Russian National Library]], St Petersburg (7,000)
* [[Stuttgart Landesbibliothek]] (7,000)
* [[Huntington Library]] (5,600)
* [[Library of Congress]] (5,600)
* [[Bodleian Library]] (5,500)
* [[Russian State Library]], Moscow (5,300)
* [[Cambridge University Library]] (4,600)
* [[John Rylands Library]] (4,500)
* [[Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin]] (4,400)
* [[Harvard University]] (3,600)
* [[Yale University]] (Beinecke 3,100, others 425)
* [[Koninklijke Bibliotheek]] (2,000)
* [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] (1,130)
== See also ==
* [[History]]
* [[Library]]
* [[Book collecting]]
* [[Blockbooks]]
==External links==
* [http://www.library.uiuc.edu/rbx/ UIUC Rare Book & Manuscript Library]
Places to buy incunables include:
* [http://www.abebooks.com Advanced Book Exchange]
* [http://www.ilab-lila.com ILAB]
* [http://www.sokol.co.uk Sokol Books-Antiquarian Book Dealers]
[[Category:Books by type]]
[[Category:Incunabulum| ]]
[[da:Inkunabel]]
[[de:Inkunabel]]
[[et:Inkunaabel]]
[[es:Incunable]]
[[fr:Incunable]]
[[it:Incunabolo]]
[[he:אינקונבולה]]
[[nl:Incunabel]]
[[ja:インキュナブラ]]
[[pl:Inkunabuł]]
[[pt:Incunábulo]]
[[fi:Inkunaabeli]]
[[sv:Inkunabel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isotropy</title>
<id>14865</id>
<revision>
<id>38652539</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T19:36:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>QFT</username>
<id>623714</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge request</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|rotational invariance}}
'''Isotropy''' (the opposite of [[anisotropy]]) is the property of being independent of direction. [[Wiktionary:Isotropic|Isotropic]] [[radiation]] has the same intensity regardless of the direction of [[measurement]], and an isotropic field exerts the same action regardless of how the test [[particle]] is oriented.
* ''Mathematics'': Isotropy is also a concept in [[mathematics]]. Some [[manifold]]s are isotropic, meaning that the [[geometry]] on the manifold is the same regardless of direction. A similar concept is [[homogeneity]]. A manifold can be homogeneous without being isotropic.
A function <math> f: \R^{n \times n} \rightarrow \R</math> is also called isotropic if
<math>f( R_1 {\bold x} R_2 )= f({\bold x})</math> for all <math>{\bold x} \in \R^{n \times n}</math>
and all <math>R_1, R_2 \in SO(n)</math>, the [[special orthogonal group]] of dimension ''n''.
* ''Radio broadcasting'': In [[radio]], an [[isotropic antenna]] is an idealized "[[radiator|radiating element]]" used as a [[reference]]; an [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]] that broadcasts power equally (calculated by the [[poynting vector]]) in all directions. In practice, an isotropic antenna cannot exist, as equal radiation in all directions would be a violation of the [[Helmholtz Wave Equation]]. The gain of an arbitrary antenna is usually reported in [[Decibel]]s relative to an isotropic antenna, and is expressed as dBi or dB(i).
* ''Physiology'': In skeletal muscle cells (a.k.a. [[muscle fibers]]), the term "isotropic" refers to the light bands ([[I bands]]) that contribute to the striated pattern of the cells.
* ''Materials'': In the study of [[mechanical]] properties of materials, "isotropic" means having identical values of a property in all [[crystallographic]] directions.
* ''Optics'': [[Optical isotropy]] is usually seen as equivalent to the fact that the dielectric tensor is a scalar or is reduced to a scalar in case of polydomain materials. The latter is not correct, however, if the domains can not be considered as small compared to the wavelength.
[[Category:Orientation]]
[[ca:Isotropia]]
[[de:Isotropie]]
[[fr:Isotropie]]
[[fi:Isotropia]]
[[it:Isotropia]]
[[ko:등방성]]
[[pl:Izotropia]]
[[ru:Изотропия]]
[[sk:Izotropia]]
[[sv:Isotrop]]
Helmholtz Equation:</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Instruments</title>
<id>14866</id>
<revision>
<id>15912396</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-09T10:53:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CYD</username>
<id>45</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to instrument per wikipedia naming convention</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Instrument]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Mathematical Union</title>
<id>14868</id>
<revision>
<id>34229990</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T11:06:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brauliobezerra</username>
<id>177631</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added link of non-governmental organization</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Mathematical Union''' is an international [[non-governmental organization]] devoted to international cooperation in the field of [[mathematics]]. It is a member of the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU) and supports the [[International Congress of Mathematicians]]. Its members are national mathematics organizations in 65 countries.
==External links==
*[http://www.mathunion.org/ International Mathematical Union]
[[Category:Mathematical societies]]
[[de:Internationale Mathematische Union]]
[[es:Unión Matemática Internacional]]
[[fr:Union mathématique internationale]]
[[it:International Mathematical Union]]
[[ja:&#22269;&#38555;&#25968;&#23398;&#36899;&#21512;]]
[[ko:국제 수학자 연맹]]
[[pl:Mi&#281;dzynarodowa Unia Matematyczna]]
[[zh:&#22269;&#38469;&#25968;&#23398;&#32852;&#30431;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Council for Science</title>
<id>14869</id>
<revision>
<id>40364432</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Council for Science''' (ICSU), formerly called the '''International Council of Scientific Unions''', was founded in [[1931]] as an international non-governmental organization devoted to international co-operation in the advancement of science. Its members are national scientific bodies, and international scientific unions, including the [[International Mathematical Union]], the [[International Astronomical Union]] and the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]].
Its mission is:
: ''To identify and address major issues of importance to science and society, by mobilising the resources and knowledge of the international scientific community; to promote the participation of all scientists, irrespective of race, citizenship, language, political stance or gender in the international scientific endeavour; to facilitate interactions between different scientific disciplines and between scientists from ‘Developing’ and ‘Developed’ countries; to stimulate constructive debate by acting as an authoritative independent voice for international sc |
Europe_gdansk_poland-pot.JPG|thumb|Old and rich port city [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig)]]
The League was fluid in nature, but its members shared some traits. First, most of the Hanseatic League (or Hanse) cities either were founded as independent cities or gained independence through the collective bargaining power of the League. Independence was, however, limited; it meant that the cities owed allegiance directly to the respective Emperor, without any intermediate tie to the local nobility. Another similarity was that the cities were all strategically located along trade routes. In fact, at the height of its power in the late [[1300s]], the merchants of the Hanseatic League were able to use their economic clout (and sometimes their military might - trade routes needed protecting, and the League's ships were well-armed) to influence Imperial policy.
The League also wielded power abroad: between [[1368]] and [[1370]], the League's ships fought against the Danes, and forced King Valdemar IV to grant the League 15 percent of the profits from Danish trade ([[Treaty of Stralsund]]) and an effective trade monopoly in Scandinavia. They also waged vigorous campaign against pirates. Between [[1392]] and [[1440]] maritime trade of the League was in danger from raids of [[Victual Brothers]] and their descendants, a mighty [[brotherhood]] of [[privateer]]s hired in [[1392]] by [[Albert of Sweden|Albrecht of Mecklenburg]] against the Danish queen [[Margaret I of Denmark|Margaret I]]. Their monopoly was broken by the [[Dutch-Hanseatic War]] ([[1438]]-[[1441]]) where the merchants of Amsterdam sought to obtain free access to the Baltic and were ultimately successful. As an essential part of protecting their investment in trade and ships, the League trained [[Pilot (harbour)|pilot]]s and erected lighthouses.
Exclusive trade routes often came at a high price. In most foreign cities, the Hanse traders were confined to certain trading areas and to their own trading posts. They were seldom, if ever, allowed to interact with the local inhabitants, except in the matter of actual negotiation. Moreover, the power of the League was envied by many, merchant and noble alike. For example, in London there was continuing pressure from the local merchants for the Hanseatic League's privileges to be revoked. This tension was exacerbated by the refusal of the League to offer reciprocal arrangements to their English counterparts. The league's privileges were reconfirmed by [[King Edward IV]] in [[1474]] despite this hostility. This was at least in part thanks to the significant financial contribution the League made during [[The Wars of the Roses]]. A century later, in [[1597]], [[Queen Elizabeth I]] expelled the League from London and the [[Steelyard]] was closed in [[1598]]. The very existence of the League and its privileges and monopolies created economic and social tensions that often crept over into rivalry between League members.
===Downfall===
The Hansa was not spared the economic crises of the late [[14th century]], but its eventual rivals were the [[Nation state|territorial states]], whether new or revived, and not just in the west: [[Poland]] triumphed over the [[Teutonic Knights]] in [[1466]]; [[Ivan III of Russia]] ended the entrepreneurial independence of Novgorod in [[1478]]. New vehicles of credit imported from [[Italy]] outpaced the Hansa economy, where silver coin changed hands rather than bills of exchange.
At the start of the 16th century, the League was in a weaker position than it had known for many years. The Baltic monopoly was being actively challenged by Dutch and English merchants. The rising [[Swedish Empire]] had taken possession of much of the Baltic. Denmark had regained control over its own trade, the Kontor in Novgorod had shut and the Kontor in Brugge was effectively defunct. The individual cities which made up the League had also started to put self interest before common good. Finally the political authority of the German princes was starting to grow and so constrain the indepence of action which the merchants and Hanseatic Towns had enjoyed.
The League attempted to deal with some of these issues. The League created the post of Syndic in [[1556]] and elected a permanent official with legal training, who worked to protect and extend the diplomatic agreements of the member towns. In [[1557]] and [[1579]] revised agreements were made spelling out the duties of towns and progress was made. The Brugge Kontor was moved to Antwerp and new routes attempted. However the League was unable to halt the progress around it and so started its long decline. The Antwerp Kontor was shut in [[1593]], the London Kontor in [[1598]]. The Bergen Kontor continued until [[1754]] and is the only Kontor still remaining (see [[Bryggen]]).
===The End===
By the late [[16th century]], the League imploded and was unable to deal with its own internal struggles, the social and political changes that accompanied the [[Reformation]], the rise of Dutch and English merchants, and the incursion of the [[Ottoman Turks]] upon its trade routes and the Empire itself. Only nine members attended the last formal meeting in [[1669]] and only three (Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen) remained as members until its final demise in [[1862]]{{fact}}.
Despite its demise, several cities still maintain the link to the Hanseatic League. Even in the [[21st century]], the cities of [[Deventer]], [[Kampen, Netherlands|Kampen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Lübeck]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]], [[Rostock]], [[Wismar]], [[Stralsund]], [[Greifswald]] and [[Anklam]] call themselves Hanse cities. For Lübeck in particular, this anachronistic tie to a glorious past remained especially important in the second half of the [[20th century]]. Lübeck was also, as the other main cities, a "[[Free and Hanse City]]" as is still, for example [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]. This privilege was removed through the [[Gesetz über Groß-Hamburg und andere Gebietsbereinigungen|''Greater Hamburg Act, 1937'']] by the [[Nazi Party|Nazis]] after the Senat of Lübeck did not permit [[Adolf Hitler]] to speak in Lübeck during his election campaign {{fact}}. He held the speech in [[Bad Schwartau]], a small village on the outskirts of Lübeck. He later referred to Lübeck always as "the small city close to Bad Schwartau".
===Gallery of Maps===
<gallery>
Image:First.Crusade.Map.jpg|Europe in 1097
Image:Scandinavia in 1219.GIF|Baltic region 1219 (German coast occupied by Denmark, before the [[Battle of Bornhöved (1227)]]
Image:Europein1328.png|Europe in 1328
Image:Europe in 1430.PNG|Europe in 1430
Image:Europe in 1470.PNG|Europe in 1470
Image:Danmark-Norway in 1646, Treaty of Brömsebro.gif|Baltic region 1646 ([[Treaty of Brömsebro]])
Image:Denmark-Norway in 1658, Treaty of Roskilde.GIF|Baltic region 1658 ([[Treaty of Roskilde]])
Image:Danmark-Norge i 1814, Wienerkongressen..GIF|Baltic region 1814 ([[Congress of Vienna]])
</gallery>
==Lists of former Hanse cities==
In the list that follows, the role of these foreign merchant companies in the functioning of the city that was their host, in more than one sense is, as [[Fernand Braudel]] pointed out in ''The Perspective of the World'', a telling criterion of the status of that city: "If he rules the roost in a given city or region, the foreign merchant is a sign of the [economic] inferiority of that city or region, compared with the economy of which he is the emissary or representative.
===Members of the Hanseatic League===
====Wendish and Pomeranian Circle====
[[Image:Map_danavirki.JPG|340px|thumb|Cities of the Wendish and Pommeranian Circle]]
*[[Lübeck]] (Chief City)
*[[Hamburg]]
*[[Lüneburg]]
*[[Rostock]]
*[[Stade]]
*[[Szczecin|Stettin]] (Szczecin)
*[[Stralsund]]
*[[Wismar]]
*[[Kiel]]
====Saxony, Thuringia, Brandenburg Circle====
*[[Braunschweig]] (Brunswick, Chief City)
*[[Berlin]]
*[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]
*[[Erfurt]]
*[[Frankfurt an der Oder]]
*[[Goslar]]
*[[Magdeburg]]
====Poland, Prussia, Livonia, Sweden Circle====
*[[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (Gdańsk, Chief City)
*[[Wrocław|Breslau]] (Wrocław)
*[[Tartu|Dorpat]] (Tartu)
*[[Viljandi|Fellin]] (Viljandi)
*[[Elbląg|Elbing]] (Elbląg)
*[[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]] (Królewiec, Kaliningrad)
*[[Tallinn|Reval]] (Tallinn)
*[[Riga]]
*[[Stockholm]]
*[[Toruń|Thorn]] (Toruń)
*[[Visby]]
*[[Kraków]]
====Rhine, Westphalia, Netherlands Circle====
*[[Cologne]] (Chief City)
*[[Roermond]]
*[[Deventer]]
*[[Dortmund]]
*[[Groningen (city)|Groningen]]
*[[Kampen]]
*[[Osnabrück]]
*[[Soest, Germany|Soest]]
===Counting Houses===
====Principal ''Kontore''====
[[Image:Brygge Norway 2005-08-18.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bryggen in Bergen/Norway]]
*[[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]] - [[Bryggen]]
*[[Brugge|Bruges]]
*[[London]] - [[Steelyard]]
*[[Novgorod]]
====Subsidiary ''Kontore''====
*[[Antwerp]]
*[[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]]
*[[Damme]]
*[[Edinburgh]]
*[[Kingston-upon-Hull|Hull]]
*[[Ipswich]]
*[[King's Lynn]]
*[[Kaunas]]
*[[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]]
*[[Polotsk]]
*[[Pskov]]
*[[Great Yarmouth]]
*[[York]]
===Other cities with a Hanse community===
<table border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0><tr valign=top><td>
*[[Anklam]]
*[[Arnhem]]
*[[Bolsward]]
*[[Brandenburg]]
*[[Cesis]] (Wenden)
*[[Chełmno]] (Kulm)
*[[Doesburg]]
*[[Duisburg]]
*[[Einbeck]]
*[[Göttingen]]
*[[Greifswald]]
*[[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]]
*[[Harlingen]]
*[[Hannover]]
*[[Herford]]
*[[Hildesheim]]
*[[Hindeloopen]]
*[[Kalmar]]
*[[Koknese]] (Kokenhusen)
*[[Kuldīga]] (Goldingen)
*[[Lemgo]]
*[[Merseburg]]
<td>
*[[Minden]]
*[[Münster]]
*[[Narva]] (Narwa)
*[[Nijmegen]]
*[[Paderborn]]
*[[Pärnu]] (Pernau)
*[[Perleberg]]
*[[Quedlinburg]]
*[[Salzwedel]]
*[[Smolensk]]
*[[Stargard Szczeciński]] (Stargard)
*[[Stendal]]
*[[Turku]] (Åbo)
*[[Tver]]
*[[Valmiera]] (Wolmar)
*[[Ventspils]] (Windau)
*[[Viljandi]] (Fellin)
*[[Wesel]]
*[[Vyborg]] (Wiburg)
*[[Zutphen]]
*[[Zwolle]]</td></tr></table>
==See also==
* [[Thalassocracy]]
= |
omplex integrated circuits was not reliable enough for customers to depend on a single supplier, but Grove began producing processors in three geographically distinct factories, and ceased licensing the chip designs to competitors such as [[Zilog]] and [[AMD]]. When the PC industry exploded in the late 1980s and 1990s, Intel was one of the primary beneficiaries.
===The rise of PC architecture===
[[Image:Intel4.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Intel Pentium 4 Processor]]
During the [[1990s]], Intel's [[Intel Architecture Labs]] (IAL) was responsible for many of the hardware innovations of the [[personal computer]], including the [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] Bus, the [[PCI Express]] (PCIe) bus, the [[Universal Serial Bus]] (USB), and the now-dominant architecture for multiprocessor servers. IAL's software efforts met with a more mixed fate; its video and graphics software was important in the development of software digital video, but later its efforts were largely overshadowed by competition from [[Microsoft]]. The competition between Intel and Microsoft was revealed in testimony at the Microsoft antitrust trial.
===Partnership with Apple===
On [[June 6]] [[2005]], [[Apple Computer]] CEO [[Steve Jobs]] announced in his keynote address at [[Worldwide Developers Conference|WWDC]] that Apple would be [[Apple Intel transition|transitioning]] from its long-favored [[PowerPC]] architecture to Intel CPUs. Reasons stated for the change were vague, but included thermal issues, as recent G5-class PowerPC chips are well-known for running hot. Also, it was implied that the future PowerPC roadmap was unable to satisfy Apple's needs in terms of computing power. In particular, the large power requirement of the G5 chips was seen as a major stumbling block, preventing the placement of such a chip in one of Apple's [[laptop computers]], the [[PowerBook]] and [[iBook]]. The switchover to Intel began on [[January 10]], [[2006]], with the release of the [[MacBook Pro]] and a revised [[IMac#iMac Core Duo|iMac]] followed by a revised [[Mac Mini]] a month later. Apple initially planned to put Intel chips in all of their computers by the end of 2007[http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/jun/06intel.html], but according to Jobs the transition will now be complete by the end of 2006[http://news.com.com/Jobs+New+Intel+Macs+are+screamers/2100-7354_3-6025409.html].
===Competition and antitrust===
Intel's dominance in the [[x86]] microprocessor market led to numerous charges of [[antitrust]] violations over the years, including [[Federal Trade Commission|FTC]] investigations in both the late [[1980s]] and in [[1999]], and civil actions such as the [[1997]] suit by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (DEC) and a patent suit by [[Intergraph]]. Intel's market dominance (at one time it controlled over 85% of the market for 32-bit PC microprocessors) combined with Intel's own hardball legal tactics (such as its infamous [[338 patent]] suit versus PC manufacturers) made it an attractive target for litigation, but few of the lawsuits ever amounted to anything.
Currently, the only major competitor to Intel on the [[x86]] processor market is [[Advanced Micro Devices]] (AMD), with which Intel has had full cross-licensing agreements since [[1976]]: each partner can use the other's [[patent]]ed technological innovations without charge. Some smaller competitors such as [[VIA_Technologies|VIA]] and [[Transmeta]] produce [[low-power]] processors for small factor computers and portable equipment.
In June [[2005]], AMD sued Intel in two jurisdictions for anticompetitive practices. The [[Japan|Japanese]] [[Fair Trade Commission]] found in favor of AMD; the other case will be heard by a court in [[Delaware]]. The case in Japan led to "dawn raids" by the [[European Commission]] on some European Intel offices in July 2005.
Intel filed its response[http://www.intel.com/pressroom/archive/releases/20050901corp.htm] in September to AMD's lawsuit and refuted AMD's claims, stating that its business practices are fair and lawful. In its rebuttal, Intel laid out the skeleton of its legal defense, which included a deconstruction of AMD's offensive strategy and levied the charge that AMD's long-struggling market position is largely a result of bad business decisions and management incompetence, including underinvestment in essential manufacturing capacity and overreliance on outsourcing chip foundries.[http://www.forbes.com/technology/2005/09/02/intel-amd-antitrust-cz_dw_0902intel.html?partner=yahootix]
Legal experts predict the lawsuit will most likely drag out for a number of years, since Intel's response indicates they are not likely to try and settle with AMD.
===Leadership===
[[Robert Noyce]] was Intel's [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] at its founding in [[1969]], followed by co-founder [[Gordon Moore]] in [[1975]]. [[Andy Grove]] became the company's [[President]] in [[1979]] to which he added the CEO title in [[1987]] when Moore became Chairman. In [[1997]] Grove succeeded Moore as [[Chairman]], and [[Craig Barrett (Intel President)|Craig Barrett]], already company [[president]], took over. On [[May 18]] [[2005]], Barrett handed the reins of the company over to [[Paul Otellini]], who previously was the company president and was responsible for Intel's design win in the original [[IBM PC]]. The [[board of directors]] elected Otellini, and Barrett replaced Grove as [[chairman of the board]]. Grove stepped down as Chairman, but will be retained as a special advisor.
====Corporate governance====
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of Intel are: [[Craig Barrett (Intel Chairman)|Craig Barrett]], [[Charlene Barshefsky]], [[John Browne, Baron Browne of Madingley|John Browne]], [[James Guzy]], [[Reed Hundt]], [[James Plummer]], [[David Pottruck]], [[Jane Shaw]], [[John Thornton]], and [[David Yoffie]].
===Origin of the name===
At its founding, Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce wanted to name their new company "Moore Noyce". This name, however, sounded remarkably similar to "more noise" - an ill-suited name for an [[electronics]] company, since noise is typically associated with bad [[interference]]. They then used the name NM Electronics for almost a year, before deciding to call their company '''INT'''egrated '''EL'''ectronics or "Intel" for short. However, Intel was already trademarked by a [[hotel]] chain, so they had to buy the rights for that name at the beginning.
==Financial information==
Its [[market capitalization]] is about $150.5 billion (December 2005).
===Stock exchanges===
*Intel is publicly traded at [[NASDAQ]] with the symbol INTC.
===Indices===
*[[Dow Industrials]]
*[[S&P 500]]
*[[Nasdaq 100]]
*[[PHLX Semiconductor Sector|SOX]] (PHLX Semiconductor Sector)
*[[GSTI Software Index]]
==Diversity==
Intel received a 100% rating on the first Corporate Equality Index released by the [[Human Rights Campaign]] in [[2002]]. It has maintained this rating in 2003 and 2004. In addition, the company was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2005 by [[Working Mother magazine]]. However, Intel's working practices still face criticism, most notably from Ken Hamidi [http://www.faceintel.com/], a former employee who has been subject to multiple unsuccessful lawsuits from Intel.
==Controversial issues==
===Antitrust claims===
In June 2005, [[AMD]], Intel's chief rival in the x86 microprocessor market, filed an antitrust claim against Intel and its Japanese subsidiary in a Delaware court. Amongst other accusations, [[AMD]] alleged that Intel was unlawfully maintaining its monopoly through unfair business practices, such as drastically lower pricing for customers on the condition that Intel microprocessors were used exclusively in their systems. Whilst proving that Intel holds a monopoly is simple (the company is reckoned to have an 80%&ndash;90% share of the processor market), the debate over the "scare and coercion" tactics supposedly employed by Intel is likely to be more protracted. IT insiders foresee the case to be a landmark ruling in what is a fiercely competitive market.
==Advertising==
<div style="float:right"><gallery>
Image:Intel - Inside.jpg|The well known ''Intel Inside'' slogan (1990-2006)
Image:IntelLogo.png|Intel's old logo (1968-2005)
Image:Intel 4c 100tag.svg|Intel's new logo and slogan (2006-)
</gallery></div>
Intel has become one of the world's most recognizable computer brands following its long-running "Intel Inside" campaign. The campaign, which started in [[1990]], was created by Intel marketing manager Dennis Carter. The four-note jingle was introduced the following year and by its tenth anniversary was being heard in 130 countries around the world.
The Intel Inside program is very lucrative for advertisers. Intel pays half the advertising costs for any ad that uses the "Intel Inside" logo. However, in print media, Intel stipulates that the page the ad is on must not contain any references to competitors, such as [[AMD]]. If the ads do not meet these requirements, Intel does not pay half the cost and the advertiser is prohibited from using the "Intel Inside" logo. Intel employs staff whose primary function is looking for advertisements which violate the agreement. Advertisers found doing so&mdash;many of which are "mom and pop" shops ignorant of the reimbursement agreement&mdash;are requested to stop violating the use of the logo and are then told how to legally use the logo and get part of their advertising costs reimbursed.
The [[Centrino]] advertising campaign has been hugely successful, leading to the ability to access wireless internet from a laptop becoming linked in consumers minds to Intel chips. In the UK this has caused some controversy, as the [[Advertising Standards Authority|ASA]] upheld complaints that this was a misleading advert.
PC |
[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passed The [[Oil Pollution Act of 1990]] requiring double-hull tankers now, but allowing the transportation companies until [[2015]] to replace existing tankers.
==External Sources==
*[http://www.imo.org/Safety/mainframe.asp?topic_id=155#double The International Maritime Organization] - Tanker Safety
{{water-stub}}
[[Category:Ship types]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drink</title>
<id>7984</id>
<revision>
<id>41793720</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:14:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WAvegetarian</username>
<id>282780</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''drink''' is primarily a verb, meaning to ingest liquids. As a noun, it refers to the liquid thus ingested. It is often used in a narrower sense to refer to [[alcoholic beverage]]s (as both a verb and a noun). ''Drink'' is also [[slang]] for a body of [[water]], such as an [[ocean]] or a water hazard on a [[golf]] course (e.g. "He hit that one into the drink."). To ''drink in'' is also used metaphorically, as in ''to drink in the scenery''.
A '''beverage''' is a drink specifically prepared for human consumption. Beverages almost always largely consist of [[water]]. Water is essential for living, significantly more so than food. Death will usually occur after 1 week without any liquids but humans have been known to survive some months without food. Drinks often consumed include:
* [[Water]]
** [[Bottled water]]
** [[Tap water]]
** [[Spring water]]
* [[Juice]]
** [[Fruit juice]]s
** [[Vegetable juice]]s
** [[Sap]]
*** [[Sugar cane]] juice
*** [[Maple sugar]] sap
*** [[Cactus]] juice
* [[Soft drink]]s
** [[Aguas frescas]]
** [[Ade]]s (non-[[carbonation|carbonated]], primarily [[sugar]] [[water]])
*** [[Fruit drinks]] ([[Hi-C]] et al)
*** [[Lemonade]]
*** [[Limeade]]
*** [[Orange drink]] ([[Tang]] et al)
*** [[Squash (drink)|Squash]]
*** Powdered drinks ([[Kool-aid]] et al)
*** Syrup drinks ([[Zarex]] et al)
*** Frozen [[ade]]s
**** [[Hawaiian Ice]]
**** [[Slush]]
**** [[Snow cone]]
** [[Carbonation|Carbonated]] beverages
*** [[Carbonated water]]
*** [[fermentation|Fermented]] [[soft drink]]s (in their original form, many are now made from syrup and carbonated water).
**** [[Cola]] ([[Coca-Cola]] et al)
**** [[Birch beer]]
**** [[Dandelion and burdock]]
**** [[Ginger ale]]
**** [[Ginger beer]]
**** [[Moxie]]
**** [[Root beer]]
**** [[Sarsaparilla]]
*** Other [[carbonation|carbonated]] [[soft drink]]s
**** Citrus [[soft drinks]] ([[7-up]] et al)
**** [[Cream soda]]
**** [[Energy drink]]
**** [[Irn Bru]]
**** [[Kofola]]
* [[Sports drink]]s ([[Gatorade]] et al)
* [[Dairy product|Dairy drinks]]
** Flavored [[milk]]
*** [[Chocolate milk]]
*** [[Ovaltine]]
** Frozen [[Dairy product|Dairy drinks]]
*** [[root beer float|Float]]
*** [[Frappe]]
*** [[Milkshake]]
**** Malted [[milkshake]]
*** [[Smoothie]]
** [[Cream]]
** [[Eggnog]]
** [[Horchata]]
** [[Kumis]]
** [[Milkshake]]
** [[Milk]]
** [[Yogurt]] drink
** [[Yoo-hoo]]
** Non-dairy variants
*** [[Almond milk]]
*** [[Rice milk]]
*** [[Soy milk]]
* [[Alcoholic beverage]]s (which see for classification).
** Non-alcoholic variants
*** [[Near beer]]
*** Non-alcoholic [[wine]]
*** [[Sparkling cider]]
* [[Hot beverage]]s, including [[infusion]]s. Sometimes drunk chilled.
** [[Coffee]]-based beverages
*** [[Cappucino]]
*** [[Coffee]]
*** [[Espresso]]
*** [[Greek frappe coffee|Frappé]]
*** Flavored [[coffee]]s ([[mocha]] et al).
*** [[Iced coffee]]
*** [[Latte]]
** [[Hot chocolate]]
** [[cider|Hot cider]]
*** Mulled [[cider]]
** [[Tea]]-based beverages
*** Flavored [[tea]]s ([[chai]] et al).
*** [[Iced tea]]
*** [[Pearl milk tea]]
*** [[Tea]]
** [[Herbal tea]]s
** Roasted [[grain]] beverages ([[Postum]] et al).
Some substances may either be called [[food]] or drink, and accordingly be eaten with a spoon or drunk, depending on solid ingredients in it and on how thick it is, and on preference:
* [[Soup]]
* [[Yogurt]]
Hot beverages like coffee can cause [[burn (injury)|scalding]] when drunk before cooling, or spilled. See [[McDonald's coffee case]].
==See also==
{{cookbookpar|Beverages}}
*[[Drinking]]
*[[Food]]
*[[Nutrition]]
*[[List of cocktails]]
[[Category:Beverages| ]]
== External links==
* [http://www.editthis.info/Wiki_Drinks Wiki Drinks]
* [http://www.drinkswap.com DrinkSwap.com 10,000+Drink Recipes]
* [http://www.bevnet.com BevNET.com Non-alcoholic Beverage Reviews]
[[bn:পানীয়]]
[[de:Getränk]]
[[es:Bebida]]
[[eo:Trinkaĵo]]
[[fr:Boisson]]
[[gl:Bebida]]
[[ko:음료]]
[[ku:Vexwirak]]
[[id:Minuman]]
[[he:משקה]]
[[nl:Drank]]
[[nds:Drinken]]
[[ja:飲料]]
[[pt:Bebida]]
[[ru:Напиток]]
[[fi:Juoma]]
[[sw:Vinywaji]]
[[zh:饮料]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dill</title>
<id>7985</id>
<revision>
<id>41591266</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T10:01:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>161.116.236.28</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Dill
| image = Illustration Anethum graveolens0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = [[Apiaceae]]
| genus = '''''Anethum'''''
| species = '''''A. graveolens'''''
| binomial = ''Anethum graveolens''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
[[Image:Dill dried umbel.jpg|thumb|Dried Dill-umbel]]
'''Dill''' (''Anethum graveolens'') is a short-lived [[annual plant|annual]] [[herb]], native to southwest and central [[Asia]]. It is the sole species of the genus ''Anethum'', though classified by some botanists in the related genus ''[[Peucedanum]]'' as ''Peucedanum graveolens'' (L.) C.B.Clarke.
It grows to 40-60 cm tall, with slender stems and alternate, finely divided, softly delicate [[leaf|leaves]] 10-20 cm long. The ultimate leaf divisions are 1-2 mm broad, slightly broader than the similar leaves of [[Fennel]], which are thread-like, less than 1 mm broad, but harder in texture. The [[flower]]s are white to yellow, in small [[umbel]]s 2-9 cm diameter. The [[seed]]s are 4-5 mm long and 1 mm thick, and straight to slightly curved with a longitudinally ridged surface.
===Cultivation and uses===
Dill has long been cultivated as a herb throughout [[Europe]] and north [[Africa]] as well as in its native Asia. It was used by [[Egypt]]ian doctors 5000 years ago and traces have been found in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ruins in [[Great Britain]]. In the [[Middle Ages]] it was thought to protect against witchcraft [http://www.selfsufficientish.com/dill.htm].
In [[Semitic languages]] it is known by the name of '''Shubit'''. The [[Talmud]] requires that [[tithe]]s shall paid on the seeds, leaves, and stem of dill. The [[Bible]] reports that the [[Pharisee]]s were in the habit of paying this tithe; [[Jesus]] rebuked them for tithing dill but omitting mercy.
The name dill is thought to have originated from a Norse or Anglo-Saxon word 'dylle' meaning to soothe or lull, the plant having the carminative property of allaying pain.
Like [[caraway]], its fernlike leaves are aromatic, and are used to flavour many [[food]]s, such as [[gravad laks]] (pickled [[salmon]]), [[borscht]] and other [[soup]]s and [[pickle]]s. The seeds are also used to flavour pickles. Dill leaves must be used fresh, as they lose their flavour rapidly if dried; even [[Freeze drying|freeze-dried]] dill leaves have very little flavour. It is thus necessary to grow a supply of plants, rather than store the leaves.
Successful cultivation requires warm to hot summers with high sunshine levels; even partial shade will reduce the yield substantially. It also prefers rich, well drained soil. The seeds are viable for 3-10 years. Plants intended for seed for further planting should not be grown near fennel, as the two species can [[hybrid]]ise.
The seed is harvested by cutting the flower heads off the stalks when the seed is beginning to ripen. The seed heads are placed upside down in a paper bag and left in a warm dry place for a week. The seeds then separate from the stems easily for storage in an airtight container.
==References==
* Hamilton, Andy (2005). [http://www.selfsufficientish.com/dill.htm "Selfsufficientish - Dill"]. Retrieved [[25 May]] [[2005]].
[[Category:Apiaceae]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[bg:Копър]]
[[ca:Anet]]
[[de:Dill (Pflanze)]]
[[es:Anethum graveolens]]
[[eo:Aneto]]
[[fa:شوید]]
[[fr:Aneth odorant]]
[[gl:Aneto]]
[[lt:Krapas]]
[[hu:Kapor]]
[[nl:Dille]]
[[ja:イノンド]]
[[pl:Koper (roślina)]]
[[pt:Endro]]
[[ru:Укроп]]
[[sq:Kopra]]
[[sl:Koper (začimba)]]
[[fi:Tilli]]
[[sv:Dill]]
[[tr:Dereotu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Draw poker</title>
<id>7986</id>
<revision>
<id>41048296</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:46:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Badougi */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Draw poker''' is any [[poker variant]] in which each player is dealt a complete hand before the first betting round, and then develops the hand for later rounds by replacing cards.
The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker game play|game play]] of [[poker]], and with [[Hand (poker)|hand values]] (both high and low variations). They also make no assumptions about what [[Betting (poker)|betting structure]] is used. In home games, it is typical to use an [[ante]], and betting always begins with the player to the dealer's left. In casino play, it is more common to use [[Blind (poker)|blind]]s; the first betting round thus begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left, thus draw games are very [[Position (poker)|positional]].
Some sample deals be |
hough some modern publishings of the work now drop the subtitle, mentioning it only in an introduction). [[Prometheus]], in Greek mythology, was the Titan who created mankind, and Victor's work by creating man by new means obviously reflects that creative work. Prometheus was also the bringer of fire who took fire from heaven and gave it to man. [[Zeus]] then punished Prometheus by fixing him to a rock and each day a predatory bird came to devour his liver.
Prometheus was also a myth told in Latin but was a very different story. In this version Prometheus makes man from clay and water, again a very relevant theme to Frankenstein as Victor rebels against the laws of nature and as a result is punished by his creation.
Prometheus' relation to the novel can be interpreted in a number of ways. For Mary Shelley on a personal level, Prometheus was not a hero but a devil, who she blamed for bringing fire to man and thereby seducing the human race to the vice of eating meat (fire brought cooking which brought hunting and killing) (Wolf, p. 20). For Romance era artists in general, Prometheus' gift to man compared with the two great utopian promises of the 18th century: the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]], containing both great promise and potentially unknown horrors.
Byron was particularly attached to the play ''[[Prometheus Bound]]'' by Aeschylus, and [[Percy Shelley]] would soon write ''[[Prometheus Unbound]]''.
==Analysis==
''Frankenstein'' is in some ways [[allegory|allegorical]], and was conceived and written during an early phase of the [[Industrial Revolution]], at a time of dramatic change. Behind Frankenstein's experiments is the search for ultimate power or godhood: what greater power could there be than the act of creation of life? Frankenstein and his utter disregard for the human and animal remains gathered in his pursuit of power can be taken as symbolic of the rampant forces of ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] extant at the time and their basic disregard for human dignity. Moreover, the creation rebels against its creator: a clear message that irresponsible uses of [[technologies]] can have unconsidered consequences.
Another popular critique of the novel ''Frankenstein'' views the tale as a journey of [[pregnancy]] and the common fears of women in Shelley's day of frequent [[stillborn]] births and maternal deaths due to complications in delivery. Mary Shelley experienced the horrors of a stillborn birth the prior year. Victor Frankenstein is often fearful of the release of the Monster from his control, when it is free to act independently in the world and affect it for better or worse. Also, during much of the novel Victor fears the creature's desire to destroy him by killing everyone and everything most dear to him. However it must be noted that the creature was not born evil, but only wanted to be loved by its creator, by other humans, and to love a sentient creature like itself. It was mankind who taught it evil, Victor rejected it, and the creature's poor treatment by villagers taught it how to be evil. In this way the creature represents the natural fears of bringing a new innocent life into the world and raising it properly so that it does not become a monster.
Representing a minority opinion, Arthur Belefant in his 116-page book, ''Frankenstein, the Man and the Monster'' (1999, ISBN 0962955582) contends that Mary Shelley's intent was for the reader to understand that the Creature never existed, and Victor Frankenstein committed the three murders. In this interpretation, the story is a study of the moral degradation of Victor, and the "science-fiction" aspects of the story are Victor's imagination. Note that according to the novel, Victor has a clear alibi for at least one of the murders committed by the Monster &ndash; it is proved that he was on a different island at the time of the killing.
[[Alchemy]] was a very popular topic in Shelley's world. In fact, it was becoming an acceptable idea that humanity could infuse the spark of life into a non-living thing ([[Luigi Galvani]]'s experiments, for example). The scientific world just after the Industrial Revolution was delving into the unknown, and limitless possibilities also caused fear and apprehension for many as to the consequences of such horrific possibilities.
The book also discusses the ethics of creating life and contains innumerable [[biblical]] allusions in this context.
In the 1931 film "Frankenstein," [[Boris Karloff]] plays the part of the Creature, and the scientist, played by [[Colin Clive]], is renamed Henry Frankenstein. Shelley's character Henry Clerval does not appear in the film at all, which eliminates Victor's foil altogether. However there is a character called Victor who is after Elizabeth, Frankenstein's fiancee. Changing the doctor's name from Victor also eliminates some original irony, inasmuch as the novel ends after exposing the doctor's utter failure and destruction. Since this film, the horror culture has confused modern audiences into replacing the scientist's name with his freakish creation. This event has stimulated much conversation in the literary criticism of Shelley's work. Attributing the name of the scientist to his creation reveals a deeper connection between the two, especially when the scientist realizes the great danger that the creation presents to himself and to the world. However, it also obscures Shelly's original intention that the creature was not an "evil creation", it was born an innocent blank slate, it was Victor's rejection of the creature that taught it to be evil. Likewise, the film takes a moralising and religious tone that was more or less absent in the original novel.
==Film adaptations==
===Silent Era===
The first film adaptation of the tale, ''[[Frankenstein (1910 film)|Frankenstein]]'', was done by [[Edison Studios]] in 1910, with [[Charles Stanton Ogle|Charles Ogle]] as the Monster. For many years this film was believed lost until a print was discovered by a collector in the 1950s. This was followed soon after by another adaptation entitled ''[[Life Without Soul]]'' and at least one [[Europe]]an film version.
===Universal Pictures===
The most famous adaptation of the story, [[1931 in film|1931]]'s ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'', was produced by [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures]], directed by [[James Whale]], and starred [[Boris Karloff]] as the monster. The film has been selected for preservation in the [[United States]] [[National Film Registry]]. Its first sequel, ''[[Bride of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1935 in film|1935]]), was also directed by Whale and is considered by many to contain the most spectacular laboratory scene of any of the series. ''[[Son of Frankenstein]]'' followed in [[1939 in film|1939]]. Later efforts by Universal rapidly degenerated into farce, culminating in the outright comedy ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein]]''. The Universal films in which The Monster appears (and the actor who played him) are:
# ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' (1931 - Boris Karloff)
# ''[[Bride of Frankenstein]]'' (1935 - Karloff)
# ''[[Son of Frankenstein]]'' (1939 - Karloff)
# ''[[The Ghost of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]] - [[Lon Chaney Jr.]])
# ''[[Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man]]'' ([[1943 in film|1943]] - [[Bela Lugosi]] with stuntman [[Eddie Parker]] in some scenes including a close-up)
# ''[[House of Frankenstein (1944 film)|House of Frankenstein]]'' (1944 - [[Glenn Strange]])
# ''[[House of Dracula]]'' ([[1945 in film|1945]] - Strange)
# ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein|Bud Abbott Lou Costello Meet Frankenstein]]'' ([[1948 in film|1948]] - Strange). This film is usually referred to as ''Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein'' but the title given above is its official title according to the [[Internet Movie Database]].
===Hammer Films===
In [[Great Britain]], a long-running series by [[Hammer Films]] focused on the character of Dr. Frankenstein (usually played by [[Peter Cushing]]) rather than his monsters. [[Peter Cushing]] played Dr. Frankenstein in all of the films except for ''Horror of Frankenstein'' in which the character was played by [[Ralph Bates]]. Cushing also played a creation in ''Revenge of Frankenstein''. [[David Prowse]] played two different Monsters. The Hammer Films series (and the actor playing The Monster) consisted of:
# ''[[The Curse of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1957 in film|1957]] - [[Christopher Lee]])
# ''[[The Revenge of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1958 in film|1958]] - two Monsters: [[Michael Gwynn]] and [[Peter Cushing]])
# ''[[The Evil of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1964 in film|1964]] - [[Kiwi Kingston]])
# ''[[Frankenstein Created Woman]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]] - [[Susan Denberg]])
# ''[[Frankenstein Must be Destroyed]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]] - [[Freddie Jones]])
# ''[[The Horror of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1970 in film|1970]] - [[David Prowse]])
# ''[[Frankenstein and the Monster from Hell]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]] - David Prowse)
===Other film versions===
* 1957: [[American International Pictures]] ([[AIP]]) released the low-budget ''[[I Was a Teenage Frankenstein]]'' in November of 1957, a few months after their wildly successful ''[[I Was a Teenage Werewolf]]''. In a desperate and vain attempt to be viewed as a great scientist, an unscrupulous professor creates a monster out of parts of teenagers killed in a car crash, then later directs his creation to rip the head off a good-looking teenager to replace the monster's disfigured one. [[Whit Bissell]] stars as Prof. Frankenstein, [[Gary Conway]] plays the creature.
* 1958: Another wildly differing adaptation is the 1958 film ''[[Frankenstein 1970]]'', which focuses on the themes of nuclear power, impotence, and the film industry. [[Boris Karloff]] stars as Dr. Frankenstein, who harvests the bodies of actors to create a clone of himself using his nuclear-powered laboratory. His |
recent phenomenon attempts a form of counter-censorship, speaking directly to members of society in a [[culture jamming]] effort. Individuals or non-conforming groups use mass communication techniques to attack implicit domination, offering trivial or deliberately irrelevant messages to blunt the impact of dominant mass communication.
Throughout history, mass protests have served as a method for resisting unwanted impositions, though modern technology often affords control of mass meetings to the groups who control the sound amplification systems around which the meetings are organized. Modern sound-reinforcement technology has sometimes led to a perhaps mistaken perception that all those in attendance at mass gatherings agree on a broad spectrum of ideas, when in reality, individual members of the crowd might agree only in narrow measure with those whose voices are amplified. It has been suggested that mass reproduction, through broadcast, print, and network technology, of the ideas amplified from a podium can effectively censor the voices of individual members of a crowd.
Interestingly, the censorship of coarse vernacular in the United States doesn't always extend to non-American pronunciations. Instead of ''shit'', the [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[British English|Northern English]] variant ''shite'' may apparently be used, as may ''fook'' for ''fuck''. (Note: this was witnessed on broadcast television in early 2004, before the FCC levied several highly publicized fines.)
In recent times, censorship has taken the form of limiting access to public information in more useful formats, such as electronic information used by regulatory agencies, while the right to access and disseminate reports based on public information is limited to forms of information that can only be analyzed by scanning or reading paper documents. Fees for paper and other materials used to release public information that are disproportionate to the actual costs of paper copying also serve to regulate dissemination of information about government activities. In an age of distributed electronic networks, of advanced security algorithms that can facilitate supervised limited access to such networks and of low-cost photo-reproduction technology, limiting the availability of information that can be mass produced by imposing disproportionate fees as a condition to release of information is said by some to be a parallel to media taxes imposed but then outlawed in American in the [[17th Century]].
Even apparently open network communication can be the target of allegations of censorship, because such networks rely on technology not evenly distributed among all population segments. Groups with the most time and resources to participate in networked communities may, perhaps unbeknownst even to most group members, use their superior access to supplant the information that would be provided by non-users with versions that are preferred by the dominant sector.
===Censorship around the world===
* [[Censorship in Australia]]
* [[Censorship in Canada]]
* [[Censorship in Cuba]]
* [[Censorship in Egypt]]
* [[Censorship in France]]
* [[Censorship in Germany]]
* [[Censorship in Hong Kong]]
* [[Censorship in Iraq]]
* [[Censorship in Israel]]
* [[Censorship in Japan]]
* [[Censorship in Malaysia]]
* [[Censorship in India]]
* [[Censorship in the Republic of Ireland]]
* [[Censorship in Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Censorship in Singapore]]
* [[Censorship in South Asia]]
* [[Censorship in South Africa]]
* [[Censorship in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Censorship in Spain]]
* [[Censorship in Taiwan]]
* [[Third Section|Censorship in the Russian Empire]]
* [[Censorship in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Censorship in the United States]]
* [[Censorship in Tuva]]
* [[Internet censorship in mainland China]]
* [[Internet censorship in Saudi Arabia]]
===Censorship of Media===
* [[Banned books]]
* [[Banned films]]
* [[Banned computer and video games]]
* [[Censorship of music]]
* [[Edited Movies]]
* [[Editing of anime in international distribution]]
* [[Video game controversy]]
* [[Corporate media]]
===Other types of censorship===
* [[Advertising regulation]]
* [[Censorship by organized religion]]
* [[Censorship in cyberspace]]
* [[Censorship under fascist regimes]]
* [[Postal Censorship]]
* [[Corporate censorship]]
==See also==
* [[Anthony Comstock]]
* [[Autocensorship]]
* [[Bleep censor]]
* [[Book burning]]
* [[Book banning]]
* the [[Censored Eleven]] (banned ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' and ''[[Merrie Melodies]]'' cartoons)
* [[Charles Schumer]]
* [[Censorware]]
*[[Chilling effect]]
* [[Cindy's Torment]]
* [[Death Whoop]]
* [[Edited movie]]
* [[Entertainment Software Rating Board]]
* ''[[Fahrenheit 451]]''
* [[Gatekeeper (politics)]]
* ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]'' of The [[Roman Catholic Church]]
* [[International Freedom of Expression eXchange]]
* [[Jack Thompson]]
* [[Joe Lieberman]]
* [[John Stuart Mill]]
* ''[[Lady Chatterley's Lover]]''
* [[Leland Yee]]
* [[Media controversy]]
* [[Media transparency]]
* [[MPAA rating system]]
* ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''
* [[Prior restraint]]
* [[Production Code]]
* [[Project Censored]]
* [[SourceWatch]]
* [[Super Bowl XXXVIII controversy]]
* [[Thomas Bowdler]]
* [[Tunisia Monitoring Group]]
* [[Television rating system|TV Parental Guidelines]]
* [[V-chip]]
*[[Whitewashing]]
==External links==
===World Wide Web links===
* [http://www.volkz.net/en/censorship.php Volkz.Net Against Censorship T-shirt (Not for profit organization)]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9214/censorship.htm Censorship of Curriculum Materials]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9215/library.htm The Right To Read: Censorship in the School Library]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-3/censorship.htm Challenges to and Censorship of School Guidance Materials]
* [http://www.themissingtimes.com The Missing Times.]
* [http://www.theory.org.uk/david/effects.htm 'Ten things wrong with the media effects model' article by Prof David Gauntlett]
* [http://www.ncac.org National Coalition Against Censorship]
* [http://www.familyediteddvds.com Personal Censorship for Families]
* [http://www.ifex.org International Freedom of Expression eXchange]
* [http://www.olympicwatch.org/topics.php?id=7 Olympic Watch (Committee for the 2008 Olympic Games in a Free and Democratic Country) on censorship in China]
* [http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=15613 The 15 enemies of the Internet and other countries to watch]
===Freenet links===
* [http://127.0.0.1:8888/SSK@WP74nrBDes9qDK7dpjiYXYNPl0gPAgM/cleanex/7// The Cleanex Experiment] Program introducing censorship on [[Freenet]].
* [http://127.0.0.1:8888/SSK@RUUzRT1xt58nWqLzAlIiMMlwf00PAgM/choron/2// Choron] Repository for banned French books and other documents.
* [http://127.0.0.1:8888/SSK@RUUzRT1xt58nWqLzAlIiMMlwf00PAgM/choron/2// Choron] Repository for banned English books and other documents.
==References==
* Abbott, Randy. "A Critical Analysis of the Library-Related Literature Concerning Censorship in Public Libraries and Public School Libraries in the United States During the 1980s." Project for degree of Education Specialist, University of South Florida, December 1987. [ED 308 864]
* Burress, Lee. "Battle of the Books." Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1989. [ED 308 508]
* [[Judith Butler|Butler, Judith]] "Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative" (1997)
* O'Reilly, Robert C. and Larry Parker. "Censorship_or Curriculum Modification?" Paper presented at a School Boards Association, 1982, 14 p. [ED 226 432]
* Hansen, Terry. ''The Missing Times: News media complicity in the UFO cover-up,'' 2000. ISBN 0-7388-3612-5
* Hendrikson, Leslie. "Library Censorship: ERIC Digest No. 23." ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, Boulder, Colorado, November 1985. [ED 264 165]
* Hoffman, Frank. "Intellectual Freedom and Censorship." Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1989. [ED 307 652]
* Marek, Kate. "Schoolbook Censorship USA." June 1987. [ED 300 018]
* National Coalition against Censorship (NCAC). "Books on Trial: A Survey of Recent Cases." January 1985. [ED 258 597]
* Small, Robert C., Jr. "Preparing the New English Teacher to Deal with Censorship, or Will I Have to Face it Alone?" Annual Meeting of the National Council of Teachers of English, 1987, 16 p.<br>
:(arguing that the English teacher should get advice from school librarians in preparing to encounter three levels of censorship:
# rejection of adolescent fiction and popular teen magazines as having low value,
# experienced colleagues discouraging "difficult" lesson plans,
# outside interest groups limiting students' exposure. [ED 289 172])
* Terry, John David II. "Censorship: Post Pico." In "School Law Update, 1986," edited by Thomas N. Jones and Darel P. Semler. [ED 272 994]
* [http://www.gcn.com/vol19_no6/news/1544-1.html] Supreme Court rejects advocates' plea to preserve useful formats
* [[World Book Encyclopedia]], volume 3 (C-Ch), pages 345, 346
;List of websites with known sanitization policies:
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/ www.whitehouse.gov]
Cleans-up mistakes made in speeches by US President [[George W. Bush]], it also contains little contradictory information of current administration policies, and has deleted any reference to controversial [[Corporate accounting scandal]] figure [[Ken Lay]], among others.
* [http://www.state.gov/ www.state.gov]
In a different example of sanitization, the U.S. State Department website will display material only when it supports administration policies. For example the website contains in full, the [[UN Security Council resolutions]], which support the administration in its views of [[Iraq]], but will not show such UN resolutions against [[Israel]] or the [[United States|US]].
[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Censorship|*]]
[[Category:Emergency laws]]
[[Category:Freedom |
prone to instability and conflicts, without a sense of national identity, but rather a mess of historical cultural influences, tribal and clan loyalties, and religious fervor. Projecting influence into the area is no longer just Russia, but also Turkey, Iran, China, Pakistan, India and the United States:
*Russia continues to dominate political decision-making throughout the Caucasus, and former SSRs, although as these countries shed their post-Soviet authoritarian systems, Russia's influence is slowly waning.
*Turkey has some influence because of the ethnic and linguistic ties with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia, as well as serving as an oil pipeline route to the Mediterranean.
*Iran, the seat of historical empires which controlled parts of Central Asia, has historical and cultural links to the region, as is vying to construct an oil pipeline from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf.
*China, already controlling Xinjiang and Tibet, projects significant power in the region, especially in energy/oil politics (for example, through the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organization]].)
*Pakistan, a large but unstable nuclear-armed state, helped to sustain Taliban rule in Afghanistan, and is capable of exercising some influence. For some Central Asian nations, the shortest route to the ocean lies through Pakistan. Pakistan seeks [[Natural Gas]] from Central Asia, and supports the development of pipelines from its countries.
*India, as a nuclear-armed rising power, exercises some influence in the region, especially in Tibet with which it has cultural affinities. India is also perceived as a potential counterweight to China's regional power.
*And the United States with its military involvement in the region, and oil diplomacy, is also significantly involved in the region's politics.
===Oil politics===
''See:'' [[Oil geostrategy]], [[Pipelines]], [[Caspian Sea]], [[Petroleum politics]]
===War on Terror===
In the context of the United States' [[War on Terror]], Central Asia has once again become the center of geostrategic calculations. Pakistan's status has been upgraded by the U.S.-government to a "major non-NATO ally" because of its central role in serving as a staging point for the invasion of Afghanistan, providing intelligence on Al-Qaeda operations in the region, and leading the hunt on Osama bin Laden, believed to still be in the region. Afghanistan, which had served as a haven and source of support for Al-Qaeda, under the protection of Mullah Omar and the Taliban, was the target of a U.S. invasion in 2001, and ongoing reconstruction and drug-eradication efforts. U.S. military bases have also been established in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, causing both Russia and the People's Republic of China to voice their concern over a permanent U.S. military presence in the region.
It is argued that the PRC and Russia, as well as several of the former SSRs, have taken advantage of the War on Terror to increase oppression of separatist ethnic minorities. China has taken a harder line against the Uighur separatists of Xinjiang, while Russia has pursued the second war in Chechnya with greater intensity. Washington, which considers Russia and China as strategic partners in the War on Terror, has largely turned a blind eye to these actions. The ethnically diverse former SSRs, especially Uzbekistan have reclassified ethnic separatist attacks as terrorist attacks and pursued more oppressive policies.
==Culture==
===Religions===
[[Islam]] is the religion most common in the former Soviet [[Central Asian Republics]], Afghanistan, Xinjiang and the peripheral western regions. Most Central Asian Muslims are [[Sunni]], although [[Shia]] comprise the great majority in Azerbaijan, and in Afghanistan and Pakistan there are sizable Shia minorities. [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is most common in Tibet, Mongolia, and the southern Russian regions of Siberia, where [[Shamanism]] is also popular. Increasing [[Han Chinese]] migration westward since the establishment of the PRC has brought [[Confucianism]] and other beliefs into the region. [[Nestorianism]] was the form of Christianity most practiced in the region in previous centuries, but now the largest denomination is the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], with many members in Kazakhstan. The [[Bukharan Jews]] were once a sizable community in Uzbekistan, but nearly all have emigrated in recent years.
===Arts===
[[Image:102 0811.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Yama]], Lord of Death, [[Tibet]], [[Field Museum]], [[Chicago, Illinois]].]]
At the crossroads of Asia, shamanist practices live alongside [[Buddhism]]. Thus [[Yama]], Lord of Death, was revered in Tibet as a spiritual guardian and judge. Mongolian Buddhism in particular influenced Tibetan Buddhism. The [[Qianlong]] Emperor of China in the 18th century was Tibetan Buddhist, and would sometimes travel from [[Beijing]] to other cities for personal religious worship.
Note the human skulls and severed heads that festoon Yama's crown and necklace, which give some concept of the size that Yama was expected to be when one faced him at one's death.
This particular [[Dharmapala]] is painted wood, four feet high in total.
Central Asia also has an indigenous and ancient form of [[rap music|rap]] which is over 1000 years old. It is principally practiced in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan by ''akyns'', lyrical improvisationists. They will engage in [[Freestyle battle|lyrical battles]], the ''aitysh'' or the ''alym sabak''. The tradition arose out of early bardic [[Oral history|oral historians]]. They are usually accompanied by a [[String instrument|stringed instrument]]&mdash;in Kyrgyzstan, a three-stringed ''komuz'' and in Kazakstan a similar two-stringed instrument. Some also learn to sing the ''[[Manas (epic)|Manas]]'', Kyrgyzstan's epic poem (those who learn the ''Manas'' exclusively, without engaging in rap, are called ''manaschis''). During Soviet rule, ''akyn'' rap was co-opted by the authorities and subsequently declined in popularity. With the fall of the Soviet Union it has enjoyed a resurgence, although ''aykns'' still do use their art to campaign for political candidates. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A10646-2005Mar5.html]
== Demographics ==
By the most inclusive definition, more than 80 million people live in Central Asia, about 2% of Asia's total population. Of the regions of Asia, only [[North Asia]] has fewer people. It has a population density of 9 people per km&sup2;, vastly less than the 80.5 people per km&sup2; of the continent as a whole.
{|style="margin: 0 0 0.5em 0.5em; float: right; clear: right; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-colapse: colapse;"
!style="padding: 5px; background-color: yellow;"|Major languages<br>of Central Asia
|-
|style="padding: 0 0 0 10px;"|[[Turkic languages]]
*[[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]
*[[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]
*[[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]
*[[Tatar language|Tatar]]
*[[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]
*[[Uighur language|Uighur]]
|-
|style="padding: 0 0 0 10px;"|[[Iranian languages]]
*[[Persian language|Persian]]
*[[Dari (of Afghanistan)|Dari]]
*[[Pushtu language|Pashto]]
*[[Tajik language|Tajik]]
|-
|style="padding: 0 0 0 10px;"|Other major languages
*[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
*[[Tibetan language|Tibetan]]
|-
|style="padding: 0 0 0 10px;"|[[lingua franca|Linguae francae]]
*[[Russian language|Russian]]
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
|}
===Languages===
The languages of the majority of the inhabitants of the former [[Soviet]] [[Central Asian Republics]] come from the [[Turkic languages|Turkic language group]]. [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], closely related to [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (they are both members of the [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz]] group of Turkic), is mainly spoken in [[Turkmenistan]] and into [[Afghanistan]], [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]. [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]] and [[Tatar language|Tatar]] are related languages of the [[Kipchaks|Kypchak]] group of Turkic languages, and are spoken throughout [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]] and [[Tajikistan]], and into [[Afghanistan]], [[Xinjiang]] and [[Qinghai]]. [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and [[Uighur language|Uighur]] are spoken in [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Xinjiang]]. [[Russian language|Russian]], as well as being spoken by the ethnic [[Russians]] of Central Asia, is a [[lingua franca]] throughout the former [[Soviet]] [[Central Asian Republics]]. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] has an equally dominant presence in [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Qinghai]] and [[Xinjiang]].
The [[Turkic languages]] belong to the much larger [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] language family, which includes [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]. Mongolian is spoken throughout the region of [[Mongolia]] and into [[Qinghai]] and [[Xinjiang]].
[[Iranian languages]] were once spoken throughout Central Asia, but the once prominent [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]], [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]] and [[Scythian language|Scythian]] languages are now extinct. However, the [[Persian language|Persian]] language is still spoken in the region, locally known as [[Dari (of Afghanistan)|Dari]] or [[Tajik language|Tajik]]. [[Pushtu language|Pashto]] is spoken in [[Afghanistan]] and western [[Pakistan]].
The [[Tibetan language]] is spoken by around six million people across the [[Tibetan Plateau]] and into [[Qinghai]].
==References==
* Dani, A.H. and V.M. Masson eds. ''UNESCO History of Civilizations of Central Asia''. Paris: [[UNESCO]], 1992-
* Mandelbaum, Michael. ed. ''Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan'' New York: [[Council on Foreign Relations]] Press, 1994.
* Olcott, Martha Brill. ''Central Asia's New States: Independence, Foreign policy, and Regional security. ''Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.
* Soucek, Svatopluk. ''A History of Inner Asia.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
* [[M. Ismail Marcin |
quot;|2
|align="center" valign="top"|15
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1996
|align="left" valign="top"|"Are You Ready" <sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|42
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1996
|align="left" valign="top"|"Got To Give It Up"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|37
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|[[1997 in music|1997]]
|align="left" valign="top"|"4-Page Letter" <sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
|align="center" valign="top"|18
|align="center" valign="top"|4
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|24
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1997
|align="left" valign="top"|"Hot Like Fire" ''([[remix]])'' <sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
|align="center" valign="top"|--
|align="center" valign="top"|31
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|30
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1997
|align="left" valign="top"|"The One I Gave My Heart To"
|align="center" valign="top"|9
|align="center" valign="top"|8
|align="center" valign="top"|18
|align="center" valign="top"|30
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1997
|align="left" valign="top"|"Journey To the Past"
|align="center" valign="top"|27
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|22
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1997
|align="left" valign="top"|"Up Jumps the Boogie" <br /> ''(Timbaland & Magoo featuring Aaliyah and [[Missy Elliott]])''
|align="center" valign="top"|12
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|[[1998 in music|1998]]
|align="left" valign="top"|"Are You That Somebody?" <sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup>
|align="center" valign="top"|3
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|11
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|[[1999 in music|1999]]
|align="left" valign="top"|"You Won't See Me Tonight" <br /> ''([[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] featuring Aaliyah)''
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|44
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|[[2000 in music|2000]]
|align="left" valign="top"|"I Don't Wanna"
|align="center" valign="top"|35
|align="center" valign="top"|5
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2000
|align="left" valign="top"|"Try Again"
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="center" valign="top"|4
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|5
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2000
|align="left" valign="top"|"Come Back In One Piece" <br /> ''(featuring DMX)''
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|36
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|[[2001 in music|2001]]
|align="left" valign="top"|"We Need a Resolution" <br /> ''(featuring Timbaland)''
|align="center" valign="top"|59
|align="center" valign="top"|15
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|20
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2001
|align="left" valign="top"|"Rock the Boat"
|align="center" valign="top"|14
|align="center" valign="top"|2
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|12
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|[[2002 in music|2002]]
|align="left" valign="top"|"More Than a Woman"
|align="center" valign="top"|
|align="center" valign="top"|7
|align="center" valign="top"|11
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2002
|align="left" valign="top"|"I Care 4 U"
|align="center" valign="top"|3
|align="center" valign="top"|3
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2002
|align="left" valign="top"|"Miss You" <br /> ''(remix features [[Jay-Z]])''
|align="center" valign="top"|3
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2002
|align="left" valign="top"|"Don't Know What To Tell Ya"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|22
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|[[2003 in music|2003]]
|align="left" valign="top"|"Come Over"
|align="center" valign="top"|32
|align="center" valign="top"|9
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|-
|}
=====''Notes''=====
*<sup>1</sup> Did not chart on the Hot 100, but hit number 60 on [[Hot 100 Singles Sales]].
*<sup>2</sup> Did not chart on the Hot 100 or Hot R&B/Hip-Hop charts (Billboard rules at the time prevented album cuts from charting). Chart peak listed here represents [[Hot 100 Airplay]] and [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay]] data.
*<sup>3</sup> "Are You That Somebody?" was in the midst of its chart run when Billboard changed its policy to allow airplay-only singles to chart on the Hot 100 and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop charts. It climbed to number four on Hot 100 Airplay and number one on Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay and was on the decline when the rules were changed. Its official Hot 100 peak is number 21.
==Filmography==
*''[[Romeo Must Die]]'' (2000)
*''[[The Queen of the Damned|Queen Of The Damned]]'' (2002)
==See also==
*[[Aaliyah awards]] for a listing of awards won by the performer.
==External links==
<!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD FANSITES -->
*[http://www.Aaliyah.com Official Aaliyah Website]
*{{imdb name|id=0004691|name=Aaliyah}}
*Open Directory: [http://dmoz.org/Arts/People/A/Aaliyah/ Aaliyah]
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Aaliyah]]
[[Category:African American musicians]]
[[Category:American film actors]]
[[Category:American R&B singers]]
[[Category:American dancers]]
[[Category:Brooklynites]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 20s]]
[[Category:American female singers]]
[[Category:People from Detroit, Michigan]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims]]
[[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts]]
[[Category:Swing Mob]]
[[cs:Aaliyah]]
[[de:Aaliyah]]
[[et:Aaliyah]]
[[es:Aaliyah]]
[[fr:Aaliyah Dana Haughton]]
[[gl:Aaliyah]]
[[it:Aaliyah]]
[[nl:Aaliyah]]
[[no:Aaliyah]]
[[ja:アリーヤ]]
[[pl:Aaliyah]]
[[pt:Aaliyah]]
[[fi:Aaliyah]]
[[sv:Aaliyah]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albigensians</title>
<id>2145</id>
<revision>
<id>41507098</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:56:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.126.143.220</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Cathar}}
'''Albigensians''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Albigeois'') literally means the inhabitants of [[Albi]], a city in southern [[France]]. However, the term was used to refer to the later followers of [[Cathar]]ism, a [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]]-like religious movement of southern France in the [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century]]. The name originates from the end of the [[12th century]], and was used in [[1181]] by the chronicler [[Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois]]. The name is somewhat misleading as the center of the religious movement was really [[Toulouse]].
Early Catharism was much more associated with Gnostic theologies that it inherited from its association with the Paulicianism and Bogomils. However, as one historian phrased it, as time proceeded they became more and mor |
OF DEATH=[[Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts]]
}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ExpertS</title>
<id>9210</id>
<revision>
<id>15907114</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Expert]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ElectricalEngineering</title>
<id>9212</id>
<revision>
<id>15907116</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electrical engineering]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EuleR</title>
<id>9213</id>
<revision>
<id>39989973</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T08:48:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ricky81682</username>
<id>125787</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm AFD notice</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Leonhard Euler]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EpiPhenomenon</title>
<id>9214</id>
<revision>
<id>15907118</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-26T15:55:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.158.106.90</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epiphenomenon]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EartH</title>
<id>9215</id>
<revision>
<id>15907119</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Earth]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ElephanT</title>
<id>9216</id>
<revision>
<id>15907120</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elephant]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EclecticProbability</title>
<id>9219</id>
<revision>
<id>15907122</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T09:25:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Eclectic probability]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eclectic probability]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EduCation</title>
<id>9220</id>
<revision>
<id>15907123</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Education]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EiffelTower</title>
<id>9221</id>
<revision>
<id>15907124</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eiffel Tower]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E</title>
<id>9222</id>
<revision>
<id>42163182</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:03:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jessten95</username>
<id>866165</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the mathematical constant '''e''', see [[e (mathematical constant)]].''
{{AZ|uc=E|lc=e}}
The letter '''E''' is the fifth letter in the [[Latin alphabet]].
==History==
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;"
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
! Egyptian hieroglyph ''ç-r-d''
! Proto-Semitic H
! Phoenician H
! Etruscan E
! Greek Epsilon
|-----
|<hiero>A28</hiero>
|[[Image:Proto-semiticE-01.png]]
|[[Image:PhoenicianE-01.png]]
|[[Image:EtruscanE-01.png]]
|[[Image:GreekE-01.png]]
|}
e is the gay letter!
'''E''' is derived from the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] [[epsilon]] which is much the same in appearance (&Epsilon;, &epsilon;) and function. The [[Semitic]] ''hê'' probably first represented a praying or calling human figure (''hillul'' jubilation), and was probably based on a similar [[Egyptian hieroglyph]] that was pronounced quite differently. In Semitic, the letter was pronounced /h/ (in foreign words also /e/), in Greek ''hê'' became &#917;&#968;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#957; (Epsilon) with the value /e/. [[Etruria|Etruscan]]s and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] followed this usage. Arising from the [[Great Vowel Shift]], [[English language|English]] usage is rather different, namely /i:/ in "me" or "bee", whereas other words like "bed" are closer to Latin or [[Continental Europe]]an usage.
==Usage==
[[Category:Vowels]]
Like other Latin [[vowel]]s, e came in a long and a short variety . In modern English, the long variety is sounded as in s''ee'' and the short as in p''e''t. However, [[Latin]] and most [[European]] languages sound the long variety differently, as in English v''ei''n. In other languages which use the letter it takes on various other values, sometimes with accents to indicate which one (ê é è ë &#x113; &#x115; &#x11B; &#x1EBD; &#x117; &#x1EB9; &#x119;). Digraphs starting with E are common in many languages to indicate [[diphthongs]] or show a different value of E, such as EA or EE for /{{IPA|i&#720;}}/ or /{{IPA|e&#618;}}/ in English, EI for /{{IPA|e&#618;}}/ in English or /{{IPA|a&#618;}}/ in [[German language|German]], or EU for /{{IPA|ju&#x2d0;}}/ in English or /{{IPA|&#596;&#618;}}/ in German.
E is very often silent in English ([[silent E]]), particularly at the ends of words where old noun inflections have been dropped, although even when silent at the end of a word it often causes vowels in the word to be pronounced as long (compare ''rat'' and ''rate'').
This is the most common letter in [[English language|English]] and many related languages, which has some implications in [[cryptography]]. This also makes it a difficult and popular letter to use when writing [[lipogram|lipograms]].
==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Echo
|Morse=·
|B1=●
|B2=○
|B3=○
|B4=○
|B5=●
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] E is codepoint U+0045 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] e is U+0065.
The [[ASCII]] code for capital E is 69 and for lowercase e is 101; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000101 and 01100101, correspondingly.
The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital E is 197 and for lowercase e is 133.
The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&amp;#69;</tt>" and "<tt>&amp;#101;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively.
==Meanings for E==
* In [[astronomy]],
** E stands for a March 1 through 15 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1973 E1]], Comet Kohoutek) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(4178) 1988 EO|1}}).
* In the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] of [[Earth]], the [[Kennelly-Heaviside layer|E layer]] is part of the [[ionosphere]].
* In [[biochemistry]], E is the symbol for [[glutamic acid]] and also often an abbreviation for [[enzyme]].
* In [[computing]],
** The letter e is often used as a prefix (with or without a subsequent hyphen) for other words to imply "electronic", such as [[e-mail]] or [[e-commerce]].
** E is also a [[programming language]] available for the [[Amiga]]. It's related to [[C]] and [[Pascal]]. See [[Amiga E]].
** The [[E programming language]] is an object-oriented language for secure distributed computing.
* In [[computational complexity theory]], the [[complexity class]] [[E (complexity)|E]] is a variant of the class [[EXPTIME]] of problems solvable in exponential time.
* In [[currency]], E is sometimes used as symbol for the [[euro]] when the symbol &euro; is not available.
* In [[education]], E is a very low grade, except in some grading systems such as the one used in the [[USA]] which goes from D to F, omitting E.
* In [[electrochemistry]], E is a symbol for [[electrode potential]], and E° is a symbol for [[standard electrode potential]].
* In [[English language|English]] [[slang]], E is a term for [[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]] or MDMA, a synthetic drug which is often used recreationally.
* In [[film]], ''E'' is a Canadian film from [[1982]]; see [[E (film)]].
* In [[finance]], E is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for [[ENI Spa]]
* In [[gender-neutral pronoun]]s, e is the [[Spivak pronoun]] meaning ''he or she''.
* In [[geography]] and [[weather forecasting]], E stands for [[east]], one of the four [[cardinal directions]].
* In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], /e/ refers to the [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]]. Its turned counterpart, /ə/, stands for the [[mid central vowel]] or [[schwa]].
* In legal [[metrology]], the [["Estimated" sign|"estimated" sign]] (the symbol &#x212E;) following a measurement of quantity (e.g., 750 ml &#x212E;) is used to indicate that the measurement of weight or volume is done according to preset rules with specific allowable variances.
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], E stands for [[Spain]] (España).
* In [[mathematics]],
**[[E (mathematical constant)|e]] is [[Leonhard Euler|Euler's]] number, a [[transcendental number]] (approximately equal to 2.718281828459045235360287471352) whic |
n and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow," while listed among the cons were "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time." The pros won out. He discussed the prospect of marriage with his father then went to visit his cousin Emma on [[29 July]] [[1838]]. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he told her of his ideas on transmutation. While his thoughts and work continued in London over the autumn he suffered repeated bouts of illness. On [[11 November]] he returned and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, but later wrote beseeching him to read from the Gospel of St. John a section on love and following ''the Way'' which also states that ''"If a man abide not in me...they are burned"''. He sent a warm reply which eased her concern, but she would continue to worry that his lapses of faith could endanger her hope that they would meet in afterlife.
Darwin considered [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus]]'s argument that human population increases more quickly than food production, leaving people competing for food and making charity useless. He later formulated this in the terms of his biological theory as: "Man tends to increase at a greater rate than his means of subsistence; consequently he is occasionally subjected to a severe struggle for existence, and natural selection will have effected whatever lies within its scope." (''Descent of Man'', Ch.21) He related this to the findings about species relating to localities, his enquiries into animal breeding, and ideas of Natural "laws of harmony". Towards the end of November 1838 he compared breeders selecting traits to a Malthusian Nature selecting from variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practised and perfected", and thought this "the most beautiful part of my theory" of how species originated. He went house-hunting and eventually found "Macaw Cottage" in Gower Street, London, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. He was showing the stress, and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." On [[24 January]] [[1839]] he was honoured by being elected as Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] and presented his paper on the Roads of Glen Roy.
=== Marriage and children ===
[[Image:Charles and William Darwin.jpg|thumb|185px|Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, [[Darwin — Wedgwood family|William Erasmus Darwin]].]]
On [[29 January]] [[1839]], Darwin married his cousin [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]] at Maer in an [[Anglican]] ceremony arranged to also suit the [[Unitarian]]s.
After first living in Gower Street, [[London]], the couple moved on [[17 September]] [[1842]] to [[Down House]] in [[Downe]]. The Darwins had ten children, three of whom died early. Many of these and their grandchildren would later achieve notability themselves (see [[Darwin — Wedgwood family]])
* William Erasmus Darwin ([[27 December]] [[1839]]&ndash;[[1914]])
* [[Anne Darwin|Anne Elizabeth Darwin]] ([[2 March]] [[1841]]&ndash;[[22 April]] [[1851]])
* Mary Eleanor Darwin ([[23 September]] [[1842]]&ndash;[[16 October]] [[1842]])
* Henrietta Emma "Etty" Darwin ([[25 September]] [[1843]]&ndash;[[1929]])
* [[George Darwin|George Howard Darwin]] ([[9 July]] [[1845]]&ndash;[[7 December]] [[1912]])
* [[Darwin — Wedgwood family|Elizabeth "Bessy" Darwin]] ([[8 July]] [[1847]]&ndash;[[1926]])
* [[Francis Darwin]] ([[6 August]] [[1848]]&ndash;[[19 September]] [[1925]])
* [[Leonard Darwin]] ([[15 January]] [[1850]]&ndash;[[26 March]] [[1943]])
* [[Horace Darwin]] ([[13 May]] [[1851]]&ndash;[[29 September]] [[1928]])
* [[Charles Waring Darwin]] ([[6 December]] [[1856]]&ndash;[[28 June]] [[1858]])
Several of their children suffered illness or weaknesses, and Charles Darwin's fear that this might be due to the closeness of his and Emma's lineage was expressed in his writings on the ill effects of inbreeding and advantages of crossing.
==Evolution by natural selection==
{{main|Development of Darwin's theory}}
[[Image:Charles Darwin.jpg|frame|left|Fearing both scientific and religious criticism, Darwin spent decades developing his evolutionary theories largely in secret.]]
Darwin was now an eminent geologist in the scientific élite of clerical naturalists, settled with a private income, while privately working on his theory. He had a vast amount of work to do, writing up all his findings and supervising the preparation of the multivolume ''Zoology'', which would describe his collections. He was convinced of the occurrence of [[evolution]], but for a long time had been aware that [[transmutation of species]] was associated with the crime of [[blasphemy]] as well as with [[Radicalism (historical)|Radical]] democratic agitators in Britain who were seeking to overthrow society; thus, publication risked ruining his reputation. He embarked on extensive experiments with plants and consultations with [[Animal husbandry|animal husbanders]], including pigeon and pig breeders, trying to find soundly based answers to all the arguments he anticipated when he presented his theory in public.
When FitzRoy's account was published in May 1839, Darwin's ''Journal and Remarks'' was a great success. Later that year it was published on its own, becoming the bestseller today known as ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]''. In December 1839, as Emma's first pregnancy progressed, Darwin suffered more illness and accomplished little during the following year.
Darwin tried to explain his theory to close friends, but they were slow to show interest and thought that selection must need a divine selector. In 1842 the family moved to rural [[Down House]] to escape the pressures of London. Darwin formulated a short "Pencil Sketch" of his theory, and by 1844 had written a 240-page "Essay" that expanded his early ideas on natural selection. Darwin completed his third ''Geological'' book in 1846. Assisted by his friend, the young botanist [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], he embarked on a huge study of [[barnacles]]. In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed.
Darwin feared putting the theory out in an incomplete form, as his ideas about evolution would be highly controversial if any attention was paid to them at all. Other ideas about evolution &mdash; especially the work of [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] &mdash; had been soundly dismissed by the British scientific community, and were associated with [[Radicalism (historical)|political radicalism]]. The anonymous publication of ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'' in 1844 created another controversy over radicalism and evolution, and was severely attacked by Darwin's friends who stressed that no reputable scientist would want to be associated with such ideas.
To try to deal with his illness, Darwin went to a spa in [[Malvern]] in 1849, and to his surprise found that the two months of water treatment helped. In his work on barnacles he found "[[Homology (biology)|homologies]]" that supported his theory by showing that slightly changed body parts could serve different functions to meet new conditions. Then his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary. After a long series of crises, she died and Darwin [[Problem of evil|lost all faith in a beneficent God]].
He met the young freethinking naturalist [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Thomas Huxley]] who was to become a close friend and ally. Darwin's work on barnacles (''Cirripedia'') earned him the [[Royal Society]]'s Royal Medal in 1853, establishing his reputation as a [[biology|biologist]]. He completed this study in 1854 and turned his attention to his theory of species.
===Announcement and publication of theory===
[[Image:Charles Darwin aged 51.jpg|right|thumb|Darwin was forced into early publication of his theory of [[natural selection]].]]
{{main|Publication of Darwin's theory}}
Darwin found an answer to the problem of how [[genus|genera]] forked in an analogy with industrial ideas of division of labour, with specialised varieties each finding their niche so that species could diverge. He experimented with seeds, testing their ability to survive sea-water to transfer species to isolated islands, and bred pigeons to test his ideas of natural selection being comparable to the "artificial selection" used by pigeon breeders.
In the spring of 1856, Lyell read a paper on the ''Introduction'' of species by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], a naturalist working in [[Borneo]]. Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish precedence. Despite illness, Darwin began a 3-volume book titled ''Natural Selection'', getting specimens and information from naturalists including Wallace and [[Asa Gray]]. In December 1857 as Darwin worked on the book he received a letter from Wallace asking if it would delve into human origins. Sensitive to Lyell's fears, Darwin responded that "I think I shall avoid the whole subject, as so surrounded with prejudices, though I fully admit that it is the highest & most interesting problem for the naturalist." He encouraged Wallace's theorising, saying "without speculation there is no good & original observation." Darwin added that "I go much further than you." His manuscript reached 250,000 words, then on [[18 June]] [[1858]] he received a paper in which Wallace described the evolutionary mechanism and requested him to send it on to Lyell. Darwin did so, shocked that he had been "forestalled". Though Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin offered to send it to any journal that Wallace chose. He put matters in |
00]]
*[[Atari 5200]]
*[[Atari 7800]]
*[[Coleco Gemini]] a clone by [[Coleco]]
*[[Intellivision]] ''System Changer'', a clone by [[Mattel]]
*[[TV Games]]
*[[TV Boy]] a clone, by Systema.
== References ==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
* Perry, Tekla; Wallich, Paul. "Design case history: the Atari Video Computer System". ''[[IEEE Spectrum]]''. March 1983.
== External links ==
* [http://www.atarimuseum.com/videogames/consoles/2600/Atari_case_history.html Design case history: the Atari Video Computer System] &ndash; The referenced article by Perry and Wallich
* [http://www.retro-style.co.uk/rarityguide.htm Online Atari 2600 cart frequency guide]
* [http://www.ataritimes.com/2600/index.html Atari Times, 2600]
* [http://www.emucamp.com/vgee/2600/2600faq.htm Atari 2600/5200/7800 FAQ]
* [http://www.atarieage.com Atari Age]
* [http://www.mobygames.com/browse/games/atari-2600/list-games/ MobyGames information on the Atari 2600]
* [http://www.consoledatabase.com Console Database]
* [http://www.oreillynet.com/lpt/a/4849 Inside the Homebrew Atari 2600 Scene]
* [http://www.atarimuseum.com/articles/joedecuir.html Interview with Joe Decuir] *
* [http://www.jakkstvgames.com/ Jakks Pacific] &ndash; Makers of a modern Atari 2600 clone
* [http://www.atariace.com/atari/systems.php Atari Ace] &ndash; Refurbisher of classic Atari systems
* [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta1.htm Article at The Dot Eaters] &ndash; An extensive history of the Atari VCS/2600
* [http://www.alienbill.com/2600/101/docs/stella.html Unofficial Stella Programmer's Guide]
(* Joe Decuir was one of the designers of the Atari 2600 and the [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari 400/800]] SIO bus. Later he has worked on the design of [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]. )
[[Category:Atari consoles|2600]]
[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Video game console remakes (article section)]]
[[de:Atari 2600]]
[[es:Atari 2600]]
[[eo:Atari 2600]]
[[fr:Atari 2600]]
[[hr:Atari 2600]]
[[it:Atari 2600]]
[[nl:Atari 2600]]
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[[pl:Atari 2600]]
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[[sv:Atari 2600]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atari 5200</title>
<id>2780</id>
<revision>
<id>41858162</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:42:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wvoutlaw2002</username>
<id>891534</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Atari 5200
|logo =
|image = [[Image:atari 5200 system.jpg|250px|Atari 5200 System]]
|manufacturer = [[Atari]]
|type = [[Video game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (second-generation systems)|Second generation]]
|lifespan = [[1982]]
|media = [[Cartridge]]
|onlineservice =
|topgame =
}}
The '''Atari 5200''' is a [[video game console]] introduced in [[1982]] by [[Atari]]. It was created to compete with the [[Mattel Intellivision]], but it also competed with the [[Colecovision]] shortly after the 5200's release. In some ways, it was both technologically superior and more cost efficient than any console available at that time.
