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ent; others claim torture [http://newsfromrussia.com/world/2005/11/16/67822.html]. The Cuban Government placed a moratorium on capital punishment in 2001, making an exception for perpetrators of an armed hijacking 2 years later. However, since Castro, in power for the last 47 years, denies access to many humanitarian organizations, it is difficult to determine exact numbers. Groups like [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] have issued many reports about prisoners of conscience. [http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-cub/index] Cuba remains one of the few countries in the world, and the only one in the Western Hemisphere, to deny the International Committee of the Red Cross access to its prisons. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/01/13/cuba9848.htm] All Cuban workers have the right to join a trade union, and although membership of a union is voluntary ninety eight per cent of the active population belong to one of the 19 trade unions in Cuba. Cuban law permits workers to freely form trade union organisations and does not require such organisations to register with any state agency in order to function or to acquire legality. Unions are self financed from monthly dues, which are paid by members to their local union official, and they receive no subsidies from the state. Elections of union officers at the workplace are open and competitive. Different political views are found within each of the unions. An official worker's central trade union organisation, The [[Worker's Central of Cuba]] (Central de Trabajadores de Cuba, CTC) is routinely consulted by central government when new laws are being considered. [http://www.cuba-solidarity.org/democracy.htm] Not all accept this view of Cuban labor organizations and see them as a mere arm of the state (Alba,1968). Supporters of the Cuban government will often compare the human rights record to the authoritarian rule under the previous U.S. backed regime of [[Fulgencio Batista]], and they argue that the overall current situation would have been far better if not for U.S. sanctions. They also claim that the electoral system in Cuba today is more democratic than that of most western nations, where business interests hold political clout. == Provinces == {{main|Provinces of Cuba}} Fourteen provinces and one special municipality (the [[Isla de la Juventud]]) now comprise Cuba. These in turn were formerly part of six larger historical provinces: Pinar del Rio (item 1 on map), Habana (items 2,3,4 on map), Matanzas, Las Villas (approximately 6, 7, 8, and 9 on map, Camaguey (roughly 10 and part of 11) and Oriente (part of 11, plus 12, 13, 14, and 15). The present subdivisions closely resemble those of Spanish military provinces during the Cuban Wars of Independence, when the most troublesome areas were subdivided. {| align=center |colspan=4|[[Image:CubaSubdivisions.png]] |- |align=right|'''1''' |colspan=3|[[Isla de la Juventud]] (''Isle of Youth'') |- |align=right|'''2''' |[[Pinar del Río Province|Pinar del Río]] |align=right|'''9''' |[[Ciego de Ávila Province|Ciego de Ávila]] |- |align=right|'''3''' |[[La Habana Province|La Habana]] (''Havana'') |align=right|'''10''' |[[Camagüey Province|Camagüey]] |- |align=left|'''4''' |[[Ciudad de La Habana Province|Ciudad de la Habana]] (''Havana City'') |align=right|'''11''' |[[Las Tunas Province|Las Tunas]] |- |align=right|'''5''' |[[Matanzas Province|Matanzas]] |align=right| '''12''' |[[Granma Province|Granma]] |- |align=right|'''6''' |[[Cienfuegos Province|Cienfuegos]] |align=right|'''13''' |[[Holguín Province|Holguín]] |- |align=right|'''7''' |[[Villa Clara Province|Villa Clara]] |align=right|'''14''' |[[Santiago de Cuba Province|Santiago de Cuba]] |- |align=right|'''8''' |[[Sancti Spíritus Province|Sancti Spíritus]] |align=right|'''15''' |[[Guantánamo Province|Guantánamo]] |- |} == Geography == {{main|Geography of Cuba}} [[Image:Cu-map.png|350px|thumb|Map of Cuba]] Geologically Cuba was once in the Pacific, and crossing between North and South America before they were joined, "crashed" into what is now Florida [http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02mexico/background/geology/geology.html]. Cuba, 65 million years ago, also received part of the impact of [[Chicxulub Crater]] with tsunami kilometers high reaching at least 500 [[kilometre]]s (300 [[mile|mi]]) away to the middle provinces [http://www.cuba.cu/ciencia/citma/ama/museo/pugeorr.htm], [http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/articulos/26483.html] and beyond. The elongated island (aprox. 760 miles or 1,220 km long) of Cuba is the largest island in the [[Caribbean]] and is bounded to the north by the [[Straits of Florida]] and the greater North [[Atlantic Ocean]], to the northwest by the [[Gulf of Mexico]], to the west by the [[Yucatan Channel]], to the south by the [[Caribbean Sea]], and to the east by the [[Windward Passage]]. The Republic comprises the entire island, including many outlying islands such as the [[Isla de la Juventud]] (Isle of Youth), previously known as the Isla de los Pinos (Isle of Pines). The [[Cayman Islands]] mainly coral reefs covering submerged ice age peaks of the Sierra Maestra range [http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Europe/United_Kingdom/Other/photo296490.htm]) and [[Jamaica]] which is geologically related to Central America are south of eastern Cuba. [[Guantánamo Bay]], is a naval base that has been leased by the [[United States]] since 1903, a lease that has been contested since 1960 by Castro. The main island is the [[List of islands by size|world's 16th largest]]. The island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains, with more rugged hills and mountains primarily in the southeast and the highest point is the [[Pico Real del Turquino]] at 2,005 metres (6,578 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The local [[climate]] is tropical, though moderated by trade winds. In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October. [[Havana]] is the largest city and capital; other major cities include [[Santiago de Cuba]] and [[Camagüey]]. Some of the well-known smaller towns are [[Baracoa]] which was the first Spanish settlement on Cuba, as well as [[Trinidad, Cuba|Trinidad]] and [[Bayamo]]. * {{cite journal | author=Rojas-Consuegra, R., M. A. Iturralde-Vinent, C. Díaz-Otero y D. García-Delgado | title=Significación paleogeográfica de la brecha basal del Límite K/T en Loma Dos Hermanas (Loma Capiro), en Santa Clara, provincia de Villa Clara. I Convención Cubana de Ciencias de la Tierra. | journal=GEOCIENCIAS| volume=8 | issue=6 | year=2005 | pages=1-9 | id=ISBN 959-7117-03-7 }} == Economy == {{main|Economy of Cuba}} Cuba's socialist economy is primarily based on [[state ownership]] — exceptions to this include microscale private enterprises. Economic activity is thereby maintained largely by government spending. Such federal spending in 2005 budgeted 68% towards education, healthcare, social security, cultural programs, sports, and scientific research.<ref>[http://www.granma.cu/ingles/2004/diciembre/vier24/01presup.html]</ref> According to Cuban statistics, during the first half of the year the Cuban economy grew by 7.3%, with 9% growth expected by the end of the year.<ref>[http://www.mltoday.com/Pages/Cuba/Fidel-Moncada-05.html]</ref> Since Cuba became a socialist country the Ministerio de Recuperación de Bienes Malversados (Ministry of recovery of stolen goods), much of Cuban art and libraries formerly held by more prosperous Cubans now in exile has been recovered for the state [http://www.miami.com/mld/elnuevo/news/opinion/13956573.htm]. This art work which has increased greatly in value [http://www.artcult.com/4001.htm] [http://www.futurodecuba.org/Reclaiming%20Art%20Caught%20in%20the%20Cuban%20Revolution%20By%20CELESTINE%20BOHLEN.htm] can now be exported to promote the needs of the Cuban State. Since the fall of Cuba's many trading partners, the island has focused on urban communal farms. "Last year alone we produced 27 kilograms of vegetables per square metre. When we first started this farm three years ago it stood at 18 kilograms. And we expect this year's harvest to yield no less than 30 kilograms. That's an increase of around 30% year on year.", says Senora Hernandes, in charge of one of hundreds of small urban farms dotted around Havana. "A recent report by the American agency for sustainable farming, Food First, said annual production of fruit and vegetables is growing at 250% a year." [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1409898.stm]. While “Locally grown fruit and vegetables can significantly augment a country’s commercial production and imports, but will not, however, provide long-run food and agricultural solutions.” (Kost, 2004). The reason for this is that the first limiting factor for production is nitrogen. While green “manures” (Ramos, et al. 2001), endophytic, microrhizzal and other associated organisms (Loiret et al. 2004; Tejera et al, 2006), and animal manures (Travieso, 2006) can supplement this to some extent this circumstance will require wider plantings of the type required before inorganic fertilizers became widely available (Ortiz, 1995) [[Image:Cuba cienfuegos palacio azul.jpg|thumb|300px|A Cuban state hotel, from 30 € per night]] Historically, [[sugar]], [[tobacco]] and (later) [[nickel]] were the main sources of foreign trade income for Cuba. In the 19th Century, until the richer ores of Chile were found, it was common to export some of Cuba's long mined copper ore to Wales [[History of Swansea]] and England [http://www.projects.ex.ac.uk/cornishlatin/cobre.htm]. But in the 1990s [[tourism]] saw an explosive growth, becoming the second most popular tourist destination in the Caribbean to the [[Dominican Republic]]. Until recently Cubans also receive an estimated $850 million annually from Cubans in the U.S. who send money to relatives or friends.
ion and of the utter contempt for humanity shown in [[Hitler]]'s death camps", as well as his "practical work in the cause of peace", Wiesel has delivered a powerful message "of peace, atonement and human dignity" to humanity. {{ref|Nobel}} Wiesel lives in the [[United States]], where he teaches at [[Boston University]] and serves as the chairman of the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity. {{ref|ewfoundation}} ==Early life and experiences during the Holocaust== [[Image:Buchenwald.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Buchenwald, 1945. Wiesel is on the second row, seventh from the left.]] Wiesel was born in [[Sighetu Marmatiei|Sighet]] (now Sighetu Marmaţiei), [[Romania]], to Chlomo Wiesel and his wife Sarah, the daughter of Dodye Feig, a [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasid]] and farmer from a nearby village. Chlomo was an [[Orthodox Jew]] of [[Hungary|Hungarian]] descent, and a shopkeeper who ran his own grocery store. He was active and trusted within the community, and had spent a few months in jail for having helped [[History of the Jews in Poland|Polish Jews]] who escaped to Hungary in the early years of the war. It was Chlomo who instilled a strong sense of [[humanism]] in his son, encouraging him to learn [[Hebrew language|Modern Hebrew]] and to read literature, whereas his mother encouraged him to study [[Torah]] and [[Kabbalah]]. Wiesel has said his father represented reason, and his mother, faith (Fine 1982:4). He was the only son, and had three sisters, Hilda, Beatrice, and Tzipora. The town of Sighet became part of the German ally [[Hungary]] in 1940, and in 1944 the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] deported the Jewish community in Sighet to [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz–Birkenau]]. While at Auschwitz the number A-7713 was tattooed into his left arm. Wiesel was separated from his mother and younger sister, who are presumed to have been murdered at Auschwitz. Wiesel and his father were sent to the attached work camp Buna-Werke, a subcamp of [[Auschwitz Concentration Camp|Auschwitz III Monowitz]]. He managed to remain with his father for a year as they were forced to work under appalling conditions and shuffled between concentration camps in the closing days of the war. In January 1945, just a few weeks after the two were marched to [[Buchenwald]] and only months before the camp was liberated by the American [[U.S. Third Army|Third Army]], Wiesel's father died of [[dysentery]], [[starvation]], and [[exhaustion]], after being beaten by a guard. ==After the war== {{Quote box| width=35% |align=right |quote=I was the accuser, God the accused. My eyes were open and I was alone–terribly alone in a world without God and without man. |source=Elie Wiesel, ''Night'' (1958)<br>Translated by Stella Todway|}} After the war, Wiesel was placed in a French [[orphanage]] where he learned the [[French language]] and accidentally found two older sisters, Hilda and Bea, who had also survived the war. In 1948, Wiesel began studying philosophy at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]]. He taught [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and worked as a choirmaster before becoming a professional journalist. As a journalist he wrote for Israeli and French newspapers, including ''Tsion in Kamf'' (in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]) and the French [[newspaper]], ''[[L'arche]]''. However, for ten years after the war, Wiesel refused to write about or discuss his experiences during the Holocaust. Like many survivors, Wiesel could not find the words to describe his experiences. However, a meeting with [[François Mauriac]], the 1952 [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Laureate in Literature]], who eventually became Wiesel's close friend, persuaded him to write about his Holocaust experiences. Wiesel wrote an 800-page manuscript edited to a 253-page book on his experiences, ''Un di velt hot geshvign'', in Yiddish, (although he usually writes in French). The work was originally published in [[Buenos Aires]]. Wiesel compressed and rewrote that book in French, and it was published as the 127-page novel ''[[La Nuit]]'', published in English as ''[[Night (book)|Night]].'' Even with Mauriac's support, Wiesel had trouble finding a publisher for his book, and initially it sold poorly. ==Life in the United States== In 1955, Wiesel moved to [[New York]], where he worked as a foreign correspondent for ''[[Yedioth Ahronoth]]''. The next year he was struck by a taxi and was confined to a wheelchair for over a year. Classified as a stateless person, he applied for and became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the U.S. in 1963. In the U.S., Wiesel wrote over forty books, both fiction and non-fiction, and won many literary prizes. Wiesel's writing is considered among the most important works in [[The Holocaust in art and literature|Holocaust literature]]. Some historians credit Wiesel with giving the term 'Holocaust' its present meaning, but he does not feel that the word adequately describes the event and wishes it was used less frequently to describe less significant occurrences such as everyday tragedies (Wiesel:1999, 18). He was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1986 for speaking out against violence, repression and racism. He has received many other prizes and honors for his work, including the [[Congressional Gold Medal of Honor]] in 1985 and election to the [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] in 1996. Wiesel has published two volumes of his [[memoirs]]. The first, ''All Rivers Run to the Sea'' was published in 1995 and covered his life up to the year 1969 while the second, titled ''And the Sea is Never Full'' and published in 1999, covered the years from 1969 to 1999. Wiesel and his wife, Marion, started the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity. He served as chairman for the [[Presidential Commission on the Holocaust]] (later renamed U.S. Holocaust Memorial Council) from 1978 to 1986, spearheading the building of the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|Memorial Museum]] in [[Washington, DC]]. Wiesel is particularly fond of teaching and holds the position of [[Andrew Mellon Professor of the Humanities]] at [[Boston University]]. From 1972 to 1976, Wiesel was a Distinguished Professor at the [[City University of New York]]. In [[1982]] he served as the first [[Henry Luce Visiting Scholar in Humanities and Social Thought]] at [[Yale University]]. Wiesel has become a popular speaker on the subject of the Holocaust. As a political activist, he has advocated for many causes, including [[Israel]], the plight of [[Soviet Jews|Soviet]] and [[Beta Israel|Ethiopian Jews]], the victims of ''[[apartheid]]'' in [[South Africa]], [[Argentina]]'s ''[[Desaparecidos]]'', [[Bosnians|Bosnian]] victims of [[ethnic cleansing]] in the former [[Yugoslavia]], [[Nicaragua]]'s [[Miskito|Miskito Indians]] and the [[Kurds]]. ==Criticism== *[[Noam Chomsky]], the Jewish linguist and radical leftist, has accused Wiesel of hypocrisy for failing to speak out on behalf of the [[Palestinian people|Palestinians]]. *[[Norman Finkelstein]], author of ''[[The Holocaust Industry]]'', has accused Wiesel of inappropriately turning his work on the Holocaust into a business and of charging excessive lecture fees. Finkelstein has also criticized Wiesel's support of the State of Israel in the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]. *[[Christopher Hitchens]] has also lambasted Wiesel, calling him a "contemptible [[poseur]] and [[windbag]]." Writing in ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'', Hitchens wrote that Wiesel was indifferent to the killing of [[Arabs]] at [[Sabra and Shatila]], commenting that in "1982, after Gen. [[Ariel Sharon]] had treated the inhabitants of the Sabra and Shatila camps as target practice for his paid proxies, Wiesel favored us with another of his exercises in [[neutrality]]. Asked by the ''[[New York Times]]'' to comment on the incident, he was one of the few American Jews approached on the matter to express zero remorse. 'I don’t think we should even comment,' he said, proceeding to comment bleatingly that he felt 'sadness–with Israel, and not against Israel.' For the victims, not even a perfunctory word."[http://www.marxists.de/middleast/press/wiesel.htm] == Books == <small>ISBN numbers maybe of reissues or reprints. Most are paperback.</small> Un di velt hot geshvign (Tsentral-Farband fun Poylishe Yidn in Argentine, 1956) <!--SlimVirgin's list--> * ISBN 0374521409 includes the following 3 books: **''[[Night (book)|Night]]'' (Hill and Wang 1960; Bantam) ISBN 0553272535 **''[[Dawn (book)|Dawn]]'' (Hill and Wang 1961; Bantam) ISBN 0553225367 **''The Accident'' (''Le Jour'') (Hill and Wang 1962; Bantam) ISBN 0553581708 *''The Town Beyond the Wall'' (Atheneum 1964) *''The Gates of the Forest'' (Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1966) *''The Jews of Silence'' (Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1966) ISBN 0935613013 *''Legends of our Time'' (Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1968) *''A Beggar in Jerusalem'' (Random House 1970) *''One Generation After'' (Random House 1970) *''Souls on Fire'' (Random House 1972) ISBN 067144171X *''Night Trilogy'' (Hill and Wang 1972) *''[[The Oath]]'' (Random House 1973) ISBN 0935613110 *''Ani Maamin'' (Random House 1973) *''Zalmen, or the Madness of God'' (Random House 1974) *''Messengers of God'' (Random House 1976) ISBN 067154134X *''A Jew Today'' (Random House 1978) ISBN 0935613153 *''Four Hasidic Masters'' (University of Notre Dame Press 1978) *''Images from the Bible'' (The Overlook Press 1980) *''The Trial of God'' (Random House 1979) *''The Testament'' (Summit 1981) *''Five Biblical Portraits'' (University of Notre Dame Press 1981) *''Somewhere a Master'' (Summit 1982) *''The Golem'' (Summit 1983) ISBN 0671496247 *''The Fifth Son'' (Summit 1985) *''Against Silence'' (Holocaust Library 1985) *''Twilight'' (Summit 1988) *''The Six Days of Destruction'' (Paulist Press 1988) *''A Journey of Faith'' (Donald I. Fine 1990) *''From the Kingdom of Memory
e]]'' *''[[History of Technology]]'' *''[[Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences]]'' (HSPS) *''[[ICON (journal)|ICON]]'' *''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'' *''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]'' *''[[Journal of the History of Biology]]'' *''[[Journal of the History of Medicine and the Allied Sciences]]'' *''[[Osiris (journal)|Osiris]]'' *''[[Science &amp; Technology Studies]]'' *''[[Science in Context]]'' *''[[Science, Technology, &amp; Human Values]]'' *''[[Social Studies of Science]]'' *''[[Technology and Culture]]'' *''[[Transactions of the Newcomen Society]]'' ==Professional societies== * [http://www.bshs.org.uk/ British Society for the History of Science] * [[History of Science Society]] (HSS) [http://hssonline.org] * [[Newcomen Society]] * [http://shot.press.jhu.edu/ Society for the History of Technology] (SHOT) * [http://www.4sonline.org/ Society for the Social Studies of Science] (4S) ==External links== * [http://www.hssonline.org/guide/ The History of Science Society's &quot;Guide to the Profession&quot;] * [http://www.ncsu.edu/chass/mds/stslinks.html A page of Science, Technology, and Society links]. * [http://www.stswiki.org STS Wiki] [[Category:History of science]] [[Category:History of technology]] [[de:Wissenschaftsgeschichte]] [[es:Historia de la ciencia]] [[eo:Historio de scienco kaj teknologio]] [[fr:Histoire des sciences]] [[gl:Historia da ciencia]] [[it:Storia della scienza e della tecnica]] [[ja:科学史]] [[pl:Historia nauki]] [[sl:Zgodovina znanosti in tehnologije]] [[tl:Kasaysayan ng agham at teknolohiya]] [[ta:அறிவியல், தொ.நுட்ப வரலாறு]] [[th:ประวัติศาสตร์ของวิทยาศาสตร์และเทคโนโลยี]] [[tr:Bilim ve teknoloji tarihi]] [[zh:自然科学史]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Holographic principle</title> <id>14286</id> <revision> <id>39582451</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T12:54:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate from {{journal reference}} to {{cite journal}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''holographic principle''' is a speculative conjecture about [[quantum gravity]] theories, proposed by [[Gerard 't Hooft]] and improved and promoted by [[Leonard Susskind]], claiming that all of the [[information]] contained in a volume of [[space]] can be represented by a theory that lives in the boundary of that region. In other words, if you have a room then you can model all of the events within that room by creating a theory that only takes into account what happens in the walls of the room. The holographic principle also states that at most there is one [[Degrees_of_freedom_(physics_and_chemistry)|degree of freedom]] for every four [[Planck units|Planck area]] in that theory. This can be stated as the [[Bekenstein bound]], &lt;math&gt;S\le A/4&lt;/math&gt;. ==What leads to the holographic principle== Given any finite, [[Compact_space|compact]] region of space (e.g. a sphere), this region will contain [[matter]] and [[energy]] within it. If this energy surpasses a critical density then the region collapses into a [[black hole]]. A black hole is known theoretically to have an [[entropy]] {{ref|arxiv0}} which is directly proportional to the surface area of its [[event horizon]]. Black holes become more disordered as they absorb matter. Black holes are [[Principle_of_maximum_entropy|maximal entropy]] objects {{ref|aeiveos}}, so the entropy contained in a given region of space cannot be larger than the entropy of the largest black hole which can fit in that volume. Black holes are thus the most disordered objects in the Universe. A black hole's [[Event_horizon|event horizon]] encloses a volume, and more [[Mass|massive]] black holes have larger event horizons and enclose larger volumes. The most massive black hole that can fit in a given region is the one whose event horizon corresponds exactly to the boundary of the given region. The more mass, the more entropy. Therefore the maximal limit of entropy for any ordinary region of space is directly proportional to the surface area of the region, not its volume. This is [[counter-intuitive]] to physicists because entropy is an [[extensive variable]], being directly proportional to mass, which is proportional to volume (all else being equal, including the density of the mass). If entropy of ordinary mass (not just black holes) is also proportional to area, then this implies that volume itself is somehow illusory: that mass occupies area, not volume, and so the universe is really a [[hologram]] which is [[isomorphism|isomorphic]] to the information &quot;inscribed&quot; on its boundaries {{ref|sciam}}. ==Limit on information density== Entropy, if considered as information (see [[information entropy]]), can ultimately be measured in [[bit]]s. One bit corresponds to four [[Planck units|Planck areas]] {{ref|sciam}}. The total quantity of these bits is related to the total [[Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degrees of freedom]] of matter/energy. The bits themselves would encode information about the states which that matter/energy are occupying. In a given volume, there is an upper limit to the density of information about the whereabouts of all the particles which compose matter in that volume, suggesting that matter itself cannot be subdivided infinitely many times; rather there must be an ultimate level of [[elementary particle|fundamental particles]], i.e. were a particle composed of sub-particles, then the [[degrees of freedom]] of the particle would be the product of all the degrees of freedom of its sub-particles; were these sub-particles themselves also divided into sub-sub-particles, and so on indefinitely, then the degrees of freedom of the original particle must be [[Infinity|infinite]], violating the maximal limit of entropy density. The holographic principle thus implies that the subdivisions must stop at some level, and that the fundamental particle is a bit (1 or 0) of information. The most rigorous realization of the holographic principle is the [[AdS/CFT]] correspondence by [[Juan Maldacena]]. ==See also== * [[Black hole]] * [[Cosmology]] * [[Brane cosmology]] * [[Bekenstein Bound]] ==References == ''General'' * {{cite journal | first = Raphael | last = Bousso | title = The holographic principle | journal = Reviews of Modern Physics | volume = 74 | year = 2002 | pages = 825–874 | id = {{arxiv|archive=hep-th|id=0203101}} }} ''Citations'' #{{note|arxiv0}} {{cite journal | first = Parthasarathi | last = Majumdar | title = Black Hole Entropy and Quantum Gravity | id = {{arxiv|archive=gr-qc|id=9807045}} | journal = arXiv: General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology }} #{{note|aeiveos}} {{cite journal | first = Jacob D. | last = Bekenstein | authorlink = Jacob Bekenstein | url = http://www.aeiveos.com/~bradbury/Authors/Computing/Bekenstein-JD/UUBotEtERfBS.html | title = Universal upper bound on the entropy-to-energy ratio for bounded systems | journal = Physical Review DD | volume = 23 | issue = 215 | year =January 1981 (Revision: August 25, 1980.) }} #{{note|sciam}} {{cite journal | first = Jacob D. | last = Bekenstein | authorlink = Jacob Bekenstein | url = http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleid=000AF072-4891-1F0A-97AE80A84189EEDF | title = Information in the Holographic Universe — Theoretical results about black holes suggest that the universe could be like a gigantic hologram | journal = [[Scientific American]] | year = August 2003 | pages = p. 59 }} [[Category:Theoretical physics]] [[Category:Black holes]] [[de:Holografisches Prinzip]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hamilton</title> <id>14287</id> <revision> <id>39953785</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T01:30:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.170.206.63</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}} '''Hamilton''' is the surname of a renowned family from the [[Scottish Lowlands]] that has given its name to the town of [[Hamilton, South Lanarkshire]], the [[Duke of Hamilton|Dukedom of Hamilton]], and many people and places, the largest of which is the [[Canada|Canadian]] city of [[Hamilton, Ontario]]. ==People== ===Real people=== *[[Alexander Hamilton]], American statesman *[[Alice Hamilton]], American toxicologist *[[Andrew Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page *[[Anthony Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page *[[Bethany Hamilton]], surfer *[[Billy Hamilton]], baseball player *[[Charles Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page *[[David Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page *[[Donald Hamilton]] - American writer *[[Eamon Hamilton]], of the bands [[British Sea Power]] and [[Brakes (band)|Brakes]] *[[Edith Hamilton]], writer on mythology *[[Edmond Hamilton]], science fiction writer *[[Elizabeth Hamilton]], Scottish writer *Lady [[Emma Hamilton]], mistress of Lord Nelson *[[Francis Hamilton]], Scottish physician and geographer of the Bengal region *[[Gavin Hamilton]], cricketer *[[Gavin Hamilton, artist and antiquarian]] *[[George Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page *[[Guy Hamilton]], British film director *[[Hamilton (musician)|Hamilton]], of the band [[British Sea Power]] *[[Henry Hamilton]], British general *[[Ian Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page *[[James Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page *[[Keith Hamilton]] - former defensive tackle for the [[New York Giants]] *[[Jim Hamilton]] - Scottish footballer *[[Laurell K. Hamilton]], American horror and fantasy writer *[[Lee H. Hamilton]], Vice Chair of the 9/11 Commission *[[Laird Hamilton]], surfer (adopted surname) *[[Patrick Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page *[[Peter F. Hamilton]], science fiction author *[[Richard Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page *[[Terrick Hamilton]], Scottish linguist *[
f''(''x'') &lt; ''f''(''c'')&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;ε. Alternatively written: Given &lt;math&gt;I,D\subset\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt; (that is, ''I'' and ''D'' are subsets of the [[real number]]s), continuity of &lt;math&gt;f:I \to D&lt;/math&gt; (read &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; maps ''I'' into ''D'') at &lt;math&gt;c\in\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt; means that for all &lt;math&gt;\varepsilon&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; there exists a &lt;math&gt;\delta&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;|x-c|&lt;\delta&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x\in I&lt;/math&gt; imply that &lt;math&gt;|f(x)-f(c)|&lt;\varepsilon.&lt;/math&gt; This &quot;epsilon-delta definition&quot; of continuity was first given by [[Augustin-Louis Cauchy|Cauchy]]. More intuitively, we can say that if we want to get all the ''f''(''x'') values to stay in some small [[topological neighbourhood|neighborhood]] around ''f''(''c''), we simply need to choose a small enough neighborhood for the ''x'' values around ''c'', and we can do that no matter how small the ''f''(''x'') neighborhood is; ''f''(''x'') is then continuous at ''c''. === Heine definition of continuity === The following definition of continuity is due to [[Eduard Heine|Heine]]. :A real function &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is continuous if for any sequence &lt;math&gt;(x_n)&lt;/math&gt; such that ::&lt;math&gt;\lim\limits_{n\to\infty} x_n=x_0,&lt;/math&gt; :it holds that ::&lt;math&gt;\lim\limits_{n\to\infty} f(x_n)=f(x_0).&lt;/math&gt; :(We assume that all points &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;x_0&lt;/math&gt; belong to the domain of &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;.) One can say briefly, that a function is continuous if and only if it preserves limits. Cauchy's and Heine's definition of continuity are equivalent. The usual (easier) proof makes use of the [[axiom of choice]], but in the case of global continuity of real functions it was proved by [[Wacław Sierpiński]] that the axiom of choice is not actually needed. [http://www.apronus.com/math/cauchyheine.htm] In more general setting of topological spaces, the concept analogous to Heine definition of continuity is called ''sequential continuity''. In general, sequential continuity is not equivalent to the analogue of Cauchy continuity, which is just called ''continuity'' (see [[continuity (topology)]] for details). === Examples === * All [[polynomial]]s are continuous. * If a function has a domain which is not an interval, the notion of a continuous function as one whose graph you can draw without taking your pencil off the paper is not quite correct. Consider the functions ''f''(''x'')=1/''x'' and ''g''(''x'')=(sin ''x'')/''x''. Neither function is defined at ''x''=0, so each has domain '''R'''\{0}, and each function is continuous. The question of continuity at ''x''=0 does not arise, since it is not in the domain. The function ''f'' cannot be extended to a continuous function whose domain is '''R''', since no matter what value is assigned at 0, the resulting function will not be continuous. On the other hand, since the limit of ''g'' at 0 is 1, ''g'' can be extended continuously to '''R''' by defining its value at 0 to be 1. A point in the domain that can filled in so that the resulting function is continuous is called a [[removable singularity]]. Whether this can be done is not the same as continuity. * The [[rational function]]s, [[exponential function]]s, [[logarithm]]s, [[square root]] function, [[trigonometric function]]s and [[absolute value]] function are continuous. * An example of a discontinuous function is the function ''f'' defined by ''f''(''x'') = 1 if ''x'' &gt; 0, ''f''(''x'') = 0 if ''x'' ≤ 0. Pick for instance ε = 1/2. There is no δ-neighborhood around ''x''=0 that will force all the ''f''(''x'') values to be within ε of ''f''(0). Intuitively we can think of this type of discontinuity as a sudden jump in function values. * Another example of a discontinuous function is the [[sign function]]. * A more complicated example of a discontinuous function is the [[popcorn function]]. === Facts about continuous functions === If two functions ''f'' and ''g'' are continuous, then ''f'' + ''g'' and ''fg'' are continuous. If ''g''(''x'') ≠ 0 for all ''x'' in the domain, then ''f/g'' is also continuous. The [[Function composition|composition]] ''f'' o ''g'' of two continuous functions is continuous. The [[intermediate value theorem]] is an [[existence theorem]], based on the real number property of [[completeness]], and states: &quot;If the real-valued function ''f'' is continuous on the [[interval (mathematics)|closed interval]] [''a'', ''b''] and ''k'' is some number between ''f''(''a'') and ''f''(''b''), then there is some number ''c'' in [''a'', ''b''] such that ''f''(''c'') = ''k''. For example, if a child undergoes continuous growth from 1[[metre|m]] to 1.5m between the ages of 2 years and 6 years, then, at some time between 2 years and 6 years of age, the child's height must have been 1.25m. As a consequence, if ''f'' is continuous on [''a'', ''b''] and ''f''(''a'') and ''f''(''b'') differ in [[sign]], then, at some point ''c'', ''f''(''c'') must equal [[0 (number)|zero]]. [[Extreme value theorem]]: if a function ''f'' is defined on a closed interval [''a'',''b''] (or any closed and bounded set) and is continuous there, then the function attains its maximum, i.e. there exists ''c''&amp;nbsp;∈&amp;nbsp;[''a'',''b''] with ''f''(''c'') ≥ ''f''(''x'') for all ''x''&amp;nbsp;∈&amp;nbsp;[''a'',''b'']. The same is true of the minimum of ''f''. These statements are false if the function is defined on an open interval (''a'',''b'') (or any set that is not both closed and bounded), as for example the continuous function ''f''(''x'') = 1/''x'' defined on the open interval (0,1). If a function is [[derivative|differentiable]] at some point ''c'' of its domain, then it is also continuous at ''c''. The converse is not true: a function that's continuous at ''c'' need not be differentiable there. Consider for instance the [[absolute value]] function at ''c''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0. == Continuous functions between metric spaces == Now consider a function ''f'' from one [[metric space]] (''X'', d&lt;sub&gt;''X''&lt;/sub&gt;) to another metric space (''Y'', d&lt;sub&gt;''Y''&lt;/sub&gt;). Then ''f'' is continuous at the point ''c'' in ''X'' if for any positive real number ε, there exists a positive real number δ such that all ''x'' in ''X'' satisfying d&lt;sub&gt;''X''&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'', ''c'') &lt; δ will also satisfy d&lt;sub&gt;''Y''&lt;/sub&gt;(''f''(''x''), ''f''(''c'')) &lt; ε. This can also be formulated in terms of [[sequence]]s and [[limit (mathematics)|limits]]: the function ''f'' is continuous at the point ''c'' if for every sequence (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) in ''X'' with limit lim ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''c'', we have lim ''f''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) = ''f''(''c''). ''Continuous functions transform limits into limits.'' This latter condition can be weakened as follows: ''f'' is continuous at the point ''c'' if and only if for every convergent sequence (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) in ''X'' with limit ''c'', the sequence (''f''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;)) is a [[Cauchy sequence]]. ''Continuous functions transform convergent sequences into Cauchy sequences.'' == Continuous functions between topological spaces == {{main|continuity (topology)}} The above definitions of continuous functions can be generalized to functions from one [[topological space]]s to another in a natural way; a function ''f'' : ''X'' → ''Y'', where ''X'' and ''Y'' are topological spaces, is continuous [[iff]] for every [[open set]] ''V'' ⊆ ''Y'', ''f''&lt;sup&gt; &amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;(''V'') is open in ''X''. == Continuous functions between partially ordered sets == In [[order theory]], continuity of a function between [[Partially ordered sets|posets]] is [[Scott continuity]]. Let ''X'' be a [[complete lattice]], then a function ''f'':''X'' → ''X'' is continuous if, for each subset ''Y'' of ''X'', we have sup ''f''(''Y'')=''f''(sup ''Y'')). == See also == * [[semicontinuity]] * [[classification of discontinuities]] * [[uniform continuity]] * [[absolute continuity]] * [[equicontinuity]] * [[Lipschitz continuity]] * [[Scott continuity]] * [[normal function]] * [[bounded linear operator]] * [[limit (category theory)|continuous functor]] ==References== *[http://archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/ Visual Calculus] by Lawrence S. Husch, [[University of Tennessee]] ([[2001]]) [[Category:Calculus]] [[Category:General topology]] [[da:Kontinuitet]] [[de:Stetigkeit]] [[el:Συνέχεια συνάρτησης]] [[es:Continuidad (matemáticas)]] [[fi:Jatkuva funktio]] [[fr:Fonction continue]] [[he:רציפות]] [[it:Funzione continua]] [[ja:連続 (数学)]] [[ko:연속함수]] [[lt:Tolydi funkcija]] [[nl:Continue functie]] [[pl:Funkcja ciągła]] [[ro:Funcţie continuă]] [[ru:Непрерывное отображение]] [[su:Continuous function]] [[sv:Kontinuerlig]] [[th:ฟังก์ชันต่อเนื่อง]] [[zh:连续函数]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Curl</title> <id>6123</id> <revision> <id>42132227</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:01:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username> <id>153314</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>can't be equal and opposite</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about curl in [[mathematics]], see also [[Curl programming language]] and [[CURL|cURL]], the Unix command line tool for transferring files.'' In [[vector calculus]], '''curl''' is a [[vector operator]] that shows a [[vector field]]'s rate of [[rotation]]: the direction of the axis of rotation and the [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] of the rotation. It can also be described as the '''[[Circulation (fluid dynamics)|circulation]] density'''. &quot;Rotation&quot; and &quot;circulation&quot; are used here for properties of a vector function of position; they are not
&amp;nbsp;Other Asia&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,595,727&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,751,780&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;418,473&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;200,845&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;64&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Africa&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;363,819&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;199,723&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;80,143&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;35,355&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;65&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Africa excl. Atlantic Islands&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;349,451&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;189,266&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;61,463&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;27,053&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;66&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Atlantic Islands&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14,368&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,457&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18,680&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,302&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;67&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Oceania&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;104,145&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;77,577&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41,258&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;34,730&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;68&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Australia&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;42,267&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;36,120&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;24,271&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;22,209&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;69&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Sandwich Islands (Hawaii)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;70&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Oceania&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;61,878&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41,457&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;16,987&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,521&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;71&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Latin America&lt;/TD&gt; 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&lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;736,971&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;607,814&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;439,048&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;79,150&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Caribbean&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,201,377&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;650,549&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;236,060&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;114,772&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;75&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Central America&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,431,992&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,553,113&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;873,624&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;624,851&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;76&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Mexico&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,298,014&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,199,221&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;759,711&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;575,902&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;77&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Central America&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,133,978&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;353,892&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;113,913&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;48,949&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;78&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;South America&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,037,497&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;561,011&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;255,238&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;89,536&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;79&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern America&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;753,917&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;853,427&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;812,421&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;952,500&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;80&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Canada&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;744,830&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;842,859&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;
th enriched fuel the DUPIC fuel cycle is possible in a CANDU due to the [[neutron economy]] which allows for the low-reactivity of natural uranium and used enriched fuel. *After the classic CANDU design was certified, an experimental reactor was developed that used [[Petroleum|oil]] as the primary coolant. The oil passed through a heat-exchanger to heat steam. This reactor operated successfully for many years, and may be less expensive, more reliable and even safer than a classic CANDU reactor because the oil circulated at much lower pressures than the steam, and was less corrosive. This was the now shutdown Whiteshell Reactor One or WR-1. Gentilly-1 was also an experimental version of CANDU using a boiling water design but was not considered successful. *CANDU's have a small positive [[void coefficient]] which is managed by fast control systems. *For more information on CANDU technical details, see the [http://canteach.candu.org/ CANTEACH web site] ==Chronology== The first CANDU-type reactor was the [[Nuclear Power Demonstrator]] (NPD), in Rolphton, Ontario. It was intented as a proof-of-concept design, and was rated for only 22 [[MWe]], a very low power for a commercial power reactor. It produced the first nuclear-generated electricity in Canada, and ran successfully from 1962 to 1987.[http://www.cns-snc.ca/events/npd/npd_main_eng.htm], [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-75-104-896/science_technology/candu/clip3] The second CANDU was the [[Douglas Point]] reactor, a more powerful version rated at roughly 200MWe and located near [[Kincardine]], Ontario. Somewhat controversially, the Douglas Point project was started in 1959, even before NPD, the prototype CANDU, went on-line. Douglas Point went into service in 1968, and ran until 1984. Uniquely among CANDU stations, Douglas Point incorporated an oil-filled window which offered a view of the east reactor face, even when the reactor was operating. The Douglas Point type was exported to [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], and is the basis for India's domestic 'CANDU-derivatives'. Douglas Point was originally planned to be a two-unit station, but the second unit was cancelled because of the success of the larger 515 MWe units at [[Pickering Nuclear Generating Station|Pickering]].[http://www.cns-snc.ca/history/DouglasPoint/DouglasPoint.html], [http://www.cns-snc.ca/history/DouglasPoint/AECL-2400/AECL2400-1.html] The successes at NPD lead to the decision to construct the first multi-unit station in Pickering, Ontario. Pickering A, consisting of units 1 to 4, went into service in 1971. Pickering B, consisting of units 5 to 8, went into service in 1983, giving a full-station capacity of 4120MWe. The station is placed very close to the city of [[Toronto]], in order to reduce transmission costs. The location of the station has long been a concern for activists, who feel it puts Toronto at risk should an accident and radioactive release occur. Pickering A was placed into voluntary lay-up in 1997, as a part of Ontario Hydro's Nuclear Improvement plan. Units 1 and 4 have since been returned to service, although not without considerable controversy regarding significant cost-overruns, especially on Unit 4. (The refurbishment of Unit 1 was essentially on-time and on-budget, accounting for delays in project startup imposed by the Ontario provincial government.) In 2005, [[Ontario Power Generation]] announced that refurbishment of Units 2 and 3 at Pickering A would not be pursued, contrary to expectations. The reason for this change in plan was economic: the material condition of these units was much poorer than had existed for Units 1 and 4, particularly the condition of the steam generators, and thus the refurbishment costs would be much higher. This rendered a return-to-service of Units 2 and 3 uneconomical. A project to decommission these units is currently in the early stages of planning. ==Active CANDU reactors== Today there are 29 CANDU reactors in use around the world, and a further 11 &quot;CANDU-Derivatives&quot; in use in India (these reactors were developed from the CANDU design after India detonated a nuclear bomb and Canada stopped nuclear dealings with it). The countries the reactors are located in are: *Canada - 16 (+2 refurbishing, +6 decommissioned) *South Korea - 4 *China - 2 *India - 2 *Argentina - 1 *Romania - 1 *Pakistan - 1 ==Economic and political concerns== One economic disadvantage of the CANDU reactor design is the initial, one-time cost of the heavy water, although this high capital-cost penalty is generally offset by the CANDU reactor's lower fuelling cost compared to other designs, since it does not require [[enriched uranium]]. CANDU reactors require the purest grade of heavy water (better than 99.75% pure&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;). Tonnes of this expensive material are required to fill a CANDU's calandria and heat transport system. High-purity heavy water is expensive because heavy water is almost indistinguishable, chemically, from normal water, and occurs in such low natural concentrations (roughly one part in 7000) in normal water. The next generation reactor (the [[Advanced CANDU Reactor]], also called the &quot;ACR&quot;) mitigates this disadvantage by having a smaller moderator size and by not using heavy water in the heat transport system (it uses light water as a coolant). A political issue with the CANDU reactor is the contention that its ability to refuel without shutting down also makes it easier to produce &quot;weapons grade&quot; [[plutonium]]; i.e., plutonium with a high concentration of Pu-239 and low concentrations of other Pu isotopes. All commercial reactor designs produce plutonium as a natural byproduct of uranium fission (a portion of this plutonium subsequently undergoes fission itself and contributes significantly to the overall energy output of the reactor). The plutonium remaining in discharged reactor fuel is typically &quot;reactor grade&quot; (lower in Pu-239 relative abundance) and thus less attractive as a weapons material. The contention, therefore, is that the on-load refuelling possible with CANDU reactors allows fuel to be discharged after relatively brief irradiation times, leading to spent fuel with elevated levels of Pu-239 compared to spent PWR/BWR fuel or typical CANDU spent fuel. However, the ability to produce plutonium with low irradiation times is not unique to the CANDU design. As with all power reactors, such misuse of the facility is not only uneconomical in terms of power production, but also easily detectable through international safeguards that are put in place. Of most importance, therefore, is the requirement that all reactor designs be safeguarded to a comparable and acceptable level, as deemed by the international community. In particular, Canada is a signatory to the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]], which requires states to agree not to produce nuclear weapons in order to purchase CANDU designs (which are in use or being built in [[China]], [[South Korea]], [[Argentina]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Romania]]). All CANDU reactors are subject to [[IAEA]] safeguards that ensure their compliance with that UN agency's global non-proliferation standard. The acceptance of full-scope IAEA safeguards at a CANDU facility makes it very difficult to clandestinely discharge low-burnup fuel suitable for weapons production. There have been no known cases of CANDU spent fuel being diverted to a weapons program. There is a common misconception that the plutonium for India's [[Operation Smiling Buddha]] nuclear test was produced in a CANDU design; in fact the plutonium was produced in the unsafeguarded [[CIRUS]] reactor that is based on the [[NRX]] design, a different Canadian reactor design. India has some unsafeguarded reactors based on the [[Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor]] design, used for power generation, and some spent fuel from the Madras atomic power station (MAPS) was reprocessed for plutonium in the late 1980's. (Reference: Albright &amp; Hibbs) While these reactors could in principle be used for plutonium production, India has a locally-designed and built [[Pool type reactor]] (Dhruva) which is a scaled-up version of the CIRUS designed for plutonium production. It is this reactor which is thought to have produced the plutonium for India's more recent [[Operation Shakti]] nuclear tests. {{cite journal | first = David | last = Albright | authorlink = | coauthors = and Mark Hibbs | year = 1992 | month = September | title = '''India's Silent Bomb''' | journal = Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist | volume = 48 | issue = 7 | pages = pp. 27-31 | id = | url = http://www.thebulletin.org/article.php?art_ofn=sep92albright }} ==Measures that address concerns== Efficient CANDU installations are careful to control heavy water losses from the calandria, and also actively separate [[tritium]] from the moderator to sell in the secondary medical market. Some large CANDU installations use surplus power to operate their own small [[deuterium]] separation plants, to upgrade the heavy water inventory and reduce costs. The large thermal mass of the cool calandria acts as a substantial safety mechanism. If a fuel assembly were to overheat and melt, it would be cooled in the very process of changing the reactor geometry. Furthermore, due to the use of natural uranium as the fuel, the reactor cannot sustain a chain reaction if its original fuel channel geometry is altered in any significant manner. As mentioned above, by burning it as fuel, CANDU could actually render existing stocks of weapons-derived plutonium unsuitable for further use in weapons. A proposal to do this submitted by Atomic Energy of Canada to the [[United States Department of Energy]] is currently being debated by government agencies and [[non-governmental organizations]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;. ==Notes== *&lt;sup&gt;&lt;s
r this time around he was not at all successful. Playing with his old wooden rackets in an attempt to regain his once-indomitable touch, he lost his first comeback match in [[1991]] to [[Jordi Arrese]] at the [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo Open]]. A series of first-round losses to lowly-ranked players followed over the next two years. The closest he came to winning a match was in [[1993]] in [[Moscow]], when he pushed [[Alexander Volkov (tennis player)|Alexander Volkov]] to three sets and lost a final-set tie-breaker 9&amp;ndash;7. After that match, he retired from the tour for good and confined himself to playing on the senior tour, with modern rackets, where he has delighted crowds by renewing his old rivalries with McEnroe and Connors. Borg was ranked the World No. 1 in six different stretches between 1977 and 1981, totaling 109 weeks. During his career, he won a total of 61 top-level singles and 4 doubles titles. Borg was inducted into the [[International Tennis Hall of Fame]] in [[Newport, Rhode Island]] in [[1987]]. Borg is one of only three individuals to have won the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality]] Award twice. (He won it in 1979 and [[1984]]). Financial difficulties continue to trouble Borg. On 3 March 2006, Bonhams Auction House in [[London]] announced that it would auction Borg's Wimbledon trophies and two of his winning rackets on 21 June 2006.[http://sports.yahoo.com/ten/news?slug=ap-borg-auction&amp;prov=ap&amp;type=lgns] ==Grand Slam finals== ===Wins (11)=== '''Year''' '''Championship''' '''Opponent in Final''' '''Score in Final''' 1974 French Open Manuel Orantes 2&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;0, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;1 1975 French Open Guillermo Vilas 6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;3, 6&amp;ndash;4 1976 Wimbledon Ilie Năstase 6&amp;ndash;4, 6&amp;ndash;2, 9&amp;ndash;7 1977 Wimbledon Jimmy Connors 3&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;1, 5&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;4 1978 French Open Guillermo Vilas 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;3 1978 Wimbledon Jimmy Connors 6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;3 1979 French Open Victor Pecci 6&amp;ndash;3, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;4 1979 Wimbledon Roscoe Tanner 6&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;1, 3&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;3, 6&amp;ndash;4 1980 French Open Vitas Gerulaitis 6&amp;ndash;4, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;2 1980 Wimbledon John McEnroe 1&amp;ndash;6, 7&amp;ndash;5, 6&amp;ndash;3, 16&amp;ndash;18, 8&amp;ndash;6 1981 French Open Ivan Lendl 6&amp;ndash;1, 4&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;2, 3&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;1 ===Runner-ups (5)=== '''Year''' '''Championship''' '''Opponent in Final''' '''Score in Final''' 1976 US Open Jimmy Connors 6&amp;ndash;4, 3&amp;ndash;6, 7&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;4 1978 US Open Jimmy Connors 6&amp;ndash;4, 6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;2 1980 US Open John McEnroe 7&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;7, 5&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;4 1981 Wimbledon John McEnroe 4&amp;ndash;6, 7&amp;ndash;6, 7&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;4 1981 US Open John McEnroe 4&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;4, 6&amp;ndash;3 == Singles titles (61) == * 1974 ** Adelaide, Bastad, Boston, London WCT, '''French Open''', [[Rome Masters|Rome]], Sao Paulo WCT * 1975 ** Barcelona, Bologna WCT, Boston, Richmond-WCT, '''French Open''' * 1976 ** Boston, Dallas WCT, Dusseldorf, Sao Paulo WCT, Toronto Indoor WCT, '''Wimbledon''' * 1977 ** Barcelona, Basel, Cologne, Denver, Madrid, Memphis, [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo WCT]], Nice, Pepsi Grand Slam, Wembley, '''Wimbledon''' * 1978 ** Bastad, Birmingham WCT, Las Vegas, Milan WCT, Pepsi Grand Slam, '''French Open''', [[Rome Masters|Rome]], Tokyo Indoor, '''Wimbledon''' * 1979 ** Bastad, Las Vegas, [[Tennis Masters Cup|Masters]], [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo]], [[Canada Masters|Montreal / Toronto]], Palermo, Pepsi Grand Slam, Richmond WCT, '''French Open''', Rotterdam, Tokyo Indoor, '''Wimbledon''' * 1980 ** Las Vegas, [[Tennis Masters Cup|Masters]], [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo]], Nice, Pepsi Grand Slam, '''French Open''', Stockholm, '''Wimbledon''' * 1981 ** Geneva, '''French Open''', Stuttgart Outdoor == Records and Trivia == ===Grand Slam Records=== * Won more Grand Slam titles in the Open Era (11) and more Wimbledons (5) than any player until [[Pete Sampras]] (7). This despite competing in the Australian Open only once, at the age of 17. * Won more French Championships (6) than any other male player in tennis history. * Won 4 consecutive French championships, an alltime record. His streak of 28 consecutive matches was broken, not by defeat, but by his subsequent absence and retirement. * Won more consecutive Wimbledons (5) than any man in the modern era. Only [[William Renshaw|Willie Renshaw]] won more consecutive titles there (1881&amp;ndash;86)&amp;mdash; and in Renshaw's day, the defending champion played only one match, the Challenge Round. After the adoption of the present-day rules, [[Fred Perry]] established a record of three consecutive Wimbledons in 1932-34, until Borg equalled it in 1978. Borg's streak of 41 consecutive match wins at Wimbledon remains an alltime record. Sampras has come closest to this record with four consecutive Wimbledons in 1997-2000 (and 31 consecutive match wins). * Played in 6 consecutive Wimbledon finals, still a record since the abolition of the Challenge Round in 1922. * Played in 4 consecutive French finals, an Open-Era record. * Played in 16 Grand Slam finals, a record for the Open Era (and second in tennis history only to 17 by [[Rod Laver]]) until [[Ivan Lendl]] played in 19 (and Sampras in 18). * Won at least one Grand Slam title for 8 consecutive years (1974&amp;ndash;1981), an alltime record. Only Sampras has matched this (1993&amp;ndash;2000). * Defeated more players (9) in Grand Slam finals than any male player in history. Sampras was able also to tie this mark. * Won 11 Grand Slam titles out of 27 tournaments played, giving him a record 41% winning percentage for the Open Era. * In Grand Slam tournaments, his match record is 141&amp;ndash;16, giving him an 89.8% winning percentage, better than any male player ever. The only other male players in the Open Era with winning percentages over 80% are [[Jimmy Connors]] (81.9%) and Ivan Lendl (81.8%). * His 11 Grand Slam titles put him fourth on the all-time list, tied with Laver, and behind Sampras (14) and [[Roy Emerson]] (12). ===Youngest to win=== * In 1972 he became the youngest-ever winner of a Davis Cup match, at age 15. * In 1974, one month before his 18th birthday, he became the youngest winner of the Italian Open up to that time. * In 1974, only days after his 18th birthday, he became the youngest man ever to hold a Grand Slam title. He retained that distinction until another Swede, [[Mats Wilander]], took the French Open in 1982. * At 18, he was the youngest winner of the U.S. Professional Championships until [[Aaron Krickstein]] won in 1983. * In 1976 at age 20, Borg became the youngest winner of the Open Era at Wimbledon until [[Boris Becker]] became the youngest Grand Slam winner of all time by taking Wimbledon in 1985. * Won his 11th Grand Slam in 1981 at age 25, the youngest to that number of titles. By comparison, Sampras won his 11th at almost 27, Emerson at 30, Laver at 31. ===Match competition=== * Compiled 576-124 singles record, winning more than 82% of the matches he played. By comparison, Sampras had a 77% winning percentage at retirement. * Won 14 consecutive five-set matches before losing to [[John McEnroe]] at the 1980 U.S. Open, a record for the Open Era (and possibly for tennis history). * In career five-set matches he is 24-4, his winning percentage of .857 unrivalled in the Open Era, with Aaron Krickstein in second place at .757 (or 28-9). Five of his wins were in Grand Slam finals -- a mark that surpassed [[Bill Tilden]] (who won four) and has remained unequalled. * In 1980 he won the longest-ever Wimbledon final up to that time, 3 hours and 53 minutes (the record stood until 1982). That year he also lost the longest-ever U.S. Championships final up to that time, 4 hours and 13 minutes (a mark broken in 1988). * Won the longest tiebreak of the Open Era, 20-18 in the third set of his first round match at the 1973 Wimbledon -- a mark that has been tied twice (by Federer and [[Goran Ivanišević]]) but not broken. * Won 19 consecutive points on serve in the fifth set -- a feat perhaps unequalled at any time -- on two occasions, his 1980 Wimbledon final against [[John McEnroe]] and his 1980 U.S. Open quarterfinal against [[Roscoe Tanner]]. ===Career winning streaks=== * On the list of Open Era winning streaks, Borg is both first (49 tour matches won in 1978) and fifth (40 in 1979&amp;ndash;80). The only other men with winning streaks of 40+ matches are [[Guillermo Vilas]] (46), Ivan Lendl (44), and McEnroe (42). * Holds the record for most consecutive wins on grass, with 41 victories (all at Wimbledon), [[Roger Federer]] currently has a 36 match winning streak (2003&amp;ndash;Present). Borg won all his matches at Wimbledon while Federer plays a lesser grass tournament in Halle in addition to Wimbledon. * Holds the Davis Cup record singles winning streak at 33 consecutive victories -- a streak broken only by retirement. * Holds second place for most consecutive wins on clay, with 44 victories in 1977-79. Only Vilas holds more with 57. ===Miscellaneous=== * Captured 62 titles over his brief
collection figure by paying the [[general excise tax]] and hotel room tax; thus not all the taxes collected come directly from residents. Business leaders, however, have often considered the state's tax burden as being too high, contributing to both higher prices and the perception of an unfriendly business climate [http://starbulletin.com/2004/05/21/news/story1.html]. See the [[:Category:Business in Hawaii|list of businesses in Hawai{{okina}}i]] for more information on commerce in the state. ==Education== ''Main article: [[Hawaii State Department of Education|Hawai{{okina}}i State Department of Education]]'' Hawai{{okina}}i is currently the only state in the union with a unified school system statewide. It is also the oldest public education system west of the [[Mississippi River]]. Policy decisions are made by the fourteen-member state Board of Education, with thirteen members elected for four-year terms and one non-voting student member. The Board of Education sets statewide educational policy and hires the state superintendent of schools, who oversees the operations of the state Department of Education. The Department of Education is also divided into seven districts, four on O{{okina}}ahu and one for each of the other counties. The structure of the state Department of Education has been a subject of discussion and controversy in recent years. The main rationale for the current centralized model is equity in school funding and distribution of resources: leveling out inequalities that would exist between highly populated O{{okina}}ahu and the more rural Neighbor Islands, and between lower-income and more affluent areas of the state. This system of school funding differs from many localities in the United States where schools are funded from local property taxes. However, policy initiatives have been made in recent years toward decentralization. Current Governor Linda Lingle is a proponent of replacing the current statewide board with seven elected district boards. The Democrat-controlled state legislature opposed her proposal, instead favoring expansion of decision-making power to the schools and giving schools more discretion over budgeting. Political debate of structural reform is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. ===Schools and academies=== Hawai{{okina}}i has the distinction of educating more students in independent institutions of secondary education than any other state in the United States. It also has four of the largest [[independent school|independent schools]]: [[Mid-Pacific Institute]], [[Iolani School|{{okina}}Iolani School]], [[Kamehameha Schools]] and [[Punahou School]]. Other popular independent schools include: [[Hawaii Baptist Academy|Hawai{{okina}}i Baptist Academy]], [[Hawaii Preparatory Academy|Hawai{{okina}}i Preparatory Academy]], [[Maryknoll School]], [[St. Andrew's Priory]], and [[Saint Louis School]]. A highly rated public high school often cited as comparable to the state's independent schools is [[Moanalua High School]]. Both independent and charter schools can select their students, while the regular public schools must take all students in their district. For a comprehensive list of independent schools, see the [[:Category:Private education in Hawaii|list of independent schools in Hawai{{okina}}i]]. For a comprehensive list of public schools, see the [[:Category:Public education in Hawaii|list of public schools in Hawai{{okina}}i]]. ===Colleges and universities=== Graduates of institutions of secondary learning in Hawai{{okina}}i often either enter directly into the work force or attend colleges and universities. While many choose to attend colleges and universities on the mainland or elsewhere, most choose to attend one of many institutions of higher learning in Hawai{{okina}}i. The largest of these institutions is the [[University of Hawaii|University of Hawai{{okina}}i System]]. Its main campuses are in [[University of Hawaii at Hilo|Hilo]], [[University of Hawaii at Manoa|Manoa]] and [[University of Hawaii-West Oahu|West O{{okina}}ahu]]. Students choosing private education attend [[Brigham Young University Hawaii|Brigham Young University Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[Chaminade University of Honolulu]], [[Hawaii Pacific University|Hawai{{okina}}i Pacific University]] and [[University of the Nations]]. The [[Saint Stephen Diocesan Seminary, Honolulu|Saint Stephen Diocesan Center]] is a [[seminary]] of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu]]. For a comprehensive list of colleges and universities, see the [[:Category:Universities and colleges in Hawaii|list of colleges and universities in Hawai{{okina}}i]]. ===Problems=== Public schools in Hawai{{okina}}i have to deal with large populations of children of non-native English speaking immigrants and a culture that is different in many ways from mainland US, where most of the course materials come from and where most of the standards for schools are set. The public elementary, middle, and high school scores in Hawai{{okina}}i tend to be below average on national tests as mandated under the [[No Child Left Behind Act]]. Some of this can be attributed to the Hawai{{okina}}i State Board of Education requiring all eligible students to take these tests and reporting all student test scores unlike, for example, Texas and Michigan. Results reported in August 2005 indicate that two-thirds of Hawai{{okina}}i's schools failed to reach federal minimum performance standards in math and reading (of 282 schools across the state, 185 failed [http://www.thehawaiichannel.com/education/4870699/detail.html]). On the other hand, results of the [[ACT (examination)|ACT college placement tests]] show that Hawai{{okina}}i class of 2005 seniors scored slightly above the national average (21.9 compared with 20.9) (Honolulu Advertiser, Aug. 17, 2005, p. B1). It should be noted that fewer students take the ACT examination than take the more widely accepted [[SAT]] examination. On the SAT Hawai{{okina}}i's college bound seniors tend to score below the national average except in math. Hawai{{okina}}i, like all other states in the United States, is struggling to provide educational services in its public schools with shrinking budgets. ==Media== ===Newspapers=== Two major competing Honolulu-based [[newspaper]]s serve all of Hawai{{okina}}i. The ''[[Honolulu Advertiser]]'' is owned by [[Gannett Corporation|Gannett Pacific Corporation]] while the ''[[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]]'' is owned by [[Black Press]] of [[British Columbia]] in [[Canada]]. Both are among the largest newspapers in the United States in terms of circulation. Other locally published newspapers are available to residents of the various islands. The Hawai{{okina}}i business community is served by the ''[[Pacific Business News]]'' and ''[[Hawaii Business Magazine|Hawai{{okina}}i Business Magazine]]''. The largest religious community in Hawai{{okina}}i is served by the ''[[Hawaii Catholic Herald|Hawai{{okina}}i Catholic Herald]]''. ''[[Honolulu Magazine]]'' is a popular magazine that offers local interest news and feature articles. Apart from the mainstream press, the state also enjoys a vibrant ethnic publication presence with newspapers for the Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean and Native Hawaiian communities. In addition, there is an alternative weekly, the ''[[Honolulu Weekly]]''. ===Television=== All the major television networks are represented in Hawai{{okina}}i through [[KFVE]] ([[The WB Television Network|WB network affiliate]]), [[KGMB]] ([[CBS|CBS network affiliate]]), [[KHET]] ([[PBS|PBS network affiliate]]), [[KHNL]] ([[NBC|NBC network affiliate]]), [[KHON]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox network affiliate]]), [[KIKU]] ([[UPN|UPN network affiliate]]) and [[KITV]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC network affiliate]]), among others. From Honolulu, programming at these stations is rebroadcast to the various other islands via networks of satellite transmitters. Until the advent of satellite, most network programming was broadcast a week behind mainland scheduling. The various production companies that work with the major networks have produced television series and other projects in Hawai{{okina}}i. Most notable were police dramas like ''[[Magnum P.I.]]'' and ''[[Hawaii Five-O]]''. Currently, the hit TV show ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' is filmed in the Hawaiian Islands. A comprehensive list of such projects can be seen at the [[Hawaii Film Office|list of Hawai{{okina}}i television series]]. ===Film=== Hawai{{okina}}i has a growing film industry administered by the state through the [[Hawaii Film Office|Hawai{{okina}}i Film Office]]. Several television shows, movies and various other media projects were produced in the Hawaiian Islands taking advantage of the natural scenic landscapes as backdrops. Notable films produced in Hawai{{okina}}i or were inspired by Hawai{{okina}}i include ''[[Hawaii (1966 movie)|Hawaii]]'', ''[[Blue Hawaii]]'', ''[[From Here to Eternity]]'', ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]'', ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'', ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', ''[[Outbreak]]'', ''[[Waterworld]]'', ''[[Six Days Seven Nights]]'', ''[[George of the Jungle]]'', ''[[50 First Dates]]'', ''[[Pearl Harbor (movie)|Pearl Harbor]]'', ''[[Blue Crush]]'',''[[Lilo &amp; Stitch]]'' and the series ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]''. Hawai{{okina}}i is home to a prominent [[film festival]] known as the [[Hawaii International Film Festival]]. ==Culture== :''Main article: [[Culture of Hawaii|Culture of Hawai{{okina}}i]]'' The [[indigenous peoples|aboriginal]] culture of Hawai{{okina}}i is [[Polynesia]]n. Hawai{{okina}}i represents the northernmost extension of the vast [[Polynesia|Polynesian triangle]] of the south and central [[Pacific Ocean]]. While traditional Hawaiian culture remains only as vestiges influencing modern Hawaiian society, there are reenactments of ancient ceremonies and traditions throughout the islands.