The Atari 5200 was in essence an [[Atari 400]] computer without a [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]. This made for a powerful, proven design which Atari could quickly bring to market. The system featured many innovations like the first automatic TV switchbox, allowing it to automatically switch from regular TV viewing to the game system signal when the system was activated.
The initial release of the system featured four controller ports, where all other systems of the day had only two ports. The system also featured a revolutionary new controller with an analog [[joystick]], numeric keypad, two fire buttons on both sides of the controller and game function keys for Start, Pause, and Reset.
The unusual design of the analog joystick, which used a weak rubber sleeve, rather than springs, to provide centering, proved to be ungainly and unreliable, alienating many consumers. The joysticks quickly became the [[achilles heel]] of the system due to their combination of overly complex mechanical design with a very low cost internal flex circuit system.
The Atari 5200 also suffered from its software incompatibility with the [[Atari 2600]], though an adapter was later released in [[1983]] allowing it to play all [[Atari 2600]] games, using the more reliable controllers native to that system. At the time, the concept of upgrading obsolete video game systems for next-generation video game systems was foreign to most people (a quote from G4TV's "[[Icons (TV series)|Icons]]" : "I've had the same record player for 25 years. I've had the same television for 25 years. Now you're telling me I have to trade in my old game system for this new game system?").
Another problem was the lack of attention that Atari gave to the console; most of its resources went to the already over-saturated Atari 2600. While the 5200 did garner a strong cult following with its library of high quality games, it faced an uphill battle competing with the [[Colecovision]]'s head start and a stuttering economy. But the question of which system was superior became moot. The CEOs of both companies became motivational speakers when the [[video game crash of 1983|game market crashed]] in 1983, killing off both systems in their prime.
In its prototype stage, the Atari 5200 was originally called the "Atari Video System X (Advanced Video Computer System)", and it was code-named PAM (PAM stood for Personal Arcade Machine).
== Screenshot gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:A5200_PacMan.png|[[Pac-Man]]<br>[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:A5200_Dig_Dug.png|[[Dig Dug]]<br>[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:A5200_Jungle_Hunt.png|[[Jungle Hunt]]<br>[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:A5200_RealSports_Baseball.png|RealSports Baseball<br>[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:A5200_PitfallII.png|[[Pitfall II]]<br>[[Activision]] ([[1984]])
Image:A5200_Zaxxon.png|[[Zaxxon]]<Br>[[Sega]] ([[1984]])
Image:A5200_Ballblazer.png|[[Ballblazer]]<Br>[[Atari]]/[[LucasArts|Lucasfilm Games]] ([[1986]])
Image:A5200_Rescue_On_Fractalus.png|[[Rescue on Fractalus]]<Br>[[Atari]]/[[LucasArts|Lucasfilm Games]] ([[1986]])
</gallery>
==Technical specifications==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
*Dual CPUs: [[MOS Technology 6502|custom 6502]]C @ 1.79 MHz (NOT a 65c02) and [[ANTIC]].
*Support Hardware: 2 custom [[VLSI]] chips.
*Maximum Screen Resolution: 320x192 resolution, 16 (out of 256) on-screen colors per scan line. Palette can be changed at every scan line using [[ANTIC]] display list interrupts, allowing all 256 colors to be displayed at once.
*Graphics: [[ANTIC]] and [[GTIA]]
*Sound: 4-channel sound via the [[POKEY]] chip which also handles keyboard scanning, serial I/O, high resolution interrupt capable timers (single cycle accurate), and random number generation.
*RAM: 16KB
*ROM: 32KB ROM window for standard game cartridges, expandable using [[bank switching]] techniques. 2KB onboard BIOS for system startup and interrupt routing.
==See also==
*[[List of Atari 5200 games]]
*[[Atari 8-bit family]]
*[[Atari 2600]]
*[[Atari 7800]]
==External links==
* [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta5.htm The Dot Eaters entry] detailing the 5200 and its games
* [http://www.atariage.com AtariAge]
[[Category:Atari consoles|5200]]
[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]
[[de:Atari 5200]]
[[eo:Atari 5200 Super System]]
[[fr:Atari 5200]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atari 7800</title>
<id>2781</id>
<revision>
<id>41986690</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:33:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DrBob</username>
<id>2251</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ultrogonic|Ultrogonic]] ([[User talk:Ultrogonic|talk]]) to last version by 83.160.24.25</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Atari 7800
|logo = [[Image:7800.gif|Atari 7800 logo]]
|image = [[Image:atari 7800 system.PNG|300px|Atari 7800 System]]
|manufacturer = [[Atari]]
|type = [[Video game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (8-bit era)|8-bit era]]
|lifespan = June [[1984]] ([[test market]]) <br> Winter [[1986]] ([[United States]])
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|onlineservice =
|topgame =
}}
The '''Atari 7800''' is a [[video game console]] released by [[Atari]] in [[1986]] (a [[test market]] occurred in June 1984). The 7800 was designed to replace the unsuccessful [[Atari 5200]], and re-establish Atari's market supremacy against [[Intellivision]] and [[Colecovision]]. With this system, Atari addressed all the shortcomings of the Atari 5200: it had simple digital [[joystick]]s; it was almost fully backwards compatible with the [[Atari 2600]]; and it was affordable (it was originally priced at $140 USD).
==Summary==
The 7800 was the first game system from Atari which was designed by an outside company ([[General Computer Corporation|GCC]]) (future consoles designed outside the company were the [[Atari Lynx]] and the [[Atari Jaguar]]). The system was designed to be upgraded to a fully-fledged home computer—a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] was developed, and the keyboard had an expansion port (which was the SIO port from [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari's 8-bit computer line]]) for the addition of peripherals like [[disk drive]]s and [[computer printer|printer]]s. (This should not be taken to imply that this computer expansion would have allowed the 7800 to run programs designed for Atari's computers, as the two architectures were entirely different.) GCC had also designed a 'high score cartridge,' a [[Battery (electricity)|battery]]-backed [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] cart designed for storing game scores. Atari manufactured none of these accessories, and |
st [[Portugal|Portuguese]] outfit [[SL Benfica|Benfica]]. During that years many great players dressed the Neroazzuri shirt: [[Luis Suarez]], [[Giacinto Facchetti]], [[Sandro Mazzola]], [[Angelo Domenghini]], [[Mario Corso]]. The owner and president of the team was [[Angelo Moratti]], father of the current owner. He offered enormous amounts of money to buy [[Eusebio]] and [[Pelé]]; both players agreed to move to Inter, but politics intervened. The military dictatorships of Portugal and Brazil both refused to sanction the moves, and both transfers fell through. In 1967, Inter lost 1-2 in the final of the European Cup against [[Celtic F.C.]].
===1970 to date===
Following the golden [[1960]]s, Inter managed to win their 11th league title in [[1971]] and their 12th in [[1980]]. Inter were defeated for the second time in five years in the final of the European Cup, going down 0-2 to [[Johan Cruijff]]'s [[Ajax Amsterdam]] in 1972. During the [[1970]]s & [[1980]]s, Inter also added to it's Coppa Italia tally the second and third cups in [[1978]] and [[1982]] respectively. Inter won their most recent league championship in 1989, bringing their total tally of ''scudetti'' to 13. They sit third in the all-time list of most wins of the league championship, behind [[Juventus]] (28) and [[A.C. Milan]] (17).
Internazionale has also won the [[UEFA Cup]] on 3 occasions, all of them in the the space of fifteen years. The first was in the 1990-91 season in a two-legged final with [[AS Roma]]. In 1993-94, Inter did it again, this time against Austrian side [[Austria Salzburg|Casino Salzburg]]. In a record third UEFA Cup victory, in the 1997-98 season, Inter beat [[SS Lazio]] in a one-match final played in the [[Parc des Princes]], [[Paris]].
===Other Historical Information===
Inter holds a proud record of never having been [[relegation|relegated]] to [[Serie B]] (second division) in its entire existence. The fans hold this in high regard as Inter are only one of two clubs (the other being [[Juventus]]) that have been ever-present in [[Serie A]]. Juventus were nominally relegated in 1911 and 1913 but remained at the first level in Piemonte Regional League in [[1911]], and in the Lombardia Regional League in the [[1913]]; in addition, they didn't finish the championship in [[1908]].
The current honorary [[president]] and owner of Inter is [[Massimo Moratti]]. His father, Angelo Moratti was the president of Inter during the golden era of the 1960s. Massimo, trying to emulate his father's great success, has spent a great deal of money to bring some of the world's best players to the club without managing to secure that elusive fourteenth championship.
==Rivalry==
Inter have two very great rivalries. The first is obviously cross-town arch-enemies, [[A.C. Milan]]. Inter is derived from AC Milan, so their rivalry has been in existence since creation. During the 1960's Inter was the more successful club, however in recent times AC Milan has been the more dominant team.
Another rival of Inter is [[Juventus F.C.]]. Matches between these two teams are called the ''derby d'italia''.
==San Siro==
The stadium in which Inter plays is called ''[[San Siro|Stadio Giuseppe Meazza]]'', also known as ''San Siro'' (since the stadium is in the "San Siro" district). It was previously simply known as San Siro, but a new name was adopted in [[1980]] after [[Giuseppe Meazza]]'s death. Meazza was a famous player for FC Internazionale in the [[1930]]s and also played for [[AC Milan]] for a brief period of time. As a player, he won two World Cups for Italy (in [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]] and [[Football World Cup 1938|1938]]) and, alongside [[Giovanni Ferrari]], remains one of only two Italian players to have ever won the [[FIFA World Cup]] on two occasions. As a result, he is revered amongst the ''Interisti'' (Inter fans) and was honored by having one of the most famous football stadiums in the world named after him. The stadium seats 85,700 and plays host to both FC Internazionale and [[AC Milan]].
==Current first team squad==
''As of January 31, 2006''
{{Football squad start}}
{{Football squad player|no=1|nat=Italy|name=[[Francesco Toldo]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=2|nat=Colombia|name=[[Iván Córdoba]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=3|nat=Argentina|name=[[Nicolas Burdisso]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=4|nat=Argentina|name=[[Javier Zanetti]]|pos=DF|other=captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=5|nat=Serbia and Montenegro|name=[[Dejan Stankovic]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=6|nat=Italy|name=[[Cristiano Zanetti]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=7|nat=Portugal|name=[[Luís Figo]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=8|nat=Chile|name=[[David Pizarro]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=9|nat=Argentina|name=[[Julio Ricardo Cruz|Julio Cruz]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=10|nat=Brazil|name=[[Adriano Leite Ribeiro|Adriano]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=11|nat=Serbia and Montenegro|name=[[Siniša Mihajlović]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=12|nat=Brazil|name=[[Júlio César Soares Espíndola|Júlio César]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=13|nat=Brazil|name=[[Zé María]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=14|nat=Argentina|name=[[Juan Sebastián Verón]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=16|nat=Italy|name=[[Giuseppe Favalli]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad mid}}
{{Football squad player|no=18|nat=Argentina|name=[[Kily Gonzalez]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=19|nat=Argentina|name=[[Esteban Cambiasso]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=20|nat=Uruguay|name=[[Alvaro Recoba]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=21|nat=Argentina|name=[[Santiago Solari]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=22|nat=Italy|name=[[Paolo Orlandoni]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=23|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Materazzi]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=25|nat=Argentina|name=[[Walter Samuel]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=30|nat=Nigeria|name=[[Obafemi Martins]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=31|nat=Brazil|name=[[César Rodríguez Aparecido|César]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=33|nat=Cameroon|name=[[Pierre Wome]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=44|nat=Italy|name=[[Matteo Momenté]]|pos=FW|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=49|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Andreolli]]|pos=DF|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=55|nat=Cameroon|name=[[Daniel Maa Boumsong]]|pos=MF|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=87|nat=Italy|name=[[Giacomo Bindi]]|pos=GK|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad end}}
==Famous players since 1908==
{|
|valign="top"|
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Adriano Leite Ribeiro|Adriano]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Ermanno Aebi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luigi Allemandi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alessandro Altobelli]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Antonio Valentin Angelillo]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gino Armano]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Dino Baggio]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Baggio]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Baresi]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Gabriel Batistuta]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Evaristo Beccalossi]]
*{{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Emre Belözoğlu|Belözoğlu Emre]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Dennis Bergkamp]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Bergomi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Nicola Berti]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Laurent Blanc]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Boninsegna]]
*{{flagicon|Ireland}} [[Liam Brady]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Andreas Brehme]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Lorenzo Buffon]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Tarcisio Burgnich]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Esteban Cambiasso]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Fabio Cannavaro]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Franco Causio]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luigi Cevenini]]
*{{flagicon|Colombia}} [[Ivan Ramiro Cordoba|Ivan Cordoba]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Mario Corso]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Hernan Crespo]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Attilio Demaria]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Ramon Diaz]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Youri Djorkaeff]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Angelo Domenghini]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giacinto Facchetti]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giovanni Ferrari]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Riccardo Ferri]]
*{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Luis Figo|Luis Figo]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Fossati]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Virgilio Fossati]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Annibale Frossi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giorgio Ghezzi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aristide Guarneri]]
|valign="top"|
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Paul Ince]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Jair_(football)|Jair]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Jürgen Klinsmann]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Benito Lorenzi]]
*{{flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Obafemi Martins]]
*{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Ernesto Mascheroni]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Lothar Matthäus]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sandro Mazzola]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*{{flagicon|Serbia and Montenegro}} [[Sinisa Mihajlovic]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Moriero]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Stefano Nyers]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Olivieri]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gabriele Oriali]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianluca Pagliuca]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Daniel Passarella]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Angelo Peruzzi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Armando Picchi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Andrea Pirlo]]
*{{flagicon|Austria}} [[Herbert Prohaska]]
*{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Alvaro Recoba]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Roberto Carlos da Silva|Roberto Carlos]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ronaldo]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Karl-Heinz Rummenigge]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Matthias Sammer]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Salvatore Schillaci]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Clarence Seedorf]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Serena]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Diego Simeone]]
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Lennart Skoglund]]
*{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Ruben Sosa]]
*{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Luis Suarez]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Marco Tardelli]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Toldo]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Juan Sebastián Verón]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Lido Vieri]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Christian Vieri]]
*{ |
ce across the globe, and in some areas the BBC World Service radio is the only available free press.
The BBC's current Political Editor, [[Nick Robinson]], was previously a chairman of the [[Young Conservatives]] and has, as a result, attracted informal criticism from the current Labour government.
===Location===
{{main|Broadcasting House}}
Broadcasting House in [[Portland Place]], [[Central London|London]] is the official headquarters of the BBC. It is home to the national radio networks Radio [[BBC Radio 2|2]], [[BBC Radio 3|3]], [[BBC Radio 4|4]], [[BBC 6 Music|6 Music]], and [[BBC 7]]. On the front of the building are statues of [[Prospero]] and [[Ariel (Shakespeare)|Ariel]] (from [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]''), by [[Eric Gill]].
Broadcasting House is currently undergoing renovation, scheduled for completion in [[2010]]. As part of a major reorganisation of BBC property, Broadcasting House is to become home to [[BBC News]] (both television and radio), national radio, and the [[BBC World Service]]. The major part of this plan involves the demolition of the two post-war extensions to the building and construction of a new building, to be of equal "architectural creativity", beside the existing structure. While the rebuilding process is being undertaken many of the BBC Radio networks have been relocated to other buildings in the vicinity of Portland Place.
In 2007/2008 BBC News is expected to relocate from the News Centre at [[BBC Television Centre]] to the refurbished Broadcasting House in what is being described as "one of the world's largest live newsrooms".
By far the largest concentration of BBC staff in the UK exists in [[White City]]. Well known buildings in this area include TVC (internal [[acronym]] for [[BBC Television Centre]]), White City, Media Centre, Broadcast Centre and Centre House.
As well as the various BBC buildings in London, there are major BBC production centres located in [[Cardiff]], [[Belfast]], [[Glasgow]], [[Birmingham]], [[Manchester]], [[Bristol]], [[Southampton]] and [[Newcastle upon Tyne]]. There are also many smaller local and regional studios scattered throughout the UK, some of which are known locally as "Broadcasting House" in imitation of the BBC's London headquarters.
==BBC Services==
[[Image:BBC-newslogo.svg|thumb|right|BBC News logo]]
{{further|[[BBC Television]], [[BBC Radio]]}}
Among its many services are domestic radio and television stations. The BBC also jointly operates a number of other broadcasting services, namely the UKTV channels, some of the Discovery channels, and several other services available on satellite & cable services in the UK.
It also has many non-broadcasting commercial ventures within the United Kingdom including book & magazine publishing ([[BBC Books]]), and multimedia production services (DVDs, CDs, computer games) provided by [[BBC Multimedia]].
The BBC has both satellite and cable broadcasting joint-ventures serving the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and other countries. In addition the BBC operates a number of radio and television world services in cooperation with funding from the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]], one of which includes a recently set up TV news station in the [[Middle East]] in the [[Arabic language]].
Before the introduction of [[ITV|Independent Television]] in [[1955]] and subsequently [[Independent Radio]] in [[1973]], it held a monopoly on broadcasting. More recent deregulation of the [[British television broadcasting]] market produced analogue [[cable television]] and [[Satellite television|satellite broadcasting]] and later [[Digital Satellite System|digital satellite]], [[digital cable]] and [[digital terrestrial television]] (DTT). Today the BBC broadcasts in almost all media and operates an [[Internet]] service, [[bbc.co.uk]].
=== BBC Departments ===
* Governances & Accountability
* Programming Groups
** [[BBC News|News]]
** Drama Entertainment & [[CBBC]]
** Factual & Learning
** [[BBC Sport|Sport]]
* Broadcasting Groups
** World Service
** TV
** New Media & Technology
** Radio & Music
** Nations & Regions
* Professional Services
** Strategy (formerly Strategy and Distribution and merged with Policy and Legal)
** Marketing, Comms and Audiences
** Finance Property & Business Affairs
** [[BBC People]] (to 2004, Human Resources & Internal Communications)
* Commercial Groups
** [[BBC Resources Ltd]]
** [[BBC Worldwide Ltd]]
===BBC News===
{{main|BBC News}}
BBC News is the largest broadcast news gathering operation in the world and it produces almost 160 hours of news output every hour. BBC News provides its services to BBC domestic radio as well as television networks such as [[BBC News 24]], [[BBC Parliament]], [[BBC World]], [[BBCi]], [[Ceefax]] and [[BBC News Online]]. New BBC News services that are also proving popular are mobile services to mobile phones and PDAs. Desktop news alerts, e-mail alerts, and digital TV alerts are also available.
The BBC News Centre maintains its headquarters within the BBC Television Centre. It also operates regional news offices throughout the UK and bureaux in almost every country around the world. Coverage of political events is controlled from the [[Millbank|Millbank Studios]] in Westminster. On [[5 July]] [[2004]] the BBC celebrated 50 years of television news. Its first bulletin was telecast in [[1954]]. The BBC had carried news programmes prior to this, but in the form of [[newsreels]].
Although the BBC news service in the UK is mostly non-commercial by reason of its financial base, it does compete for its audience with commercial companies such as [[Sky News]] and [[ITN]]. During major events the majority of domestic television viewers in the UK tune to BBC news for information, but its coverage does not come without criticism.
===Radio===
{{further|[[BBC Radio]], [[BBC Local Radio]]}}
The BBC has five major national stations, [[BBC Radio 1|Radio 1]] ("the best in new music"), [[BBC Radio 2|Radio 2]] (the UK's most listened to radio station, with 13.7 million weekly listeners), [[BBC Radio 3|Radio 3]] (specialist-interest music such as classical, world, arts, drama and jazz), [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]] (current affairs, drama and comedy), and [[BBC Radio 5 Live|Radio 5 Live]] (24 hour news, sports and talk).
There is also a network of local stations with a mixture of talk, news and music in [[England]] and the [[Channel Islands]] as well as national stations of [[BBC Radio Wales]], [[BBC Radio Cymru]] (in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]), [[BBC Radio Scotland]], [[BBC Radio nan Gaidheal]] (in [[Scots Gaelic]]), [[BBC Radio Ulster]], and [[BBC Radio Foyle]].
The BBC has been in the forefront of digital radio broadcasting with [[BBC Five Live Sports Extra|Five Live Sports Extra]] (a companion to Five Live for additional events coverage), [[BBC 1Xtra|1Xtra]] (for black, urban and gospel music), [[BBC 6 Music]] (''alternative'' genres of music), [[BBC7]] (Comedy, Drama & Kids shows), [[BBC Asian Network|Asian Network]] (Asian talk, music and news in many Asian languages), and [[BBC World Service|World Service]].
For a world-wide audience, the BBC produces the [[BBC World Service]], which is broadcast on [[shortwave]] radio (DAB Digital Radio in the UK) and can be received in many places across the globe. It can be received in most capital cities and it is a major source of news and information programming, and it is funded by the British Foreign Office. It broadcasts in 43 different languages, (including English) in the most relevant local language.
The German Service, created in 1938, which has recently been discontinued, played an important part in the propaganda war against Nazi Germany. The authoritative source is [[Carl Brinitzer]]'s book "Hier spricht London". Brinitzer, a German lawyer from Hamburg living in exile in London, was a founding member. Another famous member of staff was [[Egon Jameson]] (Egon Jacobsson), a former [[Ullstein]] journalist from [[Berlin]].
Since [[1943]], the BBC has also provided radio programming to the [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]], which broadcasts in countries where British troops are stationed.
All of the national BBC radio stations, as well as the BBC World Service, are available over the [[Internet]] in the [[RealAudio]] streaming format. The BBC has also recently experimented with the [[free software|free]], [[open source]] [[Vorbis|Ogg Vorbis]] streaming audio format and [[podcasting]].
===Television===
{{main|BBC Television}}
[[BBC One]] and [[BBC Two]] are the BBC's flagship television channels. The BBC is also promoting the new channels [[BBC Three]] and [[BBC Four]], which are only available via [[digital television]]. The BBC also runs [[BBC News 24]], [[BBC Parliament]], and two children's channels, [[CBBC Channel|CBBC]] and [[CBeebies]]. The BBC's commercial subsidiary [[BBC Worldwide]] is also part of a joint venture with [[Flextech]] in the TV company [[UKTV]], and provides various channels for overseas markets, such as [[BBC World]], [[BBC Prime]], [[BBC America]], [[BBC Canada]] and [[BBC Kids]] (in Canada), and [[BBC Japan]].
Since [[1975]], the BBC has also provided its TV programmes to the [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]] (BFBS), allowing members of [[Military of the United Kingdom|HM Forces]] serving all over the world to watch and listen to their favourite programmes from home on two dedicated TV channels.
===Worldwide===
[[BBC Worldwide]] Limited is the wholly owned commercial subsidiary of the BBC responsible for the commercial exploitation of BBC programmes and other properties. It broadcasts television stations throughout the world. The cable and satellite stations [[BBC Prime]] (in [[Europe]], [[Africa]] the [[Middle East]], and [[Asia]]), [[BBC America]], [[BBC Canada]], and [[BBC Japan]] broadcast popular BBC programmes to |
Buddhist 13%, Christian 10%, indigenous beliefs and other 10%
===Languages===
:Malay (official), English, Chinese
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 93.9%
:Male: 96.3%
:Female: 91.4% (2002)
==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
[[Category:Demographics by country|Brunei]]
[[Category:Brunei]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Brunei</title>
<id>3660</id>
<revision>
<id>39367754</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T18:26:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Brunei}}
== Government ==
Under Brunei's [[1959]] [[constitution]], [[His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah]], is the [[head of state]] with full executive authority, including emergency powers since [[1962]]. The Sultan's role is enshrined in the national philosophy known as Melayu Islam Beraja (MIB), or [[Malaysia|Malay]] [[Islam]]ic [[Monarchy]].
== Executive ==
The [[Sultan]] is assisted and advised by five councils, which he appoints. A Council of Ministers, or cabinet, which currently consists of nine members (including the Sultan himself), assists in the administration of the government. The Sultan presides over the cabinet as Prime Minister and also holds the positions of Minister of Defence and Minister of Finance. One of the Sultan's brothers, Prince Mohamed, serves as Minister of Foreign Affairs. There are also three Councils appointed by the Sultan: a Religious Council, which advises on religious matters; a Privy Council, dealing with constitutional matters; and the Council of Succession that determines the succession to the throne should the need arise.
== Judiciary ==
Brunei's legal system is based on [[English common law]], with an independent judiciary, a body of written common law judgments and statutes, and legislation enacted by the [[Sultan]]. Most cases are tried by the local [[magistrate]]'s courts. More serious cases go before the High Court, which sits for about 2 weeks every few months. Brunei has an arrangement with the [[United Kingdom]] whereby United Kingdom judges are appointed as the judges for Brunei's High Court and Court of Appeal. Final appeal can be made to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] in [[London]] in civil but not criminal cases.
== Legislature ==
Under the 1959 constitution there was an elected Legislative Council, or ''Majlis Masyuarat Negeri'', but the last elections were held in [[1962]], after which it was dissolved following a state of emergency, which saw the banning of the ''Parti Rakyat Brunei'' (PRB) or Brunei People's Party. In 1970 the Council was changed to an appointed body by decree of the Sultan; an elected Legislative Council is being considered as part of constitutional reform, but elections are unlikely for several years.
{{Brunei composition}}
==Political parties and elections==
Brunei is currently one of the few countries in the world that does not hold elections at all. A [[Legislative Council of Brunei|Legislative Council]] has 20 appointed members with only consultative tasks.
Brunei doesn't allow political parties to take part in elections. The following illegal parties exist:
*[[Brunei National Solidarity Party]] (PPKB)
*[[Brunei People's Awareness Party]] (PAKAR)
Former parties include:
*[[Brunei National Democratic Party]]
*[[Brunei People's Party]] (Parti Rakyat Brunei)
==Territory Dispute==
Brunei has territory dispute with [[Malaysia]] and [[China]]. Brunei has claims territory in [[Sarawak]] and is one of many nations to lay claim to disputed [[Spratly Islands]].
==External links==
*[http://www.gov.bn Government of Brunei Darussalam Official Website]
*[http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/b/brunei/ Adam Carr's Election Archive]
[[Category:Politics of Brunei]]
[[Category:Lists of political parties|Brunei]]
[[Category:Political parties in Brunei]]
[[Category:Elections in Brunei]]
{{ASEAN}}
[[zh:文莱政治]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Brunei</title>
<id>3661</id>
<revision>
<id>34973603</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T03:03:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Earth</username>
<id>5128</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
{{Template:Economy of Brunei table}}
The [[Asian financial crisis]] in 1997 and 1998, coupled with fluctuations in the price of oil have created uncertainty and instability in [[Brunei]]'s economy. In addition, the 1998 collapse of the AMEDEO Corporation, Brunei's largest construction firm whose projects helped fuel the domestic economy, caused the country to slip into a mild recession.
Brunei is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia, averaging about 180,000 barrels (29,000 m&sup3;) a day. It also is the fourth-largest producer of liquefied natural gas in the world. Brunei's gross domestic product (GDP) soared with the petroleum price increases of the 1970s to a peak of $5.7 billion in 1980. It declined slightly in each of the next 5 years, then fell by almost 30% in 1986.
This drop was caused by a combination of sharply lower petroleum prices in world markets and voluntary production cuts in Brunei. The GDP recovered somewhat since 1986, growing by 12% in 1987, 1% in 1988, and 9% in 1989. In recent years, GDP growth was 3.5% in 1996, 4.0% in 1997, 1.0% in 1998, and an estimated 2.5% in 1999. However, the 1999 GDP was still only about $4.5 billion, well below the 1980 peak.
In the [[1970s]], Brunei invested sharply increasing revenues from petroleum exports and maintained government spending at a low and constant rate. Consequently, the government was able to build its foreign reserves and invest them around the world to help provide for future generations. Part of the reserve earnings were reportedly also used to help finance the government's annual budget deficit. Since 1986, however, petroleum revenues have decreased, and government spending has increased. The government has been running a budget deficit since 1988. The disappearance of a revenue surplus has made Brunei's economy more vulnerable to petroleum price fluctuations.
Brunei Shell Petroleum (BSP), a joint venture owned in equal shares by the Brunei Government and the [[Royal Dutch]]/Shell group of companies, is the chief oil and gas production company in Brunei. It also operates the country's only refinery. BSP and four sister companies constitute the largest employer in Brunei after the government. BSP's small refinery has a distillation capacity of 10,000 barrels (1,600 m&sup3;) per day. This satisfies domestic demand for most petroleum products.
The French oil company ELF Aquitaine, became active in petroleum exploration in Brunei in the 1980s. Known as Elf Petroleum Asia BV, it has discovered commercially exploitable quantities of oil and gas in three of the four wells drilled since 1987, including a particularly promising discovery announced in early 1990. Recently, UNOCAL, partnered with New Zealand's [[Fletcher Challenge]] has been granted concessions for oil exploration. Brunei is preparing to tender concessions for deep water oil and gas exploration.
Brunei's oil production peaked in 1979 at over 240,000 barrels (38,000 m&sup3;) per day. Since then it has been deliberately cut back to extend the life of oil reserves and improve recovery rates. Petroleum production is currently averaging 180,000 barrels (29,000 m&sup3;) per day. Japan has traditionally been the main customer for Brunei's oil exports, but its share dropped from 45% of the total in 1982 to 19% in 1998. In contrast, oil exports to South Korea increased from only 8% of the total in 1982 to 29% in 1998. Other major customers include [[Republic of China|Taiwan]] (6%), and the countries of ASEAN (27%). Brunei's oil exports to the United States accounted for 17% of the total exported.
Almost all of Brunei's natural gas is liquefied at Brunei Shell's Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) plant, which opened in 1972 and is one of the largest LNG plants in the world. Over 82% of Brunei's LNG produced is sold to Japan under a long-term agreement renewed in 1993. The agreement calls for Brunei to provide over 5 million tons of LNG per year to three Japanese utilities. The Japanese company, Mitsubishi, is a joint venture partner with Shell and the Brunei Government in Brunei LNG, Brunei Coldgas, and Brunei Shell Tankers, which together produce the LNG and supply it to Japan. Since 1995, Brunei has supplied more than 700,000 tons of LNG to the Korea Gas Corporation as well. In 1999, Brunei's natural gas production reached 90 cargoes per day. A small amount of natural gas is used for domestic power generation. Brunei is the fourth-largest exporter of LNG in the Asia-Pacific region behind Indonesia, Malaysia, and Australia.
Brunei's proven oil and gas reserves are sufficient until at least 2015, and planned deep sea exploration is expected to find significant new reserves. The government sought in the past decade to diversify the economy with limited success. Oil and gas and government spending still account for most of Brunei's economic activity. Brunei's non-petroleum industries include agriculture, forestry, fishing, and banking.
The government regulates the immigration of foreign labor out of concern it might disrupt Brunei's society. Work permits for foreigners are issued only for short periods and must be continually renewed. Despite these restrictions, foreigners make up a significant portion of the work force. The government reported a total work force of 122,800 in 1999, with an unemployment rate of 5.5%.
Oil and natural gas account for almost all exports. Since only a few products other than petroleum are produced locally, a wide variety of items must be imported. Brunei sta |
aster relief. This low overhead is remarkably low for such a large organization.
==International services==
The American Red Cross is involved with many international projects, such as the African Measles Initiative and the relief effort for the 2004 South Asia Tsunami disaster.
The Measles Initiative is a co-ordinated campaign with the US Centers for Disease Control, the World Health Organization and other public health groups, and aims to reduce measles deaths to zero in Africa. The campaign has achieved remarkable successes, in part due to the partnership with local goverments and vaccine producers which allow USD$ 1 to provide one child's measles vaccination. The program has been credited in reducing measles mortality and morbidity in the region, as well as boosting infrastructure for other vaccination and public health programs such as malaria prevention. The program has since been used in areas affected by the 2004 Asian Tsunami disaster.
The American Red Cross has a depot of pre-positioned emergency relief supplies in Dubai, Saudi Arabia, which was used to respond to the 2004 Asian tsunami disaster, as well as the 2005 Pakistan/South Asia Earthquakes.
The American Red Cross handles international tracing requests and searches for families who have been separated by war or disaster and are trying to locate relatives worldwide. This is not a genealogical service but one that attempts to establish contact between family members who knew each other at the time of the war related separation. Tracing services also provide the exchange of hand written Red Cross Messages between individuals and their relatives who may be refugees or prisoners of war. At any given time the American Red Cross tracing program is handling the aftermath of 20-30 wars, conflicts, etc. When new information from many former Soviet Union archives became available in 1990s, a special unit was created to handle World War II/Holocaust tracing services [http://english.its-arolsen.org/ (See International Tracing Service)]. The world-wide structure of national Red Cross, Red Crescent societies, the Magen David Adom of Israel and the International Committee of the Red Cross make this service possible.
==Armed Forces Emergency Services==
Although not a government agency, the American Red Cross provides important services to the United States military. The most notable service is emergency family communications, where families can contact the Red Cross to send important family messages (e.g. death in the family, or new birth). In such cases, the Red Cross can also act as a verifying agency of the situation. The American Red Cross works closely with other military societies, such as the Veteran's Administration, to provide other services to soldiers and their families. The American Red Cross is not involved with [[prisoners of war]]; rather, these are monitored by the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]], an international rather than national body.
A persistent comment by many veterans of World War II is their memory of the American Red Cross selling "comfort items" such as toothpaste and cigarettes to the troops. The American Red Cross acknowledges that they did indeed sell such items, and the unfortunate repercussions have marred the agency's name for many years. In response to such allegations, the American Red Cross responds with these facts, indicating that the organization did not initially want to charge for such products:
* At the request of the Secretary of War, the American Red Cross charged a nominal fee for coffee and doughnuts, as well as for lodging, barber and valet services, in stationary military installations overseas. It did not charge in mobile facilities such as Clubmobiles.
* This request was made because other agencies working overseas were compelled to charge for similar items. Giving these items free to U.S. service members would, it was feared, demoralize Allied troops.
* The official War Department recommendation was made in a letter dated May 20, 1942, written by Mr. Stimson, Secretary of War, and addressed to the Chairman of The American National Red Cross.
== Clara Barton National Historic Site ==
In [[1975]], [[Clara Barton National Historic Site]] was established as a unit of the [[National Park Service]] at her Glen Echo, Maryland home near [[Washington, D.C.]] The first National Historic Site dedicated to the accomplishments of a woman, it preserves the early history of the American Red Cross and the last home of its founder. Clara Barton spent the last 15 years of her life in her Glen Echo home, and it served as an early headquarters of the American Red Cross as well.
The National Park Service has restored eleven rooms, including the Red Cross offices, parlors and Miss Barton's bedroom. Visitors to Clara Barton National Historic Site can gain a sense of how Miss Barton lived and worked surrounded by all that went into her life's work. Visitors to the site are led through the three levels on a guided tour emphasizing Miss Barton's use of her unusual home, and come to appreciate the site in the same way visitors did in Clara Barton's lifetime. [http://www.nps.gov/clba/house.htm]
==Further reading==
*[[Foster Rhea Dulles]] ''American Red Cross'' (Harper & Brothers, 1950)
==See also==
*[[Red Cross]]
*[[First aid]]
*[[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]]
*[[List of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]]
*[[Johnstown Flood]]
==External links==
*[http://www.redcross.org Official website]
*[https://www.givelife.org Blood Donations]
*[http://www.blitzkriegbaby.de/ ARC history and WWII women's uniforms in color] &mdash; WWII US women's service organizations (ARC, WAC, WAVES, ANC, NNC, USMCWR, PHS, SPARS and WASP)]
[[Category:American charities]]
[[Category:Red Cross]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexius</title>
<id>1887</id>
<revision>
<id>21780908</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-25T04:48:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Boojum</username>
<id>66698</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv blanking</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There have been several people named '''Alexius'''
* [[Alexius I Comnenus]] ([[1048]]-[[1118]]), [[Byzantine emperor]]
* [[Alexius II Comnenus]] ([[1167]]-[[1183]]), Byzantine emperor
* [[Alexius III]], Byzantine emperor
* [[Alexius IV]], Byzantine emperor
* [[Alexius V]], Byzantine emperor
* [[Alexius I of Trebizond]], [[Empire of Trebizond|Emperor of Trebizond]]
* [[Alexius II of Trebizond]], Emperor of Trebizond
* [[Alexius III of Trebizond]], Emperor of Trebizond
* [[Alexius IV of Trebizond]], Emperor of Trebizond
* [[Alexius Mikhailovich]] ([[1629]]-[[1676]]), [[tsar]] of [[Russia]]
* [[Alexius Petrovich]] ([[1690]]-[[1718]]), [[Russia]]n tsarevich
* [[Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow]], ([[1354]]-[[1378]])
* [[Patriarch Alexius II]] ([[1990]]-present), [[Patriarch of Moscow]] and all [[Russia]]
* [[Saint Alexius]]
{{disambig}}
[[nl:Alexius]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ban on assault rifles</title>
<id>1889</id>
<revision>
<id>15900350</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-11T01:58:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Federal assault weapons ban]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American English</title>
<id>1890</id>
<revision>
<id>41910104</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:32:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adrian Robson</username>
<id>265480</id>
</contributor>
<comment>"far be it from me" not a good example as this used all the time in Britain</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
'''American English''' ('''AmE''') is the [[dialect]] of the [[English language]] used mostly in the [[United States|United States of America]]. It is estimated that approximately two thirds of [[first language|native speakers]] of English live in the [[United States]].{{ref|Crystal}} American English is also sometimes called '''United States English''' or '''U.S. English'''.
==History==
English was inherited from [[British colonization of the Americas|British colonization]]. The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America in the 17th century. In that century, there were also speakers in North America of the [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], myriad [[Native American languages|Native American]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Scots language|Scots]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] languages.
==Phonology==
{{IPA notice}}
In many ways, compared to [[British English]], American English is conservative in its [[phonology]]. The conservatism of American English is largely the result of the fact that it represents a mixture of various dialects from the British Isles. Dialect in North America is most distinctive on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] of the continent; this is largely because these areas were in contact with England, and imitated prestigious varieties of British English at a time when those varieties were undergoing changes. The interior of the country was settled by people who were no longer closely connected to England, as they had no access to the ocean during a time when journeys to Britain were always by sea. As such the inland speech is much more homogeneous than the East Coast speech, and did not imitate the changes in speech from England.
[[Image:Non rhotic-whites-usa.png|thumb|left|The red areas are those where non-rhotic pronunciations are found among some whites in the [[United States]]. [[African American Vernacular English|AAVE]]-influenced non-rhotic pronunciations may be f |
he [[squirrel]]s (Sciuridae), agreeing in certain structural peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull. In the Sciuridae the two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower half of the leg are quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the habits are arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or Castoridae these bones are in close contact at their lower ends, the tail is depressed, expanded and scaly, and the habits are aquatic.
[[Image:Beaver dam in Tierra del Fuego.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tierra del Fuego]].]]
Beavers have webbed hind-feet, and the claw of the second hind-toe double. They have poor eyesight, but a keen sense of hearing, smell, and touch.
In length beavers--European and American--measure about 2 ft. exclusive of the tail, which is about 10 inches long. They are covered with a fur to which they owe their chief commercial value; this consists of two kinds of hair--the one close-set, silky and of a greyish colour, the other much coarser and longer, and of a reddish brown.
Beavers are essentially aquatic in their habits, never travelling by land unless driven by necessity. Formerly common in England, the European beaver has
not only been exterminated there, but likewise in most of the countries of the continent, although a few remain on the [[Elbe]], the [[Rhone River|Rhone]] and in parts of Scandinavia. The American species
is also greatly diminished in numbers from incessant pursuit for the sake of its valuable fur.
Beavers are sociable animals, living in streams, where, so as to render the water of sufficient depth, they build dams of mud and of the stems and boughs of trees felled by their powerful incisor teeth. In the neighbourhood they make their "lodges," which are roomy chambers, with the entrance beneath the water. The mud is plastered down by the fore-feet, and not, as often supposed, by the tail, which is employed solely as a rudder.
They are mainly nocturnal, and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the roots of water plants.
[[image:Beaver_dam_in_Fossil_Butte_NM-750px.JPG|thumb|left|250px|[[Fossil Butte National Monument]].]]
[[Image:Peche_2005-07-19_039.jpg|thumb|250px|A beaver lodge north of [[Saguenay, Quebec]].]]
The dam differs in shape according to the nature of particular localities. Where the water has little motion it is almost straight; where the current is considerable it is curved, with its convexity towards the stream. The materials made use of are [[driftwood]], [[willow|green willow]]s, [[birch]] and poplars; also mud and stones intermixed in such a manner as contributes to the strength of the dam; but there is no particular method observed, except that the work is carried on with a regular sweep, and that all the parts are made of equal strength.
"In places," writes Hearne, "which have been long frequented by beavers undisturbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank, capable of resisting a great force both of ice and water; and as the willow, poplar and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I have seen in some places so tall that birds have built their nests among the branches."
Their houses are formed of the same materials as the dams, with little order or regularity of structure, and seldom contain more than four old, and six or eight young beavers. It not unfrequently happens that some of the larger houses have one or more partitions, but these are only posts of the main building left by the builders to support the roof, for the apartments have usually no communication with each other except by water.
[[Image:BeaverDam 8409.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Lassen Volcanic National Park]].]]
The beavers carry the mud and stones with their fore-paws and the timber between their teeth. They always work in the night and with great expedition. They cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud, which, freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone, so that neither [[wolf|wolves]] nor [[wolverine]]s can disturb their repose.
The favourite food of the American beaver is the [[water-lily]] (''Nuphar luteum''), which bears a resemblance to a [[cabbage]]-stalk, and grows at the bottom of lakes and rivers. Beavers also gnaw the bark of [[birch]], [[poplar]] and [[willow]] trees; but during the summer a more varied herbage, with the addition of berries, is consumed.
When the ice breaks up in spring they always leave their embankments, and rove about until a little before the fall of the leaf, when they return to their old habitations, and lay in their winter stock of wood. They seldom begin to repair the houses till the frost sets in, and never finish the outer coating till the cold becomes severe. When they erect a new habitation they fell the wood early in summer, but seldom begin building till towards the end of August.
Castoreum is a substance contained in two pear-shaped pouches situated near the organs of reproduction, of a bitter taste and slightly foetid odour, at one time largely employed as a medicine, but now used only in [[perfume|perfumery]].
Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other superficial deposits of England and the continent of Europe; while in the [[Pleistocene]] formations of England and Siberia occur remains of a giant extinct beaver, ''Trogontherium cuvieri'', representing a genus by itself.
==Reference==
*[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=180211 ITIS 180211] 2002-12-14
== External links ==
* [http://www.BeaversWW.org Beavers: Wetlands & Wildlife website]
* [http://www.cgkids.ca/cgkids/animal/2005_01_beaver.asp Animal fact sheets] [[Canadian Geographic]] Kids
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/o1_e.cfm Canadian Heritage - the beaver as a national symbol]
* [http://www.scotsbeavers.org A website about reintroducing the beaver to Scotland]
* [http://purl.galileo.usg.edu/ugafax/QL737xR6xD84 The romance of the beaver;] being the history of the beaver in the western hemisphere, by A. Radclyffe Dugmore. Illustrated with photographs from life and drawings by the author. Publisher: Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott company; London, W. Heinemann [[1914]] ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries)''
{{1911}}
[[Category:Beavers]]
[[Category:Fur trade]]
[[ar:قندس]]
[[bg:Бобри]]
[[da:Bæver]]
[[de:Biber]]
[[et:Kobras]]
[[es:Castor]]
[[eo:Kastoro]]
[[fr:Castor (animal)]]
[[ko:비버]]
[[he:בונה (בעל חיים)]]
[[lt:Bebriniai]]
[[nl:Bevers]]
[[ja:ビーバー]]
[[no:Bever]]
[[pl:Bóbr (zwierzę)]]
[[pt:Castor]]
[[ru:Бобровые]]
[[fi:Majavat]]
[[sv:Bävrar]]
[[tr:Kunduz]]
[[uk:Бобер]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bear</title>
<id>4400</id>
<revision>
<id>42055453</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:19:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SundarBot</username>
<id>648410</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ta</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Bear
| image = Kodiak_Brown_Bear.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Kodiak [[Brown Bear]]''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = '''Ursidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Johann Fischer von Waldheim|G. Fischer de Waldheim]], 1817
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
''[[Ailuropoda]]''<br />
''[[Ursus (biology)|Ursus]]''<br />
''[[Tremarctos]]''<br />
''[[Arctodus]]'' (extinct)
}}
A '''bear''' is a large [[mammal]] of the order [[Carnivore|Carnivora]], family '''Ursidae'''. The adjective, ''ursine'', is used to describe things of bearlike nature.
==Physical attributes==
Common characteristics of bears include a short tail, excellent senses of smell and hearing, five un-retractable claws, and long, dense, shaggy fur.
Bears have a large body with powerful limbs. They are capable of standing up on their hind legs. They have broad paws, long snouts, and round ears. Their teeth are used for defense and tools and depend on the diet of the bear. Their claws are used for ripping, digging, and catching. A bear's eyesight is probably similar in acuity (sharpness) to the human eye. [[Black bear]]s, and likely other bears, have color vision to help them identify fruits and nuts.
Depending on the species, bears can have 32 to 42 teeth. Bear teeth are not specialized for killing their prey like those of cats. Normal canine teeth in a carnivore are generally large and pointed used for killing prey, while bears' canine teeth are relatively small and typically used in defense or as tools. Bears' molar teeth are broad, flat and are used to shred and grind plant food into small digestable pieces.
Bears have four limbs that end in paws. Each paw has five long, sharp claws that are unretractible, unlike cats. These claws can be used to climb trees, rip open termite nests and beehives, dig up roots, or catch prey, depending on the species. While most carnivores tend to walk on their toes in a way that is adapted for speed, bears have a plantigrade stance. They walk with their weight on the soles of their hindfeet, with the heel touching the ground, while the toes of the forefeet are used more for balance. Although slower than most carnivores, a running bear can reach speeds of up to 50 km/h (30 mph). They are also stronger than most carnivores and their limbs are more flexible and agile.
A bear's fur is long and shaggy. Fur color varies among species, ranging from white, blonde or cream, to black, and white to all black or all brown. Colors of a bear's fur can also vary within species. For example, American black bears may be black, brown, reddish-brown, or bluish-black. Several species, such as the [[sun bear]] and [[spectacled bear]] have a light-colored chest with facial markings.
In all bear species, males are larger than females, but the dif |
ia."[http://www.netanyahu.org/golanheights.html] Neither the [[UN]] nor any country has recognised the "annexation" and they officially consider the Heights to be Syrian territory under Israeli [[military occupation]]. This view was expressed in the unanimous [[UN Security Council Resolution 497]] stating that "the Israeli decision to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration in the occupied Syrian Golan Heights is null and void and without international legal effect." It, like other relevant UN resolutions takes care to not explicitly call it an "annexation", referring at most to Israel's "annexationist policies."
Additionally, [[Lebanon]] claims a small portion of the area known as [[Shebaa Farms]] on [[Mount Dov]] in the area of Mount Hermon. Syria's position on the subject is unclear. Syria's foreign minister has orally declared that the Shebaa farms are Lebanese, but Syria has refused to notify the UN of its position officially. Thus, from the UN perspective, Shebaa remains Syrian until the Syrian government confirm its position through official channels. [[UN Security Council Resolution 425]] confirmed ([http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2000/20000618.sc6878.doc.html]) that as of [[June 16]] [[2000]], Israel had completely withdrawn its forces from Lebanon, thereby indirectly designating the farms as part of the Golan, and therefore Syrian territory. The reason behind this diplomatical imbroglio is that Syria fears that recognizing the Shebaa territory as Lebanese will allow Lebanon to negotiate a separate deal with Israel.
[[UNDOF]] (the [[United Nations]] Disengagement Observer Force) was established in 1974 to supervise the implementation of the disengagement agreement and maintain the ceasefire with an area of separation. Currently there are more than 1000 U.N peacekeepers there trying to sustain a lasting peace. Syria and Israel still contest the ownership of the Heights but have not used overt military force since 1974. The great strategic value of the Heights both militarily and as a source of water means that a deal is uncertain.
Members of the UN Disengagement force are usually the only individuals who cross the Israeli-Syrian border, but since 1988, Israel has allowed Druze pilgrims to cross the border to visit the shrine of [[Abel]] in Syria. In 2005, Syria allowed a few trucks of Druze-grown Golan apples to be imported. The trucks themselves were driven by Kenyan nationals. Since 1967, brides have been allowed to cross the Golan border, but they do so in the knowledge that the journey is a one-way trip. This phenomenon is shown in the Israeli-Arab film "The Syrian Bride." The Golan Heights contains the only [[skiing|ski]] resort under Israeli control[http://galleries.news24.com/daily/20040120/18.asp] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/3393813.stm], and the extreme-weather unit of the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]], the [[Alpinistim]], train there.
Some [[Jews]] and [[Zionist]] organizations consider the Golan Heights to be liberated [[Jewish]] land; this view has very little support internationally. No other country has accepted the legality of the [[Israeli settlement]]s in the Golan Heights.
== Ancient history ==
The area has been occupied by many civilizations. During the [[3rd millennium BC | 3rd millennium BCE]] the [[Amorite]]s dominated and inhabited the Golan until the 2nd millennium, when the [[Arameans]] took over. Later known as [[Bashan]], the area was contested between [[Kingdom of Israel]] (the northern of the two Jewish kingdoms existent at that time) and the Aramean kingdom from the [[800s BCE]]. King [[Ahab]] of Israel (reigned [[870s BCE|874]]&ndash;[[850s BCE|852 BCE]]) defeated Ben-Hadad I in the southern Golan.
In the [[700s BCE]] the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] gained control of the area, but were later replaced by the [[Babylonian]] and the [[Persian Empire]]. In the [[5th century BCE]], the region was settled by returning Jewish exiles from [[Babylonian Captivity]] (modern [[Iraq]]).
In the [[4th century BCE]], the area came under the control of [[Alexander the Great]] and remained under [[Hellenistic]] rule until captured by the Romans. In the mid [[2nd century BCE]], [[Judah Maccabee]] aided the local [[Jew]]ish communities when they came under attack, although the area itself was not in Jewish hands.
The area was named ''Golan'' following the Roman occupation&mdash;the Greeks referred to the area as "Gaulanitis", the term used by the Romans, which led to the word "Golan". The [[Nabataeans]] gained control of the area in [[85 BCE]]. The area was later captured by the Romans after they took Nabatea. During the [[Great Jewish Revolt|First Revolt]] ([[66]]-[[73]] CE) against Rome by the [[Jew]]s of [[Judea]], a number of Jews captured a hilltop at [[Gamla]], which later fell; the hilltop is today called the "[[Masada]] of the Golan".
In about 250 CE, the [[Ghassanids]] immigrated to the modern-day Golan and built their capital at [[Jabiyah]]. Their kingdom extended southward to the [[Hijaz]] and they controlled most of the Levant's trade routs. After the partitioning of the Roman Empire in 391 CE, the Golan Heights fell under the sphere of the [[Byzantine Empire]], under the rule of their [[vassal]]s, the Ghassanids. The area came under a short-lived [[Sassanid]] occupation that started in 614 and ended in approximately 628. In 636, the area was conquered by [[Muslim]] [[Arabs]] under the [[Caliph]] [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar I]]. In the 15th and 16th centuries, [[Druze]] began to settle the northern Golan and the slopes of [[Mount Hermon]]. In the 16th century, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turks came in control of the area and remained so until the end of [[World War I]].
In the 1880s, a Jewish community called Ramataniya was founded by early [[Zionist]]s; it failed within a year.
== History since World War I ==
[[Image:majdalshams.jpg|thumb|300px|Majdal Shams, an [[Arab]] [[Druze]] village in the Golan Heights]]
[[Image:New community on the Golan .jpg|thumbnail|300px|New construction on the Golan Heights, c. 1978]]
The boundary between the forthcoming [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[France|French]] mandates was defined in broad terms by the [[Franco-British Boundary Agreement]] of December 1920. This placed most of the Golan in the French sphere. However, the joint commission formed to demarcate the border precisely did not complete its work until 1923, so the actual transfer of the Golan to French control did not occur until the year after the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] came into being. In accordance with the same process, a nearby parcel of land that included the ancient site of [[Dan]] was transferred from Syria to Palestine early in 1924. The Golan Heights thus became part of the [[French Mandate of Syria]] and, when that mandate ended in 1944, part of the new independent state of Syria. They remained under Syrian control until 1967.
After the 1948-49 [[1948 Arab-Israeli War|Arab-Israeli War]],the Golan Heights were partly demilitarized by the [[1949 Armistice Agreements | Israel-Syria Armistice Agreement]]. Over the following years the Mixed Armistice Commission (which oversaw the implementation of the [[1949 Armistice Agreements | Israel-Syria Armistice Agreement]]) reported many violations by each side. The Syrians fortified positions on the Heights, from which they shelled civilian targets in Israel and launched other attacks for the next 18 years. Before the Six-Day War the strategic heights of the Golan, which are approximately 3000 ft (1000 m) above pre-1967 Israel, were used to frequently bombard civilian Israeli farming communities far below them, although [[Moshe Dayan]] (Israeli Defense Minister during the 1967 war) would later state that it was most often the result of Israeli provocations in the demilitarized zone. According to the ''[[Washington Report on Middle East Affairs]]'', former Israeli General Matityahu Peled claimed that more than half of the border clashes before the 1967 war "were a result of our security policy of maximum settlement in the demilitarized area"[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/1191/9111023.htm]. [[Image:Syrian-bunker.jpg|thumb|right|View from an old Syrian [[bunker]] overlooking Israeli territory]]140 Israelis were killed and many more were injured in these attacks from 1949 to 1967.
During the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967 Syria's shelling greatly intensified and the [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli army]] captured the Golan Heights on [[Six-Day War#Golan Heights|9-10 June]]. The area which came under Israeli control as a result of the war is two geologically distinct areas: the Golan Heights proper (1,070 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]) and the slopes of the Mt. Hermon range (100 km&sup2;).
About 90% (147,000) of the Golan's inhabitants, mainly [[Druze]] Arabs and [[Circassians]], fled during the [[Six-Day War]]. For various political reasons, Israel has not allowed them to return [http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/062000/0006010.html]. This has led to the splitting of many families.
Israel began settling the Golan almost immediately following the war. Kibbutz [[Merom Golan]] was founded in July 1967. By 1970 there were 12 Jewish communities on the Golan and by 2004 there were 34 settlements holding around 18,000 people.
[[Image:300px-GolanHeights-tank.jpg|thumb|Abandoned [[Centurion tank]] in the Golan Heights]]
During the [[Yom Kippur War]] in 1973, Syrian forces overran much of the southern Golan, before being pushed back by an Israeli counterattack. Israel and Syria signed a ceasefire agreement in 1974 that left almost all the Heights in Israeli hands, while returning a narrow demilitarized zone to Syrian control.
The Syrian citizens who remained in the area after it was captured by Israel in 1967 were require |
e [[left-handed]] players. However, all these features came at a very high price point, which drove consumers to seek cheaper alternatives. The Lynx was also very unwieldy (due to [[Focus group|focus groups]] requesting the machine be bigger so it felt like they "got their money's worth"), consumed batteries very quickly and lacked the third-party support of the alternatives. Due to a high price, short battery life, production shortages, a dearth of compelling games, and Nintendo's aggressive marketing campaign, and despite a redesign in [[1991]], the Lynx became a [[List of commercial failures in computer and video gaming|commercial failure]].
====Sega Game Gear====
{{main|Game Gear}}
[[Image:Sega_GameGear.jpg|right|thumbnail|Sega GameGear]]
In response to the Game Boy's success, work began on several handhelds that aimed to capitalize on what was seen to be the Game Boy's main weakness: inadequate graphic quality. The [[Sega]] Game Gear was released in late [[1990]], and featured a backlit color display, like the Lynx's. The Game Gear's internal architecture was almost identical to the [[Sega Master System]] console (the Game Gear had 4096 possible colors versus the Master System's 256), which allowed Sega to quickly release a large number of games that had originally been written for the older system. The Game Gear had the same drawbacks as the Lynx, however, and although it fared a bit better(aprox. 10 mil. units sold worldwide), it also failed to impact the Game Boy's dominance.
Several other attempts to compete with the Game Boy were made, such as the [[NEC TurboExpress]], [[Supervision (handheld game console)|Supervision]], and [[Neo Geo Pocket]]. Despite technologically superior hardware in almost all of these systems, especially by the mid-1990s, none were ever a close competitor to the Game Boy.
====NEC TurboExpress====
{{main|TurboExpress}}
The '''TurboExpress''' was a portable version of the TurboGrafx, released in [[1990]] for $249.99 (the price was briefly raised to $299.99, soon dropped back to $249.99, and by [[1992]] it was $199.99). Its Japanese equivalent was the [[PC Engine GT]].
[[image:turbo_express.jpg|thumbnail|TurboExpress handheld, TV tuner, and games]]
It was the most advanced handheld of its time and could play all the [[TurboGrafx-16]]'s games(which were on a small, credit-card sized media called HuCards). It had a 66 mm (2.6 in.) screen, the same as the original [[Game Boy]], and could display 64 [[Sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s at once, 16 per scanline, in 512 (some say only 482?) colors. It had 64 kilobytes of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]]. The Turbo ran its two 6820 [[Central processing unit|CPUs]] at 3.58 [[megahertz|MHz]] in parallel.
The optional "TurboVision" TV tuner included RCA audio/video input, allowing you to use TurboExpress as a video monitor. The "TurboLink" allowed two-player play. ''Falcon'', a flight simulator, included a "head-to-head" dogfight mode that could only be accessed via TurboLink. However, very few TG-16 games offered co-op play modes especially designed with the TurboExpress in mind.
====Neo-Geo Pocket====
{{main|Neo Geo Pocket}}
[[Image:NeoGeoPocketMonochrome.jpg|right|thumb|Neo Geo Pocket (Monochrome)]]
The '''Neo Geo Pocket''' was [[SNK Playmore|SNK]]'s original [[hand held console|hand held system]]. It was released in [[Japan]] in late [[1998]], and discontinued in [[1999]], with the advent of the [[Neo Geo Pocket Color]], due to lower than expected sales with the Monochrome Neo Geo Pocket.
The system was only released within the Japanese and Hong Kong market. Even though it had a short life, there were some significant games released on the system such as ''[[Samurai Shodown]]'', and ''[[King of Fighters|King of Fighters R-1]]''.
The Neo Geo Pocket can play many of the newer color games. There are, however, notable exceptions such as ''[[Sonic the Hedgehog Pocket Adventure]]'' or ''[[SNK vs. series|SNK vs. Capcom: Match Of The Millennium]]''. Since the newer [[Neo Geo Pocket Color]] is fully backwards compatible, it does play all the Neo Geo Pocket cartridges.
===Late 1990s===
The Game Boy was nine years old before it got its first significant makeover. In [[1998]], the [[Game Boy Color]] was released. It used the smaller and lighter form-factor of the [[Game Boy Pocket]], but featured a full color screen. It was also backwards-compatible, so that it could play not only games specifically made for the Game Boy Color, but standard Game Boy games as well. It did not have significantly more computing power than the Game Boy, however.
By this time, the lack of significant development in Nintendo's product line began allowing more advanced systems such as the [[Neo Geo Pocket Color]] and the [[Wonderswan Color]] to achieve moderate success.
====Game Boy Color====
{{main|Game Boy Color}}
[[Image:Gameboy_color.jpg|thumb|240px|The Game Boy Color was the first handheld by Nintendo featuring Colors.]]The '''Game Boy Color''' (also referred to as '''GBC''') is [[Nintendo]]'s successor to the [[Game Boy]] and was released on [[October 21]], [[1998]] in [[Japan]] and in [[November]] [[1998]] in the [[United States]]. It features a color screen, and is only slightly larger than the [[Game Boy#Game Boy Pocket|Game Boy Pocket]]. The processor is twice as fast as a Game Boy's, and has twice as much memory. It also had an [[infrared]] communications port for wireless linking which did not appear in later versions of the Game Boy, such as the [[Game Boy Advance]].
The Game Boy Color was a response to pressure from game developers for a new system, as they felt that the Game Boy, even in its latest incarnation, the Game Boy Pocket, was insufficient. The resultant product was backward compatible, a first for a handheld console system, and leveraged the large library of games and great installed base of the predecessor system. This became a major feature of the Game Boy line, since it allowed each new launch to begin with a significantly larger library than any of its competitors.
The console was capable of showing up to 56 different colors simultaneously on screen from its palette of 32,768, and could add basic four-color shading to games that had been developed for the original Game Boy. It could also give the sprites and backgrounds separate colors, for a total of more than four colors. However, this resulted in graphic anomalies in certain games where a sprite that was supposed to meld into the background was now colored separate, giving it away.
====Neo-Geo Pocket Color====
{{main|Neo Geo Pocket Color}}
[[Image:Neo_geo_pocket_color.png|thumb|200px|Neo Geo Pocket Color]]
The [[Neo Geo Pocket Color]] (or '''NGPC''') was released in [[1998]] in Japan. It was a 16-bit color [[hand held console|hand held game console]] designed by [[SNK Playmore|SNK]], the makers of the [[Neo Geo]] home console and arcade machine. It came after SNK's original [[Neo Geo Pocket]] monochrome handheld, which debuted in 1998 in Japan (and was released in the USA in 1999).
In [[2000]] following SNK's purchase by Japanese [[Pachinko]] manufacturer Aruze, the Neo Geo Pocket Color was dropped from both the United States and European markets, purportedly due to commercial failure. Remaining stock was bought back by SNK for repackaging in Asia. Before SNK was bought out, the Neo Geo Pocket Color was being advertised on US television and units were being sold nationally in [[Wal-Mart]], [[Best Buy]], [[Toys "R" Us]], and other large retail chains. In June 2000 SNK of America (and Europe) tried recalling most of the backstock of systems and games to be flashed and re-sold in Asia where the system would continue to be sold and supported. Some of the backstock of US NGPC hardware and software started showing up back on the marketplace in the US and Asia in 2003. These units frequently appear bundled with six games, and are readily available online, and are sometimes available in video game stores. Neo Geo Pocket Colors have been seen in many Discovery Channel Stores as of the holiday season. They are retailing for $75 with 8 Games.
The system seemed well on its way to being a success in the US. Indeed, it enjoyed a greater success than any [[Game Boy]] competitor since [[Sega]]'s [[Sega Game Gear|Game Gear]]. However, it was hurt by several factors, such as the Neo Geo heads' legendary lack of communication with third-party developers, and anticipation of the [[Game Boy Advance]]. The decision to ship American games in cardboard boxes in a cost cutting move rather than the much loved hard plastic cases that Japanese and European releases were shipped in may have also hurt the American sales.
====Wonderswan Color====
{{main|Wonderswan Color}}
[[Image:WonderswanColor.jpg|thumb|200px|WonderSwan Color]]
The '''WonderSwan Color''' is a [[handheld game console]] designed by [[Bandai]]. It was released on [[December 30]], [[2000]] in [[Japan]], and was a moderate success.
The original [[WonderSwan]] had only a black and white screen. Although the WonderSwan Color was slightly larger and heavier (7 mm and 2 g) compared to the original WonderSwan, the color version featured 512K of [[Random access memory|RAM]] and a larger color [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] screen. In addition, the WonderSwan Color is compatible with the original WonderSwan library of games.
Prior to WonderSwan's release, [[Nintendo]] had virtually a monopoly in the Japanese video game handheld market. After the release of the WonderSwan Color, Bandai took approximately 8% of the market share in Japan partly due to its low price of 6800 yen (approximately $65 [[U.S. Dollars]]).
Another reason for the WonderSwan's success in Japan was the fact that Bandai managed to get a deal with [[Square Co., Ltd.|Squaresoft]] to port over the original [[Famicom]] ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' games with improved graphics and controls. However, with the popularity of the [[ |
ristian Schools'' by Andrew Fleming West ISBN 083711635X
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Alcuin}}
{{wikiquote}}
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[[bg:Алкуин]]
[[da:Alcuin]]
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[[es:Alcuino de York]]
[[fr:Alcuin]]
[[gl:Alcuino de York]]
[[nl:Alcuinus]]
[[ja:アルクィン]]
[[pl:Alkuin]]
[[pt:Alcuíno de Iorque]]
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[[uk:Алкуін]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angilbert</title>
<id>1409</id>
<revision>
<id>41299126</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T10:48:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chris93</username>
<id>399696</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Angilbert,''' (died [[February 18]], [[814]]), was a [[Franks|Frank]] who served [[Charlemagne]] as a diplomat, abbot, and semi-son-in-law.
He was of noble Frankish parentage, and educated at the palace school under [[Alcuin]].
When Charlemagne sent his young son [[Pepin of Italy|Pepin]] to Italy as King of the [[Lombards]] Angilbert went along as ''primicerius palatii,'' a high administrator of the satellite court. As the friend and adviser of Pepin, he assisted for a while in the government of Italy. Angilbert delivered the document on [[Iconoclasm]] from the Frankish Synod of Frankfurt to [[Pope Adrian I]], and was later sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796.
In [[790]] he was named abbot of Saint-Riquier in northern France (often called by its Roman name, Centula), where his brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint. It was not uncommon for the [[Merovingian]], [[Carolingian]], or later kings to make laymen abbots of monasteries; the layman would often use the income of the monastery as his own and leave the monks a bare minimum for the necessary expenses of the foundation. Angilbert, in contrast, spent a great deal rebuilding Saint-Riquier, and when he completed it Charlemagne spent Easter of the year 800 there.
Angilbert's non-sacramental relationship with Bertha was evidently recognized by the court - if she had not been the daughter of the King historians might refer to her as his ''concubine.'' They had at least two sons, one of whom, [[Nithard]], became a notable figure in the mid-9th century. Control of [[marriage]] and the meanings of legitimacy were hotly contested in the [[Middle Ages]]. Bertha and Angilbert are an example of how resistance to the idea of a sacramental marriage could coincide with holding church offices.
His poems reveal the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied Charlemagne to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 814. Angilbert was the [[Homer]] of the emperor's literary circle, and was the probable author of an [[epic poetry|epic]], of which the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from [[Virgil]], [[Ovid]], [[Lucan]] and [[Fortunatus]], composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius, and exhibits a true poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the [[Avars]] (796), an epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation.
Angilbert's poems have been published by [[E. Dummler]] in the ''[[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]]''. For criticisms of this edition see [[Traube]] in ''Roederer's Schriften für germanische Philologie'' (1888). See also [[A. Molinier]], ''Les Sources de l'histoire de France''.
{{1911}}
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[[de:Angilbert]]
[[fr:Saint Angilbert]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antony van Leeuwenhoek</title>
<id>1410</id>
<revision>
<id>15899895</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:59:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment> #REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amine</title>
<id>1412</id>
<revision>
<id>42095651</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:19:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>V8rik</username>
<id>195918</id>
</contributor>
<comment>By [[organic oxidation|oxidation]] to [[nitroso]] compounds, for instance [[Peroxymonosulfuric acid]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:ammonia.png|frame|Ammonia]]
'''Amines''' are [[organic compound]]s and a type of [[functional group]] that contain [[nitrogen]] as the key atom. Structurally amines resemble [[ammonia]], wherein one or more [[hydrogen]] atoms are replaced by organic [[substituent]]s such as [[alkyl]] and [[aryl]] groups. An important exception to this rule is that compounds of the type RC(O)NR<sub>2</sub>, where the C(O) refers to a [[carbonyl group]], are called [[amide]]s rather than amines. Amides and amines have different structures and properties, so the distinction is chemically important. Somewhat confusing is the fact that amines wherein an N-H group has been replaced by an N-M group (M = metal) are also called amides. Thus (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>NLi is lithium dimethylamide.
See the [[:Category:Amines]] for a list of types of amine and some real examples of this class of chemical.
==Introduction==
===Aliphatic Amines===
As displayed in the images below, '''primary amines''' arise when one of three hydrogen atoms in ammonia is replaced by an organic substituent. '''Secondary amines''' have two organic substituents bound to N together with one H. In '''tertiary amines''' all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic substituents. Note: the subscripts on the '''R''' groups are simply used to differentiate the organic substituents <!--superscripts are preferred-->. However, the number subscripts on the H atoms show how many H atoms there are in that group.
{| border="0" spacing="5" align="center"
|- valign="top"
| '''Primary Amine:'''<br />[[image:amina1.png|75px|primary amine]]
| '''Secondary Amine:'''<br />[[image:amina2.png|75px|secondary amine]]
| '''Tertiary Amine:'''<br />[[image:amina3.png|75px|tertiary amine]]
|}
Similarly, an organic compound with multiple amino groups is called a '''diamine''' , '''triamine''', '''tetraamine''' and so forth.
===Aromatic amines===
Aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an [[aromatic]] ring as in [[aniline]]s. The aromatic ring strongly decreases the [[base (chemistry)|basicity]] of the amine, depending on its substituents. Interestingly, the presence of an amine group strongly increases the reactivity of the aromatic ring, due to an electron-donating affect. One [[organic reaction]] involving aromatic amines is the [[Goldberg reaction]].
==Naming conventions==
* the prefix "N-" shows substitution on the nitrogen atom (in the case of secondary, tertiary and quaternary amines)
* as prefix: "amino-"
* as suffix: "-amine"
* remember that chemical compounds are not proper nouns, so lower case is indicated throughout.
Systematic names for some common amines:
{| border="0" align="center" spacing="5"
|- valign="top" align="center"
| Lower amines are named with the suffix ''-amine''.<br />
[[image:methylamine.png|100px]]<br />
'''methylamine'''
| Higher amines have the prefix ''amino'' as a functional group.<br />
[[image:2-amino-pentane.png|150px]]<br />
'''2-aminopentane'''<br/>(or sometimes: ''pent-2-yl-amine'' or ''pentane-2-amine'')
|}
*Primary amines: 2-aminoethanol or [[ethanolamine]]
*Secondary amines: [[dimethylamine]]
*Tertiary amines: [[trimethylamine]]
==Physical properties==
===General properties===
* 1. [[Hydrogen bonding]] significantly influences the properties of primary and secondary amines as well as the protonated derivatives of all amines. Thus the [[boiling point]] of amines is higher than those for the corresponding [[phosphine]]s, but generally lower than the corresponding [[alcohol]]s. Alcohols, or alkanols, resemble amines but feature an -OH group in place of NR<sub>2</sub>. Since oxygen is more [[electronegative]] than nitrogen, RO-''H'' is typically more acidic than the related R<sub>2</sub>N-''H'' compound.
* 2. Methyl, dimethyl, trimethyl, and ethyl amines are gases under standard conditions. Most common alkyl amines are liquids; high [[molecular weight]] amines are, of course, solids.
* 3. Gaseous amines possess a characteristic ammonia smell, liquid amines have a distinctive "fishy" smell.
* 4. Most aliphatic amines display some solubility in water, reflecting their ability to form hydrogen bonds. Solubility decreases with the increase in the number of carbon atoms, especially when the carbon atom number is greater than 6.
* 5. Aliphatic amines display significant solubility in organic [[solvent]]s, especially polar organic solvents. Primary amines react with [[ketone]]s such as [[acetone]], and most amines are incompatible with [[chloroform]] and [[carbon tetrachloride]].
* 6. The aromatic amines have their lone pair electrons [[conjugated system|conjugated]] into the benzene ring, thus their tendency to engage in hydrogen bonding is diminished. Otherwise they display the following propert |
with and, later, fell out with Rousseau. He wrote of his Paris life ''"I really wish often for the plain roughness of the [[Poker Club]] of Edinburgh . . . to correct and qualify so much luciousness."'' For a year from [[1767]], Hume held the appointment of Under Secretary of State for the Northern Department. In [[1768]] he settled in [[Edinburgh]]. Attention to Hume's philosophical works grew after the [[Germany|German]] philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] credited Hume with awakening him from ''"dogmatic slumbers"'' (''circa'' 1770) and from then onwards he gained the recognition that he had craved all his life.
Hume wrote his own epitaph:''"Born 1711, Died [----]. Leaving it to posterity to add the rest."'' It is engraved with the year of his death [[1776]] on the ''"simple Roman tomb"'' which he prescribed, and which stands, as he wished it, on the Eastern slope of the [[Calton Hill]] overlooking his home in the New Town of Edinburgh at No. 1 St David’s Street.
==Legacy==
Though Hume wrote in the [[18th century]], his work seems still uncommonly relevant in the philosophical disputes of today compared to that of his contemporaries. A summary of some of Hume's most influential work in philosophy might include the following::
===Ideas and impressions===
Hume believes that all human knowledge comes to us through our senses. Our perceptions, as he called them, can be divided into two categories: ideas and impressions. He defines these terms thus in his ''[[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]'': "By the term impression, then, I mean all our more lively perceptions, when we hear, or see, or feel, or love, or hate, or desire, or will. And impressions are distinguished from ideas, which are the less lively perceptions, of which we are conscious, when we reflect on any of those sensations or movements above mentioned." He further specifies ideas, saying, "It seems a proposition, which will not admit of much dispute, that all our ideas are nothing but copies of our impressions, or, in other words, that it is impossible for us to think of anything, which we have not antecedently felt, either by our external or internal senses." This forms an important aspect of Hume's [[Philosophical skepticism | skepticism]], for he says that we cannot be certain a thing, such as [[God]], a [[soul]], or a [[self]], exists unless we can point out the impression from which the idea of the thing is derived.
===The problem of causation===
When one event continually follows after another, most people think that a connection between the two events ''makes'' the second event follow from the first (post hoc ergo propter hoc). Hume challenged this belief in the first book of his ''Treatise of Human Nature'' and later in his ''Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. He noted that although we do perceive the one event following the other, we do not perceive any [[necessary and sufficient conditions | necessary]] connection between the two. And according to his skeptical epistemology, we can only trust the knowledge that we acquire from our perceptions. Hume asserted that our idea of [[Causality|causation]] consists of little more than expectation for certain events to result after other events that precede them. Such a lean conception robs causation of all its force, and some later Humeans like [[Bertrand Russell]] have dismissed the notion of causation altogether as something akin to [[superstition]]. But this defies common sense, thereby creating the problem of causation &ndash; what justifies our belief in a causal connection and what kind of connection can we have knowledge of? &ndash; a problem which has no accepted solution. Hume held that we (and other animals) have an [[instinct | instinctive]] belief in causation based on the development of habits in our [[nervous system]], a belief that we cannot eliminate, but which we cannot prove true through any argument, [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]] or [[Induction (philosophy)|inductive]], just as is the case with regard to our belief in the reality of the external world.
For relevant contemporary work, see [[Beauchamp]] and [[Rosenberg]]'s ''[[Hume and the Problem of Causation]]'' and [[Wesley Salmon]] ''[[Causality and Explanation]]''.
===The problem of induction===
{{main|Problem of induction}}
Most of us think that the past acts as a reliable guide to the future. For example, [[physics|physicists']] laws of [[planet]]ary [[orbit]]s work for describing past planetary behavior, so we presume that they will work for describing future planetary behavior as well. But how can we justify this presumption &ndash; the principle of [[induction (philosophy)|induction]]? Hume suggested two possible justifications and rejected them both:
# The first justification states that, as a matter of [[logical necessity]], the future must resemble the past. But, Hume pointed out, we can conceive of a chaotic, erratic world where the future has nothing to do with the past &ndash; or, more tamely, a world just like ours right up until the present, at which point things change completely. So nothing makes the principle of induction logically necessary.
# The second justification, more modestly, appeals only to the past reliability of induction &ndash; it has always worked before, so it will probably continue to work. But, Hume pointed out, this justification uses [[circular reasoning]], justifying induction by an appeal that requires induction to gain any force.
The problem of justifying induction remains with us.
For relevant contemporary work, see [[Richard Swinburne]]'s compilation ''[[The Justification of Induction]]''.
===The bundle theory of the self===
We tend to think that we are the same person we were five years ago. Though we've changed in many respects, the same person appears present as was present then. We might start thinking about which features can be changed without changing the underlying self. Hume, however, denies that there is a distinction between the various features of a person and the mysterious self that supposedly bears those features. After all, Hume pointed out, when you start introspecting, you notice a bunch of thoughts and feelings and perceptions and such, but you never perceive any substance you could call "the self". So as far as we can tell, Hume concludes, there is nothing to the self over and above a big, fleeting [[Bundle theory|bundle]] of perceptions. Note in particular that, on Hume's view, these perceptions do not ''belong to'' anything. Rather, Hume compares the soul to a commonwealth, which retains its identity not by virtue of some enduring core substance, but by being composed of many different, related, and yet constantly changing elements. The question of personal identity then becomes a matter of characterizing the loose cohesion of one's personal experience. (Note that in the Appendix to the ''Treatise'', Hume said mysteriously that he was dissatisfied with his account of the self, and yet he never returned to the issue!)
For relevant contemporary work, see [[Derek Parfit]]'s ''[[Reasons and Persons]]''.
===Practical reason: instrumentalism and nihilism===
Most of us find some behaviors more reasonable than others. Eating aluminum foil, for example, seems to have something unreasonable about it. But Hume denied that reason has any important role in motivating or discouraging behavior. After all, reason is just a sort of calculator of concepts and experience. What ultimately matters, Hume said, is how we feel about the behavior. His work is now associated with the doctrine of [[instrumental rationality|instrumentalism]], which states that an action is reasonable if and only if it serves the agent's goals and desires, whatever they be. Reason can enter the picture only as a lackey, informing the agent of useful facts concerning which actions will serve his goals and desires, but never deigning to tell the agent which goals and desires he should have. So, if you want to eat aluminum foil, reason will tell you where to find the stuff, and there's nothing unreasonable about eating it or even wanting to do so (unless, of course, one has a stronger desire for health or the appearance of sensibility). Today, however, many commentators argue that Hume actually went a step further to [[nihilism]] and said there's nothing unreasonable about deliberately frustrating your own goals and desires ("I want to eat aluminum foil, so let me wire my mouth shut"). Such behavior would surely be highly irregular, granting reason no role at all, but it would not be contrary to reason, which is important to make judgments in this domain.
For relevant contemporary work, see [[Jean Hampton]]'s ''[[The Authority of Reason]]'' and [[David Schmidtz]]'s ''[[Rational Choice and Moral Agency]]''.
===Moral anti-realism and motivation===
Drawing on his attack on reason's role in judging behaviour, Hume argues that immoral behaviour is not immoral by being against reason. He first claims that moral beliefs are intrinsically motivating &ndash; if you believe killing is wrong, you will be ''[[ipso facto]]'' motivated not to kill and to criticise killing and so on (moral [[internalism and externalism|internalism]]). He then reminds us that reason alone can motivate nothing &ndash; reason discovers matters of fact and logic, and it depends on our desires and preferences whether apprehension of those truths will motivate us. Consequently, reason alone cannot yield moral beliefs. Hume proposed that morality ultimately rests upon [[sentiment]], with reason only paving the way for our sensitive judgments by analysis of the moral matter in question. This argument against founding morality on reason is now one in the stable of moral [[anti-realism|anti-realist]] arguments; Humean philosopher [[J. L. Mackie | John Mackie]] argued that, for moral facts to be real facts |
a's economic reforms and China's socialist modernization". To the Communist Party, he was believed to have set a good example for communist cadres who refused to retire at old age. He broke earlier conventions of holding offices for life. He was often referred to as simply ''Comrade Xiaoping'', with no title attached.
In the spring of [[1992]], Deng went on a southern tour of China, visiting [[Guangzhou]], [[Shenzhen]], [[Zhuhai]] and [[Shanghai]], making various speeches. He stressed the importance of economic construction in China, and criticized those who were against the reforms and opening up. He stated that "leftist" elements of Chinese society were much more dangerous than "rightist" ones. He maintained that the economic reforms was a policy unchangeable in China, and essential to China's further development. His southern tour was followed closely by Chinese media, and was taken very seriously by local officials. Many people recognized the southern tour as a new achievement, making up for the mistake of the Tiananmen crackdown.
==Death and reaction==
Deng Xiaoping died on [[February 19]], [[1997]], at age 92, but his influence continued. Even though Jiang Zemin was in firm control, government policies still followed Deng's ideas, thoughts, methods, and direction. The Central Government called Deng the "Great Marxist, Great Proletarian Revolutionary, politician, militarist, diplomat; one of the main leaders of the [[Communist Party of China]], the [[People's Liberation Army]] of China, and the People's Republic of China; The great architect of China's socialist opening-up and modernized construction; the founder of Deng Xiaoping theory".
The death of Deng was followed by the largest state funeral for any Chinese leader since Mao himself. At 10 AM on the morning of [[February 24]], from all walks of life in the entire nation, people were asked to pause in silence in unison for three minutes. The nation's flags flew at [[half-mast]] for over a week. During the nationally televised funeral of Deng that was broadcast on all cable channels, [[Jiang Zemin]]'s emotional eulogy to the late reformist leader declared, "The Chinese people love Comrade Deng Xiaoping, thank Comrade Deng Xiaoping, mourn for Comrade Deng Xiaoping, and cherish the memory of Comrade Deng Xiaoping because he devoted his life-long energies to the Chinese people, performed immortal feats for the independence and liberation of the Chinese nation." Jiang vowed to continue Deng's policies. After the funeral, Deng was cremated and his ashes were subsequently scattered at sea, according to his wishes. For around two weeks, China's media ran news stories and documentaries related to Deng's life and death, with the regular ''Continual News'' program in the evening lasting almost two hours over the regular broadcast time.