use of artificial contraception as an offense against chastity, seeing contraception as contrary to God's will. Many [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] churches allow for artificial contraception, seeing the restriction of family size as possibly not contrary to God's will. A stricter view is held by the [[Shakers]], who prohibit marriage (and indeed sexual intercourse under any circumstances) as a violation of chastity. ===Vocational expressions of chastity=== ====Marriage==== In the context of traditional '''marriage''', the spouses commit to a lifelong relationship which excludes the possibility of sexual intimacy with other persons. ====Sexual abstinence==== '''Virginity''', the physical state of 'innocent' sexual purity, has often been a requirement for certain religious functions, especially as priest(ess), e.g. the explicitly thus named [[Vestal Virgin]]s in pagan Rome. '''Celibacy''' or '''consecration to virginity''' usually refers to ordained clergy or persons in religious orders, and is an avowed way of living in which the person forsakes all sexual gratification. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] requires abstinence from the time priestly ordination vows are taken (but not pre-existing virginity—even widowers with offspring can be ordained), whereas in many Protestant churches, including the [[Anglican]], marriage is accepted or even encouraged for clergy. In the Roman Church, married men are not normally permitted to be ordained as [[priest]]s, but are normally permitted to be ordained as [[deacon]]s. Married Anglican priests who convert to Rome are allowed to practice as priests while remaining married, but are then to remain in their state: priests who are married are to remain married, and priests who are not are not permitted to marry. In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] traditions, celibacy is permitted but not required of priests but is required of bishops, as they are always selected from monastic orders. In all three traditions, celibacy is almost always required of monastics—monks, nuns, and friars—even in a rare system of double cloisters, in which husbands could enter the (men's) monastery while their wives entered a (women's) sister monastery. In some religions, celibate monastic life is commonly practiced as a temporary phase, as by many men in [[Buddhism]]. '''Vows of chastity''' can also be taken by laypersons, either as part of an organised religious life or on an individual basis, as a voluntary act of devotion and/or as part of an ascetic lifestyle, often devoted to contemplation. ==Sources== * [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church (III.2.I)] * [http://www.passtheword.org/SHAKER-MANUSCRIPTS/Abstinence/shaker-abst-x1.htm Early Shaker Writings Relating to Sexual Abstinence] {{Reli-stub}} {{sex-stub}} [[category:Non-sexuality]] [[category:Sexual abstinence]] [[es:Castidad]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Critical Psychology</title> <id>7368</id> <revision> <id>15905440</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Critical psychology]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Color Talk/Blue</title> <id>7369</id> <revision> <id>15905441</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dreamyshade</username> <id>32</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirect to blue</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Blue]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Causes of heterosexuality</title> <id>7372</id> <revision> <id>15905443</id> <timestamp>2005-05-10T20:22:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>K1Bond007</username> <id>18048</id> </contributor> <comment>Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sexual orientation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Causes of sexual orientation</title> <id>7375</id> <revision> <id>15905446</id> <timestamp>2005-04-11T06:39:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Beland</username> <id>57939</id> </contributor> <comment>Merge with [[Sexual orientation]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Sexual orientation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cosmic microwave background radiation</title> <id>7376</id> <revision> <id>41887409</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:49:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gene Nygaard</username> <id>146986</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Polarization */ oops--typo in italics</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cosmology}} {{backlink|Noise}} In [[physical cosmology|cosmology]], the '''cosmic microwave background radiation''' (most often abbreviated '''CMB''' but occasionally '''CMBR''', '''CBR''' or '''MBR''') is a form of [[electromagnetic radiation]] discovered in [[1965]]. It has a thermal [[black-body]] spectrum which peaks in the [[microwave]] range. Most cosmologists consider the cosmic microwave background radiation to be the best evidence for the [[big bang|hot big bang]] model of the universe. ==Features== The cosmic microwave background is a 2.725 [[kelvin]] thermal spectrum of [[black body]] radiation that fills the universe. It has a peak frequency of 160.4&amp;nbsp;[[hertz|GHz]] which corresponds to a wavelength of 1.9&amp;nbsp;mm. It is isotropic to roughly one part in 100,000: the [[root mean square]] variations are only 18&amp;nbsp;µK.&lt;ref&gt;This ignores the [[dipole]] anisotropy, which is due to the [[Doppler shift]] of the microwave background radiation due to our [[peculiar velocity]] relative to the [[comoving coordinates|comoving]] cosmic rest frame. This feature is consistent with the Earth moving at some 600&amp;nbsp;km/s towards the constellation [[Virgo]].&lt;/ref&gt; The Far-Infrared Absolute [[Spectrophotometer]] (FIRAS) instrument on the [[NASA]] [[COBE|COsmic Background Explorer]] (COBE) satellite has carefully measured the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background, which has made it the most precisely measured black body spectrum ever.&lt;ref&gt;D. J. Fixen ''et al.'', &quot;The Cosmic Microwave Background Spectrum from the full COBE FIRAS data set&quot;, ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''473''', 576–587 (1996).&lt;/ref&gt; The cosmic microwave background is a prediction of the [[Big Bang]]. In the theory, the early universe was made up of a hot [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] of [[photon]]s, [[electrons]] and [[baryon]]s. The photons were constantly interacting with the plasma through [[Compton scattering]]. As the universe expanded, the cosmological [[redshift]] caused the plasma to cool until it became favorable for [[electrons]] to combine with [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] and form atoms. This happened at around 3,000&amp;nbsp;K or when the universe was approximately 400,000 years old. At this point, the photons did not scatter off of the now neutral atoms and begin to travel freely through space. This process is called [[recombination]] or [[decoupling]]. The photons continued cooling until they reached their present 2.7&amp;nbsp;K temperature. Accordingly, the radiation from the sky we measure today comes from a spherical surface, called the surface of last scattering, from which the photons that decoupled from interaction with matter in the early universe, 13.7 billion years ago, are just now reaching observers on Earth. The big bang suggests that the cosmic microwave background fills all of observable space, and that most of the radiation energy in the universe is in the cosmic microwave background, which makes up a fraction of roughly 5&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; of the total density of the universe.&lt;ref&gt;The energy density of a black-body spectrum is &lt;math&gt;\pi k_B^2T^4/15(\hbar c)^3&lt;/math&gt;, where ''T'' is the temperature, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; is the Boltzmann constant, &lt;math&gt;\hbar&lt;/math&gt; is the Planck constant and ''c'' is the speed of light. This can be related to the critical density of the universe using the parameters of the [[Lambda-CDM model]].&lt;/ref&gt; Two of the greatest successes of the big bang are its prediction of the exactly thermal spectrum and detailed prediction of the anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background. The recent [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]] has precisely measured these anisotropies over the whole sky down to angular scales of 0.2 degrees.&lt;ref&gt;''Astrophysical Journal Supplement'', '''148''' (2003). In particular, G. Hinshaw ''et al.'' &quot;First-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: the angular power spectrum&quot;, 135–159.&lt;/ref&gt; These can be used to estimate the parameters of the standard [[Lambda-CDM model|Lambda-CDM]] model of the big bang. Some information, such as the [[shape of the Universe]], can be obtained straightforwardly from the cosmic microwave background, while others, such as the [[Hubble constant]], are not constrained and must be inferred from other measurements.&lt;ref&gt;D. N. Spergel ''et al.'', &quot;First-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: determination of cosmological parameters&quot;, ''Astrophysical Journal Supplement'' '''148''', 175–194 (2003).&lt;/ref&gt; ==History== &lt;!-- BEGIN TIMELINE --&gt; {| align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;45%&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #ddd; margin:0 0 1em 1em; padding:0 0 1em 1em; vertical-align:right;&quot; !colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|&lt;big&gt;Timeline of the CMB&lt;/big&gt; |- |cols
the temple was dedicated to Zeus or Athena. Inscriptions found by the recent excavations seem to prove that it must be identified as the shrine of the local goddess Aphaea, identified by Pausanias with Britomartis and Dictynna. These and further German-Greek excavations in the 1960's and 1970's have laid bare several other buildings, including an altar, early propylaea, houses for the priests and remains of two earlier temples. The present temple probably dates from the time of the [[Persian Wars]]. In the town of Aegina itself are the remains of another temple, dedicated to Aphrodite; one column of this still remains standing, and its foundations are fairly preserved. The fundaments of another two temples are known on the island, one of which is on the northern flank of Mt. Oros, today topped by a church. == Ancient History == Aegina, according to [[Herodotus]] (v. 83), was a [[colony]] of [[Epidaurus]], to which state it was originally subject. The discovery in the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the latest period of [[Mycenaean]] art suggests the inference that the Mycenaean culture held its own in Aegina for some generations after the [[Dorian]] conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon (see A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xiii. p. 195). It is probable that the island was not dorized before the [[9th century BC]] One of the earliest facts known to us in its history is its membership in the League of [[Calauria]], which included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia and Prasiae, and was probably an organization of states which were still Mycenaean, for the oppression of the piracy which had sprung up in the Aegean as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes. It follows, therefore, that the maritime importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is usually stated on the authority of Ephorus, that [[Pheidon]] of Argos established a mint in Aegina. Though this statement is probably to be rejected, it may be regarded as certain that Aegina was the first state of European Greece to coin money. Thus it was the Aeginetes who, within thirty or forty years of the invention of coinage by the [[Lydians]] (c. [[700 BC]]), introduced to the western world a system of such incalculable value to trade. The fact that the Aeginetan scale of coins, weights and measures was one of the two scales in general use in the Greek world is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island. It appears to have belonged to the [[Eretrian]] league during the [[Lelante War]]; hence, perhaps, we may explain the war with [[Samos Island|Samos]], a leading member of the rival Chalcidian league in the reign of King [[Amphicrates]] (Herod. iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier half of the 7th century B.C. In the next century Aegina is one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of [[Naucratis]], and it is the only state of European Greece that has a share in this factory (Herod. ii. 178). At the beginning of the [[5th century]] it seems to have been an entrepot of the Pontic grain trade, at a later date an Athenian monopoly (Herod. vii. 147). Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C., e.g. Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina founded no colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement. The history of Aegina, as it has come down to us, is almost exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state of Athens. The history of these relations, as recorded by Herodotus (v. 79-89; vi. 49-51, 73, 85-94), involve critical problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces back the hostility of the two states to a dispute about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetes had carried off from [[Epidaurus|Epidauros]], their parent state. The Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal of the Aeginetes to continue these offerings, the [[Athenians]] endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was miraculously frustrated &amp;ndash; according to the Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees &amp;ndash; and only a single survivor returned to Athens, there to fall a victim to the fury of his comrades' widows, who pierced him with their brooch-pins. No date is assigned by Herodotus for this ''old feud''; recent writers, e.g. [[J. B. Bury]] and R. W. Macan, suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, circa [[570 BC]]. It may be questioned, however, whether the whole episode is not mythical. A critical analysis of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetiological traditions (explanatory of cults and customs, e.g. of the kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian to the [[Ionia|Ionian]] style. The account which Herodotus gives of the hostilities between the two states in the early years of the [[5th century BC]] is to the following effect. Thebes, after the defeat by Athens about [[507 BC]], appealed to Aegina for assistance. The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the [[tutelary]] heroes of their island. Subsequently, however, they entered into an alliance, and ravaged the sea-board of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the [[Delphic oracle]] that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of [[Hippias]]. In [[401 BC]] Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (''earth and water'') to Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and [[Cleomenes I]], one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the deposition of [[Demaratus]], he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages. After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetans retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when [[Nicodromus]] had already fled the island. An engagement followed in which the Aeginetans were defeated. Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet. Alf the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are expressly referred by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in [[491 BC]] and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in [[490 BC]] (cf. Herod. vi. 49 with 94). There are difficulties in this story, of which the following are the principal: &amp;ndash; (i.) Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before [[481 BC]], nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. Hence it would follow that the war lasted from shortly after [[507 BC]] down to the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in [[481 BC]] (ii.) It is only for two years ([[490 BX|490]] and [[491 BC|491]]) out of the twenty-five that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between [[battle of Marathon|Marathon]] and [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]], seeing that at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war is described as the most important one then being waged in Greece (Herod. vii. 145). (iii.) It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in [[499 BC]] if at the time she was at war with Aegina. (iv.) There is an incidental indication of time, which points to the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens (Herod. v. 89). As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 B.C., the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year [[488 BC]] as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the outbreak of hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes ''for the war against Aegina'' on the advice of [[Themistocles]], which is given in the Constitutiom of Athens as 483-482 B.C. (Herod. vii. 144; Ath. Pol. r2. 7). It is probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina (c. 507 BC) and in putting the episode of Nicodromus before Marathon. Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. [[507 BC]], but they came to nothing. The refusal of Aegina was veiled under the diplomatic form of ''sending the Aeacidae.'' The real occasion of the outbreak of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481. That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus fu
at [[Battle of Tel al-Kebir|Tel-el-Kebir]], [[Battle of Omdurman |Omdurman]], etc). Cavalry &quot;[[flying column]]s&quot; proved effective, or at least cost-effective, in many campaigns&amp;mdash;although an astute native commander (like [[Samori]] in western Africa, [[Shamil]] in the [[Caucasus]], or any of the better [[Boer]] commanders) could use the added mobility (but reduced firepower) against European forces. In the early [[American Civil War]] regular cavalry was significantly absent, but it continued to play a role as part of screening forces and in foraging and scouting. The later phases of the war saw the Federal army developing a truly effective cavalry force fighting as [[mounted infantry]]. == Asia == In eastern Europe, Russia, and out onto the [[steppes]] cavalry remained important much longer and dominated the scene of warfare until the early [[1600s]] and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for controlling the vast expanses of territory. [[Hun]]s, [[Mongol]]s and [[Cossack]]s are examples of the horse-mounted peripheral peoples that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with Western civilizations, due to their strategic and tactical mobility. As European states began to assume the character of bureaucratic nation-states supported by professional standing armies, they were keen to recruit these mounted warriors in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders as well as devices of tactical harassment on the battlefield. For instance, Cossack cavalry regiments were an important part of the Imperial Russian Army until the Revolution, and some even served in the [[Red Army]]. Further east, the [[military history of China]] was a scene of intense military exchange between the powerful infantry forces of the settled empires and the mounted &quot;barbarians&quot; of the north. On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires have proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry, as in the case of the [[Mongol Empire]] and its sinicized part, the [[Yuan Dynasty]]. [[Tibet]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]], as well as the [[Turkic]] tribesmen of [[Central Asia]], have also been known to develop strong cavalry forces in the past. === British Indian Army === The [[British Indian Army]] maintained scores of regiments of cavalry, officered by British and manned by Indian [[sowars]] (cavalrymen). The legendary exploits of this branch lives on in literature and early films. Among the more famous regiments that continue to be figure in lineages of modern Indian and Pakistani Armies are: * Governor General's Bodyguard (now [[Indian Presidential Bodyguard]]) * Skinner's Horse (now Indian [[1st Horse (Skinner's)]]) * Gardner's Lancers (now Indian [[2nd Lancers (Gardner's)]]) * Hodson's Horse (now Indian [[3rd Horse (Hodson's)]]) of the Bengal Lancers fame * Probyn's Horse (now Pakistani) * Royal Deccan Horse (now Indian [[The Deccan Horse]]) * Poona Horse (now Indian [[The Poona Horse]]) * Queen's Own Guides Cavalry (now partitioned between Pakistan and India) == Cavalry's demise == In the [[20th century]] the advent of modern [[vehicle|vehicles]] with effective [[mobility]] and [[armor]], such as [[tank]]s, provided the opportunity for vehicles to replace horses as the key mobile element of an army. This change was made even more necessary by the development of the [[machine gun]] and other weapons which could easily destroy cavalry formations. Horses became relegated to [[logistical]] roles, with few exceptions (see [[tachanka]]). The demise of cavalry as a decisive force on the battlefield came in the [[World War I|First World War]] when cavalry forces were slaughtered while failing to achieve a strategic breakthrough on the [[Western Front]]. They nevertheless played an important role on several fronts, particularly in the Middle East. After [[World War I]] and the [[Polish-Bolshevik War]], horse cavalry was gradually abandoned as a major combat weapon by the industrialized powers. The last major cavalry battle was the [[Battle of Komarów]] in [[1920]]. In the 1920s and '30s most industrialized countries either transformed their cavalry units into [[mounted infantry]] or [[motorized infantry]]. The last cavalry charges in modern warfare were seen in the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Although there have been some engagements in twentieth and twenty-first century [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] wars involving cavalry, particularly by partisan or guerrilla fighters in areas with poor transport infrastructure, these units were not used as cavalry but rather as mounted infantry. Cavalry actually experienced a minor revival in the more mobile warfare of World War II. Russia, Italy, Germany, and even the United States fielded mounted units. Russia also fielded combined mechanized and horse units. Cavalry traditions and insignia were often inherited by the emerging armored formations and air forces. In the [[British Army]], all cavalry regiments were mechanised, re-roling from horse to armoured vehicles, to make up, with the [[Royal Tank Regiment]], the [[Royal Armoured Corps]]. In the [[Canadian Army]] a number of both regular and reserve units have cavalry roots. These include [[The Governor General's Horse Guards]], [[Lord Strathcona's Horse]], The [[Royal Canadian Dragoons]], and The [[South Alberta Light Horse]]. Several current divisions of the [[United States Army]] and other modern armies retain the name &quot;cavalry&quot; due to their origins in the era of horse cavalry; they generally consist in [[armour|armored]] forces. The [[United States]] also has [[air cavalry]] units equipped with [[helicopter]]s. Today [[Indian Army]]'s [[61st Cavalry]] remains the only regular horse-mounted cavalry in the world -- preserving its heritage by recruiting only former Maharajahs and Rajputs. Indian Army maintains some of its Armored Regiments under the title of [[Lancer]]s or [[Horse]]. == Light and heavy cavalry == Historically, cavalry was divided into light and [[heavy cavalry]]. The difference was mainly how much [[armor]] was worn by the [[soldier]]s, and thus how powerful their mounts had to be in order to sustain the burden. Early light cavalry (like the auxiliaries of the Roman army) were typically used to [[scout]] and [[skirmish]] and to cut down retreating infantry. Heavy cavalry like the [[Byzantine]] [[Cataphract]] were used as shock troops &amp;mdash; they would charge the main body of the enemy and in many cases, their actions decided the outcome of the battle. During the [[Early modern warfare|Gunpowder Age]], armored cavalry began to approach obsolescence. However, many units retained [[cuirass]]es and helmets for their protective values against [[sword]] and [[bayonet]] strikes and the morale boost they provides to the wearers. By this time the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was their training; the former was regarded as a tool for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges. Since the development of armored warfare the distinction between light and heavy armor has persisted basically along the same lines. [[Armored car]]s and [[light tanks]] have adopted the [[reconnaissance]] role while medium and heavy tanks are regarded as the decisive [[shock troops]]. == Social status == From the beginning of civilization to the 20th century, ownership of heavy cavalry horses has been a mark of wealth amongst settled peoples. A cavalry horse involves considerable expense in breeding, training, feeding, and equipment, and has very little productive use except as a mode of transport. For this reason, and because of their often decisive military role, the cavalry has typically been associated with high [[Social status|social status]]. This was most clearly seen in the [[Feudalism|feudal system]], where a lord was expected to enter combat armored and on horseback and bring with him an entourage of [[Peasants|peasants]] on foot. If landlords and peasants came into conflict, the peasants would be ill-equipped to defeat armored knights. In later national armies the cavalry often remained a badge of social status, with the typical exception of &quot;frontier&quot; units like [[Cossacks]]. For instance, an officer of any British cavalry regiment is almost certain to have attended elite schools and to come from a socially privileged background. == Famous cavalry forces == * [[Cataphract]] * [[Cossacks]] * [[Dragoon]]s * [[Hakkapeliitta]] during the [[Thirty Years War]]. * [[Governor General's Horse Guards]] {Canada} * [[Hussars]] * [[Kalmyks]] * [[Lancers]] * [[Light horse|Australian Light Horse]] * [[Mamelukes]] * [[Polish Cavalry]] * [[Savoia Cavalry]] * [[Uhlan]]s * [[United States Cavalry]] == See also == * [[Air cavalry]] * [[War elephant]] * [[Military tactics]] * [[Ski warfare]] * See List of British Army regiments by year, for cavalry units: [[List of British Army regiments (1881)|1881]], [[List of British Army regiments (1962)|1962]], [[List of British Army regiments (1994)|1994]] * [[Cavalry in the American Civil War]] * [[Order of the spur]] * [[Fiddler's Green]] * [[Charge of the Light Brigade]] == External links == * [http://www.usregulars.com/Lippitt6.html Cavalry tactics from Francis J. Lippitt's, ''A Treatise on the Tactical Use of the Three Arms - Infantry, Artillery and Cavalry'' (1865)] * [http://www.lonesentry.com/articles/cavalry/index.html Cavalry in Mass (U.S. report on Russian cavalry organization and operations in World War II)] * [http://www.thehistorynet.com/wwii/blhorsewarriors/index2.html Italian Savoia Cavalry during World War 2] * [http://www.militaryhorse.org/ Society of the Military Horse] * [http://kavallerie.8ung.at/ Gesellschaft
e time he recovered, Rage Against the Machine had disbanded. Adam &quot;Ad-rock&quot; Horovitz's side project [[BS 2000]] released ''[[Simply Mortified]]'' in 2001. ==''[[To the 5 Boroughs]]'' - 2002-present== [[Image:Beastie_Boys_BigDayOut.jpg|frame|Beastie Boys, Big Day Out Melbourne Australia 2005. From left to right: Mix Master Mike, Alfredo Ortiz, MCA, Mike D, Adrock, Keyboard Money Mark (out of frame).]] The band increased its level of political activism after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11th, 2001 terrorist attacks]], organizing and headlining the New Yorkers Against Violence Concert in October, 2001. Funds from the concert went towards the [[New York Women's Foundation Disaster Relief Fund]] and the [[New York Association for New Americans (NYANA)]]. In 2002, the Beastie Boys started building a new studio facility, [[Oscilloscope]], in downtown [[Manhattan, New York]] and started work on a new album. The band released a [[protest song]], ''&quot;In A World Gone Mad&quot;'', against the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq war]] as a free download on several websites, including the Milarepa website, the [[MTV]] website, [[MoveOn.org]], and [[Win Without War]]. It was the most downloaded track during April [[2003]]. The 19th and 20th Tibetan Freedom Concerts were held in Tokyo and Taipei - the Beastie Boys' first Taiwan appearance. Beastie Boys also headlined the [[Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival]]. Their single ''&quot;Ch-Check It Out&quot;'' debuted on [[The O.C.]] in &quot;The Vegas&quot; episode from Season 1 which aired April 28 2004. [http://launch.yahoo.com/read/story/12057394 Yahoo Launch News Story] ''To The 5 Boroughs'' was released worldwide on [[15 June]] [[2004]]; it was the first album the Beastie Boys produced themselves. It reached #1 on the Billboard album charts, #2 in the UK and Australia, and #3 in Germany. The first single from the album, ''&quot;Ch-Check It Out&quot;'', has reached #1 in Canada, #2 on the US modern rock chart and world Internet download charts, and #3 on a composite world modern rock chart. The album was the cause of some controversy with allegations that it installed [[spyware]] when inserted into the CD-ROM of a computer. [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/06/23/beastie_boy_cd_virus] The band has denied this allegation, defending that there is no copy protection software on the albums sold in the US and UK. While there is [[Macrovision CDS-200]] copy protection software installed on European copies of the album, this is standard practice for all European releases on [[EMI]]/Capitol Records released in Europe and it does not install spyware or any form of permanent software. ==Influence== Beastie Boys are equally influential in rock and rap music history. Their blending of hip-hop and punk rock genres could be seen as a precursor to the [[rapcore]] and [[nu metal]] genres of the late 1990s, such as [[Limp Bizkit]] and [[KoЯn]]. The band were also leaders in the use of sampling techniques, with ''Paul's Boutique'' being notable for its effective use of samples. The influence of this album can be seen on [[Beck]]'s 1996 ''[[Odelay]]'' album (also produced by the [[Dust Brothers]]). Also, the Beastie Boys' success as a trio of white emcees may have paved the way for artists like [[Eminem]]. The chart consistency of the Beastie Boys must also be acknowledged. Since 1986, they have had four albums reach the top of the Billboard album charts: ''Licensed to Ill'', ''Ill Communication'', ''Hello Nasty'' and ''To The 5 Boroughs''. Few, if any, of the Beastie Boys' contemporaries have matched this feat. ==Cultural References== * The ''&quot;Sabotage&quot;'' music video parodied 1970s police dramas, shot to resemble the opening credits of such a show. * The ''&quot;Intergalactic&quot;'' video parodied Japanese [[Kaiju]] films, featuring a giant robot destroying a city while breakdancing. * The matching tracksuits worn by the band in their post-''&quot;Hello Nasty&quot;'' stage performances, and projected images of New York trains and spraypaint graffitti murals, represent a retrospective incorporation of [[Old School]] hip hop culture. *In the series ''[[Futurama (TV series)|Futurama]]'', the Beastie Boys are lampooned for releasing albums slowly. Nevertheless, in the ninth episode of the first season, Mike D and Adrock provide the voices for themselves (though their characters were but heads preserved in jars). Additionally, the viewer is treated to a humorously &quot;live&quot; performance of ''&quot;Intergalactic&quot;'' (quite obviously the album version). The [[credit (creative arts)|ending credits]] also featured Adrock and Mike D performing a shout out to the show's characters over the Futurama [[theme song]]. ==Band members== Regular members (as of 2005): * [[Michael Diamond]], aka Mike D -born [[November 20]] [[1965]]; * [[Adam Yauch]], aka MCA -born [[August 5]] [[1964]]; and * [[Adam Horovitz]], aka Adrock -born [[October 31]] [[1966]]. Other contributing members: * Michael Schwartz aka [[Mix Master Mike]] (DJ) * [[Mario Caldato Junior]] aka Mario C (producer) * John King and Mike Simpson aka [[The Dust Brothers]] (producers) * Mark Ramos-Nishita aka [[Money Mark]] (keyboards, vocals, carpentry) * Wendell Fite aka [[DJ Hurricane]] (DJ) * [[Eric Bobo]] (percussion) * [[Amery Smith]] aka AWOL (drums) * Alfredo Ortiz (percussion) *Biz Markie (did version of Elton John's Bennie and The Jets with the beastie boys, and also did a track called &quot;The Biz vs. The Nuge&quot;) ==Media== {{listen|filename=Rhymin'andStealin'.ogg|title=Rhymin' and Stealin'|description=Sample of Rhymin' and Stealin' from [[Licensed to Ill]]|format=[[Ogg]]}} ==Discography== {| border=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; |- | '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label''' |- | 1982 || ''[[Pollywog Stew]]'' ([[Extended play|EP]]) | Ratcage |- | 1983 || ''[[Cooky Puss]]'' ([[Extended play|EP]]) || Ratcage |- | 1984 || ''[[Rock Hard]]'' ([[Extended play|EP]]) || [[Def Jam]] |- | 1986 || ''[[Licensed to Ill]]'' || [[Def Jam]] |- | 1989 || ''[[Paul's Boutique]]'' || [[Capitol Records]] |- | 1992 || ''[[Check Your Head]]'' || [[Grand Royal]] |- | 1994 || ''[[Ill Communication]]'' || [[Grand Royal]] |- | 1994 || ''[[Some Old Bullshit]]'' || [[Grand Royal]] |- | 1995 || ''[[Aglio e Olio]]'' || [[Grand Royal]] |- | 1996 || ''[[The In Sound From Way Out! (Beastie Boys album)|The In Sound From Way Out!]]'' | [[Grand Royal]] |- | 1998 || ''[[Hello Nasty]]'' || [[Grand Royal]] |- | 1998 || ''[[Love American Style EP]]'' || [[Grand Royal]] |- | 1999 || ''[[The Sounds of Science]]'' | [[Capitol Records]] |- | 2003 || ''[[In A World Gone Mad]]'' || [[Capitol Records]] |- | 2004 || ''[[To the 5 Boroughs]]'' || [[Capitol Records]] |- | 2005 || ''[[Solid Gold Hits]]'' || [[Capitol Records]] |} ==Singles== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Year''' |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Title''' |colspan=&quot;5&quot;| '''Chart positions''' |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Album''' |- |US [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]] |US [[Modern Rock Tracks chart|Modern Rock]] |US [[Hot R&amp;B/Hip-Hop Singles &amp; Tracks|Hot Hip Hop]] |US [[Hot Dance Music/Club Play|Hot Dance]] |[[UK_Singles_Chart|UK]] |- | [[1986 in music|1986]] | &quot;The New Style&quot; | - | - | #22 | - | - | ''Licensed to Ill'' |- | [[1986 in music|1986]] | &quot;Hold It, Now Hit It&quot; | - | - | #55 | - | - | ''Licensed to Ill'' |- | [[1987 in music|1987]] | &quot;Paul Revere&quot; | - | - | #34 | - | - | ''Licensed to Ill'' |- | [[1987 in music|1987]] | &quot;The New Style/Paul Revere&quot; | - | - | - | #41 | - | ''Licensed to Ill'' |- | [[1987 in music|1987]] | &quot;Brass Monkey&quot; | #48 | - | #83 | - | - | ''Licensed to Ill'' |- | [[1987 in music|1987]] | &quot;Fight For Your Right&quot; | #7 | - | - | - | #11 | ''Licensed to Ill'' |- | [[1987 in music|1987]] | &quot;No Sleep Till Brooklyn&quot; | - | - | - | - | #14 | ''Licensed to Ill'' |- | [[1987 in music|1987]] | &quot;She's On It&quot; | - | - | - | - | #10 | ''Licensed to Ill'' |- | [[1987 in music|1987]] | &quot;Girls / She's Crafty&quot; | - | - | - | - | #34 | ''Licensed to Ill'' |- | [[1989 in music|1989]] | &quot;Hey Ladies/Shake Your Rump&quot; | - | - | - | #15 | - | ''Paul's Boutique'' |- | [[1989 in music|1989]] | &quot;Hey Ladies&quot; | #36 | #18 | #10 | - | - | ''Paul's Boutique'' |- | [[1992 in music|1992]] | &quot;So What'cha Want&quot; | #93 | #22 | #18 | - | - | ''Check Your Head'' |- | [[1994 in music|1994]] | &quot;Sabotage&quot; | - | #18 | - | - | - | ''Ill Communication'' |- | [[1994 in music|1994]] | &quot;Get It Together&quot; | - | - | #43 | - | - | ''Ill Communication'' |- | [[1994 in music|1994]] | &quot;Get It Together / Sabotage&quot; | - | - | - | - | #19 | ''Ill Communication'' |- | [[1994 in music|1994]] | &quot;Sure Shot&quot; | - | - | - | - | #27 | ''Ill Communication'' |- | [[1998 in music|1998]] | &quot;Intergalactic&quot; | #28 | #4 | - | - | #5 | ''Hello Nasty'' |- | [[1998 in music|1998]] | &quot;Body Movin'&quot; | - | - | - | - | #15 | ''Hello Nasty'' |- | [[1999 in music|1999]] | &quot;The Negotiation Limerick File&quot; | - | #29 | - | - | - | ''Hello Nasty'' |- | [[1999 in music|1999]] | &quot;Remote Control / 3 MCs And 1 DJ&quot; | - | - | - | - | #21 | ''Hello Nasty'' |- | [[1999 in music|1999]] | &quot;Alive&quot; | - | #11 | - | - | #28 | ''The Sounds of Science'' |- | [[2004 in music|2004]] | &quot;Ch-Check It Out&quot; | #68 | #1 | - | - | #8 | ''To the 5 Boroughs'' |- | [[2004 in music|2004]] | &quot;Triple Trouble&quot; | - | 11 | - | - | #37 | ''To the 5 Boroughs'' |- | [[2004 in music|2004]] | &quot;An Open Letter To NYC&quot; | - | - | - | - | #38 | ''To the 5 Boroughs'' |} ==Unreleased Discography== {| border=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; |- |
of ''S3''. For the purpose of [[legal entitlement]], therefore, part or all of ''S3'' is the same as ''S1''. Now, let us say that the purpose is not legal entitlement, but rather, the following situation: The [[admiral]] of the fleet believes that [[captain]]s and [[crew]]s who have fought alongside each other are more effective than captains and crews who are strangers to each other. The admiral then declares that captains must serve at least one year on the same ship. One day, Captain Hercules takes command of the Theseus, and then transfers 18 months later. During this time, the ship's materials are completely replaced as in the previous example, but the crew stays the same. Is ''S2'' = ''S1'', ''S3'' = ''S1'', both, or neither? For the admiral's purpose, ''S2'' = ''S1'' because ''S2'' has the same crew as ''S1'', and Captain Hercules has thus fulfilled the admiral's objective. Thus, whether ''S2'', ''S3'', both, or neither is the same ship as ''S1'' is a matter of convention and what purposes we have for considering things to be the same or different. Two objects may be considered the same for one purpose, and yet different for another. Is a watch, received as a gift, still the same after it hits the chain saw? For the purpose of returning it, no. But it will always have that same [[sentimental value]]. See [[pragmatism]]. == Identity and change in conscious beings == Let us briefly consider the problem of [[personal identity]]. Basically, the problem is the problem of change as applied to ''people''. The [[molecule]]s that make up each individual change almost completely over a period of years. Usually, there is no trouble in saying that a little girl in 1920, for example, is the same as an old woman in 1998, even though they share a relatively small number of molecules in common. The same person is just described in two different ways, first as a little girl, and second, as an old woman. In fact, we are confident enough of our ability to reidentify people over time that we are given [[Social Security number]]s that are supposed to last us from when we get them until we die many years later. The question is exactly why we call the old woman in 1998 ''the same person'' as that little girl in 1920. But thought experiments can reveal problems with our intuitions about personal identity. Aune gives a typical sort of example of such a case, and one which is perhaps more accessible that those involving teleportation or mind transplants. Aune's case goes something like this: Someone is out flying and crashes his plane. The doctors think he is a very important person. Armed with some new-fangled [[bionics|bionics technology]], they reconstruct him. All that remains of the original pilot is the top of his head. The reconstruction is a success; the top of the pilot's head continues to function, with a totally new body. The question then is: Is this newly-constructed human being ''the same human being'' as the original pilot? Since we rarely encounter cases that are as difficult to deal with as this, it is not surprising that we are not quite sure what to say about them. These thought experiments seem to many to land us in the grey area between the subject being or not being the same person. These are cases in which our ordinary concept is just not clear enough to let us decide whether the concept does or does not apply. Thus, in the case of the reconstructed pilot, it may be that our notion of &quot;being the same human being&quot; is just not clear enough to let us rule definitively that the reconstructed human being ''is'', or ''is not'', the same as the original pilot. The same can be said of the Ship of Theseus. Our concept of &quot;being the same ship&quot; is perhaps just not clear enough to let us rule definitively that ''S2'' is the same as ''S1''; thus, if we find it convenient, we might just arbitrarily say that they are the same ship. == The ship of Theseus problem: a non-receivable question == The Ship of Theseus problem is a question that is not receivable because of the mismatch between the [[domain]] of the question and the domain of the subject matter it is applied to. Let us review the three main knowledge domains of concern here: * ''A'', the real [[ontology|ontological]] [[universe]] that exists and happens by itself; * ''B'', our [[reality]] or how we experience the real universe, ''A''; and * ''C'', or our [[scientific analysis]] of our reality, ''B''. The distinction between ''B'' and ''C'' is demonstrated in the following example: In the evening, one can go out and see at the same moment the sun setting, the moon and a few stars; this is our reality or ''B''. In the scientific domain ''C'', however, the analysis of ''B'' reveals that the stars are millions of years away, the sun is eight minutes away, and the moon is about half a second away. Since one cannot logically consider these subjects to be both &quot;at the same moment&quot; and &quot;away in time&quot;, an exclusive choice has to be made that defines these two separate domains, ''B'' and ''C''. Our reality or domain ''B'' is created by the complex, but consistent transformation of ''A'' by our biological and mental makeup. Therefore, domain ''B'', or our reality, is internally logical. The scientific knowledge, or domain ''C'', is created by the application of a consistent [[methodology]] of analysis of our reality, ''B''. Therefore, the scientific domain is internally logical. Domains ''B'' and ''C'' each have their own internal logic, derived from a consistent approach respecting both [[process]]es and subject matter. Using the questions or processes of one domain on the subject matter of another domain will logically produce puzzles, [[paradox]]es, and inconsistencies. The Ship of Theseus problem is an example of such an inconsistency created by the use of the question of identity proper to the ontology of domain ''A'', applied to the subject matter of domain ''B'', our reality. The question about the identity of the Ship of Theseus is simply not receivable and comes from the poor practice of not respecting the proper correspondence of the question domain to the subject matter domain. The problem of identity is an ontological problem, and should therefore be applied to the (metaphysical) subject matter of domain ''A'', the real universe. ==Update== * The sentence, &quot;S1 ''now'' has the property that it ''will'' have mast #2 contains in itself the assumption that S1 ''now'', and S1 ''later'', are the very same ship. It is a little like trying to prove [[theorem]] A using theorem A, is it not? * An example, very similar to the &quot;pilot&quot; example, but perhaps more realistic is: It is said that all the particles ([[atom]]s) that form a human body change during a period of seven years (although this is not actually so). This means that seven years ago, almost all our atoms were not the same as those of our current body. Does this mean that we are not the same (identical) person as we were, seven years ago? :Having observed this, an allowance for accumulated [[phenomenological]] [[experience]] attached to identity also defines that identity is independent of change. * Another example are the [[teleporter]]s in &quot;[[Star Trek]]&quot;, or in just about any other science fiction media for that matter, which either deconstruct and reconstruct the constituent molecules of the person being teleported, or replicate them in the exact order at the receiving end. In the first mechanism, even though the product is identical, the teleportee is still being destroyed, at least temporarily. In the second the eerie sense of separation is stronger. Not only is the teleportee completely destroyed, but nothing of him or her is actually transported, a copy simply being made. [[Category:Metaphysics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ishmael by Daniel Quinn</title> <id>14786</id> <revision> <id>15912319</id> <timestamp>2003-05-07T05:49:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Paul A</username> <id>7104</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>correct redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ishmael (novel)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Iran-Contra Affair</title> <id>14787</id> <revision> <id>42144754</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:52:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.77.124.61</ip> </contributor> <comment>sp</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Iran-Contra Affair''' (also known as '''&quot;Irangate&quot;''') was a mid-[[1980s]] political scandal in the United States. [[US President|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]]'s administration sold [[arms trade|arms]] to [[Iran]], an avowed enemy. At the time, Americans were being held hostage in [[Lebanon]] by [[Hezbollah]], a [[militant]] [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] organization loyal to [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Ayatollah Khomeini]]. ==The Plan== The Reagan Administraiton calculated that by selling arms to [[Iran]], that nation would influence the [[Hezbollah]] [[kidnap]]pers in [[Lebanon]] to release their hostages. Iran was in the midst of the [[Iran-Iraq War]] and could find few nations willing to supply it with weapons. However, the arms shipments began before the first hostage was taken, and ended a long time after the last hostage was released.{{Fact}} Selling these arms generated large amounts of [[cash]]. Since [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] had not authorized this activity, disposing of the cash led the the second half of the plan. In January of [[1986]], the administration approved a plan proposed by [[Robert McFarlane]] employee [[Michael Ledeen]], whereby an intermediary would sell arms to Iran in exchange for the release of the hostages, with proceeds made available to the Contras. At first, the Iranians had refused the weapons from [[Manucher Ghorbanifar]], the Iranian i
n Noreen Widdecombe''' (born [[October 4]], [[1947]], in [[Bath]], [[Somerset]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] [[politician]]. She is the [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Maidstone and The Weald (UK Parliament constituency)|Maidstone and The Weald]], a [[Privy Counsellor]], and an outspoken supporter of traditional [[family values]]. She holds Honours degrees in [[Latin]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] [[University of Birmingham]]) and in [[Philosophy, Politics and Economics]] ([[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|MA]] [[Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford]]). From 1976 to 1978, Widdecombe was a [[Runnymede (borough)|Runnymede District]] [[Councillor]]. She contested the seat of [[Burnley (UK Parliament constituency)|Burnley]] in 1979, and then [[Plymouth Devonport (UK Parliament constituency)|Plymouth Devonport]] in 1983 against [[David Owen]]. She was first elected to the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987 UK general election]] as member for the constituency of Maidstone (which became ''Maidstone and The Weald'' in 1997). She became the [[Home Office]] Minister in Charge of Prisons in [[John Major]]'s government and in that role visited every single prison. After the fall of the Conservative government to [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] in 1997 she served as shadow [[Health Secretary]] and later shadow [[Home Secretary]] under [[William Hague]], but has since retired to the backbenches. When the voters of [[Eastbourne (UK Parliament constituency)|Eastbourne]] returned a [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] candidate, in the [[by-election]] caused by the assassination of [[Ian Gow]], she told them &quot;the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] would be toasting their success&quot;. She is famous for her claim of [[celibacy]] and her outspoken [[conservatism]], and her views concerning [[abortion]] and [[recreational drugs]], which some consider to be antiquated. She made headlines for her policy of applying the standards for handcuffing prisoners in transit to pregnant women, even on visits to hospitals. She claimed that this was necessary because of the risk of their absconding. Along with [[John Gummer]] MP and approximately 400 [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] priests, she converted to [[Roman Catholicism]] in 1993, in the wake of the decision to [[ordain]] women into the [[Church of England]]. She had been educated at a Roman Catholic convent school in [[Bath]], La Sainte Union, despite the fact that her family were not Roman Catholics, because her parents wanted to ensure that she received a good education in a single-sex school. During the Conservative leadership election that picked [[William Hague]] she spoke against [[Michael Howard]], under whom she had served when he was [[Home Secretary]]. She remarked &quot;there is something of the night about him&quot; and it is for this remark she is probably most (in)famous. It was considered to be extremely damaging, and Howard came last in that 1997 poll. However, he went on to become party leader in 2003 and some of Howard's more cunning supporters at that time claimed she had meant &quot;there is something of the knight about him&quot;. She scored an [[own goal]] in calling for a [[zero tolerance]] policy of prosecution for users of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] in her speech at the 2000 Conservative conference, which was well-received by rank-and-file Conservative delegates. However, she alleges that someone connected with [[Francis Maude]] promptly contacted journalists to alert them that fellow Conservative cabinet members were prepared to come out and indicate ''something of ambivalence'' towards their own past experiences with this drug. During the [[Conservative Party (UK) leadership election, 2001|2001 Conservative leadership election]], after the resignation of [[William Hague]] in the wake of the [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001 UK general election]], she could not find sufficient Conservative MPs to support her as a leadership candidate. She supported the unsuccessful leadership campaign of [[Ken Clarke]], and afterwards refused to serve in a Duncan Smith cabinet. It is alleged that in preparation for that contest she began the process of softening her image and raising her political profile, but that process appears to be continuing today despite the subsequent selection of [[Iain Duncan Smith]] as the Conservative party leader. Her fellow Conservative MPs and political opponents have been cruel at times about her appearance, dubbing her &quot;Doris Karloff&quot; in reference to horror film actor [[Boris Karloff]]. In 2003, together with another Roman Catholic M.P. [[Edward Leigh]], she proposed an [[constitutional amendment|amendment]] opposing repeal of [[Section 28]] of the [[Local Government Act 1988|Local Government Act]], which banned the promotion of homosexuality. As a strong, forceful, and clever woman, Widdecombe is arguably a peculiar [[England|English]] [[sex symbol]], and her admirers include [[Bob Geldof]] and [[Eddie Izzard]]. During the 2001 UK general election, ''I Love Ann Widdecombe'' underwear was the top-selling item at Politico's Bookstore, a London shop devoted to political merchandise. Her non-political accomplishments include being a popular [[novelist]]. In March of 2004 she briefly became the Guardian newspaper's [[agony aunt]], introduced with an [[Emma Brockes]] interview [http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,1179972,00.html]. In 2002, she took part in the ITV programme ''[[Celebrity Fit Club]]''. In 2005 BBC Two showed six episodes of The Widdecombe Project, an agony aunt television program. In 2005 she also appeared in [[Celebrity Fit Club]] but this time as a panel member dispensing wisdom and advice to the celebrities taking part. She has never married and lives with her widowed mother in [[Newington]], [[London]]. In late 2005, she announced her intention to stand down as Member of Parliament for Maidstone and The Weald at the next General Election. ==Bibliography== * ''An Act of Peace'' by Ann Widdecombe (Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 2005) ISBN 0297829580 * ''An Act of Treachery'' by Ann Widdecombe (Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 2002) ISBN 0297645730 * ''The Clematis Tree'' by Ann Widdecombe (Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 2000) ISBN 0297645722 * ''Ann Widdecombe: Right from the Beginning'' by Nicholas Kochan (Politico's Publishing, 2000) ISBN 1902301552 * ''Inspired and Outspoken: The Collected Speeches of Ann Widdecombe'' edited by John Simmons (Politico's Publishing, 1999) ISBN 1902301226 ==External links== * [http://www.annwiddecombemp.com/ The Widdy Web] official site * [http://www.conservatives.com/tile.do?def=people.person.page&amp;personID=4791 Ann Widdecombe MP] biography at the site of the Conservative Party * [http://www.epolitix.com/EN/MPWebsites/Ann+Widdecombe/ ePolitix.com — Ann Widdecombe] * [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/person/0,9290,-5516,00.html Guardian Unlimited Politics — Ask Aristotle: Ann Widdecombe MP] * [http://www.theyworkforyou.com/mp/ann_widdecombe/maidstone_and_the_weald TheyWorkForYou.com — Ann Widdecombe MP] * [http://publicwhip.org.uk/mp.php?mpn=Ann_Widdecombe&amp;mpc=Maidstone+%26amp%3B+The+Weald The Public Whip — Ann Widdecombe MP] voting record * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/mpdb/html/275.stm BBC News — Ann Widdecombe] profile 10 February, 2005 * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/3558378.stm BBC News — The Widdecombe Project] about her agony aunt television programme on BBC Two * [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/redbox/story/0,9029,1180596,00.html ''Buck Up!''] Ann Widdecombe's first agony aunt column for [[The Guardian]] in 2004 * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/entertainment/tv_and_radio/newsid_1436000/1436000.stm Ann Widdecombe's ''Weird Weekend''] from the [[BBC]] in 2001 * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Conservative/MPs/Widdecombe,_Ann/ Open Directory Project — Ann Widdecombe] directory category [[Category:1947 births|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:Living people|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:Natives of Somerset|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:Former students of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:University of Birmingham alumni|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:British MPs|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:British women|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:UK Conservative Party politicians|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:Women writers|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[Category:Councillors in south east England|Widdecombe, Ann]] [[sv:Ann Widdecombe]] [[sco:Ann Widdecombe]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aurangzeb</title> <id>2425</id> <revision> <id>42094207</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:07:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>200.79.67.254</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Hindu temple desecration */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;width:320px;float:right; border:1px #CCCCCC solid; margin:5px&quot; |+ &lt;big&gt;'''Aurangzeb'''&lt;/big&gt; |colspan=2 align=center style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;| |- |align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Birth name:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|Abu Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir |- |align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Title:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[Emperor]] of [[Mughal Empire]]&lt;br /&gt; |- |align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Birth:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[November 3]], [[1618]] |- |align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Birthplace:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;| [[D
Part II]]'' (1974, director) *''[[The Conversation]]'' (1974, director) *''[[The Godfather]]'' (1972, director) *''[[THX 1138]]'' (1971, executive producer) *''[[The Rain People]]'' (1969, director) *''[[Finian's Rainbow]]'' (1968, director) *''[[You're a Big Boy Now]]'' (1966, director) *''[[Dementia 13]]'' (1963, director) *''[[The Terror (1963 film)|The Terror]]'' (1963, uncredited director) ==Trivia== He has been granted the title of &quot;duke of Megalopolis&quot; by the Spanish writer [[Javier Marías]], claimant to the [[micronation]] of the [[kingdom of Redonda]]. [[George Lucas]] reportedly based the [[Han Solo]] character on Coppola. The italian word ''coppola'' stands for the typicaly sicilian cloth cap that can been seen in many mafia films. ==External links== {{commons|Francis Ford Coppola}} *[http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=94 Biography and Pictures] *[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/CoppolaBib.html Bibliography at the University of California Berkeley Library] *{{imdb name | id=0000338 | name=Francis Ford Coppola}} *[http://www.niebaum-coppola.com/site.php Niebaum-Coppola Winery, Napa Valley] *[http://www.24liesasecond.com/site2/index.php?page=2&amp;task=index_onearticle.php&amp;Column_Id=82 Altman and Coppola in the Seventies: Power and the People] Essay (24 Lies A Second) *[http://www.belize.gov.bz/honorary_consul.html Official Belize Government's website on honorary consulates worldwide] [[Category:1939 births|Coppola, Francis Ford]] [[Category:American film directors|Coppola, Francis Ford]] [[Category:American screenwriters|Coppola, Francis Ford]] [[Category:Best Director Oscar|Coppola, Francis Ford]] [[Category:Italian-Americans|Coppola, Francis Ford]] [[Category:People from Detroit, Michigan|Coppola, Francis Ford]] [[Category:Roman Catholic entertainers|Coppola, Francis Ford]] [[Category:Viticulturists|Coppola, Francis Ford]] [[Category:Living people|Coppola, Francis Ford]] [[da:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[de:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[eo:Francis Ford COPPOLA]] [[es:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[fa:فرانسیس فورد كاپولا]] [[fi:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[fr:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[he:פרנסיס פורד קופולה]] [[hr:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[hu:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[it:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[ja:フランシス・フォード・コッポラ]] [[nl:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[no:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[pl:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[pt:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[sv:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[tr:Francis Ford Coppola]] [[zh:弗朗西斯·科波拉]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Finland</title> <id>10577</id> <revision> <id>42028004</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:32:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ixfd64</username> <id>6284</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.230.253.65|84.230.253.65]] ([[User talk:84.230.253.65|talk]]) to last version by Vuo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country| |native_name = Suomen tasavalta&lt;br&gt;Republiken Finland&lt;br&gt;Republic of Finland |common_name = Finland |image_flag = Flag of Finland.svg |image_coat = PB Finland CoA.png |image_map = LocationFinland.png |national_motto = none |national_anthem = [[Maamme]] (Finnish) / Vårt land (Swedish) |official_languages = [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]] |capital = [[Helsinki]] |latd=60 |latm=10 |latNS=N |longd=24 |longm=56 |longEW=E | |largest_city = [[Helsinki]] |government_type = [[Parliamentary democracy]] |leader_titles = [[President of Finland]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Finland]] |leader_names = [[Tarja Halonen]]&lt;br&gt;[[Matti Vanhanen]] | |area_rank = 65th |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |area= 338,145 |percent_water = 9.4% |population_estimate = 5,261,008 |population_estimate_rank = 110th |population_estimate_year = 2005 |population_census = |population_census_year = |population_density = 15 |population_density_rank = 162nd |GDP_PPP = $152,955,000,000 |GDP_PPP_rank = 48th |GDP_PPP_year= 2004 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $29,305 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 16th |sovereignty_type = [[History of Finland|Independence]] |established_events = Declared&lt;br&gt;Recognized |established_dates = From [[Imperial Russia]]&lt;br&gt;[[December 6]], [[1917]]&lt;br&gt;[[January 3]], [[1918]] |HDI = 0.941 |HDI_rank = 13th |HDI_year = 2005 |HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; |currency = Euro (€)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; |currency_code = EUR |country_code = |time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]] |utc_offset = +2 |time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +3 |cctld = [[.fi]] |calling_code = 358 |footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Prior to 1999: [[Finnish markka]] }} {{For|an alternative usage of the Finnish word &quot;suomi&quot;|Finnish language}} The '''Republic of Finland''' ([[Finnish language|Finnish]]: ''Suomen tasavalta'' [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]]: ''Republiken Finland'') is a [[Nordic countries|Nordic country]] in northeastern [[Europe]], bounded by the [[Baltic Sea]] to the southwest, the [[Gulf of Finland]] to the south and the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] to the west. Finland has land frontiers with [[Sweden]], [[Norway]] and [[Russia]]. The [[Åland|Åland Islands]], off the southwestern coast, are under Finnish [[sovereignty]] while enjoying extensive [[self-governance|autonomy]]. The commonly used Finnish name for the country is '''Suomi''', the Swedish name '''Finland'''. (In [[Latin language|Latin]], Finland is '''Fennia''', which is used in scientific naming.) Finland has a population of five million people spread over more than 330,000 square kilometres (127,000 square miles). Being sparsely populated, the country ranks [[List of countries by population density|162nd]] in population density. Finland is ranked thirteenth on the 2005 [[United Nations]] [[Human Development Index]]. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Finland]]'' Conclusive [[archaeological]] evidence exists indicating that the area now comprising Finland was settled around [[8th millennium BC|8500 BC]], during the [[Stone Age]], as the inland ice of the last [[ice age]] receded. The earliest people were [[hunter-gatherer]]s, living primarily off what the tundra and sea could offer. [[Pottery]] is known from around [[6th millennium BC|5300 BC]]. The existence of extensive exchange systems is indicated by the spread of [[asbestos]] and [[soapstone]] from eastern Finland, and by finds of [[flint]] from southern Scandinavia and Russia, [[chisel]]s from [[Lake Onega]], and spearheads from northern Scandinavia. It is probable that the speakers of the [[Finno-Ugric]] language arrived in Finland during the Stone Age, and were possibly even among the first [[Mesolithic]] settlers. The arrival of the [[Battle-axe people|Battle-Axe Culture]] (or Cord-Ceramic Culture) in southern Finland around [[3200 BC]] like coincided with the start of [[agriculture]]. However, [[hunting]] and [[fishing]] continued to be important parts of the subsistence economy, especially in the northern and eastern parts of the country. The [[Bronze Age]] (1500&amp;ndash;500 BC) and [[Iron Age]] (500 BC&amp;ndash;AD 1200) were characterized by extensive contacts with [[Scandinavia]], northern [[Russia]] and the Baltic region. Several writings about the Finnish history before the [[13th century]] - among them many Scandinavian sagas - refer to the ''Finnish kings'', their wars and accomplishments. In this context often the references speak of '''[[Kvens]]''', that is Finns and their descendants in the northernmost part of Scandinavia. The beginning of Finland's nearly 700-year association with the Kingdom of [[Sweden]] is traditionally connected with the year 1154 and the hypothesized [[Christianization|introduction of Christianity]] by Sweden's [[Eric IX of Sweden|King Erik]]. However, archeological evidence points to prior Christian influences in southwestern and southeastern Finland. Historically the union began upon [[Birger Jarl]]'s expedition to Finland in 1249. [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]] became the dominant language of administration and education; [[Finnish language|Finnish]] chiefly a language for the [[peasantry]], [[clergy]] and local courts in predominantly Finnish-speaking areas. Not until the 16th century were the first written works published in Finnish by [[Mikael Agricola]]. {{portal}} The Swedish Kingdom strove to push the borders eastward, which led to wars of varying success with [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]]. The expansion was halted by the unification of [[Russian Empire|Russia]] and was eventually rolled back. During the 18th century, virtually all of Finland was twice occupied by Russian forces (1714&amp;ndash;1721 and 1742&amp;ndash;1743), known by the Finns as the [[Greater Wrath]] and the [[Lesser Wrath]]. After that, &quot;Finland&quot; became the predominant term for the area &amp;mdash; both in domestic Swedish debate and by Russians promising protection from &quot;Swedish oppression.&quot; In 1808, Finland was conquered by the armies of [[Alexander I of Russia|Russian Emperor Alexander I]] and thereafter remained an autonomous [[Grand Duchy of Finland|Grand Duchy]] of the Russian Empire until the end of 1917. To sever the cultural and emotional ties with Sweden, the Finnish language was ardently promoted by both the imperial court and the Finnish government and a strong [[ethnic nationalism|nationalist]] movement, known as [[fennoman]]ia, starting in the 1860s. Milestones included the publication of what would become Finland's [[national epic]], the [[Kalevala]], in 1835; and the Finnish language achieving legally status equal with Swedish in 1892. On [[December 6]], [[1917]], shortly after the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] in Russia, [[Finland's declaration of independence|Finland declared its independence]]. The independence was approved by [[Bolshevist Russia]], but the civil wars that followed [[Russian Civil War|in Russia]] and [[Finnish Civil War
lars&quot; *&quot;Cloistered Walls&quot; *&quot;Flesh&quot; *&quot;For A Breath I Tarry&quot; *&quot;Hey, Good Christian&quot; *&quot;Holes&quot; *&quot;It&quot; *&quot;I've Met One&quot; *&quot;Mold In The Jungle&quot; *&quot;Once&quot; *&quot;The Rats Run&quot; *&quot;Sam: the Adventurous, Exciting, Well-Traveled Man&quot; *&quot;Something About This City&quot; *&quot;The Standard Unusual&quot; *&quot;A Trio Of Possible Futures&quot; *&quot;You Dirty Jap, Said The Jap&quot; *&quot;Where No One Fell&quot; ===Screenplays=== *''[[Koontz's Frankenstein|Dean Koontz's Frankenstein]]'' (2005 - [http://www.charnelhouse.com/frankenstein.html Charnel House 2006]) *''The Bad Place'' ===Film and television adaptations=== Not all of these films are approved of by Mr. Koontz. Specifically ''Watchers II'', ''Watchers III'', ''Watchers Reborn'', Frankenstein and [http://www.newscoast.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050603/COLUMNIST49/506030658 ''Haute Tension'']. For most of the rest of them, he's just not happy with the result. *''Frankenstein'' (2004) - USA *''[[Haute Tension]] / [[High Tension]] / [[Switchblade Romance]]'' (2003) *''[[Black River]]'' (2001) - USA *''[[Sole Survivor]]'' (2000) – Billy Zane *''[[Phantoms (movie)|Phantoms]]'' (1998) – Dimension – Ben Affleck, Peter O'Toole *''[[Watchers Reborn]]'' (1998) – New Horizon – Mark Hamill, Lisa Wilcox *''[[Mr. Murder]]'' (1998) – ABC – Stephen Baldwin, James Colburn *''Intensity'' (1997) – ABC – John McGinley, Piper Laurie *''[[Hideaway]]'' (1995) – Tristar – Jeff Goldbloom, Christine Lahti *''[[Watchers III]]'' (1994) – New Horizons – Wings Hauser, Lolita Ronalos *''[[The Servants of Twilight]]'' (1992) – Trimark – Bruce Greenwood, Belinda Bauer *''[[The Face of Fear]]'' (1990) – CBS – Pam Dawber, Lee Horsley *''[[Whispers]]'' (1990) Cinepix – Victoria Tennant, Jean LeClere *''[[Watchers II]]'' (1990) Concord – Marc Singer, Tracy Scroggins *''[[Watchers (1988 film)|Watchers]]'' (1988) – Concord - [[Corey Haim]], [[Barbara Williams]] *''[[The Funhouse]]'' (1981) [Movie first then book – Movie written by Larry Block] Universal – Elizabeth Berridge, Cooper Huckabee *''[[The Intruder]]'' (circa 1979) - MGM - Jean-Louis Trintignant'' (French film of Shattered) *''[[Demon Seed]]'' (1977) - MGM - Julie Christie, Fritz Weaver *''CHiPs episode 306: Counterfeit'' ([[20 October]] [[1979]]) – as by Brian Coffey ===Books about Dean Koontz=== *''A Collector's Guide to Dean Koontz'' by [[User:Msauers|Michael Sauers]] (2006) *''Dean Koontz: A Reader's Checklist and Reference Guide'' ([[October 1]] [[1999]]) *''Dean Koontz: A Writer's Biography'' by Katherine Ramsland ([[August 1]] [[1998]]) *''Dean Koontz: A Critical Companion'' by Joan G. Kotker ([[August 30]] [[1996]]) *''The Dean Koontz Companion'' by Martin H. Greenberg, [[Ed Gorman]], Bill Munster ([[March 1]] [[1994]]) *''Sudden Fear: The Horror and Dark Suspense Fiction of Dean R. Koontz'' (Starmont Studies in Literary Criticism, # 24) by Bill Munster ([[June 1]] [[1988]]) ===Common collecting errors=== These titles/authors are ''not'' Mr. Koontz: *''Heartbeeps'' by John Hill *''Stolen Thunder'' and ''Sharkman Six'' by David Axton * anything by Owen Brookes * anything by Frank Coffey * anything by the Irish poet Brian Coffey ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *Koontz, Dean (2005). [http://www.randomhouse.com/bantamdell/koontz/ Dean Koontz - The Official Website]. Retrieved [[June 25]] [[2005]]. *[http://cemeterydance.com/cgi-bin/miva?Merchant2/merchant.mv+Screen=CTGY&amp;Store_Code=CDP&amp;Category_Code=KOONTZ Cemetery Dance], Publisher of many Dean Koontz limited editions. Retrieved [[June 28]] [[2005]]. *Charnel House (2005). [http://www.charnelhouse.com/sorrows.html The Book of Counted Sorrows]. Retrieved [[June 25]] [[2005]]. *[http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;q=%22Dean+Koontz%22+site%3Aworldcatlibraries.org Find books by Dean Koontz in your local library]. Retrieved [[June 28]] [[2005]]. *Bellais, Sophie; Travers, Olivier (2004). [http://scifan.com/writers/kk/KoontzRDean.asp Dean R. Koontz (1945 - , United States)]. Retrieved [[June 25]] [[2005]]. * [[Internet Speculative Fiction Database]] (2005). [http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?Dean_R._Koontz Dean R. Koontz - Summary Bibliography (Long Works)]. Retrieved [[June 25]] [[2005]]. *[http://www.boekensite.net/boeken/koontz_dean.html Dutch bibliography] from Eric Boeken. Retrieved [[June 28]] [[2005]]. *[http://www.theadvocates.org/celebrities/dean-koontz.html Dean Koontz - Friend of Liberty] article by Bill Winter. [[Category:1945 births|Koontz, Dean R.]] [[Category:Living people|Koontz, Dean R.]] [[Category:American horror writers|Koontz, Dean R.]] [[Category:Science fiction writers|Koontz, Dean R.]] [[Category:California writers|Koontz, Dean R.]] [[bg:Дийн Кунц]] [[bs:Dean Koontz]] [[da:Dean R. Koontz]] [[de:Dean Koontz]] [[eo:Dean R. KOONTZ]] [[it:Dean R. Koontz]] [[ja:ディーン・R・クーンツ]] [[pl:Dean Koontz]] [[ru:Кунц, Дин]] [[sv:Dean R. Koontz]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Discriminatory</title> <id>8911</id> <revision> <id>15906845</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Damian Yerrick</username> <id>1</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>make it a redirect so it'll fall off special:lonelyPages</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Discrimination]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Drake equation</title> <id>8912</id> <revision> <id>41418767</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:49:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The-dissonance-reports</username> <id>665009</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Drake equation''' (also known as the '''Green Bank equation''' or the '''Sagan equation''') is a famous result in the speculative fields of [[xenobiology]], [[astrosociobiology]] and the [[SETI|search for extraterrestrial intelligence]]. This equation was devised by Dr. [[Frank Drake]] in the [[1960s]] in an attempt to estimate the number of [[extraterrestrial]] civilizations in our galaxy with which we might come in contact. The main purpose of the equation is to allow scientists to quantify the uncertainty of the factors which determine the number of extraterrestrial civilizations. The Drake equation is closely related to the [[Fermi paradox]]. It was cited by [[Gene Roddenberry]] as supporting the multiplicity of starfaring civilizations shown in ''[[Star Trek]],'' the television show he created. The Drake equation states that: :&lt;math&gt;N = R^{*} ~ \times ~ f_{p} ~ \times ~ n_{e} ~ \times ~ f_{l} ~ \times ~ f_{i} ~ \times ~ f_{c} ~ \times ~ L&lt;/math&gt; where: :'''N''' is the number of [[civilization]]s in our galaxy with which we might expect to be able to communicate and :'''R*''' is the rate of [[star]] formation in [[Milky Way|our galaxy]] :'''f&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the fraction of those stars which have [[planet]]s :'''n&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;''' is average number of planets which can potentially support [[life]] per star that has planets :'''f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the fraction of the above which actually go on to develop life :'''f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the fraction of the above which actually go on to develop intelligent life :'''f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the fraction of the above which are willing and able to communicate :'''L''' is the expected lifetime of such a civilization ==Historical estimates of the Drake equation parameters== Considerable disagreement on the values of most of these parameters exists, but the values used by Drake and his colleagues in [[1961]] were: * R* = 10/year, * f&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.5, * n&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; = 2, * f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt; = 1, * f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.01, * and L = 10 years. The value of R* is the least disputed. f&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; is more uncertain, but is still much firmer than the values following. Confidence in n&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; was once higher, but the discovery of numerous [[gas giant]]s in close orbit with their stars has introduced doubt that life-supporting planets commonly survive the creation of their stellar systems. In addition, most stars in our galaxy are [[red dwarf]]s, which have little of the [[ultraviolet radiation]] that has contributed to the [[evolution]] of life on Earth. Instead they flare violently, mostly in [[X-ray]]s — a property not conducive to life as we know it (simulations also suggest that these bursts erode planetary [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]s). The possibility of life on [[natural satellite|moons]] of gas giants (e.g. [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter's]] satellite [[Europa (moon)|Europa]]) adds further uncertainty to this figure. Evidence currently available to humanity suggests that f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt; is very high; life on Earth appears to have begun almost immediately after conditions arrived in which it was possible, suggesting that [[abiogenesis]] is relatively &quot;easy&quot; once conditions are right. But this evidence is limited in scope, and so this term remains in considerable dispute. One piece of data which would have major impact on this term is the controversy over whether there is evidence of life on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. The conclusion that life on Mars developed independently from life on Earth would argue for a high value for this term. f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;, f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;, and L are obviously little more than guesses. f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; has been affected by discoveries that the solar system's orbit is circular in the galaxy, at such a distance that it remains out of the spiral arms for hundreds of millions of years (evading radiation from [[Nova|novae]]). Also, Earth's very large, unusual moon appears to aid retention o
of memorial, frequently takes place seven years after the person's death. These funerals and especially the memorials may be extremely expensive for the family in question. Cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry, may be offered in remembrance and then consumed in festivities. Some funerals in Ghana are held with the deceased put in eleborate &quot;fantasy coffins&quot; colored and shaped after a certain object, such as a fish, crab, boat, and even an airplane. ==Ancient funeral rites== The most simple and natural kind of funeral monuments, and therefore the most ancient and universal, consist in a mound of earth, or a heap of stones, raised over the ashes of the departed: of such monuments mention is made in the Book of Joshua, and in Homer and Virgil. The place of burial amongst the Jews was never particularly determined. We find that they had burial-places upon the highways, in gardens, and upon mountains. We read, that Abraham was buried with Sarah, his wife, in the cave of Macphelah, in the field of Ephron, and Uzziah, King of Judah, slept with his fathers in the field of the burial which pertained to the kings. The primitive Greeks were buried in places prepared for that purpose in their own houses; but later they established burial grounds in desert islands, and outside the walls of towns, by that means securing them from disturbance, and themselves from the liability of catching infection from those who had died of contagious disorders. ===Funerals in ancient Rome=== In ancient [[Rome]], the eldest surviving male of the household, the ''[[pater familias]]'', was summoned to the death-bed, where he attempted to catch and inhale the last breath of the descedant. Funerals of the socially prominent were usually undertaken by professional undertakers called ''libitinarii''. No direct description has been passed down of Roman funeral rites. These rites usually included a public procession to the tomb or pyre where the body was to be cremated. The most noteworthy thing about this procession was that the survivors bore [[mask]]s bearing the images of the family's deceased ancestors. The right to carry the masks in public was eventually restricted to families prominent enough to have held [[curule]] magistracies. [[Mime]]s, [[dance]]rs, and [[musician]]s hired by the undertakers, as well as professional female mourners, took part in these processions. Less well to do Romans could join benevolent [[funerary]] societies (''collegia funeraticia'') who undertook these rites on their behalf. Nine days after the disposal of the body, by burial or cremation, a feast was given (''cena novendialis'') and a libation poured over the grave or the ashes. Since most Romans were cremated, the ashes were typically collected in an [[urn]] and placed in a niche in a collective tomb called a ''columbarium'' (literally, &quot;[[dovecote]]&quot;). During this nine day period, the house was considered to be tainted, ''funesta'', and was hung with [[Taxus baccata|yew]] or [[Mediterranean Cypress|cypress]] branches to warn bypassers. At the end of the period, the house was swept in an attempt to purge it of the dead person's [[ghost]]. Several Roman holidays commemmorated a family's dead ancestors, including the ''[[Parentalia]]'', held [[February 13]] through [[February 21|21]], to honour the family's ancestors; and the ''[[Feast of the Lemures|Lemuria]]'', held on [[May 9]], [[May 11|11]], and [[May 13|13]], in which ghosts (''[[larvae|larvæ]]'') were feared to be active, and the ''pater familias'' sought to appease them with offerings of [[bean]]s. The Romans prohibited burning or burying in the city, both from a sacred and civil consideration, so that the priests might not be contaminated by touching a dead body, and so that houses would not be endangered by funeral fires. The Romans commonly built tombs for themselves during their lifetime. Hence these words frequently occur in ancient inscriptions, V.F. Vivus Facit, V.S.P. Vivus Sibi Posuit. The tombs of the rich were usually constructed of marble, the ground enclosed with walls, and planted round with trees. But common sepulchres were usually built below ground, and called hypogea. There were niches cut out of the walls, in which the urns were placed; these, from their resemblance to the niche of a pigeon-house, were called columbaria. ===Funerals in Scotland=== An old funeral rite from the [[Scotland|Scottish Highlands]] is to bury the deceased with a wooden plate resting on his chest. In the plate were placed a small amount of earth and [[salt]], to represent the future of the deceased. The earth hinted that the body would decay and become one with the earth, while the salt represented the [[soul]], which does not decay. This rite was known as &quot;earth laid upon a corpse&quot;. ==Final disposition of the dead== [[Image:Graves-at-Green-Wood.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Graves at [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], [[Brooklyn, New York]]]] Some cultures place the dead in [[tomb]]s of various sorts, either individually, or in specially designated tracts of land that house tombs. [[Burial]] in a [[grave]]yard is one common form of tomb. In some places, burials are impractical because the ground water is too high; there tombs are placed above ground, as was the case in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. Elsewhere, a separate building for a tomb is usually reserved for the socially prominent and wealthy. Especially grand above-ground tombs are called [[mausoleum]]s. Other buildings used as tombs include the [[crypt]]s in churches; burial in these places is again usually a privilege given to the socially prominent dead. In more recent times, however, this has often been forbidden by hygiene laws. Burial was not always permanent. In some areas, burial grounds needed to be re-used because of limited space. In these areas, once the dead have [[decomposition|decomposed]] to [[skeleton]]s, the bones are removed; after their removal they can be placed in an [[ossuary]]. &quot;[[Burial at sea]]&quot; means the deliberate disposal of a corpse into the [[ocean]], wrapped and tied with weights to make sure it sinks. It is a common practice in [[navy|navies]] and sea-faring nations; in the [[Church of England]], special forms of funeral service were added to the [[Book of Common Prayer]] to cover it. Science fiction writers have frequently analogized with &quot;[[Space burial|Burial in space]]&quot;. [[Image:StJosephsChapelMausoleum.jpg|thumbnail|left|220px|St. Joseph's Chapel [[Mausoleum]] at [[Mount Olivet Cemetery (Dubuque)|Mount Olivet Cemetery]] in [[Key West, Iowa|Key West]] (rural [[Dubuque, Iowa|Dubuque]]), [[Iowa]]. This mausoleum has traditional mausoleum crypts as well as [[columbarium]] niches for [[cremation|cremated]] remains.]] [[Cremation]], also, is an old custom; it was the usual mode of disposing of a corpse in ancient [[Rome]]. [[Viking]]s were occasionally cremated in their [[longship]]s, and afterwards the location of the site was marked with [[standing stone]]s. In recent years, despite the objections of some religious groups, cremation has become more and more widely used. [[Orthodox Judaism]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] forbid cremation, as do most [[Islam|Muslims]]. Orthodox Judaism forbids cremation according to Jewish law (''[[Halakha]]'') believing that the soul of a cremated person cannot find its final repose. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] forbade it for many years. But since 1963 the church has allowed it so long as it is not done to express disbelief in bodily resurrection. The church specifies that cremated remains are either buried or entombed. They do not allow cremated remains to be scattered or kept at home. Many Catholic cemeteries now have columbarium niches for cremated remains, or specific sections for those remains. Some denominations of [[Protestantism]] allow cremation, the more conservative denominations generally do not. Hindus consider the funeral as the final &quot;samskar&quot; or ritual of life. Cremation is generally mandatory for all hindus, except for saints, children under the age of 7 years. Cremation is seen as the only way in which all the five elements of fire, water, earth, air and space would be satisfied by returning the body to these elements as after cremation the ashes are poured into the sacred ganges or into the sea. After death the body of the deceased is placed on the ground with the head of the deceased pointing towards south which is considered the direction of the dead. The body is annointed with sacred items such as sandalwood paste and holy ashes, tulsi (basil) leaves, water from the ganges. The eldest son would wisper &quot;Om namah shivay&quot; or &quot;Om namo bhagavate vasudevaya&quot; near the ear of the deceased. An oil lamp is lit besides the deceased and chapters from the holy bhagavad gita or garud purana are recited. Traditionally the body has to be cremated within 24 hours after death, as keeping the body longer is considered to lead to impurity and hinder the passage of the dead to afterlife. Hence before cremation as the body lies in state, mimial physical contact with the body is observed. A priest is called in to lead the formal religious rituals, after which the body is taken to the cremation ground, where the eldest son normally lights the funeral pyre, this act is considered to be the most important duty of a son as it is believed that he leads his parents from this world into moksha. Immediately after the cremation the family of the deceased all have to take a purifying bath and a 12 day mourning period commences which ends on the morning of the thirteenth day on which a Shraddh ceremony is conducted in which offerings are given to ancestors and other gods in order to grant liberation or moksha to the deceased. Recently a new method of disposing of the body, called [[Ecological funeral]] has been suggested by a Swedish biologist. Based on cryotechnology, its main purpose is
[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''D&amp;#257;niyyêl''') is the name of at least three people from the [[Bible]]: # A Jewish exile in Babylon, the subject of the ''[[Book of Daniel]]'' — this article refers to this best-known Daniel. # A figure known for his wisdom and righteousness among the exile community (see Ezekiel 14:14,20; Ezekiel 28:3). Some regard this person as probably not the same as the Daniel of the ''Book of Daniel'' - this being especially the viewpoint of those who question the historicity of the said book. # [[David]]'s [[Daniel (son of David)|second son]], &quot;born unto him in Hebron, of Abigail the Carmelitess&quot; (1 Chronicles 3:1). He is called also Chileab (2 Samuel 3:3). The name means &quot;My judge is [[Elohim|God]]&quot;, or &quot;God has judged&quot;. ==Daniel's life== [[Image:Michelangelo Buonarroti 026.jpg|thumb|The prophet Daniel from [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]]]] &quot;This section describes the character Daniel, from the ''Book of Daniel'', as a historical figure. The [[historicity]] of Daniel, which some people dispute, is discussed at ''[[Book of Daniel]]''. This section describes him within the setting of the history that the Bible describes, and is partly derived from the 19th century Christian ''[[Easton's Bible Dictionary]]'', as mentioned in &quot;References&quot; below''. Daniel was descended from one of the noble families of [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]] (Daniel 1:3), and was probably born in [[Jerusalem]] about B.C. 623, during the reign of [[Josiah]]. At the first deportation of the [[Jew]]s by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] (the [[kingdom of Israel]] had come to an end nearly a century before at the hands of the Assyrians), or immediately after his victory over the Egyptians at the second [[battle of Carchemish]], in the fourth year of the reign of [[Jehoiakim]] (B.C. 606), Daniel and three other noble youths were among the Jewish young nobility carried off to [[Babylon]] (probably as hostages to ensure the loyalty of Judah's king and advisors), along with some of the vessels of the temple. Daniel and his three Jewish companions were subsequently evaluated and chosen for their intellect and beauty, to be trained as Chaldeans (members of the class of the magi: astrologers, sorcerers, enchanters and magicians), who constituted the ranks of the advisors to the Babylonian court. There Daniel was obliged to enter into the service of the king of Babylon, and in accordance with the custom of the age, received the [[Chaldea]]n name of ''Belteshazzar'', i.e., ''prince of Bel'', or ''Bel protect the king!'' His residence in Babylon was very probably in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, now identified with a mass of shapeless mounds called the [[Kasr]], on the right bank of the river. However, Daniel and his three companions remained fiercely loyal to their Jewish religious and cultural identity, an identity which would sooner or later come into conflict with the paganism of the Babylonian court. [[image:daniellion.jpg|thumb|300px|Daniel's Answer to the King by Briton Rivière, R.A. (1840-1920), 1890 (Manchester City Art Gallery)]] Daniel's training in the schools of the &quot;magi&quot; (probably astrologer-magicians), or wise men in Babylon (Daniel 1:4) was to fit him for service to the empire. Daniel became distinguished during this period for his piety, and for his strict observance of the Torah, or [[Mosaic law]] (1:8-16), and gained the confidence and esteem of those who were over him. At the close of his three years of discipline and training in the royal schools, Daniel was distinguished for his proficiency in the pagan &quot;wisdom&quot; of his day, and was brought out into public life. He soon became known for his &quot;skill&quot; (a gift from YHWH) in the [[interpretation of dreams]] (1:17; 2:14), and rose to the rank of governor of the province of Babylon, and became &quot;chief of the governors&quot; (Chald. Rab-signin) over all the wise men of Babylon, after passing a dangerous test of the astrologers by the king, which could easily have cost Daniel his life. Daniel made known and also interpreted Nebuchadnezzar's dream; as well as a later dream preceding the king's descent into animal behaviour, and many years afterwards, when he was now an old man, amid the alarm and consternation of the terrible night of [[Belshazzar]]'s impious feast (in which Belshazzar and his concubines drank wine out of the royal Jewish ceremonial goblets of the Temple), Daniel was called in at the suggestion of the queen-mother (perhaps Nitocris, the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar) to interpret the mysterious [[handwriting on the wall]]. For successfully reading the cryptic handwriting by an angel of God, Daniel was rewarded by the Babylonians with a purple robe and elevation to the rank of &quot;third ruler&quot; of the kingdom. The place of &quot;second ruler&quot; was held by Belshazzar as associated with his father, Nabonidus, on the throne (5:16). Daniel interpreted the handwriting, and &quot;in that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain&quot; by his own sons, who later fled. [[image:danielburial2.jpg|thumb|left|Tomb of Daniel, [[Susa]], [[Iran]], is a popular attraction in Iran's Jewish community]] After the taking of Babylon, [[Cyrus the Great]], who was now master of all [[Asia]] from [[India]] to the [[Dardanelles]], placed [[Darius I|Darius]], a Median prince, on the throne, during the two years of whose reign Daniel held the office of first of the &quot;three presidents&quot; of the empire, and was thus practically at the head of affairs, no doubt interesting himself in the prospects of the captive Jews (Dan. 9), whom he had at last the happiness of seeing restored to their own land; although he did not return with them, but remained still in Babylon. Daniel's fidelity to God exposed him to persecution by jealous rivals within the king's administration (who at first conspired to have Daniel's three Jewish companions thrown into a fiery furnace, for refusing to worship the Babylonian king as a god; but they were miraculously saved), and Daniel was cast into a den of lions (for continuing to practice his faith in YHWH), but was miraculously delivered; after which Darius issued a decree enjoining reverence for &quot;the God of Daniel&quot; (6:26). He &quot;prospered in the reign of Darius, and in the reign of Cyrus the Persian,&quot; whom he probably greatly influenced in the matter of the decree which put an end to the Jewish Captivity (B.C. 536). The time and circumstances of Daniel's death have not been recorded. However, Daniel was still alive in the third year of Cyrus according to the Bible (Daniel 1:3); and he would have been almost 100 years old at that point, having been brought to Babylon when he was in his teens, more than 80 years previously. He possibly died at [[Susa]], where a tomb presumed to be his is also located, the site of which is known as ''Shush-Daniel''. Other locations have been claimed as the site of his burial, including Babylon, Egypt, and, notably, [[Samarkand]], which claims a tomb of Daniel (see &quot;Afrasiab ruins&quot; in the [[Samarkand]] article), with some traditions suggesting that his remains were removed, perhaps by [[Tamerlane]], from Susa to Samarkand (see, for instance, [http://isfsp.org/sages/ben5.html Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela], section 153). [[Ezekiel]], with whom Daniel was a contemporary, mentions him as a &quot;pattern of righteousness (14:14, 20) and wisdom&quot; (28:3). Those scholars who suppose that the Daniel of the Book of Daniel was unhistorical, usually postulate that Ezekiel meant another figure who has now been forgotten, and that the author of the Book of Daniel took up this clue from Ezekiel to name his alleged prophet, to bind him to the older books of the Bible. However this can be no more than mere speculation, and is arguably derived entirely from a biased viewpoint. ==Daniel - a prophet?== Christians regard Daniel as a prophet, and Jesus is quoted as referring to him as &quot;Daniel the prophet&quot; in Matthew 24:15 and Mark 13:14. It appears he is also referred to as &quot;Daniel the prophet&quot; in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] [http://www.tektonics.org/guest/danielblast.html]. In the context of the books of the Bible, Christians refer to Daniel as one of the &quot;four great [[prophet]]s&quot;; as the [[Book of Daniel]] appears in most Christian editions of the Bible, after the other three &quot;great prophets&quot; ([[Isaiah]], [[Jeremiah]], and [[Ezekiel]]). Judaism does not consider Daniel to be a prophet. He is not once spoken of in the [[Old Testament]] as a prophet. In the Christian Old Testament (apparently following the [[Septuagint]] Greek translation [http://www.tektonics.org/guest/danielblast.html]) Daniel appears in the &quot;Prophets&quot; section; but in the Jewish [[Tanakh|Tanach]], he appears in &quot;Writings.&quot; There are two reasons Jews do not consider Daniel to have been a prophet: # Daniel never spoke directly to God. According to the Torah, prophets (navis) speak to God, not to intermediaries like angels. Daniel saw angels and never spoke to God. This is the primary reason Daniel is not considered a prophet. # In Judaism a prophet (navi) speaks to his or her generation, not to future generations. The Prophets in the Jewish Tanach (e.g., Isaiah, Ezekiel) spoke primarily to their generation, but their message was also pertinent to the future. Daniel's visions were for the future, not for his generation. The Men of the Great Assembly ([[Sanhedrin]]) who codified the Jewish Bible (Tanach) argued about including Daniel in the Bible and placed him in Writings, not Prophets. Some reasons which may be given for believing that Daniel '''was''' a prophet include: * that according to the Talmud and the Hebrew Scriptures, Daniel received and interpreted dreams and visions, similar to many other Jewish prophets; as well
e &quot;[[brain trust]]&quot; of young economists and social planners gathered in the [[White House]], including [[Raymond Moley]], [[Rexford Tugwell]] and [[Adolf Berle]] of [[Columbia University]], attorney [[Basil O'Connor]], economist [[Bernard Baruch]] and [[Felix Frankfurter]] of [[Harvard Law School]]. Eleanor Roosevelt, Labor Secretary [[Frances Perkins]] (the first female Cabinet Secretary) and Agriculture Secretary [[Henry A. Wallace]] were also important influences. These measures included bills to regulate the [[stock market]] and prevent the corrupt practices which had led to the 1929 Crash; the [[Social Security Act]] (SSA), which established [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor and the sick; and the [[National Labor Relations Act]] (NLRA), which established the rights of workers to organize [[trade union|labor unions]], to engage in [[collective bargaining]] and to take part in [[strike action|strikes]] in support of their demands. One effect of these measures was to restore confidence and optimism, allowing the country to begin the long process of recovery from the Depression. Some people believe that Roosevelt's programs, collectively known as the New Deal, cured the Great Depression. Historians and economists debate over the extent to which this is true. Several economists and historians now believe that the New Deal did more to prolong the Great Depression than it did to end it. The New Deal ran up large deficits and in a sense it implemented the economic theories of [[John Maynard Keynes]], who advocated an interventionist government policy using fiscal measures to mitigate the [[depression (economics)|depression]]. It is unclear whether Roosevelt was influenced by these theories directly, and questionable whether he really understood them - although some of his advisers did. After a meeting with Keynes, who kept drawing diagrams, he remarked that &quot;He must be a mathematician rather than a political economist.&quot; The extent to which the large appropriations that Roosevelt extracted from Congress and spent on relief and assistance to industry provided a sufficient fiscal stimulus to revive the U.S. economy is also debated. The economy recovered significantly during Roosevelt's first term, but fell back into recession in 1937 and 1938 before making another recovery in 1939. While [[Gross National Product]] had surpassed its 1929 peak by 1940, [[unemployment]] remained about 15%. Some economists said there was a permanent structural unemployment. Others blamed the high tariff barriers that many countries had erected in response to the Depression, although foreign trade was not as important to the U.S. economy as it is today. The economy did start to grow after 1940 or 1941, but many simultaneous programs were involved, such as massive spending, price controls, bond campaigns, controls over raw materials, prohibitions on new housing and new automobiles, rationing, guaranteed cost-plus profits, subsidized wages, and the draft of 12 million soldiers. ==The second term, 1937-1941== [[Image:FDR0415.JPG|right|frame|Roosevelt's ebullient public personality did a great deal to help restore the nation's confidence.]] In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1936|1936 presidential election]], Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs against [[Kansas]] governor [[Alfred Landon]], who accepted much of the New Deal but objected that it was hostile to business and involved too much waste. Roosevelt and Garner won 61 percent of the vote and carried every state except [[Maine]] and [[Vermont]]. The New Deal Democrats won enough seats in Congress to outvote both the Republicans and the conservative Southern Democrats (who supported programs which brought benefits for their states but opposed measures which strengthened labor unions). Roosevelt was backed by a coalition of voters which included traditional Democrats across the country, small farmers, the &quot;[[Solid South]]&quot;, Catholics, [[Political machine|big city machines]], [[Labor unions in the United States#Labor History 1932-1955|labor unions]], northern [[African-American]]s, [[Jews]], [[intellectuals]] and [[American liberalism|political liberals]]. This coalition, frequently referred to as the [[New Deal coalition]], remained largely intact for the Democratic Party until the 1960s. The Roosevelt ascendancy also prevented the growth of both [[communism]] and [[fascism]]. Roosevelt's second term agenda included an act creating the [[United States Housing Authority]] (1937), a second Agricultural Adjustment Act and the [[Fair Labor Standards Act]] (FLSA) of 1938, which created the [[minimum wage]]. When the economy began to deteriorate again in late 1937, Roosevelt responded with an aggressive program of stimulation, asking Congress for $5 billion for relief and [[public works]] programs. With the Republicans powerless in Congress, the conservative majority on the [[United States Supreme Court]] was the only obstacle to Roosevelt's programs. During 1935 the Court ruled that the [[National Recovery Act]] and some other pieces of New Deal legislation were [[unconstitutional]]. Roosevelt's response was to propose enlarging the Court so that he could appoint more sympathetic judges. This &quot;[[court packing]]&quot; plan was the first Roosevelt scheme to run into serious political opposition, since it seemed to upset the [[separation of powers]] which is one of the cornerstones of the American constitutional structure. Eventually Roosevelt was forced to abandon the plan, but the Court also drew back from confrontation with the administration by finding the Labor Relations Act and the Social Security Act to be constitutional. Deaths and retirements on the Supreme Court soon allowed Roosevelt to make his own appointments to the bench. Between 1937 and 1941 he appointed eight justices to the court, including liberals such as [[Felix Frankfurter]], [[Hugo Black]] and [[William O. Douglas]], reducing the possibility of further clashes. Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress (mostly from the South), Roosevelt involved himself in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform. Unfortunately for Roosevelt, this effort was unsuccessful, and the Southern Congressmen whom he had failed to replace ended up forging a conservative alliance with congressional Republicans, further impeding Roosevelt's ability to get his legislative proposals enacted into law. By 1939, with FDR's reform momentum already slowing down due to the Court Packing fiasco, the &quot;Roosevelt Recession&quot; of 1937-38, and the President's growing difficulties in controlling congressional Democrats, the need for bipartisan support for his controversial foreign policy and military plans helped bring a virtual end to further structural reforms and changes. Indeed, the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (see above) was the last substantial New Deal reform act passed by Congress. Also during this time period, in 1939, Roosevelt endeavoured to move the date of the [[United States of America|American]] [[Thanksgiving]] celebration forward a week in an attempt to spur retail sales for the holiday shopping season. This controversial decision led many to deride the &quot;new&quot; holiday as [[Franksgiving]] and split the country between those who celebrated a traditional Thanksgiving and this new Franksgiving. Congress officially passed a law, which Franklin signed in 1941, making Thanksgiving the fourth Thursday in November officially. ==Foreign policy, 1933-1941== The rejection of the [[League of Nations]] treaty in 1919 marked the dominance of [[isolationism]] in American foreign policy. Despite Roosevelt's Wilsonian background, he and his Secretary of State, [[Cordell Hull]], acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment. The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the [[Good Neighbor Policy]], a re-evaluation of American policy towards [[Latin America]], which ever since the [[Monroe Doctrine]] of 1823 had been seen as an American [[sphere of influence]]. American forces were withdrawn from [[Haiti]], and new treaties with [[Cuba]] and [[Panama]] ended their status as American [[protectorate]]s. At the [[Seventh International Conference of American States]] in [[Montevideo]] in December 1933, Roosevelt and Hull signed the [[Montevideo Convention]] on the Rights and Duties of States, renouncing the assumed American right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries. Nevertheless, the realities of American support for various Latin American [[dictator]]s, often to serve American corporate interests, remained unchanged. It was Roosevelt who made the often-quoted remark about the dictator of [[Nicaragua]], [[Anastasio Somoza]]: &quot;Somoza may be a son of a bitch, but he's our son of a bitch.&quot; Meanwhile, the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] in Germany aroused fears of a new world war. In 1935, at the time of [[Italy]]'s invasion of [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|Abyssinia]], Congress passed the [[Neutrality Act]], applying a mandatory ban on the shipment of arms from the U.S. to any combatant nation. Roosevelt opposed the act on the grounds that it penalized the victims of aggression such as Abyssinia, and that it restricted his right as President to assist friendly countries, but he eventually signed it. In 1937 Congress passed an even more stringent Act, but when the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|Sino-Japanese War]] broke out in 1937 Roosevelt found various ways to assist [[China]], and warned that [[Italy]], [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] were threats to world peace and to the U.S. When [[World War II]] in [[Europe]] broke out in 1939, Roosevelt became increasingly eager to assist [[Britain]] and [[France]],