Domestically, however, the reaction to Deng's death was not as emotional as the Chinese media had portrayed. Although mandatory mourning sessions were issued to all SOE's, government offices, and schools, much of the general public resented the government's decision to put such great and unnecessary emphasis the days after. In the year that followed, songs like "Story of the Spring" by [[Dong Wenhua]], which were created in Deng's honour shortly after Deng's Southern Tour in 1992, once again were widely played. Shortly before his death, the [[China Central Television|CCTV]]-1 network ran a lengthy documentary series on Deng's life.
There was a significant amount of international reaction to Deng's death. [[UN Secretary-General]] [[Kofi Annan]] said Deng was to be remembered "in the international community at large as a primary architect of China's modernization and dramatic economic development". [[President of France|French President]] [[Jacques Chirac]] said "In the course of this century, few men have, as much as Deng Xiaoping, led a vast human community through such profound and determining changes"; British Prime Minister [[John Major]] commented about Deng's key role in the return of Hong Kong to Chinese control. The Taiwan presidential office also sent its condolences, saying it longed for peace, cooperation, and prosperity. The [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]] voiced regret.
==Memorials==
When compared to the memorials of other former [[Communist_Party_of_China|CCP]] leaders, those dedicated to Deng have been relatively low profile, in keeping with Deng's pragmatism.
A bronze statue of Deng was erected on [[November 14]], [[2000]], at the grand plaza of Lianhua Mountain Park (蓮花山公園) of [[Shenzhen]]. This statue is dedicated to Deng's role as a great planner and contributor to the development of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone, starting in [[1984]]. The statue is 6 meters high, with an additional 3.68 meter base. The statue shows Deng striding forward confidently.
Another bronze statue of Deng was dedicated [[August 13]], [[2004]] in the city of [[Guang'an]], Deng's home town, in southwest China's [[Sichuan]] Province. The statue was erected to commemorate Deng's 100th birthday. The statue shows Deng, dressed casually, sitting on a chair and smiling. The Chinese characters for "Statue of Deng Xiaoping” are inscribed on the pedestal. The original calligraphy was written by [[Jiang Zemin]], then Chairman of the Central Military Commission{{ref|China_Daily_Article}}.
In [[Bishkek]], capital of the Republic of [[Kyrgyzstan]], there is a 6-lane boulevard, 25 meters wide and 3.5 km long, Deng Xiaoping Prospekt, which was dedicated on [[June 18th]], [[1997]]. A 2 meter high red granite monument stands at the east end of this route. The epigraph in memory of Deng is written in Chinese, Russian and Kirghiz
{{ref|Euronet_Article}}{{ref|Wash_Post_Full_Text}}{{ref|Wash_Post_Official_Preview}}.
==References==
#{{note|gittings}} Cited by John Gittings in ''The Changing Face of China'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005. ISBN 0192806122
#{{note|China_Daily_Article}} [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-08/14/content_365434.htm China Daily article "Deng Xiaoping statue unveiled"]
#{{note|Euronet_Article}} [http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:CKQsU_m-ZN8J:www.euronet.nl/users/sota/TN97113.htm+Bishkek+Deng&hl=en Turkistan-Newsletter Volume: 97-1:13, [[20 June]] [[1997]]]
#{{note|Wash_Post_Full_Text}} [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:SeA-_mcLgtcJ:taiwansecurity.org/WP/2001/WP-101801-1.htm+Bishkek+Deng+lenin&hl=en John Pomfret, ''In Its Own Neighborhood, China Emerges as a Leader'' Washington Post, 10/18/2001] as quoted in Taiwan Security Research
#{{note|Wash_Post_Official_Preview}} [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/84764827.html?dids=84764827:84764827&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&fmac=&date=Oct+18%2C+2001&author=John+Pomfret&desc=In+Its+Own+Neighborhood%2C+China+Emerges+as+a+Leader John Pomfret, ''In Its Own Neighborhood, China Emerges as a Leader'' Washington Post, 10/18/2001] Preview, with option to buy, direct from Washington Post
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/dengxp/ Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping]
*[http://www.cbw.com/asm/xpdeng/contents.html Life of Deng Xiaoping]
* [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/china.50/inside.china/profiles/deng.xiaoping/children/ China's former 'first family' (from CNN)]
*[http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9702/24/china.deng/ China officially mourns Deng Xiaoping] (from CNN)
*[http://rwor.org/a/firstvol/890-899/896/capchi.htm Deng's Free Market Nightmare] (Maoist criticism)
*[http://www.pww.org/article/articleview/899/1/68/ China 2002: Building socialism with Chinese characteristics] (Communist Party USA)
*[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-06/25/content_342508.htm China Daily Biography]
*[http://www.chine-nouvelle.com/caricatures/deng-xiaoping.html Caricature of Deng Xiaoping] (Chinese-Tools.com)
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Zhang Wentian]] | title = [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of China]] | years = 1956&ndash;1957 | after = [[Hu Yaobang]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Hua Guofeng]] | title = Chairman of the [[Central Military Commission]] of CCP | years = 1981&ndash;1989 | after = [[Jiang Zemin]]}}
{{succession box | before = None | title = Chairman of the [[Central Military Commission]] of PRC | years = 1983&ndash;1990 | after = [[Jiang Zemin]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1904 births|Deng, Xiaoping]]
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[[fa:دنگ ژیائوپینگ]]
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[[id:Deng Xiaoping]]
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[[he:דנג שיאופינג]]
[[nl:Deng Xiaoping]]
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[[ja:トウ小平]]
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<page>
<title>Dartmoor (HM Prison)</title>
<id>8206</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-05T06:52:10Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Her Majesty's Prison Service|HM Prison]] Dartmoor''' is located in [[Princetown, England]], high on [[Dartmoor]], and presents a bleak and formidable sight. Its high [[granite]] walls dominate this area of the [[Heath (habitat)|moor]].
Constructed originally between [[1806]] and [[1809]] by local labour, to hold prisoners of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it was also used to hold [[United States|American]] prisoners from the [[War of 1812]]. Although the war ended with |
en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:GaryBusey.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gary Busey]] -->
'''William Gary Busey''' (born [[June 29]], [[1944]] in [[Goose Creek, Texas|Goose Creek]], [[Texas]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[film]] [[actor]].
He began his show-business career as a [[drummer]] in [[The Rubber Band]]. He also starred in a local television comedy show called ''Mazeppa'' in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]].
In film, Busey is often cast as a rebel. Many consider his most noteworthy role to be his portrayal of [[Buddy Holly]] in ''[[The Buddy Holly Story]]'', for which he received an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] nomination. Among other roles, he also starred in the film adaptation of ''[[Stephen King]]'''s ''[[Cycle of the Werewolf]]'', ''[[Silver Bullet]]'', and starred opposite ''[[Mel Gibson]]'' in ''[[Lethal Weapon]]''.
Busey attended [[Pittsburg State University]] in [[Pittsburg, Kansas|Pittsburg]], [[Kansas]], where he became interested in acting. He is listed as one of the university's "outstanding alumni." He then transferred to [[Oklahoma State University - Stillwater|Oklahoma State University]], where he quit school one class short of graduation. Busey began his career in television guest roles. For example, he was the last person killed on the last episode of ''[[Gunsmoke]]''.
On [[December 4]], [[1988]], Busey was severely injured in a [[motorcycle]] accident in which he was not wearing a helmet. His skull was fractured and doctors feared he suffered permanent [[brain damage]]. Busey made a remarkable recovery, however, and encouraged all cyclists to wear helmets. Busey had been a heavy drug user, and in [[1995]] almost died from a [[cocaine]] overdose. Only prompt medical attention saved his life; he narrowly escaped going to jail. Busey claimed that he suffered a terrifying near death experience in which he saw [[hell]] and [[Satan|the devil]]. He was so affected that he announced he had become a [[Born again|born-again Christian]]. He joined [[Promise Keepers]] and preached against drug abuse.
In [[1990]], Busey co-starred next to [[Danny Glover]] in ''[[Predator 2]]''.
In the summer of [[2003]], Busey starred in the 13-episode [[reality TV|reality show]] ''[[I'm with Busey]]'' on [[Comedy Central]].
Busey resembles [[Nick Nolte]], an actor with whom he has sometimes been confused.
Busey is now also known to younger people for his [[cameo role|cameo appearance]] on ''[[The Simpsons]]''. Appearing in a police information video, Busey (as himself) explains [[restraining order]]s to the viewer, peppering his lecture with bouts of loud laughter at hilariously inappropriate moments. He even mocks himself, claiming that the reason he knows so much about restraining orders is because he has been the subject of twelve of them, his crime apparently "being too real."
Somewhat unkindly, the "Busey" class in the school featured in the popular television comedy [[Malcolm In The Middle]] is a repository for dim, disruptive and mentally challenged children.
He is the father of actor [[Jake Busey]].
Busey appeared on a recent ([[July 19]],2005) episode of ''[[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]]'' promoting his fitness show (as the second guest), and amused the audience and primary guest [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] [[John McCain]] with an extended [[philosophy|philosophical]] explanation of his [[oxymoron]]ic phrase: "hidden reality revealed."
He is also famous for his "Buseyisms." For example, the word "sober" becomes "Son Of a Bitch Everything's Real," while "doubt" becomes "Debating On Understanding Bewildering Thoughts." "Romance" becomes "Relying On Magnificent And Necessary Compatible Energy."
Busey starred in the [[VH1]] show ''[[Celebrity Fit Club]] 2'', where he lost 39 pounds.
Most recently, Busey has taken a lead role in the controversial Turkish action film ''[[Valley of the Wolves]]''. He plays a Jewish doctor, conspiring with renegade American soldiers in occupied Iraq to steal the organs from slain or captured Iraqis and sell them on the black market. Among other things, the film in general and his role in particular has been criticized in American media outlets for being anti-semitic.
==External links==
*{{imdb name | id=0000997 | name=Gary Busey}}
*[http://buseyworld.com/ Busey World]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041118061617/http://www.comedycentral.com/tv_shows/imwithbusey/ I'm with Busey homepage]
[[Category:1944 births|Busey, Gary]]
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[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Busey, Gary]]
[[Category:Christian actors|Busey, Gary]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Busey, Gary]]
[[Category:Law & Order actors|Busey, Gary]]
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[[Category:People from Texas|Busey, Gary]]
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<page>
<title>Gry</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:05:34Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* External links */ rv Polish spam ("gry" is Polish for "games"...)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Gry''' is also an obsolete unit of measurement, equal to 1/10 of a line, which is in turn 1/12 of an [[inch]]. Hence, a gry is 1/120 inch or about 0.212 [[metre|mm]].''
The '''-Gry Puzzle''' is a popular puzzle that asks for the third [[English Language|English]] word, other than "angry" and "hungry," that ends with the letters "gry." Aside from words derived from "angry" and "hungry," there is no stand-alone word ending in "gry" that is in current usage. Both ''[[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]] of the English Language, Unabridged'' (Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2002, ISBN 0877792011) and the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]], Second Edition'' (Oxford University Press, 1989, ISBN 0198611862) contain the phrase "aggry bead." To find a third word ending in "gry" that is not part of a phrase, you must turn to obsolete words or personal or place names. A
[[Gry#List of obsolete words, phrases, and names ending in gry|list of 130]]
of these is given at the end of this article.
So, basically, this puzzle has no good answer. Yet it has become the most frequently asked word puzzle. It is so common that it is a standing joke [http://listserv.dom.edu/cgi-bin/wa.exe?A2=ind9910&L=STUMPERS-L&P=R39908&m=98684] on the Stumpers reference librarian list server [http://domin.dom.edu/depts/gslis/stumpers/] that it's time to
change your car's oil when it is asked anew. The regular readers of the [[Usenet]] newsgroup rec.puzzles [http://rec-puzzles.org/new] coined the word "nugry" [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=gry+limerick&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&selm=638539%24bsv%241%40nntp.Stanford.EDU&rnum=1] to describe a (presumably) new reader who posts a frequently asked question.
==History==
[[Merriam-Webster]], publishers of the leading American dictionaries, first heard of this puzzle in a [[Media:Lasker.pdf|letter]] dated [[March 17]], [[1975]], from Patricia Lasker of [[Brooklyn, New York]]. Lasker says her Plant Manager heard the question on a [[quiz show]]. Since that time Merriam-Webster has received about four letters per year asking the question.
This puzzle first appears in print in Anita Richterman's "Problem Line" column
in ''Newsday'' on [[April 29]], [[1975]]. One "M.Z." from Wantagh states that the problem was asked on a TV quiz program. Richterman states that she asked a learned professor of English for help when she first received the inquiry, and he did not respond for over a month. So the quiz show probably occurred in March.
In Anita Richterman's column on [[May 9]], [[1975]], several correspondents reported that they had heard the puzzle on the [[Bob Grant (radio)|Bob Grant]] radio talk show on [[WMCA]] in New York City. However, as this is not a TV quiz show, this may not be the origin of the puzzle, although it is also likely people were mistaken about the medium on which the show was broadcast. The majority of readers gave the answer "gry," one of the obsolete words
[[Gry#List of obsolete words, phrases, and names ending in gry|listed]] at the end of this article. It is unclear whether this was the answer given on the Grant show.
Ralph G. Beaman in the "Kickshaws" column in [http://wordways.com ''Word Ways''] for February 1976 reports that the Delaware Valley was mystified during the Fall of 1975 by the question. By this time the puzzle seems to have mutated to a form in which the missing word is an adjective that describes the state of the world.
However, some people remember a different version of this puzzle dating it back before 1975. For example, someone named "Rush Elkins" emailed the editors of [http://yourdictionary.com/library/article008.html yourDictionary] with this report:
:''I first heard the "gry" riddle posed in slightly different form in 1969 or 1970. I was then in graduate school at University of Florida and in the habit of meeting with a group of friends every Wednesday evening for dinner, drinks, and conversation. One of those evenings, someone challenged the group to find three common English words containing the letter combination "gry." I'm sure that there was no stipulation on the placement of "gry" because I recall someone suggesting that it might occur at the boundary of a compound word. (That turns out to lead nowhere.)''
:''A year or two later, I e |
Finnland]]
[[et:Soome]]
[[el:Φινλανδία]]
[[es:Finlandia]]
[[eo:Finnlando]]
[[eu:Finlandia]]
[[fo:Finnland]]
[[fr:Finlande]]
[[fy:Finlân]]
[[ga:An Fhionlainn]]
[[gd:Suòmaidh]]
[[gl:Finlandia - Suomi]]
[[got:𐍆𐌹𐌽𐌽𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌽𐌳]]
[[ko:핀란드]]
[[ht:Fenlann]]
[[haw:Pinilana]]
[[hr:Finska]]
[[io:Finlando]]
[[id:Finlandia]]
[[ia:Finlandia]]
[[is:Finnland]]
[[it:Finlandia]]
[[he:פינלנד]]
[[ka:ფინეთი]]
[[csb:Fińskô]]
[[kw:Pow Finn]]
[[ku:Fînlanda]]
[[la:Finnia]]
[[lv:Somija]]
[[lt:Suomija]]
[[li:Finland]]
[[hu:Finnország]]
[[mk:Финска]]
[[ms:Finland]]
[[na:Finland]]
[[nl:Finland]]
[[nds:Finnland]]
[[ja:フィンランド]]
[[no:Finland]]
[[nn:Finland]]
[[oc:Finlàndia]]
[[os:Финлянди]]
[[pl:Finlandia]]
[[pt:Finlândia]]
[[ro:Finlanda]]
[[qu:Finlandiya]]
[[ru:Финляндия]]
[[se:Suopma]]
[[sq:Finlanda]]
[[scn:Finlandia]]
[[simple:Finland]]
[[sk:Fínsko]]
[[sl:Finska]]
[[sr:Финска]]
[[fi:Suomi]]
[[sv:Finland]]
[[tl:Finland]]
[[tt:Finlândiä]]
[[th:ประเทศฟินแลนด์]]
[[tr:Finlandiya]]
[[udm:Финляндия]]
[[uk:Фінляндія]]
[[yi:פינלאנד]]
[[zh:芬兰]]
[[fiu-vro:Soomõ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finite Mathematics</title>
<id>10578</id>
<revision>
<id>15908381</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-22T20:06:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[finite mathematics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frequency Probability</title>
<id>10579</id>
<revision>
<id>15908382</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-15T18:10:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthony DiPierro</username>
<id>34793</id>
</contributor>
<comment>bless you</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frequency probability]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Family and Consumer Science</title>
<id>10580</id>
<revision>
<id>15908383</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-27T23:52:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*#redirect [[family and consumer science]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[family and consumer science]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>France</title>
<id>10581</id>
<revision>
<id>42114446</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:39:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/201.148.138.2|201.148.138.2]] ([[User talk:201.148.138.2|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{France infobox}}
{{portal}}
'''France''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/fʀɑ̃s/}} in [[French language|French]]), officially the '''French Republic''' ([[French language|French]]: ''République française'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ʀepyblik fʀɑ̃sɛz/}}), is a [[country]] whose [[Metropolitan France|metropolitan territory]] is located in [[Western Europe]], and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. {{ref|overseasholdings}} Metropolitan France extends from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the [[English Channel]] and [[North Sea]], and from the [[Rhine|Rhine River]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. French people often refer to Metropolitan France as ''l'Hexagone'' (the "[[Hexagon]]") because of its geographical shape.
France is bordered by [[Belgium]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Italy]], [[Monaco]], [[Andorra]], and [[Spain]]. In some of its overseas parts, France also shares land borders with [[Brazil]], [[Suriname]], and the [[Netherlands Antilles]]. France is also linked to the [[United Kingdom]] via the [[Channel Tunnel]], which passes underneath the [[English Channel]].
The French Republic is a [[democracy]] which is organized as a [[unitary state|unitary]] [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]]. It is a highly [[developed country]] with the sixth-largest economy in the world in 2005.{{ref|economicrank}} Its main ideals are expressed in the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]. France is one of the founding members of the [[European Union]], and has the largest land area of all members. France is also a founding member of the [[United Nations]]. It is one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]] wielding veto power, and it is also one of only eight acknowledged [[List of countries with nuclear weapons|nuclear powers]].
The [[name of France |name France]] originates from the [[Franks]], a [[Germanic peoples|Germanic tribe]] that occupied the region after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]]. More precisely, the region around [[Paris]], called [[Île-de-France (province) |Île-de-France]], was the original French royal demesne.
==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of France}}
While the main territory of France ([[metropolitan France]]; French: ''la Métropole'', ''France métropolitaine'' or informally ''l'hexagone'') is located in Western Europe, France is also constituted from a number of territories in [[North America]], the [[Caribbean]], [[South America]], the southern [[Indian Ocean]], the [[Pacific Ocean]], and [[Antarctica]] (sovereignty claims in Antarctica are governed by the [[Antarctic Treaty System]]). These territories have varying forms of government ranging from [[département d'outre-mer|overseas ''département'']] to "[[pays d'outre-mer|overseas country]]".
[[Image:fr-map.png|200px|thumb|left]]
Metropolitan France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains in the north and west to mountain ranges in the south-east (the [[Alps]]) and the south-west (the [[Pyrenees]]). The French Alps contain the highest point in western Europe, [[Mont Blanc]] at 4810 m. There are several other elevated regions such as the [[Massif Central]], the [[Jura mountains|Jura]], the [[Vosges mountains |Vosges]], and the [[Ardennes]] which are quite rocky and forested. France also has extensive [[river]] systems such as the [[Loire River|Loire]], the [[Rhône River|Rhône]], the [[Garonne]] and the [[Seine]].
Due to its overseas departments and territories scattered on all oceans of the planet, France possesses the second-largest [[Exclusive Economic Zone]] (EEZ) in the world, covering [[1 E13 m²|11,035,000]] km&sup2; (4,260,000 mi&sup2;), just behind the EEZ of the [[United States]] (11,351,000 km&sup2; / 4,383,000 mi&sup2;), but ahead of the EEZ of [[Australia]] (8,232,000 km&sup2; / 3,178,000 mi&sup2;).{{ref|EEZ}} The EEZ of France covers approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world, whereas the land area of the French Republic is only 0.45% of the total land area on Earth.
==History==
{{Main|History of France}}
The borders of modern France are roughly the same as those of ancient [[Gaul]], which was inhabited by [[Celt|Celtic]] ''Gauls''. Gaul was conquered by the Romans in the first century BCE, and the Gauls eventually adopted [[Romance languages|Roman]] speech and culture. [[History of Christianity/Jesus, pre-4th century Christianity, and syncretism|Christianity]] also took root in the second and third centuries CE.
In the fourth century CE, Gaul's eastern frontier along the [[Rhine]] was overrun by [[Germanic tribes]], principally the [[Franks]], from whom the ancient name of "Francie" was derived. The modern name "France" derives from the name of the feudal domain of the [[Capetian]] Kings of France around Paris. Existence as a separate entity began in 843, with the division of [[Charlemagne]]'s [[Carolingian]] empire into eastern, central and western parts. The western part approximated to much of modern France.
Charlemagne's descendants ruled France until 987, when [[Hugh Capet of France|Hugh Capet]], Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned King of France. His descendants, the [[Capetian]], [[Valois Dynasty|Valois]] and [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] dynasties progressively unified the country through a series of wars and dynastic inheritance. The monarchy reached its height during the 17th century and the reign of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]. At this time France had a tremendous influence over the European politics, economy and culture as well as possessing the largest population in Europe (see [[Demographics of France]]).
The monarchy ruled France until 1792, when the [[French Revolution]] established the [[French First Republic|First Republic]]. [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] seized control of the Republic in 1799, making himself [[First Consul]], and later [[Emperor]] of what is now known as the [[First Empire|First French Empire]] (1804-1814). In the course of several wars, his armies conquered many countries, with members of the Bonaparte family being appointed as monarchs of newly established kingdoms. Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the French monarchy was re-established. In 1830, a [[French Revolution of 1830 |civil uprising]] established the [[constitutional monarchy |constitutional]] [[July Monarchy]] followed by the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] in 1848. The short-lived Second Republic ended in 1852 when [[Napoleon III of France|Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte]] proclaimed the [[Second French Empire]]. Louis-Napoléon was unseated following the [[Franco-Prussian war]] of 1870 to be replaced by the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]].
[[Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Eugène Delacroix]] - La liberté guidant le peuple, Liberty leading the People, a symbol of the [[French Revolution of 1830]]]]
France's ultimate victory in [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] after initially being invaded and partly occupied by German forces did not prevent the loss of the |
cies]]'''
|
[[Euro]] ([[ISO 4217|EUR]] or €)<small><sup>{{Fn|4}}</sup></small><br>
'''Other currencies''':<br>
[[British pound]] (GBP or £), <br>
[[Cyprus Pound|Cyprus pound]] (CYP or C£),<br>
[[Czech koruna]] (CZK or Kč),<br>
[[Danish krone]] (DKK or kr),<br>
[[Estonian kroon]] (EEK or kr),<br>
[[Hungarian forint]] (HUF or Ft),<br>
[[Lats|Latvian lats]] (LVL or Ls),<br>
[[Litas|Lithuanian litas]] (LTL or Lt),<br>
[[Maltese Lira|Maltese lira]] (MTL or Lm),<br>
[[Złoty|Polish złoty]] (PLN or zł),<br>
[[Slovak koruna]] (SKK or Sk),<br>
[[Tolar|Slovene tolar]] (SIT),<br>
[[Swedish krona]] (SEK or kr)
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] 0 to +2<small><sup>{{Fn|5}}</sup></small>
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.eu]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling codes]]'''
| All current members have calling codes begin with +3 or +4<small><sup>{{Fn|6}}</sup></small>
|-
| colspan="2" | <small><sup>{{Fnb|1}}</sup> [[Names of the European Union in the official languages|See other official names]]<br>
<sup>{{Fnb|2}}</sup>See [[Languages of the European Union]]; member states may have other official languages<br>
<sup>{{Fnb|3}}</sup> if counted as a single unit<br>
<sup>{{Fnb|4}}</sup> Used by [[Eurozone]] members and EU institutions<br>
<sup>{{Fnb|5}}</sup> +1 to +3 during [[Daylight saving time|DST]]; French [[overseas département]]s, UTC -4 to +4<br>
<sup>{{Fnb|6}}</sup>Earlier plans for a EU-wide +3 prefix have been abandoned. The [[ETNS|European Telephony Numbering Space, +388 3]] is somewhat similar</small>
|-
| colspan="2" align="right" style="padding: 0 5px;" | {{edit|European Union|}}
|}
|}
The '''European Union''' or the '''EU''' is an [[Intergovernmentalism|intergovernmental]] and [[Supranationalism|supranational]] union of 25 democratic countries known as [[European Union member states|member states]]. The European Union was established under that name in 1992 by the ''Treaty on European Union'' (the [[Maastricht Treaty]]). However, many aspects of the Union existed before that date through a series of predecessor relationships, dating back to 1951.
The European Union's activities cover all areas of public policy, from [[health]] and [[economics|economic]] policy to [[foreign affairs]] and [[defense (military)|defence]]. However, the extent of its powers differs greatly between areas. Depending on the area in question, the EU may therefore resemble:
*a [[federation]] (for example, on monetary affairs, agricultural, trade and environmental policy, economic and social policy)
*a [[confederation]] (for example, on home affairs)
*an [[international organization|international organisation]] <!-- Organisation is spelt how it is th EU-->(for example, in foreign affairs)
A key activity of the EU is the establishment and administration of a common [[single market]], consisting of a [[customs union]], a [[Euro| single currency]] (adopted by 12 of the 25 member states), a [[Common Agricultural Policy]], a common trade policy, and a [[Common Fisheries Policy]].
The most important EU institutions are the [[Council of the European Union]], the [[European Commission]], the [[European Parliament]] and the [[European Court of Justice]].
==Status==
The members of the European Union have transferred to it considerable [[sovereignty]], more than that of any other non-sovereign [[International organisation#List of Regional Organisations|regional organisation]]. As has been mentioned, in certain areas the EU begins to take on the character of a [[federation]] or [[confederation]]. However, in legal terms, member states remain the ''masters of the Treaties'', which means that the Union does not have the power to transfer additional powers from states onto itself without their agreement through further international treaties. Further, in many areas member states have given up relatively little national sovereignty, particularly in key areas of national interest such as foreign relations and defence. This unique structure means the European Union is perhaps best seen as a ''[[sui generis]]'' entity.
On [[29 October]], [[2004]], European heads of government and state [[signature|sign]]ed the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]]. This has been ratified by 13 member states and is currently awaiting ratification by the other states. However, this process faltered on [[May 29]] [[2005]] when the majority of French voters rejected the constitution in a referendum by 54.7%. [[French referendum on the European Constitution|The French rejection]] was followed three days later by a [[Dutch referendum on the European Constitution|Dutch one]] on [[June 1]] when in the [[Netherlands]] 61.6% of voters refused the constitution as well.
The current and future status of the European Union therefore continues to be subject of political controversy, with widely differing views both within and between member states. For example, in the [[United Kingdom]] one poll suggested that around 50% of the population are indifferent to the European Union. However, other countries are more in favour of European integration &mdash; soon after the Netherlands and the French voted "no" on the constitution, the tiny Grand Duchy of [[Luxembourg]] voted "yes." What the term "European integration" itself means is also the subject of much debate.
==Current issues==
Major issues currently facing the European Union cover its membership, structure, procedures and policies; they include the adoption, abandonment or adjustment of the new [[European Constitution|constitutional treaty]], the [[Enlargement of the European Union|Union's enlargement]] to the south and east (see below), resolving the Union's problematic fiscal and [[democratic deficit|democratic accountability]], revision of the rules of the [[Stability and Growth Pact]], and the future budget and the [[Common Agricultural Policy]].
At the December 2005 [[Intergovernmental Conference]] (IGC), which is a semi-annual meeting of EU member states'
heads of state and government, EU member states decided on how it should allocate the EU budget for the next seven years (2007-2013). Also, the "[[Financial Perspective]]" was defined as EU members agreed to fix the common budget to 1.045% of the European [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. UK Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] agreed to review the [[UK rebate|British rebate]], negotiated by [[Margaret Thatcher]] in 1984, despite a promise to the contrary made to the UK Parliament. French President [[Jacques Chirac]] declared that this increase in budget will permit Europe to "finance common policies" such as the [[Common Agricultural Policy]] or the [[Sixth Framework Programme|Research and Technological Development Policy]]. However, France's demand to lower the [[Value added tax|VAT]] in catering was refused.
Issues controversial during upcoming budget debates were the [[UK rebate|British rebate]], France's benefits from the [[Common Agricultural Policy]], Germany and the Netherlands' large contributions to the EU budget, and reform of the [[European Regional Development Fund]]s. Many commentators have envisaged these debates to yield a major split between governments such as France and Germany, who call for a broader budget and a more federal union, and governments such as that of the UK, who demand a slimmer budget with more funding transferred to science and research (and whose watchword is ''[[modernisation]]'').
[[Image:Rometreaty.jpg|thumb|300px|Signing ceremony of the Treaty of Rome, 1957]]
==Origins and history==
{{main|History of the European Union}}
Attempts to unite the disparate nations of Europe precede the modern [[nation state]]s; they have occurred repeatedly throughout the history of Europe. Three thousand years ago, Europe was dominated by the [[Celt]]s, and then conquered and ruled by the Mediterranean centred [[Roman Empire]]. These early unions were created by force. The [[Franks|Frankish]] empire of [[Charlemagne]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] united large areas under a loose administration for hundreds of years. More recently the 1800s [[customs union]] under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] and the 1940s conquests of [[Germany]] had only transitory existence.
Given Europe's collections of [[European languages|languages]] and cultures, these attempts usually involved [[Occupation|military subjugation]] of unwilling nations, leading to instability, others have lasted hundreds of years and large spells of peace and economical and technological progress as in the Roman Empire's [[Pax Romana]]. One of the first proposals for peaceful unification through cooperation and equality of membership was made by the [[pacifism|pacifist]] [[Victor Hugo]] in 1851. Following the catastrophes of the [[World War I|First World War]] and the [[World War II|Second World War]], the impetus for the founding of (what was later to become) the European Union greatly increased, driven by the determination to rebuild Europe and to eliminate the possibility of another war. This sentiment eventually led to the formation of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] by [[Germany|(West) Germany]], [[France]], [[Italy]] and the [[Benelux]] countries. This was accomplished by the [[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]], signed in April, 1951, and taking effect in July, 1952.
The first full customs union was originally known as the '''European Economic Community''' (informally called the '''Common Market''' in the UK), established by the [[Treaty of Rome]] in 1957 and implemented on [[1 January]] [[1958]]. This later changed to the '''European Co |
n Lana''' - to celebrate 50th anniversary of Naval aviation, on [[24 May]] [[1961 in aviation|1961]], Phantoms flew across continental United States in under three hours in spite of several tanker refuelings. The fastest of the aircraft averaged 869.74 mph (1,400.28 km/h) and completed the trip in 2 hours 47 minutes winning pilot Lt. Richard Gordon and navigator Lt. Bobbie Long the 1961 [[Bendix trophy]].
* '''Operation Sageburner''' - on [[28 August]] [[1961]], a Phantom averaged 902.769 mph (1,452.826 km/h) over a 3 mi (1.86 km) course flying below 125 ft (40 m) at all times. Navy Commander J.L. Felsman was killed during the first attempt at this record on [[18 May]] [[1961]] when his aircraft disintegrated in the air after pitch dampener failure.
* '''Operation Skyburner''' - on [[22 December]] [[1961]], a modified Phantom with water-methanol injection set an absolute world record speed of 1,606.342 mph (2,585.086 km/h).
* On [[5 December]] [[1961]], another Phantom set a sustained altitude record of 66,443.8 ft (20,252.1 m).
* '''Operation High Jump''' - a series of time-to-altitude records set in early [[1962 in aviation|1962]]; 34.523 s to 3,000 m (9,840 ft), 48.787 s to 6,000 m (19,680 ft), 61.629 s to 9,000 m (29,530 ft), 77.156 s to 12,000 m (39,370 ft), 114.548 s to 15,000 m (49,210 ft), 178.5 s to 20,000 m (65,600 ft), 230.44 s to 25,000 m (82,000 ft), and 371.43 s to 30,000 m (98,400 ft). Although not officially recognized, the Phantom zoom-climbed to over 100,000 ft (30,480 m) during the last attempt.
All in all, the Phantom set 16 world records. With the exception of Skyburner, all records were achieved in unmodified production aircraft (Donald 2002).
[[Image:F4Phantom.JPG|thumbnail|right|300px|F-4S Phantom II]]
==Operational history==
===US Navy===
On [[30 December]] 1960, the [[VF-121]] Pacemakers became the first Phantom operator with its F4H-1Fs (F-4As). The [[VF-74]] Be-devilers at [[NAS Oceana]] became the first deployable Phantom squadron when it received its F4H-1s (F-4Bs) on [[8 July]] 1961. The squadron completed carried qualifications in October 1961, and Phantom's first full carrier deployment between August 1962 and March 1963 aboard [[USS Forrestal (CVA-59)]]. The second deployable [[U.S. Atlantic Fleet]] squadron to receive F-4Bs was the [[VF-102]] Diamondbacks who promptly took their new aircraft on the [[shakedown (testing)|shakedown cruise]] of the [[USS Enterprise (CVAN-65)]]. The first deployable [[U.S. Pacific Fleet]] squadron to receive the F-4B was the [[VF-114]] Aardvarks which participated in the September 1962 cruise aboard [[USS Kitty Hawk (CVA-63)]]. By [[Tonkin Gulf incident]], 13 of 31 deployable Navy squadrons were armed with the type. F-4Bs from [[USS Constellation (CV-64)]] made the first Phantom combat sortie of the [[Vietnam War]] on [[5 August]] [[1964]], flying bomber escort in [[Operation Pierce Arrow]]. The first Phantom air-to-air victory of the war took place on [[9 April]] [[1965]] when F-4B from [[VF-96]] Fighting Falcons piloted by Lt JG Terence M. Murphy shot down a Chinese [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17]]. The Phantom was then shot down, apparently by an AIM-7 Sparrow from one of its wingmen. On [[17 June]] [[1965]], F-4B from [[VF-21]] Freelancers piloted by Cdr Thomas C. Page and Lt John C. Smith shot down the first North Vietnamese MiG of the war. On [[10 May]] 1972, [[Randy "Duke" Cunningham]] and [[William P. Driscoll]] flying an F-4J Showtime 100 shot down three MiGs to become the first [[flying ace]]s of the war. Their fifth victory was over the mysterious North Vietnamese ace [[Nguyen Toon|Colonel Tomb]]. On the returning flight, the Phantom was damaged by an enemy SAM. To avoid being captured, Cunningham and Driscoll flew upside-down (the damage made the aircraft uncontrollable in a conventional attitude) and on fire until they could eject over water. During the war, Navy Phantom squadrons participated in 84 combat tours with F-4Bs, F-4Gs, and F-4Js. The Navy claimed 41 air-to-air victories at the cost of 71 aircraft lost to enemy fire (5 to aircraft, 13 to [[surface-to-air missile|SAMs]], and 53 to [[anti-aircraft warfare|AAA]]). An additional 54 aircraft were lost in accidents. By 1983, the F-4Ns have been completely replaced with [[F-14 Tomcat]]s, and by 1986 the last F-4Ss were exchanged for [[F/A-18 Hornet]]s. On [[25 March]] 1986, an F-4S belonging to [[VF-161]] Chargers became the last Navy Phantom to launch from an aircraft carrier ([[USS Midway (CV-41)]]). On [[18 October]] 1986, F-4S from [[VF-202]] Superheats made the last-ever Phantom carrier landing aboard [[USS America (CV-66)]]. In 1987, the last of the Naval Reserve-operated F-4Ss were replaced by F-14s. The only Phantoms still in service with the Navy are the QF-4 target drones operated by the [[Pacific Missile Test Center|Naval Air Warfare Center]]s (Donald 2002).
===US Marines===
The Marines received their first F-4Bs in June 1962, with the [[VMFA-314]] Black Knights becoming the first operational squadron. In addition to attack variants, the Marines also operated several tactical reconnaissance RF-4Bs. Marine Phantoms from [[VMFA-531]] Gray Ghosts arrived in Vietnam on [[10 April]] 1965, flying close air support missions from land bases as well as from [[USS America (CVA-66)]]. The Marines claimed 3 enemy MiGs at the cost of 75 aircraft lost in combat and 4 in accidents. On [[18 January]] 1992, the last Marine Phantom, an F-4S, was retired by [[VMFA-112]] Cowboys. The squadron was re-equipped with F/A-18 Hornets.
===US Air Force===
At first reluctant to adopt a Navy fighter, the USAF quickly embraced the design and became the largest Phantom user. The first USAF Phantoms in Vietnam were F-4Cs from [[555th Tactical Fighter Squadron]] Triple Nickel which arrived in December 1964. Unlike the Navy, the Air Force initially flew its Phantoms with a pilot rather than a radar intercept officer (RIO) in the back seat. USAF F-4Cs scored their first victory against a Vietnamese MiG-17 on [[10 July]] [[1965]]. On [[24 July]] 1965, an Air Force F-4C from the [[47th Tactical Fighter Squadron]] became the first US plane to be downed by an enemy [[surface-to-air missile|SAM]]. Reconnaissance RF-4Cs made their debut in Vietnam on [[30 October]] 1965, flying the hazardous post-strike recce missions. Although the F-4C, being essentially identical to the Navy F-4B, carried the Navy-designed [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] missiles, the USAF-tailored F-4Ds initially arrived with USAF-designed [[AIM-4 Falcon]]s. However, the Falcon was designed to shoot down slow bombers and proved worthless in combat, and F-4Ds quickly reverted to using Sidewinders. The attrition of the war resulted in a shortage of [[F-105 Thunderchief]] fighter-bombers and USAF pressed the Phantoms into the ground attack role. Nonetheless, on [[28 August]] 1972, [[Richard S. Ritchie|Steve Ritchie]] became the first USAF ace of the war. On [[9 September]] 1972, RIO [[Charles B. DeBellevue]] became the highest-scoring American ace of the war with six victories. RIO Jerry Feinstein became the last USAF ace of the war on [[13 October]] 1972. On [[31 January]] 1972, 170th TFS/183rd TFG of [[Illinois Air National Guard]] became the first [[United States National Guard|Air National Guard]] unit to transition to Phantoms. The ANG service lasted until [[31 March]] 1990, when the Phantom was replaced by the [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]. Then, on [[15 August]] 1990, 24 F-4G [[Wild Weasel]] Vs and 6 RF-4Cs were mobilized to the Middle East for [[Gulf War|Operation Desert Storm]]. The reason for this revival was that the F-4G was the only [[SEAD]] aircraft in the USAF inventory with no [[F-15 Eagle|F-15]], F-16, or F/A-18 equipped for that role and the [[General Dynamics F-111|EF-111 Raven]] lacking the offensive capability of [[AGM-88 HARM]] missiles. The RF-4C was the only aircraft equipped with the ultra-long-range KS-127 LOROP (long-range oblique photography) camera. In spite of flying almost daily missions, only one RF-4C was lost in a fatal accident before the start of hostilities. One F-4G was lost when enemy fire damaged the fuel tanks and the aircraft ran out of fuel near a friendly airbase. The last USAF Phantoms, F-4G Wild Weasel Vs from [[561st Fighter Squadron]], were retired on [[26 March]] 1996. Like the Navy, the Air Force continues to operate QF-4 target drones. The Collings Foundation operates a restored F-4D [[warbird]] which performs at airshows (Donald 2002).
In air combat, Phantom's greatest advantage was its excellent thrust which permitted a skilled pilot to engage and disengage from the fight at will. Not surprisingly, the massive aircraft lacked the agility of its Soviet opponents. Although the F-4 proved somewhat liable to enter spins during high-G and high angle of attack maneuvers, pilots reported the aircraft to be very communicative and easy fly on the edge of its performance envelope (Higham 1978). The J79 engines produced copious amounts of black smoke at military power which made the Phantoms easy to detect and visually track from a distance. By far, the biggest weakness of the F-4 was its lack of cannon armament. The US military doctrine at the time dictated that turning combat would be impossible at supersonic speeds and no effort was made to teach pilots [[air combat maneuvering]]. In reality, engagements quickly reduced the speed below the sound barrier and the early missiles were inaccurate and unreliable. [[Rules of engagement]] precluded long-range missile attacks and many pilots found themselves on the tail of enemy aircraft but too close to fire missiles. It did not take long for USAF F-4Cs to begin carrying [[SUU-16]] and [[SUU-23]] external gunpods containing a 20 mm [[M61 Vulcan]] gatling cannon. Combat trials demonstrated that while the externally mounted cannon was inaccurate, the cost of ammunition expended per shot down enemy aircraft was a small fraction of the missiles. The aircraft als |
iname 510 km (disputed)<br>
Coastline: 378 km
===Maritime claims===
exclusive economic zone: 370 [[kilometre|km]]<br>
territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km)
===Climate===
tropical; hot, humid; little seasonal temperature variation
===Terrain===
low-lying coastal plains rising to hills and small mountains, see [[guiana]]
===Elevation extremes===
lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m<br>
highest point: [[Bellevue de l'Inini]] 851 m<br>
other mountains: [[Montaigne d'Argent]], on the edge of [[Oiapoque river]]
===Natural resources===
[[bauxite]], [[timber]], [[gold]] (widely scattered), [[cinnabar]], [[kaolin]], [[fish]]
===Land use===
arable land: 0%<br>
permanent crops: 0%<br>
permanent pastures: 0%<br>
forests and woodland: 90%<br>
other: 10% (1996 est.)<br>
irrigated land: 20 km² (1993 est.)<br>
natural hazards: high frequency of heavy showers and severe thunderstorms; flooding<br>
environment - current issues: NA<br>
geography - note: mostly an unsettled wilderness<br>
{{South America in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[Category:Geography by country|French Guiana]]
[[fr:Géographie de la Guyane]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of French Guiana</title>
<id>10763</id>
<revision>
<id>30222257</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-05T14:07:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Population]]:'''
172,605 (July 2000 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
31% (male 27,116; female 25,902)
<br>''15-64 years:''
64% (male 59,690; female 50,621)
<br>''65 years and over:''
5% (male 4,694; female 4,582) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
2.93% (2000 est.)
'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
22.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''[[Death]] rate:'''
4.76 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
11.59 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.18 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
1.02 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1.13 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
13.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
76.1 years
<br>''male:''
72.77 years
<br>''female:''
79.6 years (2000 est.)
'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
3.21 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''[[Nationality]]:'''
<br>''noun:''
French Guianese (singular and plural)
<br>''adjective:''
French Guianese
'''Ethnic groups:'''
[[blacks]] or [[mulatto]] 66%, [[Whites|white]] 12%, [[East India]]n, [[China|Chinese]], [[Amerindian]] 12%, other 10% (including [[Hmong]] refugees from the former [[French Indochina]] who have been resettled in French Guiana).
'''[[Religion]]s:'''
[[Roman Catholicism]]
'''[[Language]]s:'''
[[French language|French]],
French Guianese Creole French
'''[[Literacy]]:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
83%
<br>''male:''
84%
<br>''female:''
82% (1982 est.)
:''See also :'' [[French Guiana]]
{{South_America_in_topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[fr:Démographie de la Guyane française]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of French Guiana</title>
<id>10764</id>
<revision>
<id>36806940</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T16:38:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
{{Politics of French Guiana}}
'''Country name:'''
<br>''conventional long form:''
[[Département in France|Département]] of Guiana
<br>''conventional short form:''
[[French Guiana]]
<br>''local long form:''
none
<br>''local short form:''
Guyane
'''Data code:'''
FG
'''Dependency status:'''
[[Département d'outre-mer|overseas ''département'']] of France
'''Government type:'''
NA
'''Capital:'''
[[Cayenne, French Guiana|Cayenne]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
none (overseas départment of France)
'''Independence:'''
none (overseas départment of France)
'''National holiday:'''
[[National Day]], [[Taking of the Bastille]], [[14 July]] ([[1789]])
'''Constitution:'''
[[28 September]] [[1958]] ([[French Constitution]])
'''Legal system:'''
[[French legal system]]
'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal
'''Executive branch:'''
<br>''chief of state:''
President [[Jacques Chirac]] of France (since [[17 May]] [[1995]]), represented by Prefect [[Ange Mancini]] (since [[July 31]], [[2002]])
<br>''head of government:''
President of the General Council [[Pierre Désert]]; President of the Regional Council [[Antoine Karam]] (since [[22 March]] [[1992]])
<br>''cabinet:''
NA
<br>''elections:''
French president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; prefect appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; presidents of the General and Regional Councils are appointed by the members of those councils
'''Legislative branch:'''
unicameral General Council or Conseil General (19 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and a unicameral Regional Council or Conseil Regional (31 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)
<br>''elections:''
General Council - last held March [[2000]] (next to be held NA 2006); Regional Council - last held [[15 March]] [[1998]] (next to be held NA 2004)
<br>''election results:''
*General Council -
**percent of vote by party - NA%;
**seats by party -
***PSG 5,
***various left-wing parties 5,
***independents 7,
***other 2;
*Regional Council -
**percent of vote by party -
***PS 28.28%,
***various left parties 22.56%,
***RPR 15.91%,
***independents 8.6%,
***Walwari Committee 6%;
**seats by party -
***PS 11,
***various left parties 9,
***RPR 6,
***independents 3,
***Walwari Committee 2
One seat was elected to the French Senate on [[27 September]] [[1998]] (next to be held September 2007); results - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NA; 2 seats were elected to the French National Assembly on [[9 June]]-[[16 June]] [[2002]] (next to be held NA 2007); results - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - UMP/RPR 1, Walwari Committee 1
'''Judicial branch:'''
Court of Appeals or Cour d'Appel (highest local court based in Martinique with jurisdiction over Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana)
'''Political parties and leaders:'''
Guyanese Democratic Action or ADG [Andre LECANTE]; Guyanese Socialist Party or PSG [Marie-Claude VERDAN]; Guyana Democratic Forces or FDG [Georges OTHILY]; Popular National Guyanese Party or PNPG [Jose DORCY]; Socialist Party or PS [Paul DEBRIETTE]; Union for a Popular Movement or UMP (includes RPR) [Muriel ICARE]; Walwari Committee (aligned with the PRG in France) [Christine TAUBIRA-DELANON]
'''International organization participation:'''
FZ, WCL, WFTU
'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
none (overseas department of France)
'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
none (overseas department of France)
'''Flag description:'''
the flag of France is used
:''See also :'' [[French Guiana]]
{{South America in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:French Guiana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of French Guiana</title>
<id>10765</id>
<revision>
<id>40447484</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T16:52:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Economy of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
The '''economy of French Guiana''' is tied closely to that of [[France]] through subsidies and imports. Besides the French space center at [[Kourou]], [[fishing]] and [[forestry]] are the most important economic activities. The large reserves of tropical hardwoods, not fully exploited, support an expanding sawmill industry which provides sawn logs for export. Cultivation of crops is limited to the coastal area, where the population is largely concentrated; [[rice]] and [[manioc]] are the major crops. French Guiana is heavily dependent on imports of food and energy. [[Unemployment]] is a serious problem, particularly among younger workers.
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $1 billion (1998 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $6.000 (1998 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
NA%
<br>''industry:''
NA%
<br>''services:''
NA%
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2,5% (1992)
'''Labor force:'''
58.800 (1997)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services, government, and commerce 60,6%, industry 21,2%, agriculture 18,2% (1980)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
21,4% (1998 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$225 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$390 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1996)
'''Industries:'''
construction, [[shrimp]] processing, forestry products, [[rum]], [[gold]] mining
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%
'''Electricity - production:'''
430 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
100%
<br>''hydro:''
0%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
400 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - expo |
tage is particularly helpless - for instance it lacks legs entirely - because it does not need to care for itself. The difference between queens and workers, and between different castes of workers when they exist, is determined by feeding in the larval stage. Food is given to the larvae by a process called [[trophallaxis]] in which an ant [[Regurgitation|regurgitates]] food previously held in its crop for communal storage. This is also how adults distribute food amongst themselves. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so are often moved around various brood chambers within the colony.
A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. After that it graduates to digging and other nest work, and then to foraging and defense of the nest. These changes are fairly abrupt and define what are called temporal [[caste]]s. One theory of why this occurs is because foraging has a high death rate, so ants only participate in it when they are older and closer to death anyway. In a few ants there are also physical castes - workers come in a spectrum of sizes, called minor, median, and major workers, the latter beginning foraging sooner. Often the larger ants will have disproportionately larger heads, and so stronger [[mandible]]s. Such individuals are sometimes called "soldier" ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting other creatures, although they are still in fact worker ants and their "duties" typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers. In a few species the median workers have disappeared, creating a sharp divide and clear physical difference between the minors and majors.
Most of the common ant species breed in the same way. All ants in the colonies are females to begin with, but only the Queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens. The male ants, called drones, along with the breeding females are born with wings, and do nothing throughout their life except eat, at least until the time for mating comes. At this time, all the breeding ants in the colony are carried outside (save for the queen) where other colonies of similar species are doing the same. Then, all the winged breeding ants take flight. Mating occurs in flight and the males die shortly afterward. The females that survive land and seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their own wings and begin to lay eggs, which they care for. Sperm obtained during their nuptial flight is stored and used to fertilise all future eggs produced. The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food and care for the other eggs. This is how a new colony starts.
==Communication and behavior==
[[Image:Acrobat.ant1web..jpg|thumb|left|200px|Acrobat ant (''Crematogaster'' - Myrmecidinae)]]
[[Image:Ant mound.jpg|thumb|250px|Ant mound hole - preventing water coming into nest during rain]]
Ant communication is primarily through chemicals called [[pheromone]]s. Because most ants spend their time in direct contact with the ground, these chemical messages are more developed than in other [[Hymenopterans]]. So, for instance, when a forager finds food on its way home (found typically through remembered landmarks and the position of the [[sun]]), it will leave a trail along the ground, which in a short time other ants will follow. When they return home they will reinforce the trail, bringing other ants, until the food is exhausted, after which the trail is not reinforced and so slowly dissipates. A crushed ant will emit an alarm pheromone, that in high concentration sends other ants nearby into an attack frenzy, and in lower concentration attracts them, while a few ants use what are called propaganda pheromones to confuse their enemies.
Ant trails have no intrinsic [[polarity]]; that is to say, an ant walking on a straight non-branching trail cannot tell whether it is walking to or from the nest. Trails always divide as a "Y", with the two secondary trails at a 60 degree angle to each other, and it is the geometry at trail junctions that give ant trails polarity. (Jackson <i>et al</i>, 2004)
Like other insects, ants smell with their antennae, which are long and thin. These are fairly mobile, having a distinct elbow joint after an elongated first segment, and since they come in pairs they provide information about direction as well as intensity. Pheromones are also exchanged as compounds mixed in with the food interchanged in [[trophallaxis]], giving the ants information about one another's health and nutrition. Ants can also detect what task group (e.g. foraging or nest maintenance) other ants belong to. Of special note, the queen produces a special pheromone without which the workers will begin raising new queens.
Ants attack and defend themselves by biting, and in many species, stinging, in both cases sometimes injecting chemicals into the target. Of special note here is [[formic acid]].
While many types of animals can [[learning|learn]] behaviors by [[imitation|imitating]] other animals, ants may be the only group of animals besides [[human|humans]] in which interactive [[teacher|teaching]] behavior has been observed. Knowledgeable forager ants of the species ''Temnothorax albipennis'' directly lead naive nestmates to newly discovered food sources by an excruciatingly slow (and time-costly), process of 'tandem running'. The follower thereby obtains knowledge that it would not have, had it not been tutored, and this is at the expense of its nestmate teacher. Both leader and follower are acutely sensitive to the progress of their partner. For example, the leader slows down when the follower lags too far behind, and speeds up when the follower gets too close, whereas the follower does the opposite (Franks and Richardson, 2006).
==Ant cooperation and competition==
Some species of ant are known for attacking and taking over the colonies of others ant species. Others are less expansionist but nonetheless just as aggressive; they attack colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which they either eat or raise as workers. <!-- SOURCES NEEDED: In some rare cases two species of ants have been observed working in the same colony.-->
==Types==
{{commons|Ant}}
There is a great diversity among ants and their behaviors. They range in size from 2 to about 25 millimetres (about 0.08 to 1 inch). Their colour may vary, most are red or black, but other colours can also be seen. A few types, such as the genus ''Pheidole'' of [[North America]], have a metallic lustre.
See ''[[list of ant genera (alphabetical)]]'' for an alphabetical compendium of worldwide ant genera, and ''[http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/nomenclator.name_entry?text_entry=formicidae&Submit=Submit+Query antbase.org/Hymenoptera Name Server]''for a complete catalogue of all the currently known ant species of the world and their synonyms.
Antbase.org/Hymenoptera Name Server is providing an [http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/tsa.sppcount?the_taxon=Formicidae up to date record of the actual number of species], and allows to follow [http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/manage_lit.new_taxa_by_year?tnuid=152&the_year=2005 the description of new taxa].
Of special note:
*Some of the more advanced ants are the [[army ant]]s and [[driver ant]]s, from [[South America]] and [[Africa]] respectively. Unlike most species which have permanent nests, army and driver ants do not form permanent nests, but instead alternate between nomadic stages and stages where the workers form a temporary nest ([[bivouac]]) out of their own bodies. Colonies reproduce either through nuptial flights as described above, or by fission, where a group of workers simply dig a new hole and raise new queens. Colony members are distinguished by smell, and other intruders are usually attacked, with notable exceptions.
* Some ants will raid the colonies of other ants, taking the [[pupa|pupae]] with them, which once hatched act as workers in the raider's colonies despite not being genetically related to the queen. A few species, such as the Amazon ants (e.g. ''[[Polyergus]] rufescens''), have become utterly dependent on such slaves, to the point of being otherwise unable to feed themselves.
* Some ants, called [[honeypot ant]]s, have special workers called ''[[replete|repletes]]'' who simply store food for the rest of the colony, generally becoming immobile with greatly enlarged abdomens. In hot, dry places, even deserts, in Africa, North America and Australia where they live they are considered a great delicacy.
* [[Weaver ant]]s (''[[Oecophylla]]'') build nest in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then sewing them together by pressing silk-producing larvae against them in alternation.
* [[Leafcutter ant]]s (''[[Atta]]'' and ''[[Acromyrmex]]'') feed exclusively on a special [[fungus]] that lives only within their colonies. They continually collect [[leaf|leaves]] which they cut into tiny pieces for the fungus to grow on. These ants have several differently sized castes especially for cutting up the pieces they are supplied with into even smaller pieces. Leaf cutter ants are sensitive enough to adapt to the fungi's reaction to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is toxic to the fungus the colony will no longer collect it. The ants grow the fungus because it produces special structures called gongylidia which are fed on by the ants.
* [[Fire ant]]s are unique by having a poison sac where the contents consists largely of piperidine alkaloids.
* [[Silver ant]]s navigate by using their eyes instead of phero |
er labelled what they did, but their album titled 'BLACK METAL' became the basis for labelling music with 'Satanic' lyrics,and growling vocals [[black metal]].
Genres are not usually identified solely by aesthetic form, and black or death metal labels are not easy to apply to some bands. One example of this is the American band [[Slayer (band)|Slayer]], a pioneering[[Thrash Metal]] band. This genre (like Black Metal, one that predates Death Metal), is also characterized by complex rhythmics and heavy guitar riffing. Slayer is not classified as a death metal band, and have never labeled themselves as such. Even so, with aggressive thrash-metal milestones such as their debut [[Show No Mercy]] from 1983, and subsequent works, they certainly influenced many of the creators of death metal, just like '''Venom''' did.
There is no shortage of bands that can be said to have influenced death metal. So, when did death metal emerge as a genre of its own? The actual sequence of events is fairly well documented and agreed upon (see external links below), but the question "Who created death metal and when?" is, of course, a matter of defining precisely what one calls death metal. One useful way to classify movements would be to speak of "early death metal" and "modern death metal", as will be outlined below, keeping in mind that some observers do not consider the "early" form to be death metal at all.
Around [[1983]], aggressive U.S. bands such as Florida's [[Death (band)|Death]], California's [[Possessed (band)|Possessed]], and Chicago's [[Master (band) | Master]] began to form. If one would call this diffuse genre "early death metal", the first recorded examples of this would be [[Possessed (band)|Possessed]]'s album ''[[Seven Churches]]'' from 1985 and early demotapes by Death, followed by Death's album ''[[Scream Bloody Gore]]'' from 1987. To their credit, these "early death metal" bands did push the format forward, something that would ultimately pay off in a new form of music that was substantially different from their closest forefather, [[thrash metal]].
However, other death metal historians maintain that the 1985 brand of "early death metal" is more aptly summarised by the moniker "[[speed metal|post-thrash]]" and that the band Death receives inflated credit partly because of its name. In particular, the music flora around 1985, although fitting the above description of "extreme brutality and speed" for its time, did not create anything significantly new compared to their immediate predecessors, and one would be hard pressed to identify strong and specific musical differences between, say Death's debut album from [[1987]] and same-period work by [[thrash metal]] bands such as the [[Brazil]]ian [[Sepultura]] or even the aforementioned Venom, except perhaps slightly "growlier" vocals.
The alternative standpoint is that the modern concept of "death metal"&mdash;the point when it clearly decouples from the origins in heavy metal and thrash metal&mdash;can be set to [[1989]] or [[1990]]. Just as in the original creation of [[NWOBHM]] (New Wave of British Heavy Metal) by [[Iron Maiden]] and other bands was sparked by the youthful energy of [[punk rock]] in the late [[1970s]], so did cross-fertilisation between metal and punk once more create something new in the late [[1980s]]. The chaotic and often confusing development that took place around this time is well illustrated by the British band [[Napalm Death]], often characterised as a "[[grindcore]]" band (see below). This band was simultaneously always part of the [[hardcore punk]] scene. However, Napalm Death themselves changed drastically around or before [[1990]], leaving [[grindcore]] (and most of the band members) behind. Concise proof of this merger of [[thrash metal]] and [[hardcore punk]] is the project band [[Terrorizer|Terrorizer's]] album, [[World Downfall]] (1989), where members from Napalm Death and the American band Morbid Angel, part of the "early death metal " scene, compose together. Few observers would disagree that many bands, including the early US death metal bands but now also bands from many other scenes and other countries, drove a major shift in musical emphasis around 1990-1991.
In particular, on 1990's ''[[Harmony Corruption]]'', Napalm Death can be heard playing something most fans would call death metal today, i.e. "modern death metal" by the above characterization. This album clearly displays aggressive and fairly technical guitar riffing, complex rhythmics, a sophisticated growling vocal delivery by [["Barney" Greenway]], and thoughtful lyrics.
Other bands contributing significantly to this early movement include Britain's [[Bolt Thrower (band)|Bolt Thrower]], Britain's [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]], Sweden's [[Entombed (band)|Entombed]], New York's [[Suffocation (band)|Suffocation]], and Florida's [[Morbid Angel]].
To close the circle, the band [[Death]] put out the album [[Human]] in 1991, certainly an example of modern death metal.
The band Death's founder [[Chuck Schuldiner]] helped push the boundaries of uncompromising speed and technical virtuosity, mixing in highly technical and intricate rhythm guitar work with complex arrangements and emotive guitar solos. Other examples of this are Carcass's [[Necroticism: Descanting the Insalubrious]] from 1991, Suffocation's debut [[Human Waste]] from the same year and Entombed's [[Clandestine]] from 1992.
At this point, all the above characteristics are clearly present: abrupt [[tempo]] and count changes, occasionally extremely fast [[drum]]work, morbid lyrics and growling delivery.
== Later developments (1990s onwards) Subgenres that emerged ==
During the 1990s, death metal grew in many directions, spawning a rich variety of subgenres, including the following:
* [[Melodic death metal]], where harmonies and melodies are much more present in the guitarwork. Although more melodic, it can sound more raw than the more precise sounding American variety. This subgenre is mostly associated with [[Sweden]], especially in [[Gothenburg]], as well as [[Norway]] and [[Finland]] (see [[Scandinavian death metal]]). The genre finds its best representation in [[At the Gates]], [[In Flames]], [[Dark Tranquillity]], and [[Arch Enemy]]. The [[Iron Maiden]]-esque techniques employed by these "Gothenburg" bands formed a riff-lexicon frequently used by many metalcore bands that have risen in popularity since [[2001]]. Because of this style's origin, these bands are (often mockingly) called Gothencore (See: [[metalcore]]). Many metal fans consider this genre to be separate from true death metal.
* [[Florida death metal]], which includes some of the most notable bands. They are more rigid and percussive than the Swedish variant, more precise, refined and traditional, yet more direct and brutal than the Technical variety. Bands include [[Deicide (band)|Deicide]], [[Monstrosity (band)|Monstrosity]], [[Obituary (band)|Obituary]], [[Death (band)| Death]] (some albums are technical as well).
* [[Technical death metal]], a narrow, but influential subgenre where musical complexity and skill is the main focus. It is represented by bands like [[Gorguts]], [[Necrophagist]], [[Cynic (band)|Cynic]], [[Atheist (band)|Atheist]], [[Pestilence (band)|Pestilence,]] [[Obliveon (band)|Obliveon]], and eventually, [[Death (band)|Death]].
* [[Brutal death metal]], developed by combining certain aspects of the song structures of [[goregrind]] with death metal. Brutal Death Metal is associated with bands like [[Decapitated]] [[Devourment]], [[Vomit Remnants]],[[Cannibal Corpse]] and [[Internal Suffering]]. One main characteristic of Brutal Death is the vocal style, often called "Cookie Monster" vocals, or "bullfrog" vocals , the words are mostly unintelligible, sung in a grunting and choppy manner, & usually following the guitar riffs. Brutal death bands seem to compete, to try to have lower, sicker vocals than anyone else. Secondly, the guitar riffs are usually either chunky or hyper fast, down-tuned, with pinch harmonics, and little to no mid-range in the distortion. Drumming is usually all over the place, from slow churning chunk, to blasting speed; there is almost no middle ground. Suffocation is probably one of the main influences for this style.
* [[Death/doom]], which is a slowed down, melancholic subgenre, inspired by classic [[doom metal]]. It was created by the likes of [[Asphyx]], [[Disembowelment (band)|Disembowelment]], [[My Dying Bride]], [[Anathema (band)|Anathema]], and [[Paradise Lost (band)|Paradise Lost]].
* [[Slam death metal]], characterised by frequent Hardcore-like breakdowns and low grunting vocals. [[Internal Bleeding]] and [[Dying Fetus]] are slam death metal bands.
* [[Blackened death metal]], which is death metal mixed with [[black metal]] stylistic influences, notable in the vocals and riffing style. [[Dissection (band)|Dissection]] is a prime example of this genre, as is [[Emperor (band)|Emperor]] on their ''IX Equilibrium'' album, and [[Zyklon (band)|Zyklon]] (featuring former members of [[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]).
* Death Thrash (also called Deathrash), which is Thrash with elements of death metal including speed, guitar picking techniques and vocals. In the earliest incarnation this style was the progression from Thrash metal to death metal. Some bands are [[Benediction (band)|Benediction]], [[Cancer (band)|Cancer]], [[Konkhra]] and Criminal. Some Sepultura albums could also be classified this way.
[[Grindcore]] is considered by some to be an even more extreme variant of death metal. However, many fans of grindcore and music historians would place it in a genre by itself, since the genre historically developed in parallel to death metal (both developed in the 1980s, death metal from [[thrash metal]] |
ed, simply because one who desires power will usually obtain power over one who does not.
[[Carol Tavris]], author of ''Anger: the Misunderstood Emotion'' and ''The Mismeasure of Woman: Why Women Are Not the Better Sex, the Inferior Sex, or the Opposite Sex'', maintains that as long as men's experiences are considered to be the default human experiences, women will always face discrimination in North America or elsewhere. She holds that too much emphasis is placed on innate differences between men and woman, and that it has been used to justify the restriction of women's rights. She also argues that it is a fallacy to equate 'equality' with 'sameness'. For example, employment benefits for pregnant women are sometimes called 'special treatment', but -- Tavris argues -- because only women can become pregnant, this viewpoint is wrong. It would only be special treatment, she argues, if both men and women could become pregnant and women received benefits for pregnancy that men did not. (In her book ''A Fearful Freedom'', Wendy Kaminer provides an opposing viewpoint to this argument; she argues that pregnancy leave should not be a special case of employment benefits, but should be treated like any other disability benefits.) She argues that there is a need to view both men's and women's experiences as human experiences, without putting special emphasis on the differences between them.
==Contemporary criticisms of feminism==
Feminism, in some forms and to varying degrees, has become generally accepted in Western society. However, the attention it has attracted, due to the social changes it has effected, has resulted in many dissenting voices. Criticism has come from within the movement, from non-feminists, from [[masculism|masculists]], from social conservatives, and from scientists.
[[Postcolonial feminism|Postcolonial feminists]] criticise Western forms of feminism, notably [[radical feminism]] and its most basic assumption, universalization of the female experience. They argue that this assumption is based on the experience of white, middle-class women in the developed West, for whom gender oppression is primary; and that it cannot so easily be applied to women for whom gender oppression comes second to, for example, racial or class oppression.
Non-feminist critics suggest that the continual emphasis on women's issues throughout the evolution of the movement has resulted in gynocentric ideology. It is claimed by these critics that modern-day feminists are biased by the lens that filters their world views and they would like to see a gender-neutral term such as "[[gender egalitarianism]]" replace "feminism" when used in reference to the belief in basic equal rights and opportunities for both sexes.
Many who support [[masculism]] argue that because of both traditional gender roles and sexism infused into society by feminists, males are and have been oppressed. Their view as expressed by Warren Farrell in "The Myth of Male Power" is that the traditional world was a "bi-sexist" world, not a "uni-sexist" one, and that the issues men faced then still exist plus several new ones created by feminist organizations. One complaint is that feminists promote [[misandry]], even male inferiority - it has been demonstrated that replacing the words "male" and "female" in some feminist writings with "black" and "white" respectively would make these texts seem more racist to more people than the corresponding feminist writings would seem sexist. However, this is applicable to non-feminist writing as well, as [[Douglas Hofstadter]] tried to show in [http://www.bloomington.in.us/~abangert/person.html "A Person Paper on Purity in Language"]. Another interesting word substitution is substituting "male" and "female" with each other in texts, like [[Gerd Brantenberg]]'s ''[[Egalia's Daughters]]''. Others still dismiss this word substitution argument as overly simplistic, and state that changing "men oppress women" to "blacks oppress whites" says as little about the speaker of the original sentence as would changing "I love Jews" to "I hate Jews".
Another concern is that the belief in a [[glass ceiling]] for women may have resulted in [[affirmative action]] programs that promote women more for the purpose of [[public relations]] than for merit. [[Sexual harassment]] is also a topic of dispute: critics claim that, in the name of protecting women, men are discriminated against when they are the subject of claims; and that they are treated less seriously when claiming cases. The same is true with domestic violence, and even though oft-quoted feminist research suggests that over 30% of the victims of domestic violence are male, only a handful of the thousands of tax-funded shelters in the U.S. will even admit men.{{fact}}
Other concerns include inequity in health funding (particularly breast vs. prostate cancer), societal sympathy for women vs. vilification of men (e.g., emphasis on "violence against women"), and fears of censorship. Feminists disagree on the importance of men's issues; some argue that these issues are not important because society is male-dominated, others point out that the fact that a small group of men have much power doesn't contradict the idea that many men (especially poor, non-white, or non-straight men) might be oppressed. The concept of "patriarchy" is also questioned by masculists, largely because masculists examine whether a government's actions are more in line with men's interests or women's interests, not based on the gender of the people performing the actions, but on the actions themselves.
Conservative criticism includes the claim that the feminist movement is trying to destroy traditional gender roles. Proponents argue that men and women have many natural differences, and that everyone benefits from recognizing them. They consider children to benefit from having a masculine father and a feminine mother, and that divorce, single parenthood, and non-traditional gender roles harm children.{{fact}} It has been argued however, that these gender roles and differences aren’t necessarily “natural” to begin with and are merely products of the said tradition. {{fact}} To date, there has been no research showing that children brought up by mothers identifying as "feminist" are at a social or academic disadvantage when compared to children bought up by in families with traditional gender roles.{{fact}}
There is also a group of [[Paleoconservatives]], including [[George Gilder]] and [[Pat Buchanan]], who argue that feminism has produced a fundamentally unworkable, self-destructive, stagnant society. They note that societies in which feminism has developed the furthest have below-replacement rates of fertility and high rates of immigration (frequently from countries with cultures and religions hostile to feminism). In response to this, feminists such as [[Wendy Kaminer]] have argued that they are falsely attributing more power to feminism than the movement has ever actually had; in her book ''A Fearful Freedom'', Kaminer argues that we now live in a post-feminist world without having experienced a feminist one. Moreover, sociologists generally account for these trends in terms of the relative wealth of industrialized nations and the cost of raising children in a post-agricultural society, not feminism per se. Another possible response is to argue that fertility is only one measure of a society's success, and furthermore is one that is not accepted by some feminists.{{fact}} Many feminists would argue that women can contribute to society in ways other than producing children.{{fact}}
In the U.S., "liberal" religious groups most accepting of feminism have noted fewer conversions and less natural increase, for reasons such as lower birthrate and the likelihood of members taking another step towards secularism by leaving the church.{{fact}} Some forms of [[Islam]] disapprove of feminism.
Another way anti-feminists criticise feminism is to quote radical feminists, such as [[Marilyn French|Marilyn French's]] "''All men are rapists, and that is all they are''". These quotations are often given without the original context - for example, the sentence in question is taken from the speech of a character in a novel rather than the words of the author herself, was immediately preceded by references to being leered at on the streets of Chicago, and the second part of the statement was that "''they rape us with their eyes, their laws, and their codes.''" The author is not asserting that all men engage in sexual assault, the impression one might get from the repetition of the unadorned quotation, but is merely reflecting a misandrous sentiment using the voice of her character. Other quotations that some anti-feminists cite to indicate their belief that feminism is anti-male include [[Gloria Steinem]]'s famous slogan "a woman needs a man like a fish needs a bicycle", or [[Andrea Dworkin]]'s quote from her novel ''Ice And Fire'': "I want to see a man beaten to a bloody pulp with a high-heel shoved in his mouth, like an apple in the mouth of a pig.". Feminists might respond that quotes from fictional works do not always represent the point of view of their authors. In any case, misrepresenting the sentiments of ''some'' feminists as a universal feminist perspective is a form of [[straw man]] fallacy: even if it was shown that some radical feminists held [[sexist]] or logically flawed viewpoints, this is not a strong argument against all feminists or against feminism as a whole.
Some writers have used arguments from science, social science, and statistics to advance their criticisms of feminism. [[Political scientist]] [[Warren Farrell]] uses statistics to argue that th |
, and the British installed their own Nawab for Bengal and extended their direct control in the south. Chandernagore was restored to the French in [[1763]]. The Bengalis attempted to regain their territories in [[1765]] in alliance with the Mughal Emperor [[Shah Alam II]], but were defeated again at the [[Battle of Buxar]] (1765).
The center of Indian culture and trade shifted from Delhi to [[Calcutta]] when the [[Mughal Empire]] fell.
===British Rule===
Scarcely five years into the Company's rule, the catastrophic [[Bengal famine of 1770]], one of the greatest famines of history occurred. Up to a third of the population died in [[1770]] and subsequent years.
The [[Indian Mutiny]] of [[1857]] replaced rule by the Company with the direct control of Bengal by the [[United Kingdom|British]] crown.
A centre of [[rice]] cultivation as well as fine cotton called [[muslin]] and the world's main source of [[jute]] fibre, Bengal, from the [[1850s]] became one of India's principal centres of industry, concentrated in the capital [[Kolkata]] (known as ''Calcutta'' under the British, always called 'Kolkata' in the native tongue of [[Bengali]]) and its emerging cluster of suburbs. Most of the population nevertheless remained dependent on [[agriculture]], and despite its leading role in Indian political and intellectual activity, the province included some very undeveloped districts, especially in the east. In [[1877]], when [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] took the title of "Empress of India", the British declared Calcutta the capital of the [[British Raj]].
India's most populous province (and one of the most active provinces in freedom fighting), in [[1905]] Bengal was divided by the British rulers for administrative purposes into an overwhelmingly [[Hindu]] west (including present-day [[Bihar]] and [[Orissa]]) and a predominantly [[Muslim]] east (including [[Assam]]) ([[1905 Partition of Bengal]]). Hindu - Muslim conflict became stronger through this partition. While Hindu Indians disagreed with the partition saying it was a way of dividing a Bengal which is united by language and history, Muslims supported it by saying it was a big step forward for Muslim society where Muslims will be majority and they can freely practice their religion as well as their culture. But owing to strong Hindu agitation, the British reunited east and west Bengal in [[1912]], and made [[Bihar]] and [[Orissa]] a separate province.
Another major famine occurred during the second world war, the [[Bengal famine of 1943]], in which an estimated 3 million people died.
===Independence===
As partition of British India into [[Hindu]] and [[Muslim]] [[dominion]]s approached in [[1947]], Bengal again split into the state of [[West Bengal]] of secular [[India]] and a [[Islam|Muslim]] region of [[East Bengal]] under [[Pakistan]] (later renamed [[East Pakistan]] in [[1958]])( [[1947 Partition of Bengal]]). East Pakistan (East Bengal) later rebelled against [[Pakistan]]i military rule to become independent [[republic]] of [[Bangladesh]], literally "Land of Bengal", after a [[Bangladesh Liberation War|war of independence]] against the Pakistani army in [[1971]]. The western part of Bengal, now the state of [[West Bengal]], remains a part of [[India]]. However, culturally and sociologically, the two segments of Bengal share considerably more than just a single language.
Bengal experienced two devastating [[famine]]s costing millions of lives in [[1770]] and [[1943]]. Bengal (both W.Bengal and Bangladesh) is among the most densely populated regions of the world.
==Rulers of Bengal==
===[[Pala Empire|Pala Dynasty]]===
* Gopala I c. [[750]]-c. [[770]]
* Dharmapala c. [[770]]-c. [[810]]
* Devapala c. [[810]]-c. [[850]]
* Vigrahapala I c. [[850]]-c. [[875]]
* Narayanapala c. [[875]]-c. [[908]]
* Rajyapala c. [[908]]-c. [[935]]
* Gopala II c. [[935]]-c. [[952]]
* Vigrahapala II c. [[952]]-c. [[988]]
* Mahipala I c. [[988]]-c. [[1038]]
* Nayapala c. [[1038]]-c. [[1055]]
* Vigrahapala III c. [[1055]]-c. [[1070]]
* Mahipala II c. [[1070]]-c. [[1075]]
* Shurapala c. [[1075]]-c. [[1077]]
* Ramapala c. [[1077]]-c. [[1120]]
* Kumarapala c. [[1120]]-c. [[1125]]
* Gopala III c. [[1125]]-c. [[1144]]
* Madanapala c. [[1144]]-c. [[1161]]
===[[Sena dynasty|Sena Dynasty]]===
* [[Ballal Sen]] c. [[1161]]-c. [[1178]]
* [[Lakshman Sen]] c. [[1178]]-c. [[1205]]
* Vishwrup Sen c. [[1205]]-c. [[1220]]
* Keshavar Sen c. [[1220]]-c. [[1250]]
===Ilyas Dynasty===
* Bughra Khan [[1282]]-[[1291]]
* Kai Ka'us [[1291]]-[[1298]]
* Firuz Shah I [[1298]]-[[1318]]
* Bughra [[1318]]-[[1319]] (in West [[Bengal]])
* Bahadur [[1318]]-[[1330]] (in East [[Bengal]],in West [[Bengal]] [[1319]]-[[1323]])
* Ibrahim [[1323]]-[[1325]] (in West [[Bengal]])
* Azam ul-Mulk [[1323]]-[[1339]] (in Satgaon)
* Bahram Shah [[1324]]-[[1336]] (in East [[Bengal]])
* Qadr Khan [[1325]]-[[1339]] (in West [[Bengal]])
* Mubarrak Shah [[1336]]-[[1349]] (in East [[Bengal]])
* Ali Shah [[1339]]-[[1345]] (in West [[Bengal]])
* Ilyas Shah [[1345]]-[[1357]] (in West [[Bengal]], in whole [[Bengal]] from [[1352]])
* Ghazi Shah [[1349]]-[[1352]] (in East [[Bengal]])
* Sikandar I [[1357]]-[[1390]]
* Azam [[1369]]-[[1410]] - opponent of Sikandar I
* Hamza [[1410]]-[[1412]]
* Bayazid I [[1412]]-[[1414]]
* Firuz II [[1414]]-[[1415]]
===Ganesa Dynasty===
* Raja Ganesh [[1415]]-[[1418]]
* Mohammed [[1418]]-[[1431]]
* Ahmad [[1431]]-[[1436]]
===Ilyas Dynasty===
* Mahmud I [[1437]]-[[1459]]
* Barbak I [[1459]]-[[1474]]
* Yusuf [[1474]]-[[1481]]
* Sikandar II [[1481]]
* Fath Shah [[1481]]-[[1486]]
===Habshis Dynasty===
* Barbak II [[1486]]-[[1487]]
* Firuz III [[1487]]-[[1489]]
* Mahmud II [[1489]]-[[1490]]
* Muzaffar [[1490]]-[[1494]]
===Husaini Dynasty===
* Aladdin Husain [[1494]]-[[1518]]
* Nusrat [[1518]]-[[1533]]
* Firuz IV [[1533]]
* Mahmud III [[1533]]-[[1538]]
===Suri Dynasty===
* [[Sher Shah Suri|Sher Shah]] [[1539]]-[[1540]]
* Khidr [[1540]]-[[1545]]
* Mohammed Khan [[1545]]-[[1555]]
* Bahadur [[1555]]-[[1561]]
* Jalal [[1561]]-[[1564]]
===Karani (Kararani) Dynasty===
* Sulaiman [[1564]]-[[1572]]
* Bayazid II [[1572]]
* Daoud [[1572]]-[[1576]]
===Nawabs of Bengal===
* Murshid Quli Djafar Khan [[1703]]-[[1727]]
* Shoja ud-Din [[1727]]-[[1739]]
* Safaraz Khan [[1739]]-[[1740]]
* Ali Vardi Khan [[1740]]-[[1756]]
* [[Siraj Ud Daulah]] [[1756]]-[[1757]]
* Mir Djafar [[1757]]-[[1760]]
* Mir Qasim [[1760]]-[[1763]]
* Mir Djafar (Second time) [[1763]]-[[1765]]
* Najm ud-Dawlah [[1765]]-[[1766]]
* Saif ud-Dawlah [[1766]]-[[1770]]
==See also==
* [[Bangladesh]]
* [[Bengali language]]
* [[Bengali cuisine]]
* [[Music of Bangladesh]]
* [[Music of Bengal]]
* [[Bengali Cinema]]
* [[West Bengal]]
* [[Art of Bengal]]
* [[East Bengal (province)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hostkingdom.net/india.html#Bengal List of rulers of Bengal]
'''Maps'''
Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at [[University of Texas at Austin]] Libraries
:*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/india_shepherd_1923.jpg India 1700-1792 from The Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1923]
:*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/india1760_1905.jpg India 1760 from The Public Schools Historical Atlas edited by C. Colbeck. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1905]
:*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/india_1882.jpg India 1882 from A Dictionary Practical, Theoretical, and Historical of Commerce and Commercial Navigation by J.R. M'Culloch. Longmans, Green and Co. London, 1882]
{{South Asia}}
[[Category:Geography of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:History of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Bengal]]
[[Category:Geography of India]]
[[Category:History of India]]
[[Category: Regions of India]]
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[[zh:孟加拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bucket argument</title>
<id>4864</id>
<revision>
<id>38320100</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T15:47:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>141.157.72.72</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Isaac Newton]]'s rotating '''bucket argument''' is aimed at showing that true rotational motion cannot be defined as the relative rotation of the body with respect to the immediately surrounding bodies. It is one of five arguments from the "properties, causes, and effects" of true motion and rest that support his contention that, in general, true motion and rest cannot be defined as special instances of motion or rest relative to other bodies, but instead can be defined only by reference to absolute space.
These arguments, and a discussion of the distinctions between absolute and relative time, space, place and motion, appear in a Scholium at the very beginning of his great work, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687), which established the foundations of classical mechanics and introduced his law of universal gravitation, which yielded the first quantitatively adequate dynamical explanation of planetary motion.
Despite their embrace of the principle of rectilinear inertia and the recognition of the kinematical relativity of apparent motion (which underdetermines whether the Ptolemaic or the Copernican system is correct), natural philosophers of the seventeenth century continued to consider true motion and rest as genuinely contrary predications of an individual body. The dominant view Newton was concerned to refute was due to Descartes. It held that empty space is a metaphysical impossibility, that space is nothing other than the extension of matter, and that the true motion of a body consists in its transference from the vincinity of bodies immediately surrounding it to the vicinity of other bodies. Descartes recognized that an indicator of true rotational motion is the tendency [conatus] of the parts of |
format.
* CGI shots were rendered in the 4:3 ratio, but designed so that the top and bottom of each shot could be removed to create a widescreen image without ruining the image composition.
* All of the purely live-action shots were stored as [[High-definition television|high-definition]] digital images.
* However, CGI shots, and shots combining live-action with CGI, were stored in the much lower-definition [[NTSC]] digital format. (Again, the expectation was that it would be relatively cheap in the future to recreate the CGI as widescreen.)
* Over the years, the original computer-generated models, etc. have been lost, making it necessary to use the old 4:3 CGI shots.
This has resulted in several consistent flaws throughout the ''Babylon 5'' DVD release. In particular, quality drops very significantly whenever a scene cuts from purely live-action to a shot combining live-action and CGI. This is especially noticeable on the [[PAL]] DVDs, since CGI shots had to be converted from NTSC as well as being blown up to fit a widescreen television.
==Video games==
[[Image:IntoTheFire.jpg|thumb|150px|The cover of the cancelled ''Into the Fire'' game]]
In [[1998]] a video game based on ''Babylon 5'', named ''Into the Fire'', was being developed by [[Sierra Entertainment|Sierra]], the publishers of [[Homeworld]]. This game was to have cast the player as the pilot of a Starfury fighter craft through many missions of a dynamic storyline, while also giving the player an opportunity to "move up through the ranks" and eventually take command of capital ships and even fleets. It was to feature large battles and realistic physics. Multiplayer competitive and cooperative modes would have allowed players to pilot ships of alien races. Christopher Franke composed and recorded new music for the game, and [[live action]] footage was filmed with the primary actors from the series.
Work on this game ended on [[September 21]], [[1999]], when, as part of a corporate reorganization, Sierra cancelled it and laid off its development staff.
The web site [http://www.firstones.com/ FirstOnes.com] followed the game's development and demise, and continues to track Babylon 5 [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]]s for other games. FirstOnes.com also hosts the site of the [http://ifh.firstones.com/ Space Dream Factory], an independent project to develop several standalone games. The first of these, titled "Babylon 5: I've Found Her", is set five years before the series, and can be downloaded free of charge at [http://ifh.firstones.com/ the project's website.]
A collection of mods for the [[Homeworld]] platform can be found at [http://www.b5mods.com/ The Great Wars Mods] website. These mods try to capture the best battles from the series. Great Wars III is the most developed of all, having virtually every aspect of the game converted to a B5 theme.
Another independently developed, freely available mod is [http://www.hard-light.net/hosted/babylon/ The Babylon Project], a total conversion of the computer game [[Freespace 2]]. The mod features several campaigns set during the Earth-Minbari War and the Raider Wars. Additional campaigns, including the Earth Alliance Civil War, are planned. Active development continues on the project's forums at [http://www.hardlightproductions.com/ Hard Light Productions].
There is a modification available for the Babylon 5 universe for [[Malfador Machinations]]' strategy game [[Space Empires IV]]. However, it remains incomplete at this time, presumably waiting for the release of [[Space Empires V]] early in [[2006]].
==Other merchandise==
*Babylon 5 Limited Edition Entertainment Utility (1996): [[Windows 95]] desktop customization software containing [[screen savers]], [[wallpaper]], audio, [[icons]], and [[cursors]]. Produced by [[Sound Source Interactive, Inc.]] (aka [[TDK Mediactive, Inc.]]).
*Babylon 5 Arcade Series Entertainment Utility: "Shadow Wars" (1998): [[Windows 95]]/[[Windows 98]] desktop customization software containing [[screen savers]], [[wallpaper]], audio, [[icons]], [[cursors]], and an arcade-style space game. Produced by [[Sound Source Interactive, Inc.]] (aka [[TDK Mediactive, Inc.]]).
*[[Babylon 5 Wars|Board Game]]
*Roleplaying Games
*[[Babylon 5 Collectible Card Game|Collectible Card Game]]
*Trading Cards
*Magazines
*Comic Books
*MicroMachines
*Model Kits
*Miniatures
*Clothing
*Dishware
==Trivia==
*One of the show's [[Hugo Award|Hugo awards]] is used as a prop in the [[Sleeping in Light|final episode]], the first time that a Hugo has been shown on-screen in a series that has actually ''won'' a Hugo.
*The Babylon 5 station is located in the [[Epsilon Eridani]] star system, orbiting the third planet of that group (also known as "Epsilon III").
*In the B5 universe, every intelligent species in the galaxy has, apparently on its own, developed the food that we call [[meatballs|Swedish meatballs]]. Each species has a different name for it (the Narn call it "breen"). This is reminiscent of a phenomenon reported in ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'': every intelligent race has a drink called "[[gin and tonic]]" - but only the ''name'' is the same, and the actual drink is unique to each species.
*Actor [[Robert Foxworth]] was supposed to appear in the episode "[[Severed Dreams]]" (as his recurring character, General Hague). However, Foxworth's agent had double-booked him on episodes of B5 and ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' at the same time; the actor chose DS9, mostly because as a two part episode ("[[Homefront (DS9 episode)|Homefront]]" / "[[Paradise Lost (DS9 episode)|Paradise Lost]]") would net him a bigger salary. General Hague was subsequently killed off (offscreen) and the character of Major Ed Ryan was brought in as a last minute replacement. Ironically, while Hague was a loyalist fighting against a coup on Earth, his DS9 character (Admiral Leyton) was trying to instigate one; similarly, his character on ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' was also a victim of a coup, and his ''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]'' character (Administrator V'Las) was attempting to score a [[Romulan]] coup within the [[Vulcan High Command]].
*Actor [[Everett McGill]] (''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'') was originally intended to be cast as Major Ed Ryan in the episode "[[Severed Dreams]]" by series creator [[J. Michael Straczynski]]. However, Straczynski didn't remember McGill's first name, so when he asked to have McGill contacted to set up a meeting about casting him, his assistant asked if he meant "Bruce," and Straczynski said yes. [[Bruce McGill]] was invited to meet with Straczynski, and it was only after the two met that Straczynski realized his mistake. Despite the confusion, Straczynski decided to use Bruce for the role of Major Ryan.
*[[Dilbert]] cartoonist [[Scott Adams]] appeared in a cameo role in ''Moments of Transition'', Season 4. In the bar, he enlisted Garibaldi to help him find his dog and cat, who he said meant to take over the universe.
==See also==
*[[Babylon 5 influences]]
*[[List of Babylon 5 articles]]
*[[Similarities between Babylon 5 and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]
*[[Internet marketing and fan influence on Babylon 5]]
*[[The Be Five]]
*[[Space colonization in popular culture]]
*[[List of television series that include time travel]]
*[[rec.arts.sf.tv.babylon5.moderated]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{wikicities|babylon5|The Babylon Project}}
*{{imdb title|id=0105946|title=Babylon 5}}
*{{Dmoz|Arts/Television/Programs/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy/B/Babylon_5/|Babylon 5}}
*[http://www.midwinter.com/lurk/lurker.html The Lurker's Guide to Babylon 5]: The definitive B5 reference and episode guide
*[http://www.zteamproductions.com/protob5.html Early ''Babylon 5'' Designs]: Information from the original 1991 promotional flyer, with different character names and Peter Ledger's artwork
*[http://www.chronology.org/noframes/b-five/ The unofficial ''Babylon 5'' Timeline]
*[http://www.oinc.net/B5/Enc/ The Babylon 5 Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.frostjedi.com/vex/ Voltayre's Encyclopedia Xenobiologica]: Another B5 Encyclopedia
*[http://b5.cs.uwyo.edu/bab5/ The Down Below Sound Archive for Babylon 5]
*[http://tgm.firstones.com/index.php/Main_Page The Great Machine]: A wiki about Babylon 5 and all things related.
*[http://b5tech.com/ Babylon 5 Technology Manual]: A description of the technologies presented in ''Babylon 5''
*[http://www.babtech-onthe.net/ BabTech on the Net]: Another examination of the technology shown in ''Babylon 5''
*[http://www.jmsnews.com/ JMSNews]: Collection of Straczynski's postings to Usenet and other online forums
*[http://www.modeemi.fi/~leopold/Babylon5/DVD/DVDTransfer.html How Babylon 5 is Transferred to DVD]
*[http://www.babylon5scripts.com Babylon 5 Scripts]: Buy the scripts written by JMS along with background notes, previously unpublished material and photos.
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Babylon 5|*]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>BeOS</title>
<id>4801</id>
<revision>
<id>41661310</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:19:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.218.149.123</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Agathocles</title>
<id>1840</id>
<revision>
<id>39478656</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T16:35:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.41.174.227</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>fr:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Agathocles''' ([[361 BC]]-[[289 BC]]), [[tyrant]] of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] ([[317 BC]]-[[289 BC]]) and king of [[Sicily]] ([[304 BC]]-[[289 BC]]).
[[Image:agathocles coin.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Coin of Agathocles.]]
He was born at Thermae Himeraeae (modern name [[Termini Imerese]]) in Sicily. The son of a [[pottery|potter]] who had moved to Syracuse in about [[343 BC]], he learned his father's trade, but afterwards entered the army. In [[333 BC]] he married the [[widow]] of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen. He was twice [[banishment|banished]] for attempting to overthrow the [[oligarchy|oligarchical]] party in Syracuse.
In [[317 BC]] he returned with an army of [[mercenary|mercenaries]] under a solemn oath to observe the [[democracy|democratic]] [[constitution]] which was then set up. Having banished or murdered some 10,000 citizens, and thus made himself master of Syracuse, he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the greater part of Sicily.
War with [[Carthage]] followed. In [[311 BC]] Agathocles was [[siege|besieged]] and defeated in Syracuse in [[Battle of Himera (311 BC)|the battle of Himera]]. After defeat in [[310 BC]] he took the desperate resolve of breaking through the [[blockade]] and attacking the enemy in [[Africa]]. In Africa he concluded the treaty with [[Ophellas]], ruler of [[Cyrenaica]]. After several victories he was at last completely defeated ([[307 BC]]) and fled secretly to Sicily.
After concluding peace with Carthage in [[306 BC]], Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in [[304 BC]], and established his rule over the [[Greece|Greek]] cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the [[Halycus River]]. Even in his old age he displayed the same restless energy, and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death.
His last years were harassed by ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson [[Archagathus]], at whose instigation he is said to have been [[poison|poisoned]]; according to others, he died a natural death. He was a born leader of mercenaries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his ends, he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular "tyrant." Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his death bed and did not want his sons to succeed him as king.
Agathocles married [[Theoxena]], stepdaughter of [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]]. His daughter [[Lanassa]] married King [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]].
==Sources==
* [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]]
* [[Diodorus Siculus]] xix., xxi., xxii. (follows generally Timaeus who had a special grudge against Agathocles)
* [[Polybius]] ix. 23
==References==
* Schubert, (1887) ''Geschichte des Agathokles''
* Grote, ''History of Greece'', ch. 97.
{{1911}}
[[Category:361 BC births]]
[[Category:289 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek generals]]
[[Category:Sicilian tyrants]]
[[de:Agathokles von Syrakus]]
[[es:Agatocles]]
[[fr:Agathoclès de Syracuse]]
[[pl:Agatokles (tyran Syrakuz)]]
[[sv:Agathokles]]
[[zh:阿加托克利斯]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Industry in Alberta</title>
<id>1841</id>
<revision>
<id>34900031</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T16:20:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Circeus</username>
<id>98785</id>
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<comment>rm {{alberta}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The primary '''[[Industry|industries]] in [[Alberta]]''', [[Canada]] are [[Energy development|energy]], [[logging|lumber]], and [[Agriculture|farming]] and [[ranching]].
While [[gold]] and other [[mining]] operations still exist from the time of the [[Klondike Gold Rush]], they have diminished in importance as [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas|gas]] extraction have achieved dominance in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]].
Vast beds of [[coal]] are found extending for hundreds of miles, a short distance below the surface of the plains. The coal belongs to the [[Cretaceous]] beds, and while not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures in [[England]] is of excellent quality. In the valley of the [[Bow River]], alongside the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]], valuable beds of anthracite coal are still worked. The usual coal deposits of the Province of Alberta are of bituminous or semi-bituminous coal. These are largely worked at [[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]] in southern Alberta and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] in the centre of the province. Many other parts of the province have pits for private use.
Notable gas reserves were discovered in the [[1890s]], when the town of [[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]] began using gas for lighting the town, and suppling light and fuel for the people, and a number of industries using the gas for manufacturing. In fact a large glassworks was established at Redcliff. When Rudyard Kipling visited Medicine Hat he described it as the city "with all hell for a basement."
Since the early [[1940s]], Alberta had supplied oil and gas to the rest of Canada and the [[United States]]. The [[Athabasca River]] region, as well as localities far north on the [[Mackenzie River]], produce oil for internal and external use. The [[Athabasca Oil Sands]] contain the largest proven reserves of oil in the world. [[Natural gas]] has been found at several points, and in 1999, the production of natural gas liquids ([[ethane]], [[propane]], and [[butane|butanes]]) totaled 172.8 million barrels (27,000,000 m&sup3;), valued at $2.27 billion. Alberta also provides 13% of all the natural gas used in the United States.
In 1999, [[lumber]] products from Alberta were valued at $4.1 billion of which 72% were exported around the world. Since forests cover approximately 59% of the province's land area, the government allows about 23,300,000 cubic metres to be harvested annually from the forests on public lands.
In the past, [[cattle]], [[horses]], and [[domestic sheep|sheep]] were reared in the southern prairie region on ranches or smaller holdings. Currently Alberta produces cattle valued at over $3.3 billion, as well as other livestock in lesser quanities. In this region [[irrigation]] is widely used. [[Wheat]], accounting for almost half of the $2 billion agricultural economy, is supplemented by [[canola]], [[barley]], [[rye]], [[sugar beets]], and other mixed farming.
Alberta is the richest province in Canada (GDP per capita wise) and if it were its own country, it would be ranked second richest in the world (after Luxembourg). The average Albertan salary is more than $7,000 US higher than the American average. If oil prices do not collapse, then within a few short years Albertans are expected to have not only the highest salaries in the world but also the highest quality of life.
[[Category:Alberta]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Augustin Louis Cauchy</title>
<id>1842</id>
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<id>40589465</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:45:19Z</timestamp>
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<username>Predr</username>
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<minor />
<comment>+da</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Augustin_Louis_Cauchy.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Augustin Louis Cauchy]]
'''Augustin Louis Cauchy''' ([[August 21]], [[1789]] &ndash; [[May 23]],[[1857]]) was a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]]. He started the project of formulating and proving the theorems of [[calculus]] in a rigorous manner and was thus an early pioneer of [[mathematical analysis|analysis]]. He also gave several important theorems in [[complex analysis]] and initiated the study of [[permutation group]]s. A profound mathematician, Cauchy exercised by his perspicuous and rigorous methods a great influence over his contemporaries and successors. His writings cover the entire range of mathematics and [[mathematical physics]].
Having received his early education from his father [[Louis François Cauchy]] ([[1760]]&ndash;[[1848]]), who held several minor public appointments and counted [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] and [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]] among his friends, Cauchy entered the [[École Centrale du Panthéon]] in [[1802]], and proceeded to the [[École Polytechnique]] in [[1805]], and to the [[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées]] in [[1807]]. Having adopted the profession of an [[Engineering|engineer]], he left [[Paris]] for [[Cherbourg]] in [[1810]], but returned in [[1813]] on account of his health, whereupon Lagrange and Laplace persuaded him to renounce engineering and to devote himself to mathematics. He obtained an appointment at the École Polytechnique, which, however, he relinquished in [[1830]] on the accession of [[Louis-Philippe_of_France|Louis-Philippe]], finding it impossible to take the necessary oaths. A short sojourn at [[Fribourg]] in [[Switzerland]] was followed by his appointment in [[1831]] to the newly-created chair of mathematical physics at the [[University of Turin]].
In [[1833]] the deposed king [[Charles X of France]] summoned Cauchy to be tutor to his grandson, the duke of [[Bordeaux]], an appointment which enabled Cauchy to travel and thereby become acquainted with the favourable impression which his investigations had made. Charles created him a [[baron]] in return for his services. Returning to Paris in [[1838]], Cauchy refused a proffered chair at the |
daughters, which resulted in the births of Ammon and Moab, is also described.
Abraham journeys to Gerar, the country of Abimelech. Here once again he represents Sarah as his sister, and Abimelech plans to gain possession of her. He desists on being warned by God.
Note: the story of Lot and Sodom and Gomorrah also appears in the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
=== The birth of Isaac ===
At last the long-expected son is born, and receives the name of "[[Isaac]]" (''Itzhak'': "will laugh" in Hebrew). At Sarah's insistence [[Ishmael]] together with his mother Hagar is driven out of the house. They also have a great future promised to them by God. Abraham, during the banquet that he gives in honor of Isaac's birth, enters into a covenant with Abimelech, who confirms his right to the well [[Beersheba|Beer-sheba]].
The story of Isaac also appears in the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
=== The near sacrifice of Isaac ===
{{main|Near sacrifice of Isaac}}
Now that Abraham seems to have all his desires fulfilled, having even provided for the future of his son, God subjects him to the greatest trial of his faith by demanding Isaac as a sacrifice. Abraham obeys; but, as he is about to lay the knife upon his son, God restrains him, promising him numberless descendants. On the death of Sarah, Abraham acquires [[Machpelah]] for a family tomb. Then he sends his servant to Mesopotamia, Nahor's home, to find among his relations a wife for Isaac; and Rebekah, Nahor's granddaughter, is chosen. Other children are born to Abraham by another wife, Keturah, among whose descendants are the Midianites; and he dies in a prosperous old age.
Note: the story of the sacrifice also appears in the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
=== Esau and Jacob ===
After being married for twenty years Rebekah has twins by Isaac: [[Esau]], who becomes a hunter, and [[Jacob]] (''Ya'akov'': "will follow"), who becomes a herdsman. Jacob persuades Esau to sell him his birthright, for which the latter does not care; notwithstanding this bargain, God appears to Isaac and repeats the promises given to Abraham. His wife, whom he represents as his sister, is endangered in the country of the Philistines, but King Abimelech himself averts disaster. In spite of the hostility of Abimelech's people, Isaac is fortunate in all his undertakings in that country, especially in digging wells. God appears to him at Beer-sheba, encourages him, and promises him blessings and numerous descendants; and Abimelech enters into a covenant with him at the same place. Esau marries Canaanite women, to the regret of his parents.
Rebekah persuades Jacob to dress himself as Esau, and thus obtain from his blinded by old age father the blessing intended for Esau. To escape his brother's vengeance, Jacob is sent to relations in Haran, being charged by Isaac to find a wife there. On the way God appears to him at night, promising protection and aid for himself and the land for his numerous descendants. Arrived at Haran, Jacob hires himself to Laban, his mother's brother, on condition that, after having served for seven years as a herdsman, he shall have for wife the younger daughter, Rachel, with whom he is in love. At the end of this period Laban gives him the elder daughter, Leah; Jacob therefore serves another seven years for Rachel, and after that six years more for cattle. In the meantime Leah bears him Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah; by Rachel's maid Bilhah he has Dan and Naphtali; by Zilpah, Leah's maid, Gad and Asher; then, by Leah again, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah; and finally, by Rachel, Joseph. He also acquires much wealth in flocks.
=== Jacob wrestles with God ===
In fear of Laban, Jacob flees with his family, and soon becomes reconciled with Laban. On approaching his home he is in fear of Esau, to whom he sends presents. While sleeping, a being (variously regarded as God, an angel, or a man), appears to Jacob and wrestles with him. The mysterious one pleads to be released before daybreak, but Jacob refuses to release the being until he agrees to bless him. The being announces to Jacob that he shall bear the name "Israel," which means "one who wrestled with God" and is freed.
The meeting with Esau proves a friendly one, and the brothers separate reconciled. Jacob settles at [[Shechem]]. His sons Simeon and Levi take vengeance on the city of Shechem, whose prince has [[rape]]d their sister Dinah. On the road from [[Bethel (Israel)|Bethel]], Rachel gives birth to a son, [[Benjamin]], and dies.
=== Joseph the dreamer ===
[[Joseph (dreamer)|Joseph]], Jacob's favorite son, is hated by his brothers on account of his dreams prognosticating his future dominion, and on the advice of [[Judah (biblical figure)|Judah]] is secretly sold to a caravan of Ishmaelitic merchants going to [[Egypt]]. His brothers tell their father that a wild animal has devoured Joseph. Joseph, carried to Egypt, is there sold as a slave to Potiphar, one of Pharaoh's officials. He gains his master's confidence; but when the latter's wife, unable to seduce him, accuses him falsely, he is cast into prison (xxxix.). Here he correctly interprets the dreams of two of his fellow prisoners, the king's butler and baker. When Pharaoh is troubled by dreams that no one is able to interpret, the butler draws attention to Joseph. The latter is thereupon brought before Pharaoh, whose dreams he interprets to mean that seven years of abundance will be followed by seven years of famine. He advises the king to make provision accordingly, and is empowered to take the necessary steps, being appointed second in the kingdom. Joseph marries Asenath, the daughter of the priest Poti-pherah, by whom he has two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim (xli.).
When the famine comes it is felt even in Canaan; and Jacob sends his sons to Egypt to buy corn. The brothers appear before Joseph, who recognizes them, but does not reveal himself. After having proved them on this and on a second journey, and they having shown themselves so fearful and penitent that Judah even offers himself as a slave, Joseph reveals his identity, forgives his brothers the wrong they did him, and promises to settle in Egypt both them and his father (xlii.-xlv.). Jacob brings his whole family, numbering 66 persons, to Egypt, this making, inclusive of Joseph and his sons and himself, 70 persons. Pharaoh receives them amicably and assigns to them the land of Goshen (xlvi.-xlvii.). When Jacob feels the approach of death he sends for Joseph and his sons, and receives Ephraim and Manasseh among his own sons (xlviii.). Then he calls his sons to his bedside and reveals their future to them (xlix.). Jacob dies, and is solemnly interred in the family tomb at Machpelah. Joseph lives to see his great-grandchildren, and on his death-bed he exhorts his brethren, if God should remember them and lead them out of the country, to take his bones with them. The book ends with Joseph's remains being put "in a coffin in Egypt."
==See also==
*[[En%C3%BBma Elish]]
*[[Cradle of Humanity]]
*[[Dating the Bible]]
*[[Patriarchal Age]]
*[[Tanakh|Tanakh]]
*[[The Bible and history]]
*[[The Hebrew Bible]]
*[[Origin belief]]
*[[Torah]]
*[[parsha|Torah portions]] in Genesis: [[Bereishit (parsha)|Bereishit]], [[Noach (parshah)|Noach]], [[Lech-Lecha]], [[Vayeira]], [[Chayei Sarah]], [[Toledot]], [[Vayetze]], [[Vayishlach]], [[Vayeshev]], [[Miketz]], [[Vayigash]], [[Vayechi]]
*[[Wife-sister narratives in Genesis]]
==References==
*[[Walter Brueggemann]], ''Genesis: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching''. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1982. (An accessible mainstream Christian commentary.)
*Terrence E. Fretheim, "The Book of Genesis", in ''The New Interpreter's Bible''. Volume 1. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. (A mainstream Christian commentary.)
*Isaac M. Kikawada & Arthur Quinn, ''Before Abraham was – The Unity of Genesis 1-11''. Nashville, Tenn, 1985. (A challenge to the Documentary Hypothesis.)
*[[Nechama Leibowitz|Nehama Leibowitz]], ''New Studies in Bereshit, Genesis''. Jerusalem: Hemed Press, 1995. (A scholarly Jewish commentary employing traditional sources.)
*Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (now [[Pope Benedict XVI]]), ''In the Beginning''. Edinburgh, 1995. (A Catholic understanding of the story of Creation and Fall.)
*Nahum M. Sarna, ''Understanding Genesis''. New York: Schocken Press, 1966. (A scholarly Jewish treatment, strong on historical perspective.)
*Nahum M. Sarna, ''The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. (A maintream Jewish commentary.)
*E. A. Speiser, ''Genesis, The Anchor Bible''. Volume 1. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1964. (A translation with scholarly commentary and philological notes by a noted Semitic scholar. The series is written for laypeople and specialists alike.)
*Bruce Vawter, ''On Genesis: A New Reading''. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co., 1977. (An introduction to Genesis by a fine Catholic scholar. Genesis was Vawter's hobby.)
*Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg, ''The Beginning of Desire: Reflections on Genesis''. New York: Doubleday, 1995. (A scholarly Jewish commentary employing traditional sources.)
==External links==
Online versions and translations of [[Genesis]]:
*Original text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0101.htm &#1489;&#1512;&#1488;&#1513;&#1497;&#1514; ''Bereishit'' - Genesis] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0101.htm Genesis at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=1 Genesis (The Living Torah)] Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org
**[http://w |
period that use the steps from [[Baroque dance|French court dance]] in English dances. The French called these dances ''contra-dance'' or ''contredanse''. As time progressed, English country dances were spread and reinterpreted throughout the Western world, and eventually the French form of the name came to be associated with the American folk dances, especially in [[New England]]. As of [[2005]], there is a regularly scheduled contra dance in most North American cities or regions, as well as in [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], [[England]], [[Czech Republic]] and [[Australia]]).
==Contra dance events==
A typical evening of contra dance is 3 hours long, including an intermission. During a typical event, attendees will dance a number of individual dances, called ''contra dances,'' divided by a scattering of partner dances, like [[waltzes]] or [[schottische]]s. Music for the evening is invariably provided by a live band playing [[jig]]s and [[reel (dance)|reels]] from the [[British Isles]], [[Canada]], the [[USA]].
Most contra dance events are open to all comers, regardless of experience. Generally, a leader, called a ''caller,'' will teach each individual dance in the period immediately before the music for that individual dance begins, a time called the "walk through." During each dance's walk through, the dancers learn the dance by walking through in order the moves that comprise an individual contra dance, following the caller's instructions.
The contra dance tradition is to change partners for every dance. As such, one who attends an evening of contra dances does not need to bring his or her own partner. In the short break between individual dances, the dancers invite each other to dance. Traditionally, one either dances with the first person who asks or else sits out the dance. The music begins and the dancers repeat that sequence some number of times before the dance ends. Then the dancers thank their partners, and find new partners for the next dance.
No special outfits are worn, but "peasant skirts" or other full, light weight skirts are popular, as these have a very pretty effect when swinging. This includes some men as well; contradancers can be quite liberal in the way they dress. Low, broken-in, soft-soled, non-marking shoes are recommended and, in some places, required.
==Choreography==
Most contra dances consist of a sequence of about six to twelve individual figures. These figures are prompted by the [[Caller (dance)|caller]] in time to the [[music]] as the figures are danced. As the sequence repeats, the caller may cut down his or her prompting, and eventually drop out, leaving the dancers to enrapture themselves in the music.
===Types of Sets===
Contra dances are arranged in long lines of facing or opposing partners, called ''sets''. The three predominant arrangements or formations are proper, improper, and Becket. <!-- most people don't care about trivia... Becket formation is named after "Becket Reel" by [[Herbie Gaudreau]], probably the first contra dance to use this formation. The dance itself is named after the town of [[Becket, Massachusetts|Becket]], [[Massachusetts]]. --> A dancer and his or her partner interacting mostly with an adjacent couple, called "neighbors" for each round of the dance. The sub-groups of two couples is known as the "minor set". Rare (but formerly prevalent) dance sequences have three couples per minor set; these are called "triple minor", while the usual grouping is called "duple minor". Couples consist of one "lead" (or "gentleman") and one "follow" (or "lady"). By custom, leads are male, and follows are female, though this need not be the case.
; Proper :
L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2...
G1 G2 G1 G2 G1 G2 G1 G2...
; Improper :
G1 L2 G1 L2 G1 L2 G1 L2...
L1 G2 L1 G2 L1 G2 L1 G2...
; Becket :
L1 G1 L1 G1 L1 G1 L1 G1...
G2 L2 G2 L2 G2 L2 G2 L2...
; Indecent :
L1 G2 L1 G2 L1 G2 L1 G2...
G1 L2 G1 L2 G1 L2 G1 L2...
; Key : band is to the left, '''L'''=lady, '''G'''=gent, '''1'''=1st couple, '''2'''=2nd couple)
Sets are generally arranged so they run along the length of the hall, with the "top" or "head" of the set being the end closest to the band and caller. Correspondingly, the "bottom" or "foot" of the set is the end furthest from the caller. Dancers moving toward the band are moving "up the hall", and "down the hall" when moving away. As a dance progresses, so do the dancers: the arrangement of the figures causes each couple to move together up or down the hall, when they reach the end of the hall they reverse direction across the set. When a couple reaches the end of the line, they simply turn around and join back in, going in the opposite direction.
===Figures===
A figure is a short dance "step" or "move", sort of a choreographic building block. Most figures take eight counts of music, although figures with four or sixteen counts are also common. Each dance is a collection of figures assembled to allow the dancers to progress along the set. "Weight" refers to the weight of dancers as they pull against each other. Many figures must be done faster and with extra flair if "weight" is applied. Most experienced dancers often feel that this is more entertaining.
====Basic Figures for Singles and Pairs====
; Allemande : Two dancers join either right or left hands in a thumbs-up grip and walk around each other.
; Balance : The couple faces each other with both hands joined (less commonly with one hand joined) and, in time to the music, takes two steps toward each other, and then two steps apart. It is typical for experienced dancers to add a flourish such as a stomp or jump during the balance, giving the figure a strong rhythmic feel. Often followed by a swing. Balances may also be done in lines or circles.
; Butterfly Whirl : The gentleman and lady turn around, while keeping hold of their partner's waist. Facing the same direction, with inside arms reaching across their partner's backs, in a circle the lady walks forward and the gent backs up. This often leads into a ladies' chain, or something with the ladies in the center. A common prequel to this figure is the following: gentlemen do a left hand allemande, then "scoop up" their partner by putting their arm around their lady's waist. Next the gents let go of each other and the two couples butterfly whirl back to place.
; Courtesy Turn : Generally done when the ladies are crossing the set to the gentlemen. The gentlemen allows the lady to turn around while moving, continuing to move forward. The gentlemen moves backward during the figure.
; [[Dosado|Do-Si-Do]] : Two dancers begin facing each other, move so as to pass right shoulders, then back-to-back, then left shoulders, ending where they began. Sometimes they do-si-do 1 1/2 times, exchanging places. As an embellishment, experienced dancers will often add a spin to this move. Often, newcomers ill-advisedly copy this flashy, but potentially disorienting behavior.
; Gypsy : This relatively recent addition to the repertoire was adapted from English country dancing. The pair looks each other in the eyes and walks around each other in the designated direction, without touching each other. The amount of eye contact depends on various factors including individual comfort and local tradition.
; [[Promenade (dance move)|Promenade]] : As a couple, with the lady on the right, the couple walks where the caller directs. There are several different handholds. In one method, the gent holds hands with the lady, left hands (his arm across his body by) low, and his right arm across her back with right hands above the lady's right shoulder. In another method right hands are joined, and left hands are joined, and both are kept in front of the dancer's body, with the right hands on top. The gent may choose to spin the lady under his arm at the end as a flourish. Promenades are frequently used to bring dancers back to place (often useful when dancers get lost mid-dance).
; Roll Away with a Half Sashay : This figure begins with two opposite-gender-role dancers facing in the same direction, holding hands. One of them takes a step or two toward the other, who is pulled in front of him/her while changing hands. At the end of the figure, the dancers have changed places but are still facing in the same direction as initially. (Most commonly, this figure starts with the lady on the gent's left and the lady passes in front of the gent). Giving weight is of key importance in this figure.
; Swing : A standard ballroom swing. The couple takes standard ballroom position, with the lady's left hand on the gent's shoulder, the gent's right hand on the lady's waist, and their free hands clasped together in the air. (Experienced dancers often experiment with [http://www.io.com/~entropy/contradance/articles/swing-positions.html other ways to place their hands].) One can either walk or use a buzz-step; one partner may walk while the other uses the buzz-step. For the buzz-step, the right foot remains on the ground, with the partner's right foot to the right of it. The left foot pushes against the ground repeatedly, moving the dancer in a circle clockwise. Weight is very important in this figure. A swing usually ends facing across the set, sometimes down the set, rarely up the set, but always with the lead on the left and the follow on the right. It is generally recommended that newcomers get an experienced dancer to teach them this figure before the dance begins.
; Turn Alone : Each person turns around in place. When in the center of a line of four it is polite to turn towards the person on the end. This often follows "Down the Hall Four In Line," (see below).
; Turn as a Couple : In this figure a couple with hands joined turns around in such a way that the |
methane dyes
** [[:Category:Diaryl methane dyes]], based on [[diphenyl methane]]
** [[:Category:Triarylmethane dyes]], derivates of [[triphenyl methane]]
* [[:Category:Azo dyes]], based on -N=N- [[azo compound|azo]] structure
* [[:Category:Cyanine dyes]], derivates of [[phthalocyanine]]
* [[:Category:Diazonium dyes]], based on [[diazonium]] salts
* [[:Category:Nitro dyes]], based on a -NO<sub>2</sub> [[nitro functional group]]
* [[:Category:Nitroso dyes]], based on a -N=O [[nitroso functional group]]
* [[:Category:Phthalocyanine dyes]], derivates of [[phthalocyanine]]
* [[:Category:Quinone-imine dyes]], derivates of [[quinone]]
** [[:Category:Azin dyes]]
*** [[:Category:Eurhodin dyes]]
*** [[:Category:Safranin dyes]], derivates of [[safranin]]
** Indamins
** Indophenols
** [[:Category:Oxazin dyes]], derivates of [[oxazin]]
** [[:Category:Oxazone dyes]], derivates of [[oxazone]]
** [[:Category:Thiazin dyes]], derivates of [[thiazin]]
* [[:Category:Thiazole dyes]], derivates of [[thiazole]]
* Xanthene dyes, derived from [[xanthene]]
** Fluorene dyes, derivates of [[fluorene]]
*** [[:Category:Pyronin dyes]]
*** [[:Category:Rhodamine dyes]], derivates of [[rhodamine]]
** [[:Category:Fluorone dyes]], based on [[fluorone]]
Also
* [[:Category:Natural dyes]]
* [[:Category:Metal complex dyes]]
* [[:Category:Pigments]]
** [[:Category:Inorganic pigments]]
==External links==
*[http://www.pburch.net/dyeing/aboutdyes.shtml About Dyes]
*[http://www.organicdye.com About Organic Dyes]
[[Category:Dyes]]
[[de:Farbstoffe]]
[[fr:Teinture]]
[[ja:&#26579;&#26009;]]
[[lt:Dažiklis]]
[[pl:Substancje barwiące]]
[[simple:Dye]]
[[zh:&#26579;&#26009;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Examples of differential equations</title>
<id>8181</id>
<revision>
<id>40362432</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== A separable first order linear ordinary differential equation ==
A separable [[linear ordinary differential equation]] of the first order has the general form:
: <math>\frac{dy}{dt} + f(t) y = 0,</math>
where ''f''(''t'') is some known [[function (mathematics)|function]]. We may solve this by [[separation of variables]] (moving the ''y'' terms to one side and the ''t'' terms to the other side),
: <math>\frac{dy}{y} = -f(t)\, dt.</math>
[[Integral|Integrating]], we find
:<math>\ln y = -F(t) + C\,</math>
where
:<math>F(t) = \int f(t)\,dt</math>
is the [[antiderivative]] of ''f''(''t'') and ''C'' is a constant. Then, by [[exponent]]iation, we obtain
:<math>y = A e^{-F(t)},\,</math>
with ''A'' an arbitrary constant. (We can easily confirm that this is a solution by plugging it into the original differential equation.)
Some elaboration is needed since ''f''(''t'') is not in fact a constant, indeed it might not even be integrable. Arguably, one must also assume something about the domains of the functions involved before the equation is fully defined. Are we talking complex functions, or just real, for example? The usual textbook approach is to discuss forming the equations well before considering how to solve them.
== Non-separable first order linear ordinary differential equations ==
Some first order linear ODEs (ordinary [[differential equation]]s) are not separable like in the above example. In order to solve non-separable first order linear ODEs one must use what is known as an [[integrating factor]]. This technique will be shown below.
Consider first order linear ODEs of the general form:
<math>\frac{dy}{dx} + p(x)y = q(x)</math>
The method for solving this equation relies on a special "integrating factor", ''&mu;'':
<math>\mu = e^{\int_{}^{} p(x)\, dx}</math>
Multiply both sides of the differential equation by ''&mu;'' to get:
<math>\mu{\frac{dy}{dx}} + \mu{p(x)y} = \mu{q(x)}</math>
Because of the special ''&mu;'' we picked, this simplifies to:
<math>\mu{\frac{dy}{dx}} + y{\frac{d{\mu}}{dx}} = \mu{q(x)}</math>
Using the [[product rule (calculus)|product rule]] we get:
<math>\frac{d}{dx}{(\mu{y})} = \mu{q(x)}</math>
Integrating both sides we get:
<math>\mu{y} = \left(\int\mu q(x)\, dx\right) + C</math>
Finally, to solve for <math>y</math> we divide both sides by <math>\mu</math>:
<math>y = \frac{\left(\int\mu q(x)\, dx\right) + C}{\mu}</math>
(Since ''&mu;'' is a function of ''x'', we cannot simplify any more.)
== A simple mathematical model ==
Suppose a mass is attached to a spring, which exerts an attractive force on the mass [[proportional]] to the extension/compression of the spring and ignore any other forces ([[gravity]], [[friction]] etc). We shall write the extension of the spring at a time <math>t</math> as <math>x(t)</math>. Now, using [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law]] we can write (using convenient units)
: <math>\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} = - x</math>
If we look for solutions that have the form <math>C e^{kt}</math>, where <math>C</math> is a constant, we discover the relationship <math>k^2 + 1 = 0</math>, and thus <math>k</math> must be one of the [[complex number]]s <math>i</math> or <math>-i</math>. Thus, using [[Eulers formula in complex analysis|Euler's theorem]] we can say that the solution must be of the form:
: <math>x(t) = A \cos t + B \sin t</math>
To fix the unknown constants <math>A</math> and <math>B</math>, we need '''initial conditions''', i.e. to specify the state of the system at a given time (usually taken to be <math>t = 0</math>).
For example, if we suppose at <math>t = 0</math> the extension is a unit distance (<math>x = 1</math>), and the particle is not moving (<math>dx/dt = 0</math>). We have
: <math>x(0) = A \cos 0 + B \sin 0 = A = 1,</math>
and so <math>A = 1</math>.
: <math>x'(0) = -A \sin 0 + B \cos 0 = B = 0,</math>
and so <math>B = 0</math>.
Therefore <math>x(t) = \cos t</math>. This is an example of [[simple harmonic motion]].
== Improving our model ==
The above model of an oscillating mass on a spring is plausible but not really realistic. For a start, we have invented a perpetual motion machine which violates the second law of [[thermodynamics]]. Therefore, consider adding some [[friction]] for realism. Now, experimental [[scientist]]s will tell us that friction will tend to decelerate the mass and have magnitude proportional to its velocity (i.e. <math>dx/dt</math>). Our new differential equation, expressing the balancing of the acceleration and the forces, is
: <math>\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} = - c \frac{dx}{dt} - x</math>
where <math>c</math> is our coefficient of friction, and <math>c > 0</math>. Again looking for solutions of the form <math>A e^{kt}</math>, we find that
: <math>k^2 + c k + 1 = 0.</math>
This is a [[quadratic equation]] which we can solve. If <math>c < 2</math> we have complex roots <math>a \pm i b</math>, and the solution (with the above boundary conditions) will look like this:
: <math>x(t) = e^{at} \left(\cos bt - \frac{a}{b} \sin bt \right) </math>
(We can show that <math>a < 0</math>)
This is a ''damped oscillator'', and the plot of displacement against time would look something like this:
: [[image:damped.png]]
which does resemble how we'd expect a vibrating spring to behave as friction removed the energy from the system.
== A simple exact equation ==
An '''exact differential equation''' is a first-order ordinary [[differential equation]] of implicit form
: <math>I(x, y)\, dx + J(x, y)\, dy = 0, \,\!</math>
such that
: <math>\frac{\partial I}{\partial y}(x, y) = \frac{\partial J}{\partial x}(x, y).</math>
This equation has the solution
: <math>\int_{x_0}^{x} I(u, y)\, du + \int_{y_0}^{y} J_\partial (v)\, dv = 0</math>
where
: <math>J_\partial (y) = J(x, y) - \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \int_{x_0}^{x} I(u, y)\, du,</math>
''u'' and ''v'' being [[free variables and bound variables|dummy variables]]; ''x''<sub>0</sub> and ''y''<sub>0</sub> being initial-value constants.
==See also==
* [[differential equations of mathematical physics]]
* [[exact form]]
== Bibliography ==
* A. D. Polyanin and V. F. Zaitsev, Handbook of Exact Solutions for Ordinary Differential Equations, 2nd Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003; ISBN 1584882972.
==External links==
* [http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/solutions/ode.htm Ordinary Differential Equations] at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
[[Category:ordinary differential equations]]
[[fr:Exemples d'équations différentielles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dwight D. Eisenhower</title>
<id>8182</id>
<revision>
<id>42112230</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:23:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Accurizer</username>
<id>804090</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President
| name=President Dwight David Eisenhower
| nationality=american
| image=Eisenhower official.jpg
| order=34th President
| term_start=[[January 20]], [[1953]]
| term_end=[[January 20]], [[1961]]
| predecessor=[[Harry S. Truman]]
| successor=[[John F. Kennedy]]
| birth_date=[[October 14]], [[1890]]
| birth_place=[[Denison, Texas]] |
of expression]]
[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]
[[cs:Cenzura]]
[[da:Censur]]
[[de:Zensur (Informationskontrolle)]]
[[es:Censura]]
[[fr:Censure]]
[[ko:검열]]
[[io:Censuro]]
[[it:Censura]]
[[he:צנזורה]]
[[lv:Cenzūra]]
[[nl:Censuur (informatie)]]
[[ja:検閲]]
[[pl:Cenzura]]
[[pt:Censura]]
[[ru:Цензура]]
[[sk:Cenzúra]]
[[sv:Censur]]
[[uk:Цензура]]
[[zh:檢查制度]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Candela</title>
<id>5385</id>
<revision>
<id>41888185</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:01:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a unit of luminous intensity}}
----
The '''candela''' (symbol: cd) is the [[SI base unit]] of [[luminous intensity]] (''perceived'' power emitted by a light source in a particular direction).
==Definition==
Since the 16th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] in 1979, the candela has been defined as follows:
<blockquote>
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540{{e|12}} [[hertz]] and that has a [[radiant intensity]] in that direction of 1/683 [[watt]] per [[steradian]].
</blockquote>
==Origin==
The candela was based on an older unit, the ''candlepower'', which was referenced to the luminous intensity of a "standard [[candle]]" of known composition.
==Explanation==
The frequency chosen is in the [[visible light|visible spectrum]] near [[green]], corresponding to a [[wavelength]] of about 555 nanometers. The [[human eye]] is most sensitive to this frequency. At other frequencies, more radiant intensity is required to achieve the same luminous intensity, according to the frequency response of the human eye. (See [[luminosity function]]).
A common candle emits about 1 cd. A 100 W [[lightbulb]] emits about 120 cd.
Although the definition of candela is now based on the watt, which is a derived SI unit of power, the candela remains a [[SI base unit|base unit]] of the SI system [http://www1.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/appendix2/photometric.html#history].
Historically, the candela was defined in terms of the [[black-body]] radiation emitted by 1/60 of 1 cm<sup>2</sup> of [[platinum]] at its melting point. The arbitrary (1/683) term was chosen such that the new definition would exactly match the old definition.
==SI photometric light units==
{{SI light units}}
==References==
* {{cite web
| title = The Unit of Luminous Intensity: Candela (cd)
| url = http://www.electro-optical.com/whitepapers/candela.htm
| accessdate = 2006-02-08
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Base unit definitions: Candela
| work = The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
| url = http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/candela.html
| accessdate = 2006-02-08
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.jracademy.com/~ewotawa/CandelaM.html Candela: The SI Unit of Luminous Intensity]
[[Category:SI base units]]
[[Category:Photometry]]
[[Category:Units of luminous intensity]]
[[ca:Candela]]
[[cs:Kandela]]
[[da:Candela]]
[[de:Candela]]
[[es:Candela]]
[[et:Kandela]]
[[fi:Kandela]]
[[fr:Candela]]
[[he:קנדלה]]
[[hu:Kandela]]
[[id:Candela]]
[[it:Candela (unità di misura)]]
[[ja:カンデラ]]
[[nl:Candela (eenheid)]]
[[nn:Candela]]
[[no:Candela]]
[[pl:Kandela]]
[[pt:Candela]]
[[ru:Кандела]]
[[simple:Candela]]
[[sk:Kandela]]
[[sl:Candela]]
[[sr:Кандела]]
[[sv:Candela]]
[[uk:Кандела]]
[[zh:坎德拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Community card poker</title>
<id>5386</id>
<revision>
<id>41045236</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:22:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.54.95.129|208.54.95.129]] ([[User talk:208.54.95.129|talk]]) to last version by Netoholic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Probably starting about the time of [[World War II]], many modern [[poker]]
games used [[Community card]]s (also called
"shared cards" or "widow cards"), which are cards dealt face up to the center
of the table and shared by all players.
In these games, each player is dealt privately an incomplete hand
("hole cards"), which is then combined with the community cards
to make a complete hand.
The set of community cards is called the "board" or the "widow", and may be
dealt in a simple line or arranged in a special pattern; rules of each game
determine how they may be combined with each player's private hand.
The canonical community card game today is probably [[Texas hold 'em]]
(and variants thereof), originating sometime in the 1920s.
That game is described in great detail in its own article, while most of the
descriptions below are brief and refer to that more detailed article
(a few other games merit their own article as well, such as [[Omaha hold'em]]).
In home games, it is typical to use [[ante]]s, while casinos
typically use only [[Blind (poker)|blind]]s for these games.
[[Fixed limit (poker)|Fixed limit]] games are most common in casinos, while
[[spread limit]] games are more common in home games. [[No limit (poker)|No limit]] and [[pot limit]] games are less common, but some games play particularly well with those structures. As with [[stud poker]], later betting rounds often have a higher limit than earlier betting rounds. Each betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left (when blinds are used, the first round begins with the player after the big blind), so community card games are generally [[Position (poker)|position]]al games.
Most community card games do not play well with [[lowball]] hand values,
though some do play very well at [[High-low split|high-low split]],
especially with [[ace-to-five low]] values, making it
possible to win both halves of a pot.
When played high-low split, there is generally a minimum qualifying hand
for low (often '''8'''-high), and it is played
[[Cards speak|cards speak]].
== Texas hold 'em ==
{{details|Texas hold 'em}}
This is the most popular community card game today. Each player is dealt two private cards, after which there is a betting round. Then three community cards are dealt face up (in no particular order or pattern), followed by a second betting round. A fourth community card is followed by a third betting round, a fifth community card and the fourth and final betting round. At showdown, each player plays the best five-card hand he can make using any five cards among the two in his hand and the five on the board.
Texas hold 'em does not play well [[High-low split|high-low split]] ([[Omaha hold'em]] is probably the best high-low community card game). It plays very well at no limit, and in fact the "main event" of the [[World Series of Poker]], the [[Poker tournament|tournament]] generally considered to be the world championship of the game of poker, is the $10,000 entry no limit Texas hold 'em event.
=== Pineapple (and Crazy Pineapple, Tahoe) ===
These are variants of Texas hold 'em in which each player is initially dealt three cards instead of two. In Pineapple, each player then immediately discards one of the three cards he is dealt, and the game proceeds exactly as in Texas hold 'em. In Crazy Pineapple, the players discard their third card ''after'' the second betting round, before the fourth community card is dealt. In Tahoe, players keep all three cards through showdown, but may not use all three of them to make a hand&mdash;each player may use none, one, or two cards from his hand, combined with those on the board, to make his final five-card hand.
Crazy Pineapple and Tahoe are often played high-low split, and play reasonably well that way, though plain Pineapple does not.
=== Double-board hold'em ===
A split-pot variant that can be applied to many games (but that is generally only applied to normal hold'em) is "double-board". For double-board hold'em, two separate five-card boards are dealt, and the high hand using each board takes half of the pot. For example, after the first betting round, three community cards are dealt to each of two separate boards; after the second round, another community card is dealt to each board; and before the final round, a fifth community card is dealt to each board (so there will be in total ten community cards, comprising two separate five-card hold'em boards).
This variant of Texas Hold'em is sometimes called "double-flop hold'em", which is a bit of a misnomer, since there are not just two flops, but also two turns and two rivers.
== Omaha hold 'em ==
{{details|Omaha hold 'em}}
Another variant of Texas hold 'em that is quite popular and complex is Omaha hold'em.
Briefly, each player is dealt four cards to his private hand instead of two.
The betting rounds and layout of community cards are identical.
At showdown, each player's hand is the best five-card hand he can make
from ''exactly three'' of the five cards on the board, plus ''exactly two''
of his own cards.
Unlike Texas hold 'em, a player cannot play only one of his cards with four
of the board, nor can he play the board, nor play three from his hand and two
from the board, or any other combination.
Each player must play exactly two of his own cards with exactly three
of the community cards.
The most popular form of the game is high-low split, called
"Omaha/8 or better", or just "Omaha/8".
Each player, using the above rules, makes a separate five-card high hand
and five-card low hand, and the pot is split between the high and low (which
may be the same player).
To qualify for low, a player must be able to play an '''8-7-6-5-4''' or
lower.
A few casinos play with a '''9 |
timestamp>2005-12-15T17:22:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bill37212</username>
<id>209421</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Grouped by geometry */ disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}
== Philosophical arguments for classification system ==
There are many ways to study architecture and the forms that are created by architects. Two classification systems emerged out of the debate between [[Modernism]] and [[Postmodernism]]. On one hand is the idea of the [[archetype]]: walls, doors, columns, etc. The other theory was put forth as an extension of Kant and Heidegger's theory of Relative Homelessness, or the idea of relative values and icons in the world. Both theories serve architecture well as a construct of discourse. Yet both theories taken to extremes tend to muddy the picture for classifying and categorizing architecture. A discussion of the two theories and their ramifications need to be put forth as a sort of disclaimer, and to further the architectural discourse at Wikipedia.
In the theory of Archetypes, small elements that are universal truths are combined and arranged in a coherent, holistic building. This tradition extends from the Platonic/Pythagorean tradition of primary elements. A recent champion of this notion was [[Frank Lloyd Wright]]. His designs relied on the punning notion that "Home is where the Hearth is", with the hearth as the symbolic and literal center of the house and family. The archetype relies on the notion of universal truths or building forms. Many architectural treatises from [[Vitruvius]], to [[Claude Perrault]], to [[Gottfried Semper]], to [[John Wellborn Root]], to even [[Le Corbusier]] rely on the idea of archetypes to some degree.
At the other end of the spectrum lies a concept entirely foreign to archetype. A simple, unofficial title could be Relative Homelessness. The logical ideas are complex and very convoluted. A short, and very simplified explanation follows. Disclaimer: I am not a [[philosophy]] student; therefore this [[synopsis]] might have some small errors. I have studied this extensively in school and on my own, but a true student of philosophy could explain these ideas better.
This idea has roots in the work of [[Martin Heidegger]], who was very interested in language and its effect on human beings, and his protégé Derrida, and the idea of relative truth. A synopsis of the logical chain goes like this. Heidegger is interested in the idea of [[Hermeneutics]], or the study of the methodological principles of interpretation. Everyone is Hermeneutic; therefore everyone is interpreting life/world as he/she encounters it. Therefore there is no final truth, everything is relative and nothing is absolute. To be human is to interpret. Along with this logical chain goes the idea of context. Heidegger states that you cannot discover anything without using your predetermined context: social, place, area, age, etc. You cannot decide upon an issue without using your already existing content. Therefore the idea of the universal, and the idea of [[Archetype]] are void. Another assault on [[Archetype]] states that since human beings value systems are based on context, therefore are relative voids Archetype. The final assault also comes from context: the idea that physical forms somehow have intrinsic values. Values that somehow transcend space, time, and physical location are voided by Heidegger's idea of context.
== Summary ==
Contemporary architect [[Peter Eisenman]] champions this theory. If [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] would say, "You can always go home", Peter would say, "Oh no you can't". This distinction of absolute to relative distinguishes the two philosophies. Current philosophical and architectural discourse oscillates between these two diametric entities. Movements such as Regionalism and the so-called New Urbanists [who are neither urban nor new, but that is another debate] rely heavily on the Archetype as a design element. Then there are [[architect|architects]] such as the aforementioned Eisenman, Thom Mayne lead Morphosis, and a host of others who view the world as relative, interchangeable space. In actual practice architecture and architects generally fall within one camp or the other, with many distributed between two poles. It is helpful to think of this diagram a segment with two points and ideas, views and people as a continuum between the two views. For Wikipedia we will classify architecture using a modified [[Archetype]]. This makes sense because Wikipedia as a dictionary likes elemental ideas and classifications. We will break the elements of [[architecture]] down into archetypical elements, so as to understand architecture as a whole. The argument of whether or not these elements have basic intrinsic values that are universal to all can be set-aside in the quest to understand architecture.
== Archetypical elements of buildings ==
:Vertical
::[[Wall]]
:::[[Arch]]
:::[[Beam (structure)|Beam]]
:::[[Lintel]]
:::[[Quoin]]
::[[Column]]
:::[[Classical orders|Orders]]
:::Base
:::Shaft
:::[[Capital (architecture)|Capital]]
::[[Openings]]
:::[[Window]]
:::[[Door]]
:Horizontal
::[[Plinth]]
::[[Floor]]
::[[Roof]]
== Grouped by geometry ==
::'''Line'''
:::[[Column]]
::::[[classical orders|Orders]]
::::Base
::::Shaft
::::[[Capital (architecture)|Capital]]
::'''Plane'''
:::[[Wall]]
::::[[Arch]]
::::[[Beam (structure)|Beam]]
::::[[Lintel]]
::'''Volume'''
::::[[piazza]]
::::forum
::::[[agora]]
Other
:Domestic space
::[[house]]
:Public space
::[[palace]]
::[[capitol]]
::[[basilica]]
[[Category:Architectural elements]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within</title>
<id>11242</id>
<revision>
<id>41990419</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:01:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.131.155.105</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed redundant and poorly written paragraph</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within |
image = Final Fantasy TSW DVD.jpg |
director = [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]] |
producer = [[Chris Lee]] |
writer = [[Al Reinert]]<br>[[Jeff Vintar]] |
starring = [[Ming-Na]] as [[Aki Ross]] (voice)<br>[[Alec Baldwin]] as [[Gray Edwards]] (voice)<br>[[Ving Rhames]] as [[Ryan Whitaker]] (voice) |
distributor = [[Columbia Pictures]] |
released = [[July 11]], [[2001]] |
runtime = 106 min |
language = English |
imdb_id = 0173840 |
music = Elliot Goldenthal |
awards = Best soundtrack 2001 |
budget = $115 million |
}}
'''''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within''''' is a [[science fiction film|science fiction movie]] by [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]], the creator of the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series of [[computer role-playing game|RPGs]]. It was released on [[July 11]], [[2001]] in the [[United States]] and was [[Timeline of CGI in movies|the first]] [[animated feature]] to seriously attempt [[photorealistic]] [[computer-generated imagery|CGI]] [[human]]s. It is also one of the biggest [[box office bombs]] in film history, with losses of over $120 million, effectively bankrupting [[Square Pictures]].
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' is set on an [[Extraterrestrial life|alien]]-infested [[Earth]] in the year [[2065]]. The remaining humans live in "barrier cities" all over the world and attempt to free their planet from the Phantoms, an alien race. The only hope for the planet comes from the scientist [[Aki Ross]] and her mentor, Dr. Sid, who have a plan to destroy the Phantoms without damaging the planet, but a general named Hein is determined to use the Zeus space cannon to destroy the Phantoms&mdash;even if it means destroying the Earth in the process.
While the film does carry the name ''Final Fantasy'', it is only vaguely thematically related to [[Square Co., Ltd.]]'s popular ''Final Fantasy'' series of games. The plot, characters, and storyline were all created specifically for the movie although the character of Dr. Sid does continue the games' tradition of having a character named [[Cid (Final Fantasy)|Cid]] appear in most ''Final Fantasy'' games, despite the Doctor's named spelled with an untraditional "S"
==Reception==
The film received mixed reviews but was not a popular success. Its plot is typical of [[Japan]]ese [[science-fiction]] [[anime]] in melding science fiction and spirituality, and it seemed to be best received by [[otaku]], or at least regular viewers of anime. In some aspects, ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' was no more nor less than a big-budget anime movie. Other critics felt that its artistic failings were also those of many anime and Hollywood action films alike -- an over-reliance on special effects, clichéd characters, and the sacrifice of meaningful story for spectacle.
The use of CGI in the movie was criticized as a gimmick by people like animation historian [[Jerry Beck]] and producer [[Steve Oedekerk]], who argued that simulating live actors is too expensive and that CGI should be limited to special effects only. But Chris Lee, the producer of ''Final Fantasy'', countered that live actors often can't physically accomplish what computer characters easily can, citing his experience from making ''[[Starship Troopers (film)|Starship Troopers]]'' and ''[[Godzilla]]''. An early scene in the movie, in which Aki floats weightless in an orbital spacecraft, illustrates his point: such scenes are trivial to shoot when your [[actor|actress]] has no weight to begin with. Lee also noted that the difference between the CGI and live action footage can be jarring for viewers when the film requires heavy use of computer eff |
ubject to [[taboo deformation]] or replacement (as was the word for [[wolf]], ''wlk<sup>w</sup>os''), resulting in the use of numerous unrelated words with meanings like "brown one" (English ''bruin'') and "honey-eater" (Slavic ''medved''). Thus four separate Indo-European language groups do not share the same PIE root. In the Finnish countryside, the word for "bear" remains taboo to this day. The theory of the bear taboo is taught to almost all beginning students of Indo-European and historical linguistics; the putative original PIE word for bear is itself descriptive, because a cognate word in Sanskrit is ''rakshas'', meaning "harm, injury" [http://www.cloudline.org/LinguisticArchaeology.html].
Numerous cities around the world have adopted the bear as a symbol, notably the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] capital [[Bern]], which takes its name from the [[German language|German]] for bear, ''bär''. The bear is also the name-emblem of [[Berlin]]. Bears are a common symbol of [[heraldry]] (e.g. [[Rawa Coat of Arms]], [[Bernhardt coat of arms]]). In the arms of the bishopric of Freising (''illustration, right'') the bear is the dangerous totem animal tamed by Saint [[Corbinian]] and made to carry his civilized baggage over the mountains: the allegory of the civilizing influence of Christianity is inescapable. A bear also features prominently in the legend of Saint [[Romedius]], who is also said to have tamed one of these animals and had the same bear carry him from his hermitage in the mountains to the city of [[Trento]].
==Bears in popular culture==
Bears, usually anthropomorphized, appear frequently as characters in popular culture; see [[List of fictional bears]].
*Some [[List of historical bears|bears]] have been famous in their own right, like the bear that [[President of the United States|U.S. president]] [[Theodore Roosevelt|Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt]] refused to shoot in [[Mississippi]]. That bear became the prototype for the [[Teddy bear]], which is a [[stuffed animal]] [[toy]].
*In the [[stock market]], a ''[[bear market]]'' is a period of declining prices. Pessimistic forecasting or negative activity is said to be ''bearish'' (due to the stereotypical posture of bears looking downwards), and one who expresses bearish sentiment is a ''bear''. Its opposite is a ''bull market'', and ''bullish'' sentiment from ''bulls''.
*Many cultures regard bears as possessing healing powers. The peoples of [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] use bears' body parts and secretions (notably their [[gall bladder]]s and [[bile]]) as part of [[traditional Chinese medicine]]. This has had a major impact on populations of bears around the world. Thousands of bears are farmed for their bile in China, Vietnam and Korea. They are kept in appalling conditions and usually have bile drained from their gall bladders using catheters inserted into their abdomen or with [[hypodermic]] needles. There is no evidence to suggest that farming bears has reduced pressures on wild bear populations. Indeed the farming of bears in China has led to a huge increase in consumption of bear bile since the 1980's with many people prepared to pay very high prices for the 'superior' bile of a wild bear.
*The bear, the [[Brown bear|bruin]], or specific types of bears are popular [[nickname]]s or [[mascot]]s, e.g. for sports teams; and a bear cub was [[mascot]] of the [[1980 Summer Olympics]].
*The [[constellation]]s [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]] represent bears.
*The bear is a common national symbol for [[Russia]] (and the [[Soviet Union]]), as used in the Ronald Reagan political ad "[[Bear in the woods]]."
*In [[CB slang]], "bear" (or "smokey", in reference to [[Smokey Bear]]) is a nickname for [[highway patrol]].
*In homosexual slang, the term "Bear" refers to male individuals who possess physical attributes much like a bear, such as a heavy build, abundant body hair, and commonly facial hair.
*[[Microsoft Bear]] is an unofficial [[mascot]] hidden in [[Windows 3.1]] and [[Windows 95]].
*[[Stephen Colbert]] frequently attacks bears as "godless killing machines" mobilized against humanity on ''[[The Colbert Report]]''.
*To try like a bear means to try your hardest to catch the attention of a certain lady. The harder you try, the better the bear you are.
==Further reading==
{{sisterlinks|bear}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Ursidae}}
*<cite>Bears of the World</cite>, Terry Domico, Photographs by Terry Domico and Mark Newman, Facts on File, Inc, 1988, hardcover, ISBN 0816015368
*''The Bear'' by [[William Faulkner]]
==See also==
*[[Animal]]
*[[List of mammals]]
*[[Mammal]]
*[[Mammal classification]]
*"[[Bear in the woods|Bear]]", famous Ronald Reagan campaign ad
==External links==
*[http://www.cloudline.org/LinguisticArchaeology.html Chuck Bigelow, note on PIE roots signifying "bear"]
*[http://www.iberianature.com/material/spainbearnews.htm Spanish bear news] regularly-updated news archive on bears in Spain
*[http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF13/1314.html The Brown Bear: Father of the Polar Bear?] Alaska Science Forum Article #1314
*[http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/mammals/brownbear-grizzly.php Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) facts and photos] - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/satoyama/hibernation.html] - Facts about Black Bear hibernation
[[Category:Bears| ]]
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[[an:Onso]]
[[ast:Osu]]
[[bg:Мечкови]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hîm]]
[[ca:Ós]]
[[cs:Medvědovití]]
[[cy:Arth]]
[[da:Bjørne]]
[[de:Bären]]
[[el:Αρκούδα]]
[[es:Ursidae]]
[[eo:Urso]]
[[fr:Ursidae]]
[[ko:곰]]
[[io:Urso]]
[[id:Beruang]]
[[it:Ursidae]]
[[he:דוביים]]
[[la:Ursidae]]
[[lv:Lācis]]
[[lt:Lokiniai]]
[[li:Bere]]
[[ms:Beruang]]
[[nl:Beren]]
[[ja:クマ]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bald Eagle</title>
<id>4401</id>
<revision>
<id>42111321</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:16:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Bald Eagle
| status = {{StatusLeastConcern}}
| image = Haliaeetus leucocephalus.jpg
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Falconiformes]]
| familia = [[Accipitridae]]
| genus = ''[[Haliaeetus]]''
| species = '''''H. leucocephalus'''''
| binomial = ''Haliaeetus leucocephalus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1766]])
}}
The '''Bald Eagle''' (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') is a [[bird of prey]] indigenous to [[North America]], most recognizable as the [[national bird]] of the [[United States]]. The species was on the brink of [[extinction]] late in the [[20th century]] but has largely recovered and now has a stable population and is in the process of being removed from the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]]'s list of [[endangered species]].
The bird gets both its common and scientific names from the distinctive appearance of the adult's head. ''Bald'' in the [[English language|English]] name refers to the white head feathers, and the scientific name is derived from ''Haliaeetus'', the [[New Latin]] for "sea eagle," (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''haliaetos'') and ''leucocephalus'', the Greek for "white head," from ''leukos'' ("white") and ''kephale'' ("head").
==Range and habitat==
Bald Eagles can be found in small concentrations throughout the U.S. and [[Canada]], particularly near large [[body of water|bodies of water]]. The state with the largest resident population is [[Alaska]]; out of the estimated 100,000 Bald Eagles on [[Earth]], half live in Alaska.
==Description==
[[Image:bald.eagle.longshot.arp.500pix.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Bald Eagle at Combe Martin Wildlife and Dinosaur Park, North Devon, England]]
An immature bird has speckled brown [[feather]]s all over, the distinctive head and body [[plumage]] arriving 2&ndash;3 years later, before sexual maturity. Adult females have a wingspan of approximately 2.1 meters (7 feet); adult males have a wingspan of 2 meters (6 feet, 6 inches). Adult females weigh approximately 5.8&nbsp;kg (12.8&nbsp;lb), males weigh 4.1&nbsp;kg (9&nbsp;lb).
They are protected by three federal laws. The eagle law which protects bald and golden eagles, the migratory bird act, and were on the endangered species list up until February 13, 2006 when they were removed from the list.
==Behavior==
Bald Eagles build huge nest platforms out of branches, usually in large trees. Pairs, who mate for life, add material to the nest each breeding season. After several years, the nest may weigh upwards of a thousand pounds or more.
Bald Eagles which are old enough to nest often return to the area in which they were raised. They are more social than many other raptor species: an adult bald eagle looking for a nesting site is more likely to select a location that contains other immature eagles than one with no eagle population.
Bald Eagles are powerful fliers, and ride thermal convection currents to range far.
They have a long lifespan, with reports of birds in captivity living to be 60 years old.
They do not scream as often shown on television. Usually the call of a red-tailed hawk is placed over the image of a flying eagle. They squeak and have a shrill cry, punctuated by grunts.
==Reproduction==
Bald Eagles are sexually mature at 4 or 5 years of age. Mated pairs produce between one and three [[egg (biology)|egg]]s per year, but it is rare for all three chicks to successfully fledge. Third chicks are |
rman]] scientist [[Otto Hahn]]. Consequently this was the name that most American and Western European scientists used.
An [[element naming controversy]] erupted over what to name this element after Russian researchers protested. The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) thus adopted ''unnilpentium'' (symbol Unp) as a temporary, [[systematic element name]]. However in [[1997]] they resolved the dispute and adopted the current name, ''dubnium'' (symbol Db), after the city that contains the Russian [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]].
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/105.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Dubnium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Dubnium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Db/index.html WebElements.com - Dubnium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[ar:دبنيوم]]
[[ca:Dubni]]
[[cs:Dubnium]]
[[de:Dubnium]]
[[et:Dubnium]]
[[es:Dubnio]]
[[eo:Dubnio]]
[[fr:Dubnium]]
[[ko:더브늄]]
[[hr:Dubnij]]
[[it:Dubnio]]
[[ku:Dûbniyûm]]
[[lt:Dubnis]]
[[hu:Dubnium]]
[[nl:Dubnium]]
[[ja:ドブニウム]]
[[no:Dubnium]]
[[nn:Dubnium]]
[[pl:Dubn]]
[[pt:Dúbnio]]
[[ru:Дубний]]
[[sr:Дубнијум]]
[[fi:Dubnium]]
[[sv:Dubnium]]
[[th:ดุบเนียม]]
[[tr:Dubniyum]]
[[uk:Дубній]]
[[zh:𨧀]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disaccharide</title>
<id>8464</id>
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<id>39054535</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T11:13:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.247.46.121</ip>
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<comment>fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Saccharose.png|thumb|right|Sucrose, a common disaccharide]]
A '''disaccharide''' is a [[sugar]] (a [[carbohydrate]]) composed of two [[monosaccharide]]s.
==Chemistry==
The two [[monosaccharide]]s are bonded via a [[condensation reaction]]. This bond can be between the 1-, 4-, or 6-[[carbon]] on each component monosaccharide. So, even if both component [[sugar]]s are the same (e.g., [[glucose]]), different bond combinations result in disaccharides with different chemical and physical properties.
Like [[monosaccharide]]s, they are crystalline, water-soluble, and sweet-tasting.
== Common disaccharides ==
*[[sucrose]] (known as ''table sugar'', ''cane sugar'', ''saccharose'', or ''beet sugar'')
*[[lactose]] (milk sugar)
*[[maltose]] produced during the malting of [[barley]]
*[[Trehalose]] is present in [[fungus|fungi]] and [[insect]]s, and has been successfully produced at an industial scale by [[enzyme|enzymatic]] treatment of starch as a [[food]] ingredient.
Maltose and [[cellobiose]] are [[hydrolysis]] products of the [[polysaccharide]]s, [[starch]] and [[cellulose]], respectively.
[[Category:Disaccharides]]
{{biochem-stub}}
[[bg:Дизахарид]]
[[de:Zweifachzucker]]
[[es:Disacárido]]
[[eo:Disakarido]]
[[fr:Diholoside]]
[[it:Disaccaridi]]
[[ja:二糖]]
[[he:דו-סוכר]]
[[lt:Disacharidas]]
[[mk:Дисахарид]]
[[nl:Disacharide]]
[[pl:Disacharyd]]
[[ru:Дисахариды]]
[[sv:Disackarider]]
[[th:ไดแซคคาไรด์]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dactylic hexameter</title>
<id>8465</id>
<revision>
<id>41993079</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:24:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.116.141.82</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dactylic [[hexameter]]''' is a form of [[meter (poetry)|meter]] in poetry or a rhythmic scheme. It is traditionally associated with classical [[epic poetry]], both [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]], such as [[Homer|Homer]]'s [[Iliad]] and [[Odyssey]] and [[Virgil]]'s [[Aeneid]].
A [[dactyl (poetry)|dactyl]] is a collection of three syllables, the first long, the other two short; thus, the ideal line of dactylic hexameter consists of six (''hexa'') metrons or feet, each of which is dactyllic. Typically, however, the last foot of the line is not a real dactyl, but rather a two-syllable [[spondee]] or [[trochee]], i.e. the penultimate syllable is always long, the final syllable either long or short (such a syllable with optional stress is known as an [[anceps]] syllable).
In reality, it is difficult to arrange words in this meter, so poets may replace dactyls by spondees, which are feet with two long syllables. Traditionally, the fifth foot in a line is very often a real dactyl. About one line in 20 of Homer has a spondee in the fifth foot, and such a line is called "spondaic."
Accordingly, a line of dactylic hexameter can be diagrammed as follows. Note that ''-'' is a long syllable, ''u'' a short syllable and ''U'' either one long or two shorts:
:- U | - U | - U | - U | - u u | - -
The last foot often takes the form | - u |, especially in Greek.
For example:
: Down in a | deep dark | hole sat an | old pig | munching a | bean stalk
The "foot" is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to half notes (minims) and quarter notes (crotchets), respectively.
Excessive use of [[spondee|spondees]] can make the sound oppressive. [[Cicero]]'s line
:''O for|tuna|tam na|tam me| consule | Romam''
:("o fortunate Rome born while I was consul")
has five spondees &ndash; only ''consule'' is a dactyl &ndash; and damned him as a poet.
==External links==
* [http://www.skidmore.edu/academics/classics/courses/metrica/ Introduction to the dactylic hexameter] for Latin verse.
* [http://www.aoidoi.org/articles/meter/reading_dact_hex.php Reading dactylic hexameter], specifically Homer.
[[Category:Poetic form]]
[[fr:Hexamètre dactylique]]
[[nl:Dactylische hexameter]]
[[pl:Heksametr daktyliczny]]
[[pt:Hexâmetro dactílico]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dorado</title>
<id>8466</id>
<revision>
<id>38702229</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T01:45:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Dorado |
abbreviation = Dor |
genitive = Doradus |
symbology = the [[Swordfish]] |
RA = 5 |
dec= -60 |
areatotal = 179 |
arearank = 72nd |
numberstars = None |
starname = &alpha; Dor |
starmagnitude = 3.27 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Caelum]]
*[[Horologium]]
*[[Reticulum]]
*[[Hydrus]]
*[[Mensa (constellation)|Mensa]]
*[[Volans]]
*[[Pictor]] |
latmax = 20 |
latmin = 90 |
month = February |
notes=}}
:''This article is about a constellation in the sky. For alternative uses, see [[Dorado (disambiguation)]].''
'''Dorado''' (Spanish for 'mahi mahi') is a southern [[constellation]]. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between 1595 and 1597, and it first appeared in [[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of 1603. It is also known as '''Xiphias''' or the '''Sword-fish'''.
Dorado is notable for containing most of the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]], the remainder being in the constellation [[Mensa (constellation)|Mensa]]. The [[South Ecliptic Pole]] also lies within this constellation.
== Notable stars ==
===Stars with Bayer designations===
:: [[Alpha Doradus|&alpha; Dor]] 3.30; [[Beta Doradus|&beta; Dor]] 3.76; [[Gamma Doradus|&gamma; Dor]] 4.26; [[Delta Doradus|&delta; Dor]] 4.34; [[Epsilon Doradus|&epsilon; Dor]] 5.10; [[Zeta Doradus|&zeta; Dor]] 4.71; [[Theta Doradus|&theta; Dor]] 4.81; [[Eta1 Doradus|&eta;<sup>1</sup> Dor]] 5.72; [[Eta2 Doradus|&eta;<sup>2</sup> Dor]] 5.01; [[Kappa Doradus|&kappa; Dor]] 5.28; [[Lambda Doradus|&lambda; Dor]] 5.14; [[Nu Doradus|&nu; Dor]] 5.06; [[Pi1 Doradus|&pi;<sup>1</sup> Dor]] 5.56; [[Pi2 Doradus|&pi;<sup>2</sup> Dor]] 5.37
===Stars with Flamsteed designations===
:: [[28 Doradus|28 Dor]] 5.34; [[36 Doradus|36 Dor]] 4.65
===Other notable stars===
:* [[S Doradus|S Dor]] 9.721 &ndash; hypergiant in the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]], [[S Dor variable]] prototype
:*[[SN1987A|Supernova 1987A]] is the closest supernova since the invention of the telescope.
:* The variable star [[R Doradus]] 5.73 &ndash; has the largest [[as of 1997|known]] size of any star. [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/cgi-bin/cdsbib?1997MNRAS.286..957B]
==Notable deep sky objects==
Because Dorado contains part of the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]], it is rich in deep sky objects. All coordinates given are for Epoch [[J2000.0]].
*'''[[NGC 1566]]''' ([[Right Ascension|RA]] 04h 20m 00s [[Declination|Dec]] -56&deg; 56.3&prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&VCOORD=ngc+1566&NWINDOW=on&SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&SCOORD=Equatorial&EQUINX=2000&MAPROJ=Gnomonic&SFACTR=Default&ISCALN=Log%2810%29&GRIDDD=No&COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a face-on spiral galaxy. It gives its name to the NGC 1566 group of galaxies.
*'''[[NGC 1755]]''' (RA 04h 55m 13s Dec -68&deg; 12.2&prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&VCOORD=ngc+1755&NWINDOW=on&SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&SCOORD=Equatorial&EQUINX=2000&MAPROJ=Gnomonic&SFACTR=Default&ISCALN=Log%2810%29&GRIDDD=No&COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a globular cluster.
*'''[[NGC 1763]]''' (RA 04h 56m 49s Dec -68&deg; 24.5&prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&VCOORD=ngc+1763&NWINDOW=on&SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&SCOORD=Equatorial&EQUINX=2000&MAPROJ=Gnomonic&SFACTR=Default&ISCALN=Log%2810%29&GRIDDD=No&COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a bright nebula associated with three type B stars.
*'''[[NGC 1820]]''' (RA 05h 04m 02s Dec -67&deg; 15.9&prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&VCOORD=ngc+1820&NWINDOW=on&SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&SCOORD=Equatorial&EQUINX=20 |
Although rarely used today, it has the same status in scoring as a place kick. This play is part of the game's [[Rugby football|rugby]] heritage, and was largely obsoleted when the ball with pointed ends was adapted.
; Punt : Kicking the ball after it has been released from the kicker's hand and before it hits the ground). Punts may not score a field goal, even if one should travel through the uprights.
On punts and field goal attempts (but not kickoffs), members of the kicking team, other than the kicker and any teammates who are onside (behind the kicker at the time of the kick), may not approach within five yards of the ball until it has been touched by the receiving team.
===Scoring===
The methods of scoring are:
; Touchdown : Achieved when the ball is in possession of a player in the opponent's goal area, or when the ball in the possession of a player crosses or touches the plane of the opponent's goal-line, worth 6 points
; Conversion : A scrimmage play from any point between the hash marks on or outside the opponent's five yard line. Attempted after scoring a touchdown, either by kicking an extra point (worth one point), or by scoring with a carrying or passing play (worth two points). This is known as a ''convert'' or ''two-point conversion''. If the defence manages to recover the ball on a turnover on a conversion attempt, and can return the ball to the offence's goal, then the defence scores two points.
; Field goal : Scored by a drop kick or place kick (except on a kick-off) when the ball, after being kicked and without again touching the ground, goes over the cross bar and between the goal posts (or goal posts produced) of the opponent's goal (worth three points).
; Safety : Scored when the ball becomes dead in the possession of a team in its own goal area, or touches or crosses the dead-line or side-line-in-goal as a result of the ball having been carried, kicked, fumbled or otherwise directed from the field of play into the goal area by the team scored against, or as a direct result of a kick from scrimmage having been blocked in the field of play or goal area (worth two points).
; Single : Scored when the ball becomes dead in possession of a team in its own goal area or when the ball touches or crosses the deadline, or side-line-in-goal, and touches the ground, a player, or some object beyond these lines as a result of the ball having been kicked from the field of play into the goal area by the scoring team (worth one point).
At one time the single was called a ''rouge'' ([[French language|French]] for "red"); this term is still recognized in the official rulebook, but is otherwise obsolete. In early Canadian football rules the point was ''deducted'' from a team failing to advance the ball from the end zone. If a team had no points, this put them "in the red", with a negative score.[http://www.answers.com/topic/canadian-football]
====Resumption of play====
Resumption of play following a score is conducted under procedures which vary with the type of score.
* Following a touchdown, play resumes with the scoring team kicking off from its own 35-yard line (45-yard line in amateur leagues).
* Following a field goal, the non-scoring team may choose for play to resume either with a kickoff as above, or by scrimmaging the ball from its own 35-yard line.
* Following a safety, the scoring team may choose for play to resume in either of the above ways, or it may choose to kick off from its own 35-yard line.
* Following a rouge, play resumes with the non-scoring team scrimmaging from its own 35-yard line.
===Game timing===
The game consists of two 30-minute halves, each of which is divided into two 15-minute quarters. The clock counts down from 15:00 in each quarter. Timing rules change when there are three minutes remaining in a half.
A short break interval occurs after the end of each quarter (a longer break at halftime), and the two teams then change goals.
In the first 27 minutes of a half, the clock stops when:
* points are scored,
* the ball goes out of bounds,
* a forward pass is incomplete,
* the ball is dead and a penalty flag has been thrown,
* the ball is dead and teams are making substitutions (e.g., possession has changed, punting situation, short yardage situation),
* the ball is dead and a player is injured, or
* the ball is dead and a captain calls a [[time-out]].
The clock starts again when the referee determines the ball is ready for scrimmage, except for team time-outs (where the clock starts at the snap) and kickoffs (where the clock starts not at the kick but when the ball is first touched after the kick).
In the last three minutes of a half, the clock stops whenever the ball becomes dead. On kickoffs, the clock starts when the ball is first touched after the kick. On scrimmages, when it starts depends on what ended the previous play. The clock starts when the ball is ready for scrimmage except that it starts on the snap when on the previous play
* the ball was kicked off,
* the ball was punted,
* the ball changed possession,
* the ball went out of bounds,
* there were points scored,
* there was an incomplete forward pass,
* there was a penalty applied (not declined), or
* there was a team time-out.
The clock does not run during convert attempts in the last three minutes of a half. If the 15 minutes of a quarter expire while the ball is live, the quarter is extended until the ball becomes dead. If a quarter's time expires while the ball is dead, the quarter is extended for one more scrimmage. A quarter cannot end while a penalty is pending: after the penalty yardage is applied, the quarter is extended one scrimmage. Note that the non-penalized team has the option to ''decline'' any penalty it considers disadvantageous, so a losing team cannot indefinitely prolong a game by repeatedly committing penalties.
==League play==
Canadian football is played at several levels in Canada. The professional league in which the sport is played is the nine-team [[Canadian Football League]] (CFL), and its champion is awarded the [[Grey Cup]], the oldest trophy in professional football. Amateur football is governed by [[Football Canada]]. At the university level, 27 teams play in four conferences under the auspices of [[Canadian Interuniversity Sport]]; the CIS champion is awarded the [[Vanier Cup]]. Junior football is played by many after high school before joining the university ranks. There are 18 junior teams in 3 divisions competing for the Canadian Bowl.
[[Semi-professional]] leagues have grown in popularity in recent years, with the [[Alberta Football League]] becoming especially popular. The [[Canadian Major Football League]] is the governing body for the semi-professional game.
==History==
Canadian football was originally called [[rugby football]], and is a descendant of [[rugby union]] football as played in the [[1860s]] and [[1870s]] by the [[Montreal Football Club]] and at [[McGill University]]. It is from this varsity play that the game now known as [[American Football]] entered the United States, as McGill challenged [[Harvard University]] to play.
The Canadian Football League was known under various names throughout its history including the [[Canadian Rugby Football Union]], and the [[Canadian Rugby Union]]. The Canadian Rugby Football Union, original forerunner to the current Canadian Football League was established in 1884.
As the rules of [[American football]] are very similar to Canadian football, the CFL has maintained a close relationship with its American counterpart, the [[National Football League]] (NFL).
The CFL regular season begins in [[June]], and play-offs are be completed by mid-[[November]]. In cities with outdoor stadiums such as [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]], [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]], [[Montreal, Quebec|Montreal]], [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]] and [[Regina, Saskatchewan|Regina]], low-temperatures and icy field conditions can seriously affect the outcome of a game.