exas]]. ==U.S. Army== Johnston returned to the Texas Army during the [[Mexican-American War]] under General [[Zachary Taylor]] as a [[colonel]] of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers. The enlistments of his volunteers ran out just before the [[Battle of Monterrey]]. Johnston managed to convince a few volunteers to stay and fight as he himself served as the inspector general of volunteers and fought at the battles of Monterrey and [[Battle of Buena Vista|Buena Vista]]. Johnston remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by [[President of the United States | President]] [[Zachary Taylor]] to the U.S. Army as a [[major]] and was made a [[U.S. Army Paymaster | paymaster]] in December of [[1849]]. He served in that role for more than five years, making six tours, and traveling more than 4,000 miles annually on the Indian frontier of Texas. He served on the Texas frontier and elsewhere in the West. In [[1855]] President [[Franklin Pierce]] appointed him colonel of the 2nd (now 5th) Cavalry, a new regiment, which he organized. As a key figure in the [[Utah War]], he led U.S. troops who established a non-Mormon government in the formerly [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints|Mormon]] territory. He received a [[brevet (military) | brevet]] promotion to [[brigadier general]] in [[1857]] for his service in Utah. He spent [[1860]] in Kentucky until [[December 21]], when he sailed for California to take command of the Department of the Pacific. ==Civil War== At the outbreak of the [[American Civil War | Civil War]], Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army [[Department of the Pacific]] in [[California and the Civil War|California]]. He was approached by some Californians who urged him to take his forces east to join the [[Union army | Union]] against the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. He resigned his commission, [[April 9]], [[1861]], as soon as he heard of the [[secession]] of Texas. He remained in California until June. After a rapid march through the deserts of Arizona and Texas, he reached [[Richmond, Virginia]], on or about [[September 1]], [[1861]]. There Johnston was appointed a general by his friend, Jefferson Davis. On [[May 30]], [[1861]], Johnston became the second highest ranking Confederate General (after the little-known [[Samuel Cooper (general) | Samuel Cooper]]) as commander of the [[Western Theater of the American Civil War | Western Department]]. He raised the [[Army of Mississippi]] to defend Confederate lines from the [[Mississippi River]] to [[Kentucky]] and the [[Allegheny Mountains]]. Although the [[Confederate Army]] won a morale-boosting victory at [[First Bull Run]] in the East in [[1861]], matters in the West turned ugly by early [[1862]]. Johnston's subordinate generals lost [[Battle of Fort Henry | Fort Henry]] on [[February 6]], [[1862]], and [[Battle of Fort Donelson | Fort Donelson]] on [[February 16]], [[1862]], to [[Union army | Union]] [[Brigadier General | Brig. Gen.]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. Johnston has been faulted for poor judgment in selecting Gens. [[Lloyd Tilghman | Tilghman]] and [[John B. Floyd | Floyd]] for those crucial positions and for not supervising adequate construction of the forts. And Union Maj. Gen. [[Don Carlos Buell]] captured the vital city of [[Nashville, Tennessee]]. Gen. [[P.G.T. Beauregard]] was sent west to join Johnston and they organized their forces at [[Corinth, Mississippi]], planning to ambush Grant's forces at [[Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee]]. ==Shiloh== Johnston concentrated many of his forces from around the theater and launched a massive surprise attack against Grant at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] on [[April 6]], [[1862]]. As the Confederate forces overran the Union camps, Johnston seemed to be everywhere, personally leading and rallying troops up and down the line. At about 2:30 p.m., while leading one of those charges, he was wounded, taking a bullet behind his right knee. He did not think the wound serious at the time, and sent his personal physician to attend to some wounded Union soldiers instead. The bullet had in fact clipped his [[popliteal artery]] and his boot was filling up with blood. Within a few minutes Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting off of his horse, and asked him if he was wounded, to which he replied &quot;Yes, and I fear seriously.&quot; It is possible that Johnston's duel in [[1837]] had caused nerve damage or numbness to that leg and that he did not feel the wound to his leg as a result. Johnston was taken to a small ravine, where he bled to death in minutes. Ironically, it is probable that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round. No Union soldiers were observed to have ever gotten behind Johnston during the fatal charge, while it is known that many Confederates were firing at the Union lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers. He was the highest-ranking casualty of the war and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. Jefferson Davis considered him the best general in the country; this was two months before the emergence of [[Robert E. Lee]] as their pre-eminent general. ==Epitaph== Johnston was buried in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. In [[1866]], a joint resolution of the [[Texas Legislature]] was passed to have his body reinterred to the [[Texas State Cemetery]] in [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] (the re-interment occurred in [[1867]]). Four decades later, the state appointed [[Elisbet Ney]] to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at his gravesite. The [[Texas Historical Commission]] has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once his [[plantation]]. An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the [[Daughters of The Republic of Texas]] and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the [[United Daughters of the Confederate States of America]]. ==References== * Eicher, John H., &amp; Eicher, David J.: ''Civil War High Commands'', Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3. ==External links== * [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=4334 Albert Sidney Johnson at Find-A-Grave] == Further reading == * Gott, Kendall D,, ''Where the South Lost the War: An Analysis of the Fort Henry-Fort Donelson Campaign, February 1862'', Stackpole Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8117-0049-6. * Johnson, William Preston, ''The Life of Albert Sidney Johnston'', New York, 1878. * Nofi, Albert A.; ''The Alamo and the Texas War for Independence''; Da Capo Press; ISBN: 0-306-81040-9. * Roland, Charles P., ''Albert Sidney Johnston: Soldier of Three Republics'', Austin, 1964. [[Category:1803 births|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:1862 deaths|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:American Civil War Generals|Johnston, Albert]] [[Category:American Civil War people|Johnston, Albert]] [[Category:Confederate Army generals|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:History of Texas|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:People from Texas|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:Texas]] [[Category:United States Army officers|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:West Point graduates|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[ca:Albert S. Johnston]] [[de:Albert S. Johnston]] [[hr:Albert Sidney Johnston]] [[nl:Albert Sidney Johnston]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arctic Ocean</title> <id>712</id> <revision> <id>41316727</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:42:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mohammed Khalil</username> <id>541247</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+ar</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Five oceans}} The '''[[Arctic]] Ocean''', located mostly in the [[North Pole|north polar]] region, is the smallest of the world's five [[ocean]]s, and the shallowest. Even though [[International Hydrographic Organization|IHO]] recognizes it as an ocean, [[oceanography|oceanographers]] may call it ''the Arctic Mediterranean Sea'' or simply ''the Arctic Sea'', classifying it as one of the [[mediterranean sea]]s of the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. ==Geography== [[Image:Arctic_Ocean.png|right|Arctic Ocean]] The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,090,000 km² (5,440,000 mi&amp;sup2;), slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the [[United States|US]]. The coastline length is 45,389 km. Nearly landlocked, it is surrounded by the land masses of [[Eurasia]], [[North America]], [[Greenland]], and a number of islands. It includes [[Baffin Bay]], [[Barents Sea]], [[Beaufort Sea]], [[Chukchi Sea]], [[East Siberian Sea]], [[Greenland Sea]], [[Hudson Bay]], [[Hudson Strait]], [[Kara Sea]], [[Laptev Sea]], [[White Sea]] and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the [[Bering Strait]] and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea. An underwater [[ocean ridge]], the [[Lomonosov Ridge]], divides the Arctic Ocean into two basins: the [[Eurasian Basin|Eurasian]], or [[Nansen Basin|Nansen]], Basin, which is between 4,000 and 4,500 m (13,000 and 15,000 ft) deep, and the [[North American Basin|North American]], or [[Hyperborean Basin|Hyperborean]], Basin, which is about 4,000 m deep. The [[topography]] of the ocean bottom is marked by [[fault-block ridge]]s, [[abyssal plain|plains of the abyssal zone]], ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,407 ft), in part due to the large extent of [[continental shelf]] extant on the Eurasian side [http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm]. [[Image:Polar bears near north pole.jpg|thumb|The Arctic Ocean is used by both [[marine mammal]]s and nuclear [[submarine]]s.]] The greatest inflow of water comes from the Atlantic by way of the [[Norwegian Current]], which then flows along the Eurasian coast. Water also enters from the Pacific via the Bering Strait. The [[East Greenland Current]] carries the major outflow. [[Temperature]] and [[salinity]] vary [[season]]ally as the ic
gons&lt;br&gt;6 octagons | 72 || 48 || 4.6.8 || O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[snub cube]]&lt;br /&gt;or snub cuboctahedron&lt;br&gt;(2 [[chirality (mathematics)|chiral]] forms) | [[image:snubhexahedronccw.jpg|60px|Snub hexahedron (Ccw)]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:snubhexahedronccw.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[image:snubhexahedroncw.jpg|60px|Snub hexahedron (Cw)]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:snubhexahedroncw.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 38 ||32 triangles&lt;br&gt;6 squares || 60 || 24 | 3.3.3.3.4 | O |- | [[icosidodecahedron]] | [[image:icosidodecahedron.jpg|60px|Icosidodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:icosidodecahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 32 || 20 triangles&lt;br&gt;12 [[pentagon]]s | 60 || 30 | 3.5.3.5 || I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[truncated dodecahedron]] | [[image:truncateddodecahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated dodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncateddodecahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 32 ||20 triangles&lt;br&gt;12 [[decagon]]s || 90 | 60 | 3.10.10 || I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[truncated icosahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or [[Fullerene|buckyball]]&lt;BR&gt;or [[Football (ball)|football]]/soccer ball | [[image:truncatedicosahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated icosahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedicosahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 32 || 12 pentagons&lt;br&gt;20 hexagons || 90 | 60 | 5.6.6 || I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[rhombicosidodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or small rhombicosidodecahedron | [[image:rhombicosidodecahedron.jpg|60px|Rhombicosidodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:rhombicosidodecahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 62 || 20 triangles&lt;br&gt;30 squares&lt;br&gt;12 pentagons | 120 || 60 || 3.4.5.4 | I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[truncated icosidodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or great rhombicosidodecahedron | [[image:truncatedicosidodecahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated icosidodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedicosidodecahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 62 ||30 squares&lt;br&gt;20 hexagons&lt;br&gt;12 decagons | 180 || 120 || 4.6.10 | I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; |- | [[snub dodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or snub icosidodecahedron&lt;br&gt;(2 [[chirality (mathematics)|chiral]] forms) | [[image:snubdodecahedronccw.jpg|60px|Snub dodecahedron (Ccw)]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:snubdodecahedronccw.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[image:snubdodecahedroncw.jpg|60px|Snub dodecahedron (Cw)]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:snubdodecahedroncw.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt; | 92 || 80 triangles&lt;br&gt;12 pentagons || 150 | 60 | 3.3.3.3.5 | I |} The cuboctahedron and icosidodecahedron are edge-uniform and are called quasi-regular. The snub cube and snub dodecahedron are known as ''chiral'', as they come in a left-handed (Latin: levomorph or laevomorph) form and right-handed (Latin: dextromorph) form. When something comes in multiple forms which are each other's three-dimensional [[mirror image]], these forms may be called enantiomorphs. (This nomenclature is also used for the forms of [[chemical compound]]s). The [[dual polyhedron|duals]] of the Archimedean solids are called the [[Catalan solid|Catalan solids]]. Together with the [[bipyramid|bipyramids]] and [[trapezohedron|trapezohedra]], these are the face-uniform solids with regular vertices. == See also == * [[List of uniform polyhedra]] ==External links== *[http://www.software3d.com/Archimedean.html Paper models of Archimedean solids] *[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra] *[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra *[http://www.cs.utk.edu/~plank/plank/origami/penultimate/intro.html Penultimate Modular Origami] *[http://ibiblio.org/e-notes/3Dapp/Convex.htm Interactive 3D polyhedra] in Java [[Category:Archimedean solids]] [[Category:Polyhedra]] [[es:sólidos de Arquímedes]] [[de:Archimedischer Körper]] [[ko:아르키메데스의 다면체]] [[it:Solido archimedeo]] [[nl:Halfregelmatig veelvlak]] [[pl:Wielościan półforemny]] [[pt:Sólidos de Arquimedes]] [[ru:Полуправильный многогранник]] [[zh:半正多面體]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>African Languages</title> <id>1848</id> <revision> <id>15900310</id> <timestamp>2004-10-10T03:54:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[African languages]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Airbus Industrie</title> <id>1849</id> <revision> <id>15900311</id> <timestamp>2005-02-03T20:39:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ALoan</username> <id>63066</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Airbus]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Airbus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Antiprism</title> <id>1851</id> <revision> <id>42125228</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:04:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tomruen</username> <id>63601</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Star antiprisms */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:10px&quot; width=&quot;250&quot; !bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|Set of uniform antiprisms |- |align=center colspan=2|[[image:antiprism17.jpg|240px|Heptadecagonal antiprism]]&lt;br /&gt; |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Type||Antiprism |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Faces||2 [[polygon|n-gon]]s, 2n [[triangle]]s |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Edges||4n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Vertices||2n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Vertex configuration]]||3.3.3.n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Symmetry group]]||[[Symmetry_group#Three_dimensions|''D''&lt;sub&gt;''nd''&lt;/sub&gt;]] |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Dual polyhedron]]||[[trapezohedron]] |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Properties||convex, semi-regular (vertex-uniform) |} An ''n''-sided '''antiprism''' is a [[polyhedron]] composed of two parallel copies of some particular ''n''-sided [[polygon]], connected by an alternating band of [[triangle]]s. Antiprisms are a subclass of the [[prismatoid]]s. Antiprisms are similar to [[prism (geometry)|prism]]s except the bases are twisted relative to each other: the vertices are symmetrically staggered. In the case of a regular ''n''-sided base, one usually considers the case where its copy is twisted by an angle 180°/n. Extra regularity is obtained by the line connecting the base centers being perpendicular to the base planes, making it a '''right antiprism'''. It has, apart from the base faces, 2''n'' isosceles triangles as faces. A '''[[Uniform_polyhedron|uniform]] antiprism''' has, apart from the base faces, 2''n'' equilateral triangles as faces. They form an infinite series of vertex-uniform polyhedra, as do the uniform prisms. For ''n''=2 we have as degenerate case the regular [[tetrahedron]]. == Forms == [[Image:Tetrahedron.png|80px]] [[Image:Trigonal_antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Square antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Pentagonal antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Hexagonal antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Octagonal antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Decagonal antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Dodecagonal antiprism.png|80px]] * (linear antiprism) [[Tetrahedron]] - 4 triangles - self dual * (trigonal antiprism) [[Octahedron]] - 8 triangles - dual [[cube]] * [[Square antiprism]] - 8 triangles, 2 squares - dual [[tetragonal trapezohedron]] * [[Pentagonal antiprism]] - 10 triangles, 2 pentagons - dual [[pentagonal trapezohedron]] * [[Hexagonal antiprism]] - 12 triangles, 2 hexagons - dual [[hexagonal trapezohedron]] * ''Septagonal antiprism'' - 14 triangles, 2 septagons - dual [[septagonal trapezohedron]] * [[Octagonal antiprism]] - 16 triangles, 2 octagons - dual [[octagonal trapezohedron]] * ... * [[Decagonal antiprism]] - 20 triangles, 2 decagons - dual [[decagonal trapezohedron]] * ... * [[Dodecagonal antiprism]] - 24 triangles, 2 dodecagons - dual [[dodecagonal trapezohedron]] * ... * '''n-agonal antiprism''' - 2n triangles, 2 n-agons - dual [[trapezohedron|n-agonal trapezohedron]] If ''n''=3 then we only have triangles; we get the [[octahedron]], a particular type of right triangular antiprism which is also edge- and face-uniform, and so counts among the [[Platonic solid]]s. The [[dual polyhedron|dual polyhedra]] of the antiprisms are the [[trapezohedron|trapezohedra]]. Their existence was first discussed and their name was coined by [[Johannes Kepler]]. == Cartesian coordinates == [[Cartesian coordinates]] for the vertices of a right antiprism with ''n''-gonal bases and isosceles triangles are : &lt;math&gt;( \cos(k\pi/n), \sin(k\pi/n), (-1)^k a )\;&lt;/math&gt; with ''k'' ranging from 0 to 2''n''-1; if the triangles are equilateral, :&lt;math&gt;2a^2=\cos(\pi/n)-\cos(2\pi/n)\;&lt;/math&gt;. == Symmetry == The [[symmetry group]] of a right ''n''-sided antiprism with regular base and isosceles side faces is ''D&lt;sub&gt;nd&lt;/sub&gt;'' of order 4''n'', except in the case of a tetrahedron, which has the larger symmetry group '''T&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;''' of order 24, which has three versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;2d&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups, and the octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group '''O&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;''' of order 48, which has four versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;3d&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups. The symmetry group contains [[inversion]] [[iff]] ''n'' is odd. The [[rotation group]] is ''D&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' of order 2''n'', except in the case of a tetrahedron, which has the larger rotation group '''T''' of order 12, which has three versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups, and the octahedron, which has the larger rotation group '''O''' of order 24, which has four versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups. == Star antiprisms == Uniform antiprisms can a
As of April 2004, net [[international reserve system|international reserves]] stood at $1.9 billion. In recent years [[inflation]] has fallen to single digit levels, and total exports have grown substantially. == Demographics == [[Image:El Salvador demography.png|thumb|250px|right|Chart of El Salvador's population between 1961 and 2003 (figures taken from the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], 2005). Population in thousands (i.e. 1=1 000; 6 000=6 000 000).]] ''Main article: [[Demographics of El Salvador]]'' El Salvador's population numbers about 6.7 million people. Around 90% is [[mestizo]] (mixed Amerindian and Spanish), some 9% white, and only 1% indigenous. Very few [[Amerindian]]s have retained their native customs, traditions, or languages. El Salvador is the only Central American country that has no native black population, probably because of its lack of Caribbean coasts, unlike its neighbors. Spanish is the language spoken by virtually all inhabitants. The country's people are largely Roman [[Catholic]] (83% of the population), though [[Protestant]] groups are growing (15%). The capital city of [[San Salvador]] has about 2.1 million people; an estimated 42% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas. According to the most recent [[United Nations]] survey, life expectancy for men was 68 years and 74 years for women. [[Education in El Salvador]] is free through [[high school]]. The national [[literacy]] rate is 84.1%. At the beginning of 2004, there were approximately 3.1 million Salvadorans living outside El Salvador, many of whom are immigrants (though not always legally) in the [[United States]]. The USA has traditionally been the destination of choice for Salvadorans looking for greater economic opportunity than their current position can provide. Other countries with notable Salvadoran communities include Canada, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize and Australia. The situation worsened later during the civil war of the decade of the 1980s and from adverse economic and social conditions. Pursuant to peace accords signed in January of 1992 between the [[FMLN]] and the ARENA-party-dominated government, the government made a series of economic reforms in the mold of the free market model supported by the USA. This model has given good results on all economic levels, although politicians of the opposition parties argue that this is not the case. In 2001 El Salvador adopted, by legislative decree, the U.S. dollar as its official currency, replacing the previous currency called the Colon (Spanish for 'Columbus', as in Christopher Columbus). == Culture == A small part of the population speaks [[Nahuatl]], the native language. The Roman Catholic religion played an important role in the Salvadoran culture. Painting, ceramics and textile articles are the main manual [[artistic]] expressions. Writers [[Francisco Gavidia]] ([[1863]]&amp;ndash;[[1955]]), Salvador Salazar Arrué, Claudia Lars, Alfredo Espino and [[Manlio Argueta]], and poet [[Roque Dalton]] are among the most important artists to stem from El Salvador. Notable 20th century personages include the late filmmaker [[Baltasar Polio]] and artist [[Fernando Llort]]. &lt;TABLE border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;&gt; &lt;CAPTION&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Holidays'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/caption&gt; &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Date&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;English Name&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Local Name&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Remarks &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;March/April&lt;TD&gt;Easter&lt;TD&gt;[[Semana Santa]]&lt;TD&gt;Celebrated with [[carnival]]-like events in different cities by the large Catholic population &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[May 1]] &lt;TD&gt;Labor Day&lt;TD&gt;Día de los trabajadores&lt;TD&gt;International Labour Day&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[May 10]] &lt;TD&gt;Mother's Day&lt;TD&gt;Día de la Madre&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[August 1]]&amp;ndash;[[August 7|7]]&lt;TD&gt;August Festivals&lt;TD&gt;Fiestas de Agosto&lt;TD&gt;Week long festival in Celebration for the El Salvador del Mundo, patron saint of El Salvador. &lt;/TR&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[September 15]]&lt;TD&gt;Independence Day&lt;TD&gt;Día de la Independencia&lt;TD&gt;Celebrates independence from Spain, achieved in 1821&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[October 12]]&lt;TD&gt;Columbus Day&lt;TD&gt;Día de la Raza&lt;TD&gt;This day commemorates the discovery of the Americas&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[November 2]]&lt;TD&gt;Day of the Dead&lt;TD&gt;Día de los Difuntos&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[December 25]]&lt;TD&gt;Christmas Day&lt;TD&gt;Navidad&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/TABLE&gt; == Miscellaneous topics == * [[List of Salvadorans]] * [[Carlos Hernandez (boxer)|Carlos Hernandez]] * [[Victor Ruano (Cineasta)|Victor Ruano]] * [[Communications in El Salvador]] * [[Football War]] * [[Foreign relations of El Salvador]] * [[Military of El Salvador]] * [[Óscar Romero]] * [[Transportation in El Salvador]] * [[Central American Spanish]] == External links== {{sisterlinks|El Salvador}} * [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=4116 Worldwide press freedom index] Rank 33 out of 139 countries (2 way tie) * [http://www.tipcom.net/listasal/ Directorio de Sitios Web Salvadoreños] - Salvadoran Website Directory * [http://www.nuestroblog.com Blogs El Salvador] * [http://www.digestyc.gob.sv Economic and demographic data] * [http://www.elsalvadorclasificados.com/ Clasificados Salvadoreños] * [http://www.brevespacio.com Poetry El Salvador] * [http://www.ayvevos.com/ Forums &amp; Salvadorian Community ] * [http://www.4elsalvador.com/ Picture galleries of El Salvador] * [http://www.medicosdeelsalvador.com/ Doctors in El Salvador] - Médicos de El Salvador * [http://www.empresasenelsalvador.com/ Business Directory of El Salvador] Empresas en EL Salvador '''National Anthem''' * [http://www.navyband.navy.mil/anthems/ANTHEMS/El%20Salvador.mp3] (Natoinal Anthem of El Salvador in Mp3 form) '''Government sites''' * [http://www.casapres.gob.sv/ Casa Presidencial] (Website of the President) * [http://www.asamblea.gob.sv/ Asamblea Legislativa] (Website of the Legislative Assembly) * [http://www.fuerzaarmada.gob.sv/portadafa2.html Ministerio de Defensa Nacional] (Ministry of Defense) * [http://www.fas.gob.sv Fuerza Aerea Salvadoreña] (Air Force of El Salvador) * [http://www.marn.gob.sv/ Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales] (Ministry of the Environment and Natural resources) * [http://www.rree.gob.sv/website/index.html Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores] (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) * [http://www.minec.gob.sv/ Ministerio de Economía] (Ministry of the Economy) * [http://www.elsalvadorturismo.gob.sv/ Ministerio de Turismo] (Ministry of Tourism) * [http://www.csj.gob.sv/idioma.htm Corte Suprema de Justicia] (Supreme Court of Justice) * [http://www.pddh.gob.sv/ Procuraduría para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos] (Office of the judge advocate general for the Defense of Human rights) '''Salvadoran media''' * News sites ** [http://www.diariocolatino.com/ Diario Colatino] ** [http://www.apes.org.sv/index.php Asociación de Periodistas de El Salvador] ** [http://www.laprensagrafica.com/portada/default.asp La Prensa Grafica] ** [http://www.elmundo.com.sv/ El Mundo] ** [http://www.elsalvador.com/ El Diario de Hoy] ** [http://www.elfaro.net/ El Faro] ** [http://www.flacso.org.sv/ El Flasco] * Television sites ** [http://www.tcs246.com/ TCS] ** [http://www.canal12.com.sv/ Canal 12] ** [http://www.canal21tv.com.sv/ Canal 21] '''Charities and Volunteer Organisations''' * [http://www.asaprosar.com/ ASAPROSAR - Salvadoran Association for Rural Health] * [http://www.angelfire.com/pro/r-to-b/index.html Lifeline El Salvador - Volunteer, Work and Teach English Abroad] * [http://www.fssca.net/ Foundation for Self-Sufficiency in Central America] * [http://www.cispes.org/ CISPES - Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador] {{Central_America}} [[Category:Central American countries]] [[Category:El Salvador| ]] [[an:El Salvador]] [[bg:Ел Салвадор]] [[zh-min-nan:El Salvador]] [[bs:Salvador]] [[ca:El Salvador]] [[cs:Salvador]] [[da:El Salvador]] [[de:El Salvador]] [[el:Ελ Σαλβαδόρ]] [[et:El Salvador]] [[es:El Salvador]] [[eo:Salvadoro]] [[eu:El Salvador]] [[fr:Salvador]] [[gl:O Salvador - El Salvador]] [[ko:엘살바도르]] [[hi:एल-साल्वाडोर]] [[hr:Salvador]] [[io:Salvadoria]] [[id:El Salvador]] [[ia:El Salvador]] [[is:El Salvador]] [[it:El Salvador]] [[he:אל סלוודור]] [[lv:Salvadora (valsts)]] [[lt:Salvadoras]] [[hu:Salvador]] [[ms:El Salvador]] [[na:El Salvador]] [[nl:El Salvador]] [[nds:El Salvador]] [[ja:エルサルバドル]] [[no:El Salvador]] [[nn:El Salvador]] [[pl:Salwador]] [[pt:El Salvador]] [[ro:El Salvador]] [[ru:Сальвадор]] [[sa:एल-साल्वाडोर]] [[sq:Salvadori]] [[simple:El Salvador]] [[sk:Salvádor]] [[sl:Salvador]] [[sr:Ел Салвадор]] [[fi:El Salvador]] [[sv:El Salvador]] [[tl:El Salvador]] [[th:สาธารณรัฐเอลซัลวาดอร์]] [[tr:El Salvador]] [[uk:Сальвадор]] [[zh:萨尔瓦多]] &lt;!-- Famous Salvadoran Graphics Designers Include: - -Josué Figueroa, an expert at &quot;tag art&quot;--&gt;</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>El Salvador/History</title> <id>9357</id> <revision> <id>15907253</id> <timestamp>2002-05-23T08:51:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of El Salvador]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of El Salvador</title> <id>9358</id> <revision> <id>38471154</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T15:33:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brian0918</username> <id>90640</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.170.20
of the islands, the centre-piece of which is the new airfield at [[RAF Mount Pleasant]], 25 miles west of the previous base at [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]]. The base was opened in [[1985]]. ==Royal Air Force== RAF Mount Pleasant, built following the surrender of Argentine invasion forces, is capable of accepting trans-Atlantic aircraft such as the [[Lockheed]] [[Lockheed L-1011|Tristar]]. The Tristar was purchased mainly for the UK-Falklands route, until their [[entry into service]] leased [[Boeing 747|747s]] and [[Boeing 767|767s]] performed air transport. The RAF's [[RAF Tornado F3|Tornado F3s]] provide air defence for the islands and surrounding territories. The four aircraft, and the crews that fly them, are rotated with UK based assets. The aircraft are housed in non-hardened shelters, sixteen of which were built for surge operations in time of tension or hostility. The [[VC10]] provides air transport and aerial refueling for the fighters. When a fighter is launched it almost immediately followed by the VC10 as changeable weather conditions might make diversion to another airfield necessary. The C-130K provides resupply missions through the use of air-drops and also carries out maritime patrol. The latter is an important mission to the Falkland Islands government as the Hercules verifies that all fishing vessels are licensed; at £1,000 per licence per season this is an extremely lucrative source of income. The [[helicopter]]s of 78 Sqn provide air transport missions. The [[Sea King]]s and the [[Chinook]] also carry out short and medium range [[search and rescue]] missions respectively. ===Organisation=== *[[No. 1435 Flight RAF|No. 1435 Flight]] &amp;ndash; 4 [[Panavia Tornado|Tornado F3]]s *[[No. 1312 Flight RAF|No. 1312 Flight]] &amp;ndash; 1 [[Vickers VC10]], 1 [[C-130 Hercules|Hercules C3]] *[[No. 78 Squadron RAF|No. 78 Squadron]] &amp;ndash; 2 [[Westland Sea King|Sea King]] HAR.3s, 1 [[CH-47 Chinook|Chinook]] [[RAF Chinook|HC.2]] ==Royal Navy== The [[Royal Navy]] maintain a presence in the area with a [[frigate]] or [[destroyer]] in the South Atlantic and a patrol ship permanently close to the islands. In addition an Ice Patrol Ship, [[HMS Endurance (A171)|HMS ''Endurance'']], is on station close to [[Antarctica]] for 6 months of the year. The warship carries out the [[Standing Royal Navy deployments|South Atlantic Patrol Task]] mission which &quot;provides a maritime presence to protect the UK's interests in the region&quot;. Currently the [[Type 42 destroyer]] [[HMS Southampton (D90)|HMS ''Southampton'']] performs the South Atlantic Patrol Task having taken over from [[HMS Cardiff (D108)|HMS ''Cardiff'']] when she was decommissioned in August [[2005]]. The Falkland Islands Patrol ship is a [[Castle class patrol vessel|Castle class]] vessel. Currently [[HMS Dumbarton Castle (P265)|HMS ''Dumbarton Castle'']] patrols the waters of the Falkland Islands having taken over from a 3 year deployment by [[HMS Leeds Castle (P258)|HMS ''Leeds Castle'']] when she returned to the UK to be decommissioned at the same time as Cardiff. In 2007 [[HMS Clyde (2007)|''HMS Clyde'']] will relieve [[HMS Dumbarton Castle (P265)|HMS Dumbarton Castle]] and [[HMS Leeds Castle (P258)|HMS Leeds Castle]], currently under construction by VT Group shipbuilders in Portsmouth, it is planned that she will stay permanently in the South Atlantic until 2012. The Royal Navy also has submarines that it can deploy to the area, though such deployments are secret. == Army == The [[British Army]] maintains a small garrison on the Falkland Islands based at Mount Pleasant. The total deployment is about 500 personnel made up of a Company Group, an Engineer Squadron, a Signals Unit, a Logistics Group and Supporting Services.[http://www.army.mod.uk/aroundtheworld/flk/index.htm] {{South America in topic|Military of}} [[Category:Falkland Islands]] [[Category:Military of the United Kingdom]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Falkland Islands/Transnational issues</title> <id>10697</id> <revision> <id>15908495</id> <timestamp>2002-08-25T18:13:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Falkland Islands]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Falkland Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of the Faroe Islands</title> <id>10698</id> <revision> <id>40636352</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:52:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>80.202.111.224</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Pre-14th century */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">==Pre-Norse history== The early details of '''[[Faroe Islands|Faroese]] history''' are rather nebulous. It is possible that [[Saint Brendan]], an Irish [[monk]] (a [[Papar]]) sailed past the islands during his [[North Atlantic]] voyage in the [[6th century]]. He saw an 'Island of Sheep' and a 'Paradise of Birds', which some say could be the Faroes with its dense bird population and sheep. In the late 600s to early 700s the islands were visited by monks from [[Ireland]], possibly looking for converts or solitude. Little is known about them, except that they used the Faroes (and [[Iceland]]) as a [[hermitage]]. As these monks were [[celibate]] and lived in all-male communities, their populations had to be replenished from the [[British Isles]]. == Pre-14th century == Little is known about Faroese history up until the [[14th century]]. The main historical source for this period is the [[13th century]] work [[Færeyinga Saga]] (Saga of the Faroese), and it is disputed as to how much of this work is historical fact. [[Færeyinga Saga]] only exists today as copies in other sagas. In particular three manuscripts called [[Ólafs Saga Tryggvasonar]], [[Flateyjarbók]] and one registered as [[AM 62 fol]]. According to [[Flateyjarbók]] [[Grímr Kamban]] settled in Faroe when [[Harald I of Norway|Harald Hårfagre]] was king of Norway (([[872]] – [[930]]). But this version does not correspond with the writings of [[Dicuil]], an Irish monk in the [[Frankish Kingdom]] who wrote about the countries in the north. [[Ólafs Saga Tryggvasonar]], however, does. According to that manuscript [[Færeyinga Saga]] start like this: ''There was a man named Grímr Kamban; he first settled in Faroe. But in the days of Harold Fairhair many men fled before the king’s overbearing. Some settled in Faroe and began to dwell there, and others sought to other waste lands.'' According to this many men did indeed flee from [[Harald I of Norway|Harald Hårfagre]]. But the text suggests that Grímr Kamban settled in the Faroes some time before. Maybe even hundreds of years. The firstname ''Grímr'' is norse. But the lastname ''Kamban'' is Irish. He may have been of mixed norse and Irish origin and come from a settlement in the [[Great Britain|British isles]]. If many men settled in the Faroes in the reign of Harald Hårfagre, people must have known about the Faroes. And therefore someone may have settled or visited there some time before. According to Færeyinga Saga there was an ancient institution on the headland [[Tinganes]] in [[Tórshavn]] on the island of [[Streymoy]]. This was an ''Alþing'' or Althing (All-council.) This was the place where laws were made and disputes solved. All free men had the right to meet in the Alþing. It was a parliament and law court for all, thus the name. Historians estimate the Alþing to have been established from 800 to 900. The islands were converted to [[Christianity]] around the year [[1000]], with a church based at [[Kirkjubøur]], southern [[Streymoy]] with 33 bishops. The Faroes became a part of the Kingdom of Norway in [[1035]]. Early in the [[11th century]] Sigmund or [[Sigmundur Brestisson]], whose family had flourished in the southern islands but had been almost exterminated by invaders from the northern, was sent from Norway, whither he had escaped, to take possession of the islands for [[Olaf Tryggvason]], king of Norway. He introduced Christianity, and, though he was subsequently murdered, Norwegian supremacy was upheld and continued until 1380, when the islands became part of the double monarchy Denmark/Norway. The islands were still a possession of the norwegian crown since the crowns had not been joined. In [[1380]] the Alþting was renamed the [[Løgting]], though it was by now little more than a law court. == Foreign commercial interest: 14th century to Second World War == The 14th century saw the start of what would prove to be a long era of foreign enroachment in the Faroese economy. At this time trading regulations were set up so that all Faroese commerce had to pass through [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], Norway in order to collect customs tax. Meanwhile, the [[Hanseatic League]] was gaining in power, threatening Scandinavian commerce. Though Norway tried to halt this process it was forced to relent after the [[Black Death]] decimated its population. [[England|English]] adventurers gave great trouble to the inhabitants in the [[16th century]], and the name of [[Magnus Heinason]], a native of [[Streymoy]], who was sent by [[Frederick II of Denmark and Norway|Frederick II]] to clear the seas, is still celebrated in many songs and stories. In [[1535]] [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] tried to wrest power from King [[Christian II]]. Several of the powerful German companies backed Christian II, but he eventually lost power. The new King Christian III gave the German trader [[Thomas Köppen]] exclusive trading rates in the [[Faroes]]. These rights were subject to the following conditions: only good quality goods were to be supplied by the Faroese and were to be made in numbers proportionate to the rest of the market; the goods were to be brought at their market value; and the traders were to deal fairly and honestly with the Faroese. Christian III also introd
agePad 130 (backlit) * [[eMate 300]] (backlit with built-in keyboard) * MessagePad 2000 (a significant upgrade; much faster (162MHz StrongARM versus 20MHz ARM 610, larger form factor) * MessagePad 2100 (raised internal RAM to 4MB) The NewtonOS was also licensed to a number of third party developers including Sharp and Motorola who developed additional PDA devices that used the operating system. Motorola added added wireless connectivity to the unit, and renamed it the Marco[http://www.msu.edu/~luckie/gallery/marco.htm]. A possible Newton revival has been a common source of speculation among the Macintosh user base; when patents for a tablet based Macintosh were applied for (http://www.appleinsider.com/article.php?id=600), rumor sites jumped at the possibility of a new [[Tablet PC]] style Macintosh. ==Appearances in popular culture== * The Newton was featured in the movie ''[[Under Siege 2: Dark Territory|Under Siege 2]],'' where the main character, played by [[Steven Seagal]], uses it to fax a call for help from a phone on a passenger train. * In early episodes of the series ''[[The X-Files]]'', the FBI agents use Newtons. * In the end scene of Larry Laffer ''Leisure Suit Larry 6: Shape Up or Slip Out!'' the woman says &quot;I even had a Newton&quot;. * The character of Kate Libby in ''[[Hackers (movie)|Hackers]]'' has a MessagePad which is seen in a number of scenes. * The hacker in the film ''[[Jurassic Park]]'' has a Newton on his desk. * [[Gary Sinise]] uses one as the hostage taker in the 1996 film ''Ransom'' starring [[Mel Gibson]]. * Daniel Brühl uses one in the German film ''[[The Edukators]]''. The handwriting recognition software was ridiculed on several occasions: * [[Garry Trudeau]] ridiculed it in a series of episodes of his popular comic, ''[[Doonesbury]]''. The last panel of one strip, which shows a character reading the words &quot;egg freckles?&quot; from his Newton [http://images.ucomics.com/comics/db/1993/db930827.gif], became an [[Easter egg (virtual)|Easter egg]] in the Newton operating system itself (version 2.0 and earlier). It can be seen by writing the words ''egg freckles'' then highlighting them and tapping the Assist button. * In an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' titled &quot;[[Lisa on Ice]]&quot;, which first aired [[November 13]], [[1994]], school bully Kearny has his buddy Daulph take a memo on a Newton. When Daulph writes &quot;Beat up Martin&quot; on the screen, the handwriting recognition turns it into &quot;Eat up Martha.&quot; Kearny throws the Newton at [[Martin Prince|Martin]] instead. [http://www.snpp.com/episodes/2F05.html] * In 2004, [[CNET]] elected the Apple Newton one of the &quot;Top 10 tech we miss&quot; [http://www.cnet.com/4520-11136_1-6259955.html], mentioning the device's amusing willingness to translate nearly any stroke on the screen to text, allowing the user to generate surreal ''Newton Poetry'' from random scribbles. ==Other Uses== There were a number of projects that used the Newton as a portable information device in cultural settings such as museums. For example, Visible Interactive created a walking tour in San Francisco's Chinatown but the most significant effort took place in Malaysia at the Petronas Discovery Center, known as Petrosains.[http://www.petrosains.com.my/] In 1995, an exhibit design firm, DMCD Inc. [http://www.dmcd.com]was awarded the contract to design a new 100,000 square foot science museum in the Petronas towers in Kuala Lumpur. A major factor in the award was the concept that visitors would use a Newton to access additional information, find out where they were in the museum, listen to audio, see animations, control robots and other media, and to bookmark information for printout at the end of the exhibit. The device became known as the ARIF, a Malay word for &quot;wise man&quot; or &quot;seer&quot; and it was also an acronym for A Resourceful Informative Friend. Some 400 ARIFS were installed and over 250 are still in use today. The development of the ARIF system was extremely complex and required a team of hardware and software engineers, designers, and writers. The exhibition design and ARIF coordination team was led by Scott Guerin, the hardware/software team by Ted Paschkis, and the writers and interface designers included Paul Trapido and Michael Callan. Mssrs. Guerin and Paschkis went on to found Wivid Systems which specializes in multimedia tour guides for museums. [http://www.wivid.com] ARIF is an ancestor of the PDA systems used in museums today and it boasted features that have not been attempted since. For example it was used as an exploration tool in a large exhibit about exploring for oil. A visitor's success completing one task influenced the success or failure of a subsequent task. At the conclusion of the exhibit, the ARIF was docked at an IR port where it was used to control a robotic arm that placed equipment at locations influenced by the users previous lessons. In another exhibit, up to eight devices could be used at to activate a 60 foot diameter model of prehistoric Malaysia; volcano eruptions, animal sounds, lighting effects, and wind are among the many effects. This task was accomplished by docking the ARIF at a computer terminal and using it as the input device. There are no touch screens in Petrosains, all interactive systems were controlled by the ARIF. The Newton was &quot;married&quot; to a primitive packet switching radio system in order to determine its location as the visitor passed through electronic &quot;gateways.&quot; When the visitor entered a new room, the radio triggered an automatic area introduction. The radio also delivered time-synch'd audio in two languages to a group of users when they watched a video. In addition to being dual language in all audio and text, the ARIF stored bookmarked information such that at the end of the exhibit, users could choose several items of most interest to be printed out, including a souvenir photograph of themselves superimposed on one of several stage sets. ==Jokes== * A popular [[lightbulb joke]] circled the internet briefly, ostensibly from the [[newsgroup]] comp.sys.newton.misc. *: Q: How many Newtons does it take to screw in a lightbulb? *: A: Foux! There to eat lemons, axe gravy soup. ==External links== * [http://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/0207.html Birth of the Newton] * [http://www.chuma.org/newton/faq/ Newton FAQ] * [http://www.msu.edu/~luckie/newtgal.htm Newton Gallery] * [http://www.crmloyalty.com/hknug Hong Kong Newton User Group] * Larry Yaeger's page on the [http://homepage.mac.com/larryy/larryy/ANHR.html development] of the Rosetta recogniser engine * [http://arstechnica.com/journals/apple.ars/2005/6/12/504 An interview with Larry Yaeger] touching on the development of the Newton and its HWR * [http://www.a-in-a-circle.com/newton/ Newton Secrets], with photos of prototypes * [http://www.uzes.net/newton Newton Cadillac prototype info] * [http://osopinion.com/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=4556 Think you know the Apple Newton's History? Think again] * [http://www.unna.org/ Newton Software] * [http://www.newtontalk.net/ The NewtonTalk mailing list] * [http://tools.unna.org/wikiwikinewt/ The NewtonWiki], HowTos, tricks and manuals * [http://www.newtonsearch.net/ NewtonSearch], a searchable index of Newton websites * [http://www.newtonsales.com NewtonRepair], Apple has discontinued support for the Newton platform -- however, repairs and upgrades are still available at this site * [http://www.pda-soft.de/ European Newton Repairs], feat. disassembling and repair instructions for most models and reviews of new spare parts and hardware * [http://www.pda-soft.de/programmingbooks.html Newton programming books and references in PDF form] * [http://www.kallisys.com/newton/einstein/en Einstein Project], a Newton emulator in development * [http://www.newtonslibrary.org/ Newton's Library], the largest actively maintained Newton [[ebook]] repository * [http://www.stillnewt.org/library/ Temporary Newton Library] -- actively maintained Newton [[ebook]] repository of [[public domain]] and [[creative commons]] licensed titles * [http://www.upenn.edu/computing/printout/archive/v10/4/newton.html My man Newton: Six months with a personal digital assistant], a report of Newton usage with an example of ''Newton Poetry'' * [http://www.kevinfreitas.net/journal/20040921/ Newton Poetry], some info on and some attemps of ''Newton Poetry'' [[Category:Failed Apple initiatives|Newton]] [[Category:Apple hardware]] [[Category:PDAs]] [[de:Newton (PDA)]] [[fr:Newton PDA]] [[ko:&amp;#45684;&amp;#53556; (&amp;#52980;&amp;#54504;&amp;#53552;)]] [[nl:Apple Newton]] [[no:Apple Newton]] [[pl:Newton (komputer)]] [[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12503;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12491;&amp;#12517;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12531;]] [[it:Famiglia Newton (Apple)]] [[sv:Newton (PDA)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A. E. van Vogt</title> <id>888</id> <revision> <id>41644022</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:25:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mr Frosty</username> <id>276295</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ -- alpha. categories</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfred Elton van Vogt''' ([[Winnipeg]], [[Canada]], [[April 26]], [[1912]] - [[Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]], [[January 26]], [[2000]]) was a renowned [[Canada|Canadian]]-born [[science fiction author]] widely regarded as one of the most prolific, yet complex, writers from the mid-twentieth century '[[Golden Age of Science Fiction|Golden Age]]' of the genre. [[Image:vanvogt.jpg|frame|van Vogt receiving Grand Master prize]] ==Science Fiction's Golden Age== Van Vogt was one of the most popular and highly esteemed science fiction writers of the [[1940s]], during the ascent of the genre's Golden Age. After starting his writing career by writing for
ginally a Tony Iommi solo project until the record company dictated that the album be released under the moniker &quot;Black Sabbath Featuring Tony Iommi&quot;. Fenholt was not accepted, though bootleg demos (usually titled &quot;Star of India&quot;) of his auditions have circulated for years and can be found on [[eBay]] from time to time. Iommi has never acknowledged that Fenholt was a member of the band, and other members, particularly Dave Spitz, have strongly denied he was ever involved beyond auditioning. ==Official band discography== The albums in this section are official &quot;band sponsored&quot; albums, and are released with the cooperation and authorization of the band that existed at the time of the release. ===Studio albums=== {| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |- |'''Album Cover''' |'''Date of Release''' |'''Title''' |'''Label''' |'''Chart positions''' |'''US sales''' |- |[[Image:Black Sabbath debut album.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1970]] |''[[Black Sabbath (album)|Black Sabbath]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#8 UK&lt;br&gt;#23 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathParanoid.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1970]] |''[[Paranoid (album)|Paranoid]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#1 UK&lt;br&gt;#12 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathMasterofReality.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1971]] |''[[Master of Reality]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#5 UK&lt;br&gt;#8 US | |- |[[Image:Black Sabbath Vol 4.png|center|50px|]] |[[1972]] |''[[Black Sabbath, Vol. 4]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#8 UK&lt;br&gt;#13 US | |- |[[Image:Black Sabbath SbS.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1973]] |''[[Sabbath Bloody Sabbath]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#4 UK&lt;br&gt;#11 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathSabotage.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1975]] |''[[Sabotage (album)|Sabotage]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#7 UK&lt;br&gt;#28 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathTechnicalEcstasy.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1976]] |''[[Technical Ecstasy]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#13 UK&lt;br&gt;#51 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathNeverSayDie!.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1978]] |''[[Never Say Die!]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#12 UK&lt;br&gt;#69 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathHeavenAndHell.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1980]] |''[[Heaven and Hell (Black Sabbath album)|Heaven and Hell]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#9 UK&lt;br&gt;#28 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathMobRules.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1981]] |''[[Mob Rules]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#12 UK&lt;br&gt;#29 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathBornAgain.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1983]] |''[[Born Again (Black Sabbath)|Born Again]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#4 UK&lt;br&gt;#39 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathSeventhStar.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1986]] |''[[Seventh Star]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#27 UK&lt;br&gt;#78 US | |- |[[Image:Eternalidol.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1987]] |''[[The Eternal Idol]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#168 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathHeadlessCross.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1989]] |''[[Headless Cross]]'' |[[I.R.S. Records|I.R.S.]] |#31 UK&lt;br&gt;#115 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathTYR.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1990]] |''[[Tyr (album)|TYR]]'' |[[I.R.S. Records|I.R.S.]] |#24 UK | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathDehumanizer.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1992]] |''[[Dehumanizer]]'' |[[Warner Bros.]] |#28 UK&lt;br&gt;#44 US | |- |[[Image:BlackSabbathCrossPurposes.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1994]] |''[[Cross Purposes]]'' |[[I.R.S. Records|I.R.S.]] |#122 US | |- |[[Image:Forbidden.jpg|center|50px|]] |[[1995]] |''[[Forbidden (album)|Forbidden]]'' |[[EMI]] |Did not chart | |} ===Live albums=== *[[1982]] ''[[Live Evil (Black Sabbath)|Live Evil]]'' (live - Iommi, Dio, Butler, Appice); #13 UK, #37 US *[[1998]] ''[[Reunion (album)|Reunion]]'' (live - Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward); #11 US *[[2002]] ''[[Past Lives (album)|Past Lives]]'' (live from the 1970s - Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward); #114 US ===Compilation albums=== *[[1975]] ''[[We Sold Our Soul for Rock 'n' Roll]]'' (Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward); #35 UK, #48 US *[[1996]] ''[[The Sabbath Stones (album)|The Sabbath Stones]]'' (compilation of 1988-1995 material) *[[2002]] ''[[Symptom of the Universe: The Original Black Sabbath 1970-1978]]'' (compilation - Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward) *[[2004]] ''[[Black Box: The Complete Original Black Sabbath (1970-1978)]]'' (box set - Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward) ==Unofficial/other discography== The albums in this section are not official, as they were not released with the cooperation of band management, and are generally released by record companies, not the band itself. *[[1980]] - ''[[Live at Last (Black Sabbath album)|Live at Last]]'' (Live from 1973 - Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward); #5 UK. Eventually remastered and officially released as one of the two ''Past Lives'' discs. *[[1973]], [[1976]], [[2000]] - ''[[The Best of Black Sabbath]]'' (several different [[compilation albums]] under this title) *[[1976]] - ''The Original'' (compilation, Germany) *[[1978]] - ''Rock Heavies'' (compilation, Germany) *[[1983]] - ''The Best'' (compilation, Australia) *[[1983]] - ''The Very Best of Black Sabbath'' (compilation, South Africa) *[[1984]], [[1987]] - ''The Kings of Hell'' (compilation, Brazil) *[[1985]] - ''The Collection'' (compilation, UK) *[[1991]] - ''Backtrackin'' (compilation, Australia) *[[1991]] - ''Children of the Grave'' (essentially the ''Vol. 4'' album with an added live version of &quot;Children of the Grave&quot;) *[[2006]] - ''[[Paraniod (dvd)| Paranoid]]'' ([[DVD]]) == UK hit singles == * 1970 &quot;[[Paranoid (song)|Paranoid]]&quot; #4 * 1978 &quot;[[Never Say Die (song)|Never Say Die]]&quot; #21 * 1978 &quot;Hard Road&quot; #33 * 1980 &quot;Neon Knights&quot; #22 * 1980 &quot;Paranoid&quot; (re-issue) #14 * 1982 &quot;Turn up the Night&quot; #37 * 1992 &quot;TV Crimes&quot; #33 ==External links== * [http://www.black-sabbath.com/ Black Sabbath Online]: Joe Siegler's Black Sabbath Fan Site * [http://www.sabbathlive.com/ Sabbathlive.com]: Rob Dwyer's Fan site attempting to gather a complete touring history * [http://www.last.fm/music/Black+Sabbath Black Sabbath Page at Last.fm] * [http://www.ozzyhead.com/ Mitch Vanbeekum's Ozzy Osbourne homepage ] * [http://www.metal-archives.com/band.php?id=99 Black Sabbath] at [[Encyclopaedia Metallum]] * [http://home.att.net/~chuckayoub/black_sabbath/black_sabbath_lyrics.html Black Sabbath Lyrics] * [http://www.lyricsquest.com/B/black%20sabbath/index.html Black Sabbath lyrics] * [http://www.sabbath.se Black Sabbath complete discography] * [http://www.geocities.com/ozzyfaq/ The Complete Ozzy/Sabbath Biography ] [[Category:Black Sabbath| ]] [[Category:Music from Birmingham, England]] [[Category:English musical groups]] [[Category:Rock music groups]] [[Category:British heavy metal musical groups]] [[bg:Black Sabbath]] [[cs:Black Sabbath]] [[da:Black Sabbath]] [[de:Black Sabbath]] [[es:Black Sabbath]] [[fr:Black Sabbath]] [[ga:Black Sabbath]] [[gl:Black Sabbath]] [[ko:블랙 사바스]] [[id:Black Sabbath]] [[is:Black Sabbath]] [[it:Black Sabbath]] [[he:בלאק סבאת']] [[lt:Black Sabbath]] [[nl:Black Sabbath]] [[ja:ブラック・サバス]] [[no:Black Sabbath]] [[pl:Black Sabbath]] [[pt:Black Sabbath]] [[ru:Black Sabbath]] [[simple:Black Sabbath]] [[fi:Black Sabbath]] [[sv:Black Sabbath]] [[tr:Black Sabbath]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Buffalo Bills</title> <id>4315</id> <revision> <id>42010210</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:58:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zzyzx11</username> <id>182902</id> </contributor> <comment>rv upset Bills fan who is still upset about the [[Music City Miracle]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}} {{NFL team | name = Buffalo Bills | logo = BuffaloBills_100.png | founded = 1960 | city = Buffalo, New York | colors = Dark Navy, Red, Royal, Nickel, and White | coach = [[Dick Jauron]] | owner = [[Ralph C. Wilson Jr.]] | general manager = [[Marv Levy]] | mascot = [[Billy Buffalo]] | stations = [[WGRF]] (96.9 FM), [[WEDG]] (103.3 FM), [[WHTT]] (104.1 FM), and [[WCMF]] (96.5 FM) | announcers = [[John Murphy (announcer)|John Murphy]] | hist_yr = 1960 | affiliate_old = [[American Football League]] (1960-1969) *Eastern Division (1960-1969) | NFL_start_yr = 1970 | division_hist = *'''[[American Football Conference]] (1970-present)''' **'''[[AFC East]] (1970-present)''' | no_league_champs = 2 | no_conf_champs = 4 | no_div_champs = 10 | league_champs = *'''[[American Football League|AFL Championships]] (2)'''&lt;br&gt;1964, 1965 | conf_champs = *'''AFC:''' 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 | div_champs = *'''AFL East:''' 1964, 1965, 1966 *'''AFC East:''' 1980, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1995 | stadium_years = *[[War Memorial Stadium (Buffalo)|War Memorial Stadium]] (1960-1972) *'''[[Ralph Wilson Stadium]] (1973-present)''' **a.k.a. Rich Stadium (1973-1998) }} The '''Buffalo Bills''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in the [[Buffalo, New York]] [[metropolitan area]], and play their home games in the suburb of [[Orchard Park (town), New York|Orchard Park]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC East|Eastern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Bills began play in 1960 as a charter member of the [[American Football League]] and joined the NFL as part of the [[AFL-NFL Merger]]. The Bills won two consecutive AFL titles in 1964 and 1965. The club is also the first and only team to appear in four consecutive [[Super Bowl]]s, though they lost all of them. The franchise name comes from the legendary western hunter and performer [[Buffalo Bill Cody|Buffalo Bill]]. ==Franchise history== ===1960-1985=== The Buffalo Bills were a charter member of the [[American Football League]] in 1960. After a public contest, the team adopted the same name as the former [[All-America Football Conference]] team in Buffalo. In the AFL, a predominantly offensive league, the Bills were a great defensive team. The 1964 Bills allowed just 913 yards ru
ophy]]. In his introduction to his 1969 book ''Agrarianism in American Literature'', [[M. Thomas Inge]] defines '''''agrarianism''''' by the following basic tenets: *Cultivation of the soil provides direct contact with nature; through the contact with nature the agrarian is blessed with a closer relationship to God. Farming has within it a positive spiritual good; the farmer acquires the virtues of &quot;honor, manliness, [[self-reliance]], courage, moral integrity, and hospitality&quot; and follows the example of God when creating order out of chaos. *The farmer &quot;has a sense of identity, a sense of historical and religious tradition, a feeling of belonging to a concrete family, place, and region, which are psychologically and culturally beneficial.&quot; The harmony of this life checks the encroachments of a fragmented, alienated modern society which has grown to inhuman scale. *In contrast, farming offers total independence and [[self-sufficiency]]. It has a solid, stable position in the [[world order]]. But urban life, [[capitalism]], and technology destroy our independence and dignity while fostering vice and weakness within us. The agricultural community can provide checks and balances against the imbalances of modern society by its fellowship of labor and cooperation with other agrarians, while obeying the rhythms of nature. The agrarian community is the model society for mankind. Agrarianism is not identical with the back to the earth movement, but it can be helpful to think of it in those terms. The agrarian philosophy is not to get people to reject progress, but rather to concentrate on the fundamental goods of the earth, communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society, and on simple living--even when this shift involves questioning the &quot;progressive&quot; character of some recent social and economic developments. Thus agrarianism is not [[industrial farming]], with its specialization on products and industrial scale. The name &quot;agrarian&quot; is properly applied to figures from [[Horace]] and [[Virgil]] through [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentals]] like [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]] and [[Henry David Thoreau|Thoreau]], the [[Southern Agrarians]] movement of the 1920s and 1930s (also known as the [[Vanderbilt University|Vanderbilt]] Agrarians) and present-day authors [[Wendell Berry]], [[Alan Carlson]], [[Victor Davis Hanson]], and Michael Bunker. In the 1910s and 1920s, agrarianism garnered significant popular attention, but was eclipsed in the postwar period. It revived somewhat in conjunction with the 1960s [[environmentalist movement]], and has been drawing an increasing number of adherents. Recent agrarian thinkers are sometimes referred to as neo-Agrarian. ==See also== * [[Junker]]s German landed aristocracy * The [[Amish]] and [[Mennonite]]s *[[Agrarian society]] *[[Alberta Progressive Conservatives]] *[[Back to the land]] ==External links== *&quot;[http://www.newpantagruel.com/issues/2.3/agrarianism.php Agrarianism]&quot; in ''American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia'' *[http://www.pastoralfarms.com/agrarian/ Christian Agrarianism] *[http://www.biblicalagrarianism.com Biblical Agrarianism] *[http://www.newagrarian.com The New Agrarian] *[http://www.theagrarianfoundation.com The Agrarian Foundation] [[Category:Political theories]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Atomic</title> <id>1194</id> <revision> <id>38497271</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T19:21:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ewlyahoocom</username> <id>241538</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Atom]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Atom]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Allotropes</title> <id>1195</id> <revision> <id>15899691</id> <timestamp>2002-05-19T16:45:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AxelBoldt</username> <id>2</id> </contributor> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Allotropy]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Angle</title> <id>1196</id> <revision> <id>42071377</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:55:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Henrygb</username> <id>30415</id> </contributor> <comment>reflex angles</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about angles in geometry. For other articles, see [[Angle (disambiguation)]]'' ---- An '''Angle''' (from the Lat. ''angulus'', a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, ''angus'', does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&amp;#7936;γκύλος}} ''(angulοs)'' crooked, curved; both connected with the Aryan or Indo-European root ''ank''-, to bend) is the figure formed by two [[Ray_(geometry)|rays]] sharing a common [[endpoint]], called the [[vertex]] of the angle. Angles provide a means of expressing the difference in [[slope]] between two rays meeting at a vertex without the need to explicitly define the slopes of the two rays. Angles are studied in [[geometry]] and [[trigonometry]]. [[Euclid]] defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other. According to [[Proclus]] an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was used by [[Eudemus]], who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line; the second by [[Carpus of Antioch]], who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and obtuse angles are certainly quantitative. ==Units of measure for angles== In order to measure an angle, a [[circle]] centered at the vertex is drawn. Since the circumference of a circle is always directly proportional to the length of its radius, the measure of the angle is independent of the size of the circle. Note that angles are dimensionless, since they are defined as the ratio of lengths. *The ''[[radian]] measure'' of the angle is the length of the arc cut out by the angle, divided by the circle's radius. The [[SI]] system of units uses [[radian]]s as the (derived) unit for angles. This is also roughly subdivided into the [[angular_mil|mil]], which has several definitions in practice. Because of the relationship to arc length, radians are a special unit. Sines and cosines whose argument is in radians have particular analytic properties, just as do exponential functions in the base ''[[e (mathematical constant)|e]]''. (As we've discovered, this is no coincidence). *The ''[[degree (angle)|degree]] measure'' of the angle is the length of the arc, divided by the circumference of the circle, and multiplied by 360. The symbol for degrees is a small superscript circle, as in 360°. 2&amp;pi; radians is equal to 360° (a full circle), so one radian is about 57° and one degree is &amp;pi;/180 radians. Degrees are further broken down into ''minutes of arc'' and ''seconds of arc'', which are 1/60th and 1/3600th of a degree, respectively. Minutes of arc are commonly encountered in discussions of [[external ballistics]], as a minute of arc covers almost exactly 1 inch at 100 yards (1 m at 1200 m). A [[rifle]] capable of shooting &quot;1 MOA&quot;, one minute of arc, can place all shots within 1 inch at 100 yards, 2 inches at 200 yards, etc. Minutes of arc were also used in [[navigation]], and a [[nautical mile]] is roughly defined as one minute of arc of the earth's surface. *The ''[[grad (angle)|grad]]'', also called grade, gradian or gon, is an angular measure where the arc is divided by the circumference, and multiplied by 400. It is used mostly in [[triangulation]]. *The ''point'' is used in [[navigation]], and is defined as 1/32 of a circle, or exactly 11.25°. *The ''full circle'' or ''full [[Turn (geometry)|turn]]s'' represents the number or fraction of complete full turns. For example, &amp;pi;/2 radians = 90° = 1/4 full circle ==Conventions on measurement== A convention universally adopted in mathematical writing is that angles given a sign are '''positive angles''' if measured [[Clockwise_and_counterclockwise|counterclockwise]], and '''negative angles''' if measured [[Clockwise_and_counterclockwise|clockwise]], from a given line. If no line is specified, it can be assumed to be the [[x-axis]] in the [[Cartesian plane]]. In [[navigation]], [[bearing (navigation)|bearings]] are measured from north, increasing clockwise, so a bearing of 45 is north-east. Negative bearings are not used in navigation, so north-west is 315. In mathematics radians are assumed unless specified otherwise because this removes the arbitrariness of the number 360 in the degree system and because the [[trigonometric function]]s can be developed into particularly simple [[Taylor series]] if their arguments are specified in radians. == Types of angles == An angle of [[pi|&amp;pi;]]/2 radians or 90°, one-quarter of the full circle is called a '''right angle'''. Two [[line segment]]s, rays, or lines (or any combination) which form a right angle are said to be either '''[[perpendicular]]''' or '''[[orthogonality|orthogonal]]''': {| |- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; |[[Image:Right_angle.svg|thumb|134px|Right angle]] |[[Image:Angle obtuse acute straight.svg|thumb|240px|Acute, obtuse, and straight angles (''a'', ''b'', ''c''). Here, ''a'' and ''b'' are [[Supplementary angles|supplement angles]].]] |} &lt;!-- old images | [[image:angle acute.png|thumb|150px|Acute angle]] | [[image:angle obtuse.png|thumb|200px|Obtuse angle]] | [[image:angle straight.png|thumb|200px|Straight angle]] --&gt; *Angles smaller than a right angle are called '''acute angles''' (less than
victims has been changed to [[No_fault_insurance|No Fault]] systems, which reduce or eliminate the ability to sue for compensation but provide automatic eligibility for benefits. *[[Boiler insurance]] (also known as Boiler and Machinery insurance or Equipment Breakdown Insurance) *[[Casualty insurance]] insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property. *[[Credit insurance]] pays some or all of a [[loan]] back when certain things happen to the borrower such as [[unemployment]], [[disability]], or [[death]]. *[[Financial loss insurance]] protects individuals and companies against various financial risks. For example, a [[business]] might purchase cover to protect it from loss of [[sales]] if a fire in a [[factory]] prevented it from carrying out its business for a time. Insurance might also cover failure of a [[creditor]] to pay [[money]] it owes to the insured. [[Fidelity bond]]s and [[surety bond]]s are included in this category. *[[Health insurance]] covers [[medicine|medical]] bills incurred because of [[disease|sickness]] or accidents. *[[Liability insurance]] covers legal claims against the insured. For example, a homeowner's insurance policy provides the insured with protection in the event of a claim brought by someone who slips and falls on the property, and brings a lawsuit for her injuries. Similarly, a [[Physician|doctor]] may purchase liability insurance to cover any legal claims against him if his negligence (carelessness) in treating a patient caused the patient injury and/or monetary harm. The protection offered by a liability insurance policy is two-fold: a legal defense in the event of a lawsuit commenced against the policyholder, plus indemnification (payment on behalf of the insured) with respect to a settlement or court verdict. *[[Life insurance]] provides a cash benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for [[burial]] and other final expenses. **[[annuity|Annuities]] provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance. Annuities and [[pension]]s that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a [[retirement|retiree]] will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance. *[[Total permanent disability insurance]] insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. *[[Locked Funds Insurance]] is a little known hybrid insurance policy jointly issued by governments and banks. It is used to protect public funds from tamper by unauthorised parties. In special cases, a government may authorise its use in protecting semi-private funds which are liable to tamper. Terms of this type of insurance are usually very strict. As such it is only used in extreme cases where maximum security of funds is required. *[[Marine Insurance]] covers the loss or damage of goods at sea. Marine insurance typically compensates the owner of merchandise for losses sustained from fire, shipwreck, etc., but excludes losses that can be recovered from the carrier. *Nuclear incident insurance - damages resulting from an incident involving radioactivive materials is generally arranged at the national level. (For the United States, see [[Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act]].) *[[Political risk insurance]] can be taken out by businesses with operations in [[country|countries]] in which there is a risk that [[revolution]] or other [[politics|political]] conditions will result in a loss. *[[Professional Indemnity Insurance]] is normally a mandatory requirement for professional practitioners such as Architects, Lawyers, Doctors and Accountants to provide insurance cover against potential negligence claims. Non licensed professionals may also purchase malpractice insurance, it is commonly called Errors and Omissions Insurance and covers a service provider for claims made against them that arise out of the performance of specified professional services. For instance, a web site designer can obtain E&amp;O insurance to cover them for certain claims made by third parties that arise out of negligent performance of web site development services. *[[Property insurance]] provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, [[theft]] or [[weather]] damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as [[fire insurance]], [[flood insurance]], [[earthquake insurance]], [[home insurance]], inland marine insurance or [[boiler insurance]]. *[[Terrorism insurance]] *[[Title insurance]] provides a guarantee that title to [[real property]] is vested in the purchaser and/or [[mortgage]]e, free and clear of [[lien]]s or encumbrances. It is usually issued in conjunction with a search of the public records done at the time of a [[real estate]] transaction. *[[Travel insurance]] is an insurance cover taken by those who travel abroad, which covers certain losses such as medical expenses, lost of personal belongings, travel delay, personal liabilities.. etc. *[[Workers' compensation]] insurance replaces all or part of a worker's [[wage]]s lost and accompanying medical expense incurred due to a job-related injury. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the above categories. For example, car insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from say, causing an accident). A [[home insurance|homeowner]]'s insurance policy in the US typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property. Potential sources of risk that may give rise to claims are known as &quot;[[peril]]s&quot;. Examples of perils might be fire, theft, [[earthquake]], [[hurricane]] and many other potential risks. An insurance policy will set out in details which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. ==Types of insurance companies== Insurance companies may be classified as *''Life'' insurance companies, who sell life insurance, annuities and pensions products. *''Non-life'' or ''general'' insurance companies, who sell other types of insurance. In most countries, life and non-life insurers are subject to different regulations, [[tax]] and [[accounting]] rules. The main reason for the distinction between the two types of company is that life business is very long term in nature &amp;mdash; coverage for life assurance or a pension can cover risks over many [[decade]]s. By contrast, non-life insurance cover usually covers a shorter period, such as one year. Insurance companies are generally classified as either ''[[mutual]]'' or ''stock'' companies. This is more of a traditional distinction as true mutual companies are becoming rare. Mutual companies are owned by the policyholders, while stockholders, (who may or may not own policies) own stock insurance companies. ''[[Reinsurance]]'' companies are insurance companies that sell policies to other insurance companies, allowing them to reduce their risks and protect themselves from very large losses. The reinsurance market is dominated by a few very large companies, with huge reserves. ''[[Captive Insurance]]'' companies may be defined as limited purpose insurance companies established with the specific objective of financing risks emanating from their parent group or groups. This definition can sometimes be extended to include some of the risks of the parent company's customers. In short terms, it is an in-house self-insurance vehicle. Captives may take the form of a &quot;pure&quot; entity (which is a 100% a subsidiary of the self-insured parent company); of a &quot;mutual&quot; captive (which insures the collective risks of industry members) and of an &quot;association&quot; captive (which self-insures individual risks of the members of a professional, commercial or industrial association). Captives represent commercial, economic and tax advantages to their sponsors due to the reductions on costs they help create, the ease for insurance risk management and the flexibility for cash flows they generate. Additionally, they may provide coverage of risks which are neither available nor offered in the traditional insurance market at reasonable prices. The types of risk that a captive can underwrite for the parent include property damage, public and products liability, professional indemnity, employee benefits, employers liability, motor and medical aid expenses. The captive's exposure to such risks may be limited by the use of reinsurance. Captives are becoming an increasingly important component of the risk management and risk financing strategy of their parent. This can be understood against the following background: *heavy and increasing premium costs in almost every line of coverage; *difficulties in insuring certain types of fortuitous risk; *differential coverage standards in various parts of the world; *rating structures which reflect market trends rather than individual loss experience; *insufficient credit for deductibles and/or loss control efforts. There are also companies known as 'insurance consultants'. Like a mortgage broker, these companies are paid a fee by the customer to shop around for the best insurance policy amongst many companies . Similar to an insurance consultant, an 'insurance broker' also shops around for the best insurance policy amongst many companies. However, with insurance brokers, the fee is usually paid in the form of commission from the insurer that is selected rather than directly from the client. Third Party Administrators are companies that perform underwriting
do not break in use, many can be broken or rusted out when the player finds them. Since rings, amulets, potions, scrolls, wands and staffs are valued only for their magical effects, the non-magical '''Ring of Adornment''', '''Necklace of Adornment''', '''Distillation of Water''', '''Blank Scroll''', '''Dead Staff''' and '''Dead Wand''' are also worthless. Empty wands and staffs, however, aren't worthless as they can be recharged in the appropriate store. Many items in the game can be named, so you can call your sword &quot;[[Excalibur]]&quot; if you wish. ==Monsters== The 90 types of [[monster]]s in the game include: *'''[[Animal]]s''', ranging from the merely annoying Giant [[Rat]] and Giant [[Bat]] to the ferocious Cave [[Bear]] and White [[Wolf]]. *'''[[European dragon|Dragons]]''' of six different ages, with increasing strengths. (Dragons do not actually age in-game, because according to legend this takes hundreds of years.) Dragons are of four different colours, each with its own elemental attack: **'''Red''' (breathe fire) **'''Blue''' (breathe lightning) **'''White''' (breathe cold) **'''Green''' (breathe poison gas; least deadly if '''Neutralize Poison''' spell is known) *'''[[Devil]]s''', which can open gates to summon their allies; the abyss fiend is hardest to overcome, so it is best to transmogrify him if you know the spell. *'''[[Classical element|Elementals]]''': '''[[Air (classical element)|Air]]''', '''[[Water]]''', '''[[Fire]]''', '''Earth''', '''[[Dust]]''', '''[[Ice]]''', '''[[Magma]]''' *'''[[Giant (mythology)|Giants]]''' of five types :*hill giants (weakest) :*stone giants (somewhat stronger), hurtles a bolder at you :*frost giants, hurtle a block of ice at you :*fire giants, hurtle a boulder of lava at you :*two-headed giants, hill giants with two heads, quite strong *'''[[Human]] and [[humanoid]]''' monsters such as: **The '''Evil [[Warrior]]''' and '''Berserker''' (fight hand-to-hand) **The '''Bandit''' (fires arrows) **The '''[[Wizard]]''' and '''[[Necromancer]]''', who can cast: '''Slow''', '''Summon Monster''' (Wizard)/'''Summon Undead''' (Necromancer), '''Phase Door''', '''Teleport''', the three bolts, and '''Heal Medium Wounds'''. **The '''Smirking Sneak [[Thief]]''' (who can steal items and then teleport away) **The '''[[Kobold]]''' (a tiny, weak humanoid) **The '''Huge [[Ogre]]''' **The '''Gruesome [[Troll]]''' **'''[[Goblin]]s''' (including the weak basic '''Goblin''', the '''Goblin Fighter''' and the '''Hobgoblin'''). *'''[[Undead]]''', many of whom have attribute-draining attacks, some temporary, some permanent. **'''[[Skeleton]]s''' and '''Walking Corpses''', which do not have special powers. **'''Shadows''', '''Shades''', and '''Spectres''', which can walk through walls but do not have draining attacks. **The '''Eerie [[Ghost]]''', which drains Strength and Dexterity temporarily. **'''[[Vampire]]s''', which drains maximum HP. This damage can be healed by visiting a Temple of Odin. **The '''Dark [[Wraith]]''', '''Pale Wraith''' and '''Abyss Wraith''', which drain intelligence and mana irreversibly. **The '''Tunnel [[Wight]]''', '''Barrow Wight''' and '''Castle Wight''', which drain strength, dexterity and constitution irreversibly. You need to go to the temple to restore them or you buy or find the appropriate potion. *The '''Rat-Man''', '''Wolf-Man''', '''Bear-Man''' and '''Bull-Man''' *'''Animated Statues''' in wood, bronze, iron and marble. *The '''Slime''' (immobile, immune to physical but not magical attacks) *The '''Carrion Creeper''' and '''[[Manticore]]''', both fantasy beasts *The '''Gelatinous Glob''' (approximately the same monster known in [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]] as the [[Gelatinous cube]]) * and last but not least '''[[Surtur]]''' himself who is vulnerable to lightning but immune to fire. Many of the creatures carry money or valuable items with them. ==Character attributes== The player's four [[attribute (role-playing game)|attributes]] are represented not by numbers, but by a bar graph, with blue and green bar representing the value before and after any item enchantments, curses or drains. The attributes are: *'''Strength''' &amp;mdash; determines how much damage is done in hand-to-hand combat, and the Maximum Weight the player can carry. (The Maximum Bulk is fixed at 1,000,000 cm&amp;sup3; and, in practice, is not a limiting factor.) *'''Dexterity''' &amp;mdash; determines how likely a player is to hit and to block a hit in hand-to-hand combat, and gives the player a chance to avoid damage when he sets off a trap. Also affects Armor Value. *'''Intelligence''' &amp;mdash; determines the player's maximum Mana. *'''Constitution''' &amp;mdash; determines the player's maximum Hit Points. If a player's Constitution falls too far below its base level, he dies. The other standard characteristics include: *Special '''attributes''' (resistances/vulnerabilities to Cold, Fire, Lightning and Drain Life, vulnerability to Acid, and Levitating). *'''[[Hit point]]s'''. *'''[[Mana]]''': the player's reserve of magical energy. The player ''can'' cast spells that run Mana into the negative, risking a temporary but potentially fatal drop in '''Constitution'''. *'''[[Armour]] Value''': Defense against physical damage, the combined total of armour, braces, gauntlets, cloak, boots, helmet, shield, and enchantments/curses. *'''[[Weight]]''' and '''Bulk''': The player's body weight and bulk are not counted here, only the items he is wearing or carrying. *'''Copper''': The sum of all money, not just copper, carried in the purse and on deposit at the bank. *'''[[Gender]]''': A purely aesthetic choice that determines the default icon. *'''Custom Icon''': Another aesthetic choice that, when used, makes Gender irrelevant. ===Experience and levels=== HP and mana increase on [[level-up]], but the four base attributes do not. The experience required to level up is as follows: *Every player starts Part I at Level 1, with 0 experience. *20 experience points are needed to reach Level 2. *For ''n'' &amp;gt; 2, the experience requirement for Level ''n'' are those for Level ''n – 1'' plus 20 points at Easy [[difficulty]], 40 at Intermediate, 60 at Difficult, and 80 at Experts Only. *The maximum level, 30, requires 10,695,475,180 xp at Easy, 16,106,127,320 at Intermediate, 21,558,722,500 at Difficult and 27,011,317,680 at Experts Only. *Experience rewards for killing monsters range from 1 xp for a '''Giant Rat''' or '''Goblin''' to 344 xp for '''Surtur'''. (Reaching Level 30 by repeatedly killing Surtur would mean doing so 31,091,498, 46,820,138, 62,670,705 or 78,521,272 times, depending on the difficulty level.) Disarming a trap yields 1 to ? xp. ==Story, towns and dungeons== Although it is secondary to the [[hack-and-slash]] gameplay, ''Castle'' has a plot loosely based on [[Norse mythology]], told with setting changes, unique items and occasional blocks of text. {{spoiler}} As the story progresses, the setting changes twice; there are thus three towns, each with its own [[dungeon]] nearby. The game has a total of 40 dungeon levels, some randomly generated, others pre-designed. ===The Tiny Hamlet and the Abandoned Mine=== The player begins in a tiny [[hamlet]], near which he used to live. His [[farm]] has been destroyed and his [[godparent]]s killed. The first dungeon he will travel to at this time is an abandoned mine overrun with creatures and some weak undead monsters. It is four levels deep and features no boss battles or powerful items. The buildings in the hamlet are as follows: *'''The Temple of [[Odin]]''', which offers healing spells and restoration of drained attributes whether temporary or permanent as well as '''Remove Curse''' and '''Rune of Return''', for a price. *'''Olaf's Junk Store''', which sells nothing but will buy anything, including the &quot;worthless&quot; items that other merchants reject, for which it pays 25 copper pieces (CP). However, it will not pay more than 25 CP for an item, even when other merchants will. In some cases, such as boots and cloaks, the broken version of an item is worth more than the normal, unbroken version (i.e. 25 CP versus even less). *The house of a '''[[sage]]''', who will identify any unknown item for a fee. *Two merchants, a '''[[blacksmith]]''' (buys and sells weapons and armour) and a '''[[general store]]''' (buys and sells scrolls, potions, spellbooks, cloaks, boots, containers). *Two [[farmhouse]]s and a village [[well]], which have no function and are purely decorative. After clearing out the abandoned mine, the player finds the first scrap of parchment, and returns to the hamlet to find it pillaged. He or she then travels to Bjarnarhaven. ===Bjarnarhaven=== The buildings in Bjarnarhaven are: *'''The Temple of Odin''', '''Olaf's Junk Store''', and a '''sage''', which work the same way as in the hamlet. *A [[branch office]] of the '''First [[Bank]] of Crossroads''', where the player can deposit money. He will then not have to carry the money or risk having it stolen by a '''Smirking Sneak Thief''', but it will still be available to spend in the four shops. *Four merchants. *A number of homes and a small [[fountain]], all decorative. The fortress near Bjarnarhaven is 11 levels deep and is held by ''Hrungnir, the Hill Giant Lord'' (the only boss in the fortress). Hrungnir carries the ''Enchanted Amulet of Kings'', which grants a resistance to Drain Life (attribute- and experience-draining attacks). When he Activates the amulet, Part I ends, and the game can be imported or started over in Part II. In general, the player will be more experienced if he carries over a winning character, rather than creating a new one. ===Town in Part II=== The castle near this town is ruined. Only the dungeon and parts of the ground floor remain; the dungeon is 25 levels deep and has been converted by the monsters living in it: the [[crypt]] has been desecrated, a ''Necromancer'' has set up his home (with a bed and desk), and special room
covering around 10,430,000 [[square kilometre]]s (4,020,000 [[square mile|sq mi]]) or 2.0% of the [[Earth]]'s surface, and is only larger than [[Australia]]. In terms of [[population]], it is the third-largest continent (Asia and [[Africa]] are larger) with a population of more than 705,000,000, or about 11% of the world's population. ==Etymology== [[Image:Europa-Zeus-LDS.jpg|thumb|Picture of [[Europa (mythology)|Europa]], carried away by bull-shaped [[Zeus]].]] In [[Greek mythology]], [[Europa (mythology)|Europa]] was a [[Phoenicia]]n princess who was abducted by [[Zeus]] in bull form and taken to the island of [[Crete]], where she gave birth to [[Minos]]. For [[Homer]], ''Europé'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ευρωπη; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]) was a mythological queen of Crete, not a geographical designation. Later ''Europa'' stood for [[Geography of Greece|mainland Greece]], and by [[500 BC]] its meaning had been extended to lands to the north. The Greek term ''Europe'' has been derived from Greek words meaning broad (''eurys'') and face (''ops'') -- ''broad'' having been an [[epithet|epitheton]] of [[Earth]] herself in the reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European religion]]; see [[Prithvi]] (''Plataia''). A minority, however, suggest this Greek [[popular etymology]] is really based on a [[Semitic]] word such as the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''erebu'' meaning &quot;sunset&quot; (see also ''[[Erebus]]''). From the [[Middle East]]ern vantagepoint, the sun does set over Europe, the lands to the west. Likewise, [[Asia]] is sometimes thought to have derived from the Akkadian word ''asu'', meaning &quot;sunrise&quot;, and is the land to the east from a [[Mesopotamian]] perspective. ==History== {{main|History of Europe}} As part of the [[Old World]], Europe has a long history of cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Palaeolithic]]. The recent discovery at [[Monte Poggiolo]], [[Italy]], of thousands of stones shaped by human hands, and tentatively carbon-dated to 800,000 years ago, may prove to be of particular importance. The origins of Western democratic and individualistic culture are often attributed to [[Ancient Greece]], though numerous other distinct influences, in particular [[Christianity]], can also be credited with the spread of concepts like egalitarianism and universality of law. The [[Roman Empire]] divided the continent along the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] for several centuries. Following the [[decline of the Roman Empire]], Europe entered a long period of changes arising from what is known as the [[Age of Migrations]]. That period has been known as the &quot;[[Dark Ages]]&quot; to [[Renaissance]] thinkers. During this time, the [[Ottoman Empire]] conquered [[Istanbul]] formerly known as Constantinople and finished the [[Byzantine Empire]] and became the most important power of all Europe. Isolated monastic communities in [[Ireland]] and elsewhere carefully safeguarded and compiled written knowledge accumulated previously. The [[Renaissance]] and the [[New Monarchs]] marked the start of a period of discovery, exploration, and increase in scientific knowledge. In the 15th century [[Portugal]] opened the age of discoveries, soon followed by [[Spain]]. They were later joined by [[France]], the [[Netherlands]] and the [[United Kingdom]] in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[the Americas]], and [[Asia]]. After the age of discovery, the ideas of [[democracy]] took hold in Europe. Struggles for independence arose, most notably in [[France]] during the period known as the [[French Revolution]]. This led to vast upheaval in Europe as these revolutionary ideas propagated across the continent. The rise of democracy led to increased tensions within Europe on top of the tensions already existing due to competition within the [[New World]]. The most famous of these conflicts was when [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] rose to power and set out on a conquest, forming a new [[First French Empire|French Empire]] that soon collapsed. After these conquests Europe stabilised, but the old foundations were already beginning to crumble. The [[Industrial Revolution]] started in the [[United Kingdom]] in the late 18th century, leading to a move away from agriculture, much greater general prosperity and a corresponding increase in population. Many of the states in Europe took their present form in the [[aftermath of World War I#Geopolitical and Economic Consequences|aftermath of World War I]]. From the end of [[World War II]] through the end of the [[Cold War]], Europe was divided into two major political and economic blocks: [[Communism|Communist]] nations in [[Eastern Europe]] (with the exceptions of [[Turkey]] and [[Greece]]) and [[Capitalism|capitalist]] countries in [[Western Europe]] and [[Southern Europe]]. Around 1990, with the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], the [[Eastern bloc]] disintegrated. ==Geography and extent== {{main|Geography of Europe}} [[Image:Physical Map of Europe.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Europe at its furthest extent, reaching to the Urals.]] [[Image:Europe satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|250px|A satellite composite image of Europe]] [[Image:Aiguille du midi et mont blanc.JPG|right|200px|thumb|[[Mont Blanc]], usually considered the highest mountain in Europe.]] [[Image:Vourvourou-Greece.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Shoreline in [[Mediterranean Sea]].]] [[Image:P%C3%A4ij%C3%A4nne_and_p%C3%A4ij%C3%A4tsalo.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Päijänne]] lake and [[white nights]] in [[Scandinavia]].]] Geographically Europe is a part of the larger landmass known as [[Eurasia]]. The continent begins at the [[Ural Mountains]] in [[Russia]], which define Europe's eastern boundary with [[Asia]]. The southeast boundary with Asia is not universally defined. Most commonly the [[Ural River|Ural]] or, alternatively, the [[Emba River|Emba]] River serve as possible boundaries. The boundary continues to the [[Caspian Sea]], the crest of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] or, alternatively, the [[Kura River]] in the [[Caucasus]], and on to the [[Black Sea]]; the [[Bosporus]], the [[Sea of Marmara]], and the [[Dardanelles]] conclude the Asian boundary. However, numerous [[geographers]] consider [[Azerbaijan]]'s and [[Armenia]]'s southern border with [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]'s southern and eastern border with [[Syria]], [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]] as the boundary between [[Asia]] and Europe because of political and cultural reasons. The [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south separates Europe from [[Africa]]. The western boundary is the [[Atlantic Ocean]], but [[Iceland]], much farther away than the nearest points of [[Africa]], is also often included in Europe. There is ongoing debate on where the [[geographical centre of Europe]] is. ''For detailed description of the boundary between Asia and Europe [[Transcontinental nation|see here]].'' Because of political, cultural and geographical differences, there are various descriptions of Europe's boundary. Therefore, in some sources, some countries are not included in Europe, while the other sources do include them. Almost all European countries are members of the [[Council of Europe]], the exceptions being [[Belarus]], and the [[Holy See]] ([[Vatican City]]). The idea of the European ''continent'' is not held across all cultures. Some non-European geographical texts refer to the continent of Eurasia, or to the European peninsula, given that Europe is not surrounded by sea. In the past concepts such as [[Christendom]] were deemed more important. In another usage, ''Europe'' is increasingly being used as a short-form for the [[European Union]] (EU) and its members, currently consisting of 25 member states and the candidate countries negotiating for membership, and several other countries expected to begin negotiations in the future (see [[Enlargement of the European Union]]). This definition, however, excludes non-members such as [[Russia]] and [[Switzerland]]. ===Physical features=== In terms of shape, Europe is a collection of connected [[peninsula|peninsulas]]. The two largest of these are &quot;mainland&quot; Europe and [[Scandinavia]] to the north, divided from each other by the [[Baltic Sea]]. Three smaller peninsulas ([[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]], [[Italy]] and the [[Balkans]]) emerge from the southern margin of the mainland into the [[Mediterranean Sea]], which separates Europe from [[Africa]]. Eastward, mainland Europe widens much like the mouth of a funnel, until the boundary with Asia is reached at the [[Ural Mountains]]. Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions, however, are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high [[Alps]], [[Pyrenees]] and [[Carpathians]], through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the Great European Plain, and at its heart lies the [[North German Plain]]. An arc of uplands also exists along the northwestern seaboard, beginning in the western [[British Isles]] and continuing along the mountainous, [[fjord]]-cut spine of [[Norway]]. This description is simplified. Sub-regions such as Iberia and Italy contain their own complex features, as does mainland Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend. [[Iceland]] and the [[British Isles]] are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean which is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until rising sea levels cut them off. Due to the few generalisations that can be made about the relief of Europe, it is less than surprising that its many separate regions provided homes for many separate nations throughout history. ==Biodiversity== &lt;!-- probably this should be transferred to a new article named &quot;Biodiversity of Europe