==See also==
*[[Glossary of Canadian football]]
*[[Canadian Football League]]
*[[Comparison of Canadian and American football]]
*[[American football]]
*[[Football]]
**[[Rugby football]]
*[[Fantasy Football]]
*[[Flag football]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cfl.ca/index.php?module=ContentExpress&func=display&ceid=2 CFL Rulebook]
*[http://www.footballhof.com/ Canadian Football Hall of Fame] in [[Hamilton, Ontario]]
[[Category:Canadian football| ]]
[[de:Canadian Football]]
[[eo:Kanada piedpilko]]
[[fr:Football canadien]]
[[it:Football canadese]]
[[ja:カナディアンフットボール]]
[[nl:Canadian football]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Court Jester</title>
<id>6965</id>
<revision>
<id>15905072</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T08:33:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brion VIBBER</username>
<id>51</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect -> Court jester</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Court jester]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese calendar</title>
<id>6966</id>
<revision>
<id>41270908</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T05:04:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bloodshedder</username>
<id>20963</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>main template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chinese calendar''' is a [[lunisolar calendar]] incorporating elements of a [[lunar calendar]] with those of a [[solar calendar]]. In China today, the [[Gregorian Calendar]] is used for most day to day activities, but the Chinese calendar is still used for marking traditional holidays such as [[Chinese New Year]] (Spring Festival), [[Duan Wu festival]] and the [[Mid-Autumn Festival]], and in astrology, such as choosing the most auspicious date for a wedding or the opening of a building. Because each month follows one cycle of the moon, it is also used to d |
stances will become widespread." To comply with these provisions, most Parties financially support organizations and agencies dedicated to these goals. The United States, for instance, established the [[National Institute on Drug Abuse]] in 1974 to comply with the research requirement and began sponsoring [[Drug Abuse Resistance Education]] in 1983 to help fulfill the educational and prevention requirements.
==Recent trends==
===Rise in stimulant trafficking===
[[Image:Methlab.jpg|thumb|166px|right|The 1971 Convention was designed to control legitimate pharmaceutical markets, rather than illicit markets, a limitation that has hampered efforts to stem clandestine production and trade of [[methamphetamine]] and other stimulants.]]
Control of [[stimulant]]s has become a major challenge for the UN. In 1997, the [[World Drug Report]] warned{{ref|worlddrugreport}}:
:''Since the mid-1980s the world has faced a wave of synthetic stimulant abuse, with approximately nine times the quantity seized in 1993 than in 1978, equivalent to an average annual increase of 16 per cent. The principle synthetic drugs manufactured clandestinely are the amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) which include the widely abused [[amphetamine]] and [[methamphetamine]], as well as the more recently popularised methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), known as [[ecstasy (drug)|ecstacy]]." It is estimated that throughout the world 30,000,000, people use ATS. This is 0.5 per cent of the global population and exceeds the number using [[heroin]] and probably those using [[cocaine]].''
A 1998 UN General Assembly Special Session on the World Drug Problem report noted{{ref|un.org-amphet}}:
:''Between 1971 and 1995, there was a nearly fivefold increase in the number of amphetamine-type stimulants under international control. . . [[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstacy]] and related designer drugs are under schedule one of the 1971 Convention, because they have virtually no medical use, while [[amphetamine]] and [[methamphetamine]] are under schedule 2 because they began life with medical use. But even though they are scheduled, the system is not really working for these illegally produced drugs. One of the main limitations of the control system is that the Psychotropic Convention was not designed to control illicit markets. It was designed to control and regulate legitimate pharmaceutical markets to prevent their [[diversion]] into illicit markets.''
The report mentioned proposals to increase the flexibility of scheduling drugs under the Convention and to amend the drug-control treaties to make them more responsive to the current situation. Neither proposal has gained traction, however. Due to the ease of manufacturing methamphetamine, methcathinone, and certain other stimulants, control measures are focusing less on preventing drugs from crossing borders. Instead, they are centering around increasingly long prison sentences for manufacturers and traffickers as well as regulations on large purchases of [[precursor]]s such as [[ephedrine]] and [[pseudoephedrine]]. The International Narcotics Control Board and Commission on Narcotic Drugs help coordinate this fight by adding additional precursors to the Tables of chemicals controlled under the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]].
In 1997, ECOSOC called on nations to help enforce international law by cooperating "with relevant international organizations, such as the [[International Criminal Police Organization]] and the [[World Customs Organization]] . . . in order to promote coordinated international action in the fight against illicit demand for and supply of amphetamine-type stimulants and their precursors." That resolution also called on governments overseeing precursor exports "to inquire with the authorities of importing States about the legitimacy of transactions of concern, and to inform the International Narcotics Control Board of the action taken, particularly when they do not receive any reply to their inquiries"{{ref|ecosocres}}.
[[Image:Methamphetamine.gif|frame|right|Crystal meth has emerged as a commonly abused drug, from the [[United States of America|America]]n and [[Europe]]an [[rave party|rave]] scenes to the backwaters of [[East Asia]].]]
Pockets of high-intensity clandestine production and trafficking, such as rural southwest [[Virginia]], exist in most industrialized nations. However, the [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] believes that [[East Asia]] (particularly [[Thailand]]) now has the most serious amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) problem in the world. A 2002 report by that agency noted{{ref|unodc.un.or.th}}:
:''For many countries the problem of ATS is relatively new, growing quickly and unlikely to go away. The geographical spread is widening. . . Abuse is increasingly concentrated among younger populations, who generally and erroneously believe that the substances are safe and benign. The abuse of ATS is threatening to become part of mainstream culture. The less optimistic suggest that ATS is already embedded in normative young adult behavior to such an extent that it will be very difficult to change, not withstanding the issues of physical, social and economic damage.
The Office called on nations to bring more resources to bear in the [[demand reduction]] effort, improving treatment and [[Drug rehabilitation|rehabilitation]] processes, increasing private sector participation in eliminating drugs from the workplace, and expanding the drug information clearing house to share information more effectively.
===Canadian noncompliance===
In 2000, the International Narcotics Control Board blasted [[Canada]] for refusing to comply with the Convention's requirement that international transactions in controlled psychotropics be reported to the Board. INCB Secretary Herbert Schaepe said{{ref|marijuananews}}:
:''From Canada there is just a big, black hole. We don't know what is going into the country, nor coming out. We cannot monitor the international movement of these substances, which is our mandate. The lack of controls in Canada means that they could be destined for fake companies that will divert them into the hands of traffickers. Traffickers in third countries could be getting them through Canada. Normally, Canada has a very good reputation for fulfilling its international obligations, but here it is just breaking the treaty – a treaty that it ratified a long time ago. It is very disturbing.''
To a Board already worried by European experiments with [[harm reduction]] and cannabis liberalization, the quiet Canadian defiance of treaty obligations seemed to be another hairline crack in the foundation of global drug control.
===Licit drug problems===
In an unusual departure from its normally pro-industry leanings, the INCB issued a press release in 2001 warning of excessive use of licit psychotropics:
:''. . . the Board points to loose regulation, unreliable estimates and information regarding medical needs, aggressive marketing techniques and improper or even unethical prescription practices as the main reasons for the oversupply of such controlled substances as [[benzodiazepine]]s and various amphetamine type stimulants. Easy availability leads to overconsumption of such substances, either in the form of drug abuse or by fuelling a culture of drug-taking to deal with a variety of non-medical problems. . . Insomnia, anxiety, obesity and child hyperactivity as well as various kinds of pain are listed among the most common problems to be treated by prescribing psychotropic substances. The Board is especially concerned that preference is given to quick solutions without looking at the long-term effects, as prolonged, excessive consumption of such drugs could result in dependency and other physical and mental suffering.''
The Board also warned that the [[Internet]] provides "easy access to information on drug production and drug-taking," calling it "a growing source of on-line drug trafficking." The Board pointed out that some Internet suppliers sell controlled drugs without regard to the Convention's [[medical prescription]] requirements{{ref|unhcr}}.
==References==
{{wikisourcepar|Convention on Psychotropic Substances}}
*Bewley-Taylor, David R. and Fazey, Cindy S. J.: The Mechanics and Dynamics of the UN System for International Drug Control, [[14 March]] [[2003]].<!--Google-cached copy from Forward Thinking on Drugs-->
*Lande, Adolf: Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1976.
*Saunders, Nicholas: [http://www.ecstasy.org/books/e4x/e4x.ap.01/e4x.ap.01.194.html E is for Ecstasy], Appendix 1: Reference Section, ''Letter from myself in New Scientist'', [[18 December]] [[1993]].
==Endnotes==
# {{note|LSD-resolution}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1968-05-23_6.html 1968/1294(XLIV). Urgent control measures for LSD and similar hallucinogenic substances], UN Economic and Social Council, [[May 23]] [[1968]].
# {{note|internationalcontrolresolution}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1968-12-19_1.html 2433(XXIII). International control of psychotropic substances], UN General Assembly, [[19 December]] [[1968]].
# {{note|stimulantresolution}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1969-06-05_4.html 1969/1401(XLVI). The application of urgent control measures to certain stimulant drugs], UN Economic and Social Council, [[June 5]] [[1969]].
# {{note|conference-resolution}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1971-05-20_1.html 1971/1576(L). United Nations Conference for the Adoption of a Protocol on Psychotropic Substances], UN Economic and Social Council, [[May 20]] [[1971]].
# {{note|cansenrpt}} [http://www.parl.gc.ca/37/1/parlbus/commbus/senate/com-e/ille-e/rep-e/repfinalvol3-e.htm Cannabis: Our Position for a Canadian Public Policy], Report of the Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs, Canadian Senate, Sep. 2002.
# {{note|incb.org |
port in the United Kingdom|London DLR]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]
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<page>
<title>Dundee</title>
<id>8828</id>
<revision>
<id>42101722</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:09:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Benson85</username>
<id>137250</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ice Hockey */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses see [[Dundee (disambiguation)]]''
{{infobox Scotland place with map|
|Place= Dundee
|Population= 154,674
|GridReference= NO365325
|Map= Dundee (location).png
|Council= [[City of Dundee]]
|Lieutenancy= Dundee
|Traditional= [[Angus]]
|Westminster= [[Dundee East (UK Parliament constituency)|Dundee East]] <br/> [[Dundee West (UK Parliament constituency)|Dundee West]]
|Holyrood= [[Dundee East (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Dundee East]] <br/> [[Dundee West (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Dundee West]] <br/> [[North East Scotland]]
|PostalTown= Dundee
|PostCode= DD1-DD5
|DiallingCode= 01382
|Police= [[Tayside Police]]
}}
The [[Royal Burgh]] of '''Dundee''' ([[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]]: ''Dùn Dèagh'') is [[Scotland]]'s fourth largest [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]], population 154,674 (2001), and one of Scotland's 32 [[council areas]]. The city is situated on the east coast, on the north bank of the [[Firth of Tay]], near where the [[firth]] opens out into the [[North Sea]].
The city is built around the [[basalt]] [[Volcanic plug|plug]] of an extinct [[volcano]], now called [[Dundee Law]] (174 m (571 feet)). During the [[Iron Age]] it was the site of a [[Picts|Pictish]] settlement. In his ''History of the Scottish People'' ([[1527]]), [[Hector Boece]] suggests that the Pictish name was '''Alec-tum''', meaning 'a handsome place'. (This name was still in use, alongside the modern name, as late as [[1607]], according to [[William Camden]].)
From [[1975]], the city was the administrative centre of [[Tayside]] [[Regions of Scotland|Region]], and was itself administered as one of the districts of that region. Since the abolition of two-tier local government in Scotland in [[1996]], the [[City of Dundee]], incorporating the [[burgh]] of [[Broughty Ferry]], has been a self-contained [[unitary authority]] making it Scotland's smallest local government subdivision in terms of area. The [[motto]]s of the city are 'Dei Donum' [[[Latin]]: ''Gift of God''] and 'Prudentia et Candore' [''with thought and purity''], typically only the latter is used for civic purposes.
Dundee celebrated its 800th anniversary in [[1991]], and is known as the 'City of Discovery' in honour of the [[RRS Discovery]], [[Robert Falcon Scott]]'s famous [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] exploration vessel [http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/], which was built in the city.
On [[5 March]] [[2004]], Dundee was granted [[Fairtrade Town|Fairtrade City]] status. Dundee is Scotland's sunniest city (because it is the only one facing south) with over 1400 hours of sunshine on average per year.
==Location==
The city is surrounded by the [[Sidlaw Hills]] to the north, which are popular with hillwalkers. Due to its location, Dundee is in close proximity to some of the Scotland's most spectacular scenery including [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] (20 miles) and the southern [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] towards the west, [[St Andrews]] (14 miles) and north-east [[Fife]] heading south and [[Angus]] lying north and east of the city, including the beautiful [[Angus Glens]]. Two of the world's most popular [[Links (golf)|links]] [[golf]] courses, [[St Andrews Links|St Andrews]] and [[Carnoustie Golf Links|Carnoustie]], are located close to the city. [[Glamis Castle]] is located 12 miles north of Dundee.
== History ==
[[William the Lion]] granted the nascent town the status of [[burgh]] by royal [[charter]] in [[1191]]. His brother, [[David of Scotland, 8th Earl of Huntingdon|David, 8th Earl of Huntingdon]] is said to have named the town ''Donum Dei'' ('God's gift') upon narrowly escaping death during his return from the [[Crusades]]. However, this is probably [[folk etymology]], as the name appears to come from the Gaelic ''Dun Dèagh'' meaning ''Fort on the [[Tay]]'' ("Dun" is a common [[prefix]] in [[Scottish placenames]], cf [[Dunfermline]] and [[Dunkeld]])
===Defence & destruction===
Dundee suffered periods of occupation and destruction in the late [[13th Century|13th]] and early [[14th Century|14th]] centuries. Following [[John Balliol]]'s renunciation ([[1295]]) of [[Edward I of England|Edward I's]] claimed authority over Scotland, the [[England|English]] King twice visited Scotland with hostile intent. Edward (the 'Hammer of the Scots') removed Dundee's royal charter &mdash; denying the town's people the right to control [[Local government of Scotland|local government]] and the judiciary. He occupied the Castle at Dundee in [[1296]], but was successfully removed by [[William Wallace]] in [[1297]].
From [[1303]] to [[1312]] the city was occupied again. This time, Edward's removal resulted in the complete destruction of the Castle by [[Robert the Bruce]], who had been proclaimed [[King of Scots]] at nearby [[Scone, Perth and Kinross|Scone]] in [[1309]]. In [[1327]], The Bruce granted the [[royal burgh]] a new charter. Later in the [[14th Century|14th]] century, during the [[Hundred Years War]], the [[France|French]] invoked the [[Auld Alliance]]. [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] marched north and reduced [[Edinburgh]], [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] and Dundee to ashes.
[[Image:DundeeOverBridge.JPG|thumb|300px|Dundee over the Tay Bridge]]
Dundee became a walled city in [[1545]] during a period of English hostilities known as the [[rough wooing]] ([[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]'s violent attempt to extend his [[Protestant]] ambitions north by marrying his youngest son [[Edward VI of England|Edward, Duke of Cornwall]] to [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]]). Mary maintained an alliance with the French, who successfully captured [[Protestant]] opponents, including [[John Knox]], at [[St Andrews Castle]], in nearby north Fife, in July [[1547]]. That year, however, buoyed by victory at the [[Battle of Pinkie Cleugh]], the English occupied Edinburgh and went on to destroy much of Dundee by naval bombardment. The [[Howff]] Burial Ground, granted to the people of Dundee in [[1546]], is the city's lasting gift from Mary.
During a period of relative peace between Scotland and England, the status of Dundee as a [[Royal Burgh]] was once more confirmed in [[The Great Charter]] of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], dated [[14 September]] [[1641]]. Ironically, however, with the outbreak of the [[Scottish Civil War]] in 1644, Dundee continued to suffer at the hands of nobles loyal to the [[English monarch]] &mdash; the [[Royalist]] [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]] besieged the royal burgh in April [[1645]]. Nor were Dundee's misfortunes over when the hostilities between Scottish Royalists and [[Covenanters]] were brought to an end. On [[1 September]] [[1651]] during the [[English Parliamentarian]] invasion of Scotland of the [[Third English Civil War]], [[George Monck|General Monck]], commander of Cromwell's forces in Scotland, captured Dundee. His troops pillaged the royal burgh, destroying much of it and killing up to 2,000 of the 12,000 inhabitants.
[[John Graham, Viscount Dundee|John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee]] raised the [[House of Stuart|Stuart]] [[standard]] on Dundee Law in [[1689]]. For this significant early contribution to the [[jacobitism|Jacobite uprising]], Graham quickly earned the name [[Bonnie Dundee]].
*One small section of the city wall &mdash; the [[Wishart Arch]] &mdash; still stands as a reminder of Dundee's turbulent history.
===Reconstruction===
After [[Act of Union 1707|Union]] with the [[Kingdom of England]] ended military hostilities, Dundee was able to redevelop its [[harbour]] and establish itself as an industrial and trading centre. The industrial history of Dundee is traditionally summarised in the expression "the three Js".
<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;font-style:italic;text-align:center;">[[Image:Coxs Stack Dundee.jpg|Alt text]]<br />Cox's Stack - <br>A last reminder of the jute industry</div>
====Jute====
During the [[18th Century|18th]] and [[19th Century|19th]] Centuries, [[flax]] was imported from the countries surrounding the [[Baltic states#Baltic Sea countries and Balticum|Baltic Sea]] for the production of [[linen]]. The trade supported 36 spinning mills by [[1835]], but various conflicts, including the [[Crimean war]] put a stop to the trade. At around this time, [[jute]], a common fibre from the [[Indian sub-continent]], was looked at as a possible alternative but was difficult to handle. It was discovered that treatment with [[whale oil]], available from another local industry, made the spinning of the jute fibre possible, paving the way for a flourishing industry in the production of the material. This growth precipitated a large increase in population.
*[[1801]] - 26,000
*[[1835]] - 40,000
*[[1861]] - 90,000
*[[1870]] - 130,000
By the end of the 19th century the majority of Dundee's working population were occupied in jute manufacture, but the industry began to decline in [[1914]], when it became cheaper to rely on imports from [[India]]. (Ironically, Dundee's 'jute barons' had invested heavily in Indian factories). Commercial jute production in Dundee came to an end in the [[1960s]]. S |
ing [[dehydration synthesis]], in which a hydrogen atom is removed from the end of one molecule and a [[hydroxyl]] group (&mdash;OH) is removed from the other; the remaining residues are then attached at the sites from which the atoms were removed. The H&mdash;OH or H<sub>2</sub>O is then released as a molecule of [[water]], hence the term ''dehydration''. The new molecule, consisting of two monosaccharides, is called a ''[[disaccharide]]'' and is conjoined together by a glycosidic or ether bond. The reverse reaction can also occur, using a molecule of water to split up a disaccharide and break the glycosidic bond; this is termed ''[[hydrolysis]]''. The most well-known disaccharide is [[sucrose]], ordinary sugar (in scientific contexts, called ''table sugar'' or ''cane sugar'' to differentiate it from other sugars). Sucrose consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule joined together. Another important disaccharide is [[lactose]], consisting of a glucose molecule and a [[galactose]] molecule. As most humans age, the production of [[lactase]], the enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose back into glucose and galactose, typically decreases. This results in [[lactase deficiency]], also called ''lactose intolerance''.
When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined together, it is called an ''[[oligosaccharide]]'' (''oligo-'' meaning "few"). These molecules tend to be used as markers and signals, as well as having some other uses.
Many monosaccharides joined together make a [[polysaccharide]]. They can be joined together in one long linear chain, or they may be branched. Two of the most common polysaccharides are [[cellulose]] and [[glycogen]], both consisting of repeating [[glucose]] [[monomer]]s. Cellulose is made by [[plant]]s and is an important structural component of their [[cell wall]]s. [[Human]]s can neither manufacture nor digest it. Glycogen, on the other hand, is an [[animal]] carbohydrate; humans use it as a form of energy storage.
[[Image:Glycolysis10steps.gif|thumb|right|250px|A schematic of [[glucose]] undergoing [[glycolysis]] to produce [[pyruvate]].]]
Glucose is the major energy source in most life forms; a number of [[catabolism|catabolic]] pathways converge on glucose. For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their monomers ([[glycogen phosphorylase]] removes glucose residues from glycogen). Disaccharides like [[lactose]] or [[sucrose]] are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides. Glucose is metabolized by a very important and ancient ten-step pathway called [[glycolysis]], the net result of which is to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of [[pyruvate]]; this also produces a net two molecules of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents in the form of converting [[NAD]] to [[NADH]]. This does not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the [[NAD]] is restored by converting the pyruvate to [[lactate]] (in humans, for instance) or to [[ethanol]] in [[yeast]]. Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway. In [[aerobic]] cells with sufficient oxygen, like most human cells, the pyruvate can be further metabolized. It is irreversibly converted to [[acetyl-CoA]], giving off one carbon atom as the waste product [[carbon dioxide]], generating another molecule of ATP, and generating another reducing equivalent as [[NADH]]. The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the [[citric acid cycle]], producing two more molecules of ATP, six more [[NADH]] molecules and two of a related molecule [[FADH2|FADH<sub>2</sub>]], and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The reduced NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub> then enter the [[electron transport system]], where the electrons are transferred to a molecule of [[oxygen]], producing water, and the original NAD<sup>+</sup> and FAD are regenerated. This is why humans breath in oxygen and breath out carbon dioxide. The energy in transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub> is used to generate an additional ''28'' molecules of ATP (only two had been produced in glycolysis), for a total of 32 molecules of ATP. It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far greater energy, and it is why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen.
In [[vertebrate]]s, vigorously contracting [[skeletal muscle]] (during weightlifting or sprinting, for example) does not receive enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so it shifts to [[anaerobic metabolism]], converting glucose to lactate (lactic acid). The [[liver]] can regenerate the glucose, using a process called [[gluconeogenesis]]. This process is not quite the opposite of glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis (six molecules of ATP are used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis). Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen (or starch in plants), or be converted to other monosaccharides or joined into di- or oligosaccharides.
==Proteins==
{{main|Protein}}
[[Image:Hemoglobin.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A schematic of [[hemoglobin]]. The ribbon parts represent the protein [[globin]]; the four green parts are the [[heme]] groups.]]
Like carbohydrates, some proteins perform largely structural roles. For instance, movements of the proteins [[actin]] and [[myosin]] ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle. One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of molecules&mdash;they may be ''extremely'' selective in what they bind. [[Antibody|Antibodies]] are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule. In fact, the [[enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]] (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is currently one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules. Probably the most important proteins, however, are the [[enzyme]]s. These amazing molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called ''[[substrate]]s''; they then [[catalyze]] the reaction between them. By lowering the [[activation energy]], the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 10<sup>11</sup> or more: a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme. The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.
In essence, proteins are chains of [[amino acid]]s. An amino acid consists of a carbon atom bound to four groups. One is an [[amino]] group, &mdash;NH<sub>2</sub>, and one is a [[carboxylic acid]] group, &mdash;COOH (although these exist as &mdash;NH<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> and &mdash;COO<sup>&minus;</sup> under physiologic conditions). The third is a simple [[hydrogen]] atom. The fourth is commonly denoted "&mdash;R" and is different for each amino acid. There are twenty standard amino acids. Some of these have functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance, [[glutamate]] functions as an important [[neurotransmitter]].
[[Image:Amino acids 1.png|thumb|right|350px|Generic amino acids (1) in neutral form, (2) as they exist physiologically, and (3) joined together as a [[dipeptide]].]]
Amino acids can be joined together via a [[peptide bond]]. In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule is removed and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group. The resulting molecule is called a ''[[dipeptide]]'', and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than around thirty) are called ''[[peptide]]s'' or polypeptides. Longer stretches merit the title ''proteins''. As an example, the imporant blood [[serum]] protein [[albumin]] contains 585 amino acid residues.
The structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels. The [[primary structure]] of a protein simply consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; for instance, "alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-...". [[Secondary structure]] is concerned with local morphology. Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an [[alpha helix|&alpha;-helix]]; some of these can be seen in the hemoglobin schematic above. [[Tertiary structure]] is the entire three-dimensional shape of the protein. This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids. In fact, a single change can change the entire structure. The &beta; chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acid residues; substitution of the [[glutamate]] residue at position 6 with a [[valine]] residue changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results in [[sickle-cell disease]]. Finally [[quaternary structure]] is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiple peptide subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits. Not all proteins have more than one subunit.
Ingested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the [[small intestine]], and then absorbed. They can then be joined together to make new proteins. Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the [[pentose phosphate pathway]] can be used to make all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them. Humans and other mammals, however, can only synthesize half |
ter"
| suprafix || '''pro'''duce (noun)<br>pro'''duce''' (verb)<br>(changing [[lexical stress|stress]])
|}
<small><sup>1</sup> [[English language|English]] [[tmesis|tmeses]], as in this example, are by some considered infixes.</small>
<br>
==Lexical affixes==
''Lexical affixes'' (or ''semantic affixes'') are bound elements that appear as affixes, but function as [[incorporated noun]]s within verbs and as elements of [[compound noun]]s. In other words, they are similar to word roots/stems in function but similar to affixes in form. Although similar to incorporated nouns, lexical affixes differ in that they never occur as freestanding nouns, i.e. they always appear as affixes.
Lexical affixes are relatively rare. The [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan]], [[Salishan languages|Salishan]], and [[Chimakuan languages|Chimakuan]] languages all have lexical suffixes — the presence of these is an [[areal feature]] of the Pacific Northwest of the [[North America]].
The lexical suffixes of these languages often show little to no resemblance to free nouns with similar meanings. Compare the lexical suffixes and free nouns of [[Saanich language|Northern Straits Saanich]] written in the Saanich orthography and in [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist notation]]:
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; font-family: Chrysanthi Unicode, Doulos SIL, Gentium, GentiumAlt, Code2000, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, DejaVu Sans, Bitstream Vera Sans, Bitstream Cyberbit, Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode, Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro, Matrix Unicode;"
|- style="font-size: 85%; background: #efefef;"
! colspan="3" | Lexical Suffix
! colspan="3" | Noun
|-
| -O,
| -aʔ
| "person"
| ,EL̶TÁLṈEW̱
| ʔəɬtelŋəxʷ
| "person"
|-
| -NÁT
| -net
| "day"
| SC̸IĆEL
| skʷičəl
| "day"
|-
| -SEN
| -sən
| "foot, lower leg"
| SXENE,
| sx̣ənəʔ
| "foot, lower leg"
|-
| -ÁWTW̱
| -ew̕txʷ
| "building, house, campsite"
| ,Á,LEṈ
| ʔeʔləŋ
| "house"
|}
Lexical suffixes when compared with free nouns often have a more generic or general meaning. For instance, one of these languages may have a lexical suffix that means water in a general sense, but it may not have any noun equivalent referring to water in general and instead have several nouns with a more specific meaning (such "saltwater", "whitewater", etc.). In other cases, the lexical suffixes have become [[grammaticalization|grammaticalized]] to various degrees.
Some linguists have claimed that these lexical suffixes provide only adverbial or adjectival notions to verbs. Other linguists disagree arguing that they may additionally be syntactic [[Verb argument|arguments]] just as free nouns are and thus equating lexical suffixes with incorporated nouns. Gerdts (2003) gives examples of lexical suffixes in the [[Halkomelem language]] (the [[word order]] here is [[Verb Subject Object]]):
:{| cellpadding="5" vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; text-align: center; font-family: Chrysanthi Unicode, Doulos SIL, Gentium, GentiumAlt, Code2000, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, DejaVu Sans, Bitstream Vera Sans, Bitstream Cyberbit, Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode, Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro, Matrix Unicode;"
|- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%"
|
|
| style="background: #bbbbff" | VERB
| style="background: #ffebad" | SUBJ
| style="background: #ffbbbb" | OBJ
|-
| (1)
| niʔ
| šak’ʷ-ət-əs
| łə słeniʔ
| <span style="color:#008000"><u>łə qeq</u></span>
|-
|
| colspan="3" | "the woman bathed <span style="color:#008000"><u>the baby</u></span>"
|- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%"
| &nbsp;
|- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%"
|
|
| style="background: #bbbbff" | VERB<span style="color:#800000">+LEX.SUFF</span>
| style="background: #ffebad" | SUBJ
|
|-
| (2)
| niʔ
| šk’ʷ<span style="color:#800000"><u>-əyəł</u></span>
| łə słeniʔ
|
|-
|
| colspan="3" | "the woman bathed <span style="color:#800000"><u>the/a baby</u></span>"
|}
In sentence (1), the verb "bathe" is {{unicode|'''šak’ʷətəs'''}} where {{unicode|'''šak’ʷ-'''}} is the root and {{unicode|'''-ət'''}} and {{unicode|'''-əs'''}} are inflectional suffixes. The subject "the woman" is {{unicode|'''łə słeniʔ'''}} and the object <span style="color:#008000">"the baby"</span> is <span style="color:#008000">{{unicode|'''łə qeq'''}}</span>. In this sentence, "the baby" is a free noun. (The {{unicode|'''niʔ'''}} here is an [[auxiliary]], which can be ignored for explanatory purposes.)
In sentence (2), <span style="color:#800000">"the/a baby"</span> does not appear as a free noun. Instead it appears as the lexical suffix <span style="color:#800000">{{unicode|'''-əyəł'''}}</span> which is affixed to the verb root {{unicode|'''šk’ʷ-'''}} (which has changed slightly in pronunciation, but this can also be ignored here). Note how the lexical suffix may be translated as either "the baby" (definite) or "a baby" (indefinite): this change in [[definiteness]] is a common change in meaning that happens with incorporated nouns.
==See also==
* [[Derivation (linguistics) | Derivation]]
* [[List of English prefixes]]
* [[List of English suffixes]]
* [[Family name affixes]]
* [[Combining form]]
==Bibliography==
* Gerdts, Donna B. (2003). The morphosyntax of Halkomelem lexical suffixes. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''69'' (4), 345-356.
* Montler, Timothy. (1986). ''An outline of the morphology and phonology of Saanich, North Straits Salish''. Occasional Papers in Linguistics (No. 4). Missoula, MT: University of Montana Linguistics Laboratory.
* Montler, Timothy. (1991). ''Saanich, North Straits Salish classified word list''. Canadian Ethnology service paper (No. 119); Mercury series. Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization.
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]
[[Category:Affixes|*]]
[[cv:Аффикс]]
[[de:Affix#Affixe in der klassischen Linguistik]]
[[es:Afijo]]
[[eo:Afikso]]
[[fr:Affixe]]
[[gl:Afixo]]
[[is:Aðskeyti]]
[[nl:Affix]]
[[ja:接辞]]
[[pl:Afiks]]
[[pt:Afixo]]
[[sv:Affix]]
[[zh:詞綴]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Allegory</title>
<id>1837</id>
<revision>
<id>41477317</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T16:52:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Buchanan-Hermit</username>
<id>775423</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/163.153.27.11|163.153.27.11]] to last version by Colonies Chris</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''allegory''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] &alpha;&lambda;&lambda;&omicron;&sigmaf;, ''allos'', "other", and &alpha;&gamma;&omicron;&rho;&epsilon;&upsilon;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;, ''agoreuein,'' "to speak in public") is a figurative mode of [[representation (arts)|representation]] conveying a [[meaning]] other than and in addition to the literal. Through allegory a subject of a higher spiritual order is described in terms of that of a lower which is made out to resemble it in properties and circumstances, the principal subject being so kept out of view that we are left to construe the drift of it from the resemblance of the two subjects.
Allegory is generally treated as a figure of [[rhetoric]], but an allegory does not have to be expressed in [[language]]: it may be addressed to the eye, and is often found in [[painting]], [[sculpture]] or some form of [[mimetic art]]. The [[etymology|etymological]] meaning of the word is wider than that which it bears in actual use. Though it is similar to other rhetorical comparisons, an allegory is sustained longer and more fully in its details than a [[metaphor]], and appeals to imagination where an [[analogy]] appeals to reason. The [[fable]] or [[parable]] is a short allegory with one definite moral.
[[Northrop Frye]] discussed the continuum of allegory from what he termed the "naive allegory" of ''The Faerie Queen'' to the more private allegories of modern paradox literature. The characters in a "naive" allegory are not fully three-dimensional, for each aspect of their individual personalities and the events that befall them embodies some moral quality or other abstraction. The allegory has been selected first: the details merely flesh it out.
Since meaningful stories are always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories, sometimes distorting their author's overt meaning. For instance, many people have suggested that [[The Lord of the Rings]] was an allegory for the [[world war|World Wars]], an interpretation which the author sharply denied, stating, "I cordially dislike allegory in all of its manifestations."
The allegory has been a favourite form in the literature of nearly every nation. The Hebrew scriptures present frequent instances of it, an example of which is the comparison of the history of Israel to the growth
of a vine in {{Bibleverse|Psalm||80:8-17|}}. In the Rabbinic tradition fully-developed allegorical readings were applied to every text, with every detail of the narrative given an [[emblem]]atic reading. A particularly important case is the [[Song of Solomon|Song of Songs]], which was accepted as [[Biblical can |
The concept of "controlled shooting" however goes far beyond "setting the dice". It purports to involve limiting the "[[degrees of freedom]]" in the [[Rigid body dynamics]] of the dice. A mechanical engineer, under the pseudonym "SharpShooter", wrote a book on the subject called "Get The Edge At Craps: How to Control the Dice", which claims to define the math and science behind dice control.
The concept of precision shooting claims to elevate craps from a random game of chance, to a sport, not unlike golf, darts, or pool. Precision shooting is not easy, and it requires daily practice, discipline, and focus.
Nevertheless, the amount of influence needed to sway the advantage in favor of the player is quite small - in a normal random distribution there will normally be seven 7s in a total of 42 rolls. If one can influence the dice such that there is only six 7s in a total of 42 rolls, that player will have a slight advantage over the house.
== Miscellaneous ==
Craps is such a popular game, its terminology is often found as colloquialisms in our language. The terms "on a roll", "crapshoot", "no dice", "crap out", "Snake Eyes" and "do it the hard way" all trace their origins to the game of craps.
As casinos restrict players' options in blackjack, craps is increasing in popularity, as it offers the best odds of all standard casino games based on pure chance.
The plot of the musical ''[[Guys and Dolls]]'' revolves around some illegal games of craps, which "float" from location to location.
==See also==
* [[Dice]]
* [[Illusion of control]]
* [[Snake eyes (slang)]]
* [[Box cars (slang)]]
* [[Probability]]
==External links==
*[http://dmoz.org/Games/Gambling/Craps/ DMOZ: Craps]
*[http://wizardofodds.com/craps The Wizard of Odds guide to craps] -- Craps as explained by a gambling math expert.
*[http://www.nextshooter.com/ Next Shooter] -- Craps as explained by a Las Vegas craps dealer.
*[http://www.dicesetter.com/ Dicesetter.com] -- devoted to dice control
*[http://www.DancesWithDice.com DancesWithDice.com] -- Exploring the Art and Science of dice influencing
*[http://www.crapsmath.com A Craps Tutorial -- Odds, Probability, and House Edge]
*[http://www.craps.cd/online_craps_articles.html Online Craps resources and guides]
*[http://www.onlinecasinoconditions.com/craps-rules.html Craps Rules] -- A good starting point from Online Casino Conditions.
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/gambling-faq/craps/ rec.gambling.craps FAQ]
[[Category:Dice games]]
[[de:Craps]]
[[eo:Krapoj]]
[[fi:Craps]]
[[ja:クラップス]]
[[hu:Craps]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cartoonists</title>
<id>6063</id>
<revision>
<id>15904228</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-30T04:19:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Toby Bartels</username>
<id>1078</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cartoonist]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cosine</title>
<id>6065</id>
<revision>
<id>15904230</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-03T20:25:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirecting to [[trigonometric function]] until we have specific information for cosine</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[trigonometric function]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carl von Clausewitz</title>
<id>6066</id>
<revision>
<id>42064365</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:44:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PatrickBeaumont</username>
<id>404152</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Influence */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CarlvonClausewitz.jpeg|thumb|right|A young Clausewitz]]
'''Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz''' ([[June 1]], [[1780]] - [[November 16]], [[1831]]) was a [[Prussia]]n general and influential [[military]] theorist. He is most famous for his military treatise ''[[Vom Kriege]]'', translated into [[English language|English]] as ''[[On War]]''.
==Life and Times of Carl von Clausewitz==
Carl von Clauswitz was born in [[Magdeburg]], [[Prussia]] in [[1780]]. Clausewitz's father was an officer in the [[Prussian Army]]; Carl entered the Prussian military service at the age of twelve years, eventually attaining the rank of [[Major General]].
He served in the [[Rhine Campaign]]s ([[1793]]–[[1794]]) when the Prussian army invaded France following the [[French Revolution]] in an attempt to restore the monarchy, and later served in the [[Napoleonic Wars]] from [[1806]] to [[1815]]. Clausewitz entered the ''[[Kriegsakademie]]'' in Berlin (also cited variously as "[[The German War School]]," the "[[Military Academy in Berlin]]," and the "[[Prussian Military Academy]]") in [[1801]] (age 21 years), studied the [[philosopher]] [[Kant]] and won the regard of General [[Gerhard von Scharnhorst]], the future first [[Chief of Staff]] of the new Prussian Army (appointed [[1809]]). Clausewitz, along with [[Hermann von Boyen]] (b [[1771]], d [[1848]]) and [[Karl von Grolman]] (b [[1777]], d [[1843]]), were Scharnhorst's primary allies in his later efforts to reform the Prussian army, between [[1807]] and [[1814]].
Clausewitz, serving as [[Aide-de-Camp]] to Prince August, was captured during the [[Jena Campaign]] in October of [[1806]] when Napoleon invaded Prussia and defeated the massed [[Prussian-Saxon]] army commanded by [[Charles William Ferdinand|Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand]], [[Duke of Brunswick]] (who was mortally wounded), in twin battles at [[Jena]] and [[Auerstadt]] on October 14, 1806. Carl von Clausewitz, at the age of twenty-six years, became one of the 25,000 prisoners captured that day as the Prussian army distingrated. Both Carl von Clausewitz and [[Hermann von Boyen]] served during the Jena Campaign.
Clausewitz was held prisoner in France for two years (1806-1808) and upon release, subsequently served in the Russian Army from [[1812]] to [[1813]] during the [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Moscow Campaign]]. In the service of the [[Russian Empire]], Clausewitz helped negotiate the [[Convention of Tauroggen]] ([[1812]]), which prepared the way for the coalition of Prussia, Russia, and [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] against [[Napoleon I]] of France and his allies.
He later re-entered the [[Prussian]] army, and was appointed [[Chief of Staff]] of [[Johann von Thielmann]]'s Corps, and served at the [[Battle of Ligny]] and [[Battle of Wavre]] during the [[Waterloo Campaign]] in [[1815]]. The Prussians were defeated on that day at [[Ligny]] (south of [[Mt. St. Jean|Mount St. Jean]] and the village of [[Waterloo, Belgium|Waterloo]]) by an army led personally by Napoleon, but Napoleon's subsequent failure to destroy the Prussian forces led to his eventual defeat days later at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] when the Prussian forces arrived on his right flank late in the afternoon and joined the Anglo-Dutch forces pressing Napoleon's front.
Carl von Clausewitz was appointed director of the ''[[Kriegsakademie]]'' in [[1818]] and served until [[1830]]. He married [[Countess]] [[Marie von Brühl]] and subsequently died in a [[cholera]] outbreak in [[1831]]. His ''[[magnum opus]]'' on the [[Philosophy of War]] was written during this period, and was published posthumously by his widow in 1832.
==Distinguishing Military Philosophers from Military Systems==
It is of first importance to distinguish what a military philospher ''is'' as opposed to a military commander, such as Napoleon. [[Napoleon]], Clausewitz' contemporary and the arch-enemy of the age, was a military commander, and one of the history's greatest and most storied [[conqueror]]s. Napoleon clearly was a person of legendary intellect, personal drive, and capabilities, but Napoleon never undertook to write a detailed systematic [[treatise]] of his campaigns or military theories. It is very easy to find hundreds of quotes by Napoleon or attributed to Napoleon (who has to be one of the most quoted and quotable people in history), but these quotes are largely taken from letters, military dispatches, diaries, campaign reports, and eyewitness accounts, and are often taken out of context. What we know of Napoleon's theories and methods come from study of his letters and his actions, the historical records of his campaigns and from the treatises of [[Antoine Henri Jomini]] who briefly served as a junior officer in Napoleon's armies under Marshal [[Michel Ney]]. As has been noted by other authors, Napoleon had little interest in instructing his commanders to be his equals in military thought (in [[1813]] Napoleon commented in response to Jomini's ''[[Treatise on Great Military Operations]]'' that "It teaches my whole system of war to my enemies!"). In the end, as many have commented, that was his undoing as from [[1811]] to [[1813]] his allied enemies avoided battle with Napoleon directly and concentrated on eliminating forces commanded by his less competent Marshals and Generals.
Other commanders before Napoleon and Clausewitz, wrote treatises on various military subjects of interest to them. For example, Marshal [[Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban]], published four treatises that revolutionized modern fortifications, and Marshal [[Maurice de Saxe]] whose published [[memoirs]]-[[treatise]], [[Mes Reveries]] (published [[posthumously]] in [[1756]]), was the intellectual forerunner to "Napoleonic tactics" or "[[Grand Tactics]]." Both served in the armies of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], the "Sun" King of [[France]] in the age immediately preceding the Napoleonic Era. But none undertook a great philosophical examination of war on the scale of Clauswitz and [[Tolstoy]], |
]] resemble those of living birds, but ''Archaeopteryx'' was rather different from any bird we know of today: it had jaws lined with sharp [[teeth]], three [[finger]]s ending in curving claws, and a long bony tail.
''Archaeopteryx'' is a powerful piece of evidence that birds evolved from [[dinosaur]]s. The skeleton is most similar to the dinosaurs of the [[biological family|families]] [[Dromaeosauridae]] and [[Troodontidae]]. Although it is probably close to the ancestry of modern birds, it is probably not the direct ancestor of living birds. Assertions that the Triassic ''[[Protoavis]]'' was an earlier bird are considered to be unproven by most [[paleontologist]]s.
== Fly or hop? ==
There is some controversy about whether ''Archaeopteryx'' could genuinely [[flight|fly]], or only hop around and [[gliding|glide]] from trees. The lack of a large [[breastbone]] suggests it was not a strong flier, but flight muscles might have attached to the bird's thick, boomerang-shaped [[wishbone]], a birdlike feature. The large wings and long tail suggest that it was both stable and maneuverable in the air. The shape of the wings is similar to birds which fly through trees and brush.
In 2004, scientists analyzing a detailed [[Computed tomography|CT scan]] of ''Archaeopteryx'''s [[braincase]] concluded that its [[brain]] was significantly larger than that of most dinosaurs, indicating that it possessed the brain size necessary for flying. The overall brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan. The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one-third of the brain. Other well developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination. (Winter, 2004) The skull scan also revealed the structure of the inner [[ear]]. The structure more closely resembles that of modern birds than the inner ear of reptiles. These characteristics taken together suggest that ''Archaeopteryx'' had the keen sense of hearing, balance, spatial perception and coordination needed to fly. (Alnso, ''et al.'', 2004)
''Archaeopteryx'' continues to play an important part in scientific debates about the origin and [[evolution]] of birds. Some scientists see ''Archaeopteryx'' as climbing through the trees like a [[squirrel]], following the idea that birds evolved from tree-dwelling gliders (the "trees down" hypothesis for the evolution of flight proposed by [[O.C. Marsh]]). Other scientists see ''Archaeopteryx'' as running quickly along the ground, supporting the idea that birds evolved flight by running (the "ground up" hypothesis proposed by [[Samuel Wendall Williston]]). So far, ''Archaeopteryx'' has perhaps produced as many questions as answers, and the latest findings on this fossil are unlikely to be the last word.
The "Thermopolis" specimen, recently donated to the [[Wyoming Dinosaur Center]] in [[Thermopolis, Wyoming]] and described in the December 2, 2005 ''Science'' journal article "A well-preserved Archaeopteryx specimen with theropod features", shows that the ''Archaeopteryx'' lacked a reversed toe&mdash;a universal feature of birds&mdash;limiting its ability to perch in trees and implying a terrestrial lifestyle. This has been interpreted as evidence of [[Theropoda|theropod]] ancestry. The specimen also has a hyperextendible second toe. "Until now, the feature was thought to belong only to the species' close relatives, the [[Deinonychosauria|deinonychosaurs]]." [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1201_051201_archaeopteryx_2.html]
==Taxonomy==
[[Image:Archaeopteryx.jpg|thumb|''Archaeopteryx'' fossil, the ''Berlin Specimen'']]
The relationships of the specimens are problematic; most specimens have been given their own species at one point or another. The Berlin specimen has been referred to ''Archaeopteryx siemensii'', the Eichstatt specimen to ''Jurapteryx recurva'', the Munich specimen to ''Archaeopteryx bavarica'' and the Solnhofen specimen was referred to ''Wellnhoferia grandis''. Recently, it has been argued that all specimens belong to the same species (''[[New Scientist]]'', [[17 April]] [[2004]], p.17). However, significant differences exist between the specimens. In particular, the Munich and Eichstatt specimens differ from the London, Berlin, and Solnhofen specimens in being smaller, having different finger proportions, and in having more slender snouts lined with forward-pointing teeth. These differences are as large as or larger than the differences seen today between adults of different bird species. However, it is also possible that these differences could be explained by different ages of the various specimens.
# '''The feather:''' Discovered in 1860 near [[Solnhofen]], Germany, and described in 1861 by [[Hermann von Meyer]]. Currently located at the [[Humboldt Museum|Humbolt Museum für Naturkunde]] in [[Berlin]]. This is generally referred to ''Archaeopteryx'', but whether it actually is a feather of this species or another, yet undiscovered, proto-bird is unknown.
# '''London Specimen''' (BMNH 37001, the [[holotype]]): Discovered in 1861 near [[Langenaltheim]], Germany, and described in 1863 by [[Richard Owen]], who made it the [[type specimen]] for the [[genus]] and [[species]]. Currently located at the [[British Museum of Natural History]] in [[London]]. It is missing its head.
# '''Berlin Specimen''' (HMN 1880): Discovered in 1876 or 1877 on the [[Blumenberg]] near [[Eichstätt]], Germany, by Jakob Niemeyer, he changed this precious [[fossil]] for a cow with Johann Dörr. It was described in 1884 by [[Wilhelm Dames]]. Currently Located at the Humbolt Museum für Naturkunde. It is the best specimen, and the first with a complete head. Once classified as a new species, ''A. siemensii''.
# '''Maxberg Specimen''' (S5): Discovered in 1956 or 1958 near Langenaltheim and described in 1959 by [[Heller]]. Currently missing, though it was once exhibited at the [[Maxberg Museum]] in Solnhofen. It belonged to Eduard Opitsch, who loaned it to the museum. After his death in 1992 the specimen was discovered to be missing, and may have been stolen or sold. It is composed of a torso.
# '''Haarlem Specimen''' (TM 6428, also known as the ''Teyler Specimen''): Discovered in 1855 near [[Riedenburg]], Germany and described as a ''[[Pterodactylus]] crassipes'' in 1875 by Meyer, it was reclassified in 1970 by [[John Ostrom]]. Currently located at the [[Teyler Museum]] in [[Haarlem]], the Netherlands. The very first specimen, despite the classification error.
# '''Eichstätt Specimen''' (JM 2257): Discovered in 1951 or 1955 near [[Workerszell]], Germany and described by [[Peter Wellnhofer]] in 1974. Currently located at the [[Jura Museum]] in [[Eichstätt]], Germany. It is the smallest specimen, and has the second best head. Possibly a separate genus, ''Jurapteryx recurva'', or species ''A. recurva''.
# '''Munich Specimen''' (S6, formerly known as the ''Solnhofen-Aktien-Verein Specimen''): Discovered in 1991 near Langenaltheim and described in 1993 by Wellnhofer. Currently located located at the [[Paläontologische Museum München]] in [[Munich]]. Only specimen with a breastbone ([[sternum]]). May be a new species, ''A. bavarica''.
# '''Solnhofen Specimen''' (BSP 1999): Discovered in the 1960s near [[Eichstätt]], Germany and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer. Currently located at the [[Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum]] in Solnhofen. It was originally classified as a ''[[Compsognathus]]'' by an amateur collector. May belong to a separate genus and species, ''Wellnhoferia grandis''.
# '''Thermopolis Specimen''' Discovered in Germany. Long in a private collection, described in 2005 by Mayr, Pohl, and Peters. Currently located at the Wyoming Dinosaur Center in [[Thermopolis, Wyoming]]. Has the best-preserved head and feet.
== Archaeopteryx in Fiction ==
On the NBC television show Surface, a shadowy corporation secretely recreated an archaeopteryx to showcase its technological abilities.
== See also ==
* [[Feathered dinosaurs]]
== References ==
* {{cite journal | author=Alonso PD, Milner AC, Ketcham RA, Cookson MJ, Rowe TB | title=The avian nature of the brain and inner ear of Archaeopteryx | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume=430 | issue=7000 | year=2004 | pages=666-9}}, PMID 15295597
* {{cite journal
| author=Bakalar N.
| title=Earliest Bird Had Feet Like Dinosaur, Fossil Shows
| journal=[[National Geographic]]
| year=2005
}}
*De Beer, G. R. (1954). Archaeopteryx lithographica. London, British Museum (Natural History).
* {{cite journal
| author = Feduccia, A. and H. B. Tordoff
| year = 1979
| title = Feathers of Archaeopteryx: asymmetric vanes indicate aerodynamic function
| journal = Science
| volume = 203
| pages = 1021-1022
}}
* {{cite journal
| author = Feduccia, A.
| year = 1993
| title = Evidence from claw geometry indicating arboreal habits of Archaeopteryx
| journal = Science
| volume = 259
| pages = 790-93
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Feduccia, A
|authorlink = Alan Feduccia
| year = 1996
| title = The Origin and Evolution of Birds
| publisher = New Haven, Yale University Press
| id = ISBN 0-30006460-8
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Heilmann, G.
| year = 1926
| title = The Origin of Birds
| publisher = London, Witherby
}}
* {{cite journal
| author = Mayr, G., B. Pohl & D.S. Peters
| year = 2005
| title = A well-preserved ''Archaeopteryx'' specimen with theropod features
| journal = Science
| volume = 310
| pages = 1483-1486
}}
* {{cite journal
| author = Olson, S. and A. Feduccia
| year = 1979
| title = Flight capability and the pectoral girdle of Archaeopteryx
| journal = Nature
| volume = 278
| pages = 247-8
}}
* {{cite journal
| author = Ostrom, J. H
| year = 1976
| title = Archaeopteryx and the origin of birds
| journal = Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
| volume = 8
| pages = 91-182
}}
* Ostrom, J. H. (1985). Introduction to Archaeopteryx. The Beginnings of |
. The command is the standard way to bring up ''[[The Book of Mozilla]]'', another Easter egg on the [[Netscape]]/[[Mozilla]] family of browsers.
Several online vendors sell blue [[T-shirt]]s that re-create the BSoD, and BSoDs commonly appear in video games and webcomics.
<div style="clear: both" />
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Windows NT 3.1 BSoD.png|Windows NT 3.1
Image:Reactos_bsod.png|ReactOS
</gallery>
==Reference==
*Microsoft Corp. (1996). ''Microsoft Windows NT workstation resource kit''. 1st ed. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press.
==See also==
*[[Sad Mac]] &mdash; Pre-iMac ([[Old World ROM]]) Mac OS equivalent
*[[Spinning wait cursor|Spinning wait cursor, Spinning Beach Ball of Death or Spinning Pizza of Death]] &mdash; similarly-named icon in Mac OS X, that commonly means an application is busy, but can mean a serious error requiring restarting the application or the computer
*[[Guru Meditation]] &mdash; Amiga OS equivalent
*[[Bomb (symbol)|Bomb]] &mdash; Mac OS (old) equivalent
*[[Row of bombs]] &mdash; Atari equivalent
*[[Kernel panic]] &mdash; [[Unix]] variant equivalent
*[[Red screen of death]] &mdash; The red counterpart which existed in pre-beta builds of [[Windows Vista]]
*[[Yellow screen of death]] &mdash; A screen shown when there is XML parsing error happens in Mozilla browsers
*[[Black screen of death]] &mdash; OS/2 and Windows
*Red and Blue screens of death; When the 72 pin adaptor, or the cart is bad on a [[NES]], the screen flashes these colors.
*[[Xbox 360#Xbox 360 .22Screen of Death.22|Xbox 360 screen of death]] &mdash; in videogame console
*[[Green screen of death]] &mdash; a error in [[TiVo]] devices.
==External links==
{{commons|BSoD}}
*[http://dxhtml.com/blue-screen Dxhtml Windows XP Blue Screen Error Examples and Error Fixer]
*[http://www.nobluescreens.com Andy Mallett's legendary Gallery of Blue Screens and Open Source Tips]
*[http://www.snabbstart.com/film/bill-faar-problem-med-demostration-av-windows.aspx Bill Gates gets the BSoD at the unveiling of Windows 98]
*[http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=859637b4-85f1-4215-b7d0-25f32057921c&displaylang=en "Windows Server 2003 Troubleshooting Stop Errors" - microsoft.com]
*[http://aumha.org/win5/kbestop.htm Troubleshooting Windows STOP Messages]
*[http://www.mvps.org/marksxp/WindowsXP/bsod.php MVP Mark Salloway's Windows XP Resource Center - Introduction to Stop Errors]
*[http://daimyo.org/bsod/ BSoD Gallery]
*[http://zdnet.com.com/1606-2-5517693.html Bloopers bedevil Gates at CES] - BSoD during Bill Gates' keynote address at the 2005 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas ([[ZDNet]], January 7, 2005).
* [http://blogs.msdn.com/michkap/archive/2005/05/07/415335.aspx Original report of RSoD from a Microsoft employee]
* [http://joi.ito.com/archives/2005/05/07/bsod_upgrades_to_rsod_in_longhorn.html BSoD upgrades to RSoD in Longhorn from Joi Ito]
[[Category:Microsoft Windows]]
[[Category:Screens of death]]
{{Link FA|hu}}
[[bg:BSOD]]
[[cs:BSOD]]
[[da:BSOD]]
[[de:Blue Screen Of Death]]
[[es:Blue screen of death]]
[[fr:Écran bleu de la mort]]
[[it:Blue Screen of Death]]
[[ko:블루스크린 (컴퓨터)]]
[[he:המוות הכחול]]
[[hu:Kék halál]]
[[nl:Blue Screen of Death]]
[[pl:BSOD]]
[[pt:BSOD]]
[[sk:Modrá obrazovka smrti]]
[[fi:BSOD]]
[[sv:Blåskärm]]
[[tl:Blue screen of death]]
[[tr:Mavi ekran]]
[[zh:BSoD]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blue-tailed skink</title>
<id>4533</id>
<revision>
<id>15902798</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-04T11:43:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redir: much better description at [[Eumeces]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eumeces]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blitz</title>
<id>4536</id>
<revision>
<id>41566418</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T04:48:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chanlord</username>
<id>511253</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blitz''', the [[German language|German]] word for [[lightning]], and often used figuratively as in ''blitzschnell'' (as fast as lightning), may mean any of a number of things in [[English language|English]]:
*[[Blitzkrieg]], the "lightning war" strategy of WWII Germany
*[[The Blitz]], the German aerial attacks on Britain in WWII
*[[Baedeker Blitz]], the reprisal bombing of strategically unimportant but picturesque British cities
*[[Blitz (American football)]], a defensive maneuver in American football
*[[Blitz (NFL Mascot)]], the mascot of the [[NFL]]'s [[Seattle Seahawks]]
*[[Blitz chess]], a fast chess game allowing only 5 minutes for each player
*[[Blitz Games]], British computer games company
*[[Blitz BASIC]], a fast dialect of the BASIC programming language
*[[Blitz (game)]], a card game
*[[Blitz (Computer Game)]], a bombing game for the Commodore PET
*Blitz may also refer to the alter-ego of the character George in the web comic [[Bob and George]]
*out of production truck models by [[Opel]] and [[Bedford Trucks/Buses]]
*[[BlitzMail]] is the name of the internal [[e-mail]] network at [[Dartmouth College]]
*[[Blitz (magazine)|''Blitz'' (magazine)]] is a student publication that is run by the [[Source (UNSW)|Source]] on the [[University of New South Wales]] campus in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]
*[[Blitz (band)]], British Oi!/Punk legend
*[[Blitz! (musical)]], a musical by [[Lionel Bart]] based on [[The Blitz]]
*[[Blitz (band)]], an early [[oi!]] band. [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&uid=CAW060510211501&sql=11:nu7ibk096akc~T0]
*[[Blitz]], nickname for both Ford and Chevrolet Canadian Military Pattern trucks made for use in WW2 [http://www.oldcmp.net/indexes.html]
*Blitz, a 1980s night club in London, see [[Blitz Kids]]
In English, ''[[blitz]]'' is also used as a verb, meaning to attack something rapidly, usually in a [[bathos|bathetic]] sense, as with '[[nuke]]' or 'exterminate', i.e. one might 'blitz' housework, lunch, or ants. For political reasons, military commanders avoid the terms 'blitz' and 'blitzkrieg' when referring to actual military operations.
*[[GAT-X207 Blitz Gundam]], a Mobile Suit in [[Mobile Suit Gundam SEED]].
It is also used as a slang word for feeling strong effects after using marijuana. For example "God, this is good stuff. I'm so blitzed"
==''Blitz'' in German==
The term ''Blitz'' (literal translation: [[lightning]]) is used in the German language for "extraordinary": like "blitzschnell" for extraordinarily fast, "blitzsauber" for extraordinarily clean, "blitzgescheit" for extraordinarily smart. Today these words have started sounding a bit outdated. Another common use is "wie ein Blitz einschlagen" striking like a lightning/bolt, a phrase for something material or non-material reaching the people unexpectedly, quickly and surprisingly like a new product with extraordinary success or totally unexpected news. Blitz also refers to the old god [[Thor]]. Germanic mythology gained some importance during the [[Third Reich]].
{{disambig}}
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[fr:blitz]]
[[no:Blitz (andre betydninger)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Burt Lancaster</title>
<id>4537</id>
<revision>
<id>41008252</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T13:09:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>170.97.67.142</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burt_Lancester.jpg|thumb|right|Burt Lancaster]]
'''Burt Lancaster''' ([[November 2]], [[1913]] – [[October 20]], [[1994]]) was an [[United States|American]] film [[actor]]. Born '''Burton Stephen Lancaster''' in [[New York City]] to James Henry Lancaster (a postman) and Elizabeth Roberts, both of whom were the children of [[Ireland|Irish]] [[Protestant]] immigrants. He grew up in [[Hells Kitchen]] and spent much of his time on the streets, where he developed great interest and skill in [[gymnastics]]. Later, he worked as a circus [[acrobatics|acrobat]] until an injury forced him to give up the profession.
During [[World War II|WWII]], Lancaster joined the [[United States Army]] and performed with the [[United Service Organizations|USO]]. Though initially unenthusiastic about acting, he returned from service, auditioned for a [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] play and was offered a role. Though the play was not successful, Lancaster's performance drew the attention of a [[Hollywood]] agent who had him cast in the [[1946 in film|1946]] motion picture ''[[The Killers (1946 film)|The Killers]]''. The muscular, 6'2" actor won significant acclaim and appeared in two more films the following year. Subsequently, he played in a variety of movies, but especially in dramas, thrillers, military and adventure films. In two of the adventures, ''[[The Flame and the Arrow]]'' and ''[[The Crimson Pirate]]'', a friend from his circus years, [[Nick Cravat]], played a leading role, and both actors impressed audiences with their acrobatic prowess. In the mid [[1950s|'50s]], Lancaster went on challenging himself with varied cinematic roles, and satisfied longtime aspirations by moving into film producing as well. In most of his roles, whether in drama, circus, [[western movie|western]] or other genres, the self-taught actor was successful; he evolved into a solid and versatile performer and eventually a superstar. His work was recognized in [[1960 in film|1960]] when he won the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]], a [[Golden Globe Award]], and the New York Film Critics Award for his performance in ''[[Elmer Gantry]]''.
During the latter part of his career, Lancaster left adventure and acrobatic movies behind and portrayed distinguished characters, earning himself ever greater prestige amo |
& Dragons===
(see also [[Dungeons & Dragons]])
*Rule books:
**''[[Players Handbook|Player's Handbook]]''
**''[[Dungeon Master's Guide]]''
**''[[Monster Manual]]''
**''[[Monster Manual|Monster Manual II]]''
*Supplements:
**''Unearthed Arcana''
**''Oriental Adventures'' (with Dave Cook & Francois Froideval)
*Accessories:
**''Dungeon Geomorphs'' (3 sets)
**''Outdoor Geomorphs''
**''Monster & Treasure Assortments'' (3 sets)
[[Image:S1ModuleCover.jpg|thumb|200px|right|S1 Tomb of Horrors]]
*Adventures:
**''[[Descent into the Depths of the Earth|D1 – Descent Into the Depths of the Earth]]''
**''D2 Shrine of the Kuo-Toa''
**''[[Vault of the Drow|D3 Vault of the Drow]]''
**''[[Dungeonland|EX1 Dungeonland]]''
**''[[The Land Beyond the Magic Mirror|EX2 – The Land Beyond the Magic Mirror]]''
**''G1 Steading of the Hill Giant Chief''
**''G2 Glacial Rift of the Frost Giant Jarl''
**''G3 Hall of the Fire Giant King''
**''[[Queen of the Demonweb Pits|Q1 – Queen of the Demonweb Pits]]'' (with Dave Sutherland)
**''[[Tomb of Horrors|S1 – Tomb of Horrors]]''
**''[[Expedition to the Barrier Peaks|S3 – Expedition to the Barrier Peaks]]''
**''S4 The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth''
**''T1 The Village of Hommlet''
**''[[The Temple of Elemental Evil|T1-4 – The Temple of Elemental Evil]]'' (with Frank Mentzer)
**''WG4 The Forgotten Temple of Tharizdun''
**''WG5 Mordenkainen's Fantastic Adventure'' (with Rob Kuntz)
**''WG6 Isle of the Ape''
===Dangerous Journeys===
(see also [[Dangerous Journeys]])
* ''Mythus'' – (with Dave Newton), Game Designers Workshop, 1992
* ''Mythus Magick'' – Book II of the MYTHUS Game (with Dave Newton), GDW, 1992
* ''Epic of Ærth'' – Companion Volume to the MYTHUS Game, GDW, 1992
* ''Necropolis'' – Adventure Scenario, GDW, 1993
* ''Mythus Bestiary, Ærth Animalia'' – (with Dave & Michele Newton), GDW, 1993
* ''Changeling'' – Weird Science Fantasy Role-Playing Game, published in part in ''Mythic Masters'' Magazine (see [[#Periodicals|Periodicals]])
===Lejendary Adventures===
(see also ''[[Lejendary Adventure]]'')
*Rule books:
**''LEJENDARY RULES FOR ALL PLAYERS'' - [[Hekaforge Productions]], 1999
**''LEJEND MASTER’S LORE'' - Hekaforge Productions, 2000
**''BEASTS OF LEJEND'' - Hekaforge Productions, 2000
*World Setting sourcebooks:
**''LEJENDARY EARTH GAZETTEER'' - Part 1, Hekaforge Productions, 2002
**''Noble Kings & Dark Lands'' - Part 2, (with Chris Clark) Hekaforge Productions, 2003
**''The Mysterious Realms of Hazgar'' &ndash; Part 3, (with Chris Clark) Hekaforge Productions, 2005
*Adventures:
**''Living the Lejend'' - Campaign Setting & Expansion for the LA Essentials Boxed Set, [[Troll Lord Games]] (2005)
**''Forlorn Corners'' - included serially as a part of the Author’s and Collector’s Editions of the three core rules noted above (1999-2000)
**''Hall of Many Panes'' – Module Boxed Set with D20 stats included, Troll Lord Games 2005
*''LEJENDARY ADVENTURE ESSENTIALS'' - Primer Boxed Set for the LA RPG, Troll Lord Games, 2005
===Castles & Crusades===
For ''[[Castles & Crusades]]'', the Castle Zagyg series is a planned series of seven sourcebooks based on Gygax's original campaign. For [[copyright]] reasons they are not published under the name of [[Greyhawk]].
* ''Castle Zagyg, Vol. 1: Yggsburgh'' Troll Lord Games, 2005 (ISBN 1-931275-68-8)
===Generic d20 System===
(see also [[d20 System]] & [[Open Game License]])
* ''A Challenge of Arms'' - (Chris Clark with Gary Gygax) generic adventure module, [[Inner City Game Designs]], 1999
* ''Ritual of the Golden Eyes'' - (Chris Clark with Gary Gygax) generic adventure module, Inner City Game Designs, 2000
* ''The Weyland Smith Catalog'' - ("Joke" Magic Items), short version, Hekaforge Productions, 1999
* ''Gygaxian Fantasy Worlds'' Series from Troll Lord Games. Volumes IV, V, VI are edited by Gygax.
** Volume I ''Gary Gygax’s The Canting Crew'', explores the underworld of city life, "Gygaxian Fantasy Worlds, Volume II"
** Volume II ''Gary Gygax’s World Builder'', a collection of organized definitions, lists, tables and charts, (with Dan Cross) – 2003
** Volume III ''Gary Gygax’s Living Fantasy'', Everyday Life, – 2003
** Volume IV ''Gary Gygax’s Book of Names'' by [[Malcolm Bowers]]
** Volume V ''Gary Gygax’s Insidiae'' by [[Dan Cross]] 2004
** Volume VI ''Gary Gygax’s Nation Builder'', by [[Michael J. Varhola]] – 2005
==Non-RPG Games==
===Rules for Miniatures/Table Top Battle Games===
*''Cavaliers & Roundheads'' (English Civil War, with Jeff Perren)
*''Chainmail'' (Medieval, with Jeff Perren)
*''Chainmail'' Man-to-Man, Jousting, and Fantasy Supplement
*''Classic Warfare'' (Ancient Period: 1500 BC to 500 AD)
*''Don't Give Up the Ship'' (Sailing Ship Battles c. 1700 to 1815, with Dave Arneson & Mike Carr)
*''Tractics'' (WWII to c. 1965, with Mike Reese & Leon Tucker)
*Foreword to the 2004 [[Skirmisher Publishing LLC]] edition of H.G. Wells' ''[[Little Wars]]''
===Board Games===
*''Alexander the Great'' (Ancient, the Battle of Arbela) &ndash; Guidon Games
*''Alexander’s Other Battles'' &ndash; Panzerfaust Publishing, 1972 – a Supplementary Kit For The Guidon Game ''Alexander the Great''
*''Alexander the Great'' (Ancient, the Battle of Arbela) – The Avalon Hill Company
*''Baku'' (WW II, Extension of The Avalon Hill Company’s Stalingrad board wargame), Panzerfaust Publications
*''Crusader'' (Medieval, Battle of Ascalon) – Panzerfaust Publications
*''Dunkirk'' (World War II) – Guidon Games
*''Little Big Horn'' (Western) – TSR Hobbies, Inc.
===Chess Variants===
*Another of Gary Gygax's creations was [[Dragon chess]], a three-dimensional fantasy [[chess variant]], published in ''Dragon Magazine'' #100 (August 1985). It is played on three 8x12 boards stacked on top of each other - the top board represents the sky, the middle is the ground, and the bottom is the [[underworld]]. The pieces are characters and monsters inspired by the Dungeons and Dragons setting: King, Mage, Paladin, Cleric, Dragon, Griffin, Oliphant, Hero, Thief, Elemental, Basilisk, Unicorn, Dwarf, Sylph and Warrior.
*[[Fidchell (gygax)|Fidchell]] <ref>[http://www.chessvariants.org/large.dir/fidchell.html Fidchell], The Chess Variant Pages, accessed August 19th, 2005</ref> – Not to be confused with the historic board game of [[fidchell]] (various spellings) from [[Ireland]].
==Literature==
===Fantasy Novels===
*[[Greyhawk]] Adventures Series of Novels (from [[TSR, Inc.]], featuring Gord the Rogue)
**''Saga of Old City'' (1985)
**''Artifact of Evil'' (1986)
*[[Gord the Rogue]] Adventures (from New Infinities Productions, Inc., also published in Italian)
**''Sea of Death'' (1987)
**''Night Arrant'' (1987) – a collection of short stories
**''City of Hawks'' (1987)
**''Come Endless Darkness'' (1988)
**''Dance of Demons'' (1988)
* released under publisher [[Penguin Books|Penguin/Roc]]
**''The Anubis Murders'' (1992)
**''The Samarkand Solution'' (1993)
**''Death in Delhi'' (1993)
===Misc Books & Short Stories===
*''Sagard the Barbarian Books'' (HEROES CHALLENGE Gamebook Series, co-author Flint Dille (with assistance from Ernie Gygax) - from Archway/Pocket books):
::''The Ice Dragon''
::''The Green Hydra''
::''The Crimson Sea''
::''The Fire Demon''
*''Role-Playing Mastery'' - instructional book, Perigee/Putnam (trade paperback bestseller)
*''Master of the Game'' - sequel to Role-Playing Mastery from Perigee/Putnam
*"''At Moonset Blackcat Comes''" (Fantasy short story featuring Gord the Rogue appearing in Dragon Magazine #100)
*"''Pay Tribute''" (Science Fiction short story in The Fleet anthology)
*"''Battle off Deadstar''" (Science Fiction short story in Fleet Breakthrough anthology)
*"''Celebration of Celene''" (Fantasy short story published in Michael Moorcock’s Elric, Tales of the White Wolf anthology) - [[White Wolf, Inc.]], 1994
*"''Duty''" (Fantasy short story in Excalibur, anthology) &ndash; Warner Books, 1995
*"''Get on Board the D Train''" (Horror short story in Dante’s Disciples anthology) &ndash; White Wolf, Inc., 1996
*''Evening Odds''" (Fantasy short story with Gord the Rogue sharing Michael Moorcock’s Eternal Champions universe) &ndash; White Wolf, Inc., 1997
===Periodicals===
*''The Crusader'' &ndash; magazine, column on the creation of the D&D game beginning 2005
*''[[Dragon (magazine)|Dragon Magazine]]'' - author to 1985, and a columnist therein 1999 to 2004
*''Journeys Journal'' (GDW) - contributor in each of six issues published through 1993
*''Lejends'' (Total Reality Studios) &ndash; magazine, major contributor, 2001 to 2003
*''Mythic Masters'' (Trigee) - magazine, primary author of entire 64-page magazine for each of six issues published through 1994
*''The Strategic Review'' (Tactical Studies Rules) &ndash; magazine, primary author of entire magazine for each of the initial four issues, and a major contributor to the balance of all issues until DRAGON Magazine came into print.
==Bibliography==
<references/>
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.lejendary.com/la/template.php?page=garygygax&style=blaze Interview by Christopher Smith on LA website]
* [http://www.trolllord.com/gygax.htm Gygax] &ndash; Troll Lord Games
* [http://www.wizards.com/dnd/ Dungeons and Dragons Official Home Page]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A683688 E.Gary Gygax - Father of Role Play]
* [http://www.kittenpants.org/11_Loneliest/gygax.asp Kittenpants.org interview]
[[Category:1938 births|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Living people|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Dungeons & Dragons authors|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Greyhawk authors|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Role-playing game designers|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Futurama actors|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Board game designers|Gygax, Gary]]
[[da:Gary Gygax]]
[[de:Gary Gygax]]
[[es:Gary Gyga |
Economy remained common, with their center in Vienna, but the Hungarian government became an equal partner in the governance of the Empire. Following the Compromise, Hungary's 1848 Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned King of Hungary.
There was also a Hungarian-Croatian [[Compromise of 1868]], as [[Croatia]], an old autonomous part of the Kingdom, restored its constitutional freedom. The Hungarian government was able to influence the policy of the Austrian Empire, and successfully prevented the other ethnic minorities of the Empire, such as the [[Slovaks]], [[Czechs]], [[Romanians]], and [[Poles]], from gaining power. Count [[Gyula Andrássy]] was the first premier of Hungary after the Ausgleich.
Minority problems were rising, however, and there was no Hungarian policy (e.g. federalization) against the threat of the collapse of the old Kingdom. Although the proportion of [[Magyars]] rose considerably since the 18th century (from about 29-35% in 1780 to 51% in 1900), there were still 49% non-Magyars in the Kingdom: Romanians (16.6%), Slovaks (11.9%), Germans (11.9%), Croatians and Serbs (3.7%), Ruthenians and Ukrainians (2.5%). A great number of Jews (officially not recorded since 1850) and Gypsies, however, had a Hungarian (or German) culture or mother tongue throughout the Kingdom.
== Reds and Whites (1918-1919) ==
In 1918, as a result of defeat in World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed. On [[October 31]] [[1918]], the success of the [[Aster Revolution]] in Budapest brought the liberal count [[Mihály Károlyi]] to power as Prime-Minister. The new government officially declared Hungary an independent republic in November, after the end of the war. On 22 November 1918 the Central Romanian Council of [[Romanians]] from [[Transylvania]] announced the Hungarian gouvernment that it had assumed control of Transylvania. On 1 December 1918 the gathering of [[Alba Iulia]] (Gyulafehérvár) proclaimed union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania.
By February 1919 the government had lost all popular support, having failed on the domestic and military fronts. On [[March 21]], after the Entente military representative demanded more territorial concessions from Hungary, Károlyi resigned. The Communist Party of Hungary came to power, led by [[Béla Kun]], and proclaimed the [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]].
The Communists &ndash; "The Reds" &ndash; came to power largely thanks to being the only group with an organized fighting force, and they promised that Hungary would regain the lands it had lost (possibly with the help of the Soviet [[Red Army]]). The Communists also promised equality and social justice. Initially, Kun's regime achieved some impressive military successes: the Hungarian Red Army, under the lead of the genius strategist, Colonel [[Aurél Stromfeld]], ousted Czechoslovak troops from disputed lands, proclaimed an ephemeral [[Slovak Soviet Republic]], and planned to march against the Romanian army in Transylvania. In terms of domestic policy, the Communist government nationalized industrial and commercial enterprises, socialized housing, transport, banking, medicine, cultural institutions, and all landholdings of more than 400,000 square metres.
Still, the popular support of the Communists proved to be short lived. In the aftermath of a coup attempt, the government took a series of reprisals (called the [[Red Terror]]) by half-regular and half-militarist detachments (like the "Lenin boys"). A total of 590 people were executed without trial, which alienated much of the population. Land reform took land from the nobles but did not effectively distribute it amongst peasants. The Soviet Red Army was never able to aid the new Hungarian republic. Although it did not lose any battles, the Hungarian Red Army gave up land under pressure from the Entente. In the face of domestic backlash and an advancing Romanian force, Béla Kun and most of his comrades fled to Austria, while Budapest was occupied on [[August 6]]. All these events, and in particular the final military defeat, led to a deep feeling of dislike among the general population against the Soviet Union (which had not kept its promise to offer military assistance) and the [[Jew]]s (since many members of Kun's government were Jewish, making it easy to blame the Jews for the government's mistakes).
The new fighting force in Hungary were the Conservative [[counterrevolutionary|counter-revolutionaries]] &ndash; the "Whites". These, who had been organizing in [[Vienna]] and established a counter-government in [[Szeged]], assumed power, led by [[István Bethlen]], a Transylvanian aristocrat, and [[Miklós Horthy]], the former commander in chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. Starting in Western Hungary and spreading throughout the country, a [[White Terror#Hungarian White Terror|White Terror]] began by other half-regular and half-militarist detachments (as the police power crashed, there were no serious national regular forces and authorities), and many Communists and other leftists were executed without trial. Radical Whites launched pogroms against the [[Jew]]s, displayed as the cause of all the difficulties of Hungary. The leaving Romanian army pillaged the country &ndash; the estimated property damage of their activity was so much that the international peace conference in 1919 did not require Hungary to pay war redemption to Romania. On [[November 16]], with the consent of Romanian forces, Horthy's army marched into Budapest. His government gradually restored security, stopped terror, and set up authorities, but thousands of sympathizers of the Károlyi and Kun regimes were imprisoned. Radical political movements were suppressed.
== The Regency (1920 - 1944) ==
In January 1920, Hungarian men and women cast the first secret ballots in the country's political history. The votings were not totally free, because the entire left-wing either boycotted or was excluded from the voting. A large right-wing majority was elected to a unicameral assembly. In March, the parliament annulled the Compromise of 1867, and it restored the Hungarian monarchy but postponed electing a king until civil disorder had subsided. Instead, Miklos Horthy was elected regent and was empowered, among other things, to appoint Hungary's prime minister, veto legislation, convene or dissolve the parliament, and command the armed forces.
Hungary's signing of the [[Treaty of Trianon]] on [[June 4]], [[1920]], ratified the country's dismemberment. The territorial provisions of the treaty, which ensured continued discord between Hungary and its neighbors, required the Hungarians to surrender more than two-thirds of their pre-war lands. Nearly one-third of the 10 million ethnic Hungarians found themselves outside the diminished homeland. The country's ethnic composition was left almost homogeneous, Hungarians constituting about 90% of the population, Germans made up about 6%, and Slovaks, Croats, Romanians, Jews and Gypsies accounted for the remainder.
New international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources of raw materials and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products. Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Because most of the country's pre-war industry was concentrated near Budapest, Hungary retained about 51% of its industrial population, 56% of its industry, 82% of its heavy industry, and 70% of its banks.
Horthy appointed Count [[Pál Teleki]] prime minister in July 1920. His right-wing government issued a [[numerus clausus]] law, limiting admission of "political insecure elements" (these were often Jews) to universities and, in order to quiet rural discontent, took initial steps toward fulfilling a promise of major land reform by dividing about 3,850&nbsp;km² from the largest estates into smallholdings. Teleki's government resigned, however, after the former emperor, [[Charles IV of Hungary|Charles IV]], unsuccessfully attempted to retake Hungary's throne in March 1921. King Charles's return produced split parties between conservatives who favored a Habsburg restoration and nationalist right-wing radicals who supported election of a Hungarian king. Count [[István Bethlen]], a non-affiliated right-wing member of the parliament, took advantage of this rift forming a new [[Party of Unity (Hungary)|Party of Unity]] under his leadership. Horthy then appointed Bethlen prime minister. Charles IV died soon after he failed a second time to reclaim the throne in October 1921.
As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He fashioned a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the expanding bureaucracy to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas. Bethlen restored order to the country by giving the radical counterrevolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists. In 1921, he made a deal with the Social Democrats and trade unions (called [[Bethlen-Peyer-pact]]), agreeing, among other things, to legalize their activities and free political prisoners in return for their pledge to refrain from spreading anti-Hungarian propaganda, calling political strikes, and organizing the peasantry. Bethlen brought Hungary into the [[League of Nations]] in 1922 and out of international isolation by signing a treaty of friendship with [[Italy]] in 1927. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the top of Hungary's political agenda and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted by strengthening the economy and building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty had such a broad backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of his economic, social, and political policies.
The [[Great Depression]] induced a drop in the standard of living and the po |
mage:F_Scott_Fitzgerald_stamp.gif|thumb|300px|F. Scott Fitzgerald [[United States Postal Service]] stamp]]
Fearing he might die in the war, and determined to leave a literary legacy, Fitzgerald wrote a novel entitled ''The Romantic Egotist'' while in officer training at [[Camp Zachary Taylor]] and [[Camp Sheridan]]. When Fitzgerald submitted the novel to the publisher [[Charles Scribner's Sons]], the editor praised Fitzgerald but ultimately declined to publish.
The war ended shortly after Fitzgerald's enlistment, and he was discharged without ever having been shipped to Europe.
==Life with Zelda==
While at Camp Sheridan, Fitzgerald met [[Zelda Sayre]] (1900 &ndash; 1948), the "top girl," in Fitzgerald's words, of [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], [[Alabama]], youth society. The two were engaged in 1919 and Fitzgerald moved into an apartment at 200 Claremont Avenue in [[New York City]] to try to lay a foundation for his life with Zelda. Working at an advertising firm and writing short stories, Fitzgerald was unable to convince Zelda that he would be able to support her. She broke off the engagement and Fitzgerald returned to his parents' house in St. Paul to revise ''The Romantic Egotist''. Recast as ''[[This Side of Paradise (novel)|This Side of Paradise]]'', it was accepted by [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner's]] in the fall of 1919, and Zelda and Scott resumed their engagement. The novel was published on [[March 26]], [[1920]], and became one of the most popular books of the year, defining the [[flapper]] generation. The next week, Scott and Zelda were married in New York's [[St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York|St. Patrick's Cathedral]]. Their daughter and only child, [[Frances Scott Fitzgerald|Frances Scott "Scottie" Fitzgerald]], was born on [[October 26]], [[1921]].
=="The Jazz Age"==
The 1920s proved the most influential decade of Fitzgerald's development. His second novel, ''[[The Beautiful and Damned]]'', published in 1922, represents an impressive development over the comparatively immature ''This Side of Paradise''. ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'', which many consider his masterpiece, was published in 1925. Fitzgerald made several famous excursions to Europe, notably [[Paris]] and the [[French Riviera]], and became friends with many members of the American expatriate community in Paris, notably [[Ernest Hemingway]].
Hemingway prefaced his chapters concerning Fitzgerald in [[A Moveable Feast]] with this: "His talent was as natural as the pattern that was made by the dust on a butterfly's wings. At one time he understood it no more than the butterfly did and he did not know when it was brushed or marred. Later he became conscious of his damaged wings and their construction and he learned to think and could not fly anymore because the love of flight was gone and he could only remember when it had been effortless."
Fitzgerald drew largely upon his wife’s intense personality in his writings, at times quoting direct segments of her personal diaries in his work. Zelda made mention of this in a 1922 mock review in the ''[[New York Tribune]]'', saying that “[i]t seems to me that on one page I recognized a portion of an old diary of mine which mysteriously disappeared shortly after my marriage, and also scraps of letters which, though considerably edited, sound to me vaguely familiar. In fact, Mr. Fitzgerald&mdash;I believe that is how he spells his name&mdash;seems to believe that plagiarism begins at home" (''Zelda Fitzgerald: The Collected Writings'', 388).
Although Fitzgerald's passion lay in writing novels, they never sold well enough to support the opulent lifestyle that he and Zelda adopted as New York celebrities. To support this lifestyle, he turned to writing short stories for such magazines as the [[Saturday Evening Post]], [[Collier's Magazine]], and [[Esquire magazine]], and sold movie rights of his stories and novels to Hollywood studios. He was constantly in financial trouble and often required loans from his literary agent, [[Harold Ober]], and his editor at [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner's]], [[Maxwell Perkins]].