e cost of the CD-ROM had dropped to US$200. Sales had plummeted to US$325 million - about half their 1990 levels. Only 55,000 hard copy versions were sold in [[1994]], compared with 117,000 in [[1990]], and sales later fell to 20,000&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Sales plummeted from 100,000 a year to just 20,000.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/40033.stm Encyclopaedia Britannica changes to survive]&lt;/ref&gt;. By the end of [[1996]], Britannica was in serious trouble and was purchased by Swiss financier [[Jacob Safra]] for a fraction of its book value - a mere US$135 million. Since then Safra has introduced massive price-cutting measures in an effort to compete with ''Encarta'', even offering the entire reference free of charge for a time (around 18 months, from [[October 1999|October]] [[1999]] to [[March 2001|March]] [[2001]]) on the [[internet]]. Today, one of the biggest challenges to the ''Britannica'' is the ease with which people can find information online. Many people simply prefer to find information with the help of a search engine. A particular challenge to ''Britannica'' is the emergence of [[Wikipedia]] which has a size advantage over ''Britannica'' (1,000,000 articles compared to 120,000, and 340 million words compared to 55 million) and is free. However, despite its large size, Wikipedia does not deal with many of the topics contained within ''Britannica,'' and vice-versa. Other edges ''Britannica'' has over Wikipedia stem as a result of the former being a professionally-edited publication. In [[December 2005|December]] 2005, the scientific review ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' published the result of a study of errors in science articles in the two encyclopedias. They found ''Britannica'' to average almost three serious errors per article. By comparison, Wikipedia contained close to four errors per article. Many ''Nature'' reviewers also commented that they found Wikipedia articles to be more difficult to read. Further, the study also found that there were many more factual untruths and misleading statements in Wikipedia of a less-important nature -- 162 versus 123 in ''Britannica''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nature.com/news/2005/051212/full/438900a.html news @ nature.com - special report]&lt;/ref&gt; ==Current version== [[Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.]] now owns a trademark on the word &quot;Britannica&quot;. As of [[2004]], the most complete version of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' contains about 120,000 articles, with 55 million words, and a comprehensive index, the first of its kind for a major encyclopedia. It is published in paper form (31,550 pages in 32 volumes containing 65,000 articles, list price US$1400), online (120,000 articles, brief summaries of articles can be viewed for free, and the full text is available for US$11.95 per month or US$69.95 per year for individual subscribers), and on [[CD-ROM]] (more than 80,000 articles, US$30) or [[DVD|DVD-ROM]] (more than 100,000 articles, US$50). The single-volume ''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia'', consisting of 28,000 articles, is sold as a reference to the ''Encyclopædia Brittannica''. Britannica annually publishes a &quot;Book of the Year&quot; chronicling the year's events, also available online. The current version of ''Britannica'' was written by over 4,000 contributors, including noted scholars such as [[Milton Friedman]], [[Carl Sagan]], and [[Michael DeBakey]]. Under the influence of the director of planning, [[Mortimer Adler]], the 15th edition, first published in 1974 and frequently reissued since, was published not as one alphabetical sequence of volumes as previously but in three parts that covered topics in different degrees of depth: a one-volume [[Propædia]] that provides a structured hierarchy to all the information in the set, a 10-volume [[Micropædia]] which contains short articles, a 19-volume [[Macropædia]] for longer articles. A two-volume index was added in 1985. Thirty-five percent of the content of the encyclopedia has been re-written within the last two years. [[Dale Hoiberg]], a [[sinology|sinologist]], is the publication's current editor-in-chief. Among his predecessors were [[Hugh Chisholm]] ([[1903]]–[[1913]], [[1920]]–[[1924]]), [[James Louis Garvin]] ([[1926]]–[[1932]]), [[Franklin Henry Hooper]] ([[1932]]–[[1938]]), [[Walter Yust]] ([[1938]]–[[1960]]), [[Harry S. Ashmore]] ([[1960]]–[[1963]]), [[Warren E. Preece]] ([[1964]]–[[1975]]), and [[Robert McHenry]] ([[1992]]–[[1997]]). [[Ted Pappas]] is the current executive editor. Earlier holders of that position were [[John V. Dodge]] ([[1950]]–[[1964]]) and [[Philip W. Goetz]]. [[Don Yannias]], former [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] of the company when it was in financial difficulties, serves on Britannica's [[Board of Directors]]. Among the members of an international editorial council planning a new (16th) edition are such notable figures as biologist [[David Baltimore]], cognitive scientist [[Donald Norman]], economist [[Amartya Sen]], philosopher [[Thomas Nagel]], and former Ecuadorian president [[Rosalía Arteaga]]. ==Edition history== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |----- ! Edition ! Published ! Size ! Editor(s) |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 1st || 1768–1771 | 3 vol. | William Smellie |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 2nd || 1777–1784 | 10 vol. | James Tytler |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 3rd || 1788–1797, 1801 sup. | 18 vol. + 2 sup. | Colin Macfarquhar and George Gleig |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 4th || 1801–1809 | 20 vol. | James Millar |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 5th || 1815 || 20 vol. | James Millar and Thomas Bonar |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 6th | 1820&amp;ndash;1823, 1815–1824 sup. | 20 vol. + 6 sup. &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; | Charles Maclaren and Macvey Napier |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 7th || 1830–1842 | 21 vol. | Macvey Napier |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 8th || 1853–1860 | 22 vol. &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; | Thomas Stewart Traill |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 9th || 1875–1889 | 25 vol. &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; | Thomas Spencer Baynes (to 1880, then W. Robertson Smith) |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 10th || 1902–1903 | 9th ed. + 11 sup &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; | Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, Hugh Chisholm, and Arthur T. Hadley with Franklin H. Hooper |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | [[11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica|11th]] | 1910&amp;ndash;1911 || 29 vol | Hugh Chisholm |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 12th || 1921–1922 | 11th ed. + 3 sup. &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; | Hugh Chisholm |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 13th || 1926 || 11th ed. + 3 sup. &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; | James Louis Garvin |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; | 14th || 1929&amp;ndash;1973 | 24 vol. &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; | James Louis Garvin with Franklin Henry Hooper |----- | align=&quot;right&quot; rowspan=2 | 15th || 1974&amp;ndash;1984 | 30 vol. &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; | Mortimer J. Adler, William Benton, and Charles E. Swanson |----- | | 1985&amp;ndash; || 32 vol. &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; |} {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; |- | class=&quot;toccolours&quot;|'''Edition notes''' vol. = volume, sup. = supplement &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; ''Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. With preliminary dissertations on the history of the sciences.'' &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;8th to 14th editions included a separate index volume. &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;9th ed. featured articles by notables of the day, such as [[James Clerk Maxwell|James Maxwell]] on [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]], and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]] (who became Lord Kelvin) on [[heat]]. &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;10th ed. included a maps volume and a cumulative index volume for the 9th and 10th edition volumes: ''the new volumes, constituting, in combination with the existing volumes of the 9th ed., the 10th ed. ... and also supplying a new, distinctive, and independent library of reference dealing with recent events and developments'' &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;''Vols. 30-32 ... the New volumes constituting, in combination with the twenty-nine volumes of the eleventh edition, the twelfth edition'' &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;This supplement replaced the previous supplement: ''The three new supplementary volumes constituting, with the volumes of the latest standard edition, the thirteenth edition.'' &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; This edition was the first to be kept up to date by continual (usually annual) revision. &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; The 15th edition (introduced as &quot;Britannica 3&quot;) was published as multiple sets: the 10-volume ''Micropædia'' (containing short articles and served as an index), the 19-volume ''Macropædia'', plus the ''Propædia'' (see text). &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;In 1985 the system was modified by removing the index function from the ''Micropædia'' and adding a separate two-volume index; the ''Macropædia'' articles were further consolidated into fewer, larger ones (for example, the previously separate articles about the 50 U.S. states were all included into the &quot;United States of America&quot; article), with some medium-length articles moved to the ''Micropædia''. The first CD-ROM edition was issued in 1994. At that time also an online version was offered for paid subscription. In 1999 this was offered for free, and no revised print versions appeared. The experiment was ended, however, in 2001 and a new printed set was issued in 2002. |} ==References== &lt;references/&gt; * Herman Kogan, ''The Great EB: The Story of the Encyclopedia Britannica'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958) * H. Einbinder, ''The Myth of the Britannica'' (New York: Grove Press, 1964) * A.J. Jacobs, ''The Know-It-All : One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World'' (New York: Simon &amp; Schuster, 2004) ==See also== * [[11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica]] * [[commons:Category:I
ndy in your mouth, it melts (just like other hard candy) and releases the gas bubbles with an audible &quot;pop&quot;. Traditionally, the carbonation in [[beer]] and [[sparkling wine]] comes about through natural fermentation, but some manufacturers carbonate these drinks [[artificial]]ly. The [[leavening agent]]s used in baking produce carbon dioxide to cause dough to rise. [[Baker's yeast]] produces carbon dioxide by fermentation within the dough, while chemical leaveners such as [[baking powder]] and [[baking soda]] release carbon dioxide when heated or exposed to [[acid]]s. Carbon dioxide is often used as an inexpensive, nonflammable pressurized gas. [[Life jacket]]s often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation. Steel capsules are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for [[Air gun|airguns]], [[paintball]] markers, for inflating [[bicycle]] tires, and for making [[carbonated water|seltzer]]. Rapid vaporization of liquid CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is used for blasting in [[coal mine]]s. Carbon dioxide extinguishes flames, and some fire extinguishers, especially those designed for electrical fires, contain liquid carbon dioxide under pressure. Carbon dioxide also finds use as an atmosphere for [[welding]], although in the welding arc, it reacts to [[oxidation|oxidize]] most metals. Use in the automotive industry is common despite significant evidence that welds made in carbon dioxide are [[brittle]]r than those made in more inert atmospheres, and that such weld joints deteriorate over time because of the formation of carbonic acid. It is used as a welding gas primarily because it is much less expensive than more inert gases such as [[argon]] or [[helium]]. Liquid carbon dioxide is a good [[solvent]] for many [[organic chemistry|organic compounds]], and is used to remove [[caffeine]] from [[coffee]]. First, the green [[coffee beans]] are soaked in water. The beans are placed in the top of a column that's seventy feet high. The carbon dioxide [[fluid]] at about 93 degrees Cel. enters at the bottom of the column. The caffeine diffuses out of the beans and into the carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide has begun to attract attention in the [[pharmaceutical]] and other chemical processing industries as a less toxic alternative to more traditional solvents such as [[organochloride]]s. It's used by some [[dry cleaning|dry cleaners]] for this reason. (See [[green chemistry]].) Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct [[photosynthesis]], and greenhouses may enrich their atmospheres with additional CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; to boost plant growth. It has been proposed that carbon dioxide from power generation be bubbled into ponds to grow [[algae]] that could then be converted into [[biodiesel]] fuel. High levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere effectively exterminate many pests. Greenhouses will raise the level of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; to 10,000 ppm (1%) for several hours to eliminate pests such as whitefly, spider mites, and others. In medicine, up to 5% carbon dioxide is added to pure [[oxygen]] for stimulation of breathing after [[apnea]] and to stabilize the O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;/CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; balance in blood. A common type of industrial gas [[laser]], the [[carbon dioxide laser]], uses carbon dioxide as a medium. Carbon dioxide is commonly injected into or adjacent to producing [[oil well]]s. It will act as both a pressurizing agent and, when dissolved into the underground [[crude oil]], will significantly reduce its viscosity, enabling the oil to flow more rapidly through the earth to the removal well. In mature oil fields, extensive pipe networks are used to carry the carbon dioxide to the injection points. ==Dry Ice== '''Dry ice''' is a [[genericized trademark]] for solid (&quot;frozen&quot;) [[carbon dioxide]]. The term was coined in [[1925]] by Prest Air Devices, a company formed in Long Island City, New York in 1923. Dry ice at normal pressures does not melt into liquid carbon dioxide but rather [[sublimation (physics)|sublimates]] directly into carbon dioxide gas at −78.5&amp;nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] (−109.3&amp;nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]]). Hence it is called &quot;dry ice&quot; as opposed to normal &quot;wet&quot; [[ice]] (frozen water). Dry ice is produced by compressing carbon dioxide gas to a liquid form, removing the heat produced by the compression (see [[Charles' law]]), and then letting the liquid carbon dioxide expand quickly. This expansion causes a drop in [[temperature]] so that some of the CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; freezes into &quot;snow&quot;, which is then compressed into pellets or blocks. ===Uses=== [[Image:Dry_ice.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Dry ice used to cool drinks in [[Central Park]].&lt;br&gt;([[New York City]], [[New York]], [[USA]])]] *Cooling foodstuffs, biological samples, and other perishable items. *Producing &quot;dry ice fog&quot; for [[special effect]]s. When dry ice is put into contact with water, the frozen carbon dioxide sublimates into a mixture of cold carbon dioxide gas and cold humid air. This causes [[condensation]] and the formation of [[fog]]; see [[fog machine]]. The effect of fog by the mixture of dry ice with [[water]], is best formed when the water is warm, rather than cold. *Tiny pellets of dry ice (instead of sand) are [[sandblasting|shot]] at a surface to be cleaned. Dry ice is not as [[Hardness|hard]] as sand, but it speeds processing by sublimating to a gas and does not produce nearly as much lung-damaging dust. *Increasing [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] from existing clouds or decreasing cloud thickness by [[cloud seeding]]. *Producing carbon dioxide gas as needed in such systems as the fuel tank [[inerting system]] in the [[B-47]] aircraft. *Brass or other metallic [[bushings]] are buried in dry ice to shrink their size so they will fit inside a machined hole. When the bushing warms back up, it expands and makes an extremely tight fit. *As a cooling supplement for [[overclocking]] a [[central processing unit]], a [[graphics processing unit]], or another type of hardware. ===Handling=== Because of its particular characteristics, dry ice requires special precautions when handling. It is extremely cold and there should be no direct contact with skin (i.e., wear proper insulating gloves). It is constantly sublimating to carbon dioxide gas, so it cannot be stored in a sealed container as the pressure buildup will quickly cause the container to explode. The sublimated gas must be ventilated; otherwise, it may fill the enclosed space and create a [[suffocation]] hazard. Special care for ventilating vehicles is needed as well because of the small space. People who handle dry ice should also be aware that carbon dioxide is heavier than air and will sink to the floor. Some markets require those purchasing dry ice to be of 18 years of age or older. ==Biology== Carbon dioxide is an end product in organisms that obtain energy from breaking down [[sugar]]s or [[fat]]s with [[oxygen]] as part of their [[metabolism]], in a process known as [[cellular respiration]]. This includes all plants, [[animal]]s, many [[fungus|fungi]] and some [[bacterium|bacteria]]. In higher animals, the carbon dioxide travels in the [[blood]] from the body's tissues to the [[lung]]s where it's exhaled. Carbon dioxide content in fresh [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] is approximately 0.04%, and in exhaled air approximately 4.5%. When inhaled in high concentrations (about 5% by volume), it is [[toxic]] to humans and other animals. This is sometimes known as [[choke damp]], an old mining industry term, and was the cause of death at [[Lake Nyos]] in [[Cameroon]], where an upwelling of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-laden lake water in 1986 covered a wide area in a blanket of the gas, killing nearly 2000. [[Hemoglobin]], the main oxygen-carrying molecule in [[red blood cell]]s, can carry both oxygen and carbon dioxide, although in quite different ways. The decreased binding to oxygen in the blood due to increased carbon dioxide levels is known as the [[Haldane Effect]], and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Conversely, a rise in the partial pressure of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin. This is known as the [[Bohr Effect]]. According to a study by the USDA [http://itest.slu.edu/articles/90s/hannan.html], an average person's respiration generates approximately 450 liters (roughly 900 grams) of carbon dioxide per day. CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is carried in blood in three different ways. Most of it (about 80%&amp;ndash;90%) is converted to bicarbonate ions HCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; by the enzyme [[carbonic anhydrase]] in the red blood cells. 5%&amp;ndash;10% is dissolved in the plasma and 5%&amp;ndash;10% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds. The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood. The CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen; rather it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of [[allosteric regulation|allosteric]] effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; does decrease the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. Carbon dioxide may be one of the mediators of local autoregulation of blood supply. If it is high, the [[capillaries]] expand to allow a greater blood flow to that tissue. Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. As breathing rate influences the level of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in blood, too slow or shallow breathing causes [[respiratory acidosis]], while too rapid breathing, [[hyperventilation]], leads to [[alkalosis|respiratory alkalosis]]. It is interesting to note that although it is oxygen that the body requires for metabolism, it is not low oxygen levels that stimulate breath
of these are a work ''On Fate'', in which he argues against the [[Stoic]] doctrine of necessity; and one ''On the Soul'', in which he contends that the undeveloped reason in man is material (''nous ulikos'') and inseparable from the body. He argued strongly against the doctrine of [[immortality]]. He identified the active intellect (''nous poietikos''), through whose agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with God. Several of Alexander's works were published in the Aldine edition of Aristotle, Venice, 1495-1498; his ''De Fato'' and ''De Anima'' were printed along with the works of [[Themistius]] at Venice (1534); the former work, which has been translated into [[Latin]] by [[Grotius]] and also by [[Schulthess]], was edited by [[J. C. Orelli]], [[Zurich]], [[1824]]; and his commentaries on the Metaphysica by [[H. Bonitz]], [[Berlin]], [[1847]]. [[J. Nourisson]] has treated of his doctrine of fate (''De la liberte et du hazard'', [[Paris]], 1870). In the early [[Renaissance]] his doctrine of the soul's mortality was adopted by [[Pietro Pomponazzi]] against the [[Thomists]] and the [[Averroists]]. See also [[Alexandrists]], [[Pietro Pomonazzi]]. Also [[A. Apelt]], ''Die Schrift d. Alex. v. Aphr.'', [[Philolegus]], xlv., 1886: [[C. Ruelle]], ''Alex. d'Aphr. et le pretendu Alex. d'Alexandrie,'' ''Rev. des etudes grecques'', v., 1892; [[Eduard Zeller|E. Zeller]]'s ''Outlines of Gk. Phil.'' (Eng. trans., ed. 1905, p. 296). ==External links== * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alexander-aphrodisias/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Latin authors]] [[de:Alexander von Aphrodisias]] [[sk:Alexander z Afrodízie]] [[fi:Aleksanteri Afrodisiaslainen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alexander Severus</title> <id>1600</id> <revision> <id>40811659</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T04:13:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>206.103.49.104</ip> </contributor> <comment>fixing redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alexander_severus.jpg|right|thumb|Alexander Severus]] '''Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexandrus''' ([[October 1]], [[208]]- [[March 18]], [[235]]), commonly called '''Alexander Severus''', [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] from [[222]] to [[235]], was born at [[Arqa|Arca Caesarea]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. His father, [[Gessius Marcianus]], held office more than once as an imperial procurator; his mother, [[Julia Mamaea]], was the daughter of [[Julia Maesa]] and the aunt of [[Elagabalus]] (also called &quot;Heliogabalus&quot;). His original name was Bassianus, but he changed it in 221 when his grandmother, Maesa, persuaded the emperor Elagabalus to adopt his cousin as successor and create him Caesar. In the next year, on [[March 11]], Elagabalus was murdered, and Alexander was proclaimed emperor by the [[Praetorian Guard|Praetorians]] and accepted by the senate. He was then a mere lad, amiable, well-meaning, but entirely under the dominion of his mother, a woman of many virtues, who surrounded him with wise counsellors, watched over the development of his character and improved the tone of the administration, but on the other hand was inordinately jealous, and alienated the army by extreme parsimony, while neither she nor her son had a strong enough hand to keep tight the reins of military discipline. Mutinies became frequent in all parts of the empire; to one of them the life of the jurist and praetorian praefect [[Ulpian]] was sacrificed; another compelled the retirement of [[Dio Cassius]] from his command. On the whole, however, the reign of Alexander was prosperous till he was summoned to the East to face the new power of the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanians]]. Of the war that followed we have very various accounts; [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]] leans to that which is least favourable to the Romans. According to Alexander's own dispatch to the senate he gained great victories. At all events, though the [[Persians]] were checked for the time, the conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. The emperor returned to [[Rome]] and celebrated a triumph ([[233]]), but next year he was called to face German invaders in [[Gaul]], not far from Mainz, where he was slain, (on either [[March 18|18]] or [[March 19|19]] March [[235]]), together with his mother, in a mutiny of the [[Legio XXII Primigenia|Legio XXII ''Primigenia'']] which was probably led by [[Maximinus Thrax]], a Thracian legionary, and at any rate secured him the throne. [[Image:Bronze-Alexander Severus-Deultum AE25 Moushmov 3583.jpg|thumb|300px|Alexander Severus coin, celebrating [[Artemis]] and the ''Flavian colony of [[Burgas|Deultum]]''.]] Alexander was the last of the Syrian emperors. Under the influence of his mother, he did much to improve the morals and condition of the people. His advisers were men like the famous jurist Ulpian, the historian Dio Cassius and a select board of sixteen senators; a municipal council of fourteen assisted the urban praefect in administering the affairs of the fourteen districts of Rome. The luxury and extravagance that had formerly been so prevalent at the court were put down; the standard of the coinage was raised; taxes were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged; the lot of the soldiers was improved; and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending money at a moderate rate of interest. In religious matters Alexander preserved an open mind. In his private chapel he had busts of [[Orpheus]], [[Abraham]], [[Apollonius of Tyana]], and [[Jesus]]. It is said that he was desirous of erecting a temple to the founder of Christianity, but was dissuaded by the pagan priests. There is no doubt that, had Alexander's many excellent qualities been supported by the energy and strength of will necessary for the government of a military empire, he would have been one of the greatest of the Roman emperors. ==See also== * [[Severan dynasty family tree]] ==External links== {{Commons|Alexander Severus}} *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Severus_Alexander/1*.html Life of Alexander Severus] (''Historia Augusta'' at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation) ==References== *{{1911}} *Lampridius, ''Alexander Severus'' *Dio Cassius lxxviii. 30, lxxix. 17, lxxx. 1 *Herodian vi. 1-18 *Porrath, ''Der Kaiser Alex. Sev.'' (1876) *[[Pauly-Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopadie,'' ii. 2526 foll. (Groebe) *RV Nind Hopkins, ''Cambridge Historical Essays,'' No. xiv. (1907). {{Roman Emperor | Prev=[[Elagabalus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Maximinus Thrax]]|years=222&amp;ndash;235}} [[Category:208 births]] [[Category:235 deaths]] [[Category:Roman emperors]] [[Category:Severan Dynasty]] [[Category:Crisis of the Third Century]] [[Category:Roman emperors killed by own troops]] [[da:Alexander Severus]] [[de:Severus Alexander]] [[et:Severus Alexander]] [[es:Alejandro Severo]] [[eo:Aleksandro Severo]] [[eu:Alexandro Severo]] [[fr:Sévère Alexandre]] [[ko:세베루스 알렉산더]] [[hr:Aleksandar Sever]] [[it:Alessandro Severo]] [[he:אלכסנדר סוורוס]] [[nl:Severus Alexander]] [[ja:アレクサンデル・セウェルス]] [[pl:Sewer Aleksander]] [[pt:Alexandre Severo]] [[ro:Alexandru Sever]] [[sr:Александар Север]] [[fi:Severus Alexander]] [[sv:Alexander Severus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alexander (disambiguation)</title> <id>1601</id> <revision> <id>42051302</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:37:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dbachmann</username> <id>86857</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Antiquity */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander''' is a common male first name. It also occurs, less frequently, as a [[family name|surname]]. ==Origin== The name in [[English language|English]] is taken from the [[Latin]] &quot;Alexander,&quot; which is a Romanization of the original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] [[nominative]] ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ (''Alexandros''). The [[genitive]] form in Greek is ''Alexandrou''. [[Etymology|Etymologically]], the name derives from ''alex-'', the compound-form of ''alexis'' (from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] [PIE] ''*alek-''), meaning &quot;refuge, protection, defence,&quot; together with ''-andros'', the compound form of andēr (from the PIE ''*ner-''), meaning &quot;man.&quot; Thus is may be roughly translated as &quot;protector of men.&quot; The term is either a rare type of &quot;inverse [[tatpurusha]]&quot; compound, with the modifier in second position (the cognate [[Sanskrit]] tatpurusha being *nararakṣa, cf. [[Ramayana]] 6.33.45; the exact Sanskrit counterpart would be *rakṣinara, from PIE hleks(i)-hnros), or a worn-down [[terpsimbrotos]] type compound, whose original verbal meaning was &quot;he protects men&quot;. The earliest reference to the name may be that to [[Alaksandu]] in the [[13th century BC]]. The name was one of the titles (&quot;epithets&quot;) given to the Greek goddess [[Hera]] and as such is usually taken to mean &quot;one who comes to the aid of warriors.&quot; In the [[Iliad]], the character [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] is known also as Alexander. The name's popularity was spread throughout the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic world]] by the military conquests of King Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as '''[[Alexander the Great]]''' (''Μέγας Αλέξανδρος''). ==Variants== The female version of the name is Alexandra. Clipped forms derived from the name include: Alexandros/Alexandra, Alexis/Alexia, Alekos/Aleka (Greece), Alec, Alle, Alecu (Romania), Alex, Allie, Lex, Sander, Sandra (Female only), Sandro (Italy), Sandu (Romania), Sandy, (also female) Sanya (Slavic), Sascha (German, common in Austria), Sasha (Russian affectionate form), Shura (also in Russia), Xan, Xander, Xandi, Alexandre(french), Alejandro (spanish). The surname bears various forms depending
, Media and Sport]]. Like the BBC it has a [[public service broadcasting|public service]] remit. It also has an obligation to provide schools programming. Channel 4 nominally broadcasts only in [[England]], [[Scotland]], and [[Northern Ireland]]. In [[Wales]], its equivalent is [[S4C]], which broadcasts a mix of Channel 4 programming along with [[Welsh language]] programmes. However, Channel 4 is also received in border areas of Wales, and now broadcasts throughout the principality on Freeview, the digital terrestrial TV service. While Channel 4, like [[UTV]], is not &quot;officially&quot; available in the [[Republic of Ireland]], it is broadcast on Cable/MMDS operators Chorus and NTL. So far the channel transmits encrypted on Sky Digital and cannot be viewed outside the UK. ==History== ===IBA Control: 1982&amp;ndash;1990=== Before Channel 4, Britain had three terrestrial television channels: [[BBC1]], [[BBC2]] and [[ITV]]. The 1980 Broadcasting Act began the process of adding a fourth, and Channel 4 was formally created by an Act of Parliament in 1982. After some weeks of test broadcasts it began scheduled transmissions on [[November 2]] [[1982]]. [[Image:C4logo82-96.jpg|thumb|150px|right|The original Channel 4 logo, used from 1982&amp;ndash;1996]] From the start, the channel set out to provide an alternative to the existing channels. In doing so it sometimes, in the eyes of its critics (including the public decency campaigner [[Mary Whitehouse]]), overstepped the boundaries of acceptability, but it has arguably led to a liberalisation of the UK television industry. Programming such as the &quot;[[red triangle]]&quot; series, ''[[The Tube (TV series)|The Tube]]'', and ''Network 7'' often straddled the boundary between being pioneering and being beyond the pale. Channel 4 was one of the first &quot;publishing only&quot; television broadcasters in the world. All of its programming is produced by other companies; it exists only to fund, broadcast and distribute it. It was also the first broadcaster in the world to put its name on the introduction or credits of programmes it did not produce, a practice that is now widespread. For example, at the end of a programme, the independent producer's logo appears, with the words 'a [name of company] production for Channel Four' and 'Channel Four Television Corporation (c) [year of production]'. Thus although it does not produce programmes, many are seen to be belonging to it. Initially, the station was managed by the [[Independent Broadcasting Authority]] through subscription from the ITV franchise holders. In return, advertising on the channel (and advertising revenue) was handled by the ITV regions. This both removed the need for Channel 4 to establish its own relationships with advertisers, and kept it from competing too closely with ITV. While the channel greatly pleased many minority groups, it never found a wide mainstream audience. Channel 4 also funded independent films during this period, in addition to made-for-TV material. ===Independence: 1990&amp;ndash;Today=== [[Image:C4logo96-99.png|thumb|150px|right|The Channel 4 logo used from 1996&amp;ndash;1999. The four circles appeared in various configurations.]] [[Image:Ch4logo.gif|thumb|150px|right|The previous Channel 4 logo, used from 1999&amp;ndash;2004. The white square background is part of the logo.]] The 1990 Broadcasting Act [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/licensing_numbering/tv/c4/Channel_4_licence_Dec_2002.doc] altered the organisation of Channel 4, transforming it into a public corporation with a board partly appointed by the new [[Independent Television Commission]]. While its original remit was preserved, the channel now had to manage its own advertising (a potential disaster for a public service broadcaster), with a 'safety net' guaranteed minimum income should the revenue fall too low (which it so far has not). This safety net was funded by large insurance payments which the company had to make to the ITV companies. These premiums were phased out by the government in [[1998]]. Its new independence helped bring in a rash of programming changes. Instead of aiming for the fringes of society, it began to focus on the edges of the mainstream, and the centre of the mass market itself. It began to show many US programmes in peak viewing time, previously a rarity on UK terrestrial television. It premiered such shows as ''[[Friends]]'' and ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]''. It also started broadcasting a lot of reality formats (including ''[[Big Brother (UK TV series)|Big Brother]]''), and sports like [[cricket]] and [[horse racing]]. This new direction caused its ratings (and revenues) to skyrocket. However, the Channel 4 contract to broadcast test match cricket ceased with the end of the Summer 2005 [[The Ashes | Ashes]] series. In addition, it launched a number of subscription channels. These included a number of [[FilmFour]] channels, focusing on independent and non-English language films; [[At the Races|attheraces]], a horse racing channel; and [[E4 (channel)|E4]], primarily an entertainment channel. Some of the FilmFour channels were discontinued due to a lack of interest. In 2002, Channel 4's film financing division (FilmFour) was closed, due to massive losses. It had however had various successes, most notably ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]'' and ''[[Trainspotting (movie)|Trainspotting]]''. Partially in reaction to its new populist direction, the Communications Act of 2003 directed the channel to demonstrate innovation, experimentation and creativity, appeal to the tastes and interests of a culturally diverse society and to include programmes of an educational nature which exhibit a distinctive character. In 2005, Channel 4 made E4 'free to air' on the Freeview platform, and now has launched a new 'free to air' terrestrial channel on the same platform ([[More4]]). Channel 4 also may begin a new radio service based on [[Oneword]]. ==Management== Channel 4 is run by a chief executive, whose role is similar to that of the [[Director-General of the BBC]]. The chief executive is appointed by the chairman, which is a part-time position appointed by [[Ofcom]]. ===Chairmen=== * [[Edmund Dell]] (1982&amp;ndash;1987) * [[Richard Attenborough]] (1987&amp;ndash;1992) * [[Michael Bishop (businessman)|Michael Bishop]] (1993&amp;ndash;1997) * [[Vanni Treves]] (Jan 1998&amp;ndash;Dec 2003) * [[Luke Johnson]] (Jan 2004&amp;ndash;) ===Chief executives=== * [[Jeremy Isaacs]] (1981&amp;ndash;1987) * [[Michael Grade]] (1988&amp;ndash;1997) * [[Michael Jackson (TV)|Michael Jackson]] (1997&amp;ndash;2001) * [[Mark Thompson]] (Mar 2002&amp;ndash;June 2004) * [[Andy Duncan]] ([[July 19]], 2004&amp;ndash;) Andy Duncan was appointed on [[July 1]], [[2004]]. He was previously the Director of Marketing, Communications and Audiences at the [[BBC]]. ==Other channels== ===[[FilmFour]]=== Channel 4 has had a long record of success in funding the production of films through Channel Four Films, later renamed FilmFour in [[1998]] to coincide with the launch of its digital channels. Among its biggest successes are ''[[The Madness of King George]]'', ''[[The Crying Game]]'', and ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]''. However, this dedicated film-making wing was scaled back in [[2002]] as a cost-cutting measure in the face of substantial losses. Channel 4 launched a subscription [[film]] channel, FilmFour, in [[November]] [[1998]]. It is available on analogue and digital [[satellite television]] and digital cable. Companion services, such as FilmFour+1, FilmFour World and FilmFour Extreme were also available on some digital services. In [[2003]] Extreme and World were discontinued, and replaced with FilmFour Weekly. FilmFour Weekly will close in July 2006, when the main FilmFour channel goes free-to-view and becomes available on [[Freeview]]. When Channel 4 had the rights to broadcast test match [[cricket]] in England, the Film Four channel was sometimes used to broadcast parts of a match when the main channel was committed elsewhere. At these times Film Four was available free-to-air. ===[[attheraces]]=== Channel 4 launched a dedicated horse racing channel, attheraces, in 2000, however for a combination of financial and legal reasons the channel ceased broadcasting in 2003. It was subsequently bought by [[BSkyB]] and relaunched in June [[2004]], but Channel 4 no longer has any involvement with it. However Channel 4 continue to broadcast programmes named &quot;attheraces&quot; on their channel, when they are covering live horse racing. ===[[E4 (channel)|E4]]=== E4, a digital entertainment channel previously available on the [[Internet]], was launched in January [[2001]]. It features premieres of US imports and supplementary footage for programs on its main channel (most notably extended ''Big Brother'' coverage). In [[2005]] it launched on the [[Freeview]] service. E4 now has as much coverage as other services available on Cable, Satellite and Freeview like [[ITV2]] and [[BBC Three]]. It is a very successful channel with a ''first look'' or sneak peek, with the next episode of some series, such as ''[[Hollyoaks]]'', ''[[Desperate Housewives]]'' and ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' appearing on E4 immediately after the show on Channel 4 has finished. Also they have &quot;Second Chance Sunday&quot; which allows you to see missed programmes on a Sunday. ===[[T4 (Channel 4)|T4]] === T4 is a separately identified strand carried on Channel 4 and briefly on E4 until 2002. It consists of programming in the mornings seven days a week for an age range of around 13&amp;ndash;25. Music, soaps and US comedy shows all feature as part of the schedule on T4. Famous programmes include the ''[[Hollyoaks]] Omnibus'', ''[[Will &amp; Grace]]'' and ''[[Friends]]'', with popular US animation ''[[Futurama]]'' airing weekend mornings too. ===[[Quiz Call]]=== Quiz Call is a television channel on which puzzles and questions are displayed and viewers inv
advancing through [[Burma]] to the borders of [[British India]] by May, thus cutting off the overland supply route to China. Isolationism evaporated overnight and the country united behind Roosevelt as a wartime leader. Despite the wave of anger that swept across the U.S. in the wake of Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt decided from the start that the defeat of Nazi Germany had to take priority. Germany played directly into Roosevelt's hands when it declared war against the USA on [[December 11]] which removed any meaningful opposition to &quot;beating Hitler first.&quot; Roosevelt met with Churchill in late December and planned a broad alliance between the U.S., Britain, and the Soviet Union, with the objectives of, first, halting the German advances in the Soviet Union and in North Africa; second, launching an invasion of western Europe with the aim of crushing Nazi Germany between two fronts, and only third turning to the task of defeating Japan. Although Roosevelt was constitutionally the [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the United States armed forces, he had never worn a uniform and he did not interfere in operational military matters in anything like the way Churchill did in Britain, let alone take direct command of the forces as [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] did. He placed great trust in the Army Chief of Staff, General [[George Marshall]], and later in his Supreme Commander in Europe, General [[Dwight Eisenhower]], and left almost all strategic and tactical decisions to them, within the broad framework for the conduct of the war decided by the Cabinet in agreement with the other Allied powers. ===Japanese-American internment=== {{main|Japanese American internment}} Following the outbreak of the [[Pacific War]], the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals and Japanese American citizens be removed from war zones on the West Coast. The question how to evacuate the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese and American citizenship living in [[California]]. On February 11, 1942 Roosevelt met with Secretary of War Stimson, who persuaded him to approve an immediate evacuation.Roosevelt looked at the evidence available to him: the Japanese in the Philippines had collaborated with the Japanese invasion troops; the Japanese in California had been strong supporters of Japan in the war against China. There was evidence of [[espionage]] compiled by [[Cryptanalysis|code-breakers]] that decrypted messages to Japan from agents in [[North America]] and [[Hawaii]] before and after [[Pearl Harbor]]. These [[Magic (cryptography)|MAGIC]] cables were kept secret from all but those with the highest clearance, such as Roosevelt, lest the Japanese discover the decryption and change their code. On February 19, 1942 Roosevelt signed [[Executive Order 9066]] which ordered [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]], and military commanders to designate military areas &quot;from which any or all persons may be excluded.&quot; Roosevelt permitted them to return in 1944. On February 1, 1943, when activating the [[442nd Regimental Combat Team]] -- an unit composed mostly of American citizens of Japanese descent living in Hawaii, he said, &quot;No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry. The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry.&quot; Interior Secretary Ickes lobbied Roosevelt through 1944 to release the Japanese-American internees, but Roosevelt did not act until after the [[U.S. presidential election, 1944|November presidential election]]. A fight for Japanese-American civil rights meant a fight with influential Democrats, the Army, and the Hearst press and would have endangered Roosevelt's chances of winning California in 1944. Critics of Roosevelt's actions believe they were motivated in part by [[racialism]]. In 1925 Roosevelt had written about Japanese immigration: &quot;Californians have properly objected on the sound basic grounds that Japanese immigrants are not capable of assimilation into the American population... Anyone who has traveled in the Far East knows that the mingling of Asiatic blood with European and American blood produces, in nine cases out of ten, the most unfortunate results&quot;. In 1944, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] upheld the legality of the executive order in the [[Korematsu v. United States]] case. The executive order remained in force until December of that year. ===Civil rights and refugees=== Roosevelt's attitudes to race were also tested by the issue of Black (or &quot;[[Negro]]&quot;, to use the term of the time) service in the armed forces. The Democratic Party at this time was dominated by Southerners who were opposed to any concession to demands for racial equality. During the New Deal years, there had been a series of conflicts over whether African-Americans should be segregated in the various new government benefits and programs. Whenever a move was made to integrate the races Southern governors or congressmen would complain to Roosevelt, who would intervene to uphold segregation for the sake of keeping his party together. The [[Works Progress Administration]] and the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]], for example, segregated their work forces by race at Roosevelt's insistence after Southern governors protested at unemployed whites being required to work alongside blacks. Roosevelt's personal racial attitudes were conventional for his time and class. Some historians argue that he nevertheless played a major role in advancing the rights of blacks, and others say it was due to prodding from Eleanor Roosevelt and liberals such as Ickes, Perkins, Hopkins, [[Mary Mcleod Bethune]], [[Aubrey Williams]] and [[Claude Pepper]]. Roosevelt explained his reluctance to support anti-[[lynching]] legislation in a conversation with [[Walter White]] of the [[NAACP]]. &quot;I did not choose the tools with which I must work. Had I been permitted to choose then I would have selected quite different ones. But I've got to get legislation passed by Congress to save America. The Southerners by reason of the seniority rule in Congress are chairmen or occupy strategic places on most of the Senate and House committees. If I come out for the anti-lynching bill now, they will block every bill I ask Congress to pass to keep America from collapsing. I just can't take that risk.&quot; However, he did move Blacks into important advisory roles, brought them as delegates to the Democratic National Convention for the first time, abolished the two-thirds rule that gave the South veto power over presidential nominations, added a civil rights plank for the first time ever to the 1940 party platform, and included Blacks in the draft with the same rights and pay scales as whites. In June 1941 Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, which created the Fair Employment Practices Committee ([[FEPC]]). It was the most important federal move in support of the rights of African Americans between Reconstruction and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The President's order stated that the federal government would not hire any person based on their race, color, creed, or national origin. The FEPC enforced the order to ban discriminatory hiring within the federal government and in corporations that received federal contracts. Millions of blacks and women achieved better jobs and better pay as a result. The war brought the race issue to the forefront. The Army and Navy had been segregated since the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. But by 1940 the African-American vote had largely shifted from Republican to Democrat, and African-American leaders like [[Walter White]] of the [[NAACP]] and [[T. Arnold Hill]] of the [[National Urban League|Urban League]] had become recognized as part of the Roosevelt coalition. In June 1941, at the urging of [[A. Philip Randolph]], the leading African-American trade unionist, Roosevelt signed an executive order establishing the [[Fair Employment Practice Commission]] and prohibiting [[discrimination]] by any government agency, including the armed forces. In practice the services, particularly the Navy and the Marines, found ways to evade this order &amp;mdash; the Marine Corps remained all-white until 1943. In September 1942, at Eleanor's instigation, Roosevelt met with a delegation of African-American leaders, who demanded full integration into the forces, including the right to serve in combat roles and in the Navy, the Marine Corps and the [[United States Army Air Force]]. Roosevelt, with his usual desire to please everyone, agreed, but then did nothing to implement his promise. It was left to his successor, [[Harry S. Truman]], to fully desegregate the armed forces. Roosevelt's complex attitudes to American [[Jew]]s were also ambivalent. Franklin's mother Sara shared the conventional anti-Semitic attitudes common among Americans at a time when Jewish immigrants were flooding into the U.S. and their children were advancing rapidly into the business and professional classes to the alarm of those already there. Roosevelt apparently inherited some of his mother's attitudes, and at times expressed them in private. Paradoxically some of his closest political associates, such as [[Felix Frankfurter]], [[Bernard Baruch]] and [[Samuel I. Rosenman]], were Jewish, and he happily cultivated the important Jewish vote in New York City. He appointed [[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.]] as the first Jewish [[Secretary of the Treasury]] and appointed Frankfurter to the Supreme Court. During his first term Roosevelt condemned Hitler's persecution of German Jews, but said &quot;this is not a governmental affair&quot; and refused to make any public comment. As the Jewish exodus from Germany increased after 1937, Roosev
tract A[u,j] * row i from row u end_if end_for i = i + 1 end_if j = j + 1 end_while &lt;/pre&gt; This algorithm differs slightly from the one discussed earlier, because before eliminating a variable, it first exchanges rows to move the entry with the largest [[absolute value]] to the &quot;pivot position&quot;. Such a pivoting procedure improves the numerical stability of the algorithm; some variants are also in use. Note that if the field is the real or complex numbers and [[floating point]] arithmetic is in use, the comparison &lt;tt&gt;max_val ≠ 0&lt;/tt&gt; should be replaced by &lt;tt&gt;abs(max_val) &gt; epsilon&lt;/tt&gt; for some small, machine-dependent constant &lt;tt&gt;epsilon&lt;/tt&gt;, since it is rarely correct to compare floating point numbers to zero. [[Category:Numerical linear algebra]] [[cs:Gaussova eliminační metoda]] [[de:Gaußsches Eliminationsverfahren]] [[fr:Élimination de Gauss-Jordan]] [[ko:가우스 소거법]] [[nl:Gauss-eliminatie]] [[ja:ガウスの消去法]] [[pl:Metoda Gaussa]] [[sl:Gaussova eliminacijska metoda]] [[sv:Gausselimination]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gustav R. Kirchhoff</title> <id>13036</id> <revision> <id>15910678</id> <timestamp>2002-08-11T20:02:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] </comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gustav Kirchhoff]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guantanamo Bay</title> <id>13037</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42145249</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:57:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ROGNNTUDJUU!</username> <id>1024429</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Detention of prisoners */ link to court order description</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cu-map-Guantanamo.png|right|thumb|315px|Map of Cuba with location of Guantánamo Bay indicated.]][[Image:Gitmo Aerial.jpg|frame|right|Aerial view of Guantánamo Bay]] [[Image:Guantanamo bay satellite image.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite view of Guantánamo Bay]] [[Image:Guantanamo.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Guantánamo Bay showing approximate U.S. Naval Boundaries.]] '''Guantánamo Bay''' is a bay located in [[Guantánamo Province]] at the south-eastern end of [[Cuba]] ({{coor dm|19|54|N|75|9|W|}}). The southern portion of the bay has been owned by the [[United States of America]] for several decades and used as a [[United States Navy|naval]] base. Recently, the base has begun to host a detainment camp for militant combatants collected from both [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]]. This detainment camp&amp;mdash;in fact, even the U.S. presence in Guantánamo&amp;mdash;is against the will of the Cuban government and considered to be an illegal occupation of the area. The U.S. government believes it is in compliance with a treaty signed by both governments, however. The Cuban government strongly denounces the treaty on grounds that article 52 of the [[1969]] Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties declares a treaty void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force (see below). ==History== [[Image:Mugmapd.jpg|thumb|right|200px|left|Guantánamo Bay Airport Diagram]] ''See also [[Timeline of Guantánamo Bay]]'' ''See also [[Commanders of Guantánamo Bay]]'' The bay was originally named Guantánamo by the [[Taino]]. [[Christopher Columbus]] landed at the location known as Fisherman's Point in [[1494]]. The bay was briefly renamed Cumberland when the British took it in the first part of the [[18th century]] during the [[War of Jenkins' Ear]]. In [[1790]] the British garrison at Cumberland died of fever as had a previous British force [http://www.globalizationinstitute.org/blog/0504_guantanamo_bay_freeport.php], before they could attack Santiago by land [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1962/2/1962_2_18.shtml]. During the [[Spanish-American War]] the U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season. Thus Guantánamo with its excellent harbor was chosen for this purpose. The Marines landed successfully with naval support; however, as they went inland Spanish resistance increased to the point at which Cuban scouts were needed to save the leathernecks. '''U.S. Naval Station Guantánamo Bay''', which covers 116&amp;nbsp;km² (approx. 45 sq miles), is sometimes abbreviated as '''GTMO''' or &quot;'''Gitmo'''&quot;. It was established in [[1898]], when the United States obtained control of Cuba from [[Spain]] at the end of the [[Spanish-American War]], following the [[1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay]]. The U.S. government obtained a perpetual [[lease]] that began on [[February 23]], [[1903]], from [[Tomás Estrada Palma]], an American citizen, who became the first President of Cuba. The newly formed American [[protectorate]] incorporated the [[Platt Amendment]] in the Cuban Constitution. The [[Cuban-American Treaty]] held, among other things, that the United States, for the purposes of operating coaling and naval stations, has &quot;complete jurisdiction and control&quot; of the Guantánamo Bay, while the Republic of Cuba is recognized to retain ultimate sovereignty. In [[1905]], in part because of the [[Platt Amendment]], there was an uprising to which the United States responded by occupying Cuba for three years. A [[1934]] treaty reaffirming the lease granted Cuba and her trading partners free access through the bay, modified the lease payment from $2,000 in U.S. gold coins per year, to the 1934 equivalent value of $4,085 in U.S. Treasury Dollars&lt;!-- Federal Reserve Notes, United States Notes, or is the treaty not that specific? --&gt;, and added a requirement that termination of the lease requires the consent of both governments, or the abandonment of the base property by the United States. With over 9,500 U.S. troops, [http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0504/index.html] Guantánamo Bay is the only U.S. base in operation on [[Communist state|Communist]] soil, as of 2006. Until the Cuban Revolution, thousands of Cubans worked inside the base, commuting each day through several gates. In mid-1958 when the Cuban territory was declared off limits, the flow of traffic was stopped and Cuban workers coming into the base were required to walk through the gate checkpoint. Public Works Center busses were pressed into service almost overnight to carry the tremendous volume of Cuban workers to and from the gate. [http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/history/gtmohistorymurphyvol1ch18.htm] Since coming to power, [[Fidel Castro]] has only cashed one rent check, while steadfastly refusing to cash any others, because he views the lease as illegitimate. After the Cuban Revolution many Cubans sought refuge on the base, and Castro had the military plant 8 miles of cactus along the Northeastern section of the fenceline during the fall of 1961 to inhibit people from crossing onto the base — this lead to the moniker &quot;Cactus Curtain&quot;, as an allusion to the [[Iron Curtain]] in Europe. [http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/history/gtmohistorymurphyvol1ch18.htm] Today, however, although diplomatic relations do not exist between the two countries, the United States has agreed to return fugitives from Cuban law to Cuban authorities, and Cuba agreed to return fugitives from U.S. law, for offenses committed in Guantánamo Bay, to U.S. authorities. During the [[Cuban Missile|Cuban Missile Crisis]], the civilian families of military personnel were evacuated from the base. Dependents were notified of the evacuation on October 22nd; evacuees were told to pack one suitcase for each member of the family, to bring evacuation and immunization cards, to tie pets in the yard, leave the keys to the house on the dining table, and stand by in front of the house ready to board busses. [http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/history/gtmohistorymurphyvol1ch19.htm] Dependents were then either bussed to ports, where they boarded evacuation ships, or were flown to the U.S. mainland. Since 1939 the base's water had been supplied by pipelines from the Yateras River, approximately four and one-half miles northeast of the base, but in 1964 the Cuban government cut off water to the base. At the time the U. S. Government paid a monthly rate of about $14,000, receiving about two and one-half million gallons per day. Average consumption was about two million gallons per day. When the water cut-off occurred, about 14 million gallons of water was in storage, and strict water conservation was put into effect immediately. First the United States imported water from [[Jamaica]] via barges, and later the United States built [[desalination]] plants.[http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/history/gtmohistorymurphyvol1ch21.htm] When the Cuban government accused the United States of stealing water, the base commander ordered that the water pipelines coming into the base be cut and a section removed. A 38-inch section of the 14-inch pipe and a 20-inch section of the 10-inch pipe were cut and lifted from the ground and the openings sealed permanently. Today, the base is self-sufficient, producing its own water and electricity. After the resolution of the water crisis, in December, [[1964]], military dependents were allowed to return to the base. Only two Cubans, both elderly, still cross the base's North East Gate daily to work on the base; the Cuban government prohibits new recruitment. Now only rarely do Cubans escape here, going by water around the mine fields, to reach the base. U.S. Troops scattered 75,000 land mines across the so-called &quot;no man's land&quot;, i.e. the land strip between the U.S. and Cuban border. It was the largest mine field in the western hemisphere and 2nd largest in the world. On [[May 16]], [[1996]] a Presidential Order required the removal of the mines. They have since been repla
nsidered to be heretical by mainstream Christianity. For example, [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] referred to some of those as [[Semi-Arian]]s and ''Pneumatomachi'' (&quot;spirit-fighters&quot;) and called them, &quot;A sort of monstrous, half-formed people of two natures...Semi-Arians...hold the truly orthodox view of the Son, that he was forever with the Father...but has been begotten without beginning and not in time...But all of these blaspheme the Holy Spirit, and do not count him in the Godhead with the Father and the Son&quot; (Epiphanius. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Books II and III (Sects 47-80), De Fide). Section VI, Verses 1,1 and 1,3. Translated by Frank Williams. EJ Brill, New York, 1994, pp.471-472) Hence, [[nontrinitarians]] have long been subject to criticism by those who accepted the Nicene and later Councils. ==Rastafarian view of the Holy Spirit== As a movement that developed out of Christianity, [[Rastafari movement|Rastafari]] has its own unique interpretation of both the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] and the Holy Spirit. Although there are several slight variations, they generally state that it is [[Haile Selassie]] who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or rather, &quot;''Hola''&quot;) Spirit is to be found within Rasta believers (see '[[Iandi|I and I]]'), and within every human being. Rastas also say that the true [[church]] is the human body, and that it is this church (or &quot;''structure''&quot;) that contains the Holy Spirit. ==Other views== ===Judaism=== Judaism as a whole does not have a developed pneumatology. Most Jews consider the Holy Spirit to be a thoroughly Christian concept. &quot;The designation of the third person of the Trinity, the Holy Ghost, stems from a Hebrew figure of speech, the ''ruah hakodesh'' (&quot;holy spirit&quot;). In Jewish usage, however, this concept was never identified with a separate person, but with a Divine power which could fill men, as, for instance, the prophets.&quot; - ''The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia,'' 1943, 1969, see: &quot;Trinity&quot;, pp. 308. ===Islam=== [[Islam]]ic interpretations consider the Holy Spirit to be another name for the [[archangel]] [[Gabriel]]. In [[Sura]] 2.97, the [[Qur'an]] states that Gabriel delivered the word of [[Allah]] to the [[prophet]] [[Muhammad]], and in Sura 16.102 Gabriel is specifically called &quot;the Holy Spirit&quot;. All Quranic references to the Holy Spirit refer, therefore, to this angel. The actual term &quot;Holy Spirit&quot; الروح القدس is used in the following verses in the Quran: 2:87, 2:253, 5:110, 16:102. In these verses, the Holy Spirit is strongly supportive of Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed in their divine missions. The Qur'an also mentions the Holy Spirit in 21:91, yet there the term used is &quot;Our Spirit&quot;. The 91st Ayah of Surah Al-Anbiya, (21:91,) is indeed in reference to Mary and Jesus, while Our Spirit is referring to Gabriel (Jibril). In Islam, Angels are genderless and have no will of their own, meaning it is impossible for them to disobey God, (please see: [[Angels in Islam]]). There is also a reasonable debate for Matt 1:18 and Luke 1:26 using the Holy Ghost and the archangel Gabriel interchangeably. ===Mandaeanism=== {{main|Ruha d-Qudsha}} ===Hinduism=== There are parallels between the Holy Spirit and [[Kundalini]], the divine intelligence behind spiritual awakening and maturation in [[Yoga]]. Kundalini is both a power that proceeds from the Absolute and a divine person, a [[Goddess]] or [[Shakti]]. She is also God immanent in the human being. Several scriptures of [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] ([[Hindu]]) tradition describe that God is present in the heart as the supreme witness, [[Paramatman]] (as per 1 Cor. 3:16, [[sura 50]]:16 and [[sura 6]]:60 of [[Qur'an]]). {In reference to [[sura 50|Surah 50]]:16 and [[sura 6|Surah 6]]:60 of the [[Qur'an]]: Since God is All-Knowing, ([[sura 11|Surah 11]]:123 and [[sura 64|Surah 64]]:11,) and absolutely everything is known to Him from the start, (including all good and all bad,) he is considered more close to the person, than that person's jugular vein} - [[Vedanta Sutra]] 1.2.11, Katha [[Upanishad]] 1.3.1, Chandogya Upanishad 8.1.1 and other Upanishads. [[Bhagavad Gita]], a summary of Upanishads, has many verses about Paramatman. Several are: 10.20: &quot;I am the Supersoul, O [[Arjuna]], seated in the hearts of all living entities. I am the beginning, the middle and the end of all beings.&quot; 15.15: &quot;I am seated in everyone’s heart, and from Me come remembrance, knowledge and forgetfulness. By all the [[Vedas]], I am to be known. Indeed, I am the compiler of [[Vedanta]], and I am the knower of the Vedas.&quot; 18.61: &quot;The Supreme Lord is situated in everyone’s heart, O Arjuna, and is directing the wanderings of all living entities, who are seated as on a machine, made of the material energy.&quot; (quotes from [[Bhagavad Gita As It Is]] by [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]]) ===Comparisons in fiction=== In [[role-playing game]]s, the measure of ''Honour'' or ''Grace'' to [[Paladin (gaming)|Paladins]] can be superficially compared to the views towards the Holy Spirit. The Paladin, by doing good deeds and helping others (the [[Non-player character|NPC]]s), is favoured by the god he serves, which translates into points of Experience and Honour. These points mark his ability to do Paladin spells like healing, repulsing undead, blessing, giving strength etc which are usually dependant on the [[Charisma]] ability (translates as ''gift''). When doing honourless or evil actions, the god punishes the Paladin by taking away these abilities. A good parallel is [[the Force]] of [[Star Wars]] and the [[Jedi]] knights, that have many in common with the concept of the Paladins. The Force resembles some interpretations of the Holy Spirit in that it flows between living beings and holds the universe together. A Jedi by having connection to the Force can use it and obtain abilities from it that partially resemble of the 'Fruits' of the Holy Spirit. Note that the Force is more usually compared to the [[Qi|Chi]]. [[J.R.R. Tolkien]], Christian fantasy author, in the [[Ainulindale]] speaks about the [[Flame Imperishable]] by which the [[Iluvatar]] the Creator made the [[Ainur]] and brought Being to the [[Arda|world]] of his mythos. The Flame was not a separate being, but was in the Creator. This description is clearly inspired by the appearance of the paracletus on the Pentecost. ==See also== *[[God]] *[[Prevenient Grace]] *[[Pneumatology]] *[[Revelation]] *[[Slain in the Spirit]] *[[Christian anarchism]] *[[Holy Spirit as Revealed in Acts through Revelation]] *[[Holy Spirit according to Protestantism]] ==External links== *[http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Holy_Spirit The Holy Spirit at WikiChristian] *[http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com Catholic Apologetics of America] *[http://www.spirithome.com/spirwork.html a Lutheran's view of what the Holy Spirit does] *[http://www.outreachjudaism.org/evangelize1.html Jewish perspective] *[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=865&amp;letter=H Jewish Encyclopedia: Holy Spirit] [[Category:Christianity]] [[Category:Triune Gods]] [[Category:Christian theology]] [[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]] [[cs:Duch svatý]] [[da:Helligånden]] [[de:Heiliger Geist]] [[es:Espíritu Santo]] [[eo:Sankta Spirito]] [[fr:Saint-Esprit]] [[ga:An Spiorad Naomh]] [[id:Allah Roh Kudus]] [[ia:Spirito Sancte]] [[it:Spirito Santo]] [[la:Spiritus Sanctus]] [[hu:Szentlélek]] [[ms:Roh Kudus]] [[nl:Heilige Geest]] [[ja:聖霊]] [[no:Den hellige Ånd]] [[nn:Den heilage anden]] [[pl:Duch Święty]] [[pt:Espírito Santo]] [[ro:Duhul Sfânt]] [[sk:Svätý Duch]] [[sr:Свети Дух]] [[fi:Pyhä Henki]] [[sv:Den Helige Ande]] [[vi:Chúa Thánh Linh]] [[zh:聖靈]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Helium-3</title> <id>14380</id> <revision> <id>40462542</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:07:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.89.209.159</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}} '''Helium-3''' is a light, non-[[radioactive]] [[isotope]] of [[helium]]. The [[helion]], the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of a helium-3 atom, consists of two [[proton]]s but only one [[neutron]], in contrast to two neutrons in ordinary helium. Helium-3 is rare on [[Earth]] and sought-after for use in [[nuclear fusion]]. More abundant helium-3 is thought to exist on the [[Moon]] (embedded in the upper layer of [[regolith]] by the [[solar wind]] over billions of years) and the [[solar system]]'s [[gas giant]]s (left over from the original [[solar nebula]]). As it is a primordial substance in the Earth's [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], it is used in [[isotope geochemistry]] studies. ==Fusion== Helium-3 undergoes the following [[Aneutronic fusion|aneutronic fusion reaction]], among others, although this is the one most promising for power generation: :[[Deuterium|D]] + &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He &amp;rarr; &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;He (3.7 MeV) + p (14.7 MeV) The appeal of helium-3 fusion stems from the nature of its reaction products. Most proposed fusion processes for power generation produce energetic neutrons which render reactor components radioactive with their bombardment, and power generation must occur through thermal means. In contrast, Helium-3 itself is non-radioactive. The lone high-energy proton produced can be contained using electric and magnetic fields, which results in direct electricity generation. However, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, side reactions (D + D and &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He + &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He) will occur, the first of which is not aneutronic. Therefore in practice this reaction is unlikely to ever be completely 'clean'. Also, the temperatures required for D + &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He fusion are muc
/pages/fraam.html FMRAAM at Global-Defence.com] * [http://www.global-defence.com/2000/pages/fraam.html Meteor vs. FMRAAM at Global-Defence.com] * [http://www.kangaldogs.net/training/docs/nato.htm NATO brevity words] * [http://www.raytheon.com/products/stellent/groups/rms/documents/content/cms01_054563.pdf Raytheon: AIM-120 AMRAAM] * [http://www.deagel.com/pandora/?p=pm00003001 More HUMRAAM information] * [http://www.kongsberg.com/eng/kda/products/Aircraft/NASAMS/ NASAMS (Kongsberg Defence &amp; Aerospace official information)] * [http://www.gbad.org/gbad/amd_nasams.html NASAMS (third-party information)] {{airlistbox}} [[Category:Air-to-air missiles of the United States]] [[Category:United States Air Force guided missiles]] [[Category:United States Navy guided missiles]] [[Category:United States Marine Corps guided missiles]] [[Category:Luftwaffe guided missiles]] [[Category:Royal Norwegian Air Force guided missiles]] [[Category:Royal Air Force guided missiles]] [[Category:Royal Australian Air Force guided missiles]] [[Category:Bahrain Defense Forces guided missiles]] [[Category:Republic of Singapore Air Force guided missiles]] [[Category:Swedish Air Force guided missiles]] [[Category:Surface-to-air missiles of the United States]] [[Category:Surface-to-air missiles of Norway]] [[Category:Raytheon products]] [[da:AMRAAM]] [[de:AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[fr:AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[it:AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[ja:AIM-120]] [[no:AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[pl:AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[pt:AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[fi:AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[sv:Robot 99 AMRAAM]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AGM-84 Harpoon</title> <id>3148</id> <revision> <id>37965786</id> <timestamp>2006-02-03T06:27:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>200.38.7.41</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''AGM-84 ''Harpoon''''' is a [[United States|U.S.]] all-weather, over-the-horizon, [[anti-ship missile|anti-ship]] [[cruise missile]] system, originally developed by [[McDonnell Douglas]], with development and manufacturing now taken over by [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]]. In 2004, Boeing delivered the 7000th Harpoon unit since the weapon's introduction in 1977. The missile system has also been further developed into a coastal strike version, the '''AGM-84E Standoff Land Attack Missile''' ('''SLAM'''). [[Image:Harpoon asm bowfin museum.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Harpoon missile on display at the [[USS Bowfin (SS-287)|USS ''Bowfin'']] [[museum]] at [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]].]] Harpoon uses [[active radar homing]] and low-level, sea-skimming cruise trajectory to improve survivability and effectiveness. The missile's launch platform options include: *[[warship|surface ship]]s ('''RGM-84''', fitted with a [[solid rocket]] launch booster that detaches when expended to allow the missile's integral [[turbojet]] to maintain flight) *[[submarine]]s ('''UGM-84''', fitted with a solid-rocket launch booster and encapsulated in a container to enable submerged launch through a torpedo tube) *[[airplane]]s ('''AGM-84''', without the booster) *coastal defense batteries The chief competitor of the ''Harpoon'' is the French ''[[Exocet]]''. ==Versions and operators== ===Original Harpoon=== Initially developed for the [[United States Navy|US Navy]] to serve as its basic anti-ship missile for fleet-wide use, the '''AGM-84D''' has been adapted for use on Air Force [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52G bombers]], which can carry from eight to 12 of the missiles. The AGM-84E has been adapted for use on the [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]], in use by both the [[United States|USA]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]]. The [[Royal Australian Air Force]] can fire AGM-84 series missiles from its [[General Dynamics F-111#F-111C|F-111C/G Aardvark]], [[F/A-18 Hornet]] and [[P-3 Orion|AP-3C Orion]] aircraft. The [[Egyptian Navy]] uses the Harpoon SSM to equip eight [[frigate]]s and four [[submarine]]s. The AGM-84A was first introduced in [[1977]], and in [[1979]] an air-launched version was deployed on the Navy's P-3 Orion aircraft. ===Harpoon Block II=== [[Image:Harpoon-block-II-launch.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Harpoon Block II test firing from [[USS Decatur (DDG-73)|USS ''Decatur'']].]] In production at Boeing facilities in [[Saint Charles, Missouri|St. Charles, Mo.]] is the '''Harpoon II''', intended to offer an expanded engagement envelope and advanced [[electronic countermeasures|counter measures]] together with improved targeting. The key improvements of the Harpoon II are obtained by incorporating the [[inertial measurement unit]] from the [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]] program, and the software, computer, [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]/inertial navigation system and GPS antenna/receiver from the '''SLAM-ER''' ('''''E'''xpanded '''R'''esponse'', an upgrade to the AGM-84E SLAM). The first international customer for Harpoon Block II systems was the [[Royal Danish Navy]], which ordered 50 upgrade kits in 1997; the first systems were delivered in 2002. &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt; ==General characteristics== * Primary function: Air, surface, or [[submarine]] launched anti-surface (anti-ship) cruise missile. * Contractor: [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]] * Power plant: Teledyne Turbojet and solid propellant booster for surface and submarine launch. * Thrust: 2.9 [[kilonewton|kN]] (660 [[Pound-force|lbf]]) * Length: ** Air launched: 3.8 m (12 ft 7 in) ** Surface and submarine launched: 4.6 m (15 ft) * Weight: ** Air launched: 519 kg (1,160 lb) ** Submarine or ship launched from box or canister launcher: 628 kg (1,523 lb) * Diameter: 340 mm (13.5 in) * Wing span: 910 mm (3 ft) with booster fins and wings * Range: Over-the-horizon. **'''AGM-84D''' - 220 km (120 nm). **'''RGM/UGM-84D''' - 140 km (75 nm). **'''AGM-84E''' - 93 km (50 nm). **'''AGM-84F''' - 315 km (170 nm.) **'''AGM-84H/K'''- 280 km (150 nm). * Speed: High subsonic, around 850 km/h (460 [[knot (speed)|knot]]s, 240 m/s, 530 mph) * Guidance: Sea-skimming cruise monitored by radar altimeter, active radar terminal homing. * Warhead: 221 kg (488 lb), penetration high-explosive blast * Unit cost: [[United States dollar|US$]]720,000 * Date deployed: ** Ship launched (RGM-84A): [[1977]] ** Air launched (AGM-84A): [[1979]] ** Submarine launched (UGM-84A): [[1981]] ** SLAM (AGM-84E): [[1990]] ** SLAM-ER (AGM-84H): [[1998]] (delivery); [[2000]] (initial operational capability, IOC) ** SLAM-ER ATA (AGM-84K): [[2002]] (IOC) ==External links== *[http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/missiles/harpoon/index.htm Official Harpoon information] &amp;ndash; At Boeing's website *[http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/harpoon.htm Detailed information of all Harpoon versions and upgrades] &amp;ndash; From Encyclopedia Astronautica *[http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/m-84.html AGM-84 variants] {{airlistbox}} [[Category:Anti-ship missiles]] [[Category:Cold War missiles of the United States]] [[Category:Modern missiles of the United States]] [[de:AGM-84 Harpoon]] [[ko:AGM-84 하푼]] [[he:הרפון]] [[nl:Harpoon]] [[ja:ハープーン]] [[no:AGM-84 Harpoon]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AGM-88 HARM</title> <id>3149</id> <revision> <id>41475504</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:34:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Big Smooth</username> <id>893445</id> </contributor> <comment>typos, clarification, links added</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300px&quot; |+ &lt;big&gt;'''AGM-88 HARM Anti-Radiation Missile'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;'''Technical Summary'''&lt;/small&gt; |- |align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Image:AGM-88-HARM-navy.gif|thumb|none|300px|An AGM-88 HARM missile loaded aboard an aircraft]] |- | Primary Function: | Air-to-surface anti-radiation missile; attack and destroy hostile radar installations. |- | Contractor: | [[Raytheon Corporation]] (originally developed by [[Texas Instruments]]) |- | Power Plant: | [[Thiokol]] dual-thrust, solid-propellant [[rocket]] [[motor]] |- | Length: | 4.1m (13 ft 8 in) |- | Launch Weight: | 360 kg (800 lb) |- | Diameter: | 254 mm (10 in) |- | Wing Span: | 1.1 m (3 ft 8 in) |- | Range: | 90+ km (80+ statute miles, 57+ nautical miles) |- | Speed: | 340 m/s (760+ mph) |- | Guidance: | radar homing |- | Warhead: | Blast fragmentation; warhead weight 68 kg (150 lb) |- | Unit Cost: | US$284,000 |- | Date Deployed: | [[1985]] |} The '''AGM-88 High-Speed Anti-radiation Missile (HARM)''' is an air-to-surface tactical [[missile]] designed to seek out and destroy enemy [[radar]]-equipped air defense systems. The missile was originally developed by [[Texas Instruments]] as a replacement for the [[AGM-78 Standard]] ARM system. Production was later taken over by [[Raytheon Corporation]]. The AGM-88 can detect, attack and destroy a target with minimal aircrew input. The proportional guidance system that homes in on enemy radar emissions has a fixed antenna and seeker head in the missile's nose. A smokeless, solid-propellant, [[dual-thrust]] [[rocket motor]] propels the missile at speeds up to [[Mach number|Mach]] 4. The HARM missile was approved for full production in March [[1983]]. It proved effective against [[Libya|Libyan]] targets in the [[Gulf of Sidra]] in [[1986]], and was used extensively by the [[United States Navy]] and the [[United States Air Force]] for Operation Desert Storm during the [[Gulf War]] of [[1991]]. ==See also== *[[Anti-radiation missile]] *[[List of missiles]] [[Category:Anti-radiation missiles of the United States|AGM-088]] [[Category:Anti-radiation missiles of Germany|AGM-088]] [[Category:Cold War anti-radiation missiles]] [[Category:Modern American weapons]] [[Category:Raytheon products]] [[de:AGM-88 HARM]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harrier II</titl
alinese Music''. ISBN 0226792811 and ISBN 0226792838 **Boiles, J. (1969). &quot;Terpehua though-song&quot;, ''Ethnomusicology'', 13, 42-47. **Wachsmann, K. (1950). &quot;An equal-stepped tuning in a Ganda harp&quot;, ''Nature (Longdon)'', 165, 40. **Cho, Gene Jinsiong. (2003). ''The Discovery of Musical Equal Temperament in China and Europe in the Sixteenth Century''. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press. == External links == *[http://www.yuvalnov.org/temperament Explaining the Equal Temperament] *[http://tonalsoft.com/enc/index2.htm?eqtemp.htm Tonalsoft Encyclopaedia of Tuning] *[http://home.earthlink.net/~kgann/histune.html An Introduction to Historical Tunings] *[http://www.users.dircon.co.uk/~oneskull/3.6.04.htm A beginner's guide to temperament] *[http://tonalsoft.com/monzo/55edo/55edo.htm Mozart's Teaching of Violin Intonation] *[http://www.xs4all.nl/~huygensf/english/ Huygens-Fokker Foundation Centre for Microtonal Music] *[http://www.xs4all.nl/~huygensf/doc/telemann.html Telemann's New Musical System] *[http://www.xs4all.nl/~huygensf/doc/stevinsp.html A.D. Fokker: Simon Stevin's views on music] *[http://www.geocities.jp/imyfujita/wtcuncertain.html Music of Sacred Temperament] *[http://www.fortunecity.com/tinpan/lennon/362/english/acoustics.htm A.Orlandini: Music Acoustics] {{Musical tuning}} [[Category:Equal temperaments| ]] [[cs:Rovnoměrně temperované ladění]] [[de:Gleichstufige Stimmung]] [[fr:Gamme tempérée]] [[ko:평균율]] [[it:Temperamento equabile]] [[hu:Kiegyenlített hangolás]] [[lt:Lygioji temperacija]] [[nl:Gelijkzwevende stemming]] [[ja:平均律]] [[fi:Tasaviritys]] [[sv:Liksvävande temperatur]] [[zh:十二平均律]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Edward Gibbon</title> <id>10310</id> <revision> <id>41240415</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:24:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.51.1.201</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Assessment */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}} [[Image:Edward_Gibbon.jpg|thumb|200px|Edward Gibbon (1737-1794).]] '''Edward Gibbon''' ([[April 27]], [[1737]] ([[Julian calendar|O.S.]]) ([[May 8]], [[1737]] ([[Gregorian calendar|N.S.]])) - [[January 16]], [[1794]]) was arguably the most influential [[historian]] since the time of [[Tacitus]]. His magnum opus, ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', published between [[1776]] and 1788, is a groundbreaking work whose influence endures to this day. == Life == Gibbon was born in [[Putney]], then a town by the river [[Thames]], near [[London]], [[England]]. His grandfather had made and lost the family fortune in the [[South Sea Bubble]]. Gibbon was the only child, and he described himself as &quot;a weakly child&quot; in his memoirs. His mother died when he was 10 years old, after which he attended [[Kingston Grammar School]], staying at the boarding house of his favorite &quot;Aunt Kitty&quot;, followed by [[Westminster School]] at the age of 11. At the age of 14, he was sent by his father to [[Magdalen College, Oxford|Magdalen College]] at the [[University of Oxford]], where he enrolled as a gentleman-commoner. Gibbon was ill-suited to the college atmosphere and later wrote of his 14 months there as &quot;the most idle and unprofitable of my whole life.&quot; The most memorable event of his time at Oxford was his conversion to [[Roman Catholicism]] on [[June 8]], [[1753]]. Religious controversies raged on the Oxford campus, and while their intellectual standards were sometimes described as bleak, obsolete, and barren, the 16 year-old Gibbon was not immune to this controversial religious trend and he later remarked, with his flair for sarcastic understatement, &quot;from my childhood, I had been fond of religious disputation&quot;. Within weeks of his conversion, the elder Gibbon removed the younger from Oxford, and sent him to M. Pavilliard, a [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] pastor and private tutor in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]], where he remained for five years, a time which would have a profound impact upon Gibbon's later character and life. He quickly reconverted back to [[Protestant]]ism, but more importantly, his time in Lausanne enriched Gibbon's immense aptitude for scholarship and erudition. In addition, he met the one romance in his life: the pastor's daughter, a young woman named Suzanne Curchod, who would later be the wife of [[Jacques Necker]], the French finance minister, and mother of [[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël|Mme de Staël]]. Once again, his father intruded in his son's life by vetoing the marriage proposal and demanding the young Gibbon's immediate return to England. Gibbon would write: &quot;I sighed like a lover, I obeyed like a son.&quot; Upon his return to England, Gibbon published his first book, ''Essai sur l'Etude de la Littérature'' in [[1758]]. From [[1759]] to [[1763]], Gibbon spent four years in service with the Hampshire militia. Later that year, he embarked on a Grand Tour to Europe, which included a visit to [[Rome]]. It was here, in [[1764]], that Gibbon first conceived the idea of writing about the history of the [[Roman Empire]]: &lt;blockquote&gt;It was on the fifteenth of October, in the gloom of evening, as I sat musing on the [[Capitoline Hill|Capitol]], while the barefooted fryars were chanting their litanies in the temple of [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], that I conceived the first thought of my history. (''Memoirs of My Life'', ed. Georges A. Bonnard [New York: Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1966], p. 304)&lt;/blockquote&gt; By [[1772]], his father died, and after tending to the estate, which was by no means in good condition, there was nevertheless enough for Gibbon to settle comfortably in London. He began writing his history in [[1773]] and the first quarto of ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' appeared in [[1776]]. Gibbon suffered from a malady now believed to be [[hydrocele testis]], according to the [[Merck Manual]]. This condition caused his testicles to swell with fluid to extraordinary proportions. Gibbon underwent numerous procedures to have the fluid removed during his later years, but as his condition worsened, it became both more painful and an embarrassment. His doctor, who actually measured the contents, once drew five quarts of liquid from the protuberance. This chronic inflammation caused Gibbon great physical discomfort in a time when men wore close-fitting breeches. He refers to this indirectly in his ''Memoirs'', with comments: &quot;I can recall only fourteen truly happy days in my life,&quot; and &quot;I am never so content when writing in solitude.&quot; Personal hygiene during the Eighteenth Century was optional at best; for Gibbon, it was marginal by any standard. The social humiliation Gibbon endured as a result of his hygiene and his protuberance is chronicled. In an age when a man's stature was measured not merely by the &quot;cut of his breeches,&quot; but by his riding, Gibbon was a lonely figure. In one incident, he bent down on one knee to propose to a lady of society. She demurred, &quot;Sir, please, stand up.&quot; Gibbon replied: &quot;Madam, I cannot.&quot; == Assessment == Gibbon's literary art, the sustained excellence of his style, his piquant epigrams and his brilliant irony, would perhaps not secure for his work the immortality which it seems likely to enjoy, if it were not also marked by an accuracy of judgment which has rarely been equalled. [[Churchill]] memorably noted, ''I set out upon Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [and] was immediately dominated by both the story and the style. I devoured Gibbon. I rode triumphantly through it from end to end.'' Churchill later went on to mimic Gibbon's prose style, although at a marginally less elevated level. Unusual for the 18th century, Gibbon was never content with secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible. ''I have always endeavoured,'' he says, ''to draw from the fountainhead; my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary evidence on whose faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend.'' In this insistence upon the importance of primary sources, Gibbon is considered by many to be one of the first modern historians. Gibbon's verdict on the history of the [[Middle Ages]] is contained in the famous sentence, ''I have described the triumph of barbarism and religion.'' It is important to understand clearly the criterion that he applied, because it is frequently misunderstood. He was a son of the [[18th century]], had studied [[Locke]] and [[Montesquieu]] with sympathy, and few seem to have appreciated more keenly than he did, the human advantages of political liberty and the freedom of an Englishman. In short, the criterion by which Gibbon judged civilization and progress was the measure in which the happiness of men is secured, and of that happiness, he considered political freedom to be an essential precondition. Decline and Fall has had its detractors too, almost invariably in the form of religious commentators and religious historians who detested his querying not only of official church history, but also of the saints and scholars of the church, their motives and their accuracy. In particular, the Fifteenth Chapter, which documents the reasons for the rapid spread of [[Christianity]] throughout the Roman Empire, was particularly vilified and resulted in the banning of the book in various countries until quite recently, with Ireland, for example, lifting the ban on sale in the early 1970's. Despite this official opposition, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' remains surprisingly popular and arguably one of the finest histories in the English language. == Influence on other writers == The subject of Gibbon's writing as well as his ideas and style have influenced other writers. Beside
consuls during its existence ([[260]]&amp;ndash;[[274]]). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins. One of the reforms of [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]] was to assign one of the consuls to the city of [[Rome]], and the other to [[Constantinople]]. Therefore, when the Roman Empire was divided into two halves on the death of [[Theodosius I]], the emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consuls&amp;mdash; although one emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. As a result, after the formal end of the Roman Empire in the West, many years would be named for only a single consul. This rank was finally allowed to lapse in the reign of [[Justinian I]]: first with the consul of Rome in [[534]], [[Decius Paulinus]], then the consul of Constantinople in [[541]], [[Flavius Basilius Junior]]. ===Consular dating=== The highest magistrates were eponymous, i.e. each year was officially identified (like a regnal year in a monarchy) by the two Consuls' names, though there was a more practical numerical dating ''ab urbe condita'' (i.e since the mythical foundation year of Rome). For instance, the year [[59 BC]] in the modern calendar was called by the Romans &quot;the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus,&quot; since the two colleagues in the consulship were [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]] (but Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as &quot;the consulship of Julius and Caesar&quot;). In Latin, the [[ablative absolute]] construction is frequently used to accomplish this, such as &quot;''M. Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus'',&quot; translated literally as &quot;[[Marcus Messalla]] and [[Marcus Pupio Piso]] being Consuls,&quot; which appears in Caesar's ''[[De Bello Gallico]]''. In most accounts of Roman history, consular elections are detailed and usually mark the beginning of each year, as the Consuls were elected in January. Outgoing Consuls were expected to return to Rome to oversee the elections. ===Lists of Roman Consuls=== For a complete list of Roman consuls, see: * [[List of Republican Roman Consuls]] (before 33&amp;nbsp;BC) * [[List of early imperial Roman consuls]] ([[33 BC|33&amp;nbsp;BC]]&amp;#8209;[[192|AD&amp;nbsp;192]]) * [[List of late imperial Roman consuls]] (after AD&amp;nbsp;192) ==Other uses in antiquity== ===Other city states=== While in many cities their was a double-headed chief magustracy, often another title was used, such as Duumvir or native styles such as Meddix, but in some Consul was used. ===Private sphere=== It was not uncommon for various organisations under Roman private law to copy the terminology of state and city institutions for its own statutory agents (the very founding statute or contract was also called ''lex'', 'law') ==In Feudal times== In various Italian city states, the republican regimes (elsewhere or in other periods, the Bishop or a hereditary Prince or Lord was in charge) gave its [[Chief Magistrate]]s the title of consul ... The same happened in some cities in France, especially in the Mediterranean south, e.g. [[Avignon]] ==Modern republics== ===French republican consuls=== In [[1799]], revolutionary [[France]] enacted a constitution that conferred supreme executive powers upon ''three'' officials that bore the title &quot;consul&quot; as chief magistracy of the republic. In reality, however, the state was de facto under personal control of the [[First Consul]], general [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], so in political terms it was more like a re-edition of Julius Caesar's and Octavian's [[triumvirate]]s. Originally the consuls were to hold office for a period of ten years, but in 1802 Bonaparte was declared First ''Consul for life'' (lifetime consulate was introduced for Second and Third Consuls as well), again rather like Caesar was Dictator for life (after declining the royal style). The French consulate ceased to exist when Bonaparte was declared [[Emperor]] of the French in 1804. ===Roman republican consuls=== Since on [[15 February]] [[1798]] - [[23 June]] [[1800]] the [[Roman Republic]] was declared, it was headed by multiple (not just two-member) consulate, which [[27 November]] [[1798]] - [[12 December]] [[1798]] occupied by &quot;Sicily&quot; (Naples); since [[11 July]] [[1799]] - [[28 September]] [[1799]] the republic was occupied by France, [[30 September]] [[1799]] - [[23 June]] [[1800]] occupied by &quot;Sicily&quot; (i.e. the kingdom of Naples), later one of the home-realms of the Italian kingdom. The members of the Consulates were: *[[15 February]] [[1798]] - [[20 March]] [[1798]] there were Provisional Consuls: Briganti, Carlo Luigi Costantini, Pio Camillo, duca Bonelli-Crescenzi, Gioacchino Pessuti, Antonio Bassi &amp; Maggi, Stampa &amp; Liborio Angelucci *[[20 March]] [[1798]] - September 1798 the first regular Consuls: Liborio Angelucci, Giacomo De Mattheis, Panazzi, Reppi &amp; Ennio Quirino Visconti *September 1798 - [[27 November]] [[1798]] again Consuls: Brigi (1st time), Calisti (1st time), Francesco Pierelli (1st time), Giuseppe Rey (1st time) &amp; Federico Maria Domenico Michele Zaccaleoni (1st time) (b. 1760 - d. 18..) *After the [[29 November]] [[1798]] - [[12 December]] [[1798]] Provisional Government of five (Princes Giambattista Borghese, Paolo-Maria Aldobrandini &amp; Prince Gibrielli, Marchese Camillo Massimo &amp; Giovanni Ricci), the [[12 December]] [[1798]] - [[24 July]] [[1799]] Consuls: Brigi (2nd time), Calisti (2nd time), Francesco Pierelli (2nd time), Giuseppe Rey (2nd time), Federico Maria Domenico Michele Zaccaleoni (2nd time) ===Paraguay=== In between series of juntas (and various other short-lived regimes), the young republic was govered by Consuls of the Republic in power (2 consuls alternating in power every 4 months): *[[12 October]] [[1813]] - [[12 February]] [[1814]] José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (1st time) *[[12 February]] [[1814]] - [[12 June]] [[1814]] Fulgencio Yegros y Franco de Torres *[[12 June]] [[1814]] - [[3 October]] [[1814]] José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (2nd time); he stayed on as [[Supreme Dictator]] [[3 October]] [[1814]] - [[20 September]] [[1840]] (from [[6 June]] [[1816]] styled Perpetual Supreme Dictator) After a few Presidents of the Provisional Junta, there were again Consuls of the Republic, [[14 March]] [[1841]] - [[13 March]] [[1844]] (ruling jointly, but occasionally styled First Consul, Second Consul): Carlos Antonio López Ynsfrán (b. 1792 - d. 1862) + Mariano Roque Alonzo Romero (d. 1853) (the lasts of the aforemenioned juntistas, Commandant-General of the Army) Thereafter all republcan rulers were styled President ===Partitioned revolutionary Greece=== Among the many petty republics that shortly existed while [[21 March]] [[1821]] - [[6 February]] [[1833]] Greek Revolutionary Authorities had to step in after the term of the last Ottoman [[Wali]] (governor), were: *The Consulate of [[Argo]]s (from [[26 May]] [[1821]], under the Senate of Peloponnes) had a single Head of state, bizarly styled consul, [[28 March]] [[1821]] - [[26 May]] [[1821]]: Stamatellos Antonopoulos *The Consulate of East Greece ([[Levadea]]) (from [[15 November]] [[1821]], under Senate of East Greece) was headed [[1 April]] [[1821]] - [[15 November]] [[1821]] by three Consuls: Lambros Nakos, Ioannis Logothetis &amp; Ioannis Filon ==See also== * [[Consularis]] (Roman gubernatorial style) * [[List of Ancient Rome-related topics]] * [[Political institutions of Rome]] ==Sources and references== *[[Pauly-Wissowa]] *[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen- see each present country] [[Category:Ancient Roman titles]] [[Category:Heads of government]] [[Category:Heads of state]] [[Category:Military ranks]] [[cs:Konzul (antický Řím)]] [[da:Consul]] [[de:Consulat]] [[et:Konsul (Vana-Rooma)]] [[es:Cónsul romano]] [[eo:Konsulo (Romia historio)]] [[fr:Consul]] [[ko:집정관]] [[hr:Konzul]] [[it:Console (storia romana)]] [[he:קונסול (רומא העתיקה)]] [[la:Consul]] [[lt:Konsulas]] [[hu:Consul]] [[nl:Consul (Rome)]] [[ja:執政官]] [[no:Romersk konsul]] [[nn:Romersk konsul]] [[pl:Konsul rzymski]] [[pt:Cônsul]] [[ru:Консул (Древний Рим)]] [[fi:Konsuli]] [[sv:Konsul (Rom)]] [[zh:執政官]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Classical mechanics</title> <id>6048</id> <revision> <id>41774578</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:33:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Anjor</username> <id>1012332</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Newtonian mechanics}} In [[physics]], '''classical mechanics''' or '''Newtonian mechanics''' is one of the two major sub-fields of study in the science of [[mechanics]], which is concerned with the set of [[physical law]]s governing and mathematically describing the motions of [[physical body|bodies]] and aggregates of bodies. The other sub-field is [[quantum mechanics]]. The term '''classical mechanics''' was coined in the early 20th century to describe the system of mathematical physics developed in the 400 years since the groundbreaking works of [[Tycho Brahe|Brahe]], [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], but before the development of quantum physics. '''Quantum physics''' (and more specifically '''quantum mechanics''') refers to developments since approximately 1900, starting with similarly decisive discoveries by [[Max Planck|Planck]], [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]], and [[Niels Henrik David Bohr|Bohr]]. &lt;!--The notion of “classical“ may be somewhat confusing, insofar as this term usually refers to the era of [[classical antiquity]] in [[European history]]. While many discoveries within the [[mathematics]] of that period remain in full force today, and of the greatest use, the same cannot be said about its &quot;science&quot;.
hile preparing himself. Gordon has moved to Gotham with his pregnant wife, Barbara, and pursues a career in law enforcement. His first time out patrolling reveals to him the disturbing nature of law enforcement in Gotham as a senior office, Detective Flass, assaults a teenager for &quot;staying out late.&quot; Bruce makes preparations; giving himself a fake scar, registering at a hotel, before going out for his first street mission. He enters the Red Light District of Gotham. A young girl, a prositute tries to bed him. Her pimp, angry because he knows Bruce isn't the type to hire prostitutes, forcefully drags her away. Bruce confronts him and gets into a fight and a few others join in. Selina Kyle, a dominatrix, jumps from her window and fights with Bruce. Unfortunatley, the police arrive on the scene and arrest Bruce. On their way to the station, manages to escape, bleeding severly. He pulls the officers out of the car and goes back to his own car, bleeding all the way. There he sits, looking for inspiration, something he feels will strike fear into the hearts of criminals. A bat crashes into the room through a window, to which Bruce imediatley responds. He has found what he is looking for. Gordon tries to clean up GCPD, but is attacked and threatened. His attackers are fellow officers and after recovering, he visits the house of one of the officers, where they had gathered to play poker. He waits for Detective Flass, who he knows is responsible for organzing the attack. Flass is the last to leave, and Gordon tails him into the woods, where he proceeds to attack the drunken officer. Bruce goes out for the first time and stops a trio of teenagers from stealing a television. A brief struggle ensues, resulting in Batman's first victory. The legend quickly grows. One night, when the city leaders, including the GCPD Commissioner gather for a dinner party, Batman sneaks onto the grounds, puts the guards to sleep and sets up stage lights around the window that constituted one of the dining rooms wall. He cuts the electricity, throwing the room in darkness, then activates the lights. He gives the men and women a dire warning, then leaves. The police then try to capture Batman numerous times, but Bruce is quick to catch on. After a night of following useless leads, Gordon and his female partner, Detective Essen, see a truck barreling down the street. They chase and Gordon hands the wheels over to Essen as he tries to get into the vehicle. An old, homeless person, stands in the way of the truck and is about to be run over, when Batman jumps in and shoves her out of the way. The bus runs into a wall and Gordon briefly blacks out, only to awake moments later and find Essen holding Batman at gunpoint. She is momentarily distracted when she turns to ask if he is alright and Batman flees into an abandoned building. When cops arrive on the scene, the commissioner is quick to call in the trigger-happy Brandon and his squad to take drop a bomb on the building, which the commissioner claims has already been scheduled for demolition. Batman escapes into the secure basement and survives the bomb. A crowd gathers outside the building and Batman uses a small device to summon the thousands of bats from his cave to the building. A battle occurs as the police storm into the building and hunt him out. He incapacitates some and even saves a cat, jumping out of the building (after throwing a police office forcefully into a wall) and speeds away on a motorcycle seconds after a cloud of bats swarm the area. Using the bats as cover, batman escapes. Gordon has a brief affair with a Essen. During the affair, he is confronted with the commissioner, who threatens to inform his wife of the affair if he doesn't comply. Gordon, after bringing his wife to an interview with Bruce Wayne, who he and others suspect as being batman, stops the car in the driveway on the way back and tells her. Essen later leaves for Chicago. Months pass and Batman overhears a local mafia boss plan revenge against Gordon. However, Selina Kyle, frustrated because she feels her petty crimes aren't enough, interferes and attacks the group. Batman does not appear, but helps Selina from the shadows, throwing small bat shapped blades laced with tranquilizers at some of the men. Bruce, while working out, figures out the plan for himself based on the little bit of conversation he was able to record. Gordon is called away by the police about a robbery. On his way out, a mysterious motorist entering his garage tips him off, as Gordon has never seen the motorist. He returns to the garage only to find his wife and baby being pulled into a car. He shoots and wounds the men trying to take his wife, who surivies. The car leaves with Gordons baby in it, and Gordon follows in the motorcycle. The motorist, Bruce, takes the bicycle from a passing stranger, but not before Barbara threatens to shoot him. She lets him go when he reveals who he is and promises not to hurt her baby. Gordon punctures a wheel on the car and it crashes into the side of a bridge. The don's hired knife, his nephew, is safe and has the baby. A stuggle ensues and the baby is thrown off the bridge, followed by Gordon. However, Bruce has arrived and dives after the baby before Gordon even falls over the rail. Gordon thanks Bruce and makes it clear that he wont turn him over. The lives of these two disparate individuals become intertwined as they find themselves allies against the corrupt powers of Gotham City. A side story of the origin of [[Catwoman]] was also re-envisioned, which reintroduced Selina Kyle as a cat-loving [[prostitute]]/[[dominatrix]] who was inspired to become a costumed cat burglar when she saw Batman in action. The story ends with Gordon planning to meet with Batman about the Joker. The story also includes the first appearance of Mafia don [[Carmine Falcone]]. ==Batman Begins tie-in== A film version had been in development at [[Warner Bros|Warner Bros. Studio]] for several years, and while a direct adaptation was eventually abandoned, Batman: Dark Victory and Batman: The Long Halloween, continuations of the stories in Batman: Year One, are both cited as inspiration for the reboot of the Batman movie franchise with ''[[Batman Begins]]'' in 2005, starring [[Christian Bale]] as Batman and [[Gary Oldman]] as Gordon. ==Trivia== An idea introduced in the story that later writers seemed to ignore is that Gordon is aware that Bruce Wayne and Batman are the same person. When Gordon sees an unmasked Bruce, who just saved Gordon's son, he replies, &quot;I'm practically blind without my glasses. You better go.&quot; Many fans have interpreted that as Gordon not getting a good look at Batman's face, but Gordon's wife saw Bruce in action without his mask. The line might indicate Gordon coming up with plausible deniability. Mazzucchelli and Miller based Bruce Wayne's facial appearance on actor [[Gregory Peck]]. ==External links== *[http://www.dccomics.com/graphic_novels/?gn=1287 Current edition at DC Comics] ISBN 0930289331 [http://www.dccomics.com/graphic_novels/?gn=2712 Deluxe Hardcover edition at DC Comics] ISBN 1401206905 [[Category:Batman stories|Year One]] [[Category:Graphic novels]] [[Category:1988]] [[es:Batman: Año uno]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bi-directional text</title> <id>4733</id> <revision> <id>40323815</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T20:44:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KnightRider</username> <id>430793</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Unicode}} Many of the major [[writing system]]s of the world, such as [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], are written in a form known as right-to-left (RTL), in which writing begins at the right-hand side of a page and concludes at the left-hand side. This is different from the left-to-right (LTR) direction in which languages using the [[Latin alphabet]] (such as [[English language|English]]) are written. When LTR text is mixed with RTL in the same paragraph, each type of text should be written in its own direction, which is known as '''bi-directional text'''. This can get rather complex when multiple levels of quotation are used. Almost all [[writing system]]s originating in the [[Middle East]] are of this nature. Many computer programs fail to display bi-directional text correctly. For example, the Hebrew name Sarah (&amp;#1513;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1492;) should be spelled shin (&amp;#1513;) resh (&amp;#1512;) heh (&amp;#1492;) from right to left. Some [[Web browser]]s may display the Hebrew text in this article in the opposite direction. There are very few [[Writing system|script]]s that can be written in either direction. Such was the case with [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyphics]], where the signs had a distinct &quot;head&quot; that faced the beginning of a line and &quot;tail&quot; that faced the end. Another variety of writing style, called ''[[boustrophedon]],'' was used in some ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] inscriptions, [[Tuareg]], and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] runes. This method of writing alternates direction on each successive line. '''Bidirectional script support''' is the capability of a [[computer]] system to correctly display bi-directional text. The term is often shortened to the [[jargon]] term '''BiDi''' or '''bidi'''. Early computer installations were designed only to support a single [[writing system]], typically for left-to-right scripts based on the [[Latin alphabet]] only. Adding new [[character set]]s and [[character encoding]]s enabled a number of other left-to-right scripts to be supported, but did not easily support right-to-left scripts such as [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] or [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], and mixing the two was n
het is disputed. The work is probably based on the older Mesopotamian genre of the [[city lament]], of which the [[Lament for Ur]] is among the oldest and best-known. The book consists of five separate poems. In chapter 1 the prophet dwells on the manifold miseries oppressed by which the city sits as a solitary widow weeping sorely. In chapter 2 these miseries are described in connection with the national sins that had caused them. Chapter 3 speaks of hope for the people of God. The chastisement would only be for their good; a better day would dawn for them. Chapter 4 laments the ruin and desolation that had come upon the city and temple, but traces it only to the people's sins. Chapter 5 is a prayer that Zion's reproach may be taken away in the repentance and recovery of the people. The first four poems (chapters) are [[acrostic|acrostics]], like some of the Psalms (25, 34, 37, 119), i.e., each verse begins with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet taken in order. The first, second, and fourth have each twenty-two verses, the number of the letters in the Hebrew alphabet. The third has sixty-six verses, in which each three successive verses begin with the same letter. The fifth is not acrostic, but also has twenty-two verses. Speaking of the &quot;Wailing-place (q.v.) of the Jews&quot; at Jerusalem, a portion of the old wall of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Herod's Temple]], Schaff says: &quot;There the Jews assemble every Friday afternoon to bewail the downfall of the holy city, kissing the stone wall and watering it with their tears. They repeat from their well-worn Hebrew Bibles and prayer-books the Lamentations of Jeremiah and suitable Psalms.&quot; Readings, chantings, and choral settings, of the book of Lamentations, are used in the Christian religious service known as the [[Tenebrae (Maundy)|tenebrae]] (latin for ''darkness''). ==External links== *[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations: ** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15781 Eichah - Lamentations - Job (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org *[[Christian]] translations: ** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/25_lamentations.htm Lamentations at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version) ** {{biblegateway||Lamentations}} *[http://www.phy6.org/outreach/Jewish/TishaAv2.htm The book of Lamentations and Biblical poetry] &amp;nbsp; (talk) {{eastons}} [[Category:Ketuvim|Lamentations, Book of]] [[Category:Old Testament books|Lamentations]] [[cs:Kniha Pláč]] [[de:Klagelieder Jeremias]] [[fr:Livre des Lamentations]] [[ko:예레미야애가]] [[id:Ratapan]] [[he:מגילת איכה]] [[jv:Kidung Pasambat]] [[nl:Klaagliederen]] [[pl:Lamentacje Jeremiasza]] [[pt:Lamentações]] [[fi:Valitusvirret]] [[sv:Klagovisorna]] [[zh:耶利米哀歌]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Book of Ezekiel</title> <id>4390</id> <revision> <id>41928797</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:10:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mikkalai</username> <id>28438</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.33.9.125|71.33.9.125]] ([[User talk:71.33.9.125|talk]]) to last version by DabMachine</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Nevi'im}} {{dablink|This article is about the ''Book of Ezekiel''. See also [[Ezekiel]], the prophet . For other meanings, see [[Ezekiel (disambiguation)]].}} The '''Book of Ezekiel''' is a book of the Jewish [[Hebrew Bible]] as well as the Christian [[Old Testament]], attributed to the prophet [[Ezekiel]] ('''&amp;#1497;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1461;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;''' &quot;[[Elohim|God]] will strengthen&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Y&amp;#601;&amp;#7717;ezqel''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Y&amp;#601;&amp;#7717;ezqêl''') who is regarded by both Jews and Christians as a [[prophet]]. ==The author Ezekiel== :''Main article [[Ezekiel]]''. What little personal information is presented in the text about the prophet is discussed at [[Ezekiel]]. We do know he was a priest in the temple at [[Jerusalem]], the son of a priest, and that he had a wife prior to being carried off in the Jewish exile of 597 BCE, at age 26. === His mission === With the exile, monarchy and state were annihilated, and a political and national life was no longer possible. In the absence of a worldly foundation it became necessary to build upon a spiritual one. This mission Ezekiel performed by observing the signs of the time and by deducing his doctrines from them. In conformity with the two parts of his book his personality and his preaching are alike twofold. The events of the past must be explained. although God has permitted his city and Temple to be destroyed, and his people to be led into exile. Nonetheless, Ezekiel holds that God is not betraying his people. He asserts that God was compelled to do this because of the sins of the people. Nevertheless, there is no reason to despair for God does not desire the death of the sinner, but his reformation. The Lord will remain the God of Israel, and Israel will remain his people. As soon as Israel recognizes the sovereignty of the Lord and acts accordingly, God will restore the people, in order that they may fulfill their eternal mission and that He may truly dwell in the midst of them. This, however, can not be accomplished until every individual reforms and makes the will of the Lord his law. === Resurrection of the dead === Ezekiel writes about a resurrection of the dead in chapter 37. As early as the second century, however, some authorities declared this resurrection of the dead was a prophetic vision: an opinion regarded by [[Maimonides]] (''Guide for the Perplexed'', II:46) and his followers as the only rational explanation of the Biblical passage. ==Authorship== There have been a number of debates that have surrounded this book over the centuries. For the most part there has been little question of the authenticity of the book, or its authorship, but rather whether it should be included in the biblical Canon. This debate did not stem from any doubt of its inspired message, but rather the fear that the unlearned may misinterpret it. For a time, the first chapter was not to be read in [[synagogue|synagogues]] and the private reading of the prophecy was not allowed until a person's 30th birthday. Up until 1924, no one had questioned the authorship of the book of Ezekiel. For many, it seems clear that the book was written by one person, expressing one train of thought and style. However, in 1924 a theory was developed that 1,103 of the verses in Ezekiel were added at a later date. Since then, the academic community has been split into a number of different camps over the authorship of the book. W. Zimmerli, who has a rather large following, proposes that Ezekiel's original message was influenced by a later school that added a deeper understanding to the prophecies. Other groups, like the one led by M. Greenberg, still tend to see the majority of the work of the book done by Ezekiel himself. ==The purpose of the book== The book of Ezekiel is a record of the prophesying of Ezekiel who delivered these oracles and prophecies orally at first. Most people accept that Ezekiel did play a part in the written record of these visions, possibly with the help of scribes or followers. The book, which is split into three sections based on the time they were written, was mostly written by Ezekiel himself. Ezekiel's writing is one of the most sophisticated of all of the Old Testament [[prophet|Prophets]]. This stems from his training as a priest for the temple, as well as his experience in ministering to the elite members of the nation of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. Ezekiel's writing is made up of three distinct levels: an oracle, a continuation and a closing oracle. The first two layers are related in their writing style and are both attributed to Ezekiel himself. The third level, however, tends to be different from the first two, and as such is attributed to others who were interested in preserving and updating his work. The book does show many examples of editing done over a period of time by both Ezekiel and others. Most of this work was simply rearranging the order of the oracles to fit the time period to which they applied. == Date == The ''Book of Ezekiel'' can be dated due to Ezekiel's recording of events based on the rule of King [[Jehoiachin]] (King of [[Jerusalem]]). Ezekiel's records makes it possible to accurately date his life and his time of prophecy due to these references to the reigns of kings. ''Ezekiel'' was originally written in the 25 year period between 593 to 571 B.C. The book seems to be written in two different time periods during Ezekiel's 25 years of prophecy. The first section which is aimed at the upper class of Judah was written between from 593 to 586 B.C. The second section, which runs from 586 to 571, deals with his oracles of salvation for the people. The text records numerous events that allow us to estimate their time in history. The following table lists events in ''Ezekiel'' with their approximate dates. {| |+Dates of Book of Ezekiel |- ! Event !! Verse Reference !! Date |- | Chariot Vision || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/index.php?search=ezekiel%201:1-3&amp;version=49 1:1-3] || June 593 B.C. |- | Call to be a Watchman || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%203:16;&amp;version=49; 3:16] || June 593 |- | Temple Vision ||[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%208:1;&amp;version=49; 8:1] || August/September 592 |- | Discourse with Elders || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2020:1;&amp;version=49; 20:1] || August 591 |- | Second [[Siege]] of [[Jerusalem]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2024:1;&amp;version=49; 24:1] || January 588 |- | Judgment on Tyre || [http://www.bibl
) while their strategically-thinned centre filled the gap made between them.]] On the ninth day (either [[12 September]] or possibly [[12 August]] [[490 BC]] reckoned in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]]) it became known to the Athenians that Eretria had fallen by treachery. This meant that Artaphernes was now free to move, and might attack Athens. The Athenian army went out to face the Persians. This was probably a combined decision by the generals, although Herodotus reports that they were rotating days of command and that Miltiades was in charge at this point, since he had a large part in persuading the others to do so. According to Herodotus, five [[strategos|Strategoi]] voted for the move and five voted against it, with Callimachus, the Polemarch, casting the deciding vote in favor of attack. Since the bulk of Persian infantry were [[archer]]s, the Greek plan was to advance in formation until they reached the limit of the archer's effectiveness, the &quot;beaten zone,&quot; or roughly 200 yards, then advance in double time to close ranks quickly and bring their heavy infantry into play. This meant that they would almost certainly end up fighting in disordered ranks, but this was preferable to giving the Persian archers more time. The Greek center was reduced to possibly four ranks, from the normal eight, in order to extend the line and prevent the Persian line from overlapping the Greeks. The wings maintained their eight ranks. The Greek heavy infantryman, or [[hoplite]], was much more heavily armored than the Persian troops and the pike the Greeks carried gave them greater range than the short spears and swords of the Persian foot soldier. The Persian advantage came from the [[bow (weapon)|bow]] that most of them carried (the advantage was partially cancelled by the superiority of Greek armor). As the Greeks advanced, their wings drew ahead of the center, which was under heavy fire from the archers. As they closed some Persians broke through the resulting gaps and drove the center back in rout. The Greek retreat in the center, besides pulling the Persians in, also brought the Greek wings inwards, shortening the Greek line. The inadvertent result was a [[pincer movement|double envelopment]], and the battle ended when the whole Persian army, crowded into confusion, broke back in [[panic]] towards their ships and were pursued by the Greeks. Herodotus records that 6,400 Persians died for the loss of approximately 192 Athenians. ==Aftermath== As soon as Datis had put to sea, the Athenians marched to Athens. They arrived in time to prevent Artaphernes from securing a landing. Seeing his opportunity lost, Artaphernes set about and returned to Asia. The Spartans arrived afterwards, toured the battlefield at Marathon, and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory. The Greek upset of the Persians, who had not been defeated on land for many decades, caused great problems for the Persians. Seeing that the Persians were not invincible, many people subject to their rule rose up following the defeat of their overlords at Marathon and order was not restored for several years. The common enemy of Persia helped provide some solidarity to the disunited Greek city-states. The victory helped solidify the view that Greeks were &quot;civilized&quot; and Asians were merely &quot;Barbarians.&quot; ==Conclusion== Marathon was in no sense a decisive victory over the Persians. However, it was the first time the Greeks had bested the Persians on land, and &quot;their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny which was to endure for three centuries, during which western culture was born.&quot; (J.F.C. Fuller, ''A Military History of the Western World''). [[John Stuart Mill]]'s famous opinion is that the Battle of Marathon was more important an event for British history than the [[Battle of Hastings]]. ==Date of the battle== Herodotus mentions for several events a date in the [[lunisolar calendar]], of which each Greek city state used a variant. Astronomical computation allows to derive an absolute date in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] which is much used by historians as the chronological frame. August B&amp;ouml;ckh in 1855 concluded that the battle took place on [[12 September]] [[490 BC]] in the Julian calendar, and this is the conventionally accepted date. However, this depends on when the Spartans held their festival and it is possible that the Spartan calendar was one month ahead of that of Athens. In that case the battle took place on [[12 August]] [[490 BC]]. If the battle really occurred in August, temperatures in the area can reach 100 degrees [[Fahrenheit]] and thus make the marathon run event more plausible. See D.W.Olson ''et al.'', ''Sky &amp;amp; Telescope'' Sep. 2004 pp.34..41 ==Marathon run== According to the Greek historian [[Herodotus]], who was born in the year of the battle, an Athenian soldier named [[Pheidippides]] ran from Athens to [[Sparta]] to ask for assistance. This event was later turned into the popular legend that Pheidippides ran from Marathon to Athens. The traditional story relates that Pheidippides, an Athenian herald, ran the 42 km (26 miles) from the battlefield by the town of [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]] to [[Athens]] to announce the Greek victory over [[Persian Empire|Persia]] in the Battle of Marathon ([[490 BC]]) with the word &quot;&amp;#925;&amp;#949;&amp;#957;&amp;#953;&amp;#954;&amp;#942;&amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#957;!&quot; (Nenik&amp;egrave;kamen, We were victorious!) and died on the spot. Most accounts incorrectly attribute this story to the historian [[Herodotus]], who wrote the history of the [[Persian Wars]] in his ''Histories'' (composed about [[440 BC]]). The [[International Olympic Committee]] estimates the distance from the Marathon battlefield to Athens as 34.5 km (21.4 miles). There is no historical evidence for this popular version of the legend, which first appears in [[Plutarch]]'s ''On the Glory of Athens'' in the 1st century AD. The story became the basis for the modern [[Marathon (sport)|marathon]] athletics event. The race is run over a distance of 42.195 km (26.2 miles). ==External links== &lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot; style=&quot;clear: right; border: solid #aaa 1px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; background: #f9f9f9; width: 250px; padding: 4px; spacing: 0px; text-align: left; float: right;&quot;&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;float: left;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Open book 01.png|50px|none|Academic Publishing Wiki]]&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60px;&quot;&gt;The [[wikicities:c:academia:Main Page|Academic Publishing Wiki]] has a journal article about this subject: &lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 10px;&quot;&gt;'''[[wikicities:c:academia:Journal of History and Classics:The struggle for Greece: Marathon and Artemision|The struggle for Greece: Marathon and Artemision]]'''&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; *[http://duke.usask.ca/~porterj/DeptTransls/Hdt.html#marathon Read contemporary Greek historian Herodotus's account of events at Marathon] *[http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20040719/marathon.html Discovery article about Marathon date controversy and Pheidippides' death] *[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/man-md/marathon/marathon.html Battle of Marathon] by Jona Lendering *[http://www.losttrails.com/pages/Hproject/Marathon/Marathon.html black and white photo-essay of Marathon] {{FA_link|sl}} [[Category:490s BC]] [[Category:Battles of the Greco-Persian Wars|Marathon]] [[ca:Batalla de Marató]] [[cs:Bitva u Marathonu]] [[da:Slaget ved Marathon]] [[de:Schlacht bei Marathon]] [[el:Μάχη του Μαραθώνα]] [[gl:Batalla de Maratón]] [[hr:Bitka kod Maratona]] [[it:Battaglia di Maratona]] [[he:קרב מרתון]] [[nl:Slag bij Marathon]] [[ja:マラトンの戦い]] [[no:Slaget ved Marathon]] [[pl:Bitwa pod Maratonem]] [[ro:Bătălia de la Marathon]] [[ru:Битва при Марафоне]] [[sk:Bitka pri Maratóne]] [[sl:Bitka na Maratonskem polju]] [[sr:Маратонска битка]] [[fi:Marathonin taistelu]] [[sv:Slaget vid Marathon]] [[zh:马拉松战役]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bignum</title> <id>4808</id> <revision> <id>33896398</id> <timestamp>2006-01-04T22:35:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stevenj</username> <id>7918</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arbitrary-precision arithmetic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Balance of trade</title> <id>4810</id> <revision> <id>41541920</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:16:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nirvana2013</username> <id>305961</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Balance of trade''' figures, also called '''net exports''' (NX), are the sum of the [[money]] gained by a given [[Economics|economy]] by selling [[export]]s, minus the cost of buying [[import]]s. They form part of the [[balance of payments]], which also includes other transactions such as the [[international investment position]]. The figures are usually split into [[Visible balance|visible]] and [[Invisible Balance|invisible]] balance figures. The visible balance represents the physical goods, and invisible represents other forms of trade, e.g. the [[service economy]]. A positive balance of trade is known as a '''trade surplus''' and consists of exporting more (in [[financial capital]] terms) than one imports. A negative balance of trade is known as a '''trade deficit''' or, informally, as a '''trade gap''', and consists of importing more than one exports. Neither is necessarily dangerous in modern economies, although large trade surpluses or trade deficits may sometimes be a sign of other economic problems. Factors that can affect the balance of trade figures include: *Prices of goods manufactured at home (influenced by the responsiveness of supply), *[[Ex
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[September 1]], [[1973]] - [[June 16]], [[1978]]&lt;td&gt;[[Johannes Witteveen]]&lt;td&gt;[[Netherlands]]&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[June 17]], [[1978]] - [[January 15]], [[1987]]&lt;td&gt;[[Jacques de Larosière]]&lt;td&gt;[[France]]&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[January 16]], [[1987]] - [[February 14]], [[2000]]&lt;td&gt;[[Michel Camdessus]]&lt;td&gt;[[France]]&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[May 1]], [[2000]] - [[March 4]], [[2004]]&lt;td&gt;[[Horst Köhler]]&lt;td&gt;[[Germany]]&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[June 7]], [[2004]] - present&lt;td&gt;[[Rodrigo de Rato]]&lt;td&gt;[[Spain]]&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt; ==Footnotes== * {{mnb|footnote_1|The [[United Nations]] was at the time only a wartime alliance, not yet an international organization}} * {{mnb|footnote_2| [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/aa/index.htm Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund] }} == See also == * [[Bretton Woods Institutions]] * [[Economics]] * [[Bank for International Settlements]] * [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] * [[Special Drawing Rights]] * [[World Bank]] * [[Globalization and Its Discontents]] * [[Bancor]] * [[Development aid]] == External links == * [http://www.imf.org International Monetary Fund website] * [http://www.augustreview.com/index.php?module=pagesetter&amp;func=viewpub&amp;tid=4&amp;pid=10 Global Banking: The International Monetary Fund] * [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/index.htm Finance &amp;amp; Development - A quarterly magazine of the IMF] * [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ar/ Annual Reports of the Executive Board] * [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weorepts.htm World Economic Outlook Reports] * [http://www.imf.org/external/pubind.htm IMF Publications] * [http://www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?story_id=2941379 Kenneth Rogoff - The sisters at 60] * How the IMF Props Up the Dollar System [http://www.serendipity.li/hr/imf_and_dollar_system.htm] * [http://web.gc.cuny.edu/eusc/activities/paper/schwartz.htm ''IMF&amp;#8217;s Origins as a Blueprint for Its Future'', Anna J. Schwartz, National Bureau of Economic Research] == References == *{{ cite book | title=[http://www.fondad.org/publications/helpingpoor/contents.htm Helping the Poor? The IMF and Low-Income Countries]| author=Jan Joost Teunissen and Age Akkerman (eds.)| year=2005 | publisher=FONDAD | id=ISBN-10: 90-74208-25-8}} *{{ cite book | title=[http://econwpa.wustl.edu/eps/if/papers/0207/0207003.pdf The Development and Implementation of IMF and World Bank Conditionality]| author=Axel Dreher | year=2002 | publisher=HWWA | id=ISSN 16164814}} * Dreher, Axel (2004), A Public Choice Perspective of IMF and World Bank Lending and Conditionality, ''Public Choice'' 119, 3-4: 445-464. *Dreher, Axel (2004), The Influence of IMF Programs on the Re-election of Debtor Governments, ''Economics &amp; Politics'' 16, 1: 53-75 *Dreher, Axel (2003), The Influence of Elections on IMF Programme Interruptions, ''The Journal of Development Studies'' 39,6: 101-120. * ''[[The Best Democracy Money Can Buy]]'' by [[Greg Palast]] ([[2002]]) * The IMF and The World Bank: How do they differ?[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/exrp/differ/differ.htm] by David D. Driscoll [[Category:International organizations]] [[Category:International economics]] [[Category:International Monetary Fund]] [[bg:Международен валутен фонд]] [[ca:Fons Monetari Internacional]] [[cs:Mezinárodní měnový fond]] [[da:Internationale Valutafond]] [[de:Internationaler Währungsfonds]] [[et:Rahvusvaheline Valuutafond]] [[es:Fondo Monetario Internacional]] [[eo:Internacia Mona Fonduso]] [[fr:Fonds monétaire international]] [[ko:국제통화기금]] [[id:Dana Moneter Internasional]] [[it:Fondo Monetario Internazionale]] [[he:קרן המטבע הבינלאומית]] [[ka:საერთაშორისო სავალუტო ფონდი]] [[lt:Tarptautinis Valiutos Fondas]] [[hu:IMF]] [[mk:Меѓународен Монетарен Фонд]] [[nl:Internationaal Monetair Fonds]] [[ja:国際通貨基金]] [[no:Det internasjonale pengefondet]] [[nn:Det internasjonale pengefondet]] [[pl:Międzynarodowy Fundusz Walutowy]] [[pt:Fundo Monetário Internacional]] [[ro:Fondul Monetar Internaţional]] [[ru:Международный валютный фонд]] [[sk:Medzinárodný menový fond]] [[sr:Међународни монетарни фонд]] [[sv:Internationella valutafonden]] [[th:กองทุนการเงินระหว่างประเทศ]] [[uk:Міжнародний валютний фонд]] [[zh:國際貨幣基金]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Islands of the Clyde</title> <id>15252</id> <revision> <id>38603230</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T11:48:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde]] to [[Islands of the Clyde]]: shorter title, as proposed on talk page without objections</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde.PNG|thumb|Map showing location of the islands]] The '''Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde''' is the smallest of the three major [[Scotland|Scottish]] island groups after the [[Hebrides]] and the [[Northern Isles]]. The islands are situated in [[Scotland]] in the [[Firth of Clyde]] between [[Ayrshire]] and [[Argyll]]. They include: [[image:Holy_Isle_from_North.JPG|thumb|'''Holy Isle''' seen from '''Bute''']] [[image:Lady_Isle.jpg|thumb|'''Lady Isle''' with '''Ailsa Craig''' beyond]] *[[Ailsa Craig]] *[[Isle of Arran|Arran]] *[[Burnt Islands|The Burnt Islands]] ***Eilean Mór ***Eilean Fraoich ***Eilean Buidhe *[[Isle of Bute|Bute]] *[[Davaar]] *[[Eilean Dearg, Loch Riddon|Eilean Dearg]] *[[Eilean Dubh, Kyles of Bute|Eilean Dubh]] *[[Glunimore Island]] *[[Great Cumbrae]] *[[Holy Isle, Firth of Clyde|Holy Isle]] *[[Horse Isle]] *[[Inchmarnock]] *[[Lady Isle]] *[[Little Cumbrae]] *[[Pladda]] *[[Sanda, Scotland|Sanda]] *[[Sgat Mór and Sgat Beag]] *[[Sheep Island, Argyll and Bute|Sheep Island]] *[[The Eileans]] '''Arran''', '''Bute''', '''Great Cumbrae''', '''Holy Isle''' and '''Inchmarnock''' are all inhabited and are serviced by dedicated ferry routes. '''Little Cumbrae''' and '''Sanda''' are also inhabited but without ferry services. The rest of the islands are uninhabited. The majority of the islands at one time made up the [[traditional county]] of [[Bute]]. Today the islands are split more or less equally between the modern unitary authorities of [[Argyll and Bute]] and [[North Ayrshire]] with only '''Ailsa Craig''' and '''Lady Isle''' falling outwith these two areas in [[South Ayrshire]]. [[image:The_Cumbraes.jpg|left|thumb|400px|[[The Cumbraes]] with '''Arran''' and '''Bute''' beyond]] &lt;br&gt; ==See also== [[Hebrides]], [[Northern Isles]] [[Category:Islands of the Clyde]] [[Category:Lists of islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International Bank Account Number</title> <id>15253</id> <revision> <id>41442437</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:42:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.170.62.242</ip> </contributor> <comment>adding Hungary</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Bank Account Number''' ('''IBAN''') is an international standard for numbering bank accounts. It was originally adopted by the [[European Committee for Banking Standards]], and was later adopted as [[ISO 13616]]:[[1997]]. The IBAN consists of a two letter [[ISO 3166-1]] [[country code]], followed by two check digits, and up to thirty alphanumeric characters for the domestic bank account number, called the BBAN (Basic Bank Account Number). It is up to each country's national banking community to decide on the length of the BBAN for accounts in that country, but its length must be fixed for any given country. A unique identifying code for the bank, of a fixed length and at a fixed position, is required to be contained in the BBAN. However, it is left up to the national banking communities to determine its length and position within the BBAN, so long as it is constant for each country. When stored electronically, the IBAN is not to be broken up by spaces; but when printed on paper, it is to be expressed in groups of four characters, with the last group of variable length. The IBAN was developed to help improve the payments system within the European Union. Customers, especially individuals and [[Small and Medium-sized Enterprise|SME]]s, are frequently confused by differing national standards for bank account numbers. While the system is capable of being used for routing purposes, it cannot at present be used to do so since the IBAN has not been widely adopted outside of Europe, and the ECBS expects that the process of adoption may take five to ten years. Until then, it is necessary to continue to use the current [[ISO 9362]] [[Bank Identifier Code]] or BIC system in conjunction with the IBAN in order to ensure proper routing. ===Examples=== &lt;!-- sorted by the name of the country --&gt; *[[Austria|Austrian]] IBAN format: ATkk BBBB BCCC CCCC CCCC ::The Bs represent the [[bank code]] and the Cs the account number. *[[Belgium|Belgian]] IBAN format: BEkk CCCC CCCC CCCC ::The last 12 digits represent the bank and account number. *[[United Kingdom|British]] IBAN format: GBkk BBBB SSSS SSCC CCCC CC ::The four character bank designation is alphabetical, the next six characters are a [[Sort Code]] (often a specific branch) and the remaining characters are the customer account number. *[[Czech Republic|Czech]] IBAN format: CZkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC ::The Bs represent the [[bank code]] and the Cs the acount number. *[[Denmark|Danish]] IBAN format: DKkk CCCC CCCC CCCC CC ::The last 14 digits represent the bank and account number. *[[Finland|Finnish]] IBAN format: FIkk BBBB BBCC CCCC CK ::The Bs represent the bank code, branch number and account type, Cs represent the account number, and the final K is the check digit of the F
xml:space="preserve">An '''electronvolt''' (symbol: eV) is the amount of [[kinetic energy]] gained by a single unbound [[electron]] when it passes through an [[Electrostatics|electrostatic]] potential difference of one [[volt]], in [[vacuum]]. The one-word spelling is the modern recommendation although the use of the earlier '''electron volt''' still exists. One electronvolt is a very small amount of energy: : 1 eV = [[1 E-19 J|1.602 176 53 (14) &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;19&lt;/sup&gt;]] [[joule|J]]. (Source: [[CODATA]] 2002 recommended values) It is a non-[[SI]] unit of energy, accepted for use with SI. ==Using electronvolts to measure mass== [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] reasoned that energy is equivalent to (rest) [[mass]], as famously expressed in the formula ''[[E=mc²]]'' (1 kg = 90 petajoules). It is thus common in [[particle physics]], where mass and energy are often interchanged, to use eV/''c''&amp;sup2; or even simply eV as a unit of mass. (The latter is only strictly valid when working in [[natural units]] where ''[[speed of light|c]]''=1.) For example, an electron and a [[positron]], each with a mass of 0.511&amp;nbsp;MeV, can annihilate to yield 1.022&amp;nbsp;MeV of energy. The [[proton]] (which is a member of the [[baryon]] family of particles) has a mass of 0.938 GeV, making GeV a very convenient unit of mass for [[particle physics]]. :1 eV/c&amp;sup2; = 1.783 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;36&lt;/sup&gt; kg :1 keV/c&amp;sup2; = 1.783 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;33&lt;/sup&gt; kg :1 MeV/c&amp;sup2; = 1.783 &amp;times; [[1 E-30 kg|10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;30&lt;/sup&gt; kg]] :1 GeV/c&amp;sup2; = 1.783 &amp;times; [[1 E-27 kg|10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;27&lt;/sup&gt; kg]] In some older documents, one sometime encounters the symbol &quot;BeV&quot;, which stands for &quot;billion-electron-volt&quot;; it is equivalent to the GeV (gigaelectronvolt). ==Electronvolts and kinetic energy== For comparison: *3.2 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;11&lt;/sup&gt; [[joule]] or 200 MeV - total energy released in [[nuclear fission]] of one U-235 atom (on average, it depends on the precise break up) *3.5 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;11&lt;/sup&gt; joule or 210 MeV - total energy released in fission of one Pu-239 atom (on average, it depends on the precise break up) *Molecular [[bond energy|bond energies]] are on the order of an electronvolt per molecule. *The typical atmospheric molecule has an energy of about [[1 E-21 J|0.03 eV]]. This corresponds to [[room temperature]]. ==Electronvolts and temperature== In certain fields, such as [[plasma physics]], it is convenient to use the electronvolt as an unit of temperature. The conversion is defined using ''k'', the [[Boltzmann constant]]. :&lt;math&gt;{1 \mbox{ eV} \over k} = {1.6022 \times 10^{-19} \mbox{J} \over 1.380650 \times 10^{-23} \mbox{J/K}} = 11605 \mbox{ K}&lt;/math&gt; For example, a typical [[magnetic confinement fusion]] plasma is 15 keV, or 174000000 kelvin. ==See also== *[[Orders of magnitude (energy)]] == External links == *[http://www1.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter4/table7.html BIPM's definition of the electronvolt] *[http://www.projects.ex.ac.uk/trol/scol/index.htm Conversion Calculator for Units of ENERGY] *http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants physical constants reference; CODATA data &lt;!--Interwiki--&gt; &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Units of energy]] [[bg:Електронволт]] [[br:Elektron-volt]] [[ca:Electronvolt]] [[cs:Elektronvolt]] [[da:Elektronvolt]] [[de:Elektronenvolt]] [[el:Ηλεκτρονιοβόλτ]] &lt;!--[[en:Electronvolt]]--&gt; [[es:Electronvoltio]] [[fr:Électron-volt]] [[gl:Electronvoltio]] [[ko:전자볼트]] [[it:Elettronvolt]] [[he:אלקטרונוולט]] [[lt:Elektronvoltas]] [[hu:Elektronvolt]] [[nl:Elektronvolt]] [[ja:電子ボルト]] [[no:Elektronvolt]] [[pl:Elektronowolt]] [[pt:Elétron-volt]] [[ru:Электронвольт]] [[sl:Elektronvolt]] [[fi:Elektronivoltti]] [[sv:Elektronvolt]] [[uk:Електронвольт]] [[zh:電子伏特]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elliptical Curve Cryptography</title> <id>9599</id> <revision> <id>15907473</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elliptic_curve_cryptography]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ElementalAllotropes</title> <id>9600</id> <revision> <id>15907474</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T10:30:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Malcolm Farmer</username> <id>135</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Allotropy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electrochemistry</title> <id>9601</id> <revision> <id>42138652</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:57:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>HappyApple</username> <id>177620</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* References */ fixed links to other websites</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Faraday-Daniell.PNG|thumb|250px|English chemists [[John Frederic Daniell|John Daniell]] ([[relative direction|left]]) and [[Michael Faraday]] ([[relative direction|right]]), both credited to be founders of electrochemistry as known today.]] '''Electrochemistry''' is a branch of [[chemistry]] that studies the reactions which take place at the interface of an electronic [[conductor (material)|conductor]] (the [[electrode]] composed of a [[metal]] or a [[semiconductor]], including [[graphite]]) and an ionic conductor (the [[electrolyte]]). If a [[chemical reaction]] is caused by an external [[voltage]], or if a voltage is caused by a chemical reaction, as in a [[battery (electricity)|battery]], it is an ''electrochemical'' reaction. In general, electrochemistry deals with situations where an [[oxidation]] and a [[reduction]] reaction is separated in space. The direct [[charge transfer]] from one molecule to another is not the topic of electrochemistry. ==History== {{main|History of Electrochemistry}} ===16th to 18th century developments=== [[Image:Guericke-electricaldevice.PNG|thumb|200px|right|[[Germany|German]] [[physicist]] [[Otto von Guericke]] beside his electrical generator while conducting experiment.]] The [[16th century]] marked the beginning of the electrical understanding. On [[1550s]] English scientist [[William Gilbert]] spent 17 years experimenting with [[magnetism]] and, to a lesser extent, electricity. For his work on magnets, Gilbert became known as the ''&quot;Father of Magnetism.&quot;'' He discovered various methods for producing and strengthening magnets. In [[1663]] [[Germany|German]] [[physicist]] [[Otto von Guericke]] created the first electric generator, which produced static electricity by applying friction in the machine. The generator was made of a large [[sulfur]] ball cast inside a glass globe, mounted on a shaft. The ball was rotated by means of a crank and a [[static electricity|static electric]] [[spark]] was produced when a pad was rubbed against the ball as it rotated. The globe could be removed and used as source for experiments with electricity. [[Image:Galvani-frog-legs.PNG|thumb|left|200px|Late [[1780s]] diagram of Galvani's experiment on frog legs.]] By mid—[[1700s]] [[France|French]] [[chemist]] [[C.F. du Fay|Charles François de Cisternay du Fay]] discovered two types of static electricity, and that like charges repel each other whilst unlike charges attract. Du Fay announced that electricity consisted of two fluids: ''&quot;vitreous&quot;'' (from the [[latin language|Latin]] for ''&quot;glass&quot;''), or positive, electricity; and ''&quot;resinous,&quot;'' or negative, electricity. This was the ''two-fluid theory'' of electricity, which was to be opposed by [[Benjamin Franklin|Benjamin Franklin's]] ''one-fluid theory'' later in the century. [[Charles-Augustin de Coulomb]] developed the [[law of electrostatic attraction]] in [[1781]] as an outgrowth of his attempt to investigate the law of electrical repulsions as stated by [[Joseph Priestley]] on England. [[Image:Volta-and-napoleon.PNG|thumb|right|200px|[[Italy|Italian]] [[physicist]] [[Alessandro Volta]] showing his ''&quot;[[Battery (electricity)|battery]]&quot;'' to [[france|french]] [[emperor]] [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] in early [[1800s]].]] In late [[1700s]] [[Italian]] [[physician]] and [[anatomist]] [[Luigi Galvani]] marked the birth of electrochemistry by establishing a bridge between chemical reactions and electricity on his essay ''&quot;De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius&quot;'' (translated from Latin, Commentary on the Effect of Electricity on Muscular Motion) in [[1791]] where he proposed a ''&quot;nerveo-electrical substance&quot;'' on biological life forms. On his essay Galvani concluded that animal tissue contained a here-to-fore neglected innate, vital force, which he termed ''&quot;animal electricity,&quot;'' which activated [[nerve]] and [[muscle]] when spanned by [[metal]] [[probe|probes]]. He believed that this new force was a form of electricity in addition to the ''&quot;natural&quot;'' form that is produced by [[lightning]] or by the [[electric eel]] and [[Electric ray|torpedo ray]] and to the ''&quot;artificial&quot;'' form that is produced by [[friction]] (i.e., static electricity). Galvani's scientific colleagues generally accepted his views, but [[Alessandro Volta]] rejected the idea of an ''&quot;animal electric fluid,&quot;'' replying that the frog's legs responded to differences in [[metal temper]], composition, and [[bulk]]. Galvani refuted this by obtaining muscular action with two pieces of the same material. ===19th century=== [[Image:Sir Humphry Davy.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Sir Humphry Davy's portrait in [[1800s]].]] In [[1800]], English chemists [[William Nic
1]] - The first [[Pan American Games]] are held in [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]]. *[[1954]] - [[Gamal Abdul Nasser]] is made premier of [[Egypt]]. *[[1956]] - In his speech ''[[On the Personality Cult and its Consequences]]'' [[Soviet]] leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] denounces the actions of [[Joseph Stalin]]. *[[1964]] - [[Cassius Clay]] beats [[Sonny Liston]] in [[Miami Beach, Florida]], and is [[Ali versus Liston|crowned the heavyweight champion of the world]]. *[[1969]] - [[Germany]] gives $5 million to an [[Arab]] [[terrorism|terrorist]] as ransom for the passengers and crew of a hijacked [[jumbo jet]]. *[[1971]] - The first unit of the [[Pickering Nuclear Generating Station]], first commercial [[nuclear power]] station in [[Canada]], goes online. *[[1986]] - [[EDSA Revolution]]: [[President]] [[Ferdinand Marcos]] of the [[Philippines]] flees the nation after 20 years of rule; [[Corazon Aquino]] becomes the first [[Filipino]] woman president. *[[1991]] - [[Gulf War]]: An [[Iraq]]i [[Scud missile]] hits an [[United States|American]] military barracks in [[Dhahran]], [[Saudi Arabia]] killing 28 [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]]. *1991 - [[Nigel Benn]] knocks out [[Gerald McClellan]] to retain his [[WBC Super Middleweight]] title. The fight is marred by tragedy as [[McClellan]] suffers some irreversible brain damage. *[[1994]] - [[Mosque of Abraham massacre]]: In the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in the [[West Bank]] city of [[Hebron]], [[Baruch Goldstein|Dr. Baruch Kappel Goldstein]] opens fire with an assault rifle, killing 29 [[Palestinian]] worshippers and injuring 125 more before being subdued and beaten to death by survivors. Subsequent rioting kills 26 more [[Palestinians]] and 9 [[Israelis]]. *[[2000]] - The [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[political party]] [[New Democracy (Sweden)|New Democracy]] is declared financially bankrupt. *[[2004]] - On [[Ash Wednesday]], [[Mel Gibson]]'s ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' is released in [[film|movie]] theaters across the [[United States]], grossing approximately $370 million domestically. *[[2005]] - [[BTK]] suspect [[Dennis Rader]] arrested in [[Park City, Kansas]]. *[[2006]] - The world's estimated [[population]] reaches 6.5 billion. ==Births== *[[1398]] - [[Xuande]], Emperor of China (d. [[1435]]) *[[1591]] - [[Friedrich von Spee]], German writer (d. [[1635]]) *[[1643]] - [[Ahmed II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1695]]) *[[1663]] - [[Pierre Antoine Motteux]], French-born English dramatist (d. [[1718]]) *[[1682]] - [[Giovanni Battista Morgagni]], Italian anatomist (d. [[1771]]) *[[1692]] - [[Karl Ludwig, Freiherr von Pöllnitz]], German adventurer and writer (d. [[1775]]) *[[1707]] - [[Carlo Goldoni]], Italian writer (d. [[1793]]) *[[1714]] - [[René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou]], Chancellor of France (d. [[1792]]) *1714 - [[Hyde Parker]], British admiral (d. [[1782]]) *[[1725]] - [[Karl Wilhelm Ramler]], German poet (d. [[1798]]) *[[1752]] - [[John Graves Simcoe]], first Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada (d. [[1806]]) *[[1778]] - [[José de San Martín]], Argentine general and liberator of South America *[[1841]] - [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], French painter, graphic artist and sculptor (d. [[1919]]) *[[1842]] - [[Karl May]], German writer (d. [[1912]]) *[[1845]] - [[George Reid (Australian politician)|George Reid]], fourth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1918]]) *[[1860]] - [[Sir William Ashley]], Economic historian. (d. [[1927]]) *[[1873]] - [[Enrico Caruso]], Italian tenor (d. [[1921]]) *[[1877]] - [[Erich von Hornbostel]], Austrian musicologist (d. [[1935]]) *[[1888]] - [[John Foster Dulles]], [[U.S. Secretary of State]] (d. [[1959]]) *[[1890]] - Dame [[Myra Hess]], English pianist (d. [[1965]]) *1890 - [[Vyacheslav Molotov]], Soviet politician (d. [[1986]]) *[[1901]] - [[Zeppo Marx]], American actor (d. [[1979]]) *[[1908]] - [[Frank G. Slaughter]], American novelist (d. [[2001]]) *[[1910]] - [[Millicent Fenwick]], American fashion editor and politician (d. [[1992]]) *[[1913]] - [[Jim Backus]], American actor (d. [[1989]]) *1913 - [[Gert Fröbe]], German actor (d. [[1988]]) *[[1916]] - [[Reinhard Bendix]], German sociologist (d. [[1991]]) *[[1917]] - [[Anthony Burgess]], English author (d. [[1993]]) *[[1918]] - [[Barney Ewell]], American athlete (d. [[1996]]) *1918 - [[Bobby Riggs]], American tennis player (d. [[1995]]) *[[1919]] - [[Karl Pribram]], Austrian neuroscientist *[[1921]] - [[Pierre Laporte]], Canadian statesman (assassinated) (d. [[1970]]) *[[1925]] - [[Edward Gorey]], American illustrator (d. [[2000]]) *[[1928]] - [[Larry Gelbart]], American comedy writer *[[1929]] - [[Christopher George]], American actor (d. [[1983]]) *[[1932]] - [[Faron Young]], American singer (d.[[1996]]) *[[1934]] - [[Tony Lema]], American pro golfer (d. [[1966]]) *[[1935]] - [[Sally Jessy Raphaël]], American talk show host *[[1937]] - [[Tom Courtenay]], British actor *1937 - [[Bob Schieffer]], American broadcast journalist *[[1938]] - [[Diane Baker]], American actress *1938 - [[Herb Elliott]], Australian runner *[[1940]] - [[Billy Packer]], American sports broadcaster *1940 - [[Ron Santo]], baseball player *[[1942]] - [[Karen Grassle]], American actress *1942 - [[Carl Eller]], former American football player *[[1943]] - [[Wilson Piazza]], Brazilian footballer *[[1943]] - [[George Harrison]], British Rock Star (d. [[2001]]) *[[1946]] - [[Franz Xaver Kroetz]], German dramatist *[[1947]] - [[Lee Evans (athlete)|Lee Evans]], American athlete *1947 - [[Doug Yule]], American bass guitarist, ([[The Velvet Underground]]) *[[1948]] - [[Danny Denzongpa]], Indian actor *[[1949]] - [[Ric Flair]], American professional wrestler *[[1950]] - [[Neil Jordan]], Irish director, writer, and producer *1950 - [[Néstor Kirchner]], [[President of Argentina]] *[[1951]] - [[Don Quarrie]], Jamaican runner *[[1952]] - [[Joey Dunlop]], Northern Irish motorcycle racer (d. [[2000]]) *[[1953]] - [[José María Aznar]], [[Prime Minister of Spain]] *[[1954]] - [[John Doe (musician)|John Doe]], American musician *[[1958]] - [[Kurt Rambis]], American pro basketball player *[[1959]] - [[Mike Peters]], Welsh singer &amp; guitarist/harmonica player ([[The Alarm]]) *[[1960]] - [[Stefan Blöcher]], German field hockey player *[[1961]] - [[Davey Allison]], American race car driver (d. [[1993]]) *1961 - [[Todd Blackledge]], American football player *[[1962]] - [[Birgit Fischer]], German kayaker *[[1963]] - [[Nancy O'Dell]], American reporter and television personality *[[1964]] - [[Don Majkowski]], American football player *[[1966]] - [[Alexis Denisof]], American actor *1966 - [[Samson Kitur]], Kenyan athlete (d. [[2003]]) *1966 - [[Téa Leoni]], American actress *[[1968]] - [[Sandrine Kiberlain]], French actress *[[1969]] - [[Paul Trimboli]], Australian footballer *[[1971]] - [[Sean Astin]], American actor *1971 - [[Dave Harris]], American disc jockey *[[1973]] - [[Justin Jeffre]], American pop singer ([[98 Degrees]]) *[[1977]] - [[Sarah Jezebel Deva]], English heavy metal singer *1977 - [[Josh Wolff]], American hockey player *[[1978]] - [[Sara Sinha]], English singer and guitarist *[[1981]] - [[Park Ji-Sung]], South Korean footballer *[[1982]] - [[Chris Baird]], Northern Irish footballer *[[1982]] - [[Bert McCracken]], American singer ([[The Used]]) *[[1986]] - [[Justin Berfield]], American actor *[[1986]] - [[James and Oliver Phelps]], British actors *[[1998]] - [[Brendon Baerg]], American actor &lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Only the first instances of dates should be links. --&gt; ==Deaths== *[[1246]] - [[Dafydd ap Llywelyn]], Prince of [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwynedd]] *[[1522]] - [[William Lilye]], English classical scholar *[[1536]] - [[Berthold Haller]], German-born reformer (b. [[1492]]) *[[1553]] - [[Hirate Masahide]], Japanese diplomat and tutor of [[Oda Nobunaga]] (suicide) (d. [[1492]]) *[[1558]] - [[Eleanor of Austria]], Queen of Portugal and France (b. [[1498]]) *[[1577]] - [[Eric XIV of Sweden|King Eric XIV of Sweden]] (b. [[1533]]) *[[1601]] - [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]], English politician (b. [[1566]]) *[[1634]] - [[Albrecht von Wallenstein]], Austrian general (b. [[1583]]) *[[1643]] - [[Marco da Gagliano]], Italian composer (b. [[1582]]) *[[1655]] - [[Daniel Heinsius]], Flemish scholar (b. [[1580]]) *[[1682]] - [[Alessandro Stradella]], Italian composer (b. [[1644]]) *[[1713]] - [[Frederick I of Prussia|King Frederick I of Prussia]] (b. [[1657]]) *[[1715]] - [[Pu Songling]], Chinese writer (b. [[1640]]) *[[1723]] - [[Christopher Wren|Sir Christopher Wren]], English architect (b. [[1632]]) *[[1756]] - [[Eliza Haywood]], English actress and writer (b. [[1693]]) *[[1798]] - [[Louis-Jules Mancini-Mazarini, Duc de Nivernais]], French diplomat and writer (b. [[1716]]) *[[1805]] - [[Thomas Pownall]], British colonial statesman (b. [[1722]]) *[[1831]] - [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]], German writer (b. [[1752]]) *[[1850]] - [[Daoguang]], Emperor of China (b. [[1782]]) *[[1852]] - [[Thomas Moore]], Irish poet (b. [[1779]]) *[[1860]] - [[Chauncey Allen Goodrich]], American clergyman, educator, and lexicographer (b. [[1790]]) *[[1899]] - [[Paul Julius Reuter]], German-born journalist (b. [[1816]]) *[[1912]] - [[Guillaume IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg]] (b. [[1852]]) *[[1945]] - [[Mário de Andrade]], Brazilian writer and photographer (b. [[1893]]) *[[1950]] - [[George Minot]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1885]]) *[[1957]] - [[Bugs Moran|George &quot;Bugs&quot; Moran]], American gangster (b. [[1893]]) *[[1964]] - [[Grace Metalious]], American writer (b. [[1924]]) *[[1971]] - [[Theodor Svedberg]], Swedish chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1884]]) *[[1975]] - [[Elijah Muhammad]], American Black Muslim leader (b. [[1897]]) *[[1978]] - [[Daniel &quot;Chappie&quot; James Jr.]], American general (b. [[1920]]) *[[1983]] - [[Tenn
c-10 where games are traditionally low scoring, and with the addition of three more All-Pac-10 selections in 2004, Wells has now coached 75 all-conference players during her tenure at Arizona State, averaging five All-Pac-10 selections every season. ==Famous alumni and former students== ''see also [[:Category:Arizona State University alumni]]'' *[[Steve Allen]] - writer, comedian, musician *[[Adam Archuleta]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Sal Bando]] - former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player *[[Barry Bonds]] - [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player *[[Amanda Borden]] - [[1996 Summer Olympics]] team gold medal winner in [[gymnastics]] *[[Amanda Brown]] - author of [[Legally Blonde]] *[[William P. Carey]] - founder and chairman of [[W. P. Carey &amp; Co. LLC]] *[[Henry Carr]] - winner of two gold medals at the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] *[[Paul Casey]] - professional golfer *[[Christopher J. Cohan]] - founder, Sonic Communications; owner, [[Golden State Warriors]] *[[Eric Crown]] - chairman of the board and co-founder, [[Insight Enterprises]] *[[Ed Dee]] - author *[[Doug Ducey]] - president and CEO of [[Cold Stone Creamery]] *[[Ike Diogu]] - [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player *[[Mike Esposito]] - [[Major League Baseball]] pitcher for the [[Colorado Rockies]]. *[[Andre Ethier]] - [[outfielder]] with the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] of [[MLB]]. *[[David Fulcher]] - former National Football League [[defensive back]] *[[Ira Fulton]] - businessman *[[Jack D. Furst]] - private equity *[[Larry Gura]] - former All-Star [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] pitcher, played for the [[Chicago Cubs]], [[New York Yankees]], and [[Kansas City Royals]]. *[[Todd Heap]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Cecil Heftel]] - founder Heftel Broadcasting; former U.S. Representative *[[Doug Hopkins]] - former lead guitarist and principal songwriter, [[Gin Blossoms]] *[[Eddie House]] - [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player *[[Reggie Jackson]] - former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player, member of the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] *[[Paul Justin]] - retired [[National Football League]] quarterback *[[Jimmy Kimmel]] - talk-show host and comedian *[[Bill Leen]] - bass player, [[Gin Blossoms]] *[[Paul Lo Duca]] - [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player *[[Billy Mayfair]] - professional golfer *[[Al Michaels]] - television broadcaster *[[Phil Mickelson]] - professional golfer *[[Ed Pastor]] - U.S. Congressman *[[Ken Phelps]] - radio broadcaster, former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player *[[Jake Plummer]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Robert Rey]] - plastic surgeon, television personality *[[Rick Rosenthal]] - KPMG *[[Matt Salmon]] - former gubernatorial candidate for Arizona *[[Byron Scott]] - head coach, [[New Orleans Hornets]]; former [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player *[[Courtney Simpson]] - [[Erotic actress]] *[[David Spade]] - comedian *[[Kate Spade]] - fashion designer *[[Paul Spudis]] - geologist and lunar scientist *[[Phillippi Sparks]] - former [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Terrell Suggs]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Pat Tillman]] - former [[National Football League|NFL]] player; [[United States Army|US Army]] Corporal *[[Andrew Walter]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Danny White]] - former [[National Football League|NFL]] player and [[Arena Football League]] coach ==Notable faculty and staff== * [[David Berliner]] - Professor, College of Education *[[Phil Christensen]] * [[Samuel A. DiGangi]] - Professor, College of Education; Assistant Vice Provost, Information Technology *[[Robert &quot;Coach&quot; Fleming]] - Professor of music, associate director of bands and director of the ASU Sun Devil Marching Band *[[Donald Johanson]] - Director, Institute of Human Origins; discovered 3.18 million year old fossil hominid &quot;Lucy&quot; in Ethiopia *[[Dirk Koetter]] - Head Football Coach *[[Richard Lerman]] - Professor, Interdisciplinary Arts and Performance *[[Robert E. Mittelstaedt]] - Dean, [[W.P. Carey School of Business]] *[[Pat Murphy_(baseball coach)| Pat Murphy]] - Head Baseball Coach * Baltazar Nunez - Magnaflow Senior Planner *[[George Poste]] *[[Edward C. Prescott]] - Professor, [[W.P. Carey School of Business]]; awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Economics *[[Stephen J. Pyne]] - Professor, School of Life Sciences *[[Morris Starsky]] - Former Professor, Philosophy *[[Claudia Zapata]] - ECE 100 ==External links== * [http://www.asu.edu ASU Web site] * [http://www.thesundevils.com Official Sun Devil athletics site] * [http://www.wireddevils.com Wired Devils] * [http://www.michigan-football.com/ncaa/f/arzstate.htm Arizona State Sun Devils Historical Football Records] * [http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/clubhouse?collegeId=9&amp;sport=ncf ESPN.com - Clubhouse (Arizona State)] * [http://www.asu.edu/ASASU ASU's Student Government] * [http://www.theblaze1260.com The Blaze 1260 AM, student radio station] * [http://www.asuband.org The ASU Sun Devil Marching Band website] * [http://www.law.asu.edu ASU College of Law website] {{Pacific Ten Conference}} {{Colleges and Universities in Arizona}} [[Category:Pacific Ten Conference]] [[Category:Universities and colleges in Arizona]] [[Category:Arizona State University|*]] [[Category:Sports in Phoenix, Arizona]] [[de:Arizona State University]] [[ja:アリゾナ州立大学]] [[sv:Arizona State University]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Astoria Oregon</title> <id>1860</id> <revision> <id>15900322</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Astoria, Oregon]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>April 14</title> <id>1862</id> <revision> <id>41597544</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:34:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Valentinian</username> <id>256198</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Events */ 1864: Updated the link. More npov version.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt; {| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=14}} |} '''April 14''' is the 104th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (105th in [[leap year]]s). There are 261 days remaining. ==Events== *[[43 BC]] - [[Battle of Forum Gallorum]]. [[Mark Antony]], besieging [[Julius Caesar]]'s assassin [[Decimus Junius Brutus]] in [[Mutina]], defeats the forces of the [[consul]] [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus|Pansa]], who is killed. *[[69]] - [[Vitellius]], commander of the Rhine armies, defeats [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Otho]] in the [[Battle of Bedriacum]] and seizes the throne. *[[1028]] - [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]], son of Conrad, was elected king of the [[Germany|Germans]]. *[[1205]] - [[Battle of Adrianople (1205)|Battle of Adrianople]] between [[Bulgars]] and [[Crusades|Crusaders]]. *[[1450]] - [[Battle of Formigny]]. French attack and nearly annihilate English, ending English domination in northern France. *[[1471]] - In [[England]], the Yorkists under [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] defeated the Lancastrians under Warwick at the battle of Barnet; the Earl of Warwick was killed and Edward IV resumed the throne. *[[1632]] - [[Battle of Rain]], [[Sweden|Swedes]] under [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] defeat the [[Holy Roman Empire]] during the [[Thirty Years' War]]. *[[1775]] - The first [[abolition]] society in the [[North America]] was established. The &quot;[[Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage]]&quot; was organized in Philadelphia by [[Benjamin Franklin]] and Benjamin Rush. *[[1828]] - [[Noah Webster]] copyrights the first edition of his [[dictionary]]. *[[1849]] - [[Hungary]] declared itself independent of [[Austria]] with Louis Kossuth as its leader. *[[1860]] - The first [[Pony Express]] rider reaches [[Sacramento, California]]. *[[1864]] - [[Battle of Dybbøl]]: A Prussian-Austrian army defeats Denmark and gains control of [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]]. Denmark surrenders the province in the following peace settlement. *[[1865]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]] is shot by [[John Wilkes Booth]]; he dies the next day. *[[1890]] - The [[Pan-American Union]] was founded by the First International Conference of American States at their meeting in Washington. Known originally as the International Bureau of American Republics, William Elleroy Curtis became its first director. *[[1894]] - [[Thomas Edison]] demonstrates the [[kinetoscope]], a device for peep-show viewing using [[photograph]]s that flip in sequence, a precursor to [[film|movie]]s. *[[1910]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[William Howard Taft]] becomes the first president to throw out the first [[baseball]] on opening day. *[[1912]] - The British ocean liner [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] strikes an iceberg in the North Atlantic on its maiden voyage, plunging beneath the waves and taking with it over 1,500 lives at about 2:20 a.m. the following morning. *[[1915]] - The [[Ottoman Empire|Turk]]s invaded [[Armenia]]. *[[1927]] - The first [[Volvo]] 'Rolls' off the assembly line in [[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]]. *[[1931]] - [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] deposes King [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]] and proclaims the [[Second Spanish Republic|2nd Spanish Republic]]. *[[1935]] - &quot;Black Sunday&quot;, the worst dust storm of the [[Dust Bowl]]. *1935 - [[Babe Ruth]] played his first [[National League]] game in [[Fenway Park]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. He was playing for the Boston Braves, not his old team the Red Sox, in this, his last year of pro ball in the major leagues. In this season, Ruth played 28 games, getting 13 hits and six home runs, before retiring. *[[1940]] - [[Royal Mar
cut down. In many parts of the world trees are regarded as the abode of the spirits of the dead. Just as a process of [[syncretism]] has given rise to cults of animal gods, tree spirits tend to become detached from the trees, which are thenceforward only their abodes. Here again animism has begun to pass into [[polytheism]]. == Object souls == Some cultures do not make a distinction between [[animate]] and inanimate objects. Natural phenomenon, [[geographic]] features, everyday objects, and manufactured articles may also be attributed with souls. In the north of Europe, in [[ancient Greece]], in [[China]], the water or river spirit is [[horse]] or [[bull]]-shaped. The water monster in serpent shape is even more widely found, but it is less strictly the spirit of the water. The spirit of syncretism manifests itself in this department of animism too, turning the immanent spirit into the presiding [[djinn]] or [[local god]] of later times. == Animism and death== In many parts of the world it is held that the human body is the seat of more than one soul. On the island of [[Nias]] four are distinguished: the shadow and the intelligence, which die with the body, a [[tutelary]] spirit, termed ''begoe'', and a second spirit, which is carried on the head. Similar ideas are found among the [[Euahlayi]] of southeast Australia, the [[Dakota]]s and many other tribes. Just as in Europe the [[ghost]] of a dead person is held to haunt the churchyard or the place of death, so do other cultures assign different abodes to the multiple souls with which they credit man. Of the four souls of a Dakota, one is held to stay with the corpse, another in the village, a third goes into the air, while the fourth goes to the land of souls, where its lot may depend on its rank in this life, its [[sex]], mode of death or sepulture, on the due observance of [[funeral]] ritual, or many other points. From the belief in the survival of the dead arose the practice of offering food, lighting fires, etc., at the grave, at first, maybe, as an act of friendship or filial piety, later as an act of [[ancestor worship]]. The simple offering of food or shedding of blood at the grave develops into an elaborate system of [[sacrifice]]. Even where ancestor worship is not found, the desire to provide the dead with comforts in the future life may lead to the sacrifice of wives, slaves, animals, and so on, to the breaking or burning of objects at the grave or to the provision of the [[Charon (mythology)|ferryman]]'s toll: a coin put in the mouth of the corpse to pay the traveling expenses of the soul. But all is not finished with the passage of the soul to the land of the dead. The soul may return to avenge its death by helping to discover the murderer, or to wreak vengeance for itself. There is a widespread belief that those who die a violent death become malignant spirits and endanger the lives of those who come near the haunted spot. The woman who dies in childbirth becomes a [[pontianak]], and threatens the life of human beings. People resort to magical or religious means of repelling their spiritual dangers. == Evil spirits == Side by side with the doctrine of separable souls with which we have so far been concerned, exists the belief in a great host of unattached spirits. These are not immanent souls that have become detached from their abodes, but have instead every appearance of independent spirits. These spirits are at first mainly malevolent. Side by side with them we find the spirits of the dead as hostile beings. At a higher stage the spirits of dead kinsmen are no longer unfriendly, nor yet all non-human spirits. As [[fetish]]es, [[nagual]]s (see [[totem]]), [[familiar spirit]]s, gods or [[demi-gods]] (see also [[demonology]]), they enter into relations with man. On the other hand there still subsists a belief in innumerable evil spirits, which manifest themselves in the phenomena of [[possession]], [[lycanthropy]], disease, and so on. The fear of evil spirits has given rise to ceremonies of expulsion of evils (see [[exorcism]]), designed to banish them from the community. == Differences between animism and religion == Animism is commonly described as the most primitive form of [[religion]], but properly speaking it is not a religion at all. Animism is in the first instance an explanation of phenomena rather than an attitude of mind toward the cause of them, a [[philosophy]] rather than a religion. The term may, however, be conveniently used to describe the early stage of religion in which people endeavour to set up relations between themselves and the unseen powers, conceived as spirits, but differing in many particulars from the gods of [[polytheism]]. As an example of this stage in one of its aspects may be taken the European belief in the corn spirit, which is, however, the object of magical rather than religious rites. Sir James G. Frazer, in ''The Golden Bough'', has thus defined the character of the animistic pantheon: :''they are restricted in their operations to definite departments of nature; their names are general, not proper; their attributes are generic rather than individual; in other words, there is an indefinite number of spirits of each class, and the individuals of a class are much alike; they have no definitely marked individuality; no accepted traditions are current as to their origin, life and character.'' This stage of religion is well illustrated by the [[Native American (U.S.)|Native American]] custom of offering sacrifice to certain rocks, or whirlpools, or to the indwelling spirits connected with them. The rite is only performed in the neighbourhood of the object, it is an incident of a [[canoe]] or other voyage, and is not intended to secure any benefits beyond a safe passage past the object in question. The spirit to be propitiated has a purely local sphere of influence, and powers of a very limited nature. Animistic in many of their features too are the temporary gods of [[fetishism]], naguals or familiars, [[Genie | genii]] and even the dead who receive a cult. With the rise of a belief in departmental gods comes the age of polytheism. The belief in [[elemental spirits]] may still persist, but they fall into the background and receive no cult. == Animism and the origin of religion == Two animistic theories of the origin of [[religion]] have been put forward. The one, often termed the &quot;ghost theory,&quot; mainly associated with the name of [[Herbert Spencer]], but also maintained by [[Grant Allen]], refers the beginning of religion to the cult of dead human beings. The other, put forward by Dr. E. B. [[Tylor]], makes the foundation of all religion animistic, but recognizes the non-human character of polytheistic gods. Although ancestor-worship, or, more broadly, the [[cult]] of the dead, has in many cases overshadowed other cults or even extinguished them, we have no warrant, even in these cases, for asserting its priority, but rather the reverse. In the majority of cases the pantheon is made up by a multitude of spirits in human, sometimes in animal form, which bear no signs of ever having been incarnate. [[Sun god]]s and [[moon goddess]]es, gods of fire, wind and water, gods of the sea, and above all gods of the sky, show no signs of having been ghost gods at any period in their history. They may, it is true, be associated with ghost gods. In Australia it cannot even be asserted that the gods are spirits at all, much less that they are the spirits of dead men. They are simply magnified magicians, super-men who have never died. We have no ground, therefore, for regarding the cult of the dead as the origin of religion in this area. This conclusion is the more probable, as ancestor-worship and the cult of the dead generally cannot be said to exist in Australia. The more general view that polytheistic and other [[gods]] are the elemental and other spirits of the later stages of animistic creeds, is equally inapplicable to Australia, where the belief seems to be neither animistic nor even animatistic in character. But we are hardly justified in arguing from the case of Australia to a general conclusion as to the origin of religious ideas in all other parts of the world. It is perhaps safest to say that the science of religions has no data on which to go, in formulating conclusions as to the original form of the objects of religious emotion. It must be remembered that not only is it very difficult to get precise information of the subject of the religious ideas of people of some other cultures, perhaps for the simple reason that the ideas themselves are far from precise, but also that, as has been pointed out above, the conception of spiritual often approximates very closely to that of material. Where the soul is regarded as no more than a finer sort of matter, it will obviously be far from easy to decide whether the gods are spiritual or material. Even, therefore, if we can say that at the present day the gods are entirely spiritual, it is clearly possible to maintain that they have been spiritualized ''pari passu'' with the increasing importance of the animistic view of nature and of the greater prominence of [[Eschatology | eschatological]] beliefs. The animistic origin of religion is therefore not proven. == Animism and mythology == Little need be said on the relation of animism and [[mythology]]. While a large part of mythology has an animistic basis, it is possible to believe, e.g. in a sky world, peopled by corporeal beings, as well as by spirits of the dead. The latter may even be entirely absent. The mythology of the Australians relates largely to corporeal, non-spiritual beings. Stories of transformation, [[deluge (mythology)]] and doom myths, or myths of the origin of death, have not necessarily any animistic basis. At the same time, with the rise of ideas as to a future life and spiritual beings, this field of mythology is immensely widened, though it cannot be said that a rich mythol