Fitzgerald began working on his fourth novel during the late 1920s but was sidetracked by financial difficulties that necessitated his writing commercial short stories, and the schizophrenia that struck [[Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald]] in 1930. Her emotional health remained fragile for the rest of her life. In 1932, she was hospitalized in Baltimore, Maryland, and Scott rented the "La Paix" estate in the suburb of Towson to work on his book, which had become the story of the rise and fall of Dick Diver, a promising young psychiatrist and his wife, Nicole, who is also one of his patients. It was published in 1934 as ''[[Tender is the Night]]''. [http://www.pinkmonkey.com/booknotes/monkeynotes/pmTender01.asp] Critics regard it as one of Fitzgerald's finest works.
==Hollywood years==
Although he reportedly found movie work degrading, Fitzgerald was once again in dire financial straits, so he spent the second half of the 1930s in [[Hollywood]], working on commercial short stories, scripts for [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]], and his fifth and final novel, ''[[The Love of the Last Tycoon]]'', which is often published under the shortened title ''The Last Tycoon'', based on the life of film executive [[Irving Thalberg]]. He and Zelda became estranged; she continued living in mental institutions on the east coast, while he lived with his lover [[Sheilah Graham]], a movie columnist, in [[Hollywood]].
From 1939 until his death, Fitzgerald mocked himself as a Hollywood [[Hack_writer|hack]] through the character of Pat Hobby in a sequence of 17 short stories later collected as "[[The Pat Hobby Stories]]."
Fitzgerald had clearly been an [[alcoholic]] since his college days and he became notorious during the 1920s for his extraordinarily heavy drinking. This consequently left him in poor health by the late 1930s. According to [[Zelda Fitzgerald]]'s biographer Nancy Milford, Scott Fitzgerald at various times also claimed that he had contracted [[tuberculosis]] but she states plainly that this was usually a pretext to cover his drinking problems. However, Milford also reports that Scott's biographer Arthur Mizener said that Scott did suffer a mild attack of tuberculosis in 1919 and that in 1929 Fitzgerald had "what proved to be a tubercular hemorrhage". Given the extent of Scott's alcoholism, however, it is equally likely that the hemorrhage might have been caused by bleeding from [[oesophageal varices]] -- these are in effect, [[varicose veins]] in the oesophagus that result from dilated veins in the walls of the lower part of the oesophagus and sometimes the upper part of the stomach, usually because of [[hypertension]] caused by advanced liver disease.
Fitzgerald suffered two heart attacks in late 1940. After the first he was ordered by his doctor to avoid strenuous exertion and to obtain a first floor apartment. As [[Sheilah Graham]], his lover at the time, had an apartment on the first floor, he moved in with her. On the night of [[December 20]], [[1940]] he had his second heart attack; but since the doctor was to come to his house the following day, he and Sheilah went home. On [[December 21]], [[1940]], F. Scott Fitzgerald collapsed while clutching the mantlepiece in Sheilah Graham's apartment and died at the age of 44.
His funeral was attended by very few people. Among the attendants was [[Dorothy Parker]], who reportedly cried and murmured, "the poor son of a bitch," a line from [[Jay Gatsby]]'s funeral in Fitzgerald's ''The Great Gatsby''. Zelda died in a fire at the Highland mental institution in [[Asheville, North Carolina]], in 1948. The two were originally buried in [[Rockville Union Cemetery]] but with the permission and assistance of their only child, Frances "Scottie" Fitzgerald Lanahan Smith, the Women's Club of Rockville had their bodies moved to the family plot in [[Saint Mary's Cemetery (Maryland)|Saint Mary's Cemetery]], in [[Rockville, Maryland]].
Fitzgerald never completed ''[[The Love of the Last Tycoon]]''. His notes for the novel were edited by his friend [[Edmund Wilson]] and published in 1941 as ''The Last Tycoon''. However, there is now critical agreement that Fitzgerald intended the title of the book to be ''The Love of the Last Tycoon'', as is reflected in a new 1994 edition of the book, edited by Fitzgerald scholar [[Matthew Bruccoli]] of the [[University of South Carolina Columbia|University of South Carolina]].
==Works==
==='''Novels'''===
*''[[This Side of Paradise]]'' (1920)
*''[[The Beautiful and Damned]]'' (1922)
*''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' (1925)
*''[[Tender is the Night]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Love of the Last Tycoon]]'' (1940)
==='''Short story collections'''===
*''[[Flappers and Philosophers]]'' (1920)
*''[[Tales of the Jazz Age]]'' (1922)
*''[[All the Sad Young Men]]'' (1926)
*''[[Taps at Reveille]]'' (1935)
*''[[The Short Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald]]" (1989)
==='''Other works'''===
*''[[The Princeton Tiger]]'' (Humor Magazine, 1917)
*''[[The Vegetable]]'' (play, 1923)
*''[[The Crack-Up]]'' (essays and stories, 1945)
==Quotations==
* "The test of a first-rate intelligence is the ability to hold two opposing ideas in mind at the same time and still retain the ability to function."
* "I was the spark that lit up Flaming Youth, [[Colleen Moore]] was the torch. What little things we are to have caused all that trouble."
* "There are all kinds of love in this world, but never the same love twice."
* "Show me a hero, and I will write you a tragedy."
The following quotations are from ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'':
* "Whenever you feel like criticizing any one, just remember that all the people in this world haven't had the advantages that you've had."
* "Every one suspects himself of at least one |
ন ফুটবল]]
[[bs:Nogomet]]
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[[hr:Nogomet]]
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[[ia:Football]]
[[id:Sepak bola]]
[[io:Futbolo]]
[[is:Knattspyrna]]
[[it:Calcio (sport)]]
[[ja:サッカー]]
[[ko:축구]]
[[la:Pediludium]]
[[lb:Foussball]]
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[[ru:Футбол]]
[[sco:Fitbaa]]
[[simple:Soccer football]]
[[sl:Nogomet]]
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[[sr:Фудбал]]
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[[vi:Bóng đá]]
[[wa:Fotbale]]
[[zh:足球]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kha-kiû]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Food and Drinks</title>
<id>10569</id>
<revision>
<id>15908372</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T10:02:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Cuisine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cuisine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Film Directors</title>
<id>10570</id>
<revision>
<id>23365681</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-16T22:11:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bash</username>
<id>225814</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film director]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Film</title>
<id>10571</id>
<revision>
<id>42141933</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:27:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nlu</username>
<id>350890</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ rm spam; doesn't mean that other links aren't spam, just that I'm sure this one is</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about motion pictures. For other uses of "film", see [[photographic film]] or [[film (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Film reel and film.jpg|thumb|250px|"Film" refers to the celluloid media on which movies are printed. This type of film here is [[8 mm film|8mm]].]]
'''Film''' is a term that encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. The origin of the name comes from the fact that [[photographic film]] (also called [[film stock|filmstock]]) has historically been the primary [[medium]] for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist &mdash; ''motion pictures'' (or just ''pictures'' or "picture"), ''the silver screen'', ''photoplays'', ''the cinema'', ''picture shows'', ''flicks'' &mdash; and commonly ''movies''.
Films are produced by [[recording]] actual people and objects with [[camera]]s, or by creating them using [[animation]] techniques and/or [[special effect|special effects]]. They comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown rapidly in succession, the illusion of motion is given to the viewer. Flickering between frames is not seen due to an effect known as [[persistence of vision]] &mdash; whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion &mdash; a psychological effect identified as [[beta movement]].
Film is considered by many to be an important [[art]] form; films entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences. The visual elements of cinema need no translation, giving the motion picture a universal power of communication. Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of [[dubbing]] or [[subtitle]]s that translate the dialogue. Films are also artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them.
==History of film==
{{main|History of film}}
Mechanisms for producing artificially created, two-dimensional images in motion were demonstrated as early as the 1860s, with devices such as the [[zoetrope]] and the [[praxinoscope]]. These machines were outgrowths of simple optical devices (such as [[magic lantern]]s), and would display sequences of still pictures at sufficient speed for the images on the pictures to appear to be moving, a phenomenon called [[persistence of vision]]. Naturally, the images needed to be carefully designed to achieve the desired effect &mdash; and the underlying principle became the basis for the development of film [[animation]].
With the development of [[celluloid]] film for still [[photography]], it became possible to directly capture objects in motion in real time. Early versions of the technology sometimes required the viewer to look into a special device to see the pictures. By the 1880s, the development of the [[Movie camera|motion picture camera]] allowed the individual component images to be captured and stored on a single [[reel]], and led quickly to the development of a [[movie projector|motion picture projector]] to shine light through the processed and printed film and magnify these "moving picture shows" onto a screen for an entire audience. These reels, so exhibited, came to be known as "motion pictures". Early motion pictures were static [[Shot (film)|shot]]s that showed an event or action with no [[Film editing|editing]] or other cinematic techniques.
[[Image:Voyage dans la lune (1902) still03.jpg|thumb|200px|A shot from Georges Méliès' ''[[Le Voyage dans la Lune]] (A Trip to the Moon)'' (1902), an early narrative film.]]
Motion pictures were purely [[visual arts|visual art]] up to the late 1920s, but these innovative [[silent film]]s had gained a hold on the public imagination. Around the turn of the 20th Century, films began developing a narrative structure. Films began stringing [[Scene (film)|scenes]] together to tell [[narrative]]s. The scenes were later broken up into multiple shots of varying sizes and angles. Other techniques such as camera movement were realized as effective ways to portray a story on film. Rather than leave the audience in silence, theater owners would hire a [[piano|pianist]] or [[organ (music)|organist]] or a full [[orchestra]] to play music fitting the mood of the film at any given moment. By the early 1920s, most films came with a prepared list of sheet music for this purposes, with complete [[film score]]s being composed for major productions.
The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the breakout of World War I while the film industry in United States flourished with the rise of [[Hollywood]]. However in the 1920s, European filmmakers such as [[Sergei Eisenstein]] and [[Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau|F. W. Murnau]] continued to advance the medium. In the 1920s, new technology allowed filmmakers to attach to each film a [[soundtrack]] of speech, music and [[sound effects]] synchronized with the action on the screen. These [[sound film]]s were initially distinguished by calling them "talking pictures", or ''talkies''.
The next major step in the development of cinema was the introduction of [[color]]. While the addition of [[sound]] quickly eclipsed silent film and theater musicians, color was adopted more gradually. The public was relatively indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white. But as color processes improved and became as affordable as [[black-and-white]] film, more and more movies were filmed in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in America came to view color an essential to attracting audiences in its competition with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until the mid-60s. By the end of the 1960s, color had become the norm for film makers.
The 1950s, 60s and 70s saw changes in the production and style of film. [[New Hollywood]], [[French New Wave]] and the rise of film school educated, independent filmmakers were all part of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th Century. Digital technology has been the driving force in change throughout the 1990s and into the 21st Century.
==Film theory==
{{main|Film theory}}
Film theory seeks to develop concise, systematic concepts that apply to the study of film/cinema as [[art]]. Classical film theory provides a structural framework to address classical issues of techniques, [[narrativity]], [[diegesis]], cinematic codes, "the image", [[genre]], subjectivity, and authorship. More recent analysis has given rise to psychoanalytical film theory, structuralist film theory, feminist film theory and others.
==Film criticism==
{{main|Film criticism}}
Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of films. In general this can be divided into academic criticism by film scholars and journalistic film criticism that appears regularly in [[newspaper]]s and other media.
Film critics working for [[newspaper]]s, [[magazine]]s, and [[broadcast media]] mainly review new releases. Normally they only see any given film once and have only a day or two to formulate opinions. Despite this, critics have an important impact of films, especially those of certain [[film genre|genre]]s. Mass marketed [[action film|action]], [[horror film|horror]], and [[comedy film|comedy films]] tend not to be greatly affected by a critic's overall judgement of a film. The plot summary and description of a film that makes up the majority of any film review can still have an important impact on whether people decide to see a film. For prestige films such as most [[drama film|drama]]s, the influence of reviews is extremely important. Poor reviews will often deign a film to obscurity and financial loss.
The impact of reviewer on a film's [[box office]] performance is a matter of debate. Some claim that [[movie marketing]] is now |
mment>Alhazen was no Persian, we need to contact an Admin to stand on these acts of distortions by propagandists</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alhazen Abu Ali al-Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham''' (also: '''Ibn al Haythen''') ([[965]]-[[1040]]) ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: أبو علي الحسن بن الهيثم) was an [[Arabian]] [[mathematician]]; he is sometimes called '''al-Basri''' (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace [[Basrah]], [[Iraq]].
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Alhazen.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Portrait of Alhazen]] -->
==Life==
Alhazen was born at [[Basra]], then part of the Islamic(Abbasid) [[Caliphate]], now part of [[Iraq]] (See [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Al-Haytham.html] and [http://www.answers.com/topic/alhazen]), and probably died in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]].
One account of his career has him summoned to [[Egypt]] by the mercurial [[caliph]] [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Hakim]] to regulate the [[flooding]] of the [[Nile]]. After his field work made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme, and fearing the caliph's anger, he [[feigned madness]]. He was kept under house arrest until Hakim's death in [[1021]]. During this time he wrote scores of important mathematical treatises.
Abu Ali Hasan Ibn al-Haitham was one of the most eminent physicists, whose contributions to optics and the scientific methods are outstanding. Known in the West as Alhazen, Ibn aI-Hautham was born in [[965]] A. D. in [[Basrah]], and was educated in Basrah and [[Baghdad]]. Thereafter, he went to Egypt, where he was asked to find ways of controlling the flood of the [[Nile]]. Being unsuccessful in this, he feigned madness until the death of [[Caliph]] al-Hakim. He also traveled to [[Spain]] and, during this period, he had ample time for his scientific pursuits, which included optics, mathematics, physics, medicine and development of scientific methods on each of which he has left several outstanding books.
He made a thorough examination of the passage of light through various media and discovered the laws of [[refraction]]. He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent [[colors]]. His book Kitab-at-Manazir was translated into [[Latin]] in the [[Middle Ages]], as also his book dealing with the colors of sunset. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like [[shadows]], [[eclipse]]s, the [[rainbow]], and speculated on the physical nature of light. He is the first to describe accurately the various parts of the [[eye]] and give a scientific explanation of the process of [[visual perception|vision]]. He also attempted to explain [[binocular vision]], and gave a correct explanation of the apparent increase in size of the [[sun]] and the [[moon]] when near the horizon. He is known for the earliest use of the [[camera obscura]]. He contradicted [[Ptolemy]]'s and [[Euclid]]'s theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes; according to him the rays originate in the object of vision and not in the eye. Through these extensive researches on optics, he has been considered as the [[List_of_people_known_as_the_father_or_mother_of_something|father of modern optics]].
The Latin translation of his main work, Kitab-at-Manazir, exerted a great influence upon Western science e.g. on the work of [[Roger Bacon]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. It brought about a great progress in experimental methods. His research in [[catoptrics]] centered on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. He made the important observation that the ratio between the [[angle of incidence]] and [[refraction]] does not remain constant and investigated the [[magnification|magnifying]] power of a [[lens (optics)|lens]]. His catoptrics contain the important problem known as [[Alhazen's problem]]. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the [[circumference]] and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This leads to an equation of the fourth degree.
In his book Mizan al-Hikmah Ibn al-Haitham has discussed the [[density]] of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and developed a relation between it and the height. He also studied atmospheric refraction. He discovered that the [[twilight]] only ceases or begins when the sun is 19° below the horizon and attempted to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. He has also discussed the theories of attraction between [[mass|masses]], and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to [[gravity]].
His contribution to mathematics and physics was extensive. In mathematics, he developed analytical [[geometry]] by establishing linkage between [[algebra]] and geometry. He studied the mechanics of motion of a body and was the first to maintain that a body moves [[perpetual motion|perpetually]] unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion. This would seem equivalent to the [[first law of motion]].
The list of his books runs to 200 or so, very few of which have survived. Even his monumental treatise on optics survived through its Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books on [[cosmology]] were translated into Latin, [[Hebrew language|
Hebrew]] and other languages. He has also written on the subject of [[evolution]] a book that deserves serious attention even today.
In his writing, one can see a clear development of the scientific methods as developed and applied by the Muslims and comprising the systematic observation of physical phenomena and their linking together into a scientific theory. This was a major breakthrough in scientific methodology, as distinct from guess and gesture, and placed scientific pursuits on a sound foundation comprising systematic relationship between observation, [[hypothesis]] and verification.
Ibn al-Haitham's influence on physical sciences in general, and optics in particular, has been held in high esteem and, in fact, it ushered in a new era in optical research, both in theory and practice.
Alhazen is also featured on the obverse of the Iraqi 10,000 Dinars banknote issued in 2003.
==Works==
Alhazen was a pioneer in [[optics]], [[engineering]] and [[astronomy]]. According to [[Giambattista della Porta]], Alhazen was the first to explain the apparent increase in the size of the moon and sun when near the horizon, although [[Roger Bacon]] gives the credit of this discovery to [[Ptolemy]]. Alhazen also taught that vision does not result from the emission of rays from the eye, and wrote on the [[refraction]] of light, especially on atmospheric refraction, for example, the cause of morning and evening twilight. He solved the problem of finding the point on a [[convex]] [[mirror]] at which a ray coming from one point is reflected to another point.
Alhazen's extensive writings influenced many Western intellectuals such as Roger Bacon, [[John Pecham]], [[Witelo]], and [[Johannes Kepler]].
===''Optics''===
His seven volume treatise on optics ''Kitab al-Manazir'' (''Book of Optics'') (written from [[1015]] to [[1021]]) is possibly the earliest work to use the [[scientific method]]. The ancient Greeks believed that truth was determined by the logic and beauty of reasoning; experiment was used as a demonstration. Alhazen used the results of experiments to test theories. The "emission" theory of light had been supported by [[Euclid]] and Ptolemy. This theory postulated that sight worked by the eye emitting light. The second or "intromission" theory, supported by [[Aristotle]] had light entering the eye. Alhazen performed experiments to determine that the "intromission" theory was scientifically correct.
''Optics'' was translated into Latin by [[Witelo]] in [[1270]]. It was published by [[Friedrich Risner]] in [[1572]], with the title ''Oticae thesaurus Alhazeni libri VII., cum ejusdem libro de crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus.'' This work enjoyed a great reputation during the [[Middle Ages]]. Works by Alhazen on geometrical subjects were discovered in the [[Bibliothèque nationale]] in [[Paris]] in [[1834]] by E. A. Sedillot. Other manuscripts are preserved in the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford]] and in the library of [[Leiden]].
==Other Alhazens==
There is another Alhazen who translated [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' in the 10th century.
== Bibliography ==
''Ibn al-Haytham's Optics: A Study of the Origins of Experimental Science,'' by Saleh Beshara Omar (Bibliotheca Islamica, 1977)
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Haytham}}
* http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Al-Haytham.html
* http://www.answers.com/topic/alhazen
* http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761579452/Alhazen.html
* http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=5788
* http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/Alhazen.html
* [http://www.islamonline.net/english/Science/2001/08/article11.shtml Alhazen Master of Optics]
[[Category:Arab mathematicians|Alhazen]]
[[Category:Egyptian mathematicians|Alhazen]]
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[[Category:Arab astronomers|Alhazen]]
[[Category:Arab engineers|Alhazen]]
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[[Category:Muslim scientists|Alhazen]]
[[ar:ابن الهيثم]]
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[[ka:იბნ ალ-ჰაისამი]]
[[ms:Abul Wafa Muhammad Al-Buzjani]]
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[[tr:İbn-i Heysem]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alessandro Allori</title>
<id>1647</id>
<revision>
<id>40694809</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T10:17:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.170.65.38</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Allori Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Portra |
vala and [[Soviet 71st Division|71st Division]] north of [[Jänisjärvi]] ("Hare Lake"). Soviets had prepared field fortifications along the border across Sortavala and at the important road crossings at Värtsilä and Korpiselkä.
On [[July 9]], the order for offensive was given. The duty to break through the Soviet defences was given to VI Corps, commanded by hero of [[Battle of Tolvajärvi]], Maj. Gen. [[Paavo Talvela]]. He had borrowed as much artillery as possible from other units of the Army of Karelia and even 1st Jaeger Brigade. (Col. [[Ruben Lagus]]) from Group O. With strong artillery support he unleashed 5th Division (Col. Koskimies) to Korpiselkä [[July 10]] and the defenders were overwhelmed by next morning. Talvela wasn't satisfied with the aggressiveness of Koskimies, and he relieved him from command and gave 5th Division to Col. Lagus.
Lagus pursued retreating Soviet IR 52 eastward with his light units and reached Tolvajärvi July 12. Then he turned southwards and advanced using small roads, some in such poor shape that men had to carry their bicycles. On July 14 his forces cut Sortavala-Petrozavodsk railroad, and next day they reached shores of Lake Ladoga, cutting Soviet routes around the lake. Soviets had to transfer two regiments and separate battalions from Karelian Isthmus to close down the hole on the eastern side of Lake Ladoga.
The 11th division (Col. Heiskanen) had already (by July 4) found that Soviet forces had temporarily abandoned their trenches across the border, and they used the opportunity to capture them. When the general offensive began, they had already (by July 9) pushed eastward from their captured positions over the roadless terrain and cut the road running from Korpiselkä to Värtsilä and Suistamo, on the eastern shore of Jänisjärvi. From there they threatened to encircle Soviet forces south of Korpiselkä and those fortified in Värtsilä. To prevent encirclement, the Soviets had to leave their positions and retreat eastward. Soviet IR 367 was able to hold its positions north of Jänisjärvi until defenders of Värtsilä had retreated there by July 12. Heiskanen continued pressing Soviet IR 367 around the eastern side of Jänistärvi, and reached Jänisjoki, running from Jänisjärvi to Lake Ladoga July 16, where they went on the defensive.
Lagus continued his offensive immediately along the north-eastern coast of Lake Ladoga. Soviet Mot. IR 452 was coming from Karelian Isthmus and its first parts set to defensive at Salmi, where Tulemajoki reaches Lake Ladoga. Finns arrived there on July 18, and early next morning Finns started the battle by crossing the river 5km north of Salmi and managed to cut the roads leading to Salmi by afternoon. Next day Finns were able to push into the village and only small units were able to escape the encirclement. Salmi was finally captured by early hours of July 21.
The strengthened 5th division continued its advance as fast as possible and crossed the old border July 22 at Rajakontu. Meanwhile battle detachment under Järvinen (Col. Järvinen) had secured the left flank of the main thrust by crossing the old border at Känsäselkä and captured July 19 the villages of Kolatselkä and Palalahti by Tulemajärvi where they secured north and east leading roads and continued their advance to the south. And July 23 5th division from the west and detachment Järvinen from the north started their attack to Vitele village, which was captured next morning. Lagus unsuccessfully tried to encircle retreating Soviet forces and had by the evening reached Tuuloksenjoki but Soviet tanks and artillery managed to stop the advance of his light forces there.
The 1st division (Col. Paalu) had arrived and was given to VI Corps July 16, but it was until July 20 when they reached the fast- moving front line and released attachment Järvinen to their attack towards Vitele. From there they continued attack north towards Hyrsylä and east toward Vieljärvi which it captured few days later. Soviet AR2, IR24, IR28 and parts of IR9 and IR10 started counteroffensive July 23, and after five days of fighting the front was established 10km east of Vieljärvi.
The Soviet North Front reorganized its forces at July 21 by transferring 168th division and one regiment from 71st division to 23rd Army, which was responsible for defence of Karelian Isthmus. The same day 7th Army was reorganized to two operative groups, Petrozavodsk Group (Lt. Gen. M. Antonjuk) with infantry regiment, two motorized regiments, one armoured regiment and separate units and South Group (Lt. Gen. V. Tsvetajev) with marine brigade, two motorized regiments and number of smaller units.
Also Mannerheim had recognized the situation and had already at July 19 ordered that attack must be stopped at Vitele-Vieljärvi line, as strong enemy formations were still on the southwestern side of Jänisjärvi and the fast advance had opened the Lake Ladoga coastline at the right flank of the 5th division and the defence has to be arranged.
The fears of Mannerheim were real, as July 19 Mj. Gen. Pavlov, commander of coastal defence of Lake Ladoga has ordered 4 Marine Brigade to conduct invasions behind Finnish defences. During early hours of July 24, they landed successfully to Lunkulansaari and Mantsi, two islands right beside Salmi. All 11th, 5th and 1st divisions were committed at the time so Talvela had to scrape whatever forces he was able to get (including bridge building company) to throw attackers back to the lake. With the help of heavy artillery, which destroyed four of the fifteen ships Soviets were using, Finns were able to push marines to three separate mottis, and the attempt to reinforce these forces at the morning of July 25 was repulsed. One by one remaining mottis were destroyed. July 26 Soviets landed in Mantsi and this time they almost managed to capture the whole island before Talvela managed to reinforce forces there, and fighting continued in to the late night of July 27 when the last Soviet resistance ended.
Finnish VII Corps (Mj. Gen. Hägglund) was ordered to attack at the right flank of VI Corps to Sortavala. The isthmus between Lake Ladoga and the Finnish border was quite narrow and the important rail junction of Matkaselkä was only ten kilometres from the border. So, it was no wonder that Soviets had started to fortify the border region, in depth, right after the Moscow Peace. These fortifications were the weakest at the northern section of the front, so Hägglund decided to put the main thrust there. There were concentrated 7th division (strengthened with pioneer units) and all Corps' artillery. The 19th division-south had to manage with only its internal artillery.
On the evening of July 10 the attack began. As a heavy thunderstorm was raging at the area, it was decided that infantry would attack without artillery support so that surprise could be achieved. The plan succeeded and most Soviet forces were encircled in their pillboxes, which were then eliminated with artillery support. During the next day, 7th division advanced, encircling Soviet strongpoints. By the morning of July 12, they managed to break through the region where Soviets had prepared minefields and fortifications.
This proved to be only a short relief, as defending Soviet 168th division (Col. A. Bondarev) proved to be very capable in defence. Time after time, it created new minefields, dug strongpoints and trenches and skillfully evaded encircling Finnish units. The fight of the 168th division was later used as a textbook example for defensive fight in Soviet military schools.
The 7th division reached the western shore of Jänisjärvi July 13 and turned southward. By July 15 they managed to reach the Sortavala-Petrozavodsk railroad at Pirttipohja and encircled defenders there.
The 19th division (Col. Hannuksela) had the unenvied duty to assault the best defended section of the 168th division. Hannuksela decided to create a very narrow and deep breach at Niinisyrjä village, only 200-300 meters wide and four kilometres deep, to breach the fortified border region. IR58 (Lt. Col. Juva) was to spearhead the assault which began late in the evening of July 10. IR58 fought all the night and next day advancing one and half kilometres. It became evident that they had insufficient artillery so they had to borrow artillery from II Corps. IR58 continued the attack and reached the end of border fortifications July 12. The Soviet 168th division counterattacked to close the breach and encircle the IR58, but Finns managed to hold the corridor, although Soviets managed to close its usage with artillery fire. Finnish IR16 (Col. M. Laurila), which followed IR58, managed to open the corridor by the morning of July 15.
The 7th division continued its attack July 15 eastward along the railroad. At July 17 they managed to breach Soviet defences at the isthmus between Jänisjärvi and Vahvajärvi. Meanwhile IR30 and IR51, of the 7th division, advanced east towards Jänisjoki, where they contacted the 11th division at the same day. IR30 and IR51 cleaned the western shore of Jänisjoki and reached Lake Ladoga by July 20, then started to clear islands at the front of Sortavala.
The IR37/7th division was ordered to advance westward at the southern coast of Vahvajärvi to contact the 19th division, trying to encircle enemies between the divisions. Bondarev recognized the situation and ordered retreat of the IR402. The 19th division had continued its attack southeast, and between July 18-25 the fierce encirclements and counter-encirclements raged before Finns managed to capture the main road and cut the railroad between Sortavala and Matkaselkä, which was captured July 18. Soviet managed to hold IR37 at Särkisyrjä village between July 18-19 and again at next Ilola village July 20-22, securing the retreat route of IR402. So by July 25 Soviet 168 Division had managed to straighten its front line to a geographically more defensible river (Kiteenjoki)-hills (Tiri |
n Fresnel</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the lighting instrument, see [[Fresnel lantern]].
[[Image:Afresnel.jpg|thumb|right|Augustin Fresnel]]
'''Augustin-Jean Fresnel''' (pronounced [{{IPA|fre&#618; 'nel}}] in [[American English|AmE]], [{{IPA|f&#641;&#603; n&#603;l}}] in [[French language|French]]) ([[May 10]], [[1788]] &ndash; [[July 14]], [[1827]]), was a [[France|French]] [[physics|physicist]] who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of [[wave|wave optics]]. Fresnel studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally.
==Biography==
Fresnel was the son of an architect, born at [[Broglie, Eure|Broglie]] ([[Eure]]). His early progress in learning was slow, and he still could not read when he was eight years old. At thirteen he entered the École Centrale in [[Caen]], and at sixteen and a half the [[École Polytechnique]], where he acquitted himself with distinction. From there he went to the [[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées|École des Ponts et Chaussées]]. He served as an engineer successively in the departments of [[Vendée]], [[Drôme]] and [[Ille-et-Vilaine]]; but having supported the [[Bourbon house|Bourbons]] in [[1814]] he lost his appointment on [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon's]] return to power.
On the second restoration of the monarchy, he obtained a post as engineer in [[Paris]], where much of his life from that time was spent. His researches in optics, continued until his death, appear to have been begun about the year [[1814]], when he prepared a paper on the [[aberration of light]], which, however, was not published. In [[1818]] he wrote a memoir on [[diffraction]] for which in the ensuing year he received the prize of the [[French Academy of Sciences|Académie des Sciences]] at Paris. He was in [[1823]] unanimously elected a member of the academy, and in [[1825]] he became a member of the [[Royal Society of London]], which in [[1827]], at the time of his last illness, awarded him the [[Rumford Medal]]. In [[1819]] he was nominated a commissioner of [[lighthouse]]s, for which he was the first to construct a special type of lens, now called a [[Fresnel lens]], as substitutes for mirrors. He died of [[tuberculosis]] at [[Ville-d'Avray]], near Paris.
His labours in the cause of optical science received during his lifetime only scant public recognition, and some of his papers were not printed by the Académie des Sciences till many years after his decease. But, as he wrote to Young in [[1824]], in him "that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory" had been blunted. "All the compliments," he says, "that I have received from Arago, [[Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace|Laplace]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Biot|Biot]] never gave me so much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation of a calculation by experiment."
==Researches==
His discoveries and mathematical deductions, building on experimental work by [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]], extended the [[Huygens' principle|wave theory]] of [[light]] to a large class of [[optical phenomenon|optical phenomena]].
His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused (by the apertures) in the experiment of [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi|FM Grimaldi]] on [[interference]]. This allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomena of interference in accordance with the wave theory.
With [[François Arago]] he studied the laws of the interference of [[polarization|polarized]] rays. He obtained circularly polarized light by means of a rhombus of glass, known as "Fresnel's rhomb", having obtuse angles of 126° and acute angles of 54°.
He is perhaps best known as the inventor of the [[Fresnel lens]], first adopted in [[lighthouse]]s while he was a French commissioner of lighthouses, and found in many applications today.
==See also==
*[[Fresnel equations]]
*[[Fresnel integral]]
*[[Fresnel lantern]]
*[[Fresnel lens]]
*[[Fresnel rhomb]]
*[[Fresnel zone]]
*[[zone plate|Fresnel zone plate]]
==External link and reference==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Fresnel}}
* {{1911}}
[[Category:1788 births|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
[[Category:1827 deaths|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
[[Category:French physicists|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
[[Category:Alumni_of_the_École_Polytechnique|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
[[Category:Normans|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
[[ca:Augustin Jean Fresnel]]
[[de:Augustin Jean Fresnel]]
[[fr:Augustin Fresnel]]
[[hr:Augustin Jean Fresnel]]
[[io:Augustin Fresnel]]
[[nl:Augustin-Jean Fresnel]]
[[ja:ジャン・フレネル]]
[[pl:Augustin Jean Fresnel]]</text>
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<title>Abbeville</title>
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[[Image:AbbevilleCollégialeStVulfran2004-04-27.jpg|thumb|Collégiale St Vulfran]]
[[Image:Abbeville_Beffroi_2005-09-29.jpg|thumb|Beffroi]]
'''Abbeville''' is a city in the [[Picardie]] ''[[Région in France|région]]'', in the north of [[France]].
==Location==
Abbeville is located on the [[Somme River]], 12 m. from its modern mouth in the [[English Channel]], and 28 m. northwest of [[Amiens]]. In the medieval period, it was the lowest crossing point on the Somme and it was nearby that [[Edward III of England|Edward III's]] army crossed shortly before the [[Battle of Crécy]] in [[1346]].
==Administration==
Abbeville was the chief town of the [[Provinces of France|former province]] of [[Ponthieu]]. Today, it is one of the three ''[[sous-préfecture]]s'' of the [[Somme]] ''[[département in France|département]]''.
It is twinned with the town of [[Burgess Hill]] in [[West Sussex]].
==Prehistory ==
The name Abbeville has been adopted to name a category of early stone tools. These stone tools are also known as [[handaxes]]. Various handaxes were found near Abbeville by [[Jacques Boucher de Perthes]] during the 1830's and he was the first to desribe the stones in detail, pointing out in the first publication of its kind, that the stones were chipped deliberately by early man, so as to form a tool. These earliest stone tools found in Europe were chipped on both sides so as to form a sharp edge, are now known as [[Abbevillian]] handaxes or [[bifaces]] . The earlier form of stone tools, not found in Europe is known as [[Oldewan]] choppers . A more refined and later version of handax production was also found in the Abbeville/Somme River district. The more refined handax became known as the [[Acheulean]] industry, named after [[Saint Acheul]], today a suburb of [[Amiens]] .
==History==
Abbeville first appears in history during the [[9th century]]. At that time belonging to the [[abbey]] of [[St Riquier]], it was afterwards governed by the [[Ponthieu|Counts of Ponthieu]]. Together with that county, it came into the possession of the [[Alençon]] and other French families, and afterwards into that of the house of [[Castile]], from whom by marriage it fell in [[1272]] to King [[Edward I of England]]. French and English were its masters by turns till [[1435]] when, by the [[treaty of Arras]], it was ceded to the [[Duke of Burgundy]]. In [[1477]] it was annexed by King [[Louis XI of France]], and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in the 16th and 17th centuries, being in [[1696]] reunited to the crown. In 1514, the town saw the marriage of [[Louis XII of France]] to [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor]], the daughter of [[Henry VII of England]].
Abbeville was fairly important in the [[18th century]], when the Van Robais Royal Manufacture (one of the first major factories in France) brought great prosperity (but some class controversy) to the town. [[Voltaire]], among others, wrote about it. He also wrote about a major incident of intolerance in which a young impoverished lord, the [[Chevalier de la Barre]], was executed there for impiety (supposedly because he did not [[salute]] a procession for [[Corpus Christi]], though the story is far more complex than that and revolves around a mutilated cross.)
Historical population:
:1901: 18,519
:1906: 18,971
==Sights==
The city was very picturesque until the early days of [[World War II]], when it was bombed mostly to rubble in one night by the Germans. The town overall is now mostly modern and rebuilt. Several of the town's attractions remain, including:
* [[Saint Wulfram|St. Vulfran]]'s church, erected in the [[15th century|15th]], [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries. The original design was not completed. The [[nave]] has only two bays and the choir is insignificant. The facade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant [[Gothic style]], flanked by two Gothic towers.
==See also==
{{commons|Abbeville|Abbeville}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbeville}}
* [[Abbevillian]]
==Reference==
* {{1911}}
----
''The following text, from a turn of the century [[encyclopedia]] should be updated, wikified and incorporated into the above article:''
It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the river, which is canalized from this point to the estuary. The streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old structures, built of wood, with many quaint gables and dark archways. The most remarkable building is the church of St Vulfran. Abbeville has several other old churches and an [[Hotel de Ville]], with a [[belfry (architec |
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Edwin-hubble.JPG|thumb| Edwin Hubble]]'''Edwin Powell Hubble''' ([[November 20]], [[1889]] &ndash; [[September 28]], [[1953]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[astronomer]], noted for his discovery of [[Galaxy|galaxies]] beyond the [[Milky Way]] and the [[Redshift|cosmological Redshift]]. Edwin Hubble was one of the first to argue that the red shift of distant galaxies is due to the [[Doppler effect]] induced by the expansion of the universe. He was one of the leading astronomers of modern times and laid down the foundation upon which [[physical cosmology]] now rests.
==Biography==
Hubble was born to an insurance executive in [[Marshfield, Missouri]] and moved to [[Wheaton, Illinois]] in [[1889]]. In his younger days, he was noted more for his athletic abilities rather than his intellectual genius, although he did earn good gades in every subject, except for spelling. He won seven first places{{fn|1}} and a third placing in a single high school meet in [[1906]]. That year he also set a state record for high jump in Illinois.
His studies at the [[University of Chicago]] concentrated on mathematics and astronomy which led to a B.S. degree in [[1910]]. He spent the next three years as one of Oxford's first [[Rhodes Scholarship|Rhodes Scholars]], where he studied in the field of law and received the [[Master's degree|M.A.]] degree, after which he returned to the [[United States]] as a high school teacher and a basketball coach in [[New Albany, Indiana]].
He served in World War I and quickly became [[Major]]. He returned to astronomy at the [[Yerkes Observatory]] of the University of Chicago, where he earned a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[1917]]. In [[1919]] Hubble was offered a staff position by [[George Ellery Hale]], the founder and director of Carnegie Institution's [[Mount Wilson Observatory]], near [[Pasadena, California]], where he remained until his death. He also served in the US army during World War II. Shortly before his death, Palomar's 200-inch [[Hale Telescope]] was completed; Hubble was the first to use it.
He died of a heart attack on [[September 28]], [[1953]], in [[San Marino, California]]. His wife, Grace, did not have a funeral for him and never revealed what was done with his body - it was apparently Hubble's wish to have no funeral service and be buried in an unmarked grave, or that he wanted to be [[cremated]]. As of [[2005]], the whereabouts of his remains are unknown.
==Discoveries==
===Galaxies exist beyond the Milky Way===
Hubble's arrival at Mount Wilson in [[1919]] coincided roughly with the completion of the 100-inch [[Mount Wilson Observatory#100 inch (2.5 m) Hooker telescope|Hooker Telescope]], then the world's most powerful telescope. Hubble's observations in [[1923]]&ndash;[[1924]] with the Hooker Telescope established beyond doubt that the fuzzy "[[nebulae]]" seen earlier with less powerful telescopes were not part of our [[galaxy]], as had been thought, but were galaxies themselves, outside the [[Milky Way]]. He announced this discovery on [[December 30]], [[1924]].
Hubble also devised a classification system for galaxies, grouping them according to their content, distance, shape, size and brightness.
===The universe is expanding===
[[Image:100inchHooker.jpg|thumb|right|The 100 inch Hooker telescope at [[Mount Wilson Observatory]] that Hubble used to measure galaxy [[redshift]]s and discover the general [[expanding universe|expansion of the universe]].]]
Hubble was generally incorrectly credited with discovering{{fn|2}} the [[redshift]] of galaxies, these measurements and their significance were understood before 1917 by [[James Edward Keeler]] (Lick & Allegheny), [[Vesto Melvin Slipher]] (Lowell), and Professor [[William Wallace Campbell]] (Lick) at other observatories. Combining his own measurements of galaxy distances with [[Vesto Slipher]]'s measurements of the redshifts associated with the galaxies, Hubble and Humason discovered a rough proportionality of the objects' distances with their redshifts. Though there was considerable scatter (now known to be due to peculiar velocities), Hubble and [[Humason]] were able to plot a trend line from the 46 galaxies they studied and obtained a value for the Hubble-Humeson constant of 500 km/s/Mpc, which is much higher than the currently accepted value due to errors in their distance calibrations. Such errors in determining distance continue to plague modern astronomers. See the article on [[cosmic distance ladder]] for more details. In [[1929]] Hubble and [[Milton Humason]] formulated the empirical [[Hubble's law|Redshift Distance Law]] of galaxies, nowadays termed simply [[Hubble's law]], which, if the redshift is interpreted as a measure of recession speed, is consistent with the solutions of [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]’s [[General Relativity|General Relativity Equations]] for an homogeneous, isotropic expanding space [[de Sitter universe]] or [[de Sitter space]]. Although concepts underlying an [[expanding universe]] were well understood earlier{{fn|2}}, this statement by Hubble and Humeson lead to wider scale acceptance for this view. The law states that the greater the distance between any two galaxies, the greater their relative speed of separation.
This discovery later resulted in formulation of the [[Big Bang]] theory by [[George Gamow]] and [[Fred Hoyle]], a consequence of the observed velocities of distant galaxies that when taken together with the [[cosmological principle]] imply that space is expanding according to the [[Friedmann-Lemaître model]] of [[general relativity]].
Earlier, in [[1917]], [[Albert Einstein]] had found that his newly developed General Theory of Relativity indicated that the universe must be either expanding or contracting. Unable to believe what his own equations were telling him, Einstein introduced a [[cosmological constant]] (a "fudge factor") to the equations to avoid this "problem". When Einstein heard of Hubble's discovery, he said that changing his equations was "the biggest blunder of my life".{{fn|3}}
===Other discoveries===
Hubble discovered the [[asteroid]] [[1373 Cincinnati]] on [[August 30]], [[1935]]. He also wrote ''The Observational Approach to Cosmology'' and ''The Realm of the Nebulae'' around this time.
==Nobel Prize==
Hubble spent much of the later part of his career attempting to have astronomy considered an area of physics, instead of being its own science. He did this largely so that astronomers could be recognized by the [[Nobel Prize]] Committee for their valuable contributions to astrophysics. This campaign was long unsuccessful and unfortunately Hubble's great achievements would remain unrewarded. Even though the Nobel Prize Committee decided that astronomy should fall under the description of physics, unfortunately this occurred in [[1953]] - but Hubble died Sept. 28, 1953, before he could ever receive this prize, or even informed that he should receive it (his wife was informed after his death), to this time the Nobel Prize is never awarded posthumously.
==Honors==
'''Awards'''
*[[Bruce Medal]] in [[1938]].
*[[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] in [[1940]].
*[[Medal of Merit]] for outstanding contribution to [[ballistics]] research in [[1946]]--''ARP''
'''Named after him'''
* [[Asteroid]] [[2069 Hubble]].
* [[Hubble (crater)|Hubble crater]] on the [[Moon]].
* Orbiting [[Hubble Space Telescope]].
==Footnotes==
*{{fnb|1}} For the record, these were discus, hammer throw, pole vault, standing and running high jump, shot put, mile-relay. The third-placing was for broad jump.
*{{fnb|2}} This had actually been observed by [[Vesto Slipher]] in the 1910s, but the world was largely unaware. Ref: Slipher (1917): Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 56, 403.
:The world is also largely unaware that Hubble never believed that his own model of the expanding universe model was the correct one:
::"… if redshift are not primarily due to velocity shift … the velocity-distance relation is linear, the distribution of the nebula is uniform, there is no evidence of expansion, no trace of curvature, no restriction of the time scale … and we find ourselves in the presence of one of the principle of nature that is still unknown to us today … whereas, if redshifts are velocity shifts which measure the rate of expansion, the expanding models are definitely inconsistent with the observations that have been made … expanding models are a forced interpretation of the observational results" (E. Hubble, Ap. J., 84, 517, 1936.)
::"[If the redshifts are a Doppler shift] … the observations as they stand lead to the anomaly of a closed universe, curiously small and dense, and, it may be added, suspiciously young. On the other hand, if redshifts are not Doppler effects, these anomalies disappear and the region observed appears as a small, homogeneous, but insignificant portion of a universe extended indefinitely both in space and time." (Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices, 17, 506, 1937).
*{{fnb|3}} [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/hawking/strange/html/strange_cosmo.html PBS] ''Cosmological Constant''.
==See also==
*[[Hubble's law]]
*[[Hubble Space Telescope]]
==Bibliography==
*Hubble E.P., ''The Observational Approach to Cosmology'' (Oxford, 1 |
ons===
Some of the novels' chapters have appeared previously in collected form in other outlets.
* ''Blood of the Dragon'' ([[Asimov's Science Fiction|Asimov’s]], July 1996) based on the ''Daenerys'' chapters from ''A Game of Thrones''. Received the 1997 [[Hugo Award for Best Novella]].
* ''Path of the Dragon'' ([[Asimov's Science Fiction|Asimov’s]], December 2000) based on the ''Daenerys'' chapters from ''A Storm of Swords''.
* ''Arms of the Kraken'' ([[Dragon (magazine)|Dragon]] issue 305) based on the Iron Islands chapters from ''A Feast for Crows''.
===Plans===
The manuscript for the fifth volume is half-written as of May 2005:
* ''[[A Dance with Dragons]]''
In a May 2005 statement, the author estimates that the series will require seven volumes. This is an increase from previously stated figures because Martin had to move some of the character arcs of the ''A Feast for Crows'' manuscript into ''A Dance with Dragons'', because the manuscript already exceeded the length of ''A Storm of Swords'', which itself had to be split into two halves for several markets. Martin recognized that this decision could cause frustration among some of his fans. He wrote: "I know some of you may be disappointed, especially when you buy ''A Feast for Crows'' and discover that your favorite character does not appear, but given the realities I think this was the best solution... and the more I look at it, the more convinced I am that these two parallel novels, when taken together, will actually tell the story better than one big book." {{ref|GRRM-done}}
Martin originally intended the series to be a [[trilogy]], but later increased that estimate, remarking, "What can I say? It's a BIG story, and a cast of thousands." {{ref|Legends1}} When ''A Storm of Swords'' was published, Martin announced that there would be six books. After ''A Storm of Swords'', he began writing ''A Dance with Dragons'', which was intended to take place five years after the end of ''A Storm of Swords'' without the use of many flashbacks, much to the dismay of many fans. However, he later announced that the five-year gap wasn't working, and therefore he would add another book, ''A Feast for Crows'', to pick up where ''A Storm of Swords'' left off. Ironically, his decision to stop writing one book and start another in order to chronicle part of that five-year gap is responsible for a five-year wait for the fourth installment.
Projected titles for the sixth and seventh books are ''The Winds of Winter'' and ''A Time for Wolves'', respectively, although Martin has stated in interviews that he is not entirely pleased with the latter title.
{{ASOIAFBooks}}
==Plot and setting==
{{spoiler}}
''A Song of Ice and Fire'' is set in a fictitious world reminiscent of [[Europe]] in the [[Middle Ages]], except for the fact that in this world, [[seasons]] can last as long as a decade. Driven by members of the [[Houses from A Song of Ice and Fire|Houses]], great and small, the plot is recounted from the perspectives of more than ten main characters and takes place on the continents of [[Westeros]] and the eastern continent, the former being the locale of fierce power struggles between several aristocratic families after the death of king Robert Baratheon, who by lineage, marriage and personal relationships had united them all. Meanwhile, the last scion of House Targaryen, which had ruled over Westeros before being expelled by Robert and his allies, is trying to find allies herself to reconquer the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros. But all of them ignore the oncoming winter and the ancient dangers it brings.
''See also:'' [[List of characters in A Song of Ice and Fire]], [[List of places in A Song of Ice and Fire]]
==Historical and literary sources==
Numerous parallels have been seen between the events and characters in ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' and events and people involved in the [[Wars of the Roses]]. Two of the principal families in ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', the Starks and the Lannisters, are seen as representing the historical [[House of York]] and [[House of Lancaster]], respectively.
Martin is an avid student of [[medieval Europe]], and has said that the Wars of the Roses, along with many other events in Europe during that time, have influenced the series. However, he insists that "there's really no one-for-one character-for-character correspondence. I like to use history to flavor my fantasy, to add texture and verisimilitude, but simply rewriting history with the names changed has no appeal for me. I prefer to reimagine it all, and take it in new and unexpected directions." {{ref|GRRM-on-history}}
Martin has also said the [[Albigensian Crusade]]s are an influence for the series.
==Pronunciation of names==
Unlike [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], who provided detailed instructions for the pronunciation of the [[languages of Middle-Earth]], Martin has provided no canonical way of pronouncing Westerosi names, stating "You can pronounce it however you like." {{ref|pron-general}} However, it is possible to establish some guidelines based on authorial chapter readings and question-and-answer sessions (marked "GRRM" in the following list), and the [[audio book]] adaptations read by [[Roy Dotrice]] ("RD") and John Lee ("JL"). Among the multimedia clips of the author speaking, RH indicates the Random House audio interview {{ref|rhaudio}} and FF indicates the Fast Forward television interview {{ref|ffvideo}}. Entries marked with a question mark (?) are probably the pronunciations of RD and/or JL.
The list uses International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols. See [[IPA chart for English]] to learn about the symbols, and the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] article proper for the problems of displaying and entering them.
====Characters====
*'''Areo Hotah''' GRRM-CBC [{{IPA|'ɑriəʊ həʊ'tɑː}}], sometimes [{{IPA|'həʊtɑ}}]
*'''Arya''' GRRM-FF [{{IPA|'ɑɹiə}}], like English ''aria''
*'''Bran''' GRRM-FF [{{IPA|bɹæn}}], like English ''bran''
*'''Brienne''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|bɹi'ɛni}}]. RD, JL: [{{IPA|brʌɪ'i:n}}].
*'''Caleotte''' GRRM-CBC: [{{IPA|'kælɪɒt}}])
*'''Catelyn''' (?: [{{IPA|'katlɪn}}])
*'''Cersei''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'sɝseɪ}}]. RD [{{IPA|'sə:sɪ}}]. JL [{{IPA|'sɪəseɪ}}].
*'''Daenerys''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|dən'ɛɹɪs}}] (?: [{{IPA|deɪ'n&#603;:rɪs}}])
*'''Dany''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'dæni}}]
*'''Davos''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'dɑːvos}}]
*'''Doran''' GRRM-CBC [{{IPA|dəʊ'ræn}}]
*'''Jaime''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'dʒeɪmi}}] (?: [{{IPA|'d&#658;eɪmɪ}}])
*'''Jojen''' (?: [{{IPA|'d&#658;&#601;&#650;d&#658;&#601;n}}])
*'''Jon''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|dʒɑn}}], like English ''John''
*'''Lysa''' (?: [{{IPA|'laɪsə}}]) <!-- Also, claimed: GRRM: [laɪsɑː] or [laɪzɑ:]. But: (1) where is the stress? (2) reference, please -->
*'''Petyr''' GRRM{{ref|pron-Petyr}} [{{IPA|pi:'tɚ}}], like English ''Peter'' but RD: [{{IPA|pɪ'tʌɪə}}]
*'''Rickon''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'ɹɪkɑn}}]
*'''Tommen''' GRRM-CBC [{{IPA|'toʊmən}}], RD, JL: [{{IPA|'tomən}}]
*'''Tyrion''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'tɪɹiən}}] (?: [{{IPA|'tɪrɪ&#601;n}}])
*'''Tywin''' (?: [{{IPA|'t&#652;&#618;wɪn}}])
*'''Viserys''' (?: [{{IPA|vɪ's&#603;:rɪs}}])
====Houses and Surnames====
*'''Baratheon''' (?: [{{IPA|bə'rʌθɪən}}])
*'''Lannister''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'lænɪstɚ}}]
*'''Snow''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|snoʊ}}], like English ''snow''
*'''Stark''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|stɑɹk}}], like English ''stark''
*'''Targaryen''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|tɑɹ'gɛɹiən}}] (?: [{{IPA|ta'g&#603;:r&#618;&#601;n}}])
Presumably, bastard names (like ''Snow'' and ''Rivers'') are always pronounced like the corresponding common noun.
====Places====
*'''Asshai''' RD: [{{IPA|a'&#643;&#652;ɪ}}]. JL: [{{IPA|'a&#643;&#652;ɪ}}]
*'''Westeros''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'wɛstɚos}}]
====Titles====
*'''Khaleesi''' (?: [{{IPA|k&#601;'l&#618;:s&#618;}}])
*'''Maester''' (?: [{{IPA|'me&#618;st&#601;}}])
*'''Ser''' (?: [{{IPA|s&#601;:}}], like English ''sir'')
==Notes==
# {{note|GRRM-done}} Message on Martin's website, [[May 29]] [[2005]] [http://www.georgerrmartin.com/done.html It's Done!!!]
# {{note|Legends1}} Martin in post to ''Legends'', [[October 6]] [[1998]]. [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/SSM/SSM01.html So Spake Martin – Posts to Legends (SSL)]
# {{note|GRRM-on-history}} [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/SSM/SSM01.html So Spake Martin Report #1]
# {{note|pron-general}} [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/SSM/SSM03k.html So Spake Martin Report #107]
# {{note|rhaudio}} Random House audio interview with GRRM. [http://a1018.g.akamai.net/f/1018/19019/1d/randomhouse1.download.akamai.com/19019/GeorgeRRMartinInterview.mp3] <!-- This needs a better source-->
# {{note|ffvideo}} Fast Forward video interview with GRRM. [http://www.fast-forward.tv/archive/archive.htm]
# {{note|pron-Petyr}} GRRM at ''To Be Continued 4'' (Chicago, IL), May 6–8, 2005. [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/SSM/SSM03g.html So Spake Martin Report #61]
==External links==
* [http://www.georgerrmartin.com GeorgeRRMartin.com] - George R.R. Martin's website.
* [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/ The Citadel] at [http://www.westeros.org www.westeros.org] - extensive archive about the series, including detailed thematic notes, timelines, artwork & [[heraldry]], and correspondence from the author.
* [http://www.towerofthehand.com Tower of the Hand: An Encyclopaedia of Ice and Fire] - A comprehensive treatment of A Song of Ice and Fire with chapter summaries and individual pages for every character, location, historical event, noble house, etc. from the series all thoroughly cross-referenced and hyperlinked.
* [http://amoka.net/eng/gal/ Amoka.net Gallery] of fan-created [[portrait]]s of the Song of Ice and Fire characters.
* [http://asoiaf.vo3.net/ The Seven Kingdoms] - online text based game ([[MUD]]) based on the Song of Ice and Fire series.
* [http://asoiaf.westeros.org Message Board] at westeros.org - extensive topical theory |
vitro fertilization]]. Alternatives of ''in vitro'' include ''[[in vivo]]'' and ''[[in silico]]'': within an organism, and computational, respectively. Many experiments that deal with [[molecular biology]] are conducted outside organisms or cells, where the conditions and therefore results may not represent those inside the cell. This is why results are often annotated with ''in vivo'', ''in vitro'', or ''in silico'', as applies.
==See also==
* [[ex vivo]]
* [[in vitro diagnostics]]
* [[in vitro fertilisation]]
* [[in vitro meat]]
* [[in vitro organ]]
* [[in vitro toxicology]]
* [[in vivo]]
* [[in silico]]
* [[in situ]]
* [[in utero]]
[[Category:Latin biological phrases]]
[[bg:In vitro]]
[[ca:In vitro]]
[[de:In vitro]]
[[fr:In vitro]]
[[it:In vitro]]
[[nl:In vitro]]
[[ja:In vitro]]
[[no:In vitro]]
[[pl:In vitro]]
[[pt:In vitro]]
[[fi:In vitro]]
[[sv:In vitro]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IEEE floating-point standard</title>
<id>15189</id>
<revision>
<id>38452655</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T11:54:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.131.200.220</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[IEEE]] Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic''' ('''IEEE 754''') is the most widely-used standard for [[floating point|floating-point]] computation, and is followed by many [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and [[FPU]] implementations. The standard defines formats for representing floating-point numbers (including ±[[0 (number)|zero]] and [[subnormal|denormal]]s) and special values ([[infinity|infinities]] and [[NaN]]s) together with a set of ''floating-point operations'' that operate on these values. It also specifies four rounding modes and five exceptions (including when the exceptions occur, and what happens when they do occur).
IEEE 754 specifies four formats for representing floating-point values: single-precision (32-bit), double-precision (64-bit), single-extended precision (&ge; 43-bit, not commonly used) and double-extended precision (&ge; 79-bit, usually implemented with 80 bits). Only 32-bit values are required by the standard; the others are optional. Many languages specify that IEEE formats and arithmetic be implemented, although sometimes it is optional. For example, the [[C programming language]], which pre-dated IEEE 754, now allows but does not require IEEE arithmetic (the C <tt>float</tt> typically is used for IEEE single-precision and <tt>double</tt> uses IEEE double-precision).
The full title of the standard is '''IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985)''', and it is also known as '''IEC 60559:1989, Binary floating-point arithmetic for microprocessor systems''' (originally the reference number was IEC 559:1989).[http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/frontmatter/refdocs.html]
== Anatomy of a floating-point number ==
Following is a description of the standard's format for floating-point numbers.
=== Bit conventions used in this article ===
[[Bit]]s within a [[word (computer science)|word]] of width W are indexed by [[integer]]s in the range 0 to W&minus;1 inclusive. The bit with index 0 is drawn on the right. The lowest indexed bit is usually the least significant.
=== Single-precision 32 bit ===
A [[single precision|single-precision]] binary floating-point number is stored in a 32 bit word:
<pre>
1 8 23 width in bits
+-+--------+-----------------------+
|S| Exp | Fraction |
+-+--------+-----------------------+
31 30 23 22 0 bit index (0 on right)
bias +127
</pre>
Where <tt>S</tt> is the sign bit and <tt>Exp</tt> is the Exponent field.
The exponent is [[bias (electrical engineering)|bias]]ed in the engineering sense of the word &ndash; the value stored is offset (by 127 in this case) from the actual value. Biasing is done because exponents have to be [[Negative and non-negative numbers#Computing|signed values]] in order to be able to represent both tiny and huge values, but [[two's complement]], the usual representation for signed values, would make [[IEEE floating-point standard#Comparing floating point numbers|comparison]] harder. To solve this the exponent is biased before being stored, by adjusting its value to put it within an unsigned range suitable for comparison. So, for a single-precision number, an exponent in the range &minus;126 to +127 is biased by adding 127 to get a value in the range 1 to 254 (0 and 255 have special meanings described below). When interpreting the floating-point number the bias is subtracted to retrieve the actual exponent.
The set of possible data values can be divided into the following
classes:
* zeroes
* normalised numbers
* denormalised numbers
* infinities
* NaN (Not a Number)
(NaNs are used to represent undefined or invalid results, such as the square root of a negative number.)
The classes are primarily distinguished by the value of the Exp field, modified by the fraction.
Consider the Exp and Fraction fields as unsigned binary integers (Exp will be in the range 0&ndash;255):
<pre>
Class Exp Fraction
Zeroes 0 0
Denormalised numbers 0 non zero
Normalised numbers 1-254 any
Infinities 255 0
NaN (Not a Number) 255 non zero
</pre>
For normalised numbers, the most common, Exp is the biased exponent and
Fraction is the fractional part of the [[significand]]. The number has value v:
v = s &times; 2<sup>e</sup> &times; m
Where
s = +1 (positive numbers) when S is 0
s = &minus;1 (negative numbers) when S is 1
e = Exp &minus; 127 (in other words the exponent is stored with 127 added to it, also called "biased with 127")
m = 1.Fraction in binary (that is, the significand is the binary number 1 followed by the radix point followed by the binary bits of Fraction). Therefore, 1 &le; m < 2.
Note:
#Denormalised numbers are the same except that e = &minus;126 and m is 0.Fraction. (e is NOT -127 : The significand has to be shifted to the right by one more bit, in order to include the leading bit, which is not always 1 in this case. This is balanced by incrementing the exponent to -126 for the calculation.)
#&minus;126 is the smallest exponent for a normalised number
#There are two Zeroes, +0 (S is 0) and &minus;0 (S is 1)
#There are two Infinities +&infin; (S is 0) and &minus;&infin; (S is 1)
#NaNs may have a sign and a significand, but these have no meaning other than for diagnostics; the first bit of the significand is often used to distinguish ''signaling NaNs'' from ''quiet NaNs''
#NaNs and Infinities have all 1s in the Exp field.
=== An example ===
Let us encode the decimal number &minus;118.625 using the IEEE 754 system.
We need to get the sign, the exponent and the fraction.
Because it is a negative number, the sign is "1". Let's find the others.
First, we write the number (without the sign) using binary notation. Look at [[binary numeral system]] to see how to do it. The result is 1110110.101.
Now, let's move the radix point left, leaving only a 1 at its left: 1110110.101 = 1.110110101 &times; 2<sup>6</sup>.
This is a normalised floating point number.
The fraction is the part at the right of the radix point, filled with 0 on the right until we get all 23 bits. That is 11011010100000000000000.
The exponent is 6, but we need to convert it to binary and bias it (so the most negative exponent is 0, and all exponents are non-negative binary numbers). For the 32-bit IEEE 754 format, the bias is 127 and so 6 + 127 = 133. In binary, this is written as 10000101.
Putting them all together:
<pre>
1 8 23 width in bits
+-+--------+-----------------------+
|S| Exp | Fraction |
|1|10000101|11011010100000000000000|
+-+--------+-----------------------+
31 30 23 22 0 bit index (0 on right)
the bias
is +127
</pre>
=== Double-precision 64 bit ===
[[Double precision|Double-precision]] is essentially the same except that the fields are wider:
<pre>
1 11 52
+-+-----------+----------------------------------------------------+
|S| Exp | Fraction |
+-+-----------+----------------------------------------------------+
63 62 52 51 0
the bias
is +1023
</pre>
NaNs and Infinities are represented with Exp being all 1s (2047).
For Normalised numbers the exponent bias is +1023 (so e is Exp &minus; 1023).
For Denormalised numbers the exponent is &minus;1022 (the minimum exponent for a normalised number&mdash;it is not &minus;1023 because normalised numbers have a leading 1 digit before the binary point and denormalised numbers do not). As before, both infinity and zero are signed.
=== Comparing floating-point numbers ===
Comparing floating-point numbers is usually best done using floating-point instructions. However, this representation makes comparisons of some subsets of numbers possible on a byte-by-byte basis, if they share the same byte order and the same sign, and NaNs are excluded.
For example, for two positive numbers a and b, then a < b is true whenever the unsigned binary integers with the same bit patterns and same byte order as a and b are also ordered a < b. In other words, two positive floating-point numbers (known not to be NaNs) can be compared with an unsigned binary integer comparison using the same bits, providing the floating-point numbers use the same byte order (this ordering, therefore, cannot be used in portable code through a union in the [[C programming language]]).
This |
cter Hercules or Heracles has appeared in several comic book adaptations; see: ''[[Hercules (comics)]]''
See also: [[sword and sandal]] ([[list of cinematic genres|film genre]]); [[Maciste]]; ''[[The Sons of Hercules]]''; ''[[The Mighty Hercules]]''
The legend of Hercules has been described in many [[film|movie]] and [[television]] adaptations.
* [[Steve Reeves]] starred in a number of 1950s movies as Hercules
* A syndicated TV series ''[[The Sons of Hercules]]'', which repackaged Italian [[Maciste]] films
* Hercules appears as a character in the movie ''[[Jason & the Argonauts]]''
* [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]'s 1969 film debut, ''[[Hercules in New York]]''
* [[Lou Ferrigno]] played Hercules in the 1983 movie of the same name.
* The Disney movie ''[[Hercules (1997 film)]]''
* [[Hércules CF]] A football team based in [[Alicante]], [[Spain]].
* [[Hercules (constellation)|Hercules]], a constellation
* The [[moon|lunar]] [[Impact crater|crater]] [[Hercules (crater)|Hercules]]
* [[Băile Herculane]], a [[spa town]] in [[Romania]] where Hercules supposedly rested during his travels
* [[Hercules (1907)|''Hercules'']], a [[1907]] built steam tug now preserved in [[San Francisco]], [[California]].
* [[Hercules, California|Hercules]], a small town in [[California]] named after the [[Hercules Powder Company]]
* [[Hercules Motorcycles]], built by aviation pioneer [[Glenn Curtiss]]
* [[HMS Hercules|HMS ''Hercules'']], several ships of the [[Royal Navy]]
* The [[Bristol Hercules]], an [[aircraft engine]]
* The [[C-130 Hercules]], a transport aircraft
* [[USS Hercules (PHM-2)|USS ''Hercules'']], a [[hydrofoil]] formerly operated by the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]].
* [[Hercules emulator|Hercules]], an [[IBM mainframe]] [[emulator]]
* [[Hercules Graphics Card]]
[[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hellenistic civilization</title>
<id>13771</id>
<revision>
<id>41879748</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:56:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wcmiker</username>
<id>60596</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''Hellenistic''''' (derived from '''{{Polytonic|Ἕλλην}}''' ''Héllēn'', the [[Greeks]]' traditional self-described ethnic name) was established by the [[Germany|German]] [[historian]] [[Johann Gustav Droysen]] to refer to the spreading of [[Greek culture]] over the non-Greek peoples that were conquered by [[Alexander the Great]]. According to Droysen, the Hellenistic civilisation was a fusion of Greek and "Oriental" culture that eventually gave [[Christianity]] the opportunity to flourish. The main cultural centers expanded from mainland Greece, to [[Pergamon]], [[Rhodes]], [[Antioch]] and [[Alexandria]].
Modern historians see the death of [[Alexander the Great]] in [[323 BC]] as the beginning of the Hellenistic period. Alexander's armies conquered the eastern Mediterranean, [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], and the [[Iranian plateau]], [[Central Asia]], and parts of [[India]]. Following Alexander's death, there was a struggle for the succession, known as the wars of the [[Diadochi]] (Greek for ''successors''). These ended in [[281 BC]] with the establishment of four large territorial states:
* The [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] in [[Egypt]] based at [[Alexandria]];
* The [[Seleucid dynasty]] in [[Syria]] and [[Mesopotamia]] based at [[Antioch]];
* The [[Antigonid dynasty]] in [[Macedon]] and central Greece;
* The [[Attalid dynasty]] in [[Anatolia]] based at [[Pergamon|Pergamum]].
[[Image: MenanderCoin.jpg|thumb|300px|Silver [[drachm]] of the [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Menander I]] (155-130 BC).<br>'''Obv:''' [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] legend, ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΡΩΣ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ "[coin] of Saviour King Menander".<br>'''Rev:''' [[Kharosthi]] legend: MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA "Saviour King Menander". [[Athena]] advancing right, with thunderbolt and shield. [[Taxila]] mint mark.]]
His successors held on to the territory west of the [[Tigris]] for some time and controlled the eastern Mediterranean until the [[Roman Republic]] took control in the [[2nd century BC|2nd]] and [[1st century BC|1st]] centuries BC. Most of the east was eventually overrun by the [[Parthia]]ns, but Hellenistic culture held on in distant locations, like the [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]] in [[Bactria]], or the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] in northern [[India]], or the [[Cimmerian Bosporus]]. Hellenistic culture remained dominant on the Eastern part of the [[Roman Empire]] until its Christianization and transition to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]].
It must also be added that Hellenism made considerable inroads also in monarchies governed by kings of Persian or Thracian origin, as was the case with [[Bithynia]], [[Cappadocia]] and [[Pontus]].
The end of the Hellenistic period is generally seen as [[31 BC]], when the kingdom of [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Ptolemaic Egypt]] was utterly defeated by the Romans at the [[Battle of Actium]]. As a result, Egypt's last ruler, [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], committed suicide and her kingdom was annexed by [[Caesar Augustus]].
==See also==
* [[Hellenistic Greece]]
* [[Diadochi]]
== Reference ==
* Sir [[William Tarn]]: ''Hellenistic civilisation''.
[[Category:Alexander the Great]]
[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Ancient Jewish Greek history]]
[[Category:Civilizations]]
[[de:Hellenismus]]
[[el:&#917;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#942; &#928;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#962;]]
[[es:Helenístico]]
[[he:התרבות ההלניסטית]]
[[ja:&#12504;&#12524;&#12491;&#12474;&#12512;]]
[[lv:Hellēnisms]]
[[nl:Hellenisme]]
[[ru:&#1069;&#1083;&#1083;&#1080;&#1085;&#1080;&#1079;&#1084;]]
[[sv:Hellenism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Poland</title>
<id>13772</id>
<revision>
<id>41732927</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:22:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Molobo</username>
<id>330204</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv attempts to force POV by Dr.Dan, the person is under debate</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Poland}}
In the first centuries of its emergence in the 10th century, the [[Poland|Polish nation]] was led by a series of strong rulers who converted the [[Poles]] to [[Christianity| Christendom]], created a strong [[Central Europe]]an state, and integrated Poland into [[Culture of Europe|European culture]]. Formidable foreign enemies and internal fragmentation eroded this initial structure in the [[thirteenth century]], but consolidation in the 1300s laid the base for the dominant [[Polish Kingdom]] that was to follow. The [[Jagiellon dynasty]] 1385–1569 formed the [[Polish-Lithuanian union]] beginning with the Lithuanian grand duke [[Ladislaus II of Poland|Jagiello]]. The partnership proved profitable for the Poles and Lithuanians, who played a dominant role in one of the most powerful empires in [[Europe]] for the next three centuries. The ''[[Nihil novi]]'' act adopted by the Polish [[Sejm]] ([[parliament]]) in 1505 transferred most [[legislative power]] from the [[monarch]] to the Sejm. This event marked the beginning of the period known as "[[Nobles' Commonwealth]]" when the [[state]] was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish [[nobility]] (''[[szlachta]]''). The [[Lublin Union]] of 1569 constituted the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] as an influential player in [[Europe]]an [[politics]] and a vital [[culture|cultural]] entity. By the 18th century the nobles' democracy gradually declined into [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]], making the once powerful Commonwealth vulnerable to foreign influence. Eventually the country was [[partitions of Poland|partitioned by its neighbors]] and erased from the map in 1795. Although the majority of the [[szlachta]] was reconciled to the end of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth| Commonwealth]] in 1795, the possibility of Polish independence was kept alive by events inside and outside of Poland throughout the 19th century. Poland's location in the very center of Europe became especially significant in a period when both [[Prussia]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]] were intensely involved in European rivalries and alliances and modern nation states took form over the entire [[History of Europe#The 16th, 17th and 18th century|continent]]. Poland regained its independence in 1918, but the [[Second Polish Republic]] was destroyed by in the [[Polish September Campaign]], marking the beginning of the [[Second World War]]. Nonetheless [[Polish government in exile]] never surrendered and [[Polish contribution to World War II|managed to contribute greatly]] to the Allies victory. [[Nazi Germany]] forces were forced to retreat from Poland as [[Soviet Union]] [[Red Army]] advanced, which led to the creation of [[People's Republic of Poland]], a Soviet [[satellite state]]. By late 1980s Polish reform movement, [[Solidarity]], was able to enforce a peaceful transistion from [[communist state]] to [[democracy]], which resulted in the creation of the modern Polish state.
Over the past millennium, the territory ruled by [[Poland]] has shifted and varied greatly. At one time, in the 16th century, [[Poland]] was the second largest state in [[Europe]], after [[Russia]]. At other times there was no separate Polish state at all. Poland regained its independence in 1918, after more than a century of rule by its neighbours, but its borders shifted again after the Second World War.
==Early history of Poland (966-1385)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (966-1385)]], [[Kingdom of Poland of the first Piasts]], [[Kingdom of Poland during feudal dissolution]] and [[Kingdom of Poland of the later Piasts]]}}
|
the rest of the former Papal States. He was recognised as an independent [[monarch]] by the [[Lateran Treaties]], an authority the current Pope continues to hold. The only other bishop who is a [[head of state]] is the [[Bishop of Urgell]], a [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Prince of Andorra]].
Three senior bishops served as [[prince-elector|Electors]] in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. By the terms of the [[Golden Bull]] of [[1356]], the Archbishops of [[Archbishopric of Mainz|Mainz]], [[Archbishopric of Trier|Trier]], and [[Archbishopric of Cologne|Cologne]] were made permanent electors, who chose the next [[Holy Roman Emperor]] upon the death of his predecessor. The Archbishop of Mainz was President of the Electors and [[Chancellor|Archchancellor]] of Germany. Likewise, the Archbishop of Cologne was Archchancellor of [[Italy]], and the Archbishop of Trier was Archchancellor of [[Burgundy]]. A number of other bishops within the Holy Roman Empire, although not being Electors, were sovereign prince-bishops in their own lands.
===Bishops holding political office===
As well as the Archchancellors of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], bishops generally served as [[chancellor]]s to mediaeval monarchs, serving as head of the [[justiciary]] and chief [[chaplain]]. The [[Lord Chancellor]] of [[England]] was almost always a bishop up until the dismissal of [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey]] by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Likewise, the position of [[Kanclerz]] in the [[Polish kingdom]] was always a bishop until the [[16th century|sixteenth century]].
In [[France]] before the [[French Revolution]], representatives of the clergy &mdash; in practice, bishops and [[abbot]]s of the largest [[monastery|monasteries]] &mdash; comprised the [[First Estate]] of the [[French States-General|Estates-General]], until their role was abolished during the [[French Revolution]].
The more senior bishops of the [[Church of England]] continue to sit in the [[House of Lords]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]], as representatives of the [[established church]], and are known as [[Lord Spiritual|Lords Spiritual]]. The [[Bishop of Sodor and Man]], whose [[diocese]] lies outside of the [[United Kingdom]], is ''ex officio'' a member of the [[Legislative Council (Isle of Man)|Legislative Council]] of the [[Isle of Man]]. In the past, the [[Bishop of Durham]], known as a [[Prince-Bishop|prince bishop]], had extensive viceregal powers within his northern diocese &mdash; the power to mint money, collect taxes and raise an army to defend against the [[Scottish people|Scots]].
[[Image:Archbishop Williams.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dr [[Rowan Williams]]<br>the current [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]]]
===Episcopacy during the English Civil War===
During the period of the [[English Civil War]] (or rather, Civil Wars), the role of bishops as wielders of political power and as upholders of the [[established church]] became a matter of heated political controversy. [[John Calvin]] formulated a doctrine of [[Presbyterianism]], which held that in the New Testament the offices of ''presbyter'' and ''episkopos'' were identical; he rejected the doctrine of apostolic succession. Calvin's follower [[John Knox]] brought Presbyterianism to [[Scotland]] when the Scottish church was reformed in [[1560]]. In practice, presbyterianism meant that committees of lay elders had a substantial voice in church government, as opposed to merely being subjects to a ruling hierarchy.
This vision of at least partial [[democracy]] in [[ecclesiology]] paralleled the struggles between [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] and [[King of England|the King]]. A body within the [[Puritanism|Puritan]] movement in the [[Church of England]] sought to abolish the office of bishop and remake the Church of England along Presbyterian lines. The [[Martin Marprelate]] tracts, applying the [[pejorative]] name of ''[[prelate|prelacy]]'' to the church hierarchy, attacked the office of bishop with satire that deeply offended [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] and her [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[John Whitgift]]. The [[vestments controversy]] also related to this movement, seeking further reductions in church ceremony, and labelling the use of elaborate vestments as "unedifying" and even [[Idolatry in Christianity|idolatrous]].
King [[James I of England|James I]], reacting against the perceived contumacy of his Presbyterian Scottish subjects, adopted "No Bishop, no King" as a slogan; he tied the hierarchical authority of the bishop to the absolute authority he sought as king, and viewed attacks on the authority of the bishops as attacks on his own authority. Matters came to a head when King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] appointed [[William Laud]] as the Archbishop of Canterbury; Laud aggressively attacked the Presbyterian movement and sought to impose the full Anglican liturgy on each church. The controversy eventually lead to Laud's [[impeachment]] for [[treason]] by a [[bill of attainder]] in [[1645]], and subsequent execution. Charles also attempted to impose episcopacy on Scotland; the Scots' violent rejection of bishops and liturgical worship sparked the [[Bishops' Wars]] in [[1639]]-[[1640]].
During the height of Puritan power in [[Commonwealth of England|the Commonwealth]] and [[the Protectorate]], episcopacy was abolished in the Church of England in [[1649]]. The Church of England remained Presbyterian until the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in [[1660]].
==Bishops in Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican churches==
Although many [[Protestantism|Protestant churches]] have rejected the place of bishops in church leadership, churches rooted in tradition continue to ordain bishops to lead the church. Bishops form the leadership in the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]], the [[Anglican Communion]], and the [[Independent Catholic Churches]].
The traditional role of a bishop is as pastor of a [[diocese]] (also called a bishopric, [[eparchy]] or [[see]]). Dioceses vary considerably in their size of area and population. Some dioceses around the [[Mediterranean Sea]] which were Christianized early are rather compact; whereas dioceses in areas of rapid modern growth in Christian commitment, as in some parts of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], [[South America]] and the [[Far East]], are much larger and more populous.
[[Image:Bishopcoa.png|thumb|right|100px|One form for the [[coat of arms]] of a Roman Catholic bishop.]]
As well as traditional diocesan bishops, many churches have a well-developed structure of church leadership that involves a number of layers of authority and responsibility.
;[[Archbishop]]:An archbishop is the bishop of an [[archdiocese]]. This is usually a prestigious diocese with an important place in local church history. The title is purely honorific and carries no extra jurisdiction, though most archbishops are also [[metropolitan bishop]]s.
;[[Metropolitan bishop]]:A [[metropolitan bishop]] is an archbishop in charge of an [[ecclesiastical province]], or group of dioceses, and exercises some oversight over the other dioceses. Sometimes a metropolitan may also be the head of an [[autocephalous]], ''[[sui juris]]'', or [[autonomous]] church.
;[[Suffragan bishop]]:A [[suffragan bishop]] is a bishop subordinate to a Metropolitan. In the [[Roman Catholic Church]] this term is applied to all non-metropolitan bishops (diocesan and [[auxiliary bishop]]s). In the [[Anglican Communion]], the term applies to a bishop who is a full-time assistant to a diocesan bishop: the Bishop of [[Warwick]] is suffragan to the [[Bishop of Coventry]] (the diocesan), though both live in [[Coventry]]. Some Anglican suffragans are given the responsibility for a geographical area within the diocese (for example, the Bishop of [[Stepney]] is an ''area bishop'' within the [[Diocese of London]]).
[[Image:Gonzaleznieves.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Roberto González Nieves]], [[Archbishop of San Juan]], Puerto Rico, is a Metropolitan Bishop. ]]
;[[Titular bishop]]:A [[titular bishop]] is a bishop without a diocese. Rather, the bishop is head of a [[titular see]], which is usually an ancient city that used to have a bishop, but, for some reason or other, does not have one now. Titular bishops often serve as [[auxiliary bishop]]s. In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], bishops of modern diocese are often given a titular see alongside their modern one (for example, the Archbishop of Thyateira and Great Britain).
;[[Auxiliary bishop]]:An [[auxiliary bishop]] is a full-time assistant to a diocesan bishop (the Roman Catholic equivalent of an Anglican [[suffragan bishop]]). Auxiliaries are almost always [[titular bishop]]s, and are appointed as the [[vicar general]] of the diocese in which they serve.[http://www.ourladyswarriors.org/canon/c0330-0572.htm#par829 Source]
;[[Coadjutor bishop]]:A [[coadjutor bishop]] is a bishop who is given automatic right to succeed the incumbent diocesan bishop. The appointment of coadjutors is often seen as a means of providing for continuity of church leadership.
;Honorary assistant bishop:This title is usually applied to retired bishops who are given a general license to minister as episcopal pastors under a diocesan's oversight.
;[[Primate (religion)|Primate]]:A primate is the bishop of the oldest church of a [[nation]]. Sometimes this carries jurisdiction over metropolitan bishops, but usually it is another honorific. An [[exarch]] is like a primate in the Eastern churches. The title ''Presiding'' or ''President Bishop'' is often used for the head of a national Anglican church, but this title is not usually associated with a particular [[episcopal see]] like a primate. The primate of the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]] is chosen from among the diocesan bishops, and, while retaining diocesan responsibility, is called ''Primus''.
;[[Card |
R&B"), [[WVEE-FM|WVEE]] 103.3 (urban "V103"), [[WALR-FM|WALR-FM]] 104.1 (urban AC/oldies "Kiss 104.1"), [[WFSH-FM|WFSH]] 104.7 (christian "104.7 the Fish"), [[WBZY-FM|WBZY]] 105.3 (modern rock "105.3 the Buzz"), [[WWVA-FM|WWVA-FM]] 105.7 (spanish top 40 "Viva 105.7"), [[WYAY-FM|WYAY]] 106.7 (classic country "Eagle 106.7"), [[WJZZ-FM|WJZZ]] 107.5 (smooth jazz), and [[WHTA-FM|WHTA]] 107.9 (urban "Hot 107.9").
Several [[cable television]] networks also operate from Atlanta, including [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]], [[CNN]], [[Cartoon Network]], [[Boomerang]], and [[Turner Network Television|TNT]]. These stations are owned by [[Turner Broadcasting System]] (now a subsidiary of [[Time Warner]]). [[The Weather Channel]] (owned by [[Landmark Communications]]) also broadcasts from the Atlanta area.
[[Nintendo]]'s American Division has its distribution center based in Atlanta, the primary location from where imported games and products arrive to [[United States]] and are often inspected and shipped to stores nationwide.
{{seealso|list of newspapers in Atlanta}}
===Music===
[[Jermaine Dupri]]'s 2001 [[hip hop music|hip hop]] single "Welcome to Atlanta" declares Atlanta the "new [[Motown]]", referencing the city of [[Detroit, Michigan]], which was known for its contributions to popular music. A significant number of Atlantans have become successful [[musician]]s, including artists such as [[OutKast]], [[Jerry Reed]], [[Gladys Knight & the Pips]], [[Blaque]], [[Ludacris]], [[T.I.]], [[Young Jeezy]], [[Ying Yang Twins]], [[D4L]], [[Monica (singer)|Monica]], [[Youngbloodz]], and [[Lil Jon]]. Others, such as [[Bobby Brown]] and [[Whitney Houston]] and [[Brian Littrell]] of the [[Backstreet Boys]], have moved to the city and made it their home. Of the many modern day recording artist/groups to be originated in Atlanta, [[TLC]] still by records sold, holds the crown for the biggest present day act with record sales hovering around the 50 million mark. Atlanta has also produced rock and pop music singers, such as alternative metal band [[Sevendust]] and modern rock band [[Collective Soul]], and was a proving ground for Connecticut-born pop-rock-blues musician [[John Mayer (musician)|John Mayer]].
[[record producers|Record Producers]] [[Antonio Reid|L.A. Reid]] and [[Babyface]] founded [[LaFace Records]] in Atlanta in the late-1980s; the label has eventually become the home to multi-platinum selling artists such as [[Toni Braxton]], [[TLC]], [[OutKast]], [[Goodie Mob]], [[Usher Raymond|Usher]] and [[Ciara]], many of whom are Atlantans themselves. It is also the home of [[So So Def Records]], a label founded by Jermaine Dupri in the mid-1990s, that signed acts such as [[Da Brat]], [[Jagged Edge (band)|Jagged Edge]], [[Xscape]], [[Dem Franchise Boyz]], and [[Bow Wow]]. The success of LaFace and SoSo Def led to Atlanta as an established scene for record labels such as LaFace parent company [[Arista]] to set up satellite offices.
Atlanta's classical music scene includes well-renowned ensembles such as the [[Atlanta Symphony Orchestra]], [[Atlanta Opera]], [[Atlanta Ballet]], period-instrument ensemble [[New Trinity Baroque]], [[Atlanta Boy Choir]], and many others. Classical musicians include renowned conductors such as late [[Robert Shaw]], Atlanta Symphony's [[Robert Spano]], New Trinity Baroque's [[Predrag Gosta]], and others.
Despite producing numerous famous musicians, however, Atlanta's live pop music scene has suffered in recent years. Due in part to harsher new laws dictating the closing times of bars and nightclubs, many small to medium sized venues have closed down. As a result, fewer and fewer touring acts are stopping by Atlanta, putting further financial strain on the remaining clubs and venues. In the early 1980s, Atlanta was the home of a thriving [[new wave music]] scene featuring such bands as The Brains and [[The Producers (band)|The Producers]], closely linked to the new wave scenes in [[Athens, Georgia]] and other college towns in the southeast.
===Sports===
{| class="wikitable"
!Club
!Sport
!League
!Stadium
!Logo
|-
|[[Atlanta Falcons]]
|[[American Football|Football]]
|[[National Football League]]''';''' [[National Football Conference|NFC]]
|[[Georgia Dome]]
|[[Image:AtlantaFalcons 100.png|30px|Atlanta Falcons Logo]]
|-
|[[Atlanta Braves]]
|[[Baseball]]</td>
|[[Major League Baseball]]''';''' [[National League|NL]]
|[[Turner Field]]</td>
|[[Image:AtlantaBraves 100.png|30px|Atlanta Braves Logo]]
|-
|[[Atlanta Hawks]]
|[[Basketball]]
|[[National Basketball Association]]
|[[Philips Arena]]
|[[Image:AtlantaHawks 100.png|30px|Atlanta Hawks Logo]]
|-
|[[Atlanta Silverbacks]]
|[[Soccer]]
|[[USL First Division]]
|[[Silverbacks Park]]
|[[Image: Atlanta_Silverbacks.gif|30px|Atlanta Silverbacks Logo]]
|-
|[[Atlanta Thrashers]]
|[[Ice Hockey]]
|[[National Hockey League]]
|[[Philips Arena]]
|[[Image:AtlantaThrashers 100.png|30px|Atlanta Thrashers Logo]]
|-
|[[Georgia Force]]
|[[Arena Football]]
|[[Arena Football League]]
|[[Philips Arena]]
|[[Image:GeorgiaForce.gif |30px|Georgia Force Logo]]
|}
[[Image:1996summerolympicslogo.jpg|thumb|left|100 px|Games of the XXVI Olympiad]]Atlanta has a rich sports history, including the second intercollegiate football game in the South, [[Auburn University]] vs. [[University of Georgia]] in 1892. This game is often considered the Oldest Rivalry in the South. Currently it hosts college football's annual Chick-fil-A Bowl and the [[Peachtree Road Race]], the world’s largest 10K race. Atlanta was the host city for the Centennial [[1996 Summer Olympics]]. [[Centennial Olympic Park]], built for 1996 Summer Olympics, sits adjacent to [[CNN Center]] and [[Philips Arena]]. It is now operated by the [[Georgia World Congress Center]] Authority.
The city is also host to [[U.S. cities with teams from four major sports|four different major league sports]]. The [[Atlanta Braves]] [[baseball]] team has been the [[Major League Baseball]] franchise of Atlanta since 1966; the franchise was previously known as the [[Boston Braves]] (1912-1952), and the Milwaukee Braves (1953-1965). The team was founded in 1871 in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] as a National Association club, making it the oldest continuously operating sports franchise in North American sports. The Braves won the [[World Series]] in 1995 and have had an unprecedented run of fourteen straight divisional championships since 1991. Before the Braves moved to Atlanta, the [[Atlanta Crackers]] were Atlanta's professional baseball team from 1901 until their last season in 1965. They won 17 league championships in the minor leagues. The [[Atlanta Black Crackers]] were Atlanta's [[Negro League]] team from around 1921 until 1949.
The [[Atlanta Falcons]] [[American football]] team plays at the [[Georgia Dome]]. They have been Atlanta's [[National Football League]] franchise since 1966. They have won the division title three times, and a conference championship once, only to go on to lose to the [[Denver Broncos]] in [[Super Bowl XXXIII]]. Super Bowl XXVIII and XXXIV were held in the city.
The [[Atlanta Hawks]] [[basketball]] team has been the [[National Basketball Association]] franchise of Atlanta since 1969; the team was previously known as the Tri-Cities Blackhawks (1946-1951), [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]] Hawks (1951-55), [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] Hawks (1955-68). Their only NBA championship was in 1958, when they were the St. Louis Hawks.
From 1992 to 1996 Atlanta was home to the short-lived [[Atlanta Knights]], an [[International Hockey League]] team. Their inaugural season was excellent for a new team, and was only bested by their sophomore season in which they won the championship Turner Cup. In 1996 they moved to [[Quebec City, Quebec|Quebec City]] and became the [[Quebec Rafales]].
In 1999 the [[Atlanta Thrashers]] [[Ice hockey|hockey]] team became Atlanta's [[National Hockey League]] franchise. They replaced the [[Atlanta Flames]] which had departed for [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] in 1980, becoming the [[Calgary Flames]]. The Thrashers have yet to make it to the playoffs. Both the Thrashers and the Hawks play in [[Philips Arena]].
The [[Georgia Force]] has been Atlanta's team in the [[Arena Football League]] since the franchise relocated from [[Nashville]] in 2002. The 2005 National Conference champions currently play in [[Philips Arena]].
The final event of the [[PGA Tour]] season, [[THE TOUR Championship]], is played annually at East Lake Golf Club. This golf course is used because of its connection to the great amateur golfer [[Bobby Jones (golf)|Bobby Jones]], an Atlanta native.
From 2001 to 2003 Atlanta hosted the [[Atlanta Beat]] [[football (soccer)|soccer]] team of the defunct [[Women's United Soccer Association]]. They appeared in two of the three Founders Cup championships held, losing to the [[Bay Area CyberRays]] in 2001, and the [[Washington Freedom]] team in 2003. Currently, Atlanta is the home of the [[Atlanta Silverbacks]] of the [[United Soccer Leagues]] First Division (Men) and W-League (Women)
The [[Atlanta Kookaburras]] are a successful [[Australian rules football]] club that compete in mens and women's divisions in the [[MAAFL]] and [[SEAFL]] and [[USAFL National Championships]].
Other nearby sports facilities include [[Atlanta Motor Speedway]], a 1.5 mile (2.4 km) NASCAR race track in [[Hampton, Georgia]].
Atlanta is home to the [[Chick-fil-A Bowl]] (formerly known as the Peach Bowl) which is played at the [[Georgia Dome]] and matches a [[Southeastern Conference|SEC]] team against an [[Atlantic Coast Conference|ACC]] opponent, as well as the [[List of SEC Conference Champions|SEC Championship Game]] in football annually, as well as hosting the basketball and gymnastics championships on several occasions.
{{seealso|U.S. cities with teams from four major sports}}
===Religi |
ave not encountered rapid growth, for example the [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]]. In [[Europe]], [[Spain]] under [[Francisco Franco]]'s authoritarian and conservative regime was considerably less economically developed than neighbouring countries such as [[France]], even though the latter had suffered from the devastations of [[World War II]].
[[Lee Kuan Yew]], [[Singapore]]'s first [[Prime Minister]], purportedly justified its strict social conduct laws as "a way to force civility onto a third-world country," which it was at the time of its separation from [[Malaysia]].
==See also==
*[[autocracy]]
*[[police state]]
*[[statism]]
*[[totalitarianism]]
*[[Anti-authoritarianism]]
*[[Authoritarian Personality]]
*[[Right Wing Authoritarianism]]
*Republic of [[Singapore]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[bg:Авторитаризъм]]
[[de:Autoritarismus]]
[[es:Autoritarismo]]
[[fr:Autoritarisme]]
[[lt:Autoritarizmas]]
[[pl:Autorytaryzm]]
[[ru:Авторитаризм]]
[[sv:Auktoritär]]
[[th:ลัทธิอำนาจนิยม]]
[[uk:Авторитаризм]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arlo Guthrie</title>
<id>3273</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T00:07:02Z</timestamp>
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<comment>orignal--->original</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arlo Guthrie.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A press photo of Arlo Guthrie.]]
'''Arlo Guthrie''' (born [[July 10]], [[1947]], [[Kings County, New York|Brooklyn]], [[New York, New York|New York]] ) is an American [[folk music|folk]] singer who is the son of folk singer and composer [[Woody Guthrie]] and his [[Jew|Jewish]] wife Marjorie Mazia Guthrie, a one-time professional dancer with the [[Martha Graham|Martha Graham Company]] and founder of The Committee to Combat [[Huntington's Disease]]. He graduated from the [[Stockbridge School]] of [[Massachusetts]] in [[1965]], and briefly attended [[Rocky Mountain College]].
His most famous work is "[[Alice's Restaurant]]", a [[talking blues]] song that lasts 18 minutes and 20 seconds (in its original recorded version; Guthrie has been known to spin the story out to forty-five minutes in concert). The song, a bitingly [[Satire|satirical]] protest against the [[Vietnam War]] [[conscription|draft]], is based on a true incident. In the song, Guthrie was called up for a draft examination, and rejected as unfit for [[military]] service as a result of a criminal record consisting in its entirety of a single arrest, court appearance, fine and clean-up order for [[littering]]. In reality, Guthrie, though a carrier of the genetically inherited disease [[Huntington's chorea]], was classified as fit (1A); however, his draft-lottery number did not come up.
For a short period in the late [[1960s]], "Alice's Restaurant" was in nearly constant rotation on nearly every college and counter-culture-oriented radio station in the country &mdash; quite an accomplishment for a 18:20 song (albeit in an era not averse to extended jams).
A [[1969 in film|1969]] [[Film|film]], directed and co-written by [[Arthur Penn]], was based on the story. In addition to acting in this film, also called ''Alice's Restaurant'', Guthrie has had minor roles in several movies and [[television]] series.
Guthrie also made famous [[Steve Goodman]]'s song "[[City of New Orleans (song)|City of New Orleans]]", a paean to long-distance [[railway|rail]] travel. He also had a minor hit with his song "Coming into Los Angeles", which was recorded live at the 1969 [[Woodstock Festival]], and success with "The Motorcycle Song." Guthrie's 1976 album ''[[Amigo]]'' received a 5-star (highest rating) from ''[[Rolling Stone]]'', and for that reason alone may be his best-received work; unfortunately that milestone album is as rarely heard today as are Guthrie's earlier [[Warner Brothers]] albums &mdash; although each boasts compelling folk music accompanied by top-notch musicians including [[Ry Cooder]].
Like his father, Woody Guthrie, Arlo often sings [[protest song|songs of protest]] against social injustice. He collaborated with poet [[Adrian Mitchell]] to tell the story of [[Chile]]an folk singer and activist [[Víctor Jara]] in song. He enjoys the privileges of regularly performing with folk legend Pete Seeger - one of his faither's long time partners whom he admires, follows and learns from in many ways, musically and intellectually - like thousands of folkies and peace loving people do.
In [[1991]], Guthrie bought the church that had served as Alice and Ray Brock's former home, at 4 Van Deusenville Road, Great Barrington, Massachusetts, and converted it to the [http://www.guthriecenter.org Guthrie Center], an interfaith meeting place that serves people of all religions.
Guthrie's son [[Abe Guthrie|Abe]] and his daughter [[Sarah Lee Guthrie|Sarah Lee]] have also become musicians, the latter performing and recording with her husband [[Johnny Irion]].
==Discography==
* "Bouncing Around the Room" on [[Sharin' in the Groove]] (2001)
* Live In Sydney (2005)
* Mystic Journey (1996)
* Alice's Restaurant - The Massacree Revisited (1997)
* More Together Again (1994)
* 2 Songs (1992)
* Son of the Wind (1992)
* All Over the World (1991)
* Someday (1986)
* Precious Friend (1982)
* Power Of Love (1981)
* Outlasting the Blues (1979)
* One Night (1978)
* The Best of Arlo Guthrie (1977)
* Amigo (1976)
* Together In Concert (1975)
* Arlo Guthrie (1974)
* Last of the Brooklyn Cowboys (1973)
* Hobo's Lullaby (1972)
* Washington County (1970)
* Running Down the Road (1969)
* Arlo (1968)
* [[Alice's Restaurant (album)|Alice's Restaurant]] (1967)
==Filmography==
'''Films and TV series'''
*The Byrds of Paradise (1994) TV Series
*Roadside Prophets (1992)
*Baby's Storytime (1989)
*[[Renaldo and Clara]] (1978)
*[[Alice's Restaurant]] (1969)
'''Composer'''
*Baby's Storytime (1989)
*Clay Pigeon (1971) a.k.a. Trip to Kill (UK)
*Woodstock (1970) (song "Coming Into Los Angeles")
::a.k.a. Woodstock 25th Anniversary Edition
::a.k.a. Woodstock, 3 Days of Peace & Music
*Alice's Restaurant (1969) (song "The Alice's Restaurant Massacree")
'''Producer'''
*Isn't This a Time! A Tribute Concert for Harold Leventhal (2004)
'''Writer'''
*[[Alice's Restaurant]] (1969) (song "The Alice's Restaurant Massacree")
'''Himself'''
*Isn't This a Time! A Tribute Concert for Harold Leventhal (2004)
*From Wharf Rats to the Lords of the Docks (2004)
*"Get Up, Stand Up" (2003) (TV series)
*Singing in the Shadow: The Children of Rock Royalty (2003)
*Last Party 2000 (2001)
::a.k.a. The Party's Over
*Hollywood Rocks the Movies: The Early Years (1955-1970) (2000) (TV)
*The Ballad of Ramblin' Jack (2000)
*"Healthy Kids" (1998) TV Series
*This Land Is Your Land: The Animated Kids' Songs of Woody Guthrie (1997)
*The History of Rock 'N' Roll, Vol. 6 (1995) (TV)
::a.k.a. My Generation
*The Kennedy Center Honors: A Celebration of the Performing Arts (1994) (TV)
*Woodstock Diary (1994) (TV)
*Woodstock: The Lost Performances (1990)
*A Vision Shared: A Tribute to Woody Guthrie and Leadbelly (1988)
*Farm Aid '87 (1987) (TV)
*Woody Guthrie: Hard Travelin' (1984)
*The Weavers: Wasn't That a Time (1982)
*Woodstock (1970)
::a.k.a. Woodstock 25th Anniversary Edition
::a.k.a. Woodstock, 3 Days of Peace & Music
*Arthur Penn, 1922-: Themes and Variants (1970) (TV)
'''Notable TV Guest Appearances'''
*"Renegade" in episode: "Top Ten with a Bullet" (episode # 5.14) [[24 January]] [[1997]]
*"Relativity" [[29 December]] [[1996]]
*"The Muppet Show" playing "Himself" (episode # 4.8) [[19 June]] [[1979]]
*"The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson" playing "Himself" [[17 August]] [[1972]]
*"The Dick Cavett Show" playing "Himself" [[8 September]] [[1970]]
*"Beat-Club" (episode # 1.52) [[28 February]] [[1970]]
*"Hylands hörna" playing "Himself" (episode # 4.4) [[31 January]] [[1970]]
==References==
*[http://www.arlo.net Arlo Guthrie web page]
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0349241 Internet Movie Database entry]
*[http://www.guthriecenter.org/main.shtml The Guthrie Center]
*[http://www.worldmusiccentral.org/artists/artist_page.php?id=885 World Music Central" Arlo Guthire]
* Lee, Laura, ''Arlo, Alice & Anglicans: The Lives of a New England Church'' (Berkshire House Publishers, 2000; W.W. Norton, 2000 paperback ISBN 1581570104)
* "Youths Ordered to Clean Up Rubbish Mess": contemporaneous news article reprinted in ''This is the Arlo Guthrie Songbook'' p. 39 (offline)
*[http://www.massmoments.org/moment.cfm?mid=342 Massachusetts Foundation for the Humanities' Mass Moments: "Arlo Guthrie Convicted of Littering, [[November 28]] [[1965]]"]
[[Category:1947 births|Guthrie, Arlo]]
[[Category:American male singers|Guthrie, Arlo]]
[[Category:Folk singers|Guthrie, Arlo]]
[[Category:Greenwich Village Scene|Guthrie, Arlo]]
[[Category:Jewish-American singers|Guthrie, Arlo]]
[[Category:Living people|Guthrie, Arlo]]
[[Category:Stockbridge, Massachusetts|Guthrie, Arlo]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Alma</title>
<id>3275</id>
<revision>
<id>38573113</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T04:50:15Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Challenges to the Beginning of the Republic */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Books of the Book of Mormon}}
'''''The Book of Alma''''' is one of the books that make up the ''[[Book of Mormon]]''. The full title is '''''The Book of Alma: The Son of Alma'''''. The title refers to [[Alma |
iam of Ockham]]).
*The world itself is not an entity within the world ([[Martin Heidegger]]).
*Many volumes might be filled with the frivolous speculations concerning the nature of Being ... the fog which arose from this narrow spot diffused itself at an early period over the whole surface of metaphysics ([[John Stuart Mill]]).
*Those who like paradoxical modes of expression could very well say: "There are objects of which it is true that there are no such objects" ([[Alexius Meinong]]).
*My mother-in-law, a famous and forceful religious leader, assured me that philosophy is only difficult because of the longs words that it uses. I confronted her with the following sentence from notes I had made that day: "What ''is'' means is and therefore differs from ''is'', for "''is'' is" would be nonsense". It cannot be said that it is long words that make this sentence difficult ([[Bertrand Russell]]).
*The reality of that cup is that it ''is'' there, and that is ''not'' me ([[Jean Paul Sartre]]).
*To be assumed as an entity is to be assumed as a value of a variable ([[Willard Van Orman Quine]]).
*Like breathing, only quieter ([[J. L. Austin]] – talking about existence).
*Existence is what you make of it ([[Jack Kerouac]]).
*With the exception of man, no being wonders at his own existence. ([[Arthur Schopenhauer]])
== See also ==
* ''[[Cogito ergo sum]]''
* [[Cosmological argument]]
* [[Existence proof]]
* [[Existential quantification]]
* [[Gödel's ontological proof]]
* [[Meaning of life]]
* [[Metaphysics]]
* [[Nonexistence]]
* [[Ontology]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Solipsism]]
== External links ==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existence/ Existence] on the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
* [http://www.formalontology.it/existence.htm Existence. Definitions from leading philosophers]
{{Philosophy (navigation)}}
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<title>Economy (disambiguation)</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|economy}}
'''Economy''' can refer to:
* the economy of the world; see [[world economy]]
* the economy of a country; see [[economics]] and [[economic system]]
* [[economy (Eastern Orthodoxy)]], a bishop's discretionary power to relax rules
* [[economy (Thoreau)]], a chapter from ''Walden'', by Henry David Thoreau
;Places:
* [[Economy, Indiana]]
* [[Economy, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Economy, Nova Scotia]] is an unincorporated community of about 200 in Maritime Canada
{{disambig}}
[[ms:ekonomi]]</text>
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<title>Economy/Inflation</title>
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<title>Economics/Inflation</title>
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<title>Demand pull inflation</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Demand-pull [[inflation]]''' arises when [[aggregate demand]] in an economy outpaces [[aggregate supply]]. It involves inflation rising as real [[gross domestic product]] rises and unemployment falls, as the economy moves along the [[Phillips curve]]. This is commonly described as "''too much [[money]] chasing too few [[Good (economics)|goods]]''". More accurately, it should be described as involving "''too much money spending chasing too few goods''", since only money that is spent on goods and services can cause inflation. This would not be expected to persist over time due to increases in supply, unless the economy is already at a [[full employment]] level.
The term demand-pull inflation is mostly associated with [[Keynesian economics]].
==See also==
*[[Economics]]
*[[cost push inflation]]
[[Category:Demand]]
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<title>Cost push inflation</title>
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<comment>Adding downward inflexible synonym for sticky downward</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cost-push inflation ''' or '''supply-shock inflation''' is a type of [[inflation]] caused by large increases in the cost of important goods or services where no suitable alternative is available. A situation that has been often cited as of this was the [[1970s energy crisis|oil crisis]] of the [[1970s]], which some economists see as a major cause of the inflation experienced in the Western world in that decade. It is argued that this inflation resulted from increases in the cost of [[petroleum]] imposed by the member states of [[OPEC]]. Since petroleum is so important to industrialized economies, a large increase in its price can lead to the increase of most products, raising the [[inflation rate]]. This can raise the normal or built-in inflation rate, reflecting [[adaptive expectations]] and the [[price/wage spiral]], so that a supply shock can have persistent effects.
[[monetarism|Monetarist]] economists such as [[Milton Friedman]] argue against the concept of cost-push inflation because they believe that increases in the cost of goods and services do not lead to inflation without the government and its [[Central Bank]] cooperating in increasing the [[money supply]]. The argument is that if the money supply is constant, increases in the cost of a good or service will decrease the money available for other goods and services, and therefore the price of some those goods will fall and offset the rise in price of those goods whose prices have increased. One consequence of this is that monetarist economists do not believe that the rise in the cost of oil was a direct cause of the inflation of the 1970s. They argue that although the price of oil went back down in the 1980s, there was no corresponding [[deflation (economics)|deflation]].
[[Keynesians]] riposte that in a modern industrial economy, many prices are ''sticky downward'' or ''downward inflexible'', so that instead of prices falling in this story, a supply shock would cause a [[recession]], i.e., rising [[unemployment]] and falling [[gross domestic product]]. It is the costs of such a recession that likely causes governments and Central Banks to allow a supply shock to result in inflation.
They also note that though there was no deflation in the 1980s, there was a definite fall in the [[inflation rate]] during this period. Actual deflation was prevented because supply shocks are not the only cause of inflation; in terms of the modern '''triangle model''' of [[inflation]], supply-driven deflation was counteracted by [[demand pull inflation]] and built-in inflation resulting from [[adaptive expectations]] and the [[price/wage spiral]].
== See also ==
*[[Economics]]
*[[Demand pull inflation]]
[[Category:Inflation]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Extractor</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the extractor in Mathematics, for other usage of this word see: [[Extractor (fire arms)]].''
----------------------------
An <math>(N,M,D,K,\epsilon)</math> -'''extractor''' is a [[bipartite graph]] with <math>N</math> nodes on the left and <math>M</math> nodes on the right such that each node on the left has <math>D</math> neighbors (on the right), which has the added property that
for any subset <math>A</math> of the left vertices of size at least <math>K</math>, the distribution on right vertices obtained by choosing a random node in <math>A</math> and then following a random [[edge]] to get a node x on the right side is <math>\epsilon</math>-close to the [[uniform distribution]] in terms of [[total variation distance]].
A [[disperser]] is a related graph.
An equivalent way to view an extractor is as a bivariate function
<math>E : [N] \times [D] \rightarrow [M]</math>
in the natural way. With this view it turns out that the extractor property is equivalent to: for any source of randomness <math>X</math> that gives <math>n</math> [[bits]] with [[min-entropy]] <math>\log K</math>, the distribu |
[[Academy Award for Film Editing|Best Film Editing]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1935]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1947]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Makeup|Best Makeup]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1981]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Best Original Score]]; [[1934]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Song]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1934]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Musical]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1934]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1931]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Live Action Short Film|Best Live Action Short Film]]
*[[Academy Award for Sound|Best Sound Mixing]]; [[1930]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Sound Effects Editing|Best Sound Editing]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1963]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Visual Effects|Best Visual Effects]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1939]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Best Adapted Screenplay]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|Best Original Screenplay]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1940]] to present
====Retired awards====
*[[Academy Award for Best Assistant Director|Best Assistant Director]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1933]] to [[1937]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Dance Direction|Best Dance Direction]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1935]] to [[1937]]
*[[Academy Award for Engineering Effects|Best Engineering Effects]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] only
*Best Score -- Adaptation or Treatment
*[[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Color|Best Short Film - Color]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] and [[1937]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels|Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] to [[1956]]
*[[Academy Award for Short Film - Novelty|Best Short Film - Novelty]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1932]] to [[1935]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Story|Best Original Story]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to [[1956]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Title Writing|Best Title Writing]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] only
*[[Academy Award for Unique and Artistic Production|Best Unique and Artistic Quality of Production]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] only
In the first year of the awards, the Best Director category was split into separate Drama and Comedy categories. At times, the Best Original Score category has been split into separate Drama and Comedy/Musical categories. Today, the Best Original Score category is one category. From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Cinematography, Art Direction, and Costume Design awards were split into separate categories for black and white and color films.
===Special awards===
These awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole.
====Current awards====
*[[Academy Honorary Award]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present
*[[Academy Special Achievement Award]]
* [[Academy Award, Scientific or Technical]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1931]] to present at three levels
*[[The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1938]] to present
*[[The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]]
*[[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]]
====Retired awards ====
*[[Academy Juvenile Award]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1934]] to [[1960]]
==Academy Award statistics==
*[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 10 or more nominations]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 8 or more awards]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving awards for Best Picture, Directing, Actor, Actress and Writing]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 3 or more acting nominations]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Actors receiving 5 or more nominations]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Actors receiving 2 or more awards]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Directors receiving 3 or more nominations]]
==See also==
*[[List of Academy Awards ceremonies]]
*[[List of movies that have won eight or more Academy Awards]]
*[[List of Academy Award winning movies]]
*[[78th Academy Awards]] ([[2006]])
==References==
Gail, K. & Piazza, J. (2002) ''The Academy Awards the Complete History of Oscar.'' Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc.
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.oscars.org/ Oscars.org]
* [http://www.oscars.org/awardsdatabase/index.html The Academy Awards Database]
* [http://www.oscar.com Oscar.com]
* [http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Academy_Awards_USA/ The Academy Awards] at [[The Internet Movie Database]]
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<title>Actors</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Actor]]</text>
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<title>Actors/Male</title>
<id>328</id>
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<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of male movie actors (A-K)]]</text>
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<comment>opps</comment>
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<title>Animalia (book)</title>
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<comment>remove, er, just words, really. i suppose.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the kingdom of life, see [[Animal]].}}
[[Image:Animalia.jpg|thumb|120px|Animalia Cover.]]'''Animalia''' is an illustrated [[Children's literature|children's book]] by [[Graeme Base]]. It was published in [[1986]].
Animalia is an alphabet book and contains twenty six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for [[alligator]], B is for [[butterfly]], etc). The illustrations contain dozens of small objects that the curious reader can try to identify.
Base also published a [[coloring book]] version [http://www.alibris.com/search/search.cfm?qwork=7937230&wauth=Base%2C%20Graeme&matches=16&qsort=r&cm_re=works*listing*title] for children to do their own coloring.
==External links==
* [http://www.tellapallet.com/animalia.htm A web site that contains a fairly comprehensive list of items hidden in Animalia's illustrations]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0810918684 Animalia on Amazon.com]
* [https://www.graemebase.com/Home.cfm Graeme Base's Official website]
[[Category:Children's books]]
[[sk:Živočíchy]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Asymmetric Algorithms</title>
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<comment>Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Public-key cryptography]]</text>
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<page>
<title>International Atomic Time</title>
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<minor />
<comment>utc disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Temps Atomique International''' ('''TAI''') or '''International Atomic Time''' is a very accurate and stable [[time scale]]. It is a weighted average of the time kept by about 300 [[atomic clock]]s (including a large number of [[caesium]] atomic clocks) in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. It has been available since [[1955]], and became the international standard on which [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] is based on [[January 1]], [[1972]], as decided by the 14th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM). The [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] is in charge of the realization of TAI.
The highest precision realization of TAI |
ell, Cambridge, 1991). Further legends relate that the cloth remained in Edessa until the 10th century, when it was taken to Constantinople. In 1204 it was lost when Constantinople was sacked by Crusaders.
Elsewhere in his ''Church History'', Eusebius reports seeing what he took to be portraits of Jesus, Peter and Paul, and also mentions a bronze statue at Banias / Paneas, of which he wrote, "They say that this statue is an image of Jesus" (H.E. 7:18); further, he relates that locals thought the image to be a memorial of the healing of the woman with an issue of blood by Jesus (Luke 8:43-48), because it depicted a standing man wearing a double cloak and with arm outstretched, and a woman kneeling before him with arms reaching out as if in supplication. Some scholars today think it possible to have been a misidentified pagan statue whose true identity had been forgotten; some have thought it to be Aesculapius, the God of healing, but the description of the standing figure and the woman kneeling in supplication is precisely that found on coins depicting the bearded emperor Hadrian reaching out to a female figure symbolizing a province kneeling before him (see John Francis Wilson's ''Caesarea Philippi: Banias, the Lost City of Pan''; I.B Taurus, London, 2004).
When Christianity was legalized by the emperor Constantine within the Roman Empire in the early 4th Century, huge numbers of pagans became converts. This created the opportunity for the transfer of allegiance and practice from the old gods and heroes to the new religion, and for the gradual adaptation of the old system of image making and veneration to a Christian context. "By the early fifth century, we know of the ownership of private icons of saints; by c. 480-500, we can be sure that the inside of a saint's shrine would be adorned with images and votive portraits, a practice which had probably begun earlier" (''Pagans and Christians'', Robin Lane Fox, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1989).
==Images from Constantine to Justinian == [[Image:Menas.jpg|thumb|250px|Christ and [[Saint Mina]]. A 6th-century icon from [[Egypt]] (now in the [[Louvre]]).]]
After the legalization of Christianity under Constantine, and its adoption as the Roman state religion under [[Theodosius I]], Christian art began to change not only in quality and sophistication, but also in nature. This was in no small part due to Christians being free for the first time to express their faith openly without persecution from the state, in addition to the faith spreading to the non-poor segments of society. Paintings of martyrs and their feats began to appear, and early writers commented on their lifelike effect, one of the elements a few Christian writers criticized in pagan art &mdash; the ability to imitate life. The writers mostly criticized that the pagan works of art pointed to false gods, and thusly constituted idolatry. Nilus of Sinai, in his ''Letter to Heliodorus Silentiarius'', records a miracle in which St. Plato of Ankyra appeared to a Christian in a dream. The Saint was recognized because the young man had often seen his portrait. This recognition of a religious figure from likeness to an image was also a characteristic of pagan pious accounts of appearances of gods to humans. However, in the Old Testament we read of prophets having dreams of various heavenly figures, including a vision of God who appeared to Daniel as an elderly man, the "Ancient of Days".
It is also in this period that the first mention of an image of Mary painted from life appears, though earlier paintings on cave walls bear resemblance to modern icons of Mary. Theodorus Lector, in the ''History of the Church'' 1:1 (excerpted by Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopoulos) stated that Eudokia (wife of Theodosius II , died 460) sent an image of “the Mother of God” from Jerusalem to Pulcheria, daughter of the Emperor Arcadius (this is by some considered a later interpolation). The image was specified to have been “painted by the Apostle Luke.” In later tradition the number of icons of Mary attributed to Luke would greatly multiply.
Early icons such as those preserved at the [[Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery%2C_Mount_Sinai|Monastery of St. Catherine at Sinai]] are realistic in appearance, in contrast to the later stylization. They are very similar to the [[Fayum portraits|mummy portraits]] done in [[encaustic]] wax and found at Faiyum in Egypt. As we may judge from such items, the first depictions of Jesus were generic rather than portrait images, generally representing him as a beardless young man. It was some time before the earliest examples of the long-haired, bearded face that was later to become standardized as the image of Jesus appeared. And when they began to appear there was still variation. [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354-430) said that no one knew the appearance of Jesus or that of Mary (''De Trinitatis'' 8:4-5), though it should be noted that Augustine wasn't a resident of the Holy Lands and therefore wasn't familiar with the local populations and their oral traditions. Gradually, paintings of Jesus took on characteristics of portrait images. [[Image:Petersinai.jpg|thumb|6th-century [[encaustic|hot wax icon]] of [[Saint Peter]], from [[Mount Sinai]].]]
At this time the manner of depicting Jesus was not yet uniform, and there was some controversy over which of the two most common forms was to be favored. The first or “Semitic” form showed Jesus with short and “frizzy” hair; the second showed a bearded Jesus with hair parted in the middle, the manner in which the god Zeus was depicted. Theodorus Lector remarked (''Church History'' 1:15) that of the two, the one with short and frizzy hair was “more authentic.” He also relates a story (excerpted by John of Damascus) that a pagan commissioned to paint an image of Jesus used the “Zeus” form instead of the “Semitic” form, and that as punishment his hands withered.
Though their development was gradual, we can date the full-blown appearance and general ecclesiastical (as opposed to simply popular or local) acceptance of Christian images as venerated and miracle-working objects to the 6th century, when, as Hans Belting writes, "We first hear of the church's use of religious images...(''Likeness and Presence'', University of Chicago Press,1994). "...As we reach the second half of the sixth century, we find that images are attracting direct veneration and some of them are credited with the performance of miracles" (Patricia Karlin-Hayter, The Oxford History of Byzantium, Oxford, 2002). Cyril Mango writes, "In the post-Justinianic period the icon assumes an ever increasing role in popular devotion, and there is a proliferation of miracle stories connected with icons, some of them rather shocking to our eyes" (''The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312-1453'', University of Toronto Press, 1986). However, the earlier references by Eusebius and Irenaeus indicate veneration of images and reported miracles associated with them as early as the second century. It must also be noted that what might be shocking to our contemporary eyes may not have been viewed as such by the early Christians. In Acts 5:15 of the New Testament, it is written that "people brought the sick into the streets and laid them on beds and mats so that at least Peter's shadow might fall on some of them as he passed by."
==The Iconoclast Period==
:''Main article: [[Iconoclasm]]''
There was a continuing opposition to misuse of images within Christianity from very early times. "''Whenever images threatened to gain undue influence within the church, theologians have sought to strip them of their power''" (Belting, Hans; ''Likeness and Presence'', Chicago and London, 1994). Further,"''there is no century between the fourth and the eighth in which there is not some evidence of opposition to images even within the Church'' (Kitzinger, Ernst; ''The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm'', Dumbarton Oaks, 1954; repeated by Pelikan, Jaroslav; ''The Spirit of Eastern Christendom'' 600-1700, University of Chicago Press, 1974). Nonetheless, popular favoritism for icons guaranteed their continued existence, while as yet no systematic apologia for or against icons, or doctrinal authorization or condemnation of icons existed.
The use of icons was seriously challenged by Byzantine Imperial authority in the 8th century. Though by this time opposition to images was strongly entrenched in Judaism and in the rising religion of Islam, attribution of the impetus toward an iconoclastic movement in Eastern Orthodoxy to Muslims or Jews "''seems to have been highly exaggerated, both by contemporaries and by modern scholars''" (see Pelikan, ''The Spirit of Eastern Christendom'').
Though significant in the history of religious doctrine, the Byzantine controversy over images is not seen as of primary importance in Byzantine history. "Few historians still hold it to have been the greatest issue of the period..." (Patricia Karlin-Hayter, Oxford History of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 2002).
The Iconoclastic Period began when images were banned by Emperor [[Leo III]] sometime between 726 and 730. Under his son [[Constantine V]], an ecumenical council forbidding image veneration was held at Hieria near Constantinople in 754. Image veneration was later reinstated by the [[Irene (empress)|Empress Regent Irene]], under whom another ecumenical council was held reversing the decisions of the previous iconoclast council and taking its title as [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]]. The council anathemized all who hold to iconoclasm, i.e. those who held that veneration of images constitutes idolatry. Then the ban was enforced again by [[Leo V]] in 815. And finally icon veneration was decisively restored by [[Theodora (9th century)|Empress Regent Theodora]].
[[Image:vladimirskaya.jpg|right|thumb|The " |
ter than normal. The end of the Cretaceous coincided with the end of the dinosaurs. It was in general a period of extraordinary mass extinction, leading to the Tertiary Period of the [[Cenozoic Era]], in which mammals came to dominate on Earth. The paper suggested that the dinosaurs had been killed off by the impact of a ten-kilometer-wide [[asteroid]] on Earth (see [[impact event]]). Two facts supporting this conclusion are that
* iridium is relatively abundant in many asteroids, and
* the [[isotope|isotopic]] composition of iridium in K-T layers resembles that of asteroids more closely than that of terrestrial iridium.
Iridium is very rare on Earth's surface, but much more common in the Earth's interior as well as in extraterrestrial objects, such as asteroids and [[comet]]s. Furthermore, [[chromium]] isotopic anomalies are found in Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary sediments which strongly supports the impact theory and suggests that the impactor must have been an asteroid or a comet composed of material similar to [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s.
The resulting blast would have been hundreds of millions of times more devastating than the most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated, may have created a hurricane of unimaginable fury, and certainly would have thrown massive amounts of dust and vapor into the upper atmosphere and even into space.
A global firestorm may have resulted as the incendiary fragments from the blast fell back to Earth. Analyses of [[fluid inclusions]] in ancient [[amber]] suggest that the [[oxygen]] content of the atmosphere was very high (30 - 35%) during the late Cretaceous [http://minerals.cr.usgs.gov/gips/na/0amber.htm#amber]. This high O<sub>2</sub> atmospheric content would have supported massive combustion. The level of atmospheric O<sub>2</sub> plummeted in the early Tertiary.
In addition, the worldwide cloud would have choked off sunlight for months, resulting in a darkness that prevented photosynthesis and depleting food resources. During this interval of reduced sunlight a "long winter" may have also been involved in the extinction. Gradually skies cleared but greenhouse gases from the impact caused an increase in temperature for many years.
The impact target rocks also produced [[acid rain]]s that would have inflicted further hardship on the environment, but recent work suggests this was relatively minor. Chemical buffers would have reduced the effect, and survival of animals prone to acid rain damage (such as [[frog]]s) indicate this was not a major contributor to extinction (see Kring, D.A. GSA Today v. 10, no.8).
Although further studies of the K-T layer consistently showed the excess of iridium, the idea that the dinosaurs were exterminated by an asteroid remained a matter of controversy among [[geologist]]s and [[paleontologist]]s for over a decade.
===Chicxulub crater===
''Main article:'' [[Chicxulub Crater]]
[[Image:Chicxulub radar topography.jpg|thumb|200px|Radar topography reveals the 180 kilometer (112 mile) wide ring of the crater (image courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech)]]
One problem with the "Alvarez hypothesis" (as it came to be known) was that no documented crater matched the event. This was not a lethal blow to the theory; although the crater resulting from the impact would have been 150 to 200 kilometers in diameter, Earth's geological processes tend to hide or destroy craters over time. The discovery by Alan R. Hildebrand and Glen Penfield of a crater buried under [[Chicxulub, Yucatán|Chicxulub]] in the [[Yucatan]] as well as various types of debris in North America and [[Haiti]] have lent credibility to this theory (see [[Chicxulub Crater]]). Most paleontologists now agree that an asteroid did hit the Earth 65 million years ago, but many dispute whether the impact was the sole cause of the extinctions. The age of the Chicxulub crater has been revised to approximately 300ky before the K-T boundary. This dating is based on evidence collected in NE Mexico, detailing multiple stratigraphic layers containing impact spherules, the earliest of which occurs some 10 meters below the K-T boundary. This chronostratigraphic thickness is thought to represent 300ky. This finding supports the theory that one or many impacts were contributary, but not causal, to the K-T boundary mass extinction.
===Deccan traps===
''Main article:'' [[Deccan Traps]]
Several paleontologists remained skeptical about the impact theory, as their reading of the [[fossil]] record suggested that the mass extinctions did not take place over a period as short as a few years, but instead occurred gradually over about ten million years, a time frame more consistent with longer term events such as massive volcanism. Several scientists think the extensive [[volcanic]] activity in [[India]] known as the Deccan Traps may have been responsible for, or contributed to, the extinction. A partial reason for the rejection of the impact theory may have been a certain general distrust of a group of [[physicist]]s intruding into the paleontologists' domain of expertise.
Luis Alvarez, who died in [[1988]], replied that paleontologists were being misled by sparse data. His assertion did not go over well at first, but later intensive field studies of fossil beds lent weight to his claim. Eventually, most paleontologists began to accept the idea that the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous were largely or at least partly due to a massive Earth impact. However, even Walter Alvarez has acknowledged that there were other major changes on Earth even before the impact, such as a drop in [[sea level]] and massive volcanic eruptions in India (Deccan Traps sequence), and these may have contributed to the extinctions.
A very large crater has been recently reported in the sea floor off the west coast of India [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_58126.htm 2]. This, the [[Shiva crater]] (450/600 km diam.), has also been dated at about 65 million years at the K-T boundary. The researchers suggest that the impact may have been the triggering event for the Deccan Traps. However, this feature has not yet been accepted by the geologic community as an impact crater and may just be a sinkhole depression caused by salt withdrawal.
[http://www.spacedaily.com/news/deepimpact-04r.html].
===Multiple impact event===
Several other craters also appear to have been formed at the K-T boundary. This suggests the possibility of near simultaneous multiple impacts from perhaps a fragmented asteroidal object, similar to the [[Shoemaker-Levy 9]] cometary impact with [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
*[[Boltysh crater]] (24 km diam., 65.17 ± 0.64 Ma old) in [[Ukraine]]
*[[Silverpit crater]] (20 km diam., 60-65 Ma old) in the [[North Sea]]
*[[Eagle Butte crater]] (10 km diam., < 65 Ma old) in [[Alberta, Canada]]
*[[Vista Alegre crater]] (9.5 km diam., < 65 Ma old) in [[Paraná State]], [[Brazil]]
Note: Ma means million years.
===Supernova hypothesis===
Another proposed cause for the K-T extinction event was cosmic radiation from a relatively nearby [[supernova]] explosion. The iridium anomaly at the boundary could support this hypothesis. The fallout from a supernova explosion should contain the [[plutonium]] isotope Pu-244, the longest-lived plutonium isotope ([[half-life]] 81 [[Myr]]), that is not found in earth rocks. However, analysis of the boundary layer sediments revealed the absence of Pu-244, thus essentially disproving this hypothesis.
==Further skepticism==
Although there is now general agreement that there was at least one huge impact at the end of the Cretaceous that led to the iridium enrichment of the K-T boundary layer, it is difficult to directly connect this to mass extinction, and in fact there is no clear linkage between an impact and any other incident of mass extinction, although research on other events also implicates impacts.
One interesting note about the K-T event is that most of the larger animals that survived were to some degree [[aquatic]], implying that aquatic habitats may have remained more hospitable than land habitats.
The impact and volcanic theories can be labeled "fast extinction" theories. There are also a number of slow extinction theories. Studies of the diversity and population of species have shown that the dinosaurs were in decline for a period of about 10 million years before the asteroid hit. (A study by Fastovsky & Sheehan (1995) counters that there is no evidence for a slow, 10 Myr decline of dinosaurs.) Slower mechanisms are needed to explain slow extinctions. [[Climatic change]], a change in Earth's [[magnetic field]], and disease have all been suggested as possible slow extinction theories. As mentioned above, extensive volcanism such as the [[Deccan Traps]] could have been a long term event lasting millions of years, although it is short in geologic terms.
References:
Favstovsky, D.E., and Sheehan, P.M.(2005) The extinction of the dinosaurs in North America. GSA Today, v. 15, no. 3, p. 4-10.
==Other mass extinctions==
It is worth noting that the Cretaceous extinction is neither the only mass extinction in Earth's history, nor even the worst. Previous [[extinction event]]s have included the [[Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events | Cambrian-Ordovician extinction]], [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction events | End Ordovician]], [[Triassic-Jurassic extinction events | Triassic-Jurassic]], [[Late Devonian extinction | Late Devonian]], and the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event | Permian-Triassic]], which is the largest extinction event ever recorded.
== References and external links ==
{{commons|Category:K/T Event}}
*[http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/SIC/impact_cratering/Chicxulub/Chicx_title.html Understanding the K-T Boundary] - NASA-related website
*[http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_58126.htm Shiva crater: Chatterjee et al. 2002 ''Volcanism, India-Seychelles Rifting, Dinosaur Extinctio |
ld. Its latest version is 2.0.7. ''Freeciv'' is included with many popular [[Linux]] distributions.
==Description==
Players take the role of a tribe leader in 4000 BC and have to guide their people through the centuries. Over time, new technologies are discovered, which allow the construction of new city buildings and the deployment of new units. Players can wage war on one another or form complex diplomatic relationships.
The game ends when one civilization has eradicated all others, when one people has accomplished the goal of space colonization, or at a certain deadline. If more than one civilization remains at the deadline, the player with the highest score wins. Points are awarded for the size of a civilization, its wealth, and cultural and scientific advances.
''Freeciv'' is quite configurable, so it can be played in ''[[Civilization I]]'', ''[[Civilization II]]'', ''Freeciv'' mode, or in a custom mode. Graphics and sounds can be replaced; there are [[Isometric projection|isometric]], [[Dimension|two-dimensional]] and hex graphics packages (tilesets).
''Freeciv'' uses [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] networking. Players have to connect to a [[server]], which can be run locally but is usually remote. Freeciv can be played solo against [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] opponents, or as a multiplayer game against other humans. Playing solo is done as a special case of multiplayer where only one human player connects to a locally run server; Freeciv 2.0 can automatically set up a server for solo games.
One or several players act as game administrator and can configure the game rules. Typically modified rules are:
* Number of players required before the game can be started
* Speed of technological development
* Whether there should be computer controlled players
* Whether (computer controlled) [[barbarian]]s should invade player settlements
* How close to one another cities can be built
* How continents and islands are supposed to be distributed over the map
While the game is turn based, players move simultaneously. Computer players move separately.
In releases before the 2.0.0 release, AI players could not engage in diplomatic relationships with human players. Under the current release, AI players will engage in a very deterministic (not random) diplomacy.
''Freeciv'' has a map and scenario editor called ''Civworld'' available as a separate download.
''Freeciv'' runs on [[Unix]] variants with the [[X Window System]] and some other platforms, including [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Amiga]], and [[Apple Macintosh]]. Freeciv can be considered somewhat of a "low-end" game: it does not have very spectacular graphics or visual effects, but on the other hand, in the course of its existence has had excellent [[portability]] and very low requirements on systems resources. Originally developed on [[SGI]] [[IRIX]], Freeciv has been reported to run on at least [[SunOS|SunOS 4]], [[Solaris_Operating_Environment|Solaris]], [[Ultrix]], [[QNX]], [[Linux]], [[FreeBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], [[NetBSD]], [[Mac OS X]], [[OS/2]], [[Windows 95]], [[Windows 98]], [[Cygwin]], [[Windows 2000]], [[Windows XP]], [[Amiga]], and possibly more [[operating system]]s; its multiplayer mode was designed to be playable over standard modem lines.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Freeciv|Freeciv}}
{{wikibookspar||Civilization}}
* [http://www.freeciv.org Freeciv homepage]
* [http://www.freeciv.de.ms Freeciv Fan-Site]
* [http://www.freeciv.org/index.php/Download Freeciv downloads]
* [http://old.freeciv.org/manual Freeciv manual]
* [http://www.freeciv.org/index.php/Special:People Freeciv contributors]
* [http://meta.freeciv.org/metaserver/freeciv.html Public Freeciv server list]
* [http://www.freeciv.org/index.php/Talk Freeciv mailinglists]
* [http://www.freeciv.org/index.php/Talk Freeciv IRC channel]
* [http://old.freeciv.org/civworld/ Civworld homepage]
* [http://forum.freeciv.org Freeciv.org forum]
* [http://www.apolyton.net/forums/forumdisplay.php?forumid=111 Apolyton forum]
{{civilization}}
[[Category: 1998 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Linux games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category: Windows games]]
[[Category:Civilization franchise]]
[[Category:Open source games]]
[[Category:Fanmade computer game remakes and sequels]]
[[cs:Freeciv]]
[[de:Freeciv]]
[[ja:Freeciv]]
[[nl:Freeciv]]
[[pl:Freeciv]]
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[[sv:Freeciv]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fornax</title>
<id>11123</id>
<revision>
<id>39495611</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T22:35:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rory096</username>
<id>750223</id>
</contributor>
<comment>link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Fornax |
abbreviation = For |
genitive = Fornacis |
symbology = the furnace |
RA = 3 |
dec= -30 |
areatotal = 398 |
arearank = 41st |
numberstars = None |
starname = &alpha; For |
starmagnitude = 3.87 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Cetus]]
*[[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]]
*[[Phoenix (constellation)|Phoenix]]
*[[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]] |
latmax = 50 |
latmin = 90 |
month = December |
notes=}}
'''Fornax''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[furnace]]'') is a southern [[constellation]] which was first introduced by [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] under the name ''Fornax Chemica'' (Latin for ''[[chemical]] furnace''). The [[Fornax Dwarf|Fornax Dwarf galaxy]] lies in Fornax.
The [[Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] is located within the constellation.
At a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in Britain, a team from University of Queensland described 40 unknown "dwarf" galaxies in this constellation.
They also described Fornax as being "on Earth's doorstep".
Follow-up observations with the Hubble Space Telescope and the European Southern Observatory's [[Very Large Telescope]] revealed that Ultra Compact Dwarfs are much smaller than previously known dwarf galaxies, about 120 light years across.
"Tens of millions of stars are squashed into what is a tiny volume by galaxy standards," the observatory said in a statement.
The [[Fornax cluster|Fornax galaxy cluster]] lies primarily in the constellation Fornax.
==Mythology==
Fornax, in [[Roman mythology]], was the goddess of bread and baking, although this has nothing to do with the constellation (''fornax'' is just the Roman word for ''furnace''), as the constellation was created in 1763.
===See also===
* [[Fornacalia]]
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* '''''[[Alpha Fornacis|Fornacis]]''''' (&alpha; For) 3.80
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Beta Fornacis|&beta; For]] 4.45; [[Gamma1 Fornacis|&gamma;<sup>1</sup> For]] 6.14; [[Gamma2 Fornacis|&gamma;<sup>2</sup> For]] 5.39; [[Delta Fornacis|&delta; For]] 4.99; [[Epsilon Fornacis|&epsilon; For]] 5.88; [[Zeta Fornacis|&zeta; For]] 5.69; [[Eta1 Fornacis|&eta;<sup>1</sup> For]] 6.51; [[Eta2 Fornacis|&eta;<sup>2</sup> For]] 5.92; [[Eta3 Fornacis|&eta;<sup>3</sup> For]] 5.48; [[Iota1 Fornacis|&iota;<sup>1</sup> For]] 5.74; [[Iota2 Fornacis|&iota;<sup>2</sup> For]] 5.84; [[Kappa Fornacis|&kappa; For]] 5.19; [[Lambda1 Fornacis|&lambda;<sup>1</sup> For]] 5.91; [[Lambda2 Fornacis|&lambda;<sup>2</sup> For]] 5.78; [[Mu Fornacis|&mu; For]] 5.27; [[Nu Fornacis|&nu; For]] 4.68; [[Pi Fornacis|&pi; For]] 5.34; [[Rho Fornacis|&rho; For]] 5.52; [[Sigma Fornacis|&sigma; For]] 5.91; [[Tau Fornacis|&tau; For]] 6.01; [[Chi1 Fornacis|&chi;<sup>1</sup> For]] 6.39; [[Chi2 Fornacis|&chi;<sup>2</sup> For]] 5.71; [[Chi3 Fornacis|&chi;<sup>3</sup> For]] 6.49; [[Phi Fornacis|&phi; For]] 5.13; [[Psi Fornacis|&psi; For]] 5.93; [[Omega Fornacis|&omega; For]] 4.96
{{astro-stub}}
{{ConstellationsByLacaille}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Fornax}}
[[Category:Fornax constellation| ]]
[[ca:Forn (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Pec (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Kemiske Ovn]]
[[de:Chemischer Ofen]]
[[es:Fornax]]
[[fr:Fourneau (constellation)]]
[[ko:화로자리]]
[[it:Fornax]]
[[la:Fornax (sidus)]]
[[lt:Krosnis (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Kemence (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Oven (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:ろ座]]
[[nn:Smelteomnen]]
[[pl:Piec (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Fornax]]
[[ru:Печь (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Pec]]
[[fi:Sulatusuuni]]
[[sv:Ugnen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวเตาหลอม]]
[[zh:天炉座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francesco Borromini</title>
<id>11125</id>
<revision>
<id>41547035</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:56:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>155.33.85.84</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Francesco Borromini''' ([[Bissone]] near [[Lugano]], [[Switzerland]], [[September 25]] [[1599]] &ndash; [[August 3]] [[1667]] in [[Rome]]) was a prominent and influential [[Baroque]] [[architect]], and active in Rome and contemporary with the prolific papal architect and often rival, [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]].
[[Image:Borromini.jpg|thumb|left|Borromini (anonymous youth portrait)]]
==Early Life and First Works=
Son of stone mason Giovanni Domenico Castelli, Borromini began his career as a stone mason himself, and soon moved to [[Milan]] to study and practice this activity. He was also called "Bissone", by the place in which he was born. When in [[Rome]] ([[1619]]) he changed his name (from Castelli to Borromini) and started working for [[Carlo Maderno]], his distant relative, at [[St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's]]. When Maderno died in 1629, he joined the group under [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], completing the facade and expansions of Maderno's [[Palazzo Barberini]].
==Independent Works==
In [[1634]], his first individual commission was the reconstruction |
arboniferous coal was formed from the [[Glossopteris]] [[flora]], which grew on cold [[periglacial]] [[tundra]] when the South Pole was a long way inland in [[Gondwanaland]].
A speculative inorganic process was proposed by [[Thomas Gold]] in his book ''The Deep Hot Biosphere: The Myth of Fossil Fuels.'' He proposes that black coal is continually created from the condensates of magma under the [[Earth's crust]]. This speculative hypothesis makes a distinction between brown and black coal, and upholds that brown coal is formed by the classical organic process.
== Types of coal ==
As geological processes apply [[pressure]] to [[peat]] over time, it is transformed successively into:
* [[Lignite]] - also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for steam-electric power generation. [[Jet (lignite)|Jet]] is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an [[ornamental]] stone since the [[Iron Age]].
* [[Sub-bituminous coal]] - whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal and are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation.
* [[Bituminous coal]] - a dense coal, usually black, sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make [[Coke (fuel)|coke]].
* [[Anthracite]] - the highest rank, used primarily for residential and commercial space heating.
== Uses ==
[[Image:DSCN4524 ashtabulacoalcars e2.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Coal rail cars in [[Ashtabula, Ohio]].]]
===Coal as fuel===
:''See also [[Clean coal]]''
Coal is primarily used as a solid [[fuel]] to produce heat through combustion.
World coal consumption is about 5,800 million short tons (5.3 [[petagram]]s) annually, of which about 75% is used for electricity production. The region including [[China]] and [[India]] uses about 1,700 million short tons (1.5 Pg) annually, forecast to exceed 3,000 million short tons (2.7 Pg) in [[2025]]. {{ref|www.eia.doe.gov.751}} The USA consumes about 1,100 million short tons (1.0 Pg) of coal each year, using 90% of it for generation of electricity. Coal is the fastest growing energy source in the world, with coal use increasing by 25% for the three-year period ending in December 2004 (BP Statistical Energy Review, June 2005).
When coal is used in [[electricity generation]], it is generally pulverized and then burned. The heat produced is used to create [[steam]], which is then used to spin [[turbine]]s which turn generators and create electricity. Approximately 40% of the Earth's current electricity production is powered by coal, and the total known deposits recoverable by current technologies are sufficient for 300 years' use at current rates (see World Coal Reserves, below).
A promising, more energy efficient way of using coal for electricity production would be via [[solid-oxide fuel cell]]s or [[molten-carbonate fuel cell]]s (or any oxygen ion transport based fuel cells that do not discriminate between fuels, as long as they consume oxygen), which would be able to get 60%-85% combined efficiency (direct electricity + waste heat steam turbine), compared to 30-40% currently possible with only steam turbines. Currently these fuel cell technologies can only process gaseous fuels, and they are also sensitive to sulfur poisoning, issues which would first have to be worked out before large scale commercial success is possible with coal. As far as gaseous fuels go, one idea is pulverized coal in a gas carrier (nitrogen), especially if the resulting carbon dioxide is sequestered, and has to be separated anyway from the carrier. A better idea is coal gasification with water, then the water recycled.
<div style="clear: both"></div>
====Gasification====
High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in "BTU Conversion" technologies such as coal gasification, methanation, liquefacation, and solidification.
In the past, coal was converted to make [[town gas | coal gas]], which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking. At present, the safer [[natural gas]] is used instead. South Africa still uses gasification of coal for much of its petrochemical needs.
Gasification is also a possibility for future energy use, as it generally burns hotter and cleaner than conventional coal and can thus spin a more efficient [[gas turbine]] rather than a steam turbine. It also makes for the possibility of zero carbon dioxide emissions even though the energy comes from the conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide. This is because gasification produces a much higher concentration of carbon dioxide than direct combustion of coal in [[air]] (which is mostly nitrogen). The higher concentrations of carbon dioxide makes [[carbon capture and storage]] more economical than otherwise.
====Liquefaction====
Coal can also be converted into [[synthetic fuel|liquid fuels]] like [[gasoline]] or [[diesel]] by several different processes. The [[Fischer-Tropsch process]] of indirect synthesis of liquid hydrocarbons was used in [[Nazi Germany]], and for many years by [[Sasol]] in [[South Africa]] - in both cases, because those regimes were politically isolated and unable to purchase [[crude oil]] on the open market. Coal would be gasified to make [[syngas]] (a balanced purified mixture of CO and H<sub>2</sub> gas) and the syngas condensed using Fischer-Tropsch catalysts to make light hydrocarbons which are further processed into [[gasoline]] and [[diesel]]. Syngas can also be converted to [[methanol]]: which can be used as a fuel, fuel additive, or further processed into gasoline via the [[Mobil]] M-gas process.
A direct liquefaction process [[Bergius process]] (liquefaction by hydrogenation) is also available but has not been used outside [[Germany]], where such processes were operated both during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. SASOL in South Africa has experimented with direct hydrogenation. Several other direct liquefaction processes have been developed, among these being the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes developed by [[Gulf Oil]] and implemented as pilot plants in the United States in the 1960's and 1970's.{{ref|TSRCoalLiquefaction}}
Yet another process to manufacture liquid hydrocarbons from coal is low temperature carbonization (LTC). Coal is coked at temperatures between 450 and 700 °C compared to 800 to 1000 °C for metalurgical coke. These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. The process was developed by Lewis Karrick, an oil shale technologist at the U.S. Bureau of Mines in the 1920s.{{ref|www.rexresearch.com.752}}
All of these liquid fuel production methods release [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) in the conversion process, far more than is released in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production from petroleum. If these methods were adopted to replace declining petroleum supplies carbon dioxide emissions would be greatly increased on a global scale. For future liquefaction projects, [[Carbon dioxide sequestration]] is proposed to avoid releasing it into the atmosphere. As CO<sub>2</sub> is one of the process streams, sequestration is easier than from flue gases produced in [[combustion]] of coal with [[Earth's atmosphere|air]], where CO<sub>2</sub> is diluted by [[nitrogen]] and other gases. Sequestration will, however, add to the cost.
Coal liquefaction is one of the backstop technologies that limit escalation of oil prices. Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest that domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal becomes cost-competitive with oil priced at around 35 USD per barrel {{ref|www.findarticles.com.753}}, (break-even cost), which is well above historical averages - but is now viable due to the spike in oil prices in 2004-2005. {{ref|www.coalpeople.com.754}}.
Among commercially mature technologies, advantage for indirect coal liquefaction over direct coal liquefaction are reported by Williams and Larson (2003). Estimates are reported for sites in China where break-even cost for coal liquefaction may be in the range between 25 to 35 USD/barrel of oil.
===Coking and use of coke===
{{main|Coke (fuel)}}
[[coke (fuel)|Coke]] is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur [[bituminous coal]] from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C (2,000 °F) so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting [[iron]] ore in a blast furnace. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Byproducts of this conversion of coal to coke include [[coal-tar]], [[ammonia]], light oils, and "[[coal-gas]]".
[[Petroleum coke]] is the solid residue obtained in [[oil refining]], which resembles coke but contains too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications.
===Harmful effects of coal burning===
Combustion of coal, like any other compound containing carbon, produces [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>), along with varying amounts of [[sulfur dioxide]] (SO<sub>2</sub>) depending on where it was mined. Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form [[sulfurous acid]]. If sulfur dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere, it reacts with water vapor and is eventually returned to the Earth as [[acid rain]].
Emissions from coal-fired power plants represent the largest source of [[carbon dioxide]] emissions, a primary cause of [[global warming]]. Many other pollutants are present in co |
a Cage aux Folles]]'' - 1983 - [[Tony Award]] for Best Direction of a Musical
*''[[The Madwoman of Central Park West]]'' - 1979
*''[[Gypsy: A Musical Fable|Gypsy]]'' - 1974 - [[Tony Award|Tony]] Nomination for Best Direction of a Musical
*''[[I Can Get It for You Wholesale]]'' - 1962
*''[[Invitation to a March]]'' - 1960
==Play==
*''[[Invitation to a March]]'' - 1960
*''[[A Clearing in the Woods]]'' - 1957
*''[[The Time of the Cuckoo]]'' - 1952
*''[[The Bird Cage]]'' - 1950
*''[[Home of the Brave]]'' - 1945
[[Category:1918 births|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:American dramatists and playwrights|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:American novelists|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:American screenwriters|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:Hollywood blacklist|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:Living people|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:Musical theatre librettists|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[de:Arthur Laurents]]
[[sv:Arthur Laurents]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AD Police</title>
<id>3000</id>
<revision>
<id>40360179</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''AD Police''' is an [[anime]] [[science fiction]] series, composed of the 12-episode long [[AD Police: To Serve and Protect]] TV series and the 3-episode long [[AD Police Files]] [[Original Video Animation|OVA]] series. AD Police is a [[spin-off]] of another anime series: ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]''. The ''AD'' in AD Police is short for ''Advanced'', although there are some mistaken translations as ''Armored Division''.
== Story ==
The AD Police are an elite group of highly trained and specially equipped [[police]] officers who have been formed to deal with [[terrorism|terrorist]] activities and [[Boomer (anime term)|Boomer]] [[robot]] crimes in the city of [[Megatokyo (disambiguation)|Megatokyo]].
They are too heavily armed and equipped (including power armors like the K-11 and K-12) for a normal police force, and too lightly for a military organization.
The AD Police are offered a great deal of leeway in their activities, often blockading large sections of the city and causing great amounts of property damage in the course of fulfilling their duty. Despite their dedication to their jobs, however, the citizens of Megatokyo tend to dislike and distrust members of the AD Police, seeing them as corrupt and ineffectual.
== Filmography ==
The AD Police have been featured in the following [[anime]]:
* [[AD Police Files]] #1-3
* [[Bubblegum Crisis]] #1-8
* [[Bubblegum Crash]]! #1-3
* [[Bubblegum Crisis Tokyo 2040]] (TV)
* [[AD Police: To Serve and Protect|AD Police (TV)]]
* [[Parasite Dolls]] #1-3
The AD Police have also been featured in the following [[manga]], [[comics]] and other products:
* Bubblegum Crisis: Grand Mal
* [[Ani-Mayhem]] [[Collectible Card Game]]
== See also ==
* [[Leon McNichol]]
* [[Daley Wong]]
* [[Jeena Malso]]
<!-- these articles have not been composed. Please uncomment this when they have been created
* [[Hans Klief]]
* [[Kenji Sasaki]]
* [[Lou Bonnevie]] (ost vocalist)
end comment -->
==External links==
* [http://themanime.org/viewreview.php?id=6 AD Police Files review at THEM Anime]
* [http://themanime.org/viewreview.php?id=650 AD Police TV review at THEM Anime]
* [http://bgcc.thecrisiscenter.net The Bubblegum Crisis Center]
{{Bubblegum_crisis}}
[[Category:Bubblegum_crisis]]
[[Category:Fictional law enforcement agencies]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Auckland</title>
<id>3001</id>
<revision>
<id>41741344</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T12:10:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox bordered" align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=275 style="clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; font-size: 95%;"
|-
|colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#f9f9f9"|<big>'''Auckland'''</big>
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|
[[Image:Auckland.PNG|250px|center]]
|-
|Population:||1,241,800
|-
|Location:||{{coor dm|36|51|S|174|47|E|region:NZ_type:city(1,241,600)}} [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]
|-
|Mayor:||Multiple, including [[Dick Hubbard]], [[Sir Barry Curtis]], [[Bob Harvey]], [[George Wood (New Zealand)|George Wood]]
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#BFDFFF"|Urban Area
|-
|Extent:||north to Kumeu & Waiwera,<br>east to Bucklands Beach,<br>south to Runciman;<br>excludes Waitakere Ranges<br>& Hauraki Gulf Islands
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#BFDFFF"|Territorial Authority
|-
|Names:||[[Auckland City]]<br>[[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]]<br>
[[Waitakere]]<br>[[Manukau, New Zealand|Manukau]]
|-
|Regional Council:||[[Auckland (region)|Auckland]]
|-
|}
'''Auckland''', in the [[North Island]] of [[New Zealand]], is the largest [[New Zealand urban area|urban area]] in New Zealand. It is a [[conurbation]], made up of the cities of [[Auckland City|Auckland]], [[Waitakere]], [[Manukau]] and [[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]]. In [[Māori language|Māori]] it bears the name '''Tāmaki Makau Rau''' or '''Ākarana'''.
Auckland lies between the [[Hauraki Gulf]] of the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the east, the low [[Hunua Ranges]] to the south-east, [[Manukau Harbour]] to the south-west, and the [[Waitakere Ranges]] and smaller ranges to the west and north-west. The central part of the urban area occupies a narrow [[isthmus]] between [[Manukau harbour]] on the [[Tasman Sea|Tasman]] and [[Waitemata Harbour]] on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]). It is one of the few cities in the world to have harbours on two separate bodies of water.
== History ==
=== Māori settlers ===
''Tamaki Makau Rau'' (isthmus of one thousand lovers), now known as Auckland, was first settled by [[Māori]] people around 1350. The region was valued for its rich and fertile land. Māori constructed terraced ''[[Pa (Māori)|pa]]'' (fortified villages) on the volcanic peaks. Māori population is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 in the region in [[settlement|pre-settlement]] times, a figure which would later qualify in New Zealand as a city. Earthworks are still evident today around some of the larger volcanoes such as [[Mount Albert, New Zealand|Mount Albert]], [[Mount Eden]] and [[One Tree Hill, New Zealand|One Tree Hill]].
The isthmus, around 8km wide with Mount Eden and One Tree Hill at its narrowest point, led to the area having great strategic qualities. The isthmus also has the highly productive soils providing [[agricultural]] opportunities, and the two harbours providing diverse [[Sea food|kai moana]] (seafood).
[[Ngati Whatua|Ng&#257;ti Wh&#257;tua]] and [[Tainui]] were the main tribes traditionally living in the area. The arrival of Europeans, using guns as one of many trade commodities, changed the balance of power between [[iwi]] with the inevitable result of armed conflict. European settlement caused Māori numbers in what is now central Auckland city to be greatly reduced due to inter-iwi warfare, new diseases (especially [[smallpox]] and [[tuberculosis]]), and the common ills experienced by [[indigenous peoples]] from [[colonisation]]. There was a period of migrations of both Europeans and M&#257;ori, one of the initial appeals of the area to Europeans being its low indigenous population.
&#256;pihai Te Kawau (c. 1760-1869), leader of the Ngati Taou [[Hapu]], was a good friend of [[Samuel Marsden]]. Over a ten-month period in 1821-1822 he conducted a principal part in the 1,000 mile ''Amiowhenua expedition''. This series of battles raged through much of the central and southern North Island. It ended when Te Kawau's Ngāti Whātua forces, uniting with the Taranaki they were embattled with, jointly defended the Tainui Matakitaki pa from [[Hongi Hika|Hongi Hika's]] [[Ngapuhi]] forces.
By 1840 Te Kawau had become the paramount chief of Ngāti Whātua. Cautious of reprisals from the Nga Puhi defeated at Matakitaki, Te Kawau found it most convenient to offer [[William Hobson|Governor Hobson]] land around the present central city. He and six other chiefs travelled the [[Bay of Islands]] to make the offer and signed the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] on [[20 March]].
Ngāti Whātua would certainly have expected from English [[colonialism]] increased security and trading benefits. This would include greater access via the quickly developed port facilities for the lucrative trade in produce grown in [[Tainui]]'s fertile [[Waikato]] and [[Hauraki Plains]] for the [[prison colony|Australian prison colonies]] and [[Sydney]] market. The sale price for the initial 3,000 [[acres]] (12 km&sup2;) was for cash and goods to the value of £341.
As M&#257;ori population declined for nearly a century, so did the quantity of land held by Ngāti Whātua. Within 20 years, 40% of their lands were lost, some through government land confiscation. At close to the lowest level of population, Ngāti Whātua land holding was reduced to a few acres at [[Orakei]], land which Te Kawau had declared "a last stand".
=== Birth of Auckland ===
After the signing of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] in February 1840 the new Governor of New Zealand, [[William Hobson]], had the task of choosing a [[capital]] for the colony. At the time, the main European settlements were in the [[Bay of Islands]]. However, the Bay of Island |
wer-play goal, a short-handed goal, a penalty shot, and an empty-net goal.
*[[1990]] - [[Garry Kasparov]] holds his title by winning the [[World Chess Championship]] match against his countryman [[Anatoly Karpov]].
*[[1991]] - The [[Soviet Union]] is officially dissolved.
*[[1992]] - In the last of the great [[ITV]] franchise renewals, [[Thames Television]], [[Television South West]] and [[Television South]] cease broadcasting, replaced by [[Carlton Television]], [[Westcountry Television]] and [[Meridian Television]] respectively.
*[[1993]]- Transgendered Nebraska teen [[Brandon Teena]] is brutally murdered with two others in an act of [[homophobia]].
*[[1995]] - The [[Calvin and Hobbes]] cartoon strip ends.
*[[1997]] - [[Opryland USA]] [[theme park]] in [[Nashville, Tennessee]] closes permanently after 26 years in operation.
*[[1999]] - [[Boris Yeltsin]] resigns as [[President of Russia]], to be replaced by [[Vladimir Putin]].
*1999 - Five [[hijacking|hijackers]], who had been holding 155 hostages on an [[Indian Airlines]] plane, leave the plane with two Islamic clerics that they had demanded be freed.
*1999 - The [[Panama Canal]] comes completely under [[Panama]]'s jurisdiction.
*[[2005]] - A [[leap second]] is added to 2005, thus making [[2006]] a second late.
==Births==
*[[1378]] - [[Pope Callixtus III]] (d. [[1458]])
*[[1491]] - [[Jacques Cartier]], French explorer (d. [[1557]])
*[[1514]] - [[Vesalius]], Flemish anatomist (d. [[1564]])
*[[1572]] - [[Emperor Go-Yozei of Japan]], (d. [[1617]])
*[[1668]] - [[Herman Boerhaave]], Dutch humanist and physician (d. [[1738]])
*[[1720]] - [[Charles Edward Stuart]], pretender to the British throne (d. [[1788]])
*[[1738]] - [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis]], British general (d. [[1805]])
*[[1763]] - [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], French admiral (d. [[1806]])
*[[1869]] - [[Henri Matisse]], French painter and graphic artist (d. [[1954]])
*[[1880]] - [[George Marshall]], [[United States Secretary of State]], recipient of [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1959]])
*[[1881]] - [[Max Pechstein]], German painter and graphic artist (d. [[1955]])
*[[1894]] - [[Pola Negri]], Polish actress (d. [[1987]])
*[[1903]] - [[Nathan Milstein]], Ukrainian violinist (d. [[1992]])
*[[1905]] - [[Jule Styne]], English-born composer (d. [[1994]])
*[[1908]] - [[Simon Wiesenthal]], Austrian Holocaust survivor and activist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1910]] - [[Carl Dudley]], American film director (died [[1973]])
*[[1919]] - [[Tommy Byrne (baseball)|Tommy Byrne]], baseball player
*[[1920]] - [[Rex Allen]], American actor and singer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1928]] - [[Siné]], French cartoonist
*[[1930]] - [[Odetta]], American singer
*[[1931]] - [[Bob Shaw]], Northern Irish science fiction writer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1937]] - [[Avram Hershko]], Israeli biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]
*1937 - [[Anthony Hopkins]], Welsh actor
*[[1938]] - [[Rosalind Cash]], American actress (d. [[1995]])
*[[1941]] - [[Alex Ferguson]], Scottish football player and manager
*[[1942]] - [[Andy Summers]], British musician ([[The Police]])
*[[1943]] - [[John Denver]], American musician (d. [[1997]])
*1943 - [[Ben Kingsley]], English actor
*[[1945]] - [[Taylor Hackford]], American film producer and director
*1945 - [[Diane von Fürstenberg]], fashion designer
*[[1947]] - [[Burton Cummings]], Canadian musician ([[The Guess Who]])
*1947 - [[Tim Matheson]], American actor
*[[1948]] - [[Donna Summer]], American singer
*[[1951]] - [[George Thorogood]], American musician
*1951 - [[Tom Hamilton (musician)|Tom Hamilton]], American musician ([[Aerosmith]])
*[[1953]] - [[James Remar]], American actor
*1953 - [[Jane Badler]], American actress
*[[1958]] - [[Bebe Neuwirth]], American actress
*[[1959]] - [[Phill Kline]], American politician
*1959 - [[Val Kilmer]], American actor
*1959 - [[Paul Westerberg]], American singer/songwriter, musician ([[Replacements]])
*[[1960]] - [[John Allen Muhammad]], American serial killer
*[[1963]] - [[Scott Ian]], British musician ([[Anthrax (band)|Anthrax]])
*[[1964]] - [[Allen D'Nulderf]], American stuntman
*[[1971]] - [[Brent Barry]], American basketball player
*[[1980]] - [[Richie McCaw]], New Zealand rugby player
*1980 - [[Bob Bryar]], American drummer
==Deaths==
*[[192]] - [[Commodus]], [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] (b. [[161]])
*[[1164]] - Margrave [[Ottokar III of Styria]] (b. [[1124]])
*[[1194]] - Duke [[Leopold V of Austria (Babenberg)|Leopold V of Austria]] (killed at a tournament) (b. [[1157]])
*[[1297]] - [[Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford]], English soldier (b. [[1249]])
*[[1302]] - [[Frederick III, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1238]])
*[[1384]] - [[John Wycliffe]], English theologian and Bible translator
*[[1424]] - [[Thomas Beaufort, 1st Duke of Exeter]], English military leader
*[[1460]] - [[Edmund, Earl of Rutland]], brother of Kings [[Edward IV of England]] and [[Richard III of England]] (executed) (b. [[1443]])
*1460 - [[Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury]], English politician (b. [[1400]])
*[[1510]] - [[Bianca Maria Sforza]], wife of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1472]])
*[[1535]] - [[William Skeffington]], Lord Deputy of Ireland (b. [[1465]])
*[[1568]] - [[Shimazu Tadayoshi]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1493]])
*[[1575]] - [[Pierino Belli]], Italian soldier and jurist (b. [[1502]])
*[[1583]] - [[Thomas Erastus]], Swiss theologian (b. [[1524]])
*[[1610]] - [[Ludolph van Ceulen]], German mathematician (b. [[1540]])
*[[1650]] - [[Dorgon]], Chinese emperor (b. [[1612]])
*[[1673]] - [[Oliver St John]], English statesman and judge
*[[1679]] - [[Giovanni Alfonso Borelli]], Italian physiologist and physicist (b. [[1608]])
*[[1691]] - [[Dudley North]], English economist (b. [[1641]])
*[[1719]] - [[John Flamsteed]], English astonomer (b. [[1646]])
*[[1742]] - [[Karl III Philip, Elector Palatine]] (b. [[1661]])
*[[1799]] - [[Jean-François Marmontel]], French historian and writer (b. [[1723]])
*[[1872]] - [[Aleksis Kivi]], Finnish author (b. [[1834]])
*[[1877]] - [[Gustave Courbet]], French painter (b. [[1819]])
*[[1888]] - [[Samson Raphael Hirsch]], German rabbi (b. [[1808]])
*[[1889]] - [[Ion Creangă]], Romanian writer (b. [[1837]] or [[1839]])
*[[1905]] - [[Alexander Popov (physicist)|Alexander Popov]], Russian physicist (b. [[1859]])
*[[1921]] - [[Boies Penrose]], United States Senator from Pennsylvania (b. [[1860]])
*[[1936]] - [[Miguel de Unamuno]], Spanish writer and philosopher (b. [[1864]])
*[[1948]] - [[Malcolm Campbell]], English race car driver (b. [[1885]])
*[[1953]] - [[Albert Plesman]], Dutch aviation pioneer (b. [[1889]])
*[[1964]] - [[Ólafur Thors]], Icelandic politician and five times prime minister (b. [[1892]])
*[[1969]] - [[George Lewis (clarinetist)|George Lewis]], American musician (b. [[1900]])
*[[1971]] - [[Vikram Sarabhai]], Indian physicist (b. [[1919]])
*[[1972]] - [[Roberto Clemente]], baseball player (b. [[1934]])
*[[1977]] - [[Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah]], Ruler of Kuwait (b. [[1924]])
*[[1980]] - [[Marshall McLuhan]], Canadian writer (b. [[1911]])
*1980 - [[Raoul Walsh]], American film director (b. [[1887]])
*[[1985]] - [[Rick Nelson]], American singer (b. [[1940]])
*[[1990]] - [[Vasili Lazarev]], cosmonaut (b. [[1928]])
*[[1993]] - [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]], first [[President of Georgia]] (b. [[1939]])
*[[1997]] - [[Floyd Cramer]], American musician (b. [[1933]])
*[[1999]] - [[Elliot Richardson]], American politician (b. [[1920]])
*[[2000]] - [[Alan Cranston]], American politician (b. [[1914]])
*[[2003]] - [[Arthur R. von Hippel]] German-born physicist (b. [[1898]])
*[[2004]] - [[Gerard Debreu]], French-born economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1921]])
*[[2005]] - [[Phillip Whitehead]], British politician (b. [[1937]])
==Holidays and observances==
The evening is called [[New Year's Eve]]. At 24:00 the beginning of the new year is celebrated, see [[January 1]]. The day and evening are called [[Hogmanay]] in Scotland. In Japan the evening is called [[Omisoka|Ōmisoka]]. In the [[Holidays in the Philippines|Philippines]] it is a public holiday.
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[Pope Sylvester I]] (optional memorial)
*The sixth [[Twelvetide|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
*Also see December 31 [[Eastern Orthodox]] liturgics.
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of <u>Sh</u>araf (Honor) - First day of the 16th month of the [[Bahá'í Calendar]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/31 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/31 Today in History: December 31]
----
[[December 30]] - [[January 1]] - [[November 30]] - [[January 31]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:31 Desember]]
[[ar:31 ديسمبر]]
[[an:31 d'abiento]]
[[ast:31 d'avientu]]
[[bg:31 декември]]
[[be:31 сьнежня]]
[[bs:31. decembar]]
[[ca:31 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 31]]
[[cv:Раштав, 31]]
[[co:31 di decembre]]
[[cs:31. prosinec]]
[[cy:31 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:31. december]]
[[de:31. Dezember]]
[[et:31. detsember]]
[[el:31 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:31 de diciembre]]
[[eo:31-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 31]]
[[fo:31. desember]]
[[fr:31 décembre]]
[[fy:31 desimber]]
[[ga:31 Nollaig]]
[[gl:31 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 31일]]
[[hr:31. prosinca]]
[[io:31 di decembro]]
[[id:31 Desember]]
[[ia:31 de decembre]]
[[is:31. desember]]
[[it:31 dicembre]]
[[he:31 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:31 Desember]]
[[ka:31 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:31 gòdnika]]
[[ku:31'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:31 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 31]]
[[lb:31. Dezember]]
[[li:31 december]]
[[hu:December 31]]
[[mk:31 декември]]
[[ms:31 Disember]]
[[nap:31 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:31 december]]
[[ja:12月31日]]
[[no:31. desember]]
[[nn:31. desember]]
[[oc:31 de decembre]]
[[os:31 декабры]]
[[pl:31 grudnia]]
[[pt:31 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:31 decembrie]]
[[ru:31 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 31.]]