of cadmium is used in [[Battery (electricity)|batteries]] (especially [[nickel-cadmium battery|Ni-Cd]] batteries) and most of the remaining one-fourth is used mainly for [[Cadmium pigments|pigments]], coatings and plating, and as stabilizers for [[plastic]]s. Other uses; *Used in some of the lowest melting [[alloy]]s. *Due to a low [[coefficient of friction]] and very good fatigue resistance, it is used in bearing alloys. *6% of cadmium finds use in [[electroplating]]. *Many kinds of [[solder]] contain this metal. *As a barrier to control [[nuclear fission]]. *Compounds containing cadmium are used in black and white [[television]] phosphors and also in the blue and green phosphors for color television picture tubes. *Cadmium forms various [[salt]]s, with [[cadmium sulfide]] being the most common. This sulfide is used as a [[Cadmium pigments|yellow pigment]]. [[Cadmium selenide]] can be used as red pigment, commonly called ''cadmium red''. *Used in some [[semiconductor]]s such as cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and [[cadmium telluride]], which can be used for [[light]] detection or [[solar cell]]s. [[HgCdTe]] is sensitive to [[infrared]]. *Some cadmium compounds are employed in [[Polyvinyl chloride | PVC]] as stabilizers. *Used in the first [[neutrino]] detector. *Used to block voltage-dependent calcium channels from fluxing calcium ions in molecular biology. == History == Cadmium ([[Latin]] ''cadmia'', [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kadmeia'' meaning &quot;[[calamine]]&quot;) was [[discovery of the chemical elements|discovered]] in [[Germany]] in [[1817]] by [[Friedrich Strohmeyer]]. Strohmeyer found the new element within an impurity in [[zinc carbonate]] (calamine) and for 100 years Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine since the metal was found in this zinc compound. Strohmeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not. Even though cadmium and its compounds are highly toxic, the [[British Pharmaceutical Codex]] from 1907 states that [[cadmium iodide]] was used as a [[medicine]] to treat &quot;enlarged joints, scrofulous glands, and chilblains&quot;. In [[1927]], the [[International Conference on Weights and Measures]] redefined the [[metre|meter]] in terms of a red cadmium spectral line (1m = 1,553,164.13 wavelengths). This definition has since been changed (see [[krypton]]). == Occurrence == [[Image:CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Cadmium metal]] Cadmium-containing ores are rare and when found they occur in small quantities. [[Greenockite]] (Cd[[sulfur|S]]), the only cadmium [[mineral]] of importance, is nearly always associated with [[sphalerite]] ([[zinc|Zn]]S). Consequently, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct from mining, smelting, and refining [[sulfide]] ores of zinc, and to a lesser degree, [[lead]] and [[copper]]. Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust generated by recycling [[iron]] and [[steel]] scrap. Production in the [[United States]] began in [[1907]] but it was not until after [[World War I]] that cadmium came into wide use. ;see also [[:category:Cadmium minerals]] == Isotopes == Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 8 [[isotope]]s. For two of them, natural [[radioactivity]] was observed, and other three are predicted to be [[radioactive]] but their decays were never observed, due to extremely long [[half-life]] times. The two natural radioactive isotopes are &lt;sup&gt;113&lt;/sup&gt;Cd ([[beta decay]], [[half-life]] is 7.7 X 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; years) and &lt;sup&gt;116&lt;/sup&gt;Cd (two-neutrino [[double beta decay]], [[half-life]] is 2.9 X 10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; years). Other three ones are &lt;sup&gt;106&lt;/sup&gt;Cd, &lt;sup&gt;108&lt;/sup&gt;Cd ([[double electron capture]]), and &lt;sup&gt;114&lt;/sup&gt;Cd ([[double beta decay]]); only lower limits on their [[half-life]] times have been set. At least three isotopes - &lt;sup&gt;110&lt;/sup&gt;Cd, &lt;sup&gt;111&lt;/sup&gt;Cd, and &lt;sup&gt;112&lt;/sup&gt;Cd - are absolutely stable. Among the isotopes absent in the natural cadmium, the most long-lived are &lt;sup&gt;109&lt;/sup&gt;Cd with a half-life of 462.6 days, and &lt;sup&gt;115&lt;/sup&gt;Cd with a half-life of 53.46 hours. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 2.5 hours and the majority of these have half-lifes that are less than 5 minutes. This element also has 8 known [[meta state]]s with the most stable being &lt;sup&gt;113m&lt;/sup&gt;Cd (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 14.1 years), &lt;sup&gt;115m&lt;/sup&gt;Cd (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 44.6 days) and &lt;sup&gt;117m&lt;/sup&gt;Cd (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 3.36 hours). The known isotopes of cadmium range in [[atomic weight]] from 96.935 [[atomic mass unit|u]] (&lt;sup&gt;97&lt;/sup&gt;Cd) to 129.934 amu (&lt;sup&gt;138&lt;/sup&gt;Cd). The primary [[decay mode]] before the second most abundant stable isotope, &lt;sup&gt;112&lt;/sup&gt;Cd, is [[electron capture]] and the primary modes after are [[beta emission]] and [[electron capture]]. The primary [[decay product]] before &lt;sup&gt;112&lt;/sup&gt;Cd is element 47 ([[silver]]) and the primary product after is element 49 ([[indium]]). == Precautions == Cadmium has no constructive purpose in the [[human]] body. This element and solutions of its compounds are extremely [[toxic]] even in low concentrations, and will [[bioaccumulate]] in organisms and [[ecosystem]]s. One possible reason for its toxicity is that it interferes with the action of [[zinc]]-containing enzymes. Zinc is an important element in biological systems, but cadmium, although similar to zinc chemically in many ways, apparently does not substitute or &quot;stand in&quot; for it well at all. Cadmium may also interfere with biological processes containing [[magnesium]] and [[calcium]] in a similar fashion. Inhaling cadmium laden dust quickly leads to [[respiratory tract]] and [[kidney]] problems which can be fatal (often from [[renal failure]]). Ingestion of any significant amount of cadmium causes immediate poisoning and damage to the [[liver]] and the kidneys. Compounds containing cadmium are also [[carcinogen]]ic. Cadmium poisoning is the cause of the [[itai-itai disease]], which literally means &quot;pain pain&quot; in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. In addition to kidney damage, patients suffered from [[osteoporosis]] and [[osteomalacia]]. While working with cadmium it is important to do so under a [[fume hood]] to protect against dangerous fumes. [[Silver (element)|Silver]] [[solder]], for example, which contains cadmium, should be handled with care. Serious toxicity problems have resulted from long-term exposure to cadmium plating baths. ''See also: [[Cadmium Poisoning]]'' ==References== 1. http://www.webelements.com, see 'cadmium' {{wiktionarypar|cadmium}} *[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/48.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Cadmium] == External links == {{Commons|Cadmium}} *[http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol58/mono58-2.htm IARC Monograph &quot;Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds&quot;] *[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/17.html National Pollutant Inventory - Cadmium and compounds] *[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cd/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Cadmium] {{poisonmetal}} [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Transition metals]] [[Category:Toxicology]] [[Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens]] [[ca:Cadmi]] [[cs:Kadmium]] [[da:Cadmium]] [[de:Cadmium]] [[et:Kaadmium]] [[el:Κάδμιο]] [[es:Cadmio]] [[eo:Kadmio]] [[fr:Cadmium]] [[ko:카드뮴]] [[io:Kadmio]] [[is:Kadmín]] [[it:Cadmio]] [[he:קדמיום]] [[ku:Kadmiyûm]] [[lv:Kadmijs]] [[lt:Kadmis]] [[hu:Kadmium]] [[nl:Cadmium]] [[ja:カドミウム]] [[no:Kadmium]] [[nn:Kadmium]] [[oc:Cadmi]] [[pl:Kadm]] [[pt:Cádmio]] [[ru:Кадмий]] [[sl:Kadmij]] [[sr:Кадмијум]] [[fi:Kadmium]] [[sv:Kadmium]] [[th:แคดเมียม]] [[vi:Cadmi]] [[uk:Кадмій]] [[zh:镉]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cesium</title> <id>5673</id> <revision> <id>38717273</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T03:54:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ανδρέας</username> <id>469010</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[Cesiumxxx]] to [[Cesium]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Caesium]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cerium</title> <id>5674</id> <revision> <id>41449595</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:25:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>217.185.17.212</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Occurrence */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=58 | symbol=Ce | name=cerium | left=[[lanthanum]] | right=[[praseodymium]] | above=- | below=[[thorium|Th]] | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series | [[lanthanide]]s }} {{Elementbox_periodblock | period=6 | block=f }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img | Ce,58| silvery white }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|140.116]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&amp;#93; 4f&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; 5d&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; 6s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 19, 9, 2 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 6.770 }} {{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 6.55 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1068 | c=795 | f=1463 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3716 | c=3443 | f=6229 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 5.46 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 398 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 26.94 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1992 | 2194 | 2442 | 2754 | 3159 | 3705 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crysta
sed for women who are too young to get pregnant, presently pregnant, or nursing. In each case either the woman or her child is at risk for serious complications, and this is the basis for many [[rabbinic literature|rabbinic authorities]] permitting contraception in situations where pregnancy would seriously harm the woman. In those cases, the most &quot;natural&quot; method is preferred; as the use of a [[condom]] or [[pessary]] creates a physical barrier, &quot;[[oral contraceptive|the pill]]&quot; (or an [[intrauterine device]]) is preferred by most authorities. Contraceptive measures that lead to [[sterility]], especially male sterility (e.g. through [[vasectomy]]), are problematic, and a sterilized man may have to separate from his wife (based on [[Deuteronomy]] 23:2). Such regulations regarding contraception affect the traditional streams of Judaism (including, but not limited to the Ultra-Orthodox and Modern-Orthodox sects) more so than others because of their strict adherence to Halakhah, or Jewish law. These regulations affect liberal strains of Judaism (including, but not limited to, the Reform, Reconstructionist, and Conservative movements; particularly in Western society) much less, where the emphasis is on applying Halakhah to modern life rather than observing it strictly. Many modern Jews feel that the benefits of contraception, be they female health, family stability, or disease prevention, uphold the commandment in Judaism to &quot;choose life&quot; much more strongly than they violate the commandment to &quot;be fruitful and multiply&quot;. When [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jewish]] couples contemplate the use of contraceptives, they generally consult a [[rabbi]] who evaluates the need for the intervention and which method is preferable from a ''[[halakha|halachic]]'' point of view. Generally, the introduction of [[oral contraceptive]]s has not caused the stir in [[Judaism|Jewish]] circles that it caused in other religious groups. It was followed by a number of [[responsa]] from rabbinic decisors (''[[posek|poskim]]'') which outlined the proper approach to the new phenomenon. There has been surprisingly little talk of the potential risk of increased [[promiscuity]] (''[[z'nut]]''). For example, an innovative use of the [[contraceptive pill]] in [[Judaism]] is employed by young brides. The laws of [[family purity]] state that intercourse cannot take place while a woman is menstruating (see ''[[niddah]]''). In order to decrease the chance of [[menstruation]] occurring just before (or on) the wedding night, many brides briefly regulate their periods in the months leading up to their [[wedding]]. ==See also== *[[Population control]] ==References== *Riddle, John M. (1999). ''Eve's Herbs: A History of Contraception and Abortion in the West.'' Harvard MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674270266 [http://birth-parent.helpdesk-station.com/birth-control-ring/Birth-Control.html Online summary] Accessed [[December 21]] [[2005]]. #{{note|pre-e}}[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12286905 Researchers find no sperm in pre-ejaculate fluid]. Contraceptive Technology Update. 1993 Oct;14(10):154-6. #{{note|springer}}Zukerman, Z and D.B.Weiss and R.Orvieto. [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/jarg/2003/00000020/00000004/00461193 Does Preejaculatory Penile Secretion Originating from Cowper's Gland Contain Sperm?] Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics, Volume 20, Number 4, April 2003, pp. 157-159(3). #{{note|silphium}}Tatman, John. [http://ancient-coins.com/articles/silphium/silphium2.htm SILPHIUM: ANCIENT WONDER DRUG?] Accessed [[December 21]] [[2005]]. #{{note|IUD}}Thomas, Patricia. (1988). ''Contraceptives'', &lt;u&gt;Medical World News&lt;/u&gt;, 29(5) ([[14 March]]), 48 #{{note|IUD}}[http://www.contraceptiononline.org/contrareport/article01.cfm?art=93 Evolution and Revolution: The Past, Present, and Future of Contraception]. Contraception Online, ''The Contraception Report'', Volume 10, Issue 6, February 2000. ==External links== * [http://www.plannedparenthood.com/pp2/portal/medicalinfo/birthcontrol/ Planned Parenthood of America - Birth Control Methods] * [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/AnscombeChastity.shtml G. E. M. Anscombe: ''Contraception and Chastity''] *[http://www.arhp.org/healthcareproviders/resources/contraceptionresources/ Contraception Resource Center from the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals.] *[http://www.consumerreports.org/main/content/display_report.jsp?FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=551087&amp;ASSORTMENT%3C%3East_id=333141&amp;bmUID=1115189369630 A Guide to Condoms and birth control methods.] *[http://www.alternet.org/rights/22062/ &quot;The Contraception Museum&quot;] (The History of Contraception Museum, Cleveland, Ohio, US.) *[http://www.birth-control.ws/ Descriptions of various birth control options.] *[http://www.ccli.org/ Couple to Couple League] Natural Family Planning &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[Category:Birth control|*]] {{Link FA|ja}} [[ca:Anticonceptiu]] [[cs:Antikoncepce]] [[da:Prævention]] [[de:Verhütungsmittel]] [[es:Método anticonceptivo]] [[fr:Contraception]] [[it:Contraccezione]] [[mk:Контрацепција]] [[nl:Anticonceptie]] [[ja:避妊]] [[pl:Antykoncepcja]] [[pt:Contracepção]] [[ru:Контрацепция]] [[sl:Nadzor rojstev]] [[fi:Ehkäisy]] [[sv:Preventivmedel]] [[ko:피임]] [[zh:生育控制]] [[simple:Birth control]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baltic Sea/Elblag</title> <id>4272</id> <revision> <id>17746598</id> <timestamp>2005-06-28T09:05:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Diderot</username> <id>31928</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elbląg]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baltic Sea/Truso</title> <id>4273</id> <revision> <id>17746620</id> <timestamp>2005-06-28T09:05:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Diderot</username> <id>31928</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elbląg]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baltic Sea/Gdanzk</title> <id>4275</id> <revision> <id>17756068</id> <timestamp>2005-06-28T12:34:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dbenbenn</username> <id>38020</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gdańsk]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gdańsk]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baltic Sea/Odra</title> <id>4276</id> <revision> <id>15902556</id> <timestamp>2003-11-08T12:16:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Oder River]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Breast Implants/Breast Reconstruction</title> <id>4278</id> <revision> <id>15902558</id> <timestamp>2002-08-29T06:18:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>removed text from redirect page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Breast reconstruction]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Broadcast domain</title> <id>4279</id> <revision> <id>28573018</id> <timestamp>2005-11-17T06:44:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>218.101.27.196</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''broadcast domain''' is a logical area in a [[computer network]] where any [[computer]] connected to the [[computer network]] can directly transmit to any other in the domain without having to go through a [[routing]] device, providing they share the same subnet and gateway address and are in the same [[Virtual LAN|VLAN]], (default or installed). (If VLANS are installed on a switch, a router will be needed to route between VLANS in the same network). More specifically it is an area of the [[computer network]] made up of all the [[computer]]s and networking devices able to be reached by sending a frame to the [[data link layer]] broadcast address. In a very basic network where hubs are used to connect the computers, rather than switches or routers, you could say it's pretty much like the post office clerk checking the mail. One clerk has to look at mail every time to confirm that the mail is not for himself/herself. So when one mail (signal) is sent from one point, all the other points in the network will have to check in order to confirm that the mail (signal) is not for themselves. Compare with [[Collision domain]]. {{compu-network-stub}} [[Category:Computer networks]] [[de:Broadcast-Domäne]] [[fr:Domaine de diffusion]] [[he:&amp;#1502;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1501; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1512;]] [[ru:&amp;#1064;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1097;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1099;&amp;#1081; &amp;#1076;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Big Ben</title> <id>4281</id> <revision> <id>41659331</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:48:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TigerShark</username> <id>161478</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/172.201.95.41|172.201.95.41]] ([[User talk:172.201.95.41|Talk]]) to last version by 151.199.193.196</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Big Ben Feb 2006.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Clock Tower, colloquially known as Big Ben]] '''Big Ben''' is the colloquial name o
consistent and reliable supply of high quality ambergris. Due to demand for ambergris and its high price, replacement compounds have been sought out by the fragrance industry and chemically [[chemical synthesis|synthesized]]. The most important of these is [[Ambrox]], which has taken its place as the most widely used amber odorant in [[perfume]] manufacture. The oldest and most commercially significant synthesis of Ambrox is from [[sclareol]] (primarily extracted from [[Clary sage]]), although syntheses have been devised from a variety of other [[secondary metabolites|natural products]], including [[cis-abienol]] and [[thujone]]. Procedures for the microbial production of Ambrox have also been devised. Depending on its quality, raw ambergris fetches approximately USD$20 per gram. In the [[United States]], possession of any part of an endangered species &amp;mdash; including ambergris that has washed ashore &amp;mdash; is a violation of the [[Endangered Species Act]] of 1978. ==In literature, cinema and music== '''Ambergris''' is also a fictional city, named for &quot;the most secret and valued part of the whale&quot;, appearing in [[Jeff Vandermeer]]'s books ''[[City of Saints and Madmen]]'' and ''[[Shriek: An Afterword]]''. The word also appears in [[Ezra Pound]]'s poem ''Portrait d'une Femme''. Chapters XCI and XCII of ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' relate the extraction of ambergris from a deceased sperm whale. In the 2001 motion picture [[Hannibal (film)|''Hannibal'']], [[Hannibal Lecter|Dr. Lecter's]] secret location in [[Florence, Italy]] was determined after FBI Agent Clarice Starling received a letter from him that was scented with a hand-engineered fragrance containing ambergris. Agent Starling consulted a team of fragrance industry experts who identified the presence of ambergris by smelling the letter and lamented their inability to work with this substance in the United States due to its prohibition. '''Ambergris''' is mentioned during the ''[[Futurama]]'' episode [[Three Hundred Big Boys]] when the whale Mooshu is caused to vomit by the rotten fish it ingests when Leela swims with it. In the [[Encyclopedia Brown]] series of children's detective stories, there is a story called &quot;The Case of Smelly Nellie and the Ambergris&quot;. There was also a [[rock music|rock band]] called Ambergris, who released one self-titled album in 1970 through [[ABC Records]]. In the [[World of Warcraft]] [[video game]], players occasionally receive an item called Threshadon Ambergris from defeating [[Loch Ness Monster]]-like sea creatures. '''Ambergris''' is mentioned in ''[[The Far Side of the World]]'', one of the ''[[Aubrey-Maturin series]]'' novels by [[Patrick O'Brian]]. A whale-sized block of ambergris plays a central role in artist [[Matthew Barney]]'s film ''[[Drawing Restraint 9]]'' ==External links== * [http://www.rsmas.miami.edu/support/lib/seas/seasQA/QAs/a/ambergris.html University of Miami Ambergris FAQ] * [http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/editors_pick/1933_05-06_pick.html Natural History Magazine Article: Floating Gold -- The Romance of Ambergris] * [http://www.netstrider.com/documents/ambergris/ Ambergris - A Pathfinder and Annotated Bibliography] * [http://www.laputanlogic.com/articles/2006/02/01-0159-300.html Article on Ambergris and its history] * [http://www.cropwatch.org/amber.htm On the chemistry and ethics of Ambergris] {{1911}} [[Category:Perfumery]] [[Category:Whale products]] [[Category:Animal glandular products]] [[da:Ambra]] [[de:Ambra]] [[eo:ambro]] [[fr:Ambre gris]] [[nl:Amber (potvis)]] [[ja:龍涎香]] [[pl:Ambra]] [[pt:Âmbar cinza]] [[ru:Амбра]] [[fi:Ambra]] [[sv:Ambra]] [[uk:Амбра]] [[zh:龍涎香]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ambiorix</title> <id>1698</id> <revision> <id>38961991</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T20:27:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gaius Cornelius</username> <id>293907</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambiorix''' was prince of the [[Eburones]], a [[Belgae|Belgic]] tribe of north-eastern [[Gaul]] ([[Gallia Belgica]]). [[Image:Ambiorix.jpg|thumb|Statue of Ambiorix in [[Tongeren]].]] Although [[Julius Caesar]] had freed him from paying tribute to the [[Atuatuci]], Ambiorix joined [[Catuvolcus]] (winter, [[54 BC]]) in an uprising against the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] forces under [[Q. Titurius Sabinus]] and [[I. Aurunculeius Cotta]], and almost annihilated them. An attack on [[Quintus Cicero]] (brother of the orator), then stationed with a legion in the [[Nervii]]'s territory, failed due to the timely appearance of Caesar. Ambiorix is said to have found safety across the [[Rhine]], but his fate remains unknown. It is certain that Caesar attempted to capture him, eliminating the Eburones and destroying their land in the process. A statue of of Ambiorix (actually a 19th century Romantic interpretation of what Ambiorix might have looked like) can be found in the [[Belgium|Belgian]] town of [[Tongeren]]. Caesar, ''[[Gallic Wars|De Bello Gallico]]'' v. 26-51, vi. 29-43, viii. 24; Dio Cassius xl. 7-11; Florus iii. 10. ==External links== * [http://www.livius.org/am-ao/ambiorix/ambiorix.html Ambiorix] from www.livius.org [[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]] [[Category:Ancient Gauls]] [[de:Ambiorix]] [[fr:Ambiorix]] [[li:Ambiorix]] [[nl:Ambiorix]] [[pt:Ambiorix]] [[sv:Ambiorix]] {{Ancient-Rome-bio-stub}} {{royalty-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alfonso VI</title> <id>1699</id> <revision> <id>38133427</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T11:36:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ft1</username> <id>875504</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+it</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Alfonso VI of Portugal]] -- (1643-1667) second king of the [[House of Braganza]] *[[Alfonso VI of Castile]] -- (1065-1109) {{disambig}} [[es:Alfonso VI]] [[it:Alfonso VI]] [[pt:Afonso VI]] [[sv:Alfonso VI]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>August Wilhelm Ambros</title> <id>1700</id> <revision> <id>28106107</id> <timestamp>2005-11-12T10:46:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''August Wilhelm Ambros''' ([[November 17]], [[1816]] &amp;ndash; [[June 28]], [[1876]]) was an [[Austrian]] composer and music historian of [[Czech people|Czech]] decent. He was born at Mýto (''Mauth'') near [[Rokycany]], [[Bohemia]]. His father was a cultured man, and his mother was the sister of [[Raphael Georg Kiesewetter]] ([[1773]]-[[1850]]), the musical archaeologist and collector. Ambros was well-educated in music and the arts, which were his abiding passion. He was, however, destined for the law and an official career in the Austrian civil service, and he occupied various important posts under the ministry of justice, music being an avocation. From [[1850]] onwards he became well-known as a critic and essay-writer, and in [[1860]] he began working on his magnum opus, his ''History of Music'', which was published at intervals from [[1864]] in five volumes, the last two ([[1878]], [[1882]]) being edited and completed by [[Otto Kade]] and [[Langhaus]]. Ambros became professor of the history of music at [[Prague]] in [[1869]]. He was an excellent pianist, and the author of numerous compositions somewhat reminiscent of [[Felix Mendelssohn]]. Ambros died at [[Vienna]], Austria at the age of 59. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1816 births|Ambros, August Wilhelm]] [[Category:1876 deaths|Ambros, August Wilhelm]] [[Category:Austrian composers|Ambros, August Wilhelm]] [[Category:Romantic composers|Ambros, August Wilhelm]] [[de:August Wilhelm Ambros]] [[pt:August Wilhelm Ambros]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amazon River</title> <id>1701</id> <revision> <id>41789642</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:41:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdr</username> <id>55814</id> </contributor> <comment>/* 20th century concerns */ reverft vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_river | river_name = Amazon River | image_name = Amazon_river_basin.png | caption = Map showing the course of the Amazon, selected tributaries, and the approximate extent of its drainage area | origin = [[Nevado Mismi]] | mouth = [[Atlantic Ocean]] | basin_countries = [[Brazil]] (62.4%), [[Peru]] (16.3%)&lt;br&gt;[[Bolivia]] (12.0%), [[Colombia]] (6.3%)&lt;br&gt;[[Ecuador]] (2.1%) | length = 6,387 km (3,969 mi) | elevation = 5,597 m (18,364 ft) | discharge = 219,000 m&amp;sup3;/s (7,735,080 ft&amp;sup3;/s) | watershed = 6,915,000 km&amp;sup2; (2,669,882 mi&amp;sup2;) }} The '''Amazon River''' (occasionally ''River Amazon''; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Río Amazonas'', [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Rio Amazonas'') of [[South America]] is [[River lengths|one of the two longest]] [[river]]s on Earth, the other being the [[Nile]] in Africa. The Amazon has by far the greatest total flow of any river, carrying more than the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], [[Nile]], and [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] rivers combined — so while it may not be the ''longest'' river, it is undoubtedly the ''largest''. Its [[drainage area]], called the [[Amazon Basin]], is the largest of any river system. The quantity of fresh water released to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] is enormous: up to 300,000&amp;nbsp;m&amp;sup3; per second in the rainy season. Indeed, the Amazon is responsible for a fifth of the total volume of [[fresh water]] entering the oceans worldwide. It is said that offshore of the mouth of the Amazon [[potable]] water can be drawn from t
uyer to pay the amount due within six months after the due date, and *Risk of non-acceptance *Surrendering [[economic sovereignty]] ==== Political risks ==== *Risk of cancellation or non-renewal of export or import licences *War risks *Risk of expropriation or confiscation of the importer's company *Risk of the imposition of an import ban after the shipment of the goods *Transfer risk - imposition of exchange controls by the importer's country or foreign [[currency]] shortages *Surrendering [[sovereignty | political sovereignty]] ==See also== * [[List of international trade topics]] * [[List of economists]] * [[Balance of trade]] * [[Comparative advantage]] * [[Customs union]] * [[Economics]] * [[Free trade]] * [[Free trade area]] * [[Most favoured nation clause]] * [[OPEC]] * [[Trade bloc]] * [[List of countries by imports]] * [[List of countries by exports]] ==External links== ===Data=== *[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/TRADE/0,,contentMDK:20103741~menuPK:167374~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:239071,00.html World Bank's Trade and Production Database] *[http://www.macalester.edu/research/economics/PAGE/HAVEMAN/Trade.Resources/TradeData.html Resources for data on trade, including the gravity model] [[Category:International trade]] [[Category:Economics]] [[de:Außenwirtschaft]] [[et:Rahvusvaheline kaubandus]] [[es:Comercio internacional]] [[eo:Internacia komerco]] [[fr:Commerce international]] [[he:סחר בינלאומי]] [[nl:Invoer (handel)]] [[no:Internasjonal handel]] [[pt:Importação]] [[ru:Импорт]] [[zh:国际贸易]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International Trade/Risks</title> <id>14568</id> <revision> <id>15912113</id> <timestamp>2002-08-28T06:56:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>short-circuiting two-step redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International trade]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Interpolation</title> <id>14569</id> <revision> <id>40637322</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:59:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Unfinishedchaos</username> <id>294794</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about interpolation in mathematics. See also [[interpolation (music)]] and [[interpolation (manuscripts)]]''. In the [[mathematics|mathematical]] subfield of [[numerical analysis]], '''interpolation''' is a method of constructing new data points from a [[discrete]] [[set]] of known data points. In [[engineering]] and [[science]] one often has a number of data points, as obtained by [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] or some [[experiment]], and tries to construct a function which closely fits those data points. This is called [[curve fitting]]. Interpolation is a specific case of curve fitting, in which the function must go exactly through the data points. A different problem which is closely related to interpolation is the approximation of a complicated function by a simple function. Suppose we know the function but it is too complex to evaluate efficiently. Then we could pick a few known data points from the complicated function, creating a [[lookup table]], and try to interpolate those data points to construct a simpler function. Of course when using the simple function to calculate new data points we usually do not receive the same result as when using the original function, but depending on the problem domain and the interpolation method used the gain in simplicity might offset the error. It should be mentioned that there is another very different kind of interpolation in mathematics, namely the &quot;[[interpolation of operators]]&quot;. The classical results about interpolation of operators are the [[Riesz-Thorin theorem]] and the [[Marcinkiewicz theorem]]. There also are many other subsequent results. ==Definition== Given a [[sequence]] of ''n'' ''distinct'' numbers ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; called '''nodes''' and for each ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; a second number ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, we are looking for a function ''f'' so that :&lt;math&gt;f(x_k) = y_k \mbox{ , } k=1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt; A pair ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;,''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; is called a '''data point''' and ''f'' is called the '''interpolant''' for the data points. When the numbers ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; are given by a known function, we sometimes write ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;. ==Example== For example, suppose we have a table like this, which gives some values of an unknown function ''f''. [[Image:Interpolation Data.png|right|frame|Plot of the data points as given in the table.]] {| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 |width=&quot;20px&quot;| ! ''x'' |width=&quot;10px&quot;| !colspan=3 align=center| ''f''(''x'') |- | || 0 || ||align=right| 0 |- | || 1 || ||align=right| 0 || . || 8415 |- | || 2 || ||align=right| 0 || . || 9093 |- | || 3 || ||align=right| 0 || . ||1411 |- | || 4 || ||align=right| &amp;minus;0 || . || 7568 |- | || 5 || ||align=right| &amp;minus;0 || . || 9589 |- | || 6 || ||align=right| &amp;minus;0 || . || 2794 |} What value does the function have at, say, ''x''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2.5? Interpolation answers questions like this. There are many different interpolation methods, some of which are described below. Some of the concerns to take into account when choosing an appropriate [[algorithm]] are: How accurate is the method? How expensive is it? How [[smooth function|smooth]] is the interpolant? How many data points are needed? ==Linear interpolation== ''Main article: [[Linear interpolation]]'' [[Image:Interpolation_example_linear.png|right]] One of the simplest methods is [[linear]] interpolation (sometimes known as [[lerp]]). Consider the above example of determining ''f''(2.5). Since 2.5 is midway between 2 and 3, it is reasonable to take ''f''(2.5) midway between ''f''(2) = 0.9093 and ''f''(3) = 0.1411, which yields 0.5252. Generally, linear interpolation takes two data points, say (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;,''y''&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;) and (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt;,''y''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt;), and the interpolant is given by :&lt;math&gt; f(x) = \frac{x-x_b}{x_a-x_b} y_a - \frac{x-x_a}{x_a-x_b} y_b &lt;/math&gt; This formula can be interpreted as a [[weighted mean]]. Linear interpolation is quick and easy, but it is not very precise. Another disadvantage is that the interpolant is not [[derivative|differentiable]] at the point ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;. The following error estimate shows that linear interpolation is not very precise. Denote the function which we want to interpolate by ''g'', and suppose that ''x'' lies between ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; and that ''g'' is twice continuously differentiable. Then the linear interpolation error is :&lt;math&gt; |f(x)-g(x)| \le C(x_b-x_a)^2 \quad\mbox{where}\quad C = \frac18 \max_{y\in[x_a,x_b]} g''(y). &lt;/math&gt; In words, the error is proportional to the square of the distance between the data points. The error of some other methods, including polynomial interpolation and spline interpolation (described below), is proportional to higher powers of the distance between the data points. These methods also produce smoother interpolants. ==Polynomial interpolation== ''Main article: [[Polynomial interpolation]]'' [[Image:Interpolation_example_polynomial.png|right]] Polynomial interpolation is a generalization of linear interpolation. Note that the linear interpolant is a [[linear function]]. We now replace this interpolant by a [[polynomial]] of higher [[degree (mathematics)|degree]]. Consider again the problem given above. The following sixth degree polynomial goes through all the seven points: :&lt;math&gt; f(x) = -0.0001521 x^6 - 0.003130 x^5 + 0.07321 x^4 - 0.3577 x^3 + 0.2255 x^2 + 0.9038 x. &lt;/math&gt; &lt;!-- Coefficients are 0, 0.903803333333334, 0.22549749999997, -0.35772291666664, 0.07321458333332, -0.00313041666667, -0.00015208333333. --&gt; Substituting ''x'' = 2.5, we find that ''f''(2.5) = 0.5965. Generally, if we have ''n'' data points, there is exactly one polynomial of degree ''n''&amp;minus;1 going through all the data points. The interpolation error is proportional to the distance between the data points to the power ''n''. Furthermore, the interpolant is a polynomial and thus infinitely differentiable. So, we see that polynomial interpolation solves all the problems of linear interpolation. However, polynomial interpolation also has some disadvantages. Calculating the interpolating polynomial is relatively very computationally expensive (see [[computational complexity]]). Furthermore, polynomial interpolation may not be so exact after all, especially at the end points (see [[Runge's phenomenon]]). These disadvantages can be avoided by using spline interpolation. ==Spline interpolation== ''Main article: [[spline interpolation]]'' [[Image:Interpolation_example_spline.png|right]] Remember that linear interpolation uses a linear function for each of intervals [''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;,''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k+1''&lt;/sub&gt;]. Spline interpolation uses low-degree polynomials in each of the intervals, and chooses the polynomial pieces such that they fit smoothly together. The resulting function is called a [[spline (mathematics)|spline]]. For instance, the [[natural cubic spline]] is [[piecewise]] cubic and twice continuously differentiable. Furthermore, its second derivative is zero at the end points. The natural cubic spline interpolating the points in the table above is given by :&lt;math&gt; f(x) = \left\{ \begin{matrix} -0.1522 x^3 + 0.9937 x, &amp; \mbox{if } x \in [0,1], \\ -0.01258 x^3 - 0.4189 x^2 + 1.4126 x - 0.1396, &amp; \mbox{if } x \in [1,2], \\
hirts and sans socks in his old age. He occasionally had a playful sense of humor, and enjoyed [[sailing]] and playing the [[violin]]. He was also the stereotypical bumbling &quot;[[absent-minded professor]]&quot;; he was often forgetful of everyday items, such as keys, and would focus so intently on solving physics problems that he would often become oblivious to his surroundings. In his later years, his appearance inadvertently created (or reflected) another stereotype of scientist in the process: the researcher with unruly white hair. ===Religious views=== Although he was raised [[Jewish]], he was not a believer in the religious aspect of [[Judaism]], though he still considered himself a Jew. He simply admired the beauty of nature and the universe. From a letter written in [[English language|English]], dated [[March 24]], [[1954]], Einstein wrote, ''&quot;It was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious convictions, a lie which is being systematically repeated. I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly. If something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for the structure of the world so far as our science can reveal it.&quot;'' He also said (in an essay reprinted in ''Living Philosophies'', vol. 13, 1931): ''&quot;A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, our perceptions of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which only in their most primitive forms are accessible to our minds—it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute true religiosity; in this sense, and this [sense] alone, I am a deeply religious man.&quot;'' The following is a response made to [[Rabbi Herbert Goldstein]] of the [[International Synagogue]] in [[New York City|New York]] which read, ''&quot;I believe in [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's God]] who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings.&quot;'' After being pressed on his religious views by [[Martin Buber]], Einstein exclaimed, ''&quot;What we [physicists] strive for is just to draw His lines after Him.&quot;'' He also quoted once ''&quot;When I read the [[Bhagavad Gita]], I ask myself how God created the universe. Everything else seems superfluous.&quot;'' Summarizing his religious beliefs, he once said: ''&quot;My [[religion]] consists of a humble admiration of the illimitable superior spirit who reveals himself in the slight details we are able to perceive with our frail and feeble mind.&quot;'' Einstein was an Honorary Associate of the [[Rationalist Press Association]] beginning in 1934, and was an admirer of [[Ethical Culture]].{{rf|13|ethicalculture.1}} ===Political views=== [[Image:Mikhoels and Einstein 1943.jpg|thumb|right|222px|Einstein and [[Solomon Mikhoels]], the chairman of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee]], in 1943.]] Einstein considered himself a [[pacifism|pacifist]]{{rf|14|www.amnh.org.382}} and [[Humanitarianism|humanitarian]],{{rf|15|www.amnh.org.383}} and in later years, a committed democratic [[socialism|socialist]]. He once said, ''&quot;I believe [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi's]] views were the most enlightened of all the political men of our time. We should strive to do things in his spirit: not to use violence for fighting for our cause, but by non-participation of anything you believe is evil.&quot;'' Einstein's views on other issues, including socialism, [[McCarthyism]] and [[racism]], were controversial. In a 1949 article entitled &quot;Why Socialism?&quot;,{{rf|16|socialism}} Albert Einstein described the &quot;predatory phase of human development&quot;, exemplified by a chaotic [[capitalism|capitalist]] society, as a source of evil to be overcome. He disapproved of the [[totalitarian]] regimes in the [[Soviet Union]] and elsewhere, and argued in favor of a [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]] system which would combine a [[planned economy]] with a deep respect for [[human rights]]. Einstein was a co-founder of the liberal [[German Democratic Party]] and a member of the [[AFL-CIO]]-affiliated union the [[American Federation of Teachers]]. Einstein was very much involved in the [[American Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights movement]]. He was a close friend of [[Paul Robeson]] for over 20 years. Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups (including the Princeton chapter of the [[NAACP]]) many of which were headed by Paul Robeson. He served as co-chair with [[Paul Robeson]] of the ''American Crusade to End Lynching''. When [[W.E.B. DuBois]] was frivolously charged with being a communist spy during the McCarthy era while he was in his 80s, Einstein volunteered as a character witness in the case. The case was dismissed shortly after it was announced that he was to appear in that capacity. Einstein was quoted as saying that &quot;racism is America's greatest disease&quot;. The U.S. [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] kept a 1,427 page file on his activities and recommended that he be barred from immigrating to the United States under the [[Alien Exclusion Act]], alleging that Einstein ''&quot;believes in, advises, advocates, or teaches a doctrine which, in a legal sense, as held by the courts in other cases, 'would allow [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]] to stalk in unmolested' and result in 'government in name only'&quot;'', among other charges. They also alleged that Einstein ''&quot;was a member, sponsor, or affiliated with thirty-four [[communism|communist]] fronts between 1937-1954&quot;'' and ''&quot;also served as honorary chairman for three communist organizations&quot;''.{{rf|17|foia.fbi.gov.384}} It should be noted that many of the documents in the file were submitted to the FBI, mainly by civilian political groups, and not actually written by FBI officials. [[Image:EinsteinSzilard.jpg|thumb|left|222px|In 1939, Einstein signed a letter, written by [[Leó Szilárd]], to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] arguing that the United States should start funding research into the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s.]] Einstein opposed tyrannical forms of government, and for this reason (and his Jewish background), opposed the Nazi regime and fled Germany shortly after it came to power. At the same time, Einstein's [[libertarian socialism|anarchist]] nephew [[Carl Einstein]], who shared many of his views, was fighting the fascists in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. Einstein initially favored construction of the [[atomic bomb]], in order to ensure that [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] did not do so first, and even sent a letter{{rf|18|hypertextbook.com.385}} to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] (dated [[August 2]], [[1939]], before [[World War II]] broke out, and probably written by [[Leó Szilárd]]) encouraging him to initiate a program to create a nuclear weapon. Roosevelt responded to this by setting up a committee for the investigation of using [[uranium]] as a weapon, which in a few years was superseded by the [[Manhattan Project]]. After the war, though, Einstein lobbied for [[nuclear disarmament]] and a [[world government]]: &quot;I do not know how the Third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth—rocks!&quot;{{rf|19|calaprice173}} Einstein was a supporter of [[Zionism]]. He supported Jewish settlement of the ancient seat of Judaism and was active in the establishment of the [[Hebrew University]] in [[Jerusalem]], which published (1930) a volume titled ''About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein'', and to which Einstein bequeathed his papers. However, he opposed nationalism and expressed skepticism about whether a Jewish nation-state was the best solution. He may have imagined Jews and Arabs living peacefully in the same land. In later life, in 1952, he was offered the post of second president of the newly created state of [[Israel]], but declined the offer, claiming that he lacked the necessary people skills. Einstein was disturbed by the violence taking place in the Palestine after the Second World War and expressed that he was disappointed with the Jewish Ultra-Nationalist Organization ([[Irgun]] and Stern Gang). Nonetheless, Einstein remained deeply committed to the welfare of Israel and the Jewish people for the rest of his life. Einstein, along with [[Albert Schweitzer]] and [[Bertrand Russell]], fought against nuclear tests and bombs. As his last public act, and just days before his death, he signed the [[Russell-Einstein Manifesto]], which led to the [[Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs]]. His letter to Russell read: :Dear Bertrand Russell, ::Thank you for your letter of April&amp;nbsp;5. I am gladly willing to sign your excellent statement. I also agree with your choice of the prospective signers. :With kind regards, A. Einstein ==Nationality: German, Swiss or American?== Einstein was born a [[Germany|German]] citizen. At the age of seventeen, on [[January 28]], [[1896]], he was released from the German citizenship by his own request and with the approval of his father. He remained [[stateless person|stateless]] for five years. On [[February 21]], [[1901]] he gained [[Switzerland|Swiss]] citizenship, which he never revoked. Einstein regained German citizenship in [[1914#January-April|April 1914]] when he entered German civil service, but due to the political situation and the persecution of Jewish people in [[Nazi Germany]], he left civil service in [[1933#March|March 1933]] and thus also lost the German citizenship. On [[1940#September-October|October 1, 1940]], Einstein became an [[United States citizen|American citizen]]. He remained both an American and a Swiss citizen until his death on [[1955#April|April 18, 1955]]. ==Popularity and cultural impact== Einstein's popularity has led to widespread use of Einstein in [[advertising]] and [[merchandising]], including the regi
alabar in present day Nigeria which formed a part of contiguous Cameroon. Since then the Peninsula has been a part of Cameroon. During the Nigerian civil war of [[Biafra]] secession, many Nigerians were allowed to settle in Bakassi by the Cameroon authorities. In 1994, then ruler of Nigeria Sani Abacha invaded Bakassi hoisting a Nigerian flag. This act of aggression caused Cameroon to take up the issue at the International Court of Justice at The Hague. ==Political status== Part of Bakassi is currently administered by [[Nigeria]] due to the 1994 aggression. The territory is aboriginally Cameroonian. Bakassi does not have any monarch. The owners of the land are Cameroonians who were hospitable to Nigerians. The 1994 act of aggression caused a temporary reconfiguration of Bakassi, whereby Nigeria has formed a local government on the occupied territories. ===Territorial dispute=== Nigeria and Cameroon have disputed the possession of Bakassi for some years, leading to considerable tension between the two countries. In [[1981]] the two countries went to the brink of war over Bakassi and another area around [[Lake Chad]], at the other end of the two countries' common border. More armed clashes broke out in the early [[1990s]]. In response, Cameroon took the matter to the [[International Court of Justice]] on [[29 March]] [[1994]]. The case was extremely complex, requiring the court to review diplomatic exchanges dating back over 100 years. Nigeria relied largely on Anglo-German correspondence dating from [[1885]] as well as treaties between the colonial powers and the indigenous rulers in the area, particularly the 1884 Treaty of Protection. Cameroon pointed to the Anglo-German treaty of [[1913]], which defined spheres of control in the region, as well as two agreements signed in the [[1970s]] between Cameroon and Nigeria. These were the Yaoundé II Declaration of [[4 April]] [[1971]] and the Maroua Declaration of [[1 June]] [[1975]], which were devised to outline maritime boundaries between the two countries following their independence. The line was drawn through the Cross River estuary to the west of the peninsula, thereby implying Cameroonian ownership over Bakassi. However, Nigeria never ratified the agreement, while Cameroon regarded it as being in force. ===The ICJ verdict=== [[10 October]] [[2002]], finding (based principally on the Anglo-German agreements) that sovereignty over Bakassi did indeed rest with Cameroon. It instructed Nigeria to transfer possession of the peninsula, but did not require the inhabitants to move or to change their nationality. Cameroon was thus given a substantial Nigerian population and was required to protect their rights, infrastructure and welfare. The verdict caused consternation in Nigeria. It aroused vitriolic comments from Nigerian officials and the Nigerian media alike. Chief Richard Akinjide, a former Nigerian Attorney-General and Minister of Justice who had been a leading member of Nigeria's legal team, described the decision as &quot;50% international law and 50% international politics&quot;, &quot;blatantly biased and unfair&quot;, &quot;a total disaster&quot;, and a &quot;complete fraud&quot;. The Nigerian newspaper ''The Guardian'' went further, declaring that the judgment was &quot;a rape and unforeseen potential international conspiracy against Nigerian territorial integrity and sovereignty&quot; and &quot;part of a Western ploy to foment and perpetuate trouble in Africa&quot;. The outcome of the controversy was a ''de facto'' Nigerian refusal to withdraw militarily from Bakassi and transfer sovereignty. The Nigerian government did not, however, openly reject the judgment but instead called for an agreement that would provide &quot;peace with honour, with the interest and welfare of our people.&quot; The ICJ judgment was backed up by the [[United Nations]], whose charter potentially allowed sanctions or even the use of force to enforce the court's ruling. Secretary General [[Kofi Annan]] stepped in as a mediator and chaired a tripartite summit with the two countries' presidents on [[15 November]] [[2002]], which established a commission to facilitate the peaceful implementation of the ICJ's judgement. A further summit was held on [[31 January]] [[2004]]. This has made significant progress, but the process has been complicated by the opposition of Bakassi's inhabitants to being transferred to Cameroon. Bakassian leaders have threatened to seek independence if Nigeria renounces sovereignty, though this seems unlikely to materialise, given the country's hard line against previous seccessionist movements (see [[Biafra]]). ===Nigeria's official response to ICJ ruling=== Statement issued by the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in respect of the judgement by the International Court of Justice in The Hague, in the case concerning the land and maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria: (Cameroon v Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea Intervening) &quot;The Federal Republic of Nigeria makes the following statement in respect of the judgement by the International Court of Justice in The Hague, in the case concerning the land and maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria. The Government of Nigeria has substantially examined the implications of the judgement delivered by the International Court of Justice in The Hague on October 10, 2002. Conclusion: Having studied the judgement as entered by the Court, it is apparent that a lot of fundamental facts were not taken into consideration in arriving at their declaration. Most disturbing of these being the difficulties arising from the Orders contained in the judgement, relating to Nigerian communities in which their ancestral homes were adjudged to be in Cameroonian Territory but which are expected to maintain cultural, trade and religious affiliations with their kith and kin in Nigeria. Nigeria takes cognizance of these serious implications and therefore appeals to all her citizens at home and abroad to remain calm, positive and constructive until we can find a peaceful solution to the boundary issue between Nigeria and Cameroon. We appreciate and thank the Secretary-General of the United Nations for brokering a meeting at the highest political level between Nigeria and Cameroon before the judgement was delivered and for offering his good offices to broker a similar meeting now that the judgement has been delivered with a view to effecting reconciliation, normalisation of relations and good neighbourliness. Nigeria thanks all leaders of the international community who have expressed concern over the issue and re-assures them that she will spare no efforts to maintain peace between Nigeria and Cameroon and indeed in the entire region. However, Government wishes to assure Nigerians of its constitutional commitment to protect its citizenry. One no account will Nigeria abandon her people and their interests. For Nigeria. It is not a matter of oil of natural resources on land or in coastal waters; it is a matter of the welfare and well-being of her people on their land. We assure the people of Bakassi and all other Nigerian communities similarly affected by the judgement of the International Court of Justice on the support and solidarity of all other Nigerians. Nigeria will do everything possible to maintain peace in Bakassi or any other part of the border with Cameroon and will continue to avail itself of the good office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations and other well-meaning leaders of the International community to achieve peace and to maintain harmony and good neighbourliness.&quot; ==External links== *[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ipresscom/ipress2002/ipresscom2002-26_cn_20021010.htm International Court of Justice, press release on decision] *[http://www.nigeria-law.org/StatementIssuedByFGN-Bakassi.htm Nigerian Government official statement in response to the above ruling] [[Category:Peninsulas]] [[Category:Geography of Nigeria]] [[Category:Geography of Cameroon]] [[Category:Disputed territories]] [[es:Bakassi]] [[fr:Bakassi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bestiary</title> <id>4757</id> <revision> <id>37252182</id> <timestamp>2006-01-29T20:22:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Neutrality</username> <id>68411</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:RochesterBestiaryFolio007rLeopard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&quot;The Leopard&quot; from the 13th-century [[bestiary]] entitled &quot;Rochester Bestiary.&quot;]] :This article is about a literary genre. For a gaming book, see [[bestiary (RPG)]].'' A '''bestiary''', or '''Bestiarum vocabulum''' is a compendium of beasts. Bestiaries were made popular in the [[Middle ages]] in illustrated volumes that described various real or imaginary animals, birds and even rocks. The [[natural history]] and illustration of each beast were usually accompanied by a moral lesson. This reflected the belief that the world itself was literally the [[Word of God]], and that every living thing had its own special meaning. For example, the [[pelican]], which was believed to tear open its breast to bring its young to life with its own blood, was a living representation of [[Jesus]]. The bestiary, then, is also a reference to the [[symbol|symbolic]] language of animals in Western Christian art and literature. Bestiaries were particularly popular in [[England]] and [[France]] around the [[12th century]] and were mainly compilations of earlier texts. The earliest bestiary in the form in which it was later popularized was an anonymous [[2nd century]] [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] volume called ''[[the Physiologus]],'' which itself summarized ancient knowledge and wisdom about animals in the writings of [[Classical antiquity|classical]] authors such as [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[History of Animals|Historia Animalium]]'' and various works by [[Herodotus]], [[Pliny the Eld
the power to sleep with his eyes open from Hypnos, in order to constantly watch his beloved [[Selene]]. In art, Hypnos was portrayed as a naked youthful man, sometimes with a beard, and wings attached to his head. He is sometimes shown as a man asleep on a bed of feathers with black curtains about him. [[Morpheus (god)|Morpheus]] is his chief minister and prevents noises from waking him. In [[Sparta]], the image of Hypnos was always put near that of [[death]]. ==Other Media== * Hypnos is one of [[Hades]]' minions and villains in the popular [[anime]] ''[[Saint Seiya]]''. * Hypnos is the central character of Argentinian writer &quot;Gavriel&quot; in his collection of poems &quot;Hypnos, the rambling dream&quot;. * [[Hypno]] is also the name of a pokemon evolved from the Pokemon [[Drowzee]]. * [[Hypnos (Digimon)|Hypnos]] is also the name of a fictional secret organization in ''[[Digimon|Digimon Tamers]]''. * Hypnos has an appearance in ''[[Monkeybone]]'' as the main bad guy from Downtown who sent Monkeybone into the living world to make him nightmares. Here, he is depicted as a [[satyr]]. He is played by [[Giancarlo Esposito]]. [[Category:Greek gods]] * Hypnos is also an exclusive brand of furniture within the United Kingdom, focussing specifically on beds and matresses. The small family owned company has been providing the Royal family with furniture support for over 100 years. * Hypnos is also the name of a powerful boss in [[Resident Evil: Survivor]] * [[Hypnos_(label) | Hypnos Recordings]] is an independent record label in the [[ambient]] music genre. * Hypnos is the title of a minor tale by horror author [[H.P. Lovecraft]]. ==See Also== [[Hesiod's Theogony]] [[bg:Хипнос]] [[cs:Hypnos]] [[da:Hypnos]] [[de:Hypnos]] [[et:Hypnos]] [[es:Hipnos]] [[fr:Hypnos]] [[it:Ipno]] [[lt:Hipnas]] [[nl:Hypnos]] [[ja:ヒュプノス]] [[pl:Hypnos]] [[pt:Hipnos]] [[ru:Гипнос]] [[he:היפנוס]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Haskell programming language</title> <id>13630</id> <revision> <id>42136039</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:34:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Catamorphism</username> <id>313650</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Examples */ &quot;appearances&quot; is a strange word to use here</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Haskell Logo.jpg|frame|Haskell logo]] '''Haskell''' is a standardized [[purely functional|pure]] [[functional programming|functional]] [[programming language]] with [[non-strict programming language|non-strict semantics]] named after the logician [[Haskell Curry]]. It was created by a committee formed in [[1987]] for the express purpose of defining such a language. The direct predecessor of Haskell was [[Miranda programming language|Miranda]], devised in [[1985]]. The latest official language standard outside the standardization organizations is '''Haskell 98''', intended to specify a minimal, portable version of the language for teaching and as a base for future extensions. The language continues to evolve rapidly, with [[Hugs]] and [[Glasgow Haskell Compiler|GHC]] (see below) representing the current [[de facto#De facto standards|''de facto'' standard]]. Characterizing syntax features in Haskell include [[pattern matching]], [[currying]], [[list comprehension]]s, [[guard (computing)|guard]]s, and definable [[operator (programming)|operator]]s. The language also supports [[recursion|recursive]] functions and [[algebraic data type]]s, as well as [[lazy evaluation]]. Unique concepts include [[Monads in functional programming|monad]]s, and [[type class]]es. The combination of such features can make [[function (programming)|functions]] which would be difficult to write in a procedural programming language almost trivial to implement in Haskell. The language is, as of [[as of 2002|2002]], the [[Lazy evaluation|lazy]] [[functional programming language|functional language]] on which the most research is being performed. Several variants have been developed: parallelizable versions from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] and [[Glasgow University|Glasgow]], both called Parallel Haskell; more parallel and distributed versions called Distributed Haskell (formerly Goffin) and [[Eden programming language|Eden]]; a [[speculative execution|speculatively evaluating]] version called Eager Haskell and several [[object orientation|object oriented]] versions: Haskell++, [[O'Haskell]] and [[Mondrian programming language|Mondrian]]. Although Haskell has a comparatively small user community, its strengths have been well applied to a few projects. [[Audrey Tang]]'s [[Pugs]] is an implementation for the forthcoming Perl 6 language with an interpreter and compilers that proved useful already after just a few months of its writing. [[Darcs]] is a revision control system, with several innovative features. There is also a Haskell-like language that offers a new method of support for [[GUI]] development called [[Clean programming language|Concurrent Clean]]. Its biggest deviation from Haskell is in the use of [[uniqueness type]]s for input as opposed to [[Monads in functional programming|monads]]. ==Examples== A simple toy example that is often used to demonstrate some of the possibilities of [[functional language]]s is the [[factorial]] function, shown below in Haskell. fac :: Integer -&gt; Integer fac 0 = 1 fac n | n &gt; 0 = n *fac (n-1) Or on a single line: let { fac 0 = 1; fac n | n &gt; 0 = n *fac (n-1) } This describes the factorial as a recursive function, with a single terminating base case. It is similar to the descriptions of factorials found in mathematics textbooks. Much of Haskell code is similar to mathematics in facility and syntax. The first line of the factorial function shown is optional, and describes the ''types'' of this function. It can be read as ''the function fac'' (fac) ''has type'' (::) ''from integer to integer'' (Integer -&gt; Integer). That is, it takes an integer as an argument, and returns another integer. The second line relies on [[pattern matching]], an important feature of Haskell. Note that parameters of a function are not in parentheses but separated by spaces. When the function's argument is 0 (zero) it will return the integer 1 (one). For all other cases the third line is tried. This is the [[recursion]], and executes the function again until the base case is reached. A [[guard (computing)|guard]] protects the third line from negative numbers for which a factorial is undefined. Without the guard this function would recurse through all negative numbers without ever reaching the base case of 0. As it is, the pattern matching is not complete: if a negative integer is passed to the fac function as an argument, the program will fail with a runtime error. A final case could check for this error condition and print an appropriate error message instead. The &quot;Prelude&quot; is a number of small functions analogous to [[C programming language|C]]'s [[C standard library|standard library]]. Using the Prelude and writing in the &quot;point free&quot; style of unspecified arguments, it becomes: fac = product . enumFromTo 1 A simple way to test such examples in the hugs interpreter, as opposed to writing and compiling a full Haskell program, is to use a where clause. Enter the function name and parameters followed by where and then the function definition. fac 5 where fac = product . enumFromTo 1 The above is close to mathematical definitions such as ''f = g &lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt; h'' (see [[function composition]]), and indeed, it is ''not'' an assignment of a value to a variable. ===More complex examples=== A simple [[RPN]] calculator: calc = foldl f [] . words where f (x:y:zs) &quot;+&quot; = y+x:zs f (x:y:zs) &quot;-&quot; = y-x:zs f (x:y:zs) &quot;*&quot; = y*x:zs f (x:y:zs) &quot;/&quot; = y/x:zs f xs y = (read y :: Float):xs A function which returns a stream of the [[Fibonacci numbers]] in linear time: fibs = 0 : 1 : (zipWith (+) fibs (tail fibs)) The same function, written using GHC's [[parallel list comprehension]] syntax (GHC extensions must be enabled using a special command-line flag; see GHC's manual for more): fibs = 0 : 1 : [ a+b | a &lt;- fibs | b &lt;- tail fibs ] The factorial we saw previously can be written as a sequence of functions: &lt;nowiki&gt;fac n = (foldl (.) id [\x -&gt; x*k | k &lt;- [1..n]]) 1&lt;/nowiki&gt; A remarkably concise function that returns the list of [[Hamming numbers]] in order: hamming = 1 : map (*2) hamming # map (*3) hamming # map (*5) hamming where xxs@(x:xs) # yys@(y:ys) | x==y = x : xs#ys | x&lt;y = x : xs#yys | x&gt;y = y : xxs#ys :''See also [[List of hello world programs#Haskell]] for an example that prints text.'' ==Criticism== Haskell has many advanced features not found in other programming languages; these features can and have been criticized for making the language more complex and difficult to understand. Some of the criticism directed against [[functional programming language]]s and non-mainstream [[programming language]]s are applicable to Haskell. In addition, there are complaints stemming from the purity of Haskell and its theoretical roots. Jan-Willem Maessen in 2002 and [[Simon Peyton Jones]] in 2003 discuss the problems that come with lazy evaluation while they acknowledge the theoretical motivation for it. In addition to adding overhead, laziness makes it more difficult for programmers to reason about the performance of their code. The language difficulties facing Haskell programmers have been recognized by [[Bastiaan Heeren]], [[Daan Leijen]], and [[Arjan van IJzendoorn]] in 2003. To achieve a language implementation that can give user-friendly error messages, they had to develop an advanced compiler (Helium) and limit some of the generality of Haskell, such as removing support for ty
enue (one location mooted is at [[White City]]). Whether the club is looking for a new site for a stadium is unknown, but comments in summer [[2004]] from Fulham's [[CEO]] at the time, Jim Hone, suggest Fulham are back home for good. ==The ground as it stands== ===Hammersmith End=== The [[Hammersmith]] End is the northernmost stand in the ground, and, hence the name, the closest to Hammersmith. It is situated such that looking out from the stand you can see the Putney End and the Cottage opposite, the Riverside Stand (and the river itself) to the right and the Stevenage Road stand to the left. It often contains some of Fulham's more passionate fans. ===Putney End=== The [[Putney]] End is the southernmost stand in the ground, nearest to Putney. To its right is The Cottage, opposite is the Hammersmith End, with the Riverside and Stevenage Road stands to left and right respectively. This generally hosts visiting or 'neutral' supporters. ===Riverside Stand=== The Riverside Stand backs onto the river [[Thames]], and contains the corporate hospitality seating alongside Fulham fans. Tickets in this area are often the easiest to buy, not surprisingly they are also some of the more expensive. It has the Hammersmith End to its left, the Putney End to its right and is opposite the Stevenage Road Stand. ===[[Johnny Haynes]] Stand=== Formerly the ''Stevenage Road Stand'' - named for the street it was on - The [[Johnny Haynes]] Stand is irreputably the oldest and most beautiful of the ground. Holding Fulham supporters, a lot of whom are season ticket holders, this is opposite the Riverside Stand, with the Putney End and the Cottage to its left, and the Hammersmith end to the right. This stand includes the ticket office and club shop, and a nostalgic but uncomfy blast from the past in that the majority of its' seats are wooden, not plastic as is prevalent almost universally amongst stadia. The stand's new name was announced shortly after the man's death in late [[2005]], [http://www.petitiononline.com/maestro/petition.html after a petition made by a fulham fan], it seems, somewhat influenced the club's decision. ==Details== ===Address=== :Craven Cottage :Stevenage Road :[[London]] :SW6 6HH ===Phone Numbers=== :Telephone: 0870-442-1222 :Fax: 0207-384-4715 :Ticket Office: 0870-442-1234 :Ticket Office Fax: 0207-384-4810 ===Records=== Record Attendance: 49,335 v [[Millwall F.C.|Millwall]], [[8 October]], [[1938]] (Division Two) ===Average Attendances=== *2002-2003: 16,707 *2003-2004: 16,342 *2004-2005: 19,838 ==External links== *{{gbmaprim|TQ236765|Craven Cottage's location within Greater London}} *[http://www.streetmap.co.uk/newmap.srf?x=523607&amp;y=176634&amp;z=1&amp;sv=523607,176634&amp;st=4&amp;lu=P&amp;mapp=newmap.srf&amp;searchp=newsearch.srf&amp;ax=523607&amp;ay=176634 Overhead photo of the local area] *[http://www.uf.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/DSC00744.JPG View from the back of the Hammersmith End] *[http://photos1.blogger.com/img/236/5659/1024/IMG_0448.jpg View to the Cottage down Lysia Street] *[http://www.petitiononline.com/maestro/petition.html Johnny Haynes Stand Petition] [[Category:Football venues in England]] [[Category:Fulham F.C.]] [[Category:Sports venues in London]] [[Category:Premier League Stadia]] [[fr:Craven Cottage]] [[no:Craven Cottage]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Confederations of Germanic tribes</title> <id>6646</id> <revision> <id>38349375</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T19:49:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Khoikhoi</username> <id>657950</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[Confederations of Germanic Tribes]] to [[Confederations of Germanic tribes]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}} The following are some historical '''Germanic Confederations''' *[[230 BC]] - [[Bastarnae]], a mixture of Germanic tribes, at the [[Black Sea]]; they participated in the siege of Olbia (modern [[Odessa]]) in [[220 BC]]. *[[109 BC]] - Huge confederation composed of the Germanic of [[Cimbri]] and [[Teutoni]] and the Celtic-Germanic [[Helvetii]] formed near [[Miltenberg]] in Franconia. The confederation attempts an invasion of Italy but is defeated by [[Gaius Marius]] in the battles of [[Aquae Sextiae]] ([[102 BC]]) and [[Battle of Vercellae|Vercellae]] ([[101 BC]]) *[[8 BC|8]]-[[6 BC]] - [[Marcomanni]] from the northern [[Bavarian]] and [[Main]] river area went to the original homeland of the [[Boii]] in Boemia [[Bohemia]] and under king [[Marbod]] formed a Confederation of Marcomanni, [[Lugier]], [[Semnones]], [[Langobardi|Lombards]], and others. Under king [[Ariovisto]] they fought against take-overs by [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Caesar Augustus]]. *[[5|5 AD]] - [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] reported that Cimbri and Charydes sent ambassadors to Rome. *[[6|6 AD]] - Marcomannic Confederation. *[[98]] - [[Tacitus]] reports on the Germanic tribes that the [[Suiones]] (Swedes) were one nation composed of several tribes (civitates). *[[167]] &amp;#8211; [[Marcomanni|Marcomannic]] Confederation, that also includes [[Quadi]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Suebi]], [[Iazyges]] and others, crosses the [[Danube]] and invades [[Dacia]]. [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] eventually defeats them in [[175]]. *[[400]] - Thuringian ''regna'' (loosely translated as kingdom or realm). [[Thuringii]] are reputed to have held the territory from the [[Danube]] to the Lower [[Elbe]] river. This &lt;u&gt;regna&lt;/u&gt; was destroyed by the victory of [[Theuderic I of Austrasia]], who in [[530]] defeated the Thuringian king [[Hermanafrid]] in the [[Battle at the Unstrut]] and killed him at [[Zülpich]]. See also: [[Germanic tribes]], [[List of Germanic peoples]] [[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]] [[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christchurch, New Zealand</title> <id>6648</id> <revision> <id>15904772</id> <timestamp>2004-05-01T14:09:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ben Arnold</username> <id>54671</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to Christchurch</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christchurch]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Constantine</title> <id>6649</id> <revision> <id>41998863</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:15:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LD317</username> <id>1020847</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}} '''Constantine''' is a common name derived from the [[Latin]] word ''constans'', meaning constant or steadfast. ==People called Constantine== ===Rulers called Constantine=== *'''[[Constantine I (emperor)]]''', commonly known as Constantine the Great *[[Constantine II (emperor)]] *[[Constantine III (usurper)]] *[[Constantine III (emperor)]] *[[Constantine IV]] *[[Constantine V]] *[[Constantine VI]] *[[Constantine VII]] *[[Constantine VIII]] *[[Constantine IX]] *[[Constantine X]] *[[Constantine XI]] *[[Constantine I of Armenia]] *[[Constantine II of Armenia]] *[[Constantine III of Armenia]] *[[Constantine IV of Armenia]] *[[Constantine V of Armenia]] *[[Constantine VI of Armenia]] *Constantine I (''or'' Kuestantinos I) of Ethiopia, also known as [[Zara Yaqob]] *Constantine II (''or'' Kuestantinos II) of Ethiopia, also known as [[Eskander]] *[[Constantine I of Greece]] *[[Constantine II of Greece]] *[[Caustantín of the Picts|Constantine of the Picts]] *[[Constantine I of Scotland]] *[[Constantine II of Scotland]] *[[Constantine III of Scotland]] *[[Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria]] *[[Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia|Constantine Pavlovich of Russia]] *[[Constantine Phipps, 1st Marquess of Normanby]] *[[Constantine John Phipps, 2nd Baron Mulgrave]] *[[Constantine Dragas]] *[[Constantine I of Imereti]] *[[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine III of Rome]] *[[Constantine Mavrocordato]] *[[Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia|Constantine Nicolaievich]] *[[Constantine Ypsilanti]] ====Religious leaders==== *[[Constantine I of Constantinople]] *[[Constantine II of Constantinople]] *[[Constantine III of Constantinople]] *[[Constantine IV of Constantinople]] *[[Constantine V of Constantinople]] *[[Constantine VI of Constantinople]] *[[Pope Constantine]] *[[Antipope Constantine II]] *[[Saint Constantine|St Constantine of Cornwall]] ====Military leaders==== *[[Constantin Prezan|Constantine Prezan]] *[[Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman|Constantine Petrovich]] ====Politicians==== *[[Costis Stephanopoulos|Constantine Stephanopoulos]] *[[Konstantinos Tsatsos|Constantine Tsatsos]] ===Other=== *[[Angelici|Order of Constantine]], the Byzantine order of knights, the Angelici *[[Constantine, 1st Earl of Fife]] ====Constantine as a '''[[surname]]'''==== *[[Con Constantine]] *[[Eddie Constantine]] *[[John Constantine]] *[[Joseph Constantine]] *[[Kevin Constantine]] *[[Learie Constantine]] *[[Michael Constantine]] *[[Storm Constantine]] *[[Susannah Constantine]] *[[Tiberius II Constantine]] *[[Thomas A. Constantine]] ====Constantine as a '''[[given name]]'''==== *'''[[Constantine Maroulis]]''' finalist on the television show ''[[American Idol]]''. *[[Constantine the African]] *[[Constantine III of Britain]] *[[Constantine of Preslav]] *[[Prince Constantine Alexios of Greece and Denmark|Constantine Alexios]] *[[Constantine Andreou]] *[[Constantin Brâncoveanu|Constantine Brâncoveanu]] *[[Constantine Bruno, Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove|Constantine Bruno]] *[[Constantin Carathéodory|Constantine Carathéodory]] *[[Constantine P. Cavafy]] *[[Constantine Dadeshkeliani]] *[[Constantine Ducas]] *[[Constantine Kanaris]] *[[Constantine Karamanlis]] *[[Constantine Koukias]], Australian classical composer *[[Constantine Lascaris]] *[[Constantine M. Los]] *[[Constantine Manasses]] *[[Constantine Mitsotakis]] *[[Constant