[[sco:31 December]]
[[sq:31 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:31 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 31]]
[[sk:31. december]]
[[sl:31. december]]
[[sr:31. децембар]]
[[f |
: <math>\!\, e^{x \ln e}=e^{x \left(1\right)}=e^x.</math>
Exponential functions "translate between addition and multiplication" as is expressed in the following ''exponential laws'':
: <math>\!\, a^0 = 1</math>
: <math>\!\, a^1 = a</math>
: <math>\!\, a^{x + y} = a^x a^y</math>
: <math>\!\, a^{x y} = \left( a^x \right)^y</math>
: <math>\!\, {1 \over a^x} = \left({1 \over a}\right)^x = a^{-x}</math>
: <math>\!\, a^x b^x = (a b)^x</math>
These are valid for all positive real numbers ''a'' and ''b'' and all real numbers ''x'' and ''y''. Expressions involving [[fraction (mathematics)|fraction]]s and [[Radical (mathematics)|roots]] can often be simplified using exponential notation because:
: <math>{1 \over a} = a^{-1}</math>
and, for any ''a'' > 0, real number ''b'', and integer ''n''&nbsp;>&nbsp;1:
: <math>\sqrt[n]{a^b} = \left(\sqrt[n]{a}\right)^b = a^{b/n}</math>
For any real constant ''c'' holds:
: <math> f'(0)=\lim_{h \to 0}\frac{e^{ch}-1}{h}=c</math>
for <math>f(x)=e^{ch}</math>
==Derivatives and differential equations==
The importance of exponential functions in mathematics and the sciences stems mainly from properties of their [[derivative]]s. In particular,
: <math>{d \over dx} e^x = e^x</math>
That is, ''e''<sup>''x''</sup> is its own [[derivative]], a property unique among real-valued functions of a real variable. Other ways of saying the same thing include:
*The slope of the graph at any point is the height of the function at that point.
*The rate of increase of the function at ''x'' is equal to the value of the function at ''x''.
*The function solves the [[differential equation]] <math>y'=y</math>.
*exp is a [[fixed point]] of derivative as a [[Functional (mathematics)|functional]]
In fact, many differential equations give rise to exponential functions, including the [[Schrödinger equation]] and the [[Laplace's equation]] as well as the equations for [[simple harmonic motion]].
For exponential functions with other bases:
: <math>{d \over dx} a^x = (\ln a) a^x</math>
Thus ''any'' exponential function is a [[constant]] multiple of its own derivative.
If a variable's growth or decay rate is [[proportionality (mathematics)|proportional]] to its size &mdash; as is the case in unlimited population growth (see [[Malthusian catastrophe]]), continuously compounded [[interest]], or [[radioactive decay]] &mdash; then the variable can be written as a constant times an exponential function of time.
Furthermore for any differentiable function f(x) holds:
: <math>{d \over dx} e^{f(x)} = f'(x)e^{f(x)}</math>
==Formal definition==
The exponential function e<sup>''x''</sup> can be defined in a variety of equivalent ways, as an [[infinite series]]. In particular it may be defined by a [[power series]]:
: <math>e^x = \sum_{n = 0}^{\infty} {x^n \over n!} = 1 + x + {x^2 \over 2!} + {x^3 \over 3!} + {x^4 \over 4!} + \cdots</math>
or as the [[limit of a sequence]]:
: <math>e^x = \lim_{n \to \infty} \left( 1 + {x \over n} \right)^n.</math>
In these definitions, <math>n!</math> stands for the [[factorial]] of ''n'', and ''x'' can be any [[real number]], [[complex number]], element of a [[Banach algebra]] (for example, a [[square matrix]]), or member of the field of [[p-adic numbers|''p''-adic numbers]].
For further explanation of these definitions and a proof of their equivalence, see the article [[Definitions of the exponential function]].
==Numerical value==
To obtain the numerical value of the exponential function, the infinite series can be rewritten as :
:<math>e^x = {1 \over 0!} + x \, \left( {1 \over 1!} + x \, \left( {1 \over 2!} + x \, \left( {1 \over 3!} + \cdots \right)\right)\right)</math>
:<math>= 1 + {x \over 1} \left(1 + {x \over 2} \left(1 + {x \over 3} \left(1 + \cdots \right)\right)\right)</math>
This expression will converge quickly if we can ensure that x is less than one.
To ensure this, we can use the following identity.
:{|
|-
|<math>e^x\,</math>
|<math>=e^{z+f}\,</math>
|-
|
|<math>= e^z \times \left[ {1 \over 0!} + f \, \left( {1 \over 1!} + f \, \left( {1 \over 2!} + f \, \left( {1 \over 3!} + \cdots \right)\right)\right)\right]</math>
|}
* Where <math>z</math> is the integer part of <math>x</math>
* Where <math>f</math> is the fractional part of <math>x</math>
* Hence, <math>f</math> is a always less than 1 and <math>f</math> and <math>z</math> add up to <math>x</math>.
The value of the constant e<sup>z</sup> can be calculated beforehand by multiplying e with itself z times.
== On the complex plane ==
When considered as a function defined on the [[complex number|complex plane]], the exponential function retains the important properties
: <math>\!\, e^{z + w} = e^z e^w</math>
: <math>\!\, e^0 = 1</math>
: <math>\!\, e^z \ne 0</math>
: <math>\!\, {d \over dz} e^z = e^z</math>
for all ''z'' and ''w''.
It is a [[holomorphic function]] which is periodic with [[imaginary number|imaginary]] period <math>2 \pi i</math> and can be written as
: <math>\!\, e^{a + bi} = e^a (\cos b + i \sin b)</math>
where ''a'' and ''b'' are real values. This formula connects the exponential function with the [[trigonometric function]]s and to the [[hyperbolic function]]s. Thus we see that all [[elementary function]]s except for the [[polynomial]]s spring from the exponential function in one way or another.
See also [[Euler's formula]].
Extending the natural logarithm to complex arguments yields a [[multi-valued function]], ln(''z''). We can then define a more general exponentiation:
: <math>\!\, z^w = e^{w \ln z}</math>
for all complex numbers ''z'' and ''w''. This is also a multi-valued function. The above stated exponential laws remain true if interpreted properly as statements about multi-valued functions.
The exponential function maps any [[line_(mathematics)|line]] in the complex plane to a [[logarithmic spiral]] in the complex plane with the center at the [[origin]]. This can be seen by noting that the case of a line parallel with the real or imaginary axis maps to a line or [[circle]].
== Matrices and Banach algebras ==
The definition of the exponential function given above can be used verbatim for every [[Banach algebra]], and in particular for square [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] (in which case the function is called the [[matrix exponential]]). In this case we have
: <math>\ e^{x + y} = e^x e^y \mbox{ if } xy = yx</math>
: <math>\ e^0 = 1</math>
: <math>\ e^x</math> is invertible with inverse <math>\ e^{-x}</math>
: the derivative of <math>\ e^x</math> at the point <math>\ x</math> is that linear map which sends <math>\ u</math> to <math>\ ue^x</math>.
In the context of non-commutative Banach algebras, such as algebras of matrices or operators on [[Banach space|Banach]] or [[Hilbert space|Hilbert]] spaces, the exponential function is often considered as a function of a real argument:
: <math>\ f(t) = e^{t A}</math>
where ''A'' is a fixed element of the algebra and ''t'' is any real number. This function has the important properties
: <math>\ f(s + t) = f(s) f(t)</math>
: <math>\ f(0) = 1</math>
: <math>\ f'(t) = A f(t)</math>
== On Lie algebras ==
The "exponential map" sending a [[Lie algebra]] to the [[Lie group]] that gave rise to it shares the above properties, which explains the terminology. In fact, since '''R''' is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of all positive real numbers with multiplication, the ordinary exponential function for real arguments is a special case of the Lie algebra situation. Similarly, since the Lie algebra M(''n'', '''R''') of all square real matrices belongs to the Lie group of all invertible square matrices, the exponential function for square matrices is a special case of the Lie algebra [[exponential map]].
==Double exponential function==
The term '''''double exponential function''''' can have two meanings:
*a function with two exponential terms, with different exponents
*a function <math>f(x) = a^{a^x}</math>; this grows even faster than an exponential function; for example, if ''a'' = 10: ''f''(&minus;1) = 1.26, ''f''(0) = 10, ''f''(1) = 10<sup>10</sup>, ''f''(2) = 10<sup>100</sup> = [[googol]], ''f''(3) = 10<sup>1000</sup>, ..., ''f''(100) = [[googolplex]].
Compare the [[Tetration#Extension_to_real_numbers|super-exponential function]], which grows even faster.
==See also==
*[[Exponential growth]]
*[[Exponentiation]]
*[[List of exponential topics]]
==External links==
* {{planetmath reference|title=Complex exponential function|id=6341}}
[[Category:Elementary special functions]]
[[Category:Complex analysis]]
[[Category:Exponentials]]
[[Category:Special hypergeometric functions]]
[[da:Eksponentialfunktion]]
[[de:Exponentialfunktion]]
[[es:Función exponencial]]
[[fr:Exponentielle]]
[[ko:지수함수]]
[[io:Exponentala]]
[[he:פונקציה מעריכית]]
[[nl:Exponentiële functie]]
[[ja:指数関数]]
[[pl:Funkcja wykładnicza]]
[[pt:Função exponencial]]
[[ru:Показательная функция]]
[[sk:Exponenciálna funkcia]]
[[sr:Експоненцијална функција]]
[[fi:Eksponenttifunktio]]
[[sv:Exponentialfunktion]]
[[zh:指数函数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eugene of Savoy</title>
<id>9679</id>
<revision>
<id>41981792</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:55:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
|
1-18]].
#{{note|incidence3}} Bankole, Akinrinola, Singh, Susheela, & Haas, Taylor. (1998). [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2411798.html Reasons Why Women Have Induced Abortions: Evidence from 27 Countries]. ''International Family Planning Perspectives, 24 (3)'', 117-127 & 152. Retrieved [[2006-01-18]].
#{{note|incidence4}} Finer, Lawrence B., Frohwirth, Lori F., Dauphinee, Lindsay A., Singh, Shusheela, & Moore, Ann M. (2005). [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3711005.pdf Reasons U.S. women have abortions: quantative and qualitative perspectives]. ''Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 37 (3),'' 110-8. Retrieved [[2006-01-18]].
# {{note|unsafe1}} World Health Organization. (2004). [http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/publications/unsafe_abortion_estimates_04/estimates.pdf Unsafe abortion: global and regional estimates of unsafe abortion and associated mortality in 2000]. Retrieved [[2006-01-12]].
#{{note|incidenceaustralia}} Chan, Annabelle & Sage, Leonie C. (2005). Estimating Australia’s abortion rates 1985–2003 [http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/182_09_020505/cha10829_fm.html Electronic version]. ''Medical Journal of Australia, 182 (9),''447-52. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|populationaustralia}} Australian Bureau of Statistics. ([[2003-02-18]]). [http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyReleaseDate/C947E831266D3234CA256CD000827941?OpenDocument Population, Australian States and Territories - Electronic delivery, Sep 2002]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidencecanada}} Statistics Canada. ([[2005-02-11]]). [http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/050211/d050211a.htm Induced abortions]. ''The Daily.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|populationcanada}} Statistics Canada. ([[2003-12-18]]). [http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/031218/d031218c.htm Demographic statistics]. ''The Daily.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidencedenmark}} Dansmark Statistik. ([[2004-11-25]]). [http://www.statistikbanken.dk/statbank5a/SelectVarVal/Define.asp?MainTable=FOD6&PLanguage=1&PXSId=0 Legal abortions by region (counties) and age]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|populationdenmark}} Statistics Denmark. ([[2005-02-01]]). [http://www.dst.dk/HomeUK/Statistics/Key_indicators/Population/pop.aspx Population 1st January]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidencefrance}} Vilain, Annick. Ministry for Employment, Social Cohesion and Housing. (2005, October). [http://www.sante.gouv.fr/drees/etude-resultat/er431/er431.pdf Les interruptions volontaires de grossesse en 2003]. ''Études et Résultats, 431.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|populationfrance}} National Institute for Demographic Studies. (n.d.) [http://www.ined.fr/englishversion/figures/france/population/tabpyr2004A.html Total population of France 1st January 2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidencegermany}} Federal Statistical Office Germany. ([[2005-03-09]]). [http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/gesu/gesutab18.htm Abortions in Germany, 1999 to 2004, by the Land of the place of residence and ratio per 1 000 births]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|populationgermany}} Federal Statistical Office Germany. ([[2006-01-24]]). [http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/bevoe/bevoetab4.htm Population, by sex and citizenship]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidencejapan}} "[http://web-japan.org/stat/stats/18WME21.html Abortions (1984-2004)]." (2005). Retrieved [[2006-01-17]] from Web Japan.
#{{note|populationjapan}} Statistics Bureau. (2004). [http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/jinsui/2004np/index.htm Current Population Estimates as of October 1, 2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidencenewzealand}} Ewing, Ian. Statistics New Zealand. ([[2005-06-15]]). [http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/pasfull/pasfull.nsf/web/Hot+Off+The+Press+Abortions+Year+ended+December+2004?open Abortions (Year ended December 2004)]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|populationnewzealand}} Statistics New Zealand. ([[2005-05-15]]). [http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/dem-trends-04/tables.htm Demographic Trends 2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidencenorway}} Statistics Norway. ([[2005-06-08]]). [http://www.ssb.no/abort_en/tab-2005-06-08-02-en.html Induced abortions, by woman's county of residence, 1980-2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|populationnorway}} Statistics Norway. (2005). [http://www.ssb.no/folkemengde_en/tab-2005-03-11-01-en.html Population by age, sex, marital status and foreign citizenship]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidencesouthafrica}} Health Systems Trust. (n.d.) [http://hst.org.za/healthstats/47/data TOPs (Terminations of Pregnancy)]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|populationsouthafrica}} Statistics South Africa. ([[2001-07-02]]). [http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0302/P03022001.pdf Mid-year estimates 2001]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidencesweden}} Nilsson, Emma & Ollars, Birgitta. The National Board of Health and Welfare. (2005, May). [http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/NR/rdonlyres/8013473F-C14A-467E-A2F7-F3BB1A082E0C/3573/2005423.pdf Aborter 2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|populationsweden}} Statistics Sweden. ([[2006-01-13]]). [http://www.scb.se/templates/tableOrChart____25897.asp Preliminary population statistics per month, 2003-2005]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidenceenglandwales}} Government Statistical Service for the Department of Health. ([[2005-07-27]]). [http://www.dh.gov.uk/PublicationsAndStatistics/Publications/PublicationsStatistics/PublicationsStatisticsArticle/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4116461&chk=6T9UTA Abortion statistics, England and Wales: 2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|incidencescotland}} ISD Scotland. ([[2005-05-24]]). [http://www.isdscotland.org/isd/info3.jsp?pContentID=1919&p_applic=CCC&p_service=Content.show& Number of abortions performed in Scotland]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]].
#{{note|populationunitedkingdom}} National Statistics. ([[2005-08-25]]). [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=6 Population Estimates: UK population approaches 60 million]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|incidenceunitedstates}} Finer, Lawrence B. & Henshaw, Stanley K. The Alan Guttmacher Institute. ([[2005-05-18]]). [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/2005/05/18/ab_incidence.pdf Estimates of U.S. Abortion Incidence in 2001 and 2002]. Retrieved January 17, 2006.
#{{note|populationunitedstates}} U.S. Census Bureau. ([[2006-01-04]]). [http://www.census.gov/prod/www/statistical-abstract.html Statistical Abstract of the United States]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
#{{note|surgicalabortion1}} World Health Organization. (2003). [http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/impac/Procedures/Dilatetion_P61_P63.html Managing complications in pregnancy and childbirth: a guide for midwives and doctors]. Retrieved [[2006-02-24]].
#{{note|surgicalabortion2}} Strauss, Lilo T., Herndon, Joy, Chang, Jeani, Parker, Wilda Y., Bowens, Sonya V., Berg, Cynthia J. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ([[2005-11-15]]). [http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5407a1.htm Abortion Surveillance - United States, 2002]. ''Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report''. Retrieved [[2006-02-20]].
# {{note|othermethods1}} Ciganda, C., & Laborde, A. (2003). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12807304&query_hl=9 Herbal infusions used for induced abortion]. ''J Toxicol Clin Toxicol, 41(3),'' 235-9. Retrieved [[2006-01-25]].
# {{note|othermethods2}} Education for Choice. ([[2005-05-06]]). [http://www.efc.org.uk/Foryoungpeople/Factsaboutabortion/Unsafeabortion Unsafe abortion]. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]].
# {{note|othermethods3}} Potts, Malcolm, & Campbell, Martha. (2002). [http://big.berkeley.edu/ifplp.history.pdf History of contraception]. ''Gynecology and Obstetrics'', vol. 6, chp. 8. Retrieved [[2005-01-25]].
# {{note|healtheffects1}} Cates W., Jr, & Tietze C. (1978). Standardized mortality rates associated with legal abortion: United States, 1972-1975 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=639966&dopt=Abstract Electronic version]. ''Family Planning Perspectives, 10 (2)'', 109-12. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]].
# {{note|mortality1}} Department of Health. (1998). ''[http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/wmd/wmd-hm.htm Why Mothers Die: Report on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom 1994–1996].'' London: The Stationery Office. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]].
# {{note|mortality2}} Elam-Evans, Laurie. D., Strauss, Lilo T., Herndon, Joy, Parker, Wilda Y., Bowens, Sonya V., Zane, Suzanne, ''et al.'' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ([[2003-11-23]]). ''[http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5212a1.htm Abortion Surveillance - United States, 2000].'' Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]].
#{{note|failed}}Rogers, Lois. ([[2005-11-27]]). "[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-1892696,00.html Fifty babies a year are alive after abortion]." ''The Sunday Times.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-11]].
# {{note|abc1}} [http://www.etters.net/cancerTP.htm#3 American abortion-breast cancer studies]
# {{note|abc2}} Melbye M., Wohlfahrt, J., Olsen, J.H., Frisch, M., Westergaard, T., Helweg-Larsen, K., ''et al.'' (1997). Induced abortion and the risk of breast cancer [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8988884 Electronic version]. ''New England Journal of Medicine, 336,'' 81-5. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]] from PubMed.
# {{note|abc3}} National Cancer Institute. ([[2003-03-04]]). [http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/ere-workshop-report Summary Report: Early Reproductive Events and Breast Cancer Workshop]. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]].
# {{note|abc4}} National Cancer Institute. (2003). [http://www.cancer.gov/cancer_information/doc.aspx?viewid=15e3f2d5-5cdd-4697-a2ba-f3388d732 |
Douala]]
|government_type =
|leader_titles = [[Presidents of Cameroon|President]]<br>[[Heads of Government of Cameroon|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names = [[Paul Biya]]<br>[[Ephraïm Inoni]]
|area_rank = 52nd
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area= 475,440
|areami²= 183,568 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|percent_water = 1.3
|population_estimate = 16,380,005 <!-- cia.gov -->
|population_estimate_rank = 59th <!-- cia.gov -->
|population_estimate_year = July 2005 <!-- cia.gov -->
|population_census = 15,746,179
|population_census_year = 2003
|population_density = 34
|population_densitymi² = 88 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|population_density_rank = 138th
|GDP_PPP = $32.35 bn <!-- cia.gov --><!-- may need reformating -->
|GDP_PPP_rank = 91st <!-- cia.gov -->
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,176
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 140th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From <small>[[France]] & [[United Kingdom]]</small>
|established_dates = [[January 1]], [[1960]]
|HDI = 0.497
|HDI_rank = 148th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = <font color="#E0584E">low</font>
|currency = [[CFA franc]]
|currency_code = XAF
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.cm]]
|calling_code = 237
|footnotes =
}}
The '''Republic of Cameroon''' is a unitary republic of central [[Africa]]. It borders [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of Congo]], [[Gabon]], [[Equatorial Guinea]] and the [[Gulf of Guinea]]. Originally a [[German Empire|German colony]], it was split after [[World War I]] among the French and [[United Kingdom|British]]. In [[1960]], [[France|French]] [[Cameroun]] became an independent republic, merging with the southern part of British Cameroons in [[1961]] to form the ''Federal Republic of Cameroon''. It was renamed the ''United Republic of Cameroon'' in [[1972]], and the ''Republic of Cameroon'' or ''République du Cameroun'' in [[1984]] (its official languages are [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]]). Compared to other African countries, Cameroon enjoys relative political and social stability, which has in turn permitted the development of [[agriculture]], [[road]]s, and [[railroad|railways]], as well as an extensive [[petroleum industry]]. Despite movement toward political reform, however, power remains firmly in the hands of an ethnic [[oligarchy]].
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Cameroon]]''
The first inhabitants of Cameroon were the [[pygmy]] [[Baka (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]] people. They were largely replaced and absorbed by Bantu tribes during [[Bantu]] [[human migration|migrations]].
The first [[Europe|European]] contact was in the [[16th century]] with the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], but they did not stay. The Portuguese did however give the would-be country its name. Explorers on the Sanaga River noted the abundance of prawns and gave the land the name ''camarão'', the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word for prawn. The first permanent [[colonialism|colonial settlements]] were started in the late [[1870s]], with the [[German Empire]] emerging as the major European Power. With the defeat of Germany in [[World War I]], Cameroon became a [[League of Nations Mandate]] territory split between [[France|French]] Cameroun and [[British Empire|British]] [[Cameroons]] in [[1919]]. These mandates were converted into [[United Nations Trusteeship]]s in [[1946]].
In [[1960]], French Cameroun gained its independence and became The Cameroon Republic. It was joined in [[1961]] by the southern part of the British Cameroons. The remainder of the British Cameroons became part of [[Nigeria]] at the same time. The new coalition government was led by [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]] who led a crack down on [[rebellion|rebel]] groups who had remained since before independence.
Ahidjo stepped down in [[1982]] and was succeeded by the current president, [[Paul Biya]]. Biya has won numerous elections, but the fairness of these elections has been questioned. The last elections were held on [[October 11]], [[2004]].
==Politics==
[[Image:Paul biya and colin powell.jpg|thumb|left|Cameroon President [[Paul Biya]] (right)]]
{{main|Politics of Cameroon}}
The [[President]] of Cameroon holds executive power in the government of Cameroon. This provision was part of the reforms instituted in [[1996]] to the [[Constitution of Cameroon|Constitution]], that had been originally written in [[1972]]. The President is given a broad range of powers, and is able to carry them out without consulting the [[National Assembly of Cameroon|National Assembly]]. Cameroon is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
The National Assembly consists of 180 delegates and meets three times a year. The main responsibility of the Assembly is to pass laws, but rarely has it changed any laws or blocked the passage of legislation.
The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's [[Ministry of Justice of Cameroon|Ministry of Justice]]. The [[Supreme Court of Cameroon|Supreme Court]] may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request.[[Image:Cameroon.geohive.gif|thumb|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]
==Provinces==
{{main|Provinces of Cameroon}}
Cameroon is divided into 10 provinces:
*[[Adamawa Province, Cameroon|Adamawa Province]] (Adamaoua)
*[[Centre Province, Cameroon|Centre Province]]
*[[East Province, Cameroon|East Province]] (Est)
*[[Extreme North Province, Cameroon|Extreme North Province]] (Extreme-Nord)
*[[Littoral Province, Cameroon|Littoral Province]]
*[[North Province, Cameroon|North Province]] (Nord)
*[[Northwest Province, Cameroon|Northwest Province]] (Nord-Ouest)
*[[West Province, Cameroon|West Province]] (Ouest)
*[[South Province, Cameroon|South Province]] (Sud)
*[[Southwest Province, Cameroon|Southwest Province]] (Sud-Ouest)
==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Cameroon}}
Location: Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria
Geographic coordinates: 6° N 12° E
Map references: Africa
'''Area''':<br>
Total: 183,568 [[square mile]]s (475,440 [[square kilometre|km²]])<br>
Land: 181,252 square miles (469,440 km²)<br>
Water: 2,317 square miles (6,000 km²)
Cameroon can be divided into five geographic zones. These are distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features.
[[Image:Mount Cameroon craters.jpg|thumb|left|Mount Cameroon craters]]
===Natural regions===
Cameroon's coastal plain extends 10 to 50 [[mile]]s (15–80&nbsp;[[kilometre|km]]) inland from the [[Gulf of Guinea]] (part of the Atlantic Ocean) to the edge of a plateau. In the former western state, however, the mass of [[Mount Cameroon|Mt. Cameroon]] reaches almost to the sea. Exceedingly hot and humid, the coastal belt includes some of the wettest places on earth. For example, [[Debuncha]], at the base of Mt. Cameroon, has recorded annual rainfalls of 400 [[inch]]es (10,000&nbsp;[[milimetre|mm]]). The plain is densely forested.
The low southern plateau, rising from the coastal plain and dominated by tropical rain forest, has an average elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (450–600&nbsp;[[meter|m]]). It is less humid than the coast.
In western Cameroon is an irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus that extend from Mt. Cameroon almost to [[Lake Chad]] at the northern tip of the country. This region enjoys a pleasant climate, particularly in the [[Bamenda highlands|Bamenda]], [[Bamiléké highlands|Bamiléké]], and [[Mambilla highlands|Mambilla]] highlands. It also contains some of the country's most fertile soils, notably around volcanic Mt. Cameroon.
From the forested southern plateau the land rises northward to the grassy, rugged [[Adamaoua highlands|Adamaoua]] (Adamawa) highlands. Stretching across Cameroon from the western mountain area, the Adamaoua forms a barrier between the north and south. Its average elevation is 3,400 feet (1,035&nbsp;m), and its climate is reasonably pleasant.
The northern [[savanna|savanna plain]] extends from the edge of the Adamaoua to Lake Chad. Its characteristic vegetation is scrub and grass. This is a region of sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.
===Rivers===
The country has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers—the [[Wouri]], [[Sanaga]], [[Nyong]], and [[Ntem]]-—flow southwestward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea. The [[Dja]] and [[Kadei]], however, drain southeastward into the [[Congo River]]. In northern Cameroon, the [[Benoué]] (Benue) runs north and west, eventually into the Niger, while the [[Logone]] flows northward into Lake Chad.
Only part of Lake Chad lies within Cameroon. The rest belongs to Chad, Nigeria, and Niger. The lake varies in size according to seasonal rainfall.
===Natural Resources===
In general, Cameroon's natural resources are better suited to agriculture and forestry than to industry. Soils and climate in the south encourage extensive cultivation of crops such as cocoa, coffee, and bananas. In the north, natural conditions favor crops such as cotton and peanuts. The southern rain forest has vast timber reserves, but large areas of the forest are difficult to reach.
The southern rivers are obstructed by rapids and waterfalls, but these sites offer opportunities for hydroelectric development. The Wouri River estuary provides a harbor for the country's principal seaport city, Douala. In the north the Benoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua into Nigeria.
Petroleum and natural gas are found offshore, and iron ore in the south near the coast. Northern Cameroon has large deposits of [[bauxite]] and [[limestone]].
:''See also [[List of cities in Cameroon]].''[[Image:Mount Cameroon from Tiko.jpg|thumb|Tiko, Southwest Province]]
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Cameroon}}
For a |
the Analects]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy on Confucius]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Confucius | name=Confucius}}
* [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4094 Confucian Analects] (Project Gutenberg release of James Legge's Translation)
* [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Lunyu Analects] in Chinese and translations by [[James Legge]] (en), [[D.C. Lau]] (en) and [[Séraphin Couvreur]] (fr).
* [http://www.gdjh.tcc.edu.tw/wcjswebcai/87cai/01/t2-4.htm &#23380;&#23376;&#19990;&#31995; (Confucius' Genealogy)] (in [[Traditional Chinese]]): a table shows the immediate ancestors and direct descendants of Confucius
* [http://www.poetseers.org/the_poetseers/confucius/ Life of Confucius and selections from The Analects]
* [http://www.kong.org.cn Kong Family] (in [[Simplified Chinese]])
** [http://www.kong.org.cn/image/jiapub.jpg Genealogy] (very slow download)
[[Category:551 BC births]]
[[Category:479 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Confucianism| ]]
[[Category:Chinese philosophers]]
[[Category:Secularism]]
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{{Link FA|zh}}
[[be:Канфуцый]]
[[cs:Konfucius]]
[[bg:Конфуций]]
[[bn:কনফিউশিয়াস]]
[[ca:Confuci]]
[[de:Konfuzius]]
[[et:Kong Fuzi]]
[[es:Confucio]]
[[eo:Konfuceo]]
[[fr:Confucius]]
[[gd:Confucius]]
[[gl:Confucio]]
[[ko:공자]]
[[id:Kong Hu Cu (filsuf)]]
[[it:Confucio]]
[[he:קונפוציוס]]
[[jv:Kong Hu Cu]]
[[la:Confucius]]
[[lv:Konfūcijs]]
[[lt:Konfucijus]]
[[ms:Ajaran Konfucius]]
[[nl:Confucius]]
[[nds:Konfuzius]]
[[ja:孔子]]
[[pl:Konfucjusz]]
[[pt:Confúcio]]
[[ru:Конфуций]]
[[sk:Konfucius]]
[[sl:Konfucij]]
[[sr:Конфучије]]
[[fi:Kungfutse]]
[[sv:Konfucius]]
[[th:ขงจื๊อ]]
[[tr:Konfüçyus]]
[[vi:Khổng Tử]]
[[zh:孔子]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Complex number</title>
<id>5826</id>
<revision>
<id>42123648</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:51:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.111.227.8</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wikibookspar|Algebra|Complex numbers}}
In [[mathematics]], a '''complex number''' is an expression of the form ''a'' + ''bi'', where ''a'' and ''b'' are [[real number]]s, and ''i'' represents the imaginary number, ''i''<sup>2</sup> = &minus;1. In other words, ''i'' is the [[square root]] of &minus;1. The real number ''a'' is called the ''real part'' of the complex number, and the real number ''b'' is the ''[[imaginary number|imaginary]] part''. When the imaginary part ''b'' is 0, then the complex number is identified with the real number ''a''. A complex number then consists of a pair of real numbers.
For example, 3 + 2''i'' is a ''complex number'', with real part 3 and imaginary part 2.
Complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided in a similar way to real numbers; but they have additional elegant properties. For example, every [[polynomial]] algebraic equation has a complex number as a solution, not just some, as in the real numbers.
In some fields (in particular, [[electrical engineering]], where ''i'' is a symbol for [[Electric current|current]]), complex numbers are written as ''a'' + ''bj''.
==Definitions==
===Notation and operations===
The [[set]] of all complex numbers is usually denoted by '''C''', or in [[blackboard bold]] by <math>\mathbb{C}</math>. It includes the real numbers because every real number can be regarded as complex: ''a'' = ''a'' + 0''i''.
Complex numbers are added, subtracted, and multiplied by formally applying the [[associative]], [[commutative]] and [[distributive]] laws of algebra, together with the equation ''i'' <sup>2</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;&minus;1:
:(''a'' + ''bi'') + (''c'' + ''di'') = (''a''+''c'') + (''b''+''d'')''i''
:(''a'' + ''bi'') &minus; (''c'' + ''di'') = (''a''&minus;''c'') + (''b''&minus;''d'')''i''
:(''a'' + ''bi'')(''c'' + ''di'') = ''ac'' + ''bci'' + ''adi'' + ''bd i'' <sup>2</sup> = (''ac''&minus;''bd'') + (''bc''+''ad'')''i''
Division of complex numbers can also be defined (see below). Thus the set of complex numbers forms a [[field (mathematics)|field]] which, in contrast to the real numbers, is [[algebraically closed]].
In mathematics, the [[adjective]] "complex" means that the field of complex numbers is the underlying [[number field]] considered, for example [[complex analysis]], [[matrix (mathematics)|complex matrix]], [[polynomial|complex polynomial]] and [[Lie algebra|complex Lie algebra]].
=== The complex number field ===
Formally, the complex numbers can be defined as [[ordered pair]]s of real numbers (''a'', ''b'') together with the operations:
* <math> ( a , b ) + ( c , d ) = ( a + c , b + d ) \,</math>
* <math> ( a , b ) \cdot ( c , d ) = ( ac - bd , bc + ad ). \,</math>
So defined, the complex numbers form a [[field (mathematics)|field]], the complex number field, denoted by '''C'''.
Since a complex number ''a'' + ''bi'' is uniquely specified by an ordered pair (''a'', ''b'') of real numbers, the complex numbers are in [[one-to-one]] correspondence with points on a plane, called the [[complex plane]].
We identify the real number ''a'' with the complex number (''a'', 0), and in this way the field of real numbers '''R''' becomes a subfield of '''C'''. The imaginary unit ''i'' is the complex number (0, 1).
In '''C''', we have:
* additive identity ("zero"): (0, 0)
* multiplicative identity ("one"): (1, 0)
* additive inverse of (''a'',''b''): (&minus;''a'', &minus;''b'')
* [[multiplicative inverse]] (reciprocal) of non-zero (''a'', ''b''): <math>\left({a\over a^2+b^2},{-b\over a^2+b^2}\right).</math>
'''C''' can also be defined as the [[Closure (topology)|topological closure]] of the [[algebraic number]]s or as the [[algebraic closure]] of '''R''', both of which are described below.
=== The complex plane ===
<div style="float:right; margin-left:3px; margin-right:3px" title="Graphic Representation">
[[image:complex.png]]
</div>
A complex number can be viewed as a point or a [[vector (spatial)|position vector]] on a two-dimensional [[Cartesian coordinate system]] called the '''complex plane''' or '''Argand diagram''' (named after [[Jean-Robert Argand]]).
The Cartesian coordinates of the complex number are the real part ''x'' and the imaginary part ''y'', while the [[Coordinates_%28mathematics%29#Circular_coordinates|circular coordinates]] are ''r'' = |''z''|, called the ''[[Absolute_value#Complex_numbers|absolute value or modulus]]'', and &phi; = arg(''z''), called the ''complex argument'' of ''z'' (mod-arg form). Together with [[Euler's formula]] we have
:<math> z = x + iy = r (\cos \phi + i\sin \phi ) = r e^{i \phi}. \,</math>
Additionally the notation ''r'' cis &phi; is sometimes used.
Note that the complex argument is unique [[modulo]] 2&pi;, that is, if any two values of the complex argument exactly differ by an [[integer]] multiple of 2&pi;, they are considered equivalent.
By simple [[trigonometric identity|trigonometric identities]],
we see that
:<math>r_1 e^{i\phi_1} \cdot r_2 e^{i\phi_2}
= r_1 r_2 e^{i(\phi_1 + \phi_2)} \,</math>
and that
:<math>\frac{r_1 e^{i\phi_1}}
{r_2 e^{i\phi_2}}
= \frac{r_1}{r_2} e^{i (\phi_1 - \phi_2)}. \,</math>
Now the addition of two complex numbers is just the [[vector space|vector addition]] of two vectors, and the multiplication with a fixed complex number can be seen as a simultaneous rotation and stretching.
Multiplication with i corresponds to a counter clockwise rotation by 90 [[degree (angle)|degrees]] (<math>\pi/2</math> [[radian]]s). The geometric content of the equation ''i''<sup>2</sup> = &minus;1 is that a sequence of two 90 degree rotations results in a 180 degree (<math>\pi</math> radians) rotation. Even the fact (&minus;1) · (&minus;1) = +1 from arithmetic can be understood geometrically as the combination of two 180 degree turns.
===Absolute value, conjugation and distance===
The ''absolute value'' (or ''modulus'' or ''magnitude'') of a complex number ''z'' = ''r e''<sup>''i''&phi;</sup> is defined as |''z''| = ''r''. Algebraically, if ''z'' = ''a'' + ''ib'', then <math> | z | = \sqrt{a^2+b^2}.</math><!--keep sentence-terminator within math element to make it align better with the formula-->
One can check readily that the absolute value has three important properties:
:<math> | z | = 0 \,</math> [[iff]] <math> z = 0 \,</math>
:<math> | z + w | \leq | z | + | w | \,</math>
:<math> | z w | = | z | \; | w | \,</math>
for all complex numbers ''z'' and ''w''. It then follows, for example, that <math> | 1 | = 1 </math> and <math>|z/w|=|z|/|w|</math>. By defining the distance function ''d''(''z'', ''w'') = |''z'' &minus; ''w''| we turn the complex numbers into a [[metric space]] and we can therefore talk about [[limit (mathematics)|limit]]s and [[continuous function|continuity]]. The addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of complex numbers are then continuous operations. Unless anything else is said, this is always the metric being used on the complex numbers.
The [[complex conjugate]] of the complex number ''z'' = ''a'' + ''ib'' is defined to be ''a'' - ''ib'', written as <math>\bar{z}</math> or <math>z^*\,</math>. As seen in the figure, <math>\bar{z}</math> is the "reflection" of ''z'' about the real axis. The following can be checked:
: <math>\overline{z+w} = \bar{z} + \bar{w}</math>
: <math>\overline{zw} = \bar{z}\bar{w}</math>
: <math>\overline{(z/w)} = \bar{z}/\bar{w}</math>
: <math>\bar{\bar{z}}=z</math>
: <math>\bar{z} |
by words that mark case, but the noun itself is not modified.
Some languages have more than 20 cases. For an example of a language that uses a large number of cases, see [[Finnish language noun cases]].
The [[lemma (linguistics)|lemma]] forms of words, which is the form chosen by convention as the canonical form of a word, is usually the most [[markedness|unmarked]] or basic case, which is typically the nominative, trigger, or absolutive case, whichever a language may have.
==See also==
*[[Declension in English]]
*[[Slovak declension]]
*[[Latin declension]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hi.is/~eirikur/cases.pdf The Status of Morphological Case in the Icelandic Lexicon] by Eiríkur Rögnvaldsson. Discussion of whether cases convey any inherent syntactic or semantic meaning.
*[http://web.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/~wdl/OptCase.pdf Optimal Case: The Distribution of Case in German and Icelandic] by Dieter Wunderlich
*[http://phrontistery.info/cases.html A long list of names for cases] found in one language or another
*[http://www.mwscomp.com/movies/brian/brian-08.htm Scene 8, Monty Python's the Life of Brian] explains [[Latin]] declension. Best if viewed in the context of [[Monty Python's Life of Brian|the movie]] before reading.
[[Category:Grammar]]
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[[als:Deklination]]
[[ca:Declinació (gramàtica)]]
[[de:Deklination (Grammatik)]]
[[es:Caso]]
[[eo:Kazo]]
[[fr:Déclinaison]]
[[hr:Pade&#382;]]
[[is:Fall (málfræði)]]
[[hu:Eset]]
[[nl:Naamval]]
[[ja:ディクレンション]]
[[ka:ბრუნება]]
[[pl:Przypadek]]
[[ro:Caz]]
[[ru:&#1055;&#1072;&#1076;&#1077;&#1078;]]
[[sr:Падеж]]
[[zh:&#26684; (&#35821;&#27861;)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dozenal Society of Great Britain</title>
<id>8647</id>
<revision>
<id>15906618</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-19T14:50:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MacRusgail</username>
<id>238113</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Duodecimal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daffynition</title>
<id>8648</id>
<revision>
<id>39327038</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T10:35:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BlankVerse</username>
<id>169582</id>
</contributor>
<comment>delete inline external link, create external link section</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
A '''daffynition''' is a [[pun]] format involving the reinterpretation of an existing word, on the basis that it sounds like another word (or group of words). They are similar to [[transpositional puns]], but often much less complex and easier to create.
Some daffynitions may be cheap puns, but others can be clever, such as "raisins=the wrath of grapes". A subclass of daffynition is the goofinition which relies strictly on literal associations and correct spellings, such as "lobster=a weak tennis player".
Under the name '''Uxbridge English Dictionary''' making up daffynitions is a popular game on the [[BBC Radio 4]] [[comedy]] [[quiz show]] ''[[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue]].
===Examples===
*[[Wiktionary:alarms|alarms]]: What an [[octopus]] is. (all arms)
*[[Wiktionary:bigamist|bigamist]]: An [[Italy|Italian]] rainstorm. (big-a-mist)
*[[Wiktionary:dockyard|dockyard]]: A [[physician]]'s [[garden]]. (doc yard)
*[[Wiktionary:dynamite|dynamite]]: To take a flea out to dinner. (dine-a-mite)
*[[Wiktionary:impolite|impolite]]: A flaming elf. (imp-alight)
*[[Wiktionary:innuendoes|innuendoes]]: Italian suppositories. (in-you-end-os)
*[[Wiktionary:oboe|oboe]]: An English [[tramp]]. (hobo)
*[[Wiktionary:paradox|paradox]]: Two doctors. (pair of docs) OR Where one ties two boats. (Pair of docks)
*[[Wiktionary:pasteurise|pasteurise]]: Too far to see. (past your eyes)
*[[Wiktionary:propaganda|propaganda]]: A gentlemanly [[goose]]. (proper gander)
*[[Wiktionary:shrewd|shrewd]]: A rude shrew. (shrew + rude)
*[[Wiktionary:shrink|shrink]]: An ice-skating shrew. (shrew + rink)
===See also===
* [[Transpositional pun]]
==External links==
* [http://www.jimwegryn.com/Words/Daffynitions.htm Daffynitions]
* [http://www.jimwegryn.com/Words/Goofinitions.htm Goofinitions]
[[Category:Jokes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of football clubs in the Netherlands</title>
<id>8649</id>
<revision>
<id>40841576</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T10:08:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sjorford</username>
<id>24741</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix interwikis</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dutch Football League''' is organized by the [[Koninklijke Nederlandse Voetbal Bond]] (KNVB, Royal Dutch Football Association). There are two divisions for professional [[football (soccer)|football]] teams in the [[Netherlands]]: a premier division (''eredivisie'') of 18 teams and a first division (''eerste divisie'') of 20 teams. Previously, a second division was also in existence, but it was discontinued after the [[1970]]/[[1971]] season.
The most successful teams are [[Ajax Amsterdam]] (29 titles as of 2005), [[PSV Eindhoven]] (18) and [[Feyenoord Rotterdam]] (14). Important teams of the past are HVV (8 titles), [[Sparta Rotterdam|Sparta]] (6 titles) and [[Willem II Tilburg|Willem II]] (3 titles).
==[[Eredivisie]], 2005-2006==
*[[ADO Den Haag]]
*[[Ajax Amsterdam|Ajax]]
*[[AZ Alkmaar|AZ]]
*[[Feyenoord Rotterdam|Feyenoord]]
*[[FC Groningen]]
*[[SC Heerenveen]]
*[[Heracles Almelo]]
*[[NAC Breda]]
*[[NEC Nijmegen|NEC]]
*[[PSV Eindhoven|PSV]]
*[[RBC Roosendaal]]
*[[RKC Waalwijk]]
*[[Roda JC (Kerkrade)|Roda JC]]
*[[Sparta Rotterdam|Sparta Rotterdam]]
*[[FC Twente]]
*[[FC Utrecht]]
*[[Vitesse Arnhem|Vitesse]]
*[[Willem II Tilburg|Willem II]]
==[[Eerste Divisie]], 2005-2006==
*[[AGOVV Apeldoorn]]
*[[Cambuur Leeuwarden]]
*[[De Graafschap]]
*[[FC Den Bosch]]
*[[FC Dordrecht]]
*[[FC Eindhoven]]
*[[FC Emmen]]
*[[Excelsior Rotterdam|Excelsior]]
*[[Fortuna Sittard]]
*[[Go Ahead Eagles]]
*[[HFC Haarlem|Haarlem]]
*[[Helmond Sport]]
*[[MVV Maastricht|MVV]]
*[[FC Omniworld]]
*[[Stormvogels Telstar|Stormvogels/Telstar]]
*[[TOP Oss]]
*[[BV Veendam]]
*[[FC Volendam]]
*[[VVV Venlo|VVV-Venlo]]
*[[FC Zwolle]]
==Former Dutch League teams==
*[[Fortuna 54]] (of [[Geleen]]) and [[Sittardia]] (of [[Sittard]]) merged to form [[Fortuna Sittard]] in 1968.
*[[Blauw Wit]], [[Door Wilskracht Sterk|DWS]] and [[De Volewijckers]] merged to form [[FC Amsterdam]] in 1972, which ceased to exist in [[1982]].
*[[PEC Zwolle|PEC]] and [[Zwolsche Boys]] merged to form [[PEC Zwolle]] in [[1971]], which became [[FC Zwolle]] in [[1990]].
*[[Sportclub Enschede]] and [[Enschedese Boys]] merged to form [[FC Twente]] in [[1965]].
*[[Door Oefening Sterk|DOS]], [[Elinkwijk]] and [[Velox]] merged to form [[FC Utrecht]] in [[1970]].
*[[Groningse Voetbal en Atletiek Vereniging|GVAV]] became FC Groningen in [[1971]].
*[[Alkmaar 54]] and [[FC Zaanstreek]] merged to form [[AZ Alkmaar|AZ]] in [[1967]].
*[[Roda Sport]] and [[Rapid JC]] merged to form [[Roda JC]] in [[1962]].
*[[BVC Rotterdam]] and [[BVC Flamingo's]] merged to form [[Scheveningen Holland Sport]] in [[1954]], which merged with [[ADO Den Haag|ADO]] in [[1971]] to form [[ADO Den Haag|FC Den Haag]], which became [[ADO Den Haag]] in [[1996]].
*[[Emma Dordrecht|Emma]] merged with amateur clubs [[Oefening Doet Slagen|ODS]] en [[Altijd Sterker Worden|ASW]] to form the amateur club [[SC Reeland]].
*[[Eenheid Door Overspel|EDO]] is now an amateur club.
*[[Rigtersbleek]] is now an amateur club.
*[[SVV]]
*[[VC Vlissingen]] (from [[Flushing, Netherlands|Flushing]]) became a professional club in [[1990]], changed its name to [[VCV Zeeland]] a year later, and became an amateur club again in [[1992]].
*[[FC Wageningen]] (founded in [[1911]]) won the [[KNVB Cup|Dutch cup]] in [[1939]] and [[1948]], joined the Dutch professional league when it was formed in [[1954]], and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in [[1992]].
*[[Holland Victoria Combinatie|HVC]] of [[Amersfoort]] was formed in [[1905]], joined the league in [[1954]], was renamed to [[SC Amersfoort]] in [[1973]] and went bankrupt in [[1983]].
*[[Fortuna Vlaardingen]] (formed in [[1904]]) joined the professional league in [[1955]], was renamed to [[FC Vlaardingen]] in [[1974]] and went bankrupt in [[1981]].
[[Category:Dutch football clubs|*]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) related lists|Netherlands]]
[[ja:エールディヴィジ]]
[[nl:Lijst van betaald voetbalclubs in Nederland]]
[[tr:Hollanda Futbol Kulüpleri]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dragon 32/64</title>
<id>8650</id>
<revision>
<id>34469149</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T07:08:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Dragon home computers''.'' For other uses, see [[Dragon (disambiguation)]]''.
The '''Dragon 32''' and '''Dragon 64''' were [[home computer]]s built in the [[1980s]]. The Dragons were very similar to the [[TRS-80 Color Computer]] (CoCo), and were produced for the [[Europe]]an market by [[Dragon Data]], Ltd., in [[Port Talbot]], [[Wales]]. The model numbers reflect the primary difference between the two machines, which had 32 and 64 [[kilobyte]]s of [[random-access memory|RAM]], respectively.
[[image:Dragon_32_computer.jpg|thumb|200px|A '''Dragon 32''' home computer.]]
==Product history==
In the early 1980s, the British home computer market was booming. New machines were released almost monthly. In August 1982, Dragon Data joined the fray with the Dragon 32; the Dragon 64 followed a year later.
In the private home computer market, where games were a significant driver, the Dragon suffered due to its graphical capabilities, which were inferior |
puter DOS'es were stored on a floppy disk always to be [[boot loader|booted]] at start-up, with the notable exception of Commodore, whose DOS resided on ROM chips in the [[Commodore 1541|disk drive]]s themselves, available at power-on.
In large machines there were other disk operating systems, such as IBM's [[VM]], DEC's [[RSTS]] / [[RT-11]] / [[OpenVMS|VMS]] / [[TOPS-10]] / [[TWENEX]], MIT's [[Incompatible Timesharing System|ITS]] / [[Compatible Time Sharing System|CTSS]], Control Data's assorted [[Network operating system|NOS]] variants, Harris's [[Vulcan OS|Vulcan]], Bell Labs' [[Unix]], and so on. In [[microcomputer|microcomputers]], SWTPC's 6800 and 6809 machines used [[TSC]]'s [[FLEX]] disk operating system, [[Radio Shack]]'s [[TRS-80]] machines used [[TRS-DOS]], their [[TRS-80 Color Computer|Color Computer]] used [[OS-9]], and most of the Intel 8080 based machines from [[IMSAI Manufacturing Corp.|IMSAI]], [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems|MITS]] (makers of the legendary [[Altair 8800]]), [[Cromemco]], [[North Star]], etc used the [[CP/M-80]] disk operating system. See [[list of operating systems]].
Usually, a disk operating system was loaded from a disk. Only a very few comparable DOSes were stored elsewhere than floppy disks; among these exceptions were the British [[BBC Micro]]'s optional [[Disc Filing System]], DFS, offered as a kit with a disk controller chip, a ROM chip, and a handful of logic chips, to be installed inside the computer; and [[Commodore International|Commodore]]'s [[Commodore DOS|CBM DOS]], located in a ROM chip in each disk drive.
==Examples of disk operating sytems that were extensions to the OS==
*The '''DOS''' operating system for the [[Apple Computer]]'s [[Apple II]] family of computers. This was the primary operating system for this family from 1979 with the introduction of the [[floppy disk drive]] until 1983 with the introduction of '''[[ProDOS]]'''; many people continued using it long after that date. Usually it was called '''[[Apple DOS]]''' to distinguish it from [[MS-DOS]].
*'''[[Commodore DOS]]''', which was used by 8-bit [[Commodore International|Commodore]] computers. Unlike most other DOS systems, it was integrated into the disk drives, not loaded into the computer's own memory.
*'''[[Atari DOS]]''', which was used by the [[Atari 8-bit family]] of computers. The Atari OS only offered low-level disk-access, so an extra layer called ''DOS'' was booted off of a floppy that offered higher level functions such as filesystems.
*'''[[MSX-DOS]]''', for the [[MSX]] computer standard. Initial version, released in 1984, was nothing but MS-DOS 1.0 ported to [[Z80]]; but in 1988 it evolved to version 2, offering facilities such as subdirectories, memory management and environment strings. The MSX-DOS kernel resided in ROM (built-in on the disk controller) so basic file access capacity was available even without the command interpreter, by using [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] extended commands.
*'''[[Disc Filing System]]''' (DFS) This was an optional component for the [[BBC Micro]], offered as a kit with a disk controller chip, a ROM chip, and a handful of logic chips, to be installed inside the computer. See also ''[[Advanced Disc Filing System]]''.
*'''[[AMSDOS]]''', for the [[Amstrad CPC]] computers.
*'''GDOS''' and '''G+DOS''', for the [[+D]] and [[DISCiPLE]] disk interfaces for the [[ZX Spectrum]].
==Examples of Disk Operating Sytems that were the OS itself==
*The '''[[DOS/360]]''' initial/simple operating system for the [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[System/360]] family of [[mainframe computer]]s (it later became DOS/VSE, and was eventually just called [[VSE]]).
*The '''DOS''' operating system for [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[PDP-11]] [[minicomputer]]s (this OS and the computers it ran on were nearly obsolete by the time PCs became common, with various descendants and other replacements).
*'''DOS''' for the [[IBM PC compatible]] platform {{main|DOS}}
:The best known family of operating systems named "DOS" is that running on [[IBM PC]]s type hardware using the Intel CPUs or their compatible cousins from other makers. Any DOS in this family is usually just referred to as ''[[DOS]]''. The original was licensed to IBM by [[Microsoft]], and marketed by them as ''"[[PC-DOS]]"''. When Microsoft licenced it to other hardware manufacturers, it was called ''[[MS-DOS]]''. [[Digital Research]] produced a compatible variant known as ''"[[DR-DOS]]"'', which was eventually taken over (after a buyout of Digital Research) by [[Novell]]. This became ''"[[OpenDOS]]"'' for a while after the relevant division of Novell was sold to [[Caldera International]], now called [[SCO Group|SCO]]. There is also a [[free software|free]] version named ''"[[FreeDOS]]"''.
==See also==
* [[Operating system]]
* [[DOS]]
[[Category:Disk operating systems|*Disk]]
[[Category:Operating systems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dual</title>
<id>8477</id>
<revision>
<id>38686076</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T23:43:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TheObtuseAngleOfDoom</username>
<id>73429</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm repeated sentence</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
A '''dual''' is a pair or a grouping of two. "Dual" is also the name for many things:
* ''[[Dual (brand)|Dual]]'' is a brand name for [[Hifi]] equipment, mostly known for vinyl record players.
* ''Dual!'' is the name of an [[anime]] series, [[Dual! Parallel Trouble Adventure]]
* In some [[language]]s, in addition to the singular and plural numbers there is also a [[dual grammatical number| ''dual'' number]], which is used when exactly two people or things are meant.
* A simultaneous application of a P-type and N-type [[fertilizer]]
* For several meanings of "dual" in mathematics, see [[duality (mathematics)]]
* A [[dual troll|dual]] or secondary account on a [[message board]] for a number of typically neferious puposes used for [[internet trolls|trolling]]
* [[Diffusing update algorithm|DUAL]] is a component of the [[routing]]-protocol [[EIGRP]] for route calculation
==See also==
* [[dual (electronics)]]
* [[duality]]
* [[dual wavelet]]
{{disambig}}
[[pl:Dual]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Doublespeak</title>
<id>8478</id>
<revision>
<id>40153236</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T15:34:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dave-ros</username>
<id>694024</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Examples of doublespeak in current usage */ an ironic real usage of "On-the-spot fine"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Doublespeak''' is language deliberately constructed to disguise or distort its actual [[meaning]], often resulting in a "[[communication]] [[bypassing|bypass]]". Such language is associated with [[government|governmental]], [[military]], and [[corporate]] institutions. Doublespeak may be in the form of bald [[euphemism|euphemisms]] ("downsizing" for "firing of many employees") or deliberately ambiguous phrases ("[[wet work]]" for "[[assassination]]"). Doublespeak is distinguished from other euphemisms through its deliberate usage by governmental, military, or corporate institutions.
==History==
The word ''doublespeak'' was coined in the early [[1950s]]. It is often incorrectly attributed to [[George Orwell]] and his [[dystopian]] novel ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. The word actually never appears in that novel; Orwell did, however, coin '''[[newspeak]]''', '''[[oldspeak]]''', and '''[[doublethink]]''', and his novel made fashionable composite nouns with ''speak'' as the second element, which were previously unknown in [[English language|English]]. It was therefore just a matter of time before someone came up with doublespeak. Doublespeak may be considered, in Orwell's lexicography, as the B vocabulary of Newspeak, words "deliberately constructed for political purposes: words, that is to say, which not only had in every case a political implication, but were intended to impose a desirable mental attitude upon the person using them."
==Examples of doublespeak in current usage==
Doublespeak is most reminiscent of Orwell's "newspeak" when it is used by a government agency to cover up something unpleasant. The government may find the need to talk about something that has negative connotations to large portions of the public, and avoids backlash by replacing the term with a new one that most people will not recognize as the same thing. Thus "area denial munitions" means "landmines", "physical persuasion" means "torture", and "operational exhaustion" means "shell shock". A stray 2,000-pound bomb causes "a significant emotional event for anyone within a square mile." Government doublespeak can also involve simple euphemisms, like "wet work" meaning "assassination".
Doublespeak was very common in the [[Third Reich]]. Goebbels' ''Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda'' (Ministry of the Reich for Public Enlightenment and [[Propaganda]]) coined thousands of new German words. Other examples include: "[[Concentration camp]]" (labor/death camp), ''[[Heim ins Reich]]'' (occupation of [[Austria]]), and particular new meanings for ''Volk'' (people) and ''Rasse'' (race).
A prominent example of doublespeak in the corporate world is the number of different phrases that all describe the action of "firing lots of employees", usually obliquely. These phrases include "layoffs", "downsizing", "right-sizing", "headcount adjustment", "RIF" (reduction in force), and "realignment." T |
terally means "bone tiles" in [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]].
It refers to the [[Chinese dominoes]] set.
Gwat Pai is also the name of a northern Chinese game that is played with the Chinese domino set.
Gwat Pai's game rule is quite different from the southern Chinese game [[Tien Gow]].
==External links==
*[http://www.gwat.tk an article dated back to 1893]
[[Category:Chinese dominoes]]
{{game-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gladiator</title>
<id>12336</id>
<revision>
<id>42163856</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:10:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.192.180.138</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ancient Roman gladiators */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Roman professional fighter. For other uses of the word, see [[gladiator (disambiguation)|gladiator (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Pollice Verso'', an [[1872]] painting by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], is a well known [[history painting|history painter]]'s researched conception of a gladiatorial combat.]]
'''Gladiators''' ([[Latin]] ''gladiatores'') were professional fighters in ancient [[Rome]] who fought against each other, wild animals, and slaves, sometimes to the death, for the entertainment of spectators. These fights took place in [[arena]]s in many cities during the [[Roman republic]] and the [[Roman Empire]].
The word comes from ''[[gladius]]'', the Latin word for a short [[sword]] used by [[legionaries]] and some gladiators.
===Ancient Roman gladiators===
The gladiatorial games were originally established by the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]], but were later adopted by the Romans as a means of entertainment. The Etruscans believed when an important man died his spirit needed a blood sacrifice to survive in the after life (Nardo, Games of 21). The first recorded gladiatorial combats took place in Rome in [[264 BC]]. [[Decimus Junius Brutus| Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva]] staged it in honor of his dead father. It was held between three pairs of slaves, and held in the [[Forum Boarium]]. The ceremony was called a munus or “duty paid to a dead ancestor by his descendants, with the intention of keeping alive his memory” (Baker, Gladiator 10). These were held for notable people and were repeated every one to five years after the person’s death.
Public spectacles (called ''munera'', singular ''munus'') took place in [[amphitheatre]]s (like the [[Colosseum]]) and took the latter half of the day after the fights against animals (''[[venatio|venationes]]'') and public [[Execution (legal)|executions]] of criminals (''noxii''). Initially rich private individuals organized these, often to gain political favor with the public. The person who organized the show was called the ''editor'', ''munerator'', or ''dominus'' and he was honored with the official signs of a magistrate. Later the emperors would exert a near complete monopoly on staging public entertainment which included chariot racing in the circus (''ludi circenses''), hunts of wild animals, public executions, theatrical performances (''ludi scaenici'') and gladiator fights. There was usually musical accompaniment.
Gladiators were typically picked from prisoners of war, slaves, and sentenced criminals. There were also occasional volunteers. They were trained in special gladiator schools (''ludi''). One of the largest schools was in [[Ravenna]]. There were four schools in Rome itself, the largest of which was called the ''Ludus Magnus''. The ''Ludus Magnus'' was connected to the Colosseum by an underground tunnel. Gladiators often belonged to a troupe (''familia'') that traveled from town to town. A trainer of gladiators or the manager of a team of gladiators was known as a [[lanista]]. The troupe's owner rented gladiators to whomever wanted to stage games. A gladiator would typically fight no more than three times per year.
It should be noted that fights were not generally to the death during the Republic, although gladiators were still killed or maimed accidentally.
Gladiators could be also the property of a wealthy individual who would hire ''lanistae'' to train them. Several senators and emperors had their own favorites.
Criminals were either expected to die within a year (''ad gladium'') or might earn their release after three years (''ad ludum'') &mdash; if they survived.
Different gladiators specialized in different weapons, and it was popular to pair off combatants with widely different equipment. Gladiator types and their weaponry included:
* ''Andabatae'': Fought with visored helmet and possibly blindfolded and on horseback. They were called andabatae, from ''άναβαται'', ''ascensores'', because they fought on horseback, or out of chariots.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}
* ''Dimachaeri'': Carried two short swords (the [[gladius]])
* ''Bestiari'': Fought against beasts, usually with spears.
* ''Equites'': Fought on horseback with a spear and gladius, dressed in a full tunic, with a ''[[manica (armour)|manica]]''
* ''Essedari'': [[Charioteer]]s in Celtic style.
* ''Hoplomachi'': Fully armored, based on [[Greece|Greek]] [[hoplite]]s. They wore a helmet with a stylized [[griffin]] on the crest, woollen leg wrappings, and shin-guards. They carried a gladius and a small, round shield, and were paired with mirmillones or Thraces. They apparently became Samnites later.
* ''Laquerii'': [[Lasso]] Laqueatores were those who used a noose to catch their adversaries
* ''[[Murmillo|Mirmillones]]'' (or ''murmillones''): Wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest, as well as a ''manica''. They carried a gladius and an oblong shield in the Gallic style. They were paired with hoplomachi or Thraces.
* ''Provocatores'': Fought with the Samnites but their armament is unknown (might have been variable, hence the term "provocators")
* ''[[Retiarius|Retiarii]]'': Carried a [[trident]], a dagger, and a net, and had at least [[naked]] torso, no helmet, and a larger manica. They commonly fought secutores or mirmillones.
* ''Samnites'': Carried a long rectangular shield, visor, plumed helmet and short sword. The name came from the [[Samnites|people]] of the same name Romans had conquered.
* ''[[Secutor|Secutores]]'': Had the same armour as a murmillo, including oblong shield and a gladius, however, they wore a helmet with only two eye-holes. They were the usual opponents of retiarii.
* ''Thraces'': Had the same armour and weapons as hoplomachi, but instead had a round shield and also carried a curved dagger. Their name came from [[Thracians]], and they commonly fought mirmillones or hoplomachi.
[[Image:Borghese gladiator 1 mosaic dn r2 c2.jpg|thumb|450px|left|The Gladiator Mosaic at the [[Galleria Borghese]], showing the latter stages of various combats, late Roman period]]
[[Image:GladiatorFeldflasche.jpg|thumb|right|A flask depicting the final phase of the fight between two gladiators (''[[Murmillo|mirmillones]]'').]]
Gladiators usually fought in pairs (''Ordinarii''), that is, one gladiator against another. However, sponsor or audience could request other combinations like several gladiators fighting together (''Catervarii'') or specific gladiators against each other even from outside the established troupe (''Postulaticii''). Sometimes a lanista had to rely on substitutes (''supposititii'') if the requested gladiator was already dead or incapacitated. The Emperor could have his own gladiators (''Fiscales'').
At the end of a fight, when one gladiator acknowledged defeat by raising a finger, the audience could decide whether the loser should live or die. It is known that the audience (or sponsor or emperor) pointed their thumbs a certain way if they wanted the loser to be killed (''pollice verso'', literally "with turned thumb"), but it is not clear which way they pointed. The clear 'thumbs up' and 'thumbs down' image is not a product of the historical sources, but merely a product of [[Hollywood]] and [[epic film]]s such as [[Quo Vadis (1951 movie)]].It is possible that they pointed their thumbs upwards if they wanted the loser to live, and downwards if they wanted him to die; or, they may have done the opposite, pointing downwards if they wanted the gladiator to live. Another possibility is that they raised their fist but kept their thumb inside it if they wanted the loser to live, and pointed down to signify death.
A gladiator did not have to die after every match - if the audience felt both men fought admirably, they would likely want both to live and fight for their amusement in the future - though equally a patron of the games who killed too few gladiators would be seen as stingy. A gladiator who won several fights was allowed to retire, often to train other fighters. Gladiators who managed to win their freedom - often by request of the audience or sponsor - were given a rudis, a symbolic wooden sword, as a memento.
Recent research has come to light which suggests that gladiators were not as savage as once thought and actually adhered to a strict code of discipline and did not resort to savage violence and mutilation which could occur on the battlefields of the day. Furthermore if the order was given to kill the opponent which was very rare as gladiators were expensive, the wound may have been made so that it appeared that the gladiator had died, but in reality the gladiator would be dragged backstage and would have been executed "humanely" by a backstage executioner who would kill the gladiator with a hammer on the forehead.
The attitude of Romans towards the gladiators was ambivalent: on the one hand they were considered as lower than [[Slavery|slave]]s, but on the other hand some successful gladiators rose to celebrity status. There was even a belief that nine eaten gladiator livers were a cure for epilepsy. Gladiators often developed large followings of women, who apparently saw them as sexual |
cientious objection]]
* [[National Service]]
==Sources==
* [http://edition.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/06/15/iraq.australian.hostage/index.html CNN] - Australian hostage freed in Iraq (June 15, 2005)
* [http://www.defence.gov.au/opfalconer/ Department of Defence] - Operation Falconer
* [http://www.minister.defence.gov.au/Hilltpl.cfm?CurrentId=2637 Office of the Defence Minister] - Australian troops to start coming home (April 17, 2005)
==See also==
* [[Military of Australia]], root page
==External links==
*Website: http://www.army.gov.au
*recruitment: http://www.defencejobs.gov.au
* Defence Force Community: http://www.AusSpecialForces.com
{{Australian Defence Force}}
[[Category:Armies|Australia]]
[[Category:Military of Australia]]
[[Category:Australian Army]]
[[Category:Australian Military Topics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Registry for Internet Numbers</title>
<id>2799</id>
<revision>
<id>39601736</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T16:10:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>192.136.136.70</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Board of Trustees */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arin_logo.jpg|right|ARIN logo]]
The '''American Registry for Internet Numbers''' ('''ARIN''') is the [[Regional Internet Registry]] (RIR) for [[Canada]], the [[United States]], and portions of the [[Caribbean]].
Established in December 1997, ARIN is incorporated as a nonprofit in the Commonwealth of Virginia, USA. ARIN is one of five (5) RIRs. Like the other RIRs, ARIN:
* Provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources in its respective service region.
* Participates in the global Internet community;
* Facilitates the development of policy decisions made by its members and the stakeholders in its region;
* Is a nonprofit, membership organization;
* Is governed by an executive board elected by its membership.
== Services ==
ARIN provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources. The nature of these services is described in ARIN's mission statement:
:''Applying the principles of stewardship, ARIN, a nonprofit corporation, allocates Internet Protocol resources; develops consensus-based policies; and facilitates the advancement of the Internet through information and educational outreach.''
These services are grouped in three areas: Registration, Organization, and Policy Development.
=== Registration Services ===
Registration Services pertain to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources. They include:
* IP address space allocation, transfer, and record maintenance
* ASN allocation, transfer, and record maintenance
* Directories
** Registration transaction information (WHOIS)
** Routing information (Internet Routing Registry)
* DNS (Reverse)
=== Organization Services ===
Organization Services pertain to interaction between ARIN members and stakeholders and ARIN. They include:
* Elections
* Members Meetings
* Information publication and dissemination
* Education and training
=== Policy Development Services ===
Policy Development Services facilitate the development of policy for the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources in the ARIN region. They include:
* Maintaining discussion e-mail lists
* Conducting Public Policy Meetings
* Publishing policy documents
== Structure ==
ARIN is a nonprofit service organization that is responsive to the needs of the public it serves. Stakeholders in the community drive policies and activities, thus enabling ARIN to keep in step with their requirements. The organizational structure of ARIN is comprised of a 7-member Board of Trustees, a 15-member Advisory Council, and a professional staff of nearly 40. The Board of Trustees and Advisory Council are elected by ARIN members for three-year terms.
=== Board of Trustees ===
The ARIN membership elects the Board of Trustees, which has ultimate responsibility for the business affairs and financial health of ARIN, and manages ARIN's operations in a manner consistent with the guidance received from the Advisory Council and the goals set by the registry's members. The Board is responsible for determining the disposition of all revenues received to ensure that all services are provided in an equitable manner.
The Board votes on proposals generated from the membership and submitted through the Advisory Council. Executive decisions are carried out following approval by the Board.
The Board of Trustees consists of 7 members. Six members are elected by ARIN's membership and the President of ARIN serves as the seventh Trustee. Current members of the Board include Secretary Scott Bradner, Treasurer Lee Howard, President Ray Plzak, and the Chairman, [[John Curran]], as well as Trustees Bill Manning, Bill Woodcock, and [[Paul Vixie]].
=== Advisory Council ===
In addition to the Board of Trustees, ARIN has an Advisory Council. The Advisory Council serves in an advisory capacity to the Board of Trustees on IP allocation policy and related matters. Adhering to the procedures in the Internet Resource Policy Evaluation Process, the Advisory Council forwards consensus-based policy proposals to the Board for ratification, as well as membership proposals to the Board for formal votes.
The Advisory Council consists of 15 elected members. The President of ARIN is an ex-officio member and acts as the liaison between the Board of Trustees and the Advisory Council. The current chair of the Advisory Council is Ron da Silva.
==History==
[[Image:Arinlogo-sml.jpg|left|ARIN Logo from 1998 until 2001]]
The organization was formed in December 1997 to "provide [[Internet Protocol|IP]] registration services as an independent, nonprofit corporation." Until this time IP registration in the ARIN region was done by a department within the [[Network Solutions]] corporation, which provided the initial staff and computer infrastructure for ARIN.
The first president of ARIN was Kim Hubbard, from 1997 until 2000. The current president of ARIN is Raymond Plzak.
Until late [[2002]] it served [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], [[South America]] and all of the [[Caribbean]]. [[LACNIC]] now handles parts of the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Also, [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] was part of its region until recently, when [[AfriNIC]] was officially recognized by [[ICANN]] as the fifth [[Regional Internet Registry]] in April 2005.
==Service Region==
The countries in the ARIN service region are:
* [[Anguilla]]
* [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
* [[Bahamas]]
* [[Barbados]]
* [[Bermuda]]
* [[Bouvet Island]] (Norway)
* [[Canada]]
* [[Cayman Islands]] (U.K.)
* [[Dominica]]
* [[Grenada]]
* [[Guadeloupe]] (France)
* [[Heard and McDonald Islands]] (Australia)
* [[Jamaica]]
* [[Martinique]] (France)
* [[Puerto Rico]] (U.S.)
* [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
* [[Saint Lucia]]
* [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
* [[St. Helena]] (U.K.)
* [[St. Pierre and Miquelon]] (France)
* [[United States]]
* [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]]
* [[British Virgin Islands]] (U.K.)
* [[US Virgin Islands]] (U.S.)
===Former service region===
ARIN covered [[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[Burundi]], [[Republic of Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Namibia]], [[Rwanda]], [[South Africa]], [[Swaziland]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]], and [[Zimbabwe]] until [[AfriNIC]] was formed.
ARIN covered [[Argentina]], [[Aruba]], [[Belize]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Dutch West Indies]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Falkland Islands]] (U.K.), [[French Guiana]], [[Guatemala]], [[Guyana]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Panama]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], [[Suriname]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Uruguay]], and [[Venezuela]] until [[LACNIC]] was formed.
==External links==
* [http://www.arin.net/ ARIN Home Page]
[[Category:Regional Internet Registries]]
[[de:American Registry for Internet Numbers]]
[[ja:American Registry for Internet Numbers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asimov</title>
<id>2800</id>
<revision>
<id>26481981</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-25T23:18:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>171.64.139.118</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Akihabara</title>
<id>2802</id>
<revision>
<id>42124293</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:56:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dannychoo</username>
<id>390128</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Akihabara''' (&#31179;&#33865;&#21407;) is also known as '''Akihabara Electric Town''' (Akihabara Denki Gai). It is located less than five minutes by rail from [[Tokyo Station]], [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]. Its name is sometimes shortened to ''Akiba'' by locals. While there is an official locality named Akihabara nearby, part of [[Taito-ku, Tokyo|Taito-ku]], the area known to most people as ''Akihabara'' (including the [[Japan Railway|JR]] railway station of the [[Akihabara Station|same name]]) is actually Soto-Kanda, a part of [[Chiyoda, Tokyo|Chiyoda]]-ku.
[[Image:Akihabara_picture.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Akihabara in 2003]]
Akihabara is best-known as one of the largest shopping area on Earth for electronic, computer, [[anime]], and [[otaku]] goods, including new and used items. New items are mostly to be found on the main street, Chuo Dori, with used items of all descriptions (software, hardware, and junk galore) to be found in the back streets of Soto Kanda 3 chome. First hand parts for the do-it-yourself PC builder are readily available, with many places around for the hunter |
(b. [[1531]])
*[[1588]] - [[Henry I, Duke of Guise]], French Catholic leader (b. [[1550]])
*[[1631]] - [[Michael Drayton]], English poet (b. [[1563]])
*[[1646]] - [[François Maynard]], French poet (b. [[1582]])
*[[1652]] - [[John Cotton]], founder of Boston, Massachusetts (b. [[1585]])
*[[1675]] - [[Caesar, duc de Choiseul]], French marshal and diplomat (b. [[1602]])
*[[1722]] - [[Pierre Varignon]], French mathematician (b. [[1654]])
*[[1771]] - [[Marie-Marguerite d'Youville]], Canadian saint (b. [[1701]])
*[[1761]] - [[Alestair Ruadh MacDonnell]], Scottish Jacobite spy
*[[1779]] - [[Augustus Hervey, 3rd Earl of Bristol]], British admiral and politician (b. [[1724]])
*[[1789]] - [[Charles-Michel de l'Épée]], French philanthropist and developer of signed French (b. [[1712]])
*[[1793]] - [[Johann Adolph Hasse]], German composer (b. [[1699]])
*[[1795]] - [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]], British general (b. [[1730]])
*[[1805]] - [[Pehr Osbeck]], Swedish explorer and naturalist (b. [[1723]])
*[[1834]] - [[Thomas Malthus]], English demographer and economist (b. [[1766]])
*[[1846]] - [[Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent]], French naturalist (b. [[1780]])
*[[1872]] - [[Theophile Gautier]], French writer (b. [[1811]])
*[[1912]] - [[Otto Schoetensack]], German anthropologist (b. [[1850]])
*[[1939]] - [[Anthony Fokker]], Dutch aircraft manufacturer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1948]] - [[Hideki Tojo]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (hanged) (b. [[1884]])
*[[1953]] - [[Lavrenty Beria]], Soviet Communist leader (b. [[1899]])
*[[1970]] - [[Charles Ruggles]], American actor (b. [[1886]])
*[[1973]] - [[Angelo Siciliano|Charles Atlas]], Italian-born bodybuilder (b. [[1892]])
*1973 - [[Irna Phillips]], American television writer, director, and producer (b. [[1901]])
*[[1979]] - [[Peggy Guggenheim]], American art collector (b. [[1898]])
*[[1982]] - [[Jack Webb]], American actor, producer, and director (b. [[1920]])
*[[1983]] - [[Colin Middleton]], Northern Irish artist (b. [[1910]])
*[[1992]] - [[Eddie Hazel]], American guitarist ([[Funkadelic]]) (b. [[1950]])
*[[1994]] - [[Sebastian Shaw (actor)|Sebastian Shaw]], English actor (b. [[1905]])
*[[2000]] - [[Billy Barty]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*2000 - [[Victor Borge]], Danish-born comedian and pianist (b. [[1909]])
*[[2004]] - [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]], ninth [[Prime Minister of India]] (b. [[1921]])
*[[2005]] - [[Norman D. Vaughan]], polar explorer and dogsled driver (b. [[1905]])
*[[2005]] - [[Lajos Baróti]], Hungarian footballer and coach (b. [[1914]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Larentalia]], a festival in honor of [[Larenta]]
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[John Cantius]] ; [[Thorlac Thorhallsson]], patron saint of Iceland
*[[Japan]] - [[The Emperor's Birthday]] - Birthday of [[Akihito]], the current [[Emperor of Japan]]
*Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Ziemassvetki]] held
*[[Sweden]] - Birthday of Queen [[Silvia Sommerlath|Silvia]], an [[Flag days in Sweden|official flag day]]
*[[Oaxaca, Oaxaca|Oaxaca]] - [[Night of the Radishes]]
*[[Secular humanism]] (American) - [[HumanLight]] observed
===Fictitious holidays===
*Fans of [[Seinfeld]] - [[Festivus]] held
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/23 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/23 Today in History: December 23]
----
[[December 22]] - [[December 24]] - [[November 23]] - [[January 23]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:23 Desember]]
[[ar:23 ديسمبر]]
[[an:23 d'abiento]]
[[ast:23 d'avientu]]
[[bg:23 декември]]
[[be:23 сьнежня]]
[[bs:23. decembar]]
[[ca:23 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 23]]
[[cv:Раштав, 23]]
[[co:23 di decembre]]
[[cs:23. prosinec]]
[[cy:23 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:23. december]]
[[de:23. Dezember]]
[[et:23. detsember]]
[[el:23 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:23 de diciembre]]
[[eo:23-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 23]]
[[fo:23. desember]]
[[fr:23 décembre]]
[[fy:23 desimber]]
[[ga:23 Nollaig]]
[[gl:23 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 23일]]
[[hr:23. prosinca]]
[[io:23 di decembro]]
[[id:23 Desember]]
[[ia:23 de decembre]]
[[is:23. desember]]
[[it:23 dicembre]]
[[he:23 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:23 Desember]]
[[ka:23 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:23 gòdnika]]
[[ku:23'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:23 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 23]]
[[lb:23. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 23]]
[[mk:23 декември]]
[[ms:23 Disember]]
[[nap:23 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:23 december]]
[[ja:12月23日]]
[[no:23. desember]]
[[nn:23. desember]]
[[oc:23 de decembre]]
[[pl:23 grudnia]]
[[pt:23 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:23 decembrie]]
[[ru:23 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 23.]]
[[sco:23 December]]
[[sq:23 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:23 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 23]]
[[sk:23. december]]
[[sl:23. december]]
[[sr:23. децембар]]
[[fi:23. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:23 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 23]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 23]]
[[tt:23. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 23]]
[[th:23 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:23 tháng 12]]
[[tr:23 Aralık]]
[[uk:23 грудня]]
[[wa:23 d' decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 23]]
[[zh:12月23日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 23]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 24</title>
<id>8359</id>
<revision>
<id>42162596</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:56:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv non-noteable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- language links at the bottom of this page -->
'''[[December 24]]''' is the 358th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (359th in [[leap year]]s). There are 7 days remaining in the year.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
* [[640]] - [[Pope John IV|John IV]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1294]] - [[Pope Boniface VIII]] is elected [[Pope]], replacing [[Pope Celestine V|St. Celestine V]], who had [[Papal abdication|abdicated]].
*[[1515]] - [[Thomas Wolsey]] is named the English [[Lord Chancellor]].
*[[1715]] - [[Sweden|Swedish]] troops occupy [[Norway]].
*[[1777]] - [[Kiritimati]], also called Christmas Island, was discovered by [[James Cook]].
*[[1800]] - Assassination attempt on [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s life.
*[[1814]] - The [[Treaty of Ghent]] was signed which ended the [[War of 1812]].
*[[1818]] - "[[Silent Night]]" composed by [[Franz Gruber|Franz Xaver Gruber]].
*[[1851]] - [[Library of Congress]] burns.
*[[1865]] - Several US Civil War [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] veterans form the [[Ku Klux Klan]].
*[[1906]] - The first [[radio]] program, consisting of a poetry reading, a violin solo, and a speech, is broadcast.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: The "[[Christmas truce]]" begins.
*[[1924]] - [[Albania]] becomes a republic.
*[[1941]] - [[Hong Kong]] falls to the [[Japanese Imperial Army]].
*[[1941]] - [[Wake Island]] is conquered by Japanese forces.
*[[1943]] - US General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] becomes the supreme Allied commander.
*[[1946]] - [[France]]'s [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] founded.
*[[1951]] - [[Libya]] becomes independent from [[Italy]]. [[Idris I of Libya|Idris I]] is proclaimed King of Libya.
*[[1953]] - [[Tangiwai disaster]]: A railway bridge collapse at [[Tangiwai]], [[New Zealand]] sends a fully loaded passenger train into the [[Whangaehu River]], killing 153 people.
*1953 - [[NBC]]'s ''[[Dragnet (drama)|Dragnet]]'' becomes the first network-sponsored [[television]] program.
*[[1954]] - [[Laos]] becomes independent.
*[[1966]] - A [[Canadair]] [[CL44]] chartered by the [[United States military]] crashes into a small village in [[South Vietnam]], killing 129.
*[[1968]] - The crew of the [[USS Pueblo|USS ''Pueblo'']] is released by [[North Korea]] after being held for 11 months on suspicion of [[espionage|spying]].
*1968 - The crew of [[Apollo 8]] enter into orbit around the Moon, becoming the first humans to do so.
*[[1969]] - [[Curt Flood]] writes to [[Bowie Kuhn|Bowie K. Kuhn]], the [[Baseball Commissioner|Commissioner of Baseball]], asking to be declared a [[free agent]] .
*[[1974]] - [[Cyclone Tracy]] devastates [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin, Australia]].
*[[1979]] - The [[Soviet Union]] [[Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan|invades]] [[Afghanistan]] to support the country's Marxist government.
*1979 - The first European [[Ariane]] rocket is launched.
*[[1985]] - A black bull blocks the [[Cross Harbour Tunnel]] in [[Hong Kong]] for three hours.
*[[1987]] - [[Japan]]ese legendary [[rock band]] [[BOØWY]] declares their breakup at the [[Shibuya]] Kokaido.
*[[1997]] - The [[Sid El-Antri massacre]] (or Sidi Lamri) in [[Algeria]] kills 50-100 people.
*1997 - The [[Dominican Republic]] becomes a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[2000]] - The [[Texas 7]] holds up a sports store in [[Irving, Texas]]. Police officer [[Aubrey Hawkins]] is shot during the robbery.
*[[2003]] - The [[Spain|Spanish]] police thwarts an attempt by [[ETA]] to detonate 50 kg of [[explosive]]s at 3:55 {{PM}} inside [[Madrid]]'s busy [[Chamartín Station]].
*[[2004]] - The [[2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm]] delivers an extremely unusual [[snow]]fall to the southern [[United States]].
===Fictional Events===
*[[1993]] Bob Hartley jokingly asked Carol if she and her boyfriend would like to come to their Christmas party on The Bob Newhart show.
==Births==
*[[1166]] - King [[John of England]] (d. [[1216]])
*[[1389]] - [[John VI, Duke of Brittany]] (d. [[1442]])
*[[1475]] - [[Thomas Murner]], German writer
*[[1491]] - [[Ignatius Loyola|Ignatius of Loyola]], Spanish founder of the Jesuit order (d. [[1556]])
*[[1508]] - [[Pietro Carnesecchi]], Italian humanist (d. [[1567]])
*[[1609]] - [[Philip Warwick]], English writer and politician (d. [[1683]])
*[[1698]] - [[William Warburton]], English Bishop of Gloucester (d. [[1779]])
*[[1724]] - [[Johann Conrad Ammann]], Swiss physician and naturalist (d. [[1811]])
*[[1745]] - [[William_Paterson_%28jurist%29|William Paterson]], Signer of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Co |
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