[[Australian_pound|pounds]], unless the parliament decides otherwise. The constitution states that the salary of the Governor-General may not be increased during his or her term of office. From [[1974]] each new commission has resulted in a pay increase. Today, the law ensures the salary is higher than that for the [[Chief Justice of Australia|Chief Justice]] of the High Court, over a five year period. The annual salary during [[Michael Jeffery]]'s term is $365,000. Three Governors-General have resigned their commission. The first Governor-General, [[John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Hopetoun]], asked to be recalled to Britain in [[1903]] over a dispute about funding for the post. [[Sir John Kerr]] resigned in [[1977]] after being offered a [[United Nations]] post, which he did not take up. In [[2003]], [[Peter Hollingworth]] stood aside temporarily while certain allegations against him were resolved, and the [[letters patent]] of the office were amended to take account of this circumstance. He later resigned to &quot;protect the vice-regal office from persistent controversy.&quot; In [[1961]], [[William Morrison, 1st Viscount Dunrossil|Lord Dunrossil]] became the first and, to date, only Governor-General to die in office. A Governor-General may be recalled or dismissed by the Queen before their term is complete. By convention, this may only be advised by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister has the option of naming an immediate replacement or letting the vacancy provisions take effect. As no Australian Governor-General has ever been dismissed, it is unclear how quickly the Queen would act on such advice. The [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975|constitutional crisis of 1975]] prominently raised the possibility of the Prime Minister and Governor-General attempting to dismiss each other at the same time. A vacancy will occur on the resignation, death, incapacity or absence from Australian territory of the Governor-General. In some cases the vacancy is temporary, as occurred when [[Peter Hollingworth]] stood aside. Section 4 of the constitution allows the Queen to appoint an [[Administrator (Australia)|Administrator]] to carry out the role of Governor-General. By convention, the longest serving state governor holds a dormant commission, allowing an assumption of office to commence whenever a vacancy occurs. In 1975, the Governor of Queensland, [[Colin Hannah|Sir Colin Hannah]], had his dormant commission revoked by the Prime Minister [[Gough Whitlam]] for making public political statements. ==Constitutional role and functions== [[image:Flag_of_the_Governor_General_of_Australia.gif|thumb|right|350px|Flag of the Governor-General of Australia]] Sections 61 and 68 of the Constitution provide that the Governor-General exercises certain powers as the Queen's representative. The limited form of this representation was explained in a [[1988]] Constitutional Commission report which concluded &quot;the Governor-General is in no sense a delegate of the Queen. The independence of the office is highlighted by changes which have been made in recent years to the Royal instruments relating to it&quot;.[http://www.samuelgriffith.org.au/papers/html/volume8/v8chap8.htm] Although the Governor-General and the Queen occasionally observe certain formalities, in practice the Governor-General carries out his constitutional responsibilities without reference to the Queen. In [[1975]], the Queen, through her Private Secretary, wrote that she &quot;has no part in the decisions which the Governor-General must take in accordance with the Constitution.&quot; [http://www.aph.gov.au/house/pubs/PRACTICE/4Ch01.pdf] During the [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]], the Queen did not intervene on the basis that it was a matter &quot;clearly placed within the jurisdiction of the Governor-General&quot;[http://www.ozpolitics.info/topics/dismissal-queen.htm]. In [[2004]], Governor General [[Michael Jeffery]] said &quot;her Majesty is Australia's head of state but I am her representative and to all intents and purposes I carry out the full role.&quot; [http://www.theage.com.au/news/Gerard-Henderson/Queen-Camilla-of-Australia/2005/02/14/1108229927463.html] ===Role in Parliament=== The Constitution describes the Parliament of the Commonwealth as consisting of the Queen, the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] and the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. Section 5 states that &quot;the Governor-General may appoint such times for holding the sessions of the Parliament ... prorogue the Parliament [and] dissolve the House of Representatives.&quot; These provisions make it clear that the Queen's role in the parliament is in name only and the actual responsibility belongs the Governor-General. Such decisions are usually taken on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Governor-General has a ceremonial role in swearing in and accepting the resignations of Members of Parliament. He or she appoints a deputy, to whom members make an [[oath of allegiance]] before they take their seats. On the day parliament opens, the Governor-General makes a speech, entirely written by the government, explaining the government's proposed legislative program. The most important power is found in section 58: &quot;When a proposed law passed by both Houses of Parliament is presented to the Governor-General for the Queen's assent, he shall declare ... that he assents in the Queen's name.&quot; This makes any proposed law effective. Sections 58 to 60 allow the Governor-General to withhold assent, suggest changes, refer to the Queen or proclaim that the Queen has annulled the legislation. Convention prevents the Governor-General from using these powers in all realistic circumstances. (see Reserve Powers below). However on occasion, when the Queen has been scheduled to visit Australia, the Governor-General has as a courtesy withheld Royal Assent to an Act so that the Queen might personally sign it into law. ===Role in Executive Government=== At the start of Chapter 2 on executive government, the Constitution says &quot;The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative&quot;. The Governor-General presides over an [[Executive Council of Australia|Federal Executive Council]]. The Prime Minister is appointed to this Council and advises as to which parliamentarians shall become [[political minister|ministers]] and [[Parliamentary_Secretary|parliamentary secretaries]]. In the constitution, the words &quot;Governor-General-in-council&quot; mean the Governor-General acting with the advice of the Council. Powers exercised in council, which are not reserve powers, include: * establishing government departments * appointing federal judges, and * appointing ambassadors and high commissioners. All such actions are taken on the advice of ministers. Section 68, says &quot;command-in-chief of naval and military forces ... is vested in the Governor-General as the Queen's representative&quot;. In practice, this role is ceremonial, with actual authority in the hands of the Defence Minister and the Chief of the Defence Force ([http://www.defence.gov.au/cdf/role.cfm CDF]). In an administrative sense, the office of Governor-General is regulated by the [http://scaleplus.law.gov.au/html/pasteact/0/284/top.htm Governor-General Act 1974]. ===Reserve powers=== [[Image:ac.kerr.jpg|thumb|200px|Sir John Kerr]] In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[reserve powers]] of the Crown are not explicitly stated in constitutional enactments and are the province of convention, but in Australia, the powers are explicitly given to the Governor-General in the Constitution but it is their use that is the subject of convention. The reserve powers are: * The power to dissolve (or refuse to dissolve) the House of Representatives. (Section 5 of the Constitution) * The power to dissolve Parliament on the occasion of a deadlock. (Section 57) * The power to withhold assent to Bills. (Section 58) * The power to appoint (or dismiss) Ministers. (Section 64) These powers are generally and routinely exercised on Ministerial advice, but the Governor-General retains the ability to act independently in certain circumstances, as governed by convention. It is generally held that the Governor-General may use his powers without ministerial advice in the following situations: * if an election results in a Parliament in which no party has a majority, the Governor-General may select the Prime Minister. * if a Prime Minister loses the support of the House of Representatives, the Governor-General may appoint a new Prime Minister. * if a Prime Minister advises a dissolution of the House of Representatives, the Governor-General may refuse that request, or request further reasons why it should be granted. It is worth noting that convention does not give the Governor-General the ability to dissolve either the House of Representatives or the Senate without advice. The use of the reserve powers may arise in the following circumstances: * if a Prime Minister advises a dissolution of Parliament on the occasion of a deadlock between the Houses, the Governor-General may refuse that request. * if the Governor-General is not satisfied with a legislative Bill presented to him, he or she may refuse assent. * if a Prime Minister resigns after losing a vote of confidence, the Governor-General may select a new replacement contrary to the advice of the outgoing Prime Minister. * if a Prime Minister is unable to obtain supply and refuses to resign or advise a dissolution, the Governor-General may dismiss him or her and appoint a new Prime Minister. The above is not an exhaustive list, and new situations may arise. The most notable use of the reserve powers occurred in November [[1975]]. On this occasion Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, dismissed the government of [[Gough Whitlam]] when the [[Australian Senate|Sena
[[artillery]]. While artillery and [[firearms]] were generally worthless against the [[Holtzman effect]] '''shields''' that were commonplace in the Empire, shields were not used on Arrakis and the Baron calculated that the Atreides soldiers would retreat to caves. The artillery sealed them in, causing the Atreides soldiers to die by the thousands of suffocation and starvation. This tactic greatly reduced Harkonnen and Sardaukar casualties. It is not known if the Baron had studied the ancient history of humankind, but the Baron's re-introduction of a weapon that was obsolete since the days of Old Earth helped him achieve a crushing victory. Vladimir had arranged for the Duke to be taken prisoner by Dr. [[Wellington Yueh]], his own [[physician]]. But Yueh had personal reasons to hate Vladimir. A [[tooth]] of the captive was filled with [[poison]]ous [[gas]] intended to kill him and those around him. The Baron survived Yueh's [[assassination]] attempt but Piter De Vries did not. He was replaced with [[Thufir Hawat]], [[Mentat]] to the deceased Duke, under duress. Vladimir apparently managed to convince Hawat that they could join forces against the Emperor. The following two years saw Vladimir becoming increasingly aware that both of his nephews were conspiring against him to obtain the Baron's throne. The Baron let them continue to do so, reasoning that they had to somehow learn to organize a [[conspiracy]]. However as punishment for a failed [[assassination]] attempt against him, Vladimir forced Feyd-Rautha to single-handedly slaughter all the female [[Slavery|slave]]s who served as his [[lover]]s, while the Baron watched. He explained that Feyd-Rautha had to learn the price of failure. By year 10,193, the [[Fremen]] of [[Arrakis]] had managed to gain a series of victories against Beast Rabban and to capture most of the territory of the planet, which threatened to disrupt the trade of [[Melange]]. The Emperor decided to take control of the situation and arrived on Arrakis along with ten legions of Sardaukar forces. Vladimir and Feyd-Rautha escorted him with a vastly larger Harkonnen army, made up mostly of conscripts but also containing seasoned Harkonnen troops. Vladimir was shocked to learn that Paul Atreides led the Fremen. The imperial forces fell prey to a surprise attack by the Fremen. Part of the Fremen/Atreides strategy was to wait until a sandstorm shorted out the force field shields of the Harkonnen/Imperial transport ships, disable them with projectile weapons, and then attack with a vast assault force, using Sandworms under cover of the severe weather to break the enemy lines. The Sardaukar and Harkonnen forces were trapped on the planet, astonished at the Sandworm mounts and vast numbers of their attackers, and their past ruthlessness gave them little hope of quarter from the enraged Fremen. Beast [[Rabban]] died in the initial part of the battle. The Harkonnen army was massacred to the last man, almost all the 300,000 Imperial Sardaukar died, and Vladimir was poisoned by [[Alia Atreides]], his own granddaughter, and took his last breath at the age of 83. Feyd-Rautha was killed by Paul in a duel. The death of the three men and the massacre meant the end of [[House Harkonnen]] as a galactic power. But, since grandson Paul subsequently was named emperor, Vladimir's descendants would long reign as the Imperial [[House Atreides]]. The Baron's story does not end with his death however. Paul's sister [[Alia Atreides|Alia]] was born with her ancestral memories in the womb, a circumstance the [[Bene Gesserit]] call [[abomination]], because in their experience it is inevitable that the individual will become possessed by one of their ancestors. Alia falls victim to this prediction and initially shares control of her body with the Baron, gradually falling under his power. At the end of [[Children of Dune]] Alia commits suicide, in part because she realizes the Baron has virtually surpassed her abilities to contain him. == Appearance == Frank Herbert's representation of the Baron Harkonnen portrays him as an imposing, powerful man. His eyes are described as &quot;spider-like&quot; and his voice a deep, rumbling basso with a style of dress often including a flowing robe and a collection of rings adorning large hands. The original explanation for his excessive weight was simply attributed to overindulgence. This was later retconned by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson in their first prequel trilogy, explaining that the Baron was once an exceedingly handsome young man, possessing a near-perfect physique. In this version, his bodily deterioration is said to be the result of a rare disease caused by Jessica's mother, a Bene Gesserit named Gaius Helen Mohiam, in punishment for the Baron's actions leading to her pregnancy. After which, his physique began to slowly atrophy into the obese one. In Dune: House Harkonnen, he at first walked with the assistance of a cane, then relied on belt-mounted suspensors to retain mobility. He tried to force Mohiam to reveal the means to reverse the disease, but doesn't succeed, for the affliction was uncurable. In all instances, he displays extreme intelligence and carries an air of ruthless cruelty. In David Lynch's 1984 box-office flop, he was played by Kenneth McMillan. In addition to being grotesquely overweight, he was shown to be covered in large, black pustules which required constant draining and treatment. He is further displayed as a raving lunatic, screaming and laughing incoherently at any given moment and going so far as to drink the blood of a servant after removing a &quot;heart plug.&quot; None of these features are ever mentioned or assumed in the book and are admittedly attributed to Lynch's inspiration from [[Star Wars]] character [[Jabba the Hutt]] who had appeared in [[Return of the Jedi]] the year before. Lynch had previously turned down the offer to direct Jedi in favor of Dune. The latest incarnation of this character appeared in a 2000 miniseries produced by the Sci-Fi Channel. Perhaps in attempt to move from McMillan's portrayal, the Baron is played by British actor [[Ian McNeice]] and is given a much lighter tone. While still said to possess the ruthlessness of Herbert's creation, he is nonetheless shown to be somewhat effeminate in nature. Among the most frequently cited criticisms are his overly flamboyant robes, his lack of vocal command, and a tendency to speak in rhyming verse (iambic pentameter) at the close of each scene, considered ridiculous by many fans. Nevertheless, this portrayal is generally thought to be far closer to Herbert's creation and is considered an improvement over his previous film depiction. ==External links== *[http://sslx.orl.szote.u-szeged.hu/timelines/duchro.html A timeline of the Dune Universe] [[Category:Dune characters|Harkonnen, Vladimir]] [[Category:Film villains|Harkonnen]] [[Category:Literature villains|Harkonnen]] [[fr:Vladimir Harkonnen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Piter De Vries</title> <id>7902</id> <revision> <id>41515484</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:57:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.119.106.115</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Personality */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Piter De Vries''' is a [[fictional character]] from [[Frank Herbert]]'s [[Dune (novel)|Dune]] [[science fiction]] series. {{spoiler}} == History == Piter was a &quot;twisted&quot; [[mentat]] in the service of Baron [[Vladimir Harkonnen]]. This mentat was a particular favorite of the Baron because the [[Tleilaxu]] had made his amoral character obvious through his [[sadistic]] nature and role as torturer for the Baron. == Personality == Piter's loyalty to his master is unusual in that he continues to serve the Baron with great enthusiasm, even though his Mentat abilities and great intelligence confirm Piter's suspicions that his master plans to eventually kill him. This twisted mentat is more sadistic and cruel than most. Note: De Vries pioneered a type of poison called &quot;residual toxin&quot; , which remains in one's body for years. One such fatal poison was used by Baron Harkonnen on [[Thufir Hawat]], in order to keep the Mentat's allegiance by being the only provider of the antidote (which only stays the effects of the poison, and does not remove it from the body). == More information == Piter is generally regarded as architect of the plan to destroy the Harkonnen's long-time enemy, [[House Atreides]], while returning the Baron's stewardship over [[Arrakis]]. Piter died on Arrakis shortly after House Harkonnen's troops and Imperial [[Sardaukar]] had captured Duke [[Leto Atreides]]. He was killed by Leto, who had been given a false tooth by [[Wellington Yueh]], the Suk doctor who betrayed House Atreides. When the tooth was crushed, a poisonous gas was released. The attack was meant to kill the Baron, but failed. Unknown to most, there are actually two ghola-mentats who assume this identity in the Dune universe. The original Piter De Vries was secretly killed by Reverend Mother [[Gaius Helen Mohiam]], as depicted in [[Dune: House Corrino]]. This occurred after the mentat discovered the Harkonnen heritage of Lady Jessica and newly born Paul Atreides, attempting to kidnap the infant as ransom. Mohiam effectively preserved this secret by murdering De Vries and arranging for his corpse to be shipped home to [[Giedi Prime]]. An enraged Baron was left with no choice but to order a duplicate from the Bene Tleilax, who would become the mentat popularly featured in Herbert's original [[Dune (novel)|Dune]]. This has caused some consternation among many who cite inconsistencies between the prequel and original series. However, both versions of this character continue to be popular among casual and die-hard fans alike. In [[David Lynch]]'s Dune [[Dune (film)|film]], Piter was played by [[Brad Dourif]]. [[Category:Dune charact
so it is obviously gender independent. In an effort to be more inclusive, many organizations have made an effort to use gender-neutral terms when referring to perpetratorship and victimhood. ==Domestic violence in same-sex relationships== Historically domestic violence has been seen as a family issue and little interest has been directed at violence in same-sex relationships. It has not been until recently, as the [[gay rights movement]] has brought the issues of [[gay]] and [[lesbian]] people into public attention, when research has been started to conduct on same-sex relationships. Several studies have indicated that partner abuse among same-sex couples (both female and male) is relatively similar in both prevalence and dynamics to that among opposite-sex couples. Gays and lesbians, however, face special obstacles in dealing with the issues that some researchers have labelled &quot;the double closet&quot;: not only do gay and lesbian people often feel that they are discriminated against and dismissed by police and social services, they are also often met with lack of support from their peers who would rather keep quiet about the problem in order not to attract negative attention toward the [[gay community]]. Also, the supportive services are mostly designed for the needs of heterosexual women and do not always meet the needs of other groups. =Statistics= It is estimated that every year in the [[United States]], approximately 3 million women are assaulted by their partner. Many of these incidents go unreported to authorities due to the shame and fear associated with domestic violence. In [[1998]], of the approximately 1.5 million violent crimes committed between intimate partners, over 876,000 of the victims were women, and over 835,000 were men. Of the approximately 1,830 murders committed against intimate partners in 1998, 3 out of 4 of the victims were women. In 2001 according to the Bureau of Statistics there were 691,710 non-fatal domestic violence acts committed and 1,247 fatal incidents. In homes where domestic violence occurs, children in the home are at a 300% greater risk of being abused. Between 3 and 5 billion dollars are spent annually for medical expenses related to domestic violence. Also, approximately 100 million dollars is lost by businesses annually though lost productivity, sick leave and absenteeism due to domestic violence. ==Allegations of domestic violence== [[Allegations of domestic violence]] are frequent in post-divorce/separation situations. Such allegations may often be third-party abuse, using third-parties such as courts to carry out untraceable abuse against a falsely-accused 'perpetrator' (see article in [http://www.nuancejournal.com.au/documents/one/graves-duluth.pdf Nuance Journal of Family Studies]). The consequences of such allegations can be serious for the alleged perpetrator since occupation of the home and custody of the children may be at stake. In Australia, mandated allocation of family resources in court-supervised separation shifts automatically from 50:50 to 80:20 in favour of the alleged victim if there is any allegation of abuse; anecdotal reports and other evidence indicate that such allegations are accepted only from women, and that the allegation itself is required to be taken as its own proof, without any checks or balances. It is sometimes claimed that &quot;less than 2% of reported domestic violence allegations are proved false&quot;, but anecdotal and other evidence suggests that this claim, as with many supposed statistics in domestic-violence 'research', is based more on wishful thinking and circular reasoning than on fact. {{fact}} =Response to domestic violence= The response to domestic violence is typically a combined effort between law enforcement agencies, the courts, social service agencies and corrections/probation agencies. The role of each has evolved as domestic violence has been brought more into public view. Historically, law enforcement agencies, the courts and corrections agencies treated domestic violence as a personal matter. For example, police officers were often reluctant to intervene by making an arrest, and often chose instead to simply counsel the couple and/or ask one of the parties to leave the residence for a period of time. The courts were reluctant to impose any significant sanctions on those convicted of domestic violence, largely because it was viewed as a misdemeanor offense. This mindset of treating family violence as a personal problem of minor consequence permeated the system's response, and potentially allowed the perpetrator to continue acting violently. Activism, initiated by victim advocacy groups and feminist groups, has led to a better understanding of the scope and effect of domestic violence on victims and families, and has brought about changes in the criminal justice system's response. ==Background== In [[1981]], the [[Domestic Abuse Intervention]] Project became the first multi-disciplinary program designed to address the issue of domestic violence. This experiment, conducted in [[Duluth]], [[Minnesota|MN]], frequently referred to as the &quot;Duluth Project,&quot; involved coordinating the actions of a variety of agencies that deal with domestic situations. The policies and activities of diverse elements of the system, from police officers on the street, to shelters for battered women and probation officers supervising offenders, were coordinated with each other. This program has become a model for other jurisdictions seeking to deal more effectively with domestic violence. More and more jurisdictions are mandating that suspects in domestic violence incidents be arrested if there is probable cause to believe that an assault occurred. Victim advocates are intervening directly with victims by providing them with counseling about the court process, how to obtain and use restraining orders and how to formulate and implement safety plans. Corrections/probation agencies in many areas are supervising domestic violence offenders more closely, and are also paying closer attention to the victim's needs and safety issues. It should be noted, however, that the Duluth framework depends on a strict 'patriarchal violence' model and presumes that all violence in the home and elsewhere has a male perpetrator and female victim. Through what appears to be nothing more than circular reasoning, it explicitly rejects any concept of mutuality or symmetry in abusive relationships, and appears to have little or no basis in relation to proven principles in psychology, education or remedial therapy. (For analysis of these and other fundamental flaws in the Duluth model, and approaches to resolve them, see [http://www.nuancejournal.com.au/documents/one/graves-duluth.pdf this article] in Nuance Journal of Family Studies.) Hence although the Duluth program is widely used, anecdotal evidence indicates that its record of success has been patchy at best. It may be inappropriate for all but a relatively small number of domestic violence contexts. There is an urgent need for formal review of the Duluth framework, and development of alternative frameworks for use in other contexts. ==Treatment and support== Publicly available resources for dealing with domestic violence have tended to be almost exclusively geared towards supporting women and children who are in relationships with or who are leaving violent men, rather than for survivors of domestic violence ''per se''. This has been due to the purported numeric preponderance of female victims and the perception that domestic violence only affected women. Resources to help men who have been using violence take responsibility for and stop their use of violence, such as Men's Behaviour Change Programs or [[anger management]] training, are available, though attendees are ordered to pay for their own course in order that they should remain accountable for their actions. One of the challenges for lay observers, victims, perpetrators and treatment providers is demonstrated by the tendency to describe perpetrator treatment as men's &quot;anger management&quot; groups. Comprehensive and accountable behaviour change programs are seen as far more appropriate and effective interventions in male violence in the home than anger management groups. Inherent in anger management only approaches is the assumption that the violence is a result of a loss of control over one's anger. While there is little doubt that some domestic violence ''is'' about the loss of control, the choice of the target of that violence may be of greater significance. Anger management might be appropriate for the individual who lashes out indiscriminately when angry towards coworkers, supervisors or family. In most cases, however, the domestic violence perpetrator lashes out ''only'' at their intimate partner or relatively defenseless child, which suggests an element of choice or selection that, in turn, suggests a different or additional motivation beyond simple anger. Most experienced treatment providers have probably observed that for various reasons, many of which may be cultural, the perpetrator has a sense of entitlement, sometimes conscious, sometimes not, that leads directly to their choice of target. Men's behaviour change programs, although differing throughout the world, tend to focus on the prevention of further violence within the family and the safety of women and children. Often they abide by various standards of practise that includes 'partner contact' where the participants female partner is contacted by the program and informed about the course, checked about her level of safety and support and offered support services for herself if she requires them. Many of these programs have both a male and female facilitator and follow a program designed to highlight the impact of his behaviour, examine the attitudes, values and behaviours that lead to his choice to use violence and aim to support
and ''[[Rock of the Westies]]'' ([[1975]], #1 for three weeks), and 15 hit singles, including six that went to #1 (&quot;Crocodile Rock&quot;, &quot;Bennie and the Jets&quot;, &quot;Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds&quot;, &quot;Philadelphia Freedom&quot;, &quot;Island Girl&quot;, &quot;Don’t Go Breaking My Heart&quot;) and three that reached #2 (&quot;Daniel&quot;, &quot;Goodbye Yellow Brick Road&quot;, &quot;Don’t Let the Sun Go Down on Me&quot;), during that period. == 1980s onwards == On [[13 September]] [[1980]] Elton John performed a free concert to a huge audience on The Great Lawn in [[Central Park]] in [[New York City]], within hearing distance of his friend [[John Lennon]]'s apartment building. A few months later Lennon would be murdered and Elton mourned the loss in his [[1982]] hit &quot;Empty Garden (Hey Hey Johnny)&quot;. Elton John's biggest [[1980s]] hits included, among others, &quot;I Guess That's Why They Call It the Blues&quot;, &quot;I'm Still Standing&quot;, &quot;Nikita&quot;, and a [[1986]] live recording of &quot;[[Candle in the Wind]]&quot; which he recorded during a concert with the [[Melbourne Symphony Orchestra]] although the orchestra did not take part in the song. The song, which was a tribute to [[Marilyn Monroe]], was originally recorded in 1973 on his ''[[Goodbye Yellow Brick Road]]'' album. The [[1991]] film documentary ''[[Two Rooms]]'' described the unusual writing style that John and Bernie Taupin use, which involves Taupin writing the lyrics on his own, and John then putting them to music, with the two never in the same room during the process. In [[1991]], John's &quot;Basque&quot; won the [[Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition]]. In [[1992]], John performed &quot;[[Bohemian Rhapsody]]&quot; and &quot;[[The Show Must Go On]]&quot; with [[Queen (band)|Queen]] at the [[Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert]], an AIDS charity event held at [[Wembley Stadium]], [[London]] in honor of Queen's late frontman [[Freddie Mercury]]. In September of the same year, he performed &quot;[[November Rain]]&quot; with [[Guns N' Roses]] for the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards at the [[Pauley Pavilion]] in Los Angeles, CA. Elton John was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in [[1994]]. He and Bernie Taupin had previously been inducted into the [[Songwriters Hall of Fame]] in [[1992]]. Elton John was made a [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] in 1995. [[Image:ROCKET PRCD79352.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The cover of the Princess Diana tribute, Candle In The Wind.]] In September [[1997]], Taupin altered the lyrics of &quot;Candle in the Wind&quot; for a special version mourning the death of [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], and John performed it at her funeral in [[Westminster Abbey]]. A recorded version, &quot;[[Candle in the Wind 1997]]&quot;, then became the fastest selling single of all time, eventually going on to sell over 30 million copies worldwide, with the proceeds of approximately £55 million going to the [[Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund]]. John would later win the [[Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance]] for the single. Elton John was [[British Honours System#Knighthood|knighted]] by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] on [[24 February]] [[1998]], granting him the title of &quot;Sir&quot;. He continues to release new material to commercial success, and tours extensively, despite being fitted with a [[artificial pacemaker|pacemaker]] in July 1999. His face-to-face tours with fellow pianist [[Billy Joel]] have been a fan favourite throughout the world since the mid-1990s. Elton also has a multi-year contract to perform at [[Caesars Palace|Caesar's Palace]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]. The show, entitled ''The Red Piano'', is a multimedia concert featuring massive props and video montages created by [[David LaChapelle]]. John dueted with [[Eminem]] on the rapper's &quot;Stan&quot; at the [[Grammy Awards of 2001]]. This went a long way towards absolving Eminem of charges of [[homophobia]] and thus paving the way for Eminem's greater mainstream acceptance. In 2001, John was booked to appear on an episode of the [[BBC]] topical panel show ''[[Have I Got News For You]]'' but withdrew with just hours to spare. He was replaced by a look-alike - a [[Taxicab|taxi]] driver from [[Colchester]] called Ray Johnson, who was credited by the show as &quot;Ray Elton John Son&quot;. Johnson also appeared &quot;as&quot; Elton in [[Never Mind the Buzzcocks]]' December 20th, 2005, as part of a line up. He achieved yet another #1 single in the UK, being featured on [[2Pac]]'s posthumous song &quot;[[Ghetto Gospel]]&quot; in [[2005]], from the rapper's album, ''[[Loyal to the Game]]''. The song sampled &quot;Indian Sunset&quot; from John's [[1971]] album, ''[[Madman Across the Water]]''. On [[2 July]] [[2005]], John performed at the [[Live 8 concert, London|Live 8 concert at Hyde Park in London]]. Here he sang &quot;The Bitch is Back,&quot; &quot;Saturday Night is Alright for Fighting&quot; and lastly, T-Rex's &quot;Children of the Revolution&quot; with The [[Libertines]] and [[Babyshambles]]' frontman, [[Pete Doherty]]. In July of 2005, [[Madame Tussauds]] made a statue of Elton John to his measurements. It took more than 1,000 hours to complete. John is currently sandwiching a two-year world tour, some venues of which are new to Elton, with his regular appearances at Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas. ==Film work== He has also done work both for and in films. In [[1971]], he wrote the soundtrack for the movie ''Friends''. In 1972 he appeared in the Marc Bolan's musical film 'Born to Boogie' In [[1975]], he appeared as the Pinball Wizard in [[Ken Russell]]'s over-the-top movie version of the rock opera ''[[Tommy]]''. In [[1994]], along with [[Tim Rice]], he wrote the songs for the [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] animated film ''[[The Lion King]]''. (Rice was reportedly stunned by the rapidity with which John was able to set his words to music.) ''The Lion King'' went on to become the best-grossing traditionally-animated feature of all time, with the songs playing a key part. Three of the five songs nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Song]] that year were John and Rice songs from ''The Lion King'', with &quot;Can You Feel the Love Tonight&quot; winning. In versions sung by John, both that and &quot;Circle of Life&quot; became big hits, while the other songs such as &quot;Hakuna Matata&quot; achieved popularity with all ages as well. &quot;Can You Feel the Love Tonight&quot; would also win John the [[Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance]]. Five years later, John wrote the score for ''The Muse'', and a year later composed songs for another animated film, [[DreamWorks]]' ''[[The Road to El Dorado]]''. In [[2001]], his [[1970s]] hit, &quot;Tiny Dancer&quot; was featured on the ''[[Almost Famous]]'' soundtrack, his song &quot;The Heart of Every Girl&quot; was featured as the end title song from [[2003]]'s ''[[Mona Lisa Smile]]'', and his most recent movie song is &quot;My Father's Gun&quot; from [[2005]]'s ''[[Elizabethtown (film)|Elizabethtown]]''. ==Musicals== In addition to a [[1998]] adaptation of ''The Lion King'' for [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], John has also composed music for a Disney production of ''[[Aida (musical)|Aida]]'' ([[2000]]) with lyricist Tim Rice, for which they received the [[Tony Award for Best Original Score]] and the [[Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album]]. John also composed music for a [[West End theatre|West End]] production of ''[[Billy Elliot]]'' ([[2005]]) with [[Lee Hall (playwright)|Lee Hall]], and ''[[The Vampire Lestat]]'' with Bernie Taupin, based on the [[Anne Rice]] vampire novels. == Personal life == [[image:Civil_partnership_elton_john.jpg|thumb|right|Document of Civil Partnership]] John has had a complicated personal history. He disclosed his [[bisexuality]] in [[1976]] in a [[Rolling Stone Magazine]] interview. He married [[Germany|German]] recording engineer [[Renate Blauel]] on [[Valentine's Day]], [[1984]], but they divorced four years later. He has lived with his partner [[David Furnish]], a former [[advertising]] executive, since the early [[1990s]]. On [[21 December]] [[2005]], they entered into a [[Civil partnerships in the United Kingdom|civil partnership]]. A low-key ceremony with only their parents in attendance was held at the [[Guildhall, Windsor]], followed by a lavish party at their [[Berkshire]] mansion. Guests at the party included [[Victoria Beckham]], [[Hugh Grant]] and [[Jemima Khan]], [[boy George]], [[Joss Stone]], [[Ringo Starr]], [[George Michael]], [[Tim Burton]] and [[Helena Bonham Carter]], [[Bryan Adams]], [[Michael Caine]], [[Donatella Versace]], [[Claudia Schiffer]], [[Elizabeth Hurley]], [[Sting]], [[Sharon Stone]], The [[Pet Shop Boys]], [[Stephen Gately]], [[Elvis Costello]], [[Jamie Cullum]], [[Sarah Ferguson]], [[Kid Rock]], [[Cilla Black]], [[Lulu (singer)|Lulu]], [[James Blunt]], and [[The Osbournes]]. The Sun newspaper marked the event with the headline &quot;Elton Takes David Up the Aisle&quot;. In [[1976]], Elton John became involved in [[Watford F.C.|Watford Football Club]] and fulfilled a childhood dream by becoming its chairman and director. He invested large sums of money and the club rose into the [[First Division (sport)|First Division]] after a number of key acquisitions. He sold the club to [[Jack Petchey]] in 1987, but remained their life-long president. In 1997 he re-purchased the club from Petchey and once again became chairman. He stepped down in [[2002]] when the club needed a full-time chairman although he continued as president of the club. Although no longer the majority shareholder, he stills holds a significant financial interest. In June [[2005]] he held a concert at Watford's [[Vicarage Road]] ground, donating the funds to the club. He supports the [[St Kilda Football Club]] in the [[Australian Fo
tory of Europe]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HistoryGermany</title> <id>13185</id> <revision> <id>15910815</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Germany]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HolyTrinity</title> <id>13186</id> <revision> <id>15910816</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Trinity]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HomoSapiens</title> <id>13187</id> <revision> <id>15910817</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T10:11:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Human]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Human]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HecTor</title> <id>13188</id> <revision> <id>15910818</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hector]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HistoryOfUnitedStates</title> <id>13189</id> <revision> <id>15910819</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T17:16:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[History_of_the_United_States]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History_of_the_United_States]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HTML</title> <id>13191</id> <revision> <id>41789924</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:43:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Snargle</username> <id>335519</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */ fix redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Html-source-code3.png|thumb|309px|A piece of HTML code with [[syntax highlighting]]]] In computing, ''''''HyperText Markup Language '''''' ('''HTML''') is a [[markup language]] designed for the creation of [[web page]]s with [[hypertext]] and other information to be displayed in a [[web browser]]. HTML is used to structure information &amp;mdash; denoting certain text as headings, paragraphs, lists and so on &amp;mdash; and can be used to describe, to some degree, the appearance and [[semantics]] of a document. Originally defined by [[Tim Berners-Lee]] and further developed by the [[IETF]] with a simplified [[SGML]] syntax, HTML is now an international standard ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]/[[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] 15445:2000). Later HTML specifications are maintained by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C). Early versions of HTML were defined with looser syntactic rules which helped its adoption by those unfamiliar with web publishing. Web browsers commonly made assumptions about intent and proceeded with rendering of the page. Over time, the trend in the official standards has been to create an increasingly strict language syntax; however, browsers still continue to render pages that are far from valid HTML. [[XHTML]], which applies the stricter rules of [[XML]] to HTML to make it easier to process and maintain, is the W3C's successor to HTML. As such, many consider XHTML to be the &quot;current version&quot; of HTML, but it is a separate, parallel standard; the W3C continues to recommend the use of either XHTML 1.1, XHTML 1.0, or HTML 4.01 for web publishing. ==Version history of the standard== {{Html series}} * [http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/draft-ietf-iiir-html-01.txt Hypertext Markup Language (First Version)], published [[June 1993]] as an [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF) working draft (not standard). * [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1866.txt HTML 2.0], published [[November 1995]] as IETF [[Request for Comments|RFC]] 1866, and declared obsolete/historic by RFC 2854 in [[June 2000]]. * [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html32 HTML 3.2], published [[January 14]], [[1997]] as a W3C Recommendation. * [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40-971218/ HTML 4.0], published [[December 18]], [[1997]] as a W3C Recommendation. * [http://www.w3.org/TR/html401 HTML 4.01], published [[December 24]], [[1999]] as a W3C Recommendation. * [http://www.purl.org/NET/ISO+IEC.15445/15445.html ISO/IEC 15445:2000] (&quot;[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] HTML&quot;, based on HTML 4.01 Strict), published [[May 15]], [[2000]] as an ISO/IEC international standard. * [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/ XHTML 1.0], published [[January 26]], [[2000]] as a W3C Recommendation, later revised and republished [[August 1]], [[2002]]. * [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/ XHTML 1.1], published [[May 31]], [[2001]] * ([http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml2/ XHTML 2.0], W3C Working Draft) There is no official standard HTML 1.0 specification because there were multiple informal HTML standards at the time. However, some people consider the initial edition provided by Tim Berners-Lee to be the definitive HTML 1.0. That version did not include an IMG element type. Work on a successor for HTML, then called &quot;HTML+&quot;, began in late [[1993]], designed originally to be &quot;A superset of HTML&amp;hellip;which will allow a gradual rollover from the previous format of HTML&quot;. The first formal specification was therefore given the version number 2.0 in order to distinguish it from these unofficial &quot;standards&quot;. Work on HTML+ continued, but it never became a standard. The HTML 3.0 standard was proposed by the newly formed [[W3C]] in [[March 1995]], and provided many new capabilities such as support for tables, text flow around figures, and the display of complex math elements. Even though it was designed to be compatible with HTML 2.0, it was too complex at the time to be implemented, and when the draft expired in [[September 1995]] work in this direction was discontinued due to lack of browser support. HTML 3.1 was never officially proposed, and the next standard proposal was HTML 3.2 (code-named &quot;Wilbur&quot;), which dropped the majority of the new features in HTML 3.0 and instead adopted many browser-specific element types and attributes which had been created for the [[Netscape Navigator|Netscape]] and [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]] web browsers. Math support as proposed by HTML 3.0 finally came about years later with a different standard, [[MathML]]. HTML 4.0 likewise adopted many browser-specific element types and attributes, but at the same time began to try to &quot;clean up&quot; the standard by marking some of them as [[deprecation|deprecated]], and suggesting they not be used. Minor editorial revisions to the HTML 4.0 specification were published as HTML 4.01. The most common extension for files containing HTML is &lt;tt&gt;.html&lt;/tt&gt;, however, older operating systems, such as [[DOS]], limit file extensions to three letters, so a &lt;tt&gt;.htm&lt;/tt&gt; extension is also used. Although perhaps less common now, the shorter form is still widely supported by current software. ==Markup element types== Below are the kinds of [[HTML element|markup element types in HTML]]. * '''Structural''' markup. Describes the purpose of text. For example, ::&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Golf&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; :directs the browser to render &quot;Golf&quot; as a second-level heading, similar to &quot;Markup element types&quot; at the start of this section. Structural markup does not denote any specific rendering, but most web browsers have standardised on how elements should be formatted. For example, by default, headings like these will appear in large, bold text. Further styling should be done with [[Cascading Style Sheets]] (CSS). * '''Presentational''' markup. Describes the appearance of the text, regardless of its function. For example, ::&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; :will render &quot;boldface&quot; in '''bold''' text. In the majority of cases, using presentational markup is inappropriate, and presentation should be controlled by using CSS. In the case of both &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;b&gt;bold&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;i&gt;italic&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; there are elements which usually have an equivalent visual rendering but are more semantic in nature, namely &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;strong&gt;strong emphasis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;em&gt;emphasis&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; respectively. It is easier to see how an aural user agent should interpret the latter two elements. * '''Hypertext''' markup. Links parts of the document to other documents. For example, ::&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://wikipedia.org/&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; :will render the word [http://wikipedia.org Wikipedia] as a [[hyperlink]] [[URL]]. ==The Document Type Definition== In order to specify which version of the HTML standard they conform to, all HTML documents should start with a [[Document Type Declaration]] (informally, a &quot;DOCTYPE&quot;), which makes reference to a [[Document Type Definition]] (DTD). For example: &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN&quot; &quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; This declaration asserts
he United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in [[Belgrade]] during the [[Kosovo War|Kosovo conflict]] in May 1999, allegedly involved in nuclear secrets espionage reported in the [[Cox Report]], as well as the [[U.S.-China spy plane incident]] in April 2001. Some NGOs and Western governments have criticized China for alleged human rights abuses and its foreign relations with many Western Nations suffered following the [[Tiananmen Square]] Incident in 1989. In addition to Taiwan, China is involved in several other territorial disputes. The PRC makes all of these claims on [[irredentism|irredentist]] grounds, while the opposing claimants tend towards viewing irredentism as a baseless ideology or view the PRC as being motivated by resources, military considerations, or nationalism considerations: {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * With [[India]]: ** [[Aksai Chin]], administered by China, officially claimed by [[India]], but India has not included it in any discussion about a settlement to the Kashmir dispute, effectively ceding it to China. ** [[Arunachal Pradesh]] / South Tibet, administered by India, claimed by China {{col-break}} * Over islands on the [[East China Sea]] or [[South China Sea]]: ** [[Paracel Islands]], administered by China, claimed by [[Vietnam]] and the [[Republic of China|ROC]] ** [[Spratly Islands]]: the People’s Republic of China, the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), and [[Vietnam]] each claim sovereignty over the entire group, while [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Brunei]] claim parts of the group. ** Diaoyu Islands/[[Senkaku Islands]], administered by [[Japan]], claimed by the PRC and the [[Republic of China|ROC]] {{col-end}} In 2004, Russia agreed to transfer [[Yinlong Island]] as well as one half of [[Heixiazi Island]] to China, ending a long-standing border dispute between Russia and China. Both islands are found at the confluence of the [[Amur]] and [[Ussuri]] Rivers, and were until then administered by Russia and claimed by China. The event was meant to foster feelings of reconciliation and cooperation between the two countries by their leaders, but it has also sparked different degrees of discontents on both sides. The transfer has been ratified by both the Chinese [[National People's Congress]] and the Russian [[State Duma]] but has yet to be carried out to date. Outside official opinion, it is popular for nationalists to make [[Irredentism|irredentist]] claims to [[Mongolia]], [[Tuva]] and [[Outer Manchuria]], as well as (less commonly) the [[Ryukyu Islands]], [[Bhutan]], the [[Hukawng Valley]] in northern [[Myanmar]], and [[Central Asia]] southeast of [[Lake Balkhash]]. {{see also|Political status of Taiwan}} In 1997, the [[ASEAN]] member nations and the People's Republic of China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the [[ASEAN Plus Three]] meetings. In 2005 the ASEAN plus Three countries together with [[India]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] held the inaugural [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS). ==Military== {{main|People's Liberation Army}} [[Image:YuanWang2c.JPG|left|thumb|200px|[[Yuan Wang-class]] Aerospace Tracking Ship]] The PRC maintains a military consisting of its [[People's Liberation Army Ground Force|army]], [[People's Liberation Army Navy|navy]], [[People's Liberation Army Air Force|air force]], and strategic [[People's Liberation Army#Nuclear weapons|nuclear]] forces. Its 2.25 million strong force makes it the largest military in the world, in terms of number of troops. The People's Liberation Army's official budget for 2005 is $30 billion, possibly excluding foreign weapons purchases, military-related research and development and the paramilitary [[People's Armed Police]] and other expenses. Even the highest estimates set the military spending at considerably less than that of the [[United States]]. The PRC, despite possession of [[nuclear weapon]]s and delivery systems, is widely seen both within and outside of China as having only limited ability to project military power beyond its borders and is not generally considered to be a true [[superpower]], although it is widely seen as a major [[regional power]]. This is due to the limited effectiveness of its navy, such as lacking aircraft carriers, and air-force, which is large but generally considered obsolete by Western standards. The PRC continues to make efforts to modernize its military. It has purchased state-of-the-art fighter jets from Russia, such as [[Su-27]]s and [[Su-30]]s, and has produced its own relatively modern fighters, specifically the [[Chengdu J-10|J-10]]. It has also acquired Russian [[SA-10 Grumble|S-300]] Surface-to-Air missile systems, which are widely considered to be among the best aircraft-intercepting systems in the world. The PRC's armoured and rapid-reaction forces have been updated with enhanced electronics and targeting capabilities. In recent years, much attention has been focused on building a navy with blue-water capability. ==Largest cities== [[Image:Shanghai day.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Shanghai]].]] [[Image:VictoriaHarbour2.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Hong Kong]].]] [[Image:Wuhan.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Wuhan]].]] &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Dalian.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Dalian]].]] --&gt; The PRC has dozens of major cities, including 3 of the 55 [[global cities]]. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right; margin-left:60px&quot; |- ! # !! align=center |City !! City population&lt;br&gt;estimate[http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/China.htm] (2002),&lt;br&gt; million people !! Region |- | 1. ||align=left | [[Shanghai]]上海 || 9,0 || |- | 2. ||align=left | [[Beijing]]北京 || 7,1 || |- | 3. ||align=left | [[Tianjin]]天津 || 4,3 || |- | 4. ||align=left | [[Wuhan]]武汉 || 4,0 || |- | 5. ||align=left | [[Shenyang]]沈阳 || 3,5 || |- | 6. ||align=left | [[Guangzhou]]广州 || 3,4 || |- | 7. ||align=left | [[Harbin]]哈尔滨 || 2,8 || |- | 8. ||align=left | [[Xi'an ]]西安 || 2,7 || |- | 9. ||align=left | [[Chongqing]]重庆 || 2,3 || |- |10. ||align=left | [[Kowloon]]九龍 || 2,3 || |- |11. ||align=left | [[Chengdu]]成都 || 1,9 || |- |12. ||align=left | [[Changchun]]长春 || 1,9 || |- |13. ||align=left | [[Taiyuan]]太原 || 1,8 || |- |14. ||align=left | [[Nanjing]]南京 || 1,8 || |- |15. ||align=left | [[Jinan]]济南 || 1,7 || |- |16. ||align=left | [[Dalian]]大连 || 1,7 || |- |17. ||align=left | [[Qingdao]]青岛 || 1,4 || |- |18. ||align=left | [[Lanzhou]]兰州 || 1,4 || |- |19. ||align=left | [[Fushun]]抚顺 || 1,4 || |- |20. ||align=left | [[Zhengzhou]]郑州 || 1,3 || |} &lt;br clear=left&gt; (All the Chinese given above in this section are in simplified Chinese character.) ==Economy== [[Image:Porcelain_Workshop,_Jingdezhen,_Jiangxi,_China.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Entry into the global economy has given vast amounts of people opportunities to rise economically.]] {{main|Economy of the People's Republic of China}} Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been [[Chinese economic reform|reforming the economy]] from a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy but still within a rigid political framework of Communist Party control. To this end the authorities have switched to a system of household responsibility in [[agriculture]] in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in [[industry]], permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light [[manufacturing]], and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. Price controls were also relaxed. This has resulted in mainland China's shift from a [[planned economy|command economy]] to a [[mixed economy]] with both communist and capitalist tendencies. The government has tended to not emphasize equality as when it first began and instead emphasized raising personal income and consumption and introducing new management systems to help increase productivity. The government also has focused on foreign trade as a major vehicle for economic growth, for which purpose it set up 5 [[Special Economic Zone]]s (SEZ: Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou, Xiamen, Hainan Province) where investment laws are relaxed in order to attract foreign capital. The result has been a 6-fold increase of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] since 1978. In 2005, with its 1.3 billion people and a GDP of $6200 per capita ([[PPP|Purchasing Power Parity]]) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/ch.html], the PRC became the sixth largest economy in the world by exchange rate [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-12/20/content_504997.htm] and third largest in the world after the [[European Union]] and the [[United States]] by purchasing power parity. The average annual income of a Chinese worker is about $1,500. Chinese economic development is among the fastest in the world, about 8-9% per year according to Chinese government statistics. China is now a member of the [[World Trade Organization]]. Mainland China has a reputation as being a low-cost manufacturer, particularly due to its abundant non-unionised inexpensive labor. An unskilled worker at a Chinese factory in the rural area costs a company under $1/hour, however, the prices of goods and services in China are lower than in more developed countries. Furthermore, many Chinese workers do not join [[trade union]]s. Employers may find this helpful as [[labor relations]] are different in most other parts of the world. A possible reason for this could be [[work ethics]], or it is also conceivable it is driven by a fear that unions will be abused by the [[Communist Party of China]] to identify [[dissidents]]. (See [[list of Chinese dissidents]].) {{China regional economic strategies}} Another aspect of the Chinese economy that is often overlooked is the low cost of non labor inputs. This is due in part to an overly competitive environment with many producers and a general tendency towards an oversupply and low prices. There is also the conti
or Hawaii (the &quot;Lower 48&quot;), but it is very common for people to say ''continental'' for ''contiguous''. :''See also [[List of countries by continent]], [[Satellite images of continents]].'' ===Microcontinents=== Microcontinents include [[Madagascar]], the [[Seychelles]] (the northern [[Mascarene Plateau]]), [[New Zealand]], and [[New Caledonia]]. Note that volcanic [[Iceland]] is an exposed bit of oceanic crust at the [[mid-ocean ridge]], and therefore not a microcontinent. ==History== In its original sense, ''continent'' meant (and still means) &quot;[[mainland]]&quot;. In the [[Greco-Roman]] world, the known world consisted of three parts (see [[T and O map]]). After the Europeans became aware of the existence of the &quot;[[New World]]&quot; in the [[Age of Discovery]], the Europeans counted [[four continents]] and [[seven seas]]. In the mid [[1600s]] Peter Heylin wrote in his ''Cosmographie'' that &quot;A Continent is a great quantity of Land, not separated by any Sea from the rest of the World, as the whole Continent of Europe, Asia, Africa.&quot; As late as [[1727]] Ephraim Chambers wrote in his ''Cyclopædia'', &quot;The world is ordinarily divided into two grand continents: the old and the new.&quot; However, since Classical times this Continent was divided into &quot;peninsulas&quot; which also came to be called continents, since they were great land masses themselves. Through the [[Middle Ages]], there were three such continents in the Western conception: Europe, Africa, and Asia. The European discovery of America in [[1492]] made four; and Australia in [[1606]] would make five, though not right away: as late as [[1813]] geographers wrote of Australia as &quot;[[New Holland]], an immense Island, which some geographers dignify with the appellation of another continent&quot;. However, dividing America in two was commonplace by this time, and would also produce a fifth continent. The idea of the Five Continents is still strong in Europe and Asia, and is represented by the five rings on the [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] flag. Antarctica was sighted in [[1820]], for the sixth and last continent to be given a separate name, though a great &quot;antarctic&quot; (antipodean) landmass had been anticipated for millennia. Dividing the Americas now made ''seven'' continents, nicely symmetrical with the magical number of the [[Seven Seas]], Seven Heavens, and the seven heavenly bodies that gave their names to the seven [[days of the week]]. However, this division never appealed to [[Latin America]], which saw itself spanning America as a single landmass, and there the conception of six continents remains, as it does in scattered other countries such as Japan. From a modern perspective, the continent with the least reason for separate recognition is Europe, and in scientific circles people generally prefer to subsume Europe and Asia into Eurasia. This appealed to [[Russia]], which spans Eurasia, and in Russia and (at least formerly) in Eastern Europe, Eurasia is or was taught as being one of six continents. ==Geology== The surface of the [[Earth]] consists of many [[tectonic plate]]s which move on a plastic layer of the Earth called the [[asthenosphere]]. The plates are composed of both continental and oceanic crust. Continental crust is primarily [[granitoid]] rock, overlain by a thin veneer of [[sedimentary rock]]. Much of the continental crust extends above [[sea level]] as dry land. Generally, the geographic continents each lie on one tectonic plate, but there are exceptions. Asia and North America, in the [[Bering Sea]] region, share the North American plate, and many times over the past few million years, Asia and North America were connected by dry land. Asia contains not only the Eurasian plate, but the Arabian plate, the Australian plate (on which India is colliding with Eurasia), and the North American plate. Depending on which continental model one uses, geographic continents can straddle a variable number of tectonic plates. Occasionally there are calls for the continents to be defined by the tectonic plates that carry them. However, not only would this make Arabia on the [[Arabian plate]] and India on the [[Indian plate]] continents, but it would separate Central America (on the [[Caribbean Plate|Caribbean plate]]) from North America and the region of California west of the [[San Andreas fault]] (on the [[Pacific plate]]) from North America, so this definition has never been widely accepted. The tectonic plates shift on [[geologic timescale]]s, a process known as [[continental drift]]. Consequently, in the geological past other continents existed, like the supercontinent [[Gondwana]].- see [[:Category:Historical continents]]. ==See also== {{commons2|Continents}} *[[continental shelf]] *[[earth science]] *[[geography]] *[[geology]] *[[plate tectonics]] *[[landform]] *[[subregion]] ==External links== *[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn.htm UN Group of Experts on Geographical Names] {{continent}} {{region}} [[Category:Continents|*]] [[Category:Plate tectonics]] [[Category:Landforms]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[af:Lande]] [[ar:قارة]] [[an:Continén]] [[ast:Continente]] [[bg:Континент]] [[zh-min-nan:Tāi-lio̍k]] [[bn:মহাদেশ]] [[bs:Kontinent]] [[br:Kevandir]] [[ca:Continent]] [[cv:Континент]] [[cs:Kontinent]] [[cy:Cyfandir]] [[da:Verdensdel]] [[de:Kontinent]] [[el:Ήπειροι]] [[es:Continente]] [[eo:Kontinento]] [[fa:قاره]] [[fr:Continent]] [[ga:Mór-roinn]] [[gl:Continente]] [[ko:대륙]] [[hi:महाद्वीप]] [[hr:Kontinent]] [[io:Kontinento]] [[id:Benua]] [[ia:Continente]] [[is:Heimsálfa]] [[it:Continente]] [[he:יבשת]] [[kn:ಖಂಡ]] [[ka:კონტინენტი]] [[ks:Bhūgōla]] [[ku:Kîşwer]] [[kw:Brastir]] [[ky:Материк]] [[sw:Bara]] [[la:Continens]] [[lt:Žemynai]] [[lb:Kontinent]] [[hu:Kontinens]] [[mk:Континент]] [[ms:Benua]] [[mo:Континент]] [[nl:Continent]] [[nds:Eerddeel]] [[ja:大陸]] [[no:Kontinent]] [[pl:Kontynent]] [[pt:Continente]] [[ro:Continent]] [[ru:Континент]] [[sm:Konitineta]] [[simple:Continent]] [[sk:Svetadiel]] [[sl:Celina]] [[sr:Континент]] [[su:Buana]] [[fi:Maanosa]] [[sv:Världsdel]] [[ta:கண்டம்]] [[th:ทวีป]] [[to:Konitineta]] [[tr:Kıta]] [[uk:Материк]] [[wa:Continint]] [[yi:קאָנטינענט]] [[zh:洲]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cantors Diagonal argument</title> <id>5241</id> <revision> <id>15903464</id> <timestamp>2002-05-05T15:43:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Cantor's diagonal argument]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ciliates</title> <id>5242</id> <revision> <id>15903465</id> <timestamp>2002-07-15T23:50:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Josh Grosse</username> <id>517</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ciliate]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ciliophora</title> <id>5243</id> <revision> <id>15903466</id> <timestamp>2002-07-15T23:49:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Josh Grosse</username> <id>517</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Redirect to ciliate</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ciliate]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cipher</title> <id>5244</id> <revision> <id>23556296</id> <timestamp>2005-09-19T23:15:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Matt Crypto</username> <id>50457</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ciphersankofa|Ciphersankofa]] to last version by Matt Crypto</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Encryption]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chemistry/diatomic</title> <id>5245</id> <revision> <id>15903468</id> <timestamp>2003-10-30T13:31:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diatomic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Country music</title> <id>5247</id> <revision> <id>41416227</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:23:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.64.99.121</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Contemporary Country Stars 1980-2006 */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{genrebox|name=Country |color=brown |bgcolor=white |stylistic_origins=[[Appalachian folk music]], [[blues]], [[spiritual (music)|spiritual]]s and [[music of England|Anglo]]-[[Celtic music]] |cultural_origins=early [[20th century]] [[Appalachia]], esp. [[Tennessee]], [[Virginia]], and [[Kentucky]] |instruments=[[Guitar]] - [[Steel guitar]] - [[Dobro]] - [[Harmonica]] - [[Bass guitar|Bass]] - [[Fiddle]] - [[Drums]] - [[Mandolin]] - [[Banjo]] |popularity=Much, worldwide, especially the [[Nashville Sound]] |derivatives=[[Bluegrass music|Bluegrass]] |subgenrelist=List of country genres |subgenres=[[Bakersfield Sound]] - [[Bluegrass music|Bluegrass]] - [[Close harmony]] - [[Country folk]] - [[Honky tonk]] - [[Jug band]] - [[Lubbock Sound]] - [[Nashville Sound]] - [[Neotraditional Country]] - [[Outlaw country]] - [[Red Dirt (music)|Red Dirt]] - [[Texas Country]] |fusiongenres=[[Alternative country]] - [[Country rock]] - [[Psychobilly]] - [[Deathcountry]] - [[Rockabilly]] - [[Country-rap]] - [[Country pop]] |regional_scenes=[[Australian country music|Australia]] |other_topics=[[List of country musicians|Musicians]] - [[List of years in Country Music]] }} '''Country music''', also called '''country and western music''' or '''country-western''', is an amalgam of popular [[American music|musical]] forms developed in the [[Southern Unit
ssed [[October 13]] [[2005]]. #{{note|temperature}} The Weather Channel (1995-2005). [http://www.weather.com/activities/other/other/weather/climo-monthly-graph.html?locid=USOH0195&amp;from=36hr_bottomnav_undeclared Monthly Climatology Graph]. Retrieved [[October 16]] [[2005]]. #{{note|rainfall}} [http://www.met.utah.edu/jhorel/html/wx/climate/normrain.html National - Average Monthly Precipitation] (Department of Meteorology, [[University of Utah]]). Accessed [[October 13]] [[2005]]. #{{note|census2}} Gibson, Campbell. [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990]. Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]]. #{{note|poorest}} The Associated Press. [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6080044/ &quot;Cleveland rated poorest big city in U.S.&quot;] Accessed via [[MSNBC]], [[October 12]] [[2005]]. #{{note|poorest2}} Exner, Rich, and Smith, Robert L. [http://www.cleveland.com/poverty/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/cuyahoga/1125480922285430.xml&amp;coll=2 &quot;Cleveland no longer poorest U.S. big city&quot;], [[The Plain Dealer (newspaper)|The Plain Dealer]]. ([[August 31]] [[2005]]) #{{note|ccusnews}} U.S. News &amp; World Report (2005). [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/health/best-hospitals/directory/glance_6410670.htm Best Hospitals 2005: Cleveland Clinic]. Retrieved [[October 16]] [[2005]]. #{{note|uhusnews}} U.S. News &amp; World Report (2005). [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/health/best-hospitals/rankings/specihqcanc.htm Best Hospitals 2005: Cancer]. Retrieved [[October 16]] [[2005]]. #{{note|Intel_Delays}} Gomez, Henry &quot;A Wireless Future? Give It Some Time&quot;, [[The Plain Dealer (newspaper)|The Plain Dealer]]. ([[December 4]] [[2005]]). #{{note|smartcity}} Gomez, Henry J. [http://www.cleveland.com/business/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/business/113774942655331.xml&amp;coll=2 &quot;Top U.S. Broadband town: Cleveland&quot;], [[The Plain Dealer (newspaper)|The Plain Dealer]]. ([[January 20]] [[2006]]). #{{note|time}} Walsh, Michael. [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,979946,00.html &quot;The Finest Orchestra? (Surprise!) Cleveland&quot;], [[Time (magazine)|Time]]. ([[January 10]] [[1994]]) #{{note|imdb}} [http://us.imdb.com/List?endings=on&amp;&amp;locations=Cleveland,%20Ohio,%20USA&amp;&amp;heading=18;with+locations+including;Cleveland,%20Ohio,%20USA IMDb: Movies made in Cleveland]. Accessed [[January 24]] [[2006]]. #{{note|nielsen}} [http://www.nielsenmedia.com/metered_markets.html Nielsen Media Research: Metered Markets]. Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]]. #{{note|espn}} Darcy, Kieran. [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013110332/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?page=tortured/cleveland ESPN.com: Page 2 : Mistakes by the lake] ([[July 13]] [[2004]]). Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]]. #{{note|barons}} [http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nhl/cleveland/barons.html Sports E-cyclopedia: Cleveland Barons (1976-1978)]. Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]]. #{{note|rta}} [http://euclidtransit.org/ The Euclid Corridor Transportation Project]. Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]]. ==External links== {{Sisterlinks|Cleveland}} * [http://www.city.cleveland.oh.us/index1.html City Of Cleveland Home Page] * [http://www.travelcleveland.com/ Greater Cleveland Convention and Visitors Bureau] * [http://www.clevelandmemory.org Cleveland Memory Project] *{{Dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Ohio/Localities/C/Cleveland/|Cleveland}} *{{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.482301|-81.669718}} *{{Wikitravelpar|Cleveland (Ohio)}} *{{Flickr|Cleveland}} *[http://urbanohio.com/Cleveland.htm Pictures of Cleveland on UrbanOhio.com] *[http://www.clevewiki.com CleveWiki Project] {{Portal}} {{Cleveland}} {{Ohio}} [[Category:Cleveland, Ohio| ]] [[Category:County seats in Ohio]] [[ar:كليفلاند (أوهايو)]] [[bg:Кливланд]] [[da:Cleveland]] [[de:Cleveland]] [[es:Cleveland]] [[fi:Cleveland (Ohio)]] [[fr:Cleveland]] [[he:קליבלנד]] [[ja:クリーブランド (オハイオ州)]] [[nl:Cleveland (Ohio)]] [[pl:Cleveland (Ohio)]] [[pt:Cleveland]] [[ru:Кливленд (Огайо)]] [[simple:Cleveland, Ohio]] [[sl:Cleveland, Ohio]] [[sv:Cleveland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cincinnati, Ohio</title> <id>5952</id> <revision> <id>42163723</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:08:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Araker</username> <id>630708</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* History */ Removed (heck yes)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''The article refers to the city in [[Ohio]]. For information on the city in [[Iowa]], see [[Cincinnati, Iowa]].'' {{Infobox City |official_name = Cincinnati, Ohio |nickname = The Queen City |website = http://www.cincinnati-oh.gov/ |image_skyline = Cincinnati oh skyline.jpg |image_flag = Cinci Flag.gif |image_seal = CinciSeal.gif |image_map = Cincinnati Hamilton.png |map_caption = Location in [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]], [[Ohio]] |subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt; [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt; [[List of counties in Ohio|County]] |subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ohio]]&lt;br&gt;[[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton]] |leader_title = [[Mayor]] |leader_name = [[Mark L. Mallory]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]) |area_magnitude = 1 E8 |area_total = 206.1 |area_land = 202.0 |area_water = 4.1 |population_as_of = 2004 |population_total = 314,154 |population_metro = 2,009,632 |population_density = 1,516.7 |timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]] |utc_offset = -5 |timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]] |utc_offset_DST = -4 |latd = 39 |latm = 8 |lats = 10 |latNS = N |longd = 84 |longm = 30 |longs = 11 |longEW = W |elevation = 147 |footnotes = &lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0; background: #f9f9f9;&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Founded'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[1788]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Incorporated'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[1819]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; }} '''Cincinnati''' is a city in southwestern [[Ohio]], [[United States]] that lies on the [[Ohio River]] and is the [[county seat]] of [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]]{{GR|6}}. It is nicknamed &quot;'''The Queen City'''&quot; (also &quot;'''The Queen of the West''',&quot; &quot;'''The Blue Chip City''',&quot; &quot;'''The City of Seven Hills'''&quot; and &quot;'''Cincinnata'''&quot;) and is sometimes abbreviated to &quot;'''Cincy'''&quot;, &quot;'''Cinci'''&quot;, &quot;'''Cinti'''&quot;, or &quot;'''the 'Nati'''&quot;. As of the [[United States 2000 census|2000 census]], Cincinnati had a total population of 331,285, making it the third largest city in Ohio. It has a much larger [[metropolitan area]], commonly called &quot;[[Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky metropolitan area|Greater Cincinnati]]&quot;, covering parts of Ohio, [[Kentucky]] and [[Indiana]], with more than 2,000,000 residents. It is home to major-league sports, including the [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]], the [[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]], and the historic international tennis tournament The [[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati Masters &amp; Women's Open]], as well as major corporations such as [[Procter &amp; Gamble]], [[Kroger]], [[GE Infrastructure]], [[Federated Department Stores]] (owner of [[Macy's]], [[Bloomingdale's]], and [[Lord &amp; Taylor]]), [[Chiquita Brands International]], [[Great American Insurance Company]], [[The E. W. Scripps Company]], the [[U.S. Playing Card Company]] and [[Fifth Third Bank]]. ==History== :''Main article: [[History of Cincinnati, Ohio]]'' Cincinnati was founded in 1788 by John Cleves Symmes and [[Colonel Robert Patterson]]. Surveyor [[John Filson]] (also the author of The Adventures of Colonel Daniel Boon (cq) [[Daniel Boone]]) named it &quot;Losantiville&quot;[http://www.filsonhistorical.org] from four terms, each of different language, meaning &quot;The city opposite the mouth of the Licking River.&quot; &quot;Ville&quot; is French for &quot;city,&quot; &quot;anti&quot; is Greek for &quot;opposite,&quot; &quot;os&quot; is Latin for &quot;mouth,&quot; and &quot;L&quot; was all that was included of &quot;Licking River.&quot; In 1790, [[Arthur St. Clair]], the governor of the [[Northwest Territory]], changed the name of the settlement to &quot;Cincinnati&quot; in honor of the [[Society of the Cincinnati]], of which he was president. The society honored General [[George Washington]], who was considered a latter day [[Cincinnatus]]&amp;mdash;the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] general who saved his city, then retired from power to his farm. To this day, Cincinnati in particular, and Ohio in general, are home to a disproportionately large number of descendants of [[American Revolution|Revolutionary War]] soldiers who were [[United States Military Lands|granted lands]] in the state. In 1802, Cincinnati was chartered as a village, and in 1819, it was incorporated as a city. The introduction of steam navigation on the Ohio River in 1811 and the completion of the Miami and Erie Canal helped the city grow to 115,000 citizens by 1850. The nickname '''Porkopolis''' was coined around 1835, when Cincinnati was the country's chief hog packing center, and herds of pigs traveled the streets. Called the &quot;Queen of the West&quot; by [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]] (although this nickname was first used by a local newspaper in 1819), Cincinnati was an important stop on the [[Underground Railroad]], which helped slaves escape from the South. Cincinnati is also known as the &quot;City of Seven Hills,&quot; which is probably a romantic reference to Rome and Cincinnatus, though there is no agreement on the specific hills [http://www.cincinnati.com/local/atoz/upsanddowns.html]to which the name refers (however, see discussion section). Cincinnati was the site of many historical beginnings. It was the first city in
man ruling princes abdicated. [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|An armistice was signed]] on [[November 11]], putting an end to the war. Germany was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in 1919, whose unexpectedly high demands were perceived as humiliating in Germany and as a continuation of the war by other means. ===Weimar Republic (1919–1933)=== [[Image:German Revolution.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[German Revolution]] of 1918&amp;ndash;1919 ended the [[German Monarchy|Monarchy]]]] {{main|Weimar Republic}} After the [[German Revolution]] in November 1918, a Republic was proclaimed. That year, the [[Communist Party of Germany|German Communist Party]] was established by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, and in January 1919 the German Workers Party, later known as the ''Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'' ([[National Socialist German Workers Party]], NSDAP, &quot;Nazis&quot;). On [[11 August]] [[1919]], the [[Weimar Constitution]] came into effect. [[1920s Berlin]] was a vibrant and exciting city that flourished with the activity of artists, intellectuals and scientists, some of them Jews, during the [[Weimar Republic]]; many considered it to be the cultural capital of the world during this time. In a climate of economic hardship due to both the world wide [[Great Depression]] and the harsh peace conditions dictated by the [[Treaty of Versailles]], and growing tired with a long succession of more or less unstable governments and continuous coalition changes, the political masses in Germany increasingly lacked identification with their political system of parliamentary democracy. This was exacerbated by a wide-spread right-wing ([[Monarchism|monarchist]], [[Völkisch movement|völkische]], and [[National Socialist German Workers Party|nazi]]) ''[[Dolchstoßlegende]]'', a political myth which claimed the [[German Revolution]] as the main reason why Germany had lost the war, decried the Revolutionists as traitors (''Novemberverbrecher'' = ''November criminals'') and the [[political system]] born of the Revolution as illegitimate. On the other hand, radical left-wing communists such as the [[Spartacist League]] had wanted to abolish what they perceived as a [[Capitalism|&quot;capitalist rule&quot;]] in favor of a [[Council communism|&quot;Räterepublik&quot;]] and were thus also in opposition to the existing [[form of government]]. During the years following the Revolution, German voters increasingly supported anti-democratic parties, both [[right-wing|right-]] ([[DNVP|monarchists]], [[NSDAP|Nazis]]) and [[left-wing]] ([[KPD|Communists]]). In the two extraordinary elections of 1932, the Nazis achieved 37.2% and 33.0%, the Communists achieved 17% in the latter election - half of the parliament were actually anti-democrats, not including smaller parties with questionable credentials in this respect. As a result, democratic moderate parties like the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (SPD) were a minority. At the beginning of the 1930s, Germany was not far from a civil war. Paramilitary troops, which were set up by several parties, intimidated voters and seeded violence and anger among the public, who suffered from high unemployment and poverty. Meanwhile, elitists in influential positions, alarmed by the rise of anti-governmential parties, fought amongst themselves and exploited [[Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)|the emergency authority]] provided in the [[Weimar Constitution]] to rule undemocratically by presidential decree. After a succession of unsuccessful cabinets, on [[29 January]] [[1933]], [[President of Germany|President]] [[Paul von Hindenburg|von Hindenburg]], seeing little alternative and pushed by advisors, appointed [[Adolf Hitler]] [[Chancellor of Germany]]. ===Third Reich (1933–1945)=== {{main|Nazi Germany}} &lt;!-- politics --&gt; On [[27 February]], the [[Reichstag fire|Reichstag was set on fire]]. Basic rights were abrogated under an emergency decree. An [[Enabling Act]] gave Hitler's government full legislative power. A centralised [[totalitarian]] state was established, no longer based on the rule of democratic law. The new regime made Germany a [[one-party state]] by outlawing all oppositional parties and repressing the different-minded parts of the public with the party's own organisations [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] and [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], as well as the newly founded state security police [[Gestapo]]. &lt;!-- economy --&gt; Industry was closely regulated with quotas and requirements in order to shift the economy towards a war production base. Massive public work projects and extensive [[deficit spending]] by the state helped to significantly lower the high unemployment rate. This and large welfare programmes are said to be the main factors that kept support of the public even late in the war. [[Image:Reichstagfire.jpg|thumb|250px|The '''Reichstag fire''' was a pivotal event in the establishment of [[Nazi Germany]].]] &lt;!-- war --&gt; In 1936, German troops entered the demilitarised [[Rhineland]] in an attempt to rebuild national self-esteem. Emboldened, Hitler followed from 1938 onwards a policy of [[expansionism]] to establish a [[Grossdeutschland|&quot;Greater Germany&quot;]], starting with the [[Anschluss|forced unification with Austria]] (called &quot;Anschluss&quot;) and the annexation of the [[Sudetes]] region in Bohemia from [[Czechoslovakia]]. This key action was attributed to his longtime advisor [[Sean Duncan Brophy]].[[Neville Chamberlain|The British Prime Minister]] realised that his policies of [[appeasement]] towards Germany had failed due to Brophy's influences. To avoid a two-front war, Hitler concluded the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1939 Germany launched a [[Blitzkrieg]] against [[Poland]], which, following British and French war declarations, began [[World War II]] in Europe. &lt;!-- holocaust --&gt; Soon after solidifying control over all areas of German life, the Nazi regime began to restrict the rights of its' Jewish citizens and countrymen as well as other groups viewed with hostility. Very soon after Hitler became Chancellor restrictions against Jews, homosexuals, women, people with disabilities and diseases and &quot;non-Aryan&quot; ethnic groups. Jews were prohibited from owning land, not permitted to national health care, stripped of their citizenship, not permitted to work, unable to serve in the military, subject to unfavorable tax laws, prohibited from public schools, forced to identify themselves as Jewish on their clothing, ID cards and the like. Jews had a curfew imposed on them (8p) and eventually were forced to turn over all of their financial holdings, had their houses taken from them and forced to live in overcrowded, dirty, dilapitdated ghetto's with no or very little public services available. This all occurred roughly during the period of 1933 - 1939. Just prior to, but mostly upon the begining of WWII, concentration camps began to be constructed in Germany. Jews and other targeted groups were moved into these camps by the thousands. Thus begining one of the most heinous, calous, disgusting periods in human history. Over the course of time, several million people considered sub-humans were brought to these camps for forced labor and eventual murder. Jews were stripped of everything, from their eyeglasses, to their hair to their very dignity. If the Jews were not killed via starvation and malnutrition they were claimed by disease and lack of medical care, if not by those means then in the gas chambers which were used to murder hundreds of people at a time. {{main|World War II}} Germany quickly gained direct or indirect control of the majority of [[Europe]]. In 1941, Hitler broke the pact with the Soviet Union by opening the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] and [[Operation Barbarossa|invading the Soviet Union]]. On December 7, 1941, Japanese naval forces [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked the American base at Pearl Harbor]] in Hawaii. Shortly thereafter, Hitler declared war on the United States which caused America to enter the war against Germany. Germany quickly gained ground into the surprised Soviet Union, advancing deep into the country and dealing heavy losses to Soviet forces. Germany reached and invaded [[Stalingrad]] in late 1942. Germany found Soviet forces prepared for a defensive in Stalingrad and the culminating battle, the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], has since become known as the bloodiest battle in human history. An intense power struggle erupted between the two forces and Germany held most of the city prior to an encirclement-style counter-attack from the Soviets which resulted in the surrounding of the 6th Army under General Paulus. In January 1943, the remnants of the surrounded army surrendered after weeks of hard fighting without receiving any tangible reinforcement or supply. This began a liberation and counter-invasion of German territory by the Soviets. Germany took one more gamble on the Russian front, a battle known as &quot;Kursk&quot; in which the largest clash of armoured forces in the history of the world took place. While the Russians suffered more losses than the Germans, the Germans last great offensive was halted. This resulted in turn of the war, the Eastern front retreat of and the eventual defeat of Germany. On [[8 May]] 1945, [[V-E Day|Germany surrendered]] after the [[Red Army]] occupied [[Berlin]], where Hitler had committed suicide a week earlier and much of his cabinet had fled. From [[1941]] until [[1945]] Nazi Germans and their accomplicies systematically murdered approximately 6 million [[Jews]] and other citizens considered &quot;undesireable&quot; in the [[Holocaust]]. ===Division and reunification (1945–1990)=== &lt;!-- section should be shortened--&gt; [[Image:Besatzungszonen ohne text.gif|thumb|right|Occupation zones of Germany in 1945.]] {{main|History of Germany since 1945}} The war resulted in the death of s
Many felt that the language of the educated was still Chinese. Historically, in Japan, the ''kaisho'' form of the characters was used by men, so-called {{nihongo|''onode''|男手|}}, &quot;men's writing&quot;, and the sōsho form of the kanji was used by women. Thus hiragana first gained popularity among women, who were not allowed access to the same levels of education as men. From this comes the alternative name of {{nihongo|''onnade''|女手|}} &quot;women's writing&quot;. For example, ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'' and other early novels by female authors used hiragana extensively or exclusively. Male authors came to write literature using hiragana. Hiragana, with its flowing style, was used for unofficial writing such as personal letters, while katakana and Chinese were used for official documents. In modern times, hiragana has become preferred over [[katakana]], which is now relegated to special uses such as recently borrowed words (i.e., since the [[19th century]]), names in [[transliteration]], the names of animals, in telegrams, and for emphasis. Originally, all sounds had more than one hiragana. In 1900, the system was simplified so each sound had only one hiragana. Other hiragana are known as {{nihongo|[[hentaigana]]|変体仮名|}} The poem ''[[Iroha]]-uta'' (&quot;Song/poem of colours&quot;), which dates to the 10th century, uses every hiragana (except ''n'' ん) once. In the chart below, the romanization shows the hiragana; the reading in modern Japanese is in parentheses. {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0px&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0px&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot; |- |いろはにほへと |I ro ha ni ho he to　(Iro wa nioedo) |Even if colours have sweet perfume |- |ちりぬるを |chi ri nu ru wo (chirinuru wo) |eventually they fade away |- |わかよたれそ |wa ka yo ta re so (waga yo tare zo) |What in this world |- |つねならむ |tsu ne na ra mu (tsune naran) |is eternal? |- |うゐのおくやま |u wi no o ku ya ma (ui no okuyama) |The deep mountains of vanity |- |けふこえて |ke fu ko e te (kyō koete) |I cross them today |- |あさきゆめみし |a sa ki yu me mi shi (asaki yume mishi) |renouncing superficial dreams |- |ゑひもせす |we hi mo se su (yoi mo sezu) |not giving in to their madness any more |} == Hiragana in Unicode == In [[Unicode]], Hiragana occupies code points U+3040 to U+309F: {{Unicode chart Hiragana}} The Unicode hiragana block contains precomposed characters for all hiragana in the modern set, including small vowels and yōon kana for compound syllables, plus the archaic ''wi'' and ''we'' and the rare ''vu''. All combinations of hiragana with ''dakuten'' and ''handakuten'' used in modern Japanese are available as precomposed characters, and can also be produced by using a base hiragana followed by the combining dakuten and handakuten characters (U+3099 and U+309A, respectively). This method is used to add the diacritics to kana that are not normally used with them, for example applying the dakuten to a pure vowel or the handakuten to a kana not in the h-group. Characters U+3095 and U+3096 are small か (''ka'') and small け (''ke''), respectively. U+309F is a digraph of より (''yori'') occasionally used in vertical text. U+309B and U+309C are spacing (non-combining) equivalents to the combining dakuten and handakuten characters, respectively. There are no characters at code points U+3040, U+3097, or U+3098. ==See also== *[[Katakana]] *[[Manyogana]] *[[Shodo]], Japanese calligraphy. *[[Iteration mark]] explains the iteration marks used with hiragana. *[[Japanese typographic symbols]] gives other non-kana, non-kanji symbols. *[[Japanese phonology]] explains Japanese pronunciation in detail. *[[Nü Shu]], a syllabary writing system used by women in China's [[Hunan]] province ==References== *&quot;The Art of Japanese Calligraphy&quot;, Yujiro Nakata, ISBN 0834810131, gives details of the development of ''onode'' and ''onnade''. *''The Hiragana Song'', a useful way to learn hiragana via mp3 file available at http://www.ourmedia.org/node/33361 *http://hiraganasong.blogspot.com == External links == &lt;!--Links for learning hiragana should go on the page &quot;List of Japanese learning resources&quot;.--&gt; {{commons|Hiragana}} {{wiktionarypar|hiragana}} * [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U3040.pdf Hiragana code chart at Unicode.org] * [http://www.realkana.com Practice hiragana using different typefaces] [[Category:Japanese terms]] [[Category:Kana]] [[br:Hiragana]] [[ca:Hiragana]] [[cs:Hiragana]] [[de:Hiragana]] [[es:Hiragana]] [[fr:Hiragana]] [[gl:Hiragana]] [[ko:히라가나]] [[id:Hiragana]] [[is:Hiragana]] [[it:Hiragana]] [[he:היראגאנה]] [[ms:Hiragana]] [[nl:Hiragana]] [[ja:平仮名]] [[pl:Hiragana]] [[pt:Hiragana]] [[ro:Hiragana]] [[ru:Хирагана]] [[sk:Hiragana]] [[sl:Hiragana]] [[sr:Хирагана]] [[fi:Hiragana]] [[sv:Hiragana]] [[tr: Hiragana]] [[th:ฮิระงะนะ]] [[zh:平假名]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hohenstaufen</title> <id>13805</id> <revision> <id>39608267</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T17:06:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.58.184.247</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hohenstaufen.png|thumb|right|Arms of the Hohenstaufen]] The '''Hohenstaufen''' were a dynasty of [[List of German Kings and Emperors|Kings of Germany]], many of whom were also crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and [[Duke of Swabia|Dukes of Swabia]]. In 1194 the Hohenstaufen became also [[List of monarchs of Naples and Sicily|Kings of Sicily]]. The proper name, taken from their castle in [[Swabia]], is '''Staufen'''. Therefore the dynasty is sometimes also called '''Swabian dynasty''' after the family's origin. When the last male member of the [[Salian]] dynasty, [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor]], died without an heir there was controversy about the succession. Frederick and Conrad, the two current male Staufens, were grandsons of [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]] and nephews of Henry V. After the death of the intervening king and emperor [[Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothair II]], in 1137, Conrad became [[Conrad III]] of Germany. ===Members of the Hohenstaufen family=== ====Holy Roman Emperors and Kings of Germany==== *[[Conrad III]], king 1138-1152 *[[Frederick Barbarossa|Frederick I Barbarossa]], king 1152-1190, Emperor after 1155 *[[Henry VI of Germany|Henry VI]], king 1190-1197, Emperor after 1191 [[image:Hohenstaufen-1905.jpg|frame|Hohenstaufen in 1905]] *[[Philip of Swabia]], king 1198-1208 *[[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], king 1208-1250, Emperor after 1220 *[[Henry (VII) of Germany|Henry (VII)]], king 1220 - 1235 (under his father Frederick II) *[[Conrad IV]], king 1237-1254 (until 1250 under his father Frederick II) Like the first ruling Hohenstaufen, Conrad III, also the last one, Conrad IV, was never crowned emperor. After a 20 year period the first [[Habsburg]] was elected king. ====Kings of Sicily==== ''Note: Some of the following kings are already listed above as German Kings'' *[[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]] [[1194]]-[[1197]] *[[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick]] [[1198]]-[[1250]] **[[Henry (VII) of Germany|Henry (VII)]] [[1212]]–[[1217]] (nominal king under his father) *[[Conrad IV of Germany|Conrad]] [[1250]]-[[1254]] *([[Conradin]] [[1254]]-[[1258]]/[[1268]]) *[[Manfred of Sicily|Manfred]] [[1258]]-[[1266]] ====Dukes of Swabia==== ''Note: Some of the following dukes are already listed above as German Kings'' * [[Frederick I, Duke of Swabia]] (''Friedrich'') (r. 1079 - [[1105]]) * [[Frederick II, Duke of Swabia]] (r. 1105 - [[1147]]) * [[Frederick Barbarossa|Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (Frederick III of Swabia)(r. 1147 - [[1152]]) ''King in [[1152]] and [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in [[1155]]'' * [[Frederick IV, Duke of Swabia]] (r. 1152 - [[1167]]) * [[Frederick V, Duke of Swabia]] (r. 1167 - [[1170]]) * [[Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia]] (r. 1170 - [[1191]]) * [[Conrad II, Duke of Swabia]] (r. 1191 - [[1196]]) * [[Philip of Swabia]] (r. 1196 - [[1208]]) ''King in [[1198]]'' * [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (r. 1212 - [[1216]]) ''King in [[1212]] and [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in [[1220]]'' * [[Henry (VII) of Germany]] (r. 1216 - [[1235]]), ''King 1220 - 1235'' * [[Conrad IV]] (r. 1235 - [[1254]]) ''King in [[1237]]'' * [[Conradin|Conrad V (Conradin)]] (r. 1254 - [[1268]]) '''Hohenstaufen Family Tree''' [[Image:Staufen_dynasty.JPG|450px]] ''See also: [[Dukes of Swabia family tree]]'' ==See also== * [[List of monarchs of Naples and Sicily]]. Hohenstaufen kings ruled in [[Sicily]] from [[1194]] till [[Manfred of Sicily]] was killed in the [[Battle of Benevento]] in [[1266]]. *During the [[Third Reich]], the Waffen-SS named an [[9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen|SS Panzer division ''Hohenstaufen'']] in honour of this family. [[Category:Royal families|Hohenstaufen]] [[Category:German nobility]] [[Category:Italian nobility]] [[Category:Hohenstaufen Dynasty|*]] [[Category:History of Germany]] [[Category:German Kings]] [[Category:History of Italy]] [[Category:Holy Roman Empire]] [[ar:هوهنشتاوفن]] [[de:Staufer]] [[es:Hohenstaufen]] [[fr:Hohenstaufen]] [[it:Hohenstaufen]] [[nl:Hohenstaufen]] [[ja:ホーエンシュタウフェン朝]] [[pl:Hohenstaufowie]] [[pt:Hohenstaufen]] [[scn:Hohenstaufen]] [[sv:Hohenstaufen]] [[zh:霍亨斯陶芬王朝]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Malaysia</title> <id>13806</id> <revision> <id>39753364</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T17:11:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Earth</username> <id>5128</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Melaka and Islamic Malaya */ +img</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Malaysia}} The '''history of Malaysia''' is a relatively recent offshoot of the history of the wider Malay-Indonesian world. Culturally and linguistically, there was until recent times little to distinguish the territories which now constitute Malaysia from the lands of the [[Malay Archipelago]]. Today the Malay world is divided into six states - Mala
oned for was ''The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame''. David was permitted to watch the event. He had plans of [[Notre Dame de Paris|Notre Dame]] delivered and participants in the coronation came to his studio to pose individually, though never the Emperor (the only time David obtained a sitting from Napoleon had been in 1797). David did manage to get a private sitting with the Empress Josephine and Napoleon's sister, [[Caroline Murat]], through the intervention of erstwhile art patron, Marshal [[Joachim Murat]], the Emperor's brother-in-law. For his background, David had the choir of Notre Dame act as his fill-in characters. The Pope came to sit for the painting, and actually blessed David. Napoleon came to see the painter, stared at the canvas for an hour and said “David, I salute you.” David had to redo several parts of the painting because of Napoleon's various whims, and for this painting, David received only 24,000 Francs. Napoleon attempted to take over all Europe, and nearly did. Napoleon's attempts at sea were ended by [[Horatio Nelson|Admiral Nelson]], but a combined Austrian Russian army was defeated at [[Austerlitz]] solely by the emperor, which made him master of Germany. Napoleon, encouraged by his victories, turned to Spain, and lost slowly due to guerilla warfare backed by England. Napoleon attempted to wipe out the Russians, but it proved his undoing. The Russians retreated, burning everything in their path, and the winter froze the French army. Napoleon swiftly retreated to Paris to raise a new army to counter the Quadruple Alliance of Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia, but the alliance armies managed to drive all the way to Paris, where [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]] took the throne. ==Exile== After the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]] returned to power, David was on the list of proscribed former revolutionaries and Bonapartists, as during the French Revolution, he had voted for the execution of Louis XVI, the older brother of the new King, [[Louis XVIII]]. Louis XVIII, however, granted David amnesty and even offered David a position as a court painter. David refused this offer, preferring instead to seek a self-imposed exile in [[Brussels]]. There, he painted ''Cupid and Psyche'' and lived out the last days of his life quietly with his wife, whom he had remarried. During this time, he largely devoted his efforts to smaller-scale paintings of mythological scenes and to portraits of Bruxellois and Napoleonic emigres, such as the Baron Gerard. His last great work, ''Mars Disarmed by Venus and the Three Graces'' was begun in 1822 and was finished the year before his death. “David wanted to outdo himself once more. In December 1823, he wrote: &quot;This is the last picture I want to paint, but I want to surpass myself in it. I will put the date of my 75 years on it and afterwards I will never again pick up my brush.&quot; The subject is taken from Greek mythology…David was faithful to the legend… The coloring is translucent and pearly, like painting on porcelain.” The painting was first shown in [[Brussels]] and then was sent to Paris, where David's former students flocked to see the painting. The exhibit managed to bring in after operating costs, 13,000 francs, meaning there were more than 10,000 visitors, a huge amount for the time. When David was leaving the theater, he was hit by a carriage and later died of deformations to the heart in [[December 29]], [[1824]]. After his death, some of his portrait paintings were sold at auction in Paris, with his paintings going for very small sums. His famous painting of Marat was shown in a special secluded room so as not to outrage the public. David’s body was not allowed into France and was therefore buried in Brussels, but his heart was buried at [[Père Lachaise]], Paris. ==References== * Lindsay, Jack. Death of the Hero. London: Studio Books, 1960 pg 13-15, 18, 39-40, 73, 76, 103, 146 * [http://sunsite.dk/cgfa/jdavid/jdavid_bio.htm J.L. David] on CGFA, accessed [[29 June]] [[2005]]. * Dowd, David. Pageant-Master of the Republic. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1948. pg 8-12, 50, 102 * [http://endeavor.med.nyu.edu/lit-med/lit-med-db/webdocs/webart/david10-art-.html The Death of Socrates], acessed [[29 June]] [[2005]]. New York Med. * Chodorow, Stanley, et. al. The Mainstream of Civilization. New York: The Harcourt Press, 1994 pg. 594 * Leymarie, Jean. ''French Painting, the 19th century''. Cleveland: 1962 pg 21-24 * [http://www.european-history.com/davidJl.html Jacques-Louis David], on An Abridged History of Europe, accessed [[29 June]] [[2005]]. * [http://www.xs4all.nl/~androom/dead/david.html Jacques-Louis David, French Painter] on The Page of the Dead, accessed [[29 June]] [[2005]]. ==External links== *[http://www.abcgallery.com/D/david/david.html Jacques-Louis David at Olga's Gallery] &lt;gallery&gt; Image:David - Belisarius.jpg|''[[Belisarius]]'' (1781) Image:Andromache mourns hector.jpg|''[[Andromache]] mourns [[Hector]]'' (1783) Image:David - The Death of Socrates.jpg|''The death of [[Socrates]]'' (1787) Image:David - Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and His Wife.jpg|''Portrait of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Monsieur Lavoisier]] and his wife'' (1788) Image:Helene Paris David.jpg|''[[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] and [[Helen]]'' (1788) Image:Madame Récamier painted by Jacques-Louis David in 1800.jpg|''[[Jeanne Françoise Julie Adélaïde Récamier|Madame Récamier]]'' (1800) Image:Jacques-louis-david--pius-vii-1805.jpg|''[[Pope Pius VII]]'' (1805) Image:NapoleanCoronationDavid.jpg|''Coronation of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]', 1806 Image:Napoleon_Bonaparte.jpg|''Napoleon in his study'' (1812) Image:Leonidas.jpg|''[[Leonidas I|Leonidas]] at [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]]'' (1814) Image:David_Etienne_Maurice_Gerard.jpg|''[[Étienne-Maurice Gérard]]'' (1816) Image:Marie Antoinette by David.jpg|[[Marie Antoinette]] on the Way to the [[Guillotine]], [[1793]] [[October 16]] &lt;/gallery&gt; {{commons|Jacques-Louis David}} [[Category:1748 births|David, Jacques-Louis]] [[Category:1825 deaths|David, Jacques-Louis]] [[Category:First French Empire|David, Jacques-Louis]] [[Category:French Revolution|David, Jacques-Louis]] [[Category:French painters|David, Jacques-Louis]] [[Category:Neoclassical painters|David, Jacques-Louis]] [[bg:Жак-Луи Давид]] [[da:Jacques-Louis David]] [[de:Jacques-Louis David]] [[es:Jacques-Louis David]] [[fr:Jacques-Louis David]] [[it:Jacques-Louis David]] [[he:ז'אק לואי דויד]] [[nl:Jacques-Louis David]] [[ja:ジャック＝ルイ・ダヴィッド]] [[no:Jacques-Louis David]] [[pl:Jacques-Louis David]] [[pt:Jacques-Louis David]] [[ro:Jacques Louis David]] [[ru:Давид, Жак Луи]] [[sv:Jacques-Louis David]] [[zh:雅克·路易·大卫]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Denary</title> <id>9073</id> <revision> <id>15906993</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Decimal]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Design Science License</title> <id>9074</id> <revision> <id>25116764</id> <timestamp>2005-10-09T06:07:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Unyoyega</username> <id>460372</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing interwikis +: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Design Science License''' (DSL) is a [[copyleft]] license for [[free content]] such as text, images, and music. The DSL was written by Michael Stutz. The original website for the DSL was Michael Stutz's site at http://www.dsl.org/. However, the site has been taken down. The [[Free Software Foundation]] has a [http://www.gnu.org/licenses/dsl.html copy of the DSL text]. {{compu-stub}} {{law-stub}} [[Category:Free content licenses]] [[es:Design Science License]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>David Bowman</title> <id>9075</id> <revision> <id>40048596</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T19:32:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>168.96.180.45</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David_Bowman.jpg|right|thumb|[[Keir Dullea]] as David Bowman.]] '''David Bowman''' is a character in the ''[[The Space Odyssey series|Space Odyssey]]'' series. He first appears in a story jointly written by [[Stanley Kubrick]] and [[Arthur C. Clarke]], called ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' (which is both a book and a movie). The character later appears in the sequel to the book, ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]'' and the sequel to the movie, ''[[2010 The Year We Make Contact]]''. The character also returns in two more books by Arthur C. Clarke, ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'', and ''[[3001: The Final Odyssey]]''. In the two movies, the character is played by [[Keir Dullea]]. {{spoiler}} ==Bowman's history== ===''2001: A Space Odyssey''=== In both the book and movie 2001, astronaut and scientist David Bowman is on a mission to track the source of an alien artifact found on the moon, which leads to a moon around the planet [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] (in the novel, [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]); the story takes place in the year [[2001]]. He has to interact with both a human crewmate and an [[Artificial intelligence|intelligent]] [[supercomputer]] named [[HAL 9000]]. The HAL 9000 computer utility suffers an apparent malfunction which leads to the death of all humans on board except David Bowman. Through determination and cunning, David is able to outwit the supercomputer and regain control of the spaceship [[Discovery (fictional spaceship)|Discovery]]. Upon [[orbital insertion]] around Jupiter, however, David Bowman is confronted with a huge, black featureless monolith with the exact proportions of 1 by 4 by 9 (the squares of the first 3 [[ordinals]]). He takes a space pod
/au/awc/awcgate/usmc/strategic_corporal.htm The Strategic Corporal: Leadership in the Three Block War] {{start box}} {{succession box | before = Gen. [[Carl E. Mundy, Jr.]] | title = [[Commandant of the Marine Corps|Commandant of the United States Marine Corps]] | years = 1995&amp;mdash;1999 | after = Gen. [[James L. Jones]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:1942 births|Krulak, Charles C.]] [[Category:Living people|Krulak, Charles C.]] [[Category:People from Virginia|Krulak, Charles C.]] [[Category:United States Marine Corps Commandants|Krulak, Charles C.]] [[Category:United States Marine Corps generals|Krulak, Charles C.]] [[Category:United States Naval Academy graduates|Krulak, Charles C.]] [[sl:Charles C. Krulak]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Compaq</title> <id>7742</id> <revision> <id>41886460</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:36:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.235.204.20</ip> </contributor> <comment>infobox, links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''{{Infobox_Company | company_name = Compaq| company_logo = [[Image:Compaq_logo.png|170px]] | company_type = [[Subsidiary]] of [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]] | foundation = [[February]], [[1982]] | location = [[Houston, Texas]], [[USA]]| key_people = [[Rod Canion]], Founder&lt;br /&gt;[[Jim Harris]], Founder &lt;br /&gt;[[Bill Murto]], Founder | num_employees = 63,700 ([[2001]]) | industry = [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] and [[Computer Hardware]] | products = [[Compaq Presario|Presario]] [[desktop computer|desktops]] and [[notebook computer|notebooks]], [[Ipaq|iPAQ]] | revenue = {{loss}} $33.554 billion [[USD]] ([[2001]]) | net_income = {{loss}} ($785 million) [[USD]] ([[2001]]) | homepage = [http://www.compaq.com/ compaq.com] }} '''Compaq''' was a [[personal computer]] company founded in [[1982]] by [[Rod Canion]], [[Jim Harris (Compaq)|Jim Harris]] and [[Bill Murto]]. During the [[1980]]s Compaq produced some of the first [[IBM PC compatible]] computers at a low-cost. The term &quot;COMPAQ&quot; is an acronym for &quot;'''Comp'''atibility '''a'''nd '''Q'''uality&quot;. It existed as a standalone entity until [[2002]] when it was purchased by [[Hewlett-Packard]]. ==History== ===1980s=== Compaq was founded in February [[1982]] by [[Rod Canion]], [[Jim Harris (Compaq)|Jim Harris]] and [[Bill Murto]], three senior managers from semiconductor manufacturer [[Texas Instruments]]. Each invested $1,000 to form the company. Their first venture capital came from Ben Rosen and Sevin-Rosen partners. It is often told that the architecture of the original Compaq PC was first sketched out on a placemat by the founders while dining in the Houston restaurant, House of Pies. [[Image:CompaqPortable.jpg|thumb|right|[[Compaq Portable]]]]In November [[1982]] Compaq announced their first product, the [[Compaq Portable]], a portable [[IBM PC compatible]] [[personal computer]]. It was released in March [[1983]] at $2995, considerably more affordable than competitors at the time. The Compaq Portable was one of the progenitors of today's [[laptop]]. It was the second IBM PC compatible, being capable of running all software that would run on an [[IBM PC]]. It was a commercial success, selling 53,000 units in its first year. The Compaq Portable was the first in the range of the [[Compaq portable series]]. Compaq was able to market a legal IBM clone because [[IBM]] mostly used &quot;off the shelf&quot; parts for their [[IBM PC|PC]]. Furthermore, [[Microsoft]] had kept the right to license [[MS-DOS|the operating system]] to other computer manufacturers. The only part which had to be duplicated was the [[BIOS]], which Compaq did legally by using [[reverse-engineer|reverse-engineering]] for $1 million. Numerous other companies soon followed their lead. In [[1985]] Compaq released the [[Compaq Deskpro 286]], a 16-bit [[desktop computer]] using an [[Intel 80286]] microprocessor running at 6&amp;nbsp;MHz and capable of 7MB RAM, it was considerably faster than an [[IBM PC]] and was, like the [[Compaq Portable]], also capable of running IBM software. It cost $2000 for the 40MB hard disk model. It was the first of the [[Compaq Deskpro]] line of computers. [[Image:CompaqPortable386.jpg|thumb|100px|left|[[Compaq Portable 386]]]]After making half a billion dollars turnover, in [[1986]] Compaq released the [[Compaq Portable II]]. The Portable II was significantly lighter and smaller than its predecessor, featuring a revised design with an 8&amp;nbsp;MHz processor and 10MB hard disk. It was cheaper than the [[IBM PC/AT]] at $3199, or $4799 with a hard disk. A year later in [[1987]], Compaq introduced the first PC based on [[Intel]]'s new [[Intel 80386|80386]] microprocessor, with the [[Compaq Portable 386]] and [[Compaq Portable III]]. IBM was not yet using this processor, and subsequently Compaq established what was known disparagingly as the [[PC clone]] business. ===1990s - Present=== In the early-[[1990s]], Compaq entered the retail computer market with the [[Presario]], and was one of the first manufacturers in the mid-1990s to market a sub-$1,000 PC. In order to maintain the prices it wanted, Compaq became the first first-tier computer manufacturer to utilize CPUs from [[AMD]] and [[Cyrix]]. The price war resulting from Compaq's actions ultimately drove numerous competitors, most notably [[IBM]] and [[Packard Bell]], from the marketplace. In [[1997]], Compaq bought [[Tandem Computers]], known for their [[NonStop]] server line. This acquisition instantly gave Compaq a presence in the higher end business computing market. In [[1998]], Compaq acquired [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], the leading company in the previous generation of computing during the [[1970s]] and early [[1980s]]. This acquisition made Compaq, at the time, the world's second largest computer maker in the world in terms of revenue. Unfortunately for the company, CEO [[Eckhart Pfeiffer]], who engineered both mergers, had little vision for what the combined companies should do, or indeed how the three dramatically different cultures could work as a single entity, and Compaq struggled as a result. Pfeiffer was forced out as CEO in [[1999]] in a coup led by board chairman Ben Rosen and was eventually replaced by [[Michael Capellas]], formerly CIO of the company. Capellas was able to restore some of the luster lost in the latter part of the Pfeiffer era, but the company still struggled against lower-cost competitors such as [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]]. In [[2001]], Compaq engaged in a merger with [[Hewlett-Packard]]. Numerous large HP shareholders, including Walter Hewlett, publicly opposed the deal, which resulted in a nasty proxy battle between those for and against the deal. The merger was approved only after the narrowest of margins, and allegations of vote buying (primarily involving an alleged last-second back-room deal with [[Bank of America]]) haunted the new company. Capellas left the company after serving less than a year as President of HP. [[Carly Fiorina]], the CEO of HP, added Capellas' responsibilities to her own. Fiorina helmed Compaq for nearly three years after Capellas left. During that time, HP laid off thousands of former Compaq employees, its stock price generally declined, profits did not perk up, and it continued to lose market share to [[Dell Inc.|Dell]]. Facing dismissal from a hostile Board of Directors, Fiorina opted to leave in February 2005 before the board could fire her. Mark Hurd took her place as CEO of HP. Some Compaq products were re-branded with the HP nameplate, while the Compaq brand remained on other products, notably [[IBM PC|PC]], [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]], and [[server]] lines. == PC Products == * [[Compaq Presario]] * [[Compaq Proliant]] * [[Compaq Armada]] * [[iPAQ]] * [[Compaq Deskpro]] * [[Compaq Portable]] * [[Compaq Professional Workstation AP400]] * [[Tc1000]], a tablet notebook == Culture == Two sports stadiums were named after the company: * The [[Compaq Center (Houston)|Compaq Center]], of [[Houston, Texas]], formerly The Summit, lost its sports teams to the [[Toyota Center]]. The building became the new home of [[Lakewood Church]], one of the largest [[Protestant]] congregations in the United States. * The [[San Jose Compaq Center]], of [[San Jose, California]], was renamed the [[HP Pavilion]]. == Competitors == HP Compaq competes against other computer manufacturers including [[Alienware]], [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[Lenovo Group|Lenovo]], [[Gateway, Inc.|Gateway]], [[Sony]] and [[Toshiba]] among others. Originally the company competed against [[IBM]], making affordable [[IBM PC compatible]]s often cheaper and faster than the IBM alternative. [[Lenovo]], which purchased IBM's personal computer business in [[2005]], is a new competitor, especially in [[China]] where it is headquartered. ==See also== *[[Compaq portable series]] == External links == *[http://www.compaq.com/ Compaq official website] *[http://h18000.www1.hp.com/corporate/history.html/ Compaq company history (hp.com)] *[http://www.washingtontechnology.com/news/16_13/business/17177-1.html/ HP-Compaq merger (washingtontechnology.com)] [[Category:Electronics companies]] [[Category:Computer hardware companies]] [[Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States]] [[da:Compaq]] [[de:Compaq]] [[es:Compaq]] [[fr:Compaq]] [[hu:Compaq]] [[nl:Compaq]] [[ja:コンパック]] [[pl:Compaq]] [[pt:Compaq]] [[sv:Compaq]] [[zh:康柏電腦]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cell Incubator</title> <id>7743</id> <revision> <id>15905797</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cell incubator]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cell i
), actor [[Robert Donat]] plays a ghost in a Scottish castle which is bought, dismantled and shipped to the U.S. by a millionaire, [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0026406/plotsummary see plot summary]. In the ''[[Ghostbusters]]'' film and television cartoon, the protagonists use special technology of their own design to hunt and capture/exile the ghosts they encounter. In the [[anime]] title ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'', ''ghost'' is a word used to describe a person's inner being, similar to the concept of a [[soul]]. In the controversial [[BBC]] film ''[[Ghostwatch]]'', a ghost invades the world of the living. Other famous ghosts in fiction include the [[Headless Horseman]], who appears in [[Washington Irving]]'s ''[[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow]]''. [[Tom Sawyer]] and [[Huckleberry Finn]] visit a haunted house in [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]''. Boag-Munroe is the fictional ghosthunter from A Haunted Man by horror writer [[Stuart Neild]]. [[Algernon Blackwood]] was a British writer who is well known for writing ghost stories. Other authors in the field include [[Oscar Wilde]] (''[[The Canterville Ghost]]'', 1887), [[M. R. James]], [[J. Sheridan Le Fanu]], [[H. R. Wakefield]], and [[E. F. Benson]]. Theatre productions sometimes feature ghosts. One way to make the phantom appear on stage is [[Pepper's ghost]] technique. In Asian horror cinema, the ghost stories often include adaptations of old oriental [[folklore]] set in a present day city. The recent Japanese movie ''[[The Ring]]'' and the Hong Kong movie ''[[The Eye (2002 film)|The Eye]]'' are both inspired by old wives' tales about haunting spirits. [[WWE]] features two wrestlers, who portray men that have died and come back from the dead several times. They are [[Mark_Calaway|The Undertaker]] and [[Glen_Jacobs|Kane]]. Despite their unrealistic and outlandish nature, these gimmicks are very popular and have led to many championship runs for both men. In popular 1990 academy award winning film [[Ghost_(film)|''Ghost'']], the ghost of a murdered man (played by [[Patrick Swayze]]) returns to earth to find out more about his murder and seek revenge on his killer. With the help of a psychic medium, he contacts his wife and learns the truth. ==See also== *[[Apparition]] *[[Spectral evidence]] *[[Bloody Mary (person)]] *[[Borley Rectory]] *[[Churel]] (Indian female ghost) *[[Doppelganger]] *[[Electronic voice phenomenon]] *[[Exorcism]] *[[Ghostbusters]] *[[Ghost dance]] *[[Ghost Festival]] *[[Ghost ship]] *[[Ghost train]] *[[Gidim]] (Sumerian ghosts) *[[Holy Ghost]] *[[Hungry ghost realm]] *[[Hypnopompic imagery]] *[[La Llorona]] *[[Legend-tripping]] *[[List of haunted locations]] *[[Parapsychology]] *[[Phantom animals]] *[[Phantom vehicle]] *[[Poltergeist]] *[[Pontianak]] *[[Samsara]] *[[Spectre (creature)]] *[[Sprite (creature)]] *[[Undead]] *[[Yuurei]] ==References== [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/08/1062901994082.html?oneclick=true &quot;Sounds like terror in the air&quot;]. (Sep. 9, 2003). ''Sydney Morning Herald''. ==External links== *[http://www.ghosts.org/ Obiwan's UFO-FREE Paranormal Page] *[http://paranormalghost.com/spirit_classification.htm Spirit Classification Guide] [[Category:Ghosts]] [[Category:Paranormal phenomena]] [[Category:Folklore]] [[de:Gespenst]] [[es:Fantasma]] [[fr:Fantôme]] [[hu:Kísértet]] [[it:Fantasma]] [[he:רוח רפאים]] [[ms:Hantu]] [[nl:Spook]] [[ja:亡霊]] [[no:Spøkelse]] [[pl:Duch]] [[pt:Fantasma]] [[simple:Ghost]] [[fi:Kummitus]] [[sv:Spöke]] [[vi:Ma]] [[zh:亡靈]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gibbs phase rule</title> <id>12516</id> <revision> <id>27274692</id> <timestamp>2005-11-03T19:09:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CDN99</username> <id>97002</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gibbs' phase rule]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gabriel García Márquez</title> <id>12518</id> <revision> <id>15910202</id> <timestamp>2004-03-06T15:16:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gabriel García Márquez]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Goedels incompleteness theorem</title> <id>12520</id> <revision> <id>41645332</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:36:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Trovatore</username> <id>310173</id> </contributor> <comment>fx dbl redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geneva</title> <id>12521</id> <revision> <id>41933854</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:53:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>202.68.145.230</ip> </contributor> <comment>pronunciation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{Infobox_Swiss_town| subject_name=[[Image:Armoiries_ville_Geneve.png|120px|none|City of Geneva [[coat of arms]]]]| canton=Geneva|district=n.a.| nd=46|nm=12|ed=6|em=09| postal_code=1200| population=185,526|populationof=2004| area=15.86|altitude=375| mayor=Manuel Tornare| website=www.ville-ge.ch| map=map missing| }} '''Geneva''' (pronunciation /{{IPA|dʒəniːvə}}/; [[French language|French]]: ''Genève'' /{{IPA|ʒənɛv}}/, [[German language|German]]: ''Genf'' /{{IPA|gɛnf}}/, [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Ginevra'') is the second most populous city in [[Switzerland]], situated where [[Lake Geneva]] ([[French language|French]] ''Lac Léman'') flows into the [[Rhône River]]. It is the capital of the [[Canton of Geneva]]. The population within the city limits is 185,526 ([[as of 2004|2004]]) and that of the city and its suburbs — which extend into France — is 645,000 ([[as of 2000|2000]]). Geneva's international profile as a [[Global cities|global city]] is mainly due to the presence in the city of numerous [[international organisation]]s, including the European headquarters of the [[United Nations]]. See [[Names of European cities in different languages]] for a list of the name of this city in other languages. == History == [[Image:Geneva - Switzerland - 2005 - 01.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Rue de la Croix-d'Or, one of the main streets of Geneva, part of ''les Rues Basses'']] ''Geneva'' was the name of a settlement of the [[Celt|Celtic]] people of the [[Allobroges]]. The name of ''Genava'' (or ''Genua'') in Latin appeared for the first time in the writings of [[Julius Caesar]] in ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'', his comments on the [[Gallic Wars]]. Its name may be identical in origin to the name of the [[Ligurian language|Ligurian]] city of ''Genua'' (modern [[Genoa]]), meaning &quot;knee&quot;; that is, &quot;angle&quot;, referring to its geographical position; though more likely is based on the root gen- 'birth' (Genawa is at the birth of the river from the womb of the lake; perhaps the name in full means 'birth-water'). After the Roman conquest it became part of the ''Provincia Romana'' ([[Gaul|Gallia Narbonensis]]). In [[58 BCE]], at Geneva, Caesar hemmed in the [[Helvetii]] on their westward march. In the [[9th century]] it became the capital of [[Burgundy]]. Though Geneva was contested among Burgundians and Franks and the Holy Roman Emperors, in practice it was ruled by its bishops, until the [[Reformation]], when Geneva became a [[republic]]. Due to the work of [[Protestant Reformation|reformers]] such as [[John Calvin]], Geneva was sometimes dubbed ''the Protestant Rome''. In the [[16th century]] Geneva was the center of [[Calvinism]]; the [[St. Pierre Cathedral|St Peter's Cathedral]] in what is now called the Old Town was John Calvin's own church. During the time when England was ruled by Queen Mary I, who persecuted Protestants, a number of Protestant scholars fled to Geneva. Among these scholars was William Whittingham who supervised the translation of the [[Geneva Bible]] in collaboration with Miles Coverdale, Christopher Goodman, Anthony Gilby, Thomas Sampson, and William Cole. One of the most important events in Geneva's history is ''[[l'Escalade]]'' (literally: &quot;the scaling of the wall&quot;). For the people of Geneva, l'Escalade is the symbol of their independence. It marked the final attempt in a series of assaults mounted throughout the 16th century by [[Savoy]], which wanted to annex Geneva as its capital north of the Alps. This last assault happened on the night of 11-12 December [[1602]] and is celebrated yearly in the Old Town with numerous demonstrations and a parade of horses, cannons and armed men in period costumes. Geneva, or officially the ''Canton and Republic of Geneva'', became a canton of Switzerland in [[1815]]. The first of the [[Geneva Conventions]] was signed in [[1864]], to protect the sick and wounded in war time. == Geography == [[Image:Lake-Geneva-west-satellite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Satellite photo of the Geneva region. The [[Jura mountains]] can be seen at the top, and the [[Alps]] at the bottom.]] Geneva is located at 46&amp;deg;12 North, 6&amp;deg;09' East, at the south-western end of [[Lake Geneva]], where the lake flows into the [[Rhône River]]. It is surrounded by two mountain chains, the [[Alps]] and the [[Jura mountains|Jura]]. The city of Geneva has an area of 15.86 km², while the area of the [[Canton of Geneva]] is 282 km², including the two small enclaves of [[Céligny]] in [[Vaud]]. The part of the Lake that is attached to Geneva has an area of 38 km² and is sometimes referred to as ''Petit lac'' (''small lake''). The Canton has only a 4.5 km border with the rest of Switzerland; out of a total of 107.5 km of borders, the remaining 103 are shared with [[France]], with the [[Ain|Départment de l'Ain]] to the North and the [[Haute-Savoie|Département de la
. Israel further points out that in the [[Oslo Accords]], the Palestinians accepted the temporary presence of Israeli settlements pending further negotiation; therefore the violent attacks carried out by Palestinians against settlements are not only wrong because of settlers' being civilians (a claim others dispute), but also constitute a breach of the Oslo Accords. These attacks, however, are frequently carried by organizations such as [[Hamas]] which do not accept the Oslo accords. The settlements have also been frequently denounced by prominent international human rights groups, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. == Tensions, mistrust and accusations == The settlements have on several occasions been a source of tension between Israel and the U.S. In 1991 there was a clash between the Bush administration and Israel, where the U.S. delayed a subsidized loan in order to pressure Israel not to proceed with the establishment of settlements for instance in the Jerusalem-Bethlehem corridor. Jimmy Carter has said that the settlements constitute a &quot;major obstacle to peace&quot;. The current [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administration, while generally supportive of Israel, has said that settlements are &quot;unhelpful&quot; to the peace process, that they violate United States policy and prejudges the outcome of future negotiations, although President Bush has put forward the view that major Israeli population centers needs to be taken into account when determining final borders. Generally, U.S. efforts have at most temporarily delayed further expansion of established Israeli communities in the territories. U.S. public opinion is also divided: the strongest support for the Israeli position can be found among evangelical Christians. Public opinion outside the U.S. and Israel strongly opposes Israeli settlement and expansion of communities in the territories. Although the [[Oslo Accords|Oslo accords]] did not include any obligation on Israel's part to stop building in the &quot;settlements&quot;, Palestinians argue that Israel has undermined the Oslo accords, and the peace process more generally, by continuing to expand the settlements after the signing of the Accords. Palestinians and others regularly accuse Israel of attacking refugee camps and villages in an attempt to scare off Palestinians and claim the land as theirs. Israel justifies these attacks by saying that it only fights against terrorist organisations, and if there were no terrorists, there would be no military operations. Israel previously also had settlements in the [[Sinai]], but these were withdrawn as a result of the peace agreement with [[Egypt]]. Most proposals for achieving a final settlement of the Middle East conflict involve Israel dismantling a large number of settlements in the West Bank and Gaza strip. Most Israeli and US proposals for final settlement have also involved Israel being allowed to retain long established communities in the territories near Israel and in &quot;[[East Jerusalem]]&quot; (the majority of the settler population is near the &quot;Green Line&quot;), with Israel annexing the land on which the communities are located. This would result in a transfer of roughly 5% of the West Bank to Israel, with the Palestinians being compensated by the transfer of a similar share of Israeli territory (i.e. territory behind the &quot;Green Line&quot;) to the [[Palestinian state]]. Palestinians complain that this would legitimize what they see as an illegitimate land grab, and that the land offered in exchange is situated in the southern desert, whereas the areas that Israel seeks to retain are among the West Bank's most fertile areas, including major aquifers. Israel, however, sees the current &quot;Green Line&quot; as unacceptable from a security standpoint - Israel would have at some points no more than 17 kilometers from the border to the sea - which was an important motivation for the placing of these settlements. For more details about the issues at stake, see [[Proposals for a Palestinian state]]. === Dismantlement of Settlements === Given the dispute over the territories where the settlements were built, the issue of dismantling them has been considered. Arab parties to the conflict have demanded the dismantlement of the settlements as a condition for peace with Israel. As part of the [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty]], Israel was required to evacuate its settlers from the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]. The evacuation, which took place in 1982, was done forcefully in some instances, such as the evacuation of [[Yamit]]. The settlements were demolished, as it was feared that settlers may try to return to their homes after the evacuation. During the peace process with the [[Palestinians]], the issue of dismantling the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] settlements has been raised. Although never officially discussed in the [[Oslo Accords]], many Israelis believed that a final status accord would require the dismantlement of at least some of these communities. As part of the [[Israel unilateral disengagement plan|Disengagement Plan]], Israel has evacuated the [[Gaza Strip]] and part of the [[West Bank]], including all 21 settlements in Gaza and 4 in the West Bank, while retaining control over Gaza's borders, coastline and airspace. Most of these settlements have existed since the early 80's, some are over 30 years old, and with a total population of more than 10,000. There was significant opposition to the plan among parts of the Israeli public, and especially those living in the territories. American President [[George W. Bush]] has said that a permanent peace deal would have to reflect &quot;demographic realities&quot; in the West Bank regarding Israel's settlements [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4382343.stm]. Some Israelis believe the settlements need not necessarily be dismantled and evacuated, even if Israel withdraws from the territory where they stand, as they can remain under Palestinian rule. These ideas have been expressed both by people from the left ([http://web.archive.org/web/19991006195817/http://www.jpost.co.il/com/Advertising/Ysadeh/]), who see this as a possible situation in a two-state solution, and by extreme right-wingers and settlers [http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/5EB5E1B3-B64F-43DF-A588-1C40FDDB0A83.htm] that, while object to any withdrawal, claim stronger links to the land than to the state of Israel. Such ideas are not widely accepted in Israel, and most Israelis consider an evacuation of settlements inevitable in territories Israel withdraws from. == The Sasson Report == [[Image:Talia Sesson.jpg|right|frame|Sasson delivering her report.]] An official Israeli government report published on March 8, 2005 has revealed that Israeli state bodies have been secretly diverting millions of shekels to build West Bank settlements and outposts which were illegal under Israeli law. The report, commissioned by Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]], was headed by the former head of the State Prosecution Criminal Department [[Talia Sasson]]. The report details how officials in the ministries of defence and housing and the settlement division of the [[World Zionist Organization]] spent millions of shekels from state budgets to support the illegal outposts. Ms. Sasson called it a &quot;blatant violation of the law&quot; and said &quot;drastic steps&quot; were needed to rectify the situation. It describes secret cooperation between various ministries and official institutions to consolidate &quot;wildcat&quot; outposts, which settlers began erecting more than a decade ago. Sasson added that the problem is ongoing, saying &quot;the process of outpost expansion is profoundly under way.&quot;[http://news.ft.com/cms/s/67ba9b06-8ff9-11d9-9a51-00000e2511c8,stream=FTSynd,s01=2.html]. The report states: *The housing ministry supplied 400 mobile homes for outposts on private Palestinian land *The defence ministry approved the positioning of trailers to begin new outposts *The education ministry paid for nurseries and their teachers *The energy ministry connected outposts to the electricity grid *Roads to outposts were paid for with taxpayers' money The report mentions 150 communities in the West Bank with incomplete or nonexistent permits, but Sasson cautions that this list is not exhaustive, due to the lack of cooperation of some ministries and government offices which she says failed to hand over some important documents. She has recommended that the Housing Ministry be stripped of authority over construction of settlements in the West Bank, and that this power be transferred to the cabinet. The housing minister at the time of the tabling the report, [[Isaac Herzog]] ([[Labour (Israel)|Labour]]), said following the release of the report that every expense earmarked for the settlements would subsequently need the approval of the ministry's director-general. Up until then, the heads of each department at the ministry had been able to sign off on expenses for various construction and infrastructure matters at the settlements. The report is seen as potentially embarrassing to the Prime Minister because, when he was foreign minister under [[Binyamin Netanyahu]] in 1998, he publicly urged settlers to seize hilltops in order to break up the contiguity of Palestinian areas and prevent the establishment of a Palestinian state (as reported by the BBC), saying: &quot;Let everyone get a move on and take some hilltops! Whatever we take, will be ours, and whatever we don't take, will not be ours!&quot; The report explicitly ignored Sharon's complicity and his name is absent from the report. Settler leaders have rejected criticism of illegality and wrong-doing, protesting that they were participating in officially-sanctioned community planning initiatives. [http://web.israelinsider.com/Articles/Politics/5126.htm] Settler leader Shaul Goldstein said Mr Sharon should be the one to face questioning over the
nary of True Etymologies'', 1986, Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul ISBN 0-710-20340-3 ==External links== * Richard Lederer, [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/0203/lederer022003.asp ''Spook Etymology on the Internet''] * [http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/fallacy.html Popular fallacies in the attribution of phrase origins] [[Category:Urban legends]] [[Category:Etymology]] [[da:Folkeetymologi]] [[de:Volksetymologie]] [[fr:Étymologie populaire]] [[hu:Népetimológia]] [[it:Pseudoetimologia]] [[ja:&amp;#27665;&amp;#38291;&amp;#35486;&amp;#28304;]] [[nl:Volksetymologie]] [[ru:&amp;#1053;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1103; &amp;#1101;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;]] [[sv:Folketymologi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Finch</title> <id>11711</id> <revision> <id>40363636</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = True Finches | image = Eveninggrosbeak12.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = [[Evening Grosbeak]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[bird|Aves]] | ordo = [[Passerine|Passeriformes]] | familia = '''Fringillidae''' | familia_authority = [[Nicholas Aylward Vigors|Vigors]], 1825 | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = ''Many, see text'' }} '''Finches''' are [[seed]]-eating [[passerine]] [[bird]]s, the many [[species]] of which are found chiefly in the northern hemisphere, but also to a limited extent in [[Africa]] and [[South America]]. They are small to moderately large and have a strong [[beak]], usually [[cone (solid)|conical]] and in some species very large. All have 12 tail feathers and 9 primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well. Their nests are basket-shaped and built in trees. A group of finches is called a ''charm''. ==Species== *Family '''Fringillidae''' **Subfamily '''Fringillinae''' - '''Fringilline''' finches; contains only three species, which feed their young on insects rather than seeds. ***Genus ''[[Fringilla]]'' - Bramblings and chaffinches ****[[Chaffinch]] (''Fringilla coelebs'') ****[[Blue Chaffinch]] (''Fringilla teydea'') ****[[Brambling]] (''Fringilla montifringilla'') **Subfamily '''Carduelinae''' - '''Cardueline''' finches; a much larger group that contains several genera which feed their young on seeds. ***Genus ''[[Serinus]]'' - [[canary|Canaries]], [[seedeater]]s, [[serin]]s and some [[siskin|siskins]] ***Genus ''[[Carduelis]]'' - [[linnet|Linnets]], [[redpoll|redpolls]], [[goldfinch]]es, [[greenfinch]]es, some siskins. ***Genus ''[[Carpodacus]]'' - [[Rosefinch]]es ***Genus ''[[Loxia]]'' - [[Crossbill]]s ***Genus ''[[Mycerobas]]'' - [[Mycerobas Grosbeak|Grosbeak]]s ***Genus ''[[Neospiza]]'' - [[Sao Tomé Grosbeak]] ***Genus ''[[Linurgus]]'' - [[Oriole Finch]] ***Genus ''[[Rhynchostruthus]]'' - [[Golden-winged Grosbeak]] ***Genus ''[[Leucosticte]]'' - [[Mountain finch]]es ***Genus ''[[Calacanthis]]'' - [[Red-browed Finch]] ***Genus ''[[Rhodopechys]]'' - [[Trumpeter Finch]] and relatives ***Genus ''[[Uragus]]'' - [[Long-tailed Rosefinch]] ***Genus ''[[Urocynchramus]]'' - [[Przewalski's Rosefinch]] ***Genus ''[[Pinicola]]'' - [[Pine grosbeak]]s ***Genus ''[[Haematospiza]]'' - [[Scarlet Finch]] ***Genus ''[[Pyrrhula]]'' - [[Bullfinch]]es ***Genus ''[[Coccothraustes]]'' - [[Hawfinch]], [[Evening Grosbeak]] ***Genus ''[[Eophona]]'' - [[Oriental grosbeak]]s ***Genus ''[[Pyrrhoplectes]]'' - [[Gold-naped Finch]] There are many other birds in other groups which are called finches, notably the very similar-looking Estrildids or [[waxbill]]s, which occur in the Old World tropics and [[Australia]]. Some of the closely related [[sparrow]]s are also named as &quot;finches&quot;, as are some [[bunting (bird)|bunting]]s. *Some other [[Cardueline]] finch species not listed above: **[[Sao Tome Grosbeak]] (''Neospiza concolor'') **[[Oriole Finch]] (''Linurgus olivaceus'') **[[Golden-winged Grosbeak]] (''Rhynchostruthus socotranus'') **[[Pine Grosbeak]] (''Pinicola enucleator'') **[[Crimson-browed Finch]] (''Pinicola subhimachalus'') **[[Hawfinch]] (''Coccothraustes coccothraustes'') **[[Evening Grosbeak]] (''Coccothraustes vespertinus'') **[[Hooded Grosbeak]] (''Coccothraustes abeillei'') **[[Yellow-billed Grosbeak]] (''Eophona migratoria'') **[[Japanese Grosbeak]] (''Eophona personata'') **[[Black-and-yellow Grosbeak]] (''Mycerobas icterioides'') **[[Collared Grosbeak]] (''Mycerobas affinis'') **[[Spot-winged Grosbeak]] (''Mycerobas melanozanthos'') **[[White-winged Grosbeak]] (''Mycerobas carnipes'') **[[Gold-naped Finch]] (''Pyrrhoplectes epauletta'') **[[Spectacled Finch]] (''Callacanthis burtoni'') **[[Crimson-winged Finch]] (''Rhodopechys sanguinea'') **[[Trumpeter Finch]] (''Rhodopechys githaginea'') **[[Mongolian Finch]] (''Rhodopechys mongolica'') **[[Desert Finch]] (''Rhodopechys obsoleta'') **[[Long-tailed Rosefinch]] (''Uragus sibiricus'') **[[Scarlet Finch]] (''Haematospiza sipahi'') ==References== {{Commonscat|Fringillidae}} * ''Finches and Sparrows'' by Clement, Harris and Davis, ISBN 0-7136-8017-2 ==External links== *[http://www.finchinfo.com FinchInfo.com] Information on keeping finches as pets. [[Category:Fringillidae|*]] {{Link FA|de}} [[cy:Fringillidae]] [[da:Finker]] [[de:Finken]] [[eo:Fringedoj]] [[fr:Pinson]] [[io:Finko]] [[nl:Vinkachtigen]] [[ja:アトリ科 (Sibley)]] [[lt:Kikiliniai]] [[pl:Łuszczaki]] [[pt:Fringillidae]] [[sv:Finkfåglar]] [[tr:Fringillidae]] [[zh:雀科]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Facilitated diffusion</title> <id>11712</id> <revision> <id>40153208</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T15:34:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BorisTM</username> <id>198330</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Facilitated diffusion''', ('''facilitated transport''') is a process of [[diffusion]], a form of [[passive transport]], via which [[molecule]]s diffuse across [[cell membrane|membranes]], with the assistance of [[transport protein]]s. Small uncharged molecules can easily diffuse across cell membranes. However, due to the [[hydrophobe|hydrophobic]] nature of the [[lipid]]s that make up cell membranes, water-soluble molecules and ions cannot do so; instead, they are helped across by transport proteins. The transport protein involved is intrinsic, that is, it completely spans the membrane. It also has a binding site for the specific molecule such as [[glucose]], or ion to be transported. After binding to the molecule, the protein changes shape and carries the molecule across the membrane, where it is released. The protein then returns to its original shape, to wait for more molecules to transport. In contrast to [[active transport]], facilitated diffusion does not require energy and carries molecules or ions down a concentration gradient. Facilitated diffusion can take place in pores and gated channels. Pores never close, but gated channels open and close in response to stimuli. The transport proteins participating in facilitated diffusion resemble [[enzymes]]. Just as enzymes are substrate specific and only catalyze certain substrates, transport proteins are solute specific and only transport certain solutes. Transport proteins also have a limit of how many solutes they can transport that they cannot exceed. Finally, molecules can inhibit the protein in a way similar to [[competitive inhibition]] in enzymes. [[Category:Diffusion]] [[Category:Biochemistry]] [[fi:Fasiloitunut kuljetus]] [[th:การแพร่สารแบบฟาซิลิเทต]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FA-18 Hornet</title> <id>11713</id> <revision> <id>15909440</id> <timestamp>2002-03-26T04:51:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Uriyan</username> <id>64</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[F/A-18 Hornet]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>F-18</title> <id>11714</id> <revision> <id>15909441</id> <timestamp>2003-07-26T21:10:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hephaestos</username> <id>3628</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[F/A-18 Hornet]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>F-15 Eagle</title> <id>11715</id> <revision> <id>41995252</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:43:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mmx1</username> <id>263229</id> </contributor> <comment>rv - transformers are not relevant to this article, see [[Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Aircraft#Popular_Culture]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:F-15 eagle USAF.jpg|thumb|300px]] The [[Boeing]] (formerly [[McDonnell Douglas]]) '''F-15 Eagle''' is an American-built all-weather tactical [[Fighter aircraft|fighter]] designed to gain and maintain [[air superiority]] in aerial combat. It first flew in July of 1972. A derivative of the aircraft is the '''[[F-15E Strike Eagle]]''', a highly successful all-weather strike fighter which entered service in 1988. ==Design== The F-15's maneuverability is derived from low [[wing loading]] (weight to wing area ratio) with a high thrust-to-weight ratio enabling the aircraft to turn tightly without losing airspeed. The F-15 can climb to 30,000 ft. in around 60 seconds. The weapons and flight control systems are designed so one person can safely and effectively perform air-to-air combat. A multimission avionics system includes a
[The Carpetbaggers]]'' *&quot;Howard Lockwood&quot; in the [[Lupin III]] [[film]] ''[[Mystery of Mamo]]'' *Portrayed by Terry O'Quinn in [[Walt Disney Productions|Disney]]'s ''[[The Rocketeer]]'' (1991), substituting for the &quot;mystery inventor&quot; ([[Doc Savage]]) in the original [[comic book]] version. *Hughes appears in an episode of the [[television|TV]] Series ''[[Dark Skies]]'' *''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' presented a comedy sketch portraying Hughes and his eccentric activities. *Hughes appears in [[James Ellroy]]'s political crime novel ''[[American Tabloid]]'', and sequel ''[[The Cold Six Thousand]]''. *[[Steven Carter]]'s novel ''I was Howard Hughes'' is a &quot;picture of a Hughes who might have been.&quot; *[[Dean Stockwell]] plays Hughes in the [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s [[biopic]] of automaker [[Preston Tucker]], ''[[Tucker: The Man and His Dream]]''. The film introduces Hughes as a potential investor of Tucker's [[automobile]] line, although such claims are unsubstantiated. * ''[[Melvin and Howard]]'' was spoofed on the [[sketch comedy]] series ''[[Second City Television|SCTV]].'' * The [[Sam Shepard]] play Seduced features a character named Harry Hackamore, modeled after Hughes. Incidentally, a 1982 production of this play in London landed actor [[Ian McDiarmid]] the role of [[Palpatine]] in the Star Wars films, as it showed that the then 37-year old actor could convincingly play much older characters. *In William Gibson's seminal science fiction novel [[Count Zero]] the key villain, industrialist Josef Virek, is identified with Hughes with respect to his wealth and reclusive nature. One character (Andrea) likens Hughes to 'a proto-Virek'. *The character of Horace Derwent in [[Stephen King]]'s [[The Shining]] is partially based on Hughes. The fictional Derwent was a millionaire aviator and producer during the 1930's and 40's, and even takes credit for the design of a strapless bra worn in one of his movies. &lt;!-- Do not list &quot;The Aviator&quot; here: it is not fiction. It has already been included in factual portrayals above. Thanks. --&gt; ===Music=== * [[Leadbelly]] composed a [[folk music|folksong]], &quot;Howard Hughes&quot;, which accompanies the final credits of the film ''The Aviator''. * [[The Boomtown Rats]] released the song &quot;Me And Howard Hughes&quot; on their record ''Tonic For The Troops'' in 1978. * The band [[Kansas (band)|Kansas]] did a song about Howard Hughes, which they named &quot;Closet Chronicles&quot;. It was originally on their album ''[[Point of Know Return]]''. * Rick Nelson alludes to Hughes in his 1972 hit &quot;Garden Party&quot;: &quot;Mr. Hughes hid in Dylan's shoes wearing his disguise&quot;. * The British [[progressive rock]] band [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]] mentioned &quot;Howard Hughes in blue suede shoes&quot; in their song &quot;Broadway Melody of 1974&quot;, part of the album ''[[The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway]]''. * The British [[shoegazing|shoegazer]] band [[Ride]] mentioned Howard Hughes in their song &quot;Castle on the Hill&quot;[http://www.ticket2ride.it/discog/tarantula.htm] In addition, they have a song titled &quot;Howard Hughes&quot; on their 1992 CD single ''Twisterella''. * The song &quot;Reward&quot; by British band [[The Teardrop Explodes]] includes the line &quot;Live in solitude like Howard Hughes&quot;. * [[Jerry Cantrell]], on the album ''Degradation Trip'', wrote a song titled &quot;Bargain Basement Howard Hughes&quot;. However, the song is actually about his former [[Alice in Chains]] bandmate [[Layne Staley]]. The final verse mentioned, &quot;Often heard, seldom seen, Bargain Basement Howard Hughes, Hermit phase, a woodshed rage, these days headlines are few.&quot; Cantrell also made another Hughes/Staley reference on the Degradation Trip song &quot;Pig Charmer&quot; particuarly with the line: &quot;Come on in, get high / Don't mind piss-filled bottles.&quot; * John Hartford's 1972 album ''Morning Bugle'' includes the song &quot;Howard Hughes Blues&quot; which describes his solitary life of &quot;poor old Howard Hughes and all of his blues&quot;. * [[10cc]] namecheck Hughes in the hit song &quot;Wall Street Shuffle&quot;, with the line &quot;Oh, Howard Hughes, did your money make you better?&quot; * [[Sole (artist)|Sole]], a notoriously [[anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] [[rapping|rapper]], had a song titled &quot;MC Howard Hughes&quot; on his album ''[[Bottle of Humans]]''. *1970s Christian rocker [[Larry Norman]]'s song &quot;Without Love&quot; contains a reference to Howard Hughes. *[[Jim Croce]]'s song &quot;[[Workin' at the Carwash Blues]]&quot; contains a Howard Hughes reference. Jim claims he is an undiscovered Howard Hughes. *[[Stan Ridgway]]'s 1991 song &quot;I Wanna Be a Boss&quot; contains a reference to Howard Hughes as a role model for those who aspire to be eccentric, reclusive billionaires. *Industrial outfit [[70 Gwen Party]] released a 1994 single called &quot;Howard Hughes&quot; on Snape records (cat no SR011). An alternative recording was made for the [[John Peel]] show and released in 1995 on their &quot;John Peel Sessions&quot; album. *[[Gary Numan]] said the suited visage he used for the &quot;Dance&quot; and &quot;I,Assassin&quot; albums were patterned in part after Howard Hughes, whom he identified as one of his heroes. *&quot;My shoes, they once were worn by Howard Hughes&quot; from ''My Place'' a song by [[Dave Stewart]] of the [[Eurythmics]] on his album ''Sly-Fi''. *&quot;Aint No Fun (Waiting Round To Be A Millionare)&quot; by [[AC/DC]] contains lyrics at the end &quot;Hey Howard, get your fuckin' jumbo jet off my airport!&quot; * The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[punk rock]] band [[The Tights]] wrote a song &quot;Howard Hughes&quot; which was the title track of their &quot;Howard Hughes&quot; single. * The [[cello]] trio [[Rasputina]] wrote a song &quot;Howard Hughes&quot; which was included in their CD ''Thanks For The Ether''; lead singer [[Melora Creager]] has an ongoing preoccupation with Hughes (see [http://www.rasputina.com/alljokes.html]). ==See also== *[[List of America's richest people]] ==External links== * [http://www.howardhughes.com/ The Howard Hughes Corporation] * [http://www.hhmi.org/ The Howard Hughes Medical Institute] * [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/HH/fhu60.html The Handbook of Texas Online: Howard Robard Hughes] * [http://entrepreneurs.about.com/od/famousentrepreneurs/p/howardhughes.htm Howard Hughes: The Aviator, The Innovator, The Billionaire] ([[About.com]] Entrepreneurs) * [http://www.library.unlv.edu/hughes/ Welcome Home Howard: A Collection of Photos from UNLV Libraries] * [http://www.famoustexans.com/howardhughes.htm A biography at Famoustexans.com] * [http://www.socalhistory.org/Biographies/h_hughes.htm A biography at Socialhistory.org] * [http://www.sprucegoose.org/ The Evergreen Aviation Museum, which houses the 'Spruce Goose'] &lt;!-- * [http://wwww.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1175/is_v20/ai_4224456/print/ Howard Hughes; a psychological autopsy-includes article on Hughes' relationship with women by Raymond D. Fowler, University of Alabama psychology department] THIS LINK NO LONGER WORKS --&gt; * [http://www.wrightools.com/hughes/ A replica of the Hughes H-1 airspeed record holding aircraft] * [http://www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/forensics/psych_autopsy/4.html?sect=21 The Mystery of Howard Hughes - a psychological autopsy] * [http://www.crimelibrary.com/gangsters_outlaws/cops_others/clifford_irving/index.html?sect=18 Story of Clifford Irving's hoax and a Hughes biography.] *{{imdb name|id=0400652|name=Howard Hughes}} * [http://www.casperstartribune.net/articles/2005/11/17/news/regional/5b74bea4373bc5f6872570bb007c77f8.txt The &quot;Mormon will&quot;] * [http://www.talkingpix.co.uk/ArticleHowardHughes.html Howard Hughes - The Movies and the Image by Alastair Lyon] [[Category:1905 births|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:1976 deaths|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:Aerospace engineers|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:American aviators|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:American entrepreneurs|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:American film directors|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:American film producers|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:American philanthropists|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:Aviation inventors|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:Aviation magnates|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:Aviators|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:Business leaders|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:Diabetics|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:French Americans|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:Houstonians|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:Watergate figures|Hughes, Howard]] [[Category:Welsh-Americans|Hughes, Howard]] [[bg:Хауърд Хюз]] [[de:Howard Hughes]] [[es:Howard Hughes]] [[fa:هوارد هیوز]] [[fi:Howard Hughes]] [[fr:Howard Hughes]] [[he:הווארד יוז]] [[it:Howard Hughes]] [[ja:ハワード・ヒューズ]] [[lv:Hovards Hjūzs]] [[nl:Howard Hughes]] [[pl:Howard Hughes]] [[sv:Howard Hughes]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Haihowak</title> <id>14060</id> <revision> <id>32240801</id> <timestamp>2005-12-21T14:58:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dddstone</username> <id>344062</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Haihowak''' (Polish name: ''hejho&amp;#322;ek'') is a [[card game]] played with ordinary [[playing card]]s. Haihowak was designed in [[Poland]] in [[1998]]. The name comes from the name of [[fruit]] [[juice]], that was being drunk during designing its rules. Official rules of the game are nowadays managed by the [[Haihowak International Federation]]. == Rules of Haihowak == '''last changes: July 24, 2001''' === Basic information === Haihowak (Polish name: hejho&amp;#322;ek) is a playing card game designed on April 4, 1998 by Pawe&amp;#322; Goleniowski and Ma&amp;#322;gorzata Dulka. Two full packs of cards with 2 jokers each are used (108 cards). Number of players - from two to four. Each player gets 11 cards. Then five cards are placed o
m glad for once to have had the opportunity to do so.&quot; ==The songs== The album is named after a 1993 study of black minstrelsy by Virginia social historian Eric Lott, &lt;u&gt;Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class&lt;/u&gt;. However, ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' is only tangentially about popular exploitation of black culture. Not surprisingly the album's jaunty style was reminiscent of the live shows leading up to ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'', in which Dylan covered numerous songs pre-dating rock 'n' roll and re-arranged his older material with country and blues styles that also pre-dated rock 'n' roll. &quot;''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' becomes his ''Fables of the Reconstruction,'' to borrow an [[R.E.M._(band)|R.E.M.]] album title,&quot; writes Greg Kot in ''[[The Chicago Tribune]]'' (published Sep. 11, 2001), &quot;the myths, mysteries and folklore of the South as a backdrop for one of the finest roots-rock albums ever made.&quot; The opening track, &quot;'Tweedle Dee &amp; Tweedle Dum,' rolls in like a storm, drums galloping over the horizon into ear shot, guitar riffs slicing with terse dexterity while a tale about a pair of vagabonds unfolds,&quot; writes Kot . &quot;It ends in death, and sets the stage for an album populated by rogues, con men, outcasts, gamblers, gunfighters and desperados, many of them with nothing to lose, some of them out of their minds, all of them quintessentially American. &quot;They're the kind of twisted, instantly memorable characters one meets in [[John Ford]]'s westerns, Jack Kerouc's road novels, but, most of all, in the blues and country songs of the 1920s, '30s and '40s. This is a tour of American music -- jump blues, slow blues, rockabilly, [[Tin Pan Alley]] ballads, country swing -- that evokes the sprawl, fatalism and subversive humor of Dylan's sacred text, [[Harry Smith]]'s ''Anthology of American Folk Music,'' the pre-rock voicings of [[Hank Williams]], [[Charley Patton]] and [[Johnnie Ray]], among others, and the ultradry humor of [[Groucho Marx]].&quot; Unlike the other songs, the album's second track, &quot;Mississippi&quot; was originally recorded for ''Time Out of Mind'' in 1997, but it was omitted from that album. [[Sheryl Crow]] would later record it for ''[[The Globe Sessions]]'', released in 1998, before Dylan revisited it for ''&quot;Love and Theft'''. &quot;In the deceptively rollicking 'Summer Days,' a case of the wedding-day blues ends with the narrator high-tailing it out of town, but not before he sets 'fire to the place,'&quot; writes Kot. An upbeat, fast-tempo number propelled by its swinging momentum, the arrangement recalls a number of jump blues recordings from the immediate post-WWII era. The following track is also performed with a retro arrangement, bearing a strong resemblance to small group, jazz recordings recorded in the 1930's and 1940's. &quot;Obsession turns to murder in the lounge-crooner ballad 'Bye Bye,'&quot; writes Kot, &quot;as Dylan ominously declares, 'You were my first love, and you will be my last.'&quot; As Tim Riley of [[NPR]] notes, &quot;[Dylan's] singing [on ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;''] shifts artfully between humble and ironic...'I'm not quite as cool or forgiving as I sound,' he sings in 'Floater,' which is either hilarious or horrifying, and probably a little of both.&quot; &quot;''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' is, as the title implies, a kind of homage,&quot; writes Kot, &quot;[and] never more so than on 'High Water (for [[Charley Patton]]),' in which Dylan draws a sweeping portrait of the South's racial history, with the unsung blues singer as a symbol of the region's cultural richness and ingrained social cruelties. Rumbling drums and moaning backing vocals suggest that things are going from bad to worse. 'It's tough out there,' Dylan rasps. 'High water everywhere.' Death and dementia shadow the album, tempered by tenderness and wicked gallow's humor.&quot; &quot;'Po Boy,' scored for banjo with lounge chord jazz patterns, 'almost sounds as if it could have been recorded around 1920,&quot; says Riley. &quot;He leaves you dangling at the end of each bridge, lets the band punctuate the trail of words he's squeezed into his lines, which gives it a reluctant soft-shoe charm.&quot; The album closes with &quot;Sugar Baby,&quot; a lengthy, dirge-like ballad, noted for its evocative, apocalyptic imagery and sparse production drenched in echo. Praising it as &quot;a finale to be proud of,&quot; Riley notes that &quot;Sugar Baby&quot; is &quot;built on a disarmingly simple riff that turns foreboding.&quot; Christopher Ricks, a Warren Professor of the Humanities, writes extensively on &quot;Sugar Baby&quot; in his book, &lt;u&gt;Dylan's Visions of Sin&lt;/u&gt;. &quot;The song's beat is fourfold, and the rhythm of the instrumental opening is immediately confirmed by there being four syllables in each of the first two units. But the words that provide the title and that later open the refrain, 'Sugar Baby,' have their four syllables two by two, 2 x 2. The rhythm of the words 'Sugar Baby' is a dual rhythm, fourfold and twofold. And in pacing the song, Dylan pauses at certain points so as to make two syllables occupy the time and space that in the basic scheme of things will be expected to be occupied by four syllables. It is this movement in the voicing, with its pauses (contemplative, disconcerted, riven, chary, sardonic, shifting its grounds), that gives to the song its unique gait...&quot; The song also bears the influence of Gene Austin's &quot;Lonesome Road,&quot; first copyrighted in 1928; &quot;Sugar Baby&quot; even quotes a line from Austin's song: &quot;Look up, look up and seek your Maker, 'fore Gabriel blows his horn.&quot; However, while both songs share a feeling of apocalyptic dread, the phrasing and structure is very different. &quot;At every point in ['Lonesome Road'], the words and the music and the voice are fittingly in place,&quot; Ricks writes. &quot;In ['Sugar Baby'], they are at odds. They move as the spirit takes them, and their spirit engages not only with the precious but with the precarious.&quot; ==Aftermath== During the weeks leading up to its official release, ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' was greeted with unanimous, overwhelming praise, even winning over skeptics who questioned or dismissed the merits of his previous release ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'' (an album marked by even greater media hype). In a glowing review for his &quot;Consumer Guide&quot; column published by ''The Village Voice'', Robert Christgau wrote: &quot;Before minstrelsy scholar Eric Lott gets too excited about having his title stolen...he should recall that Dylan called his first cover album ''Self-Portrait''. Dylan meant that title, of course, and he means this one too, which doesn't make ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' his minstrelsy album any more than ''Self-Portrait'''s dire &quot;Minstrel Boy&quot; was his minstrelsy song. All pop music is love and theft, and in 40 years of records whose sources have inspired volumes of scholastic exegesis, Dylan has never embraced that truth so warmly. Jokes, riddles, apercus, and revelations will surface for years, but let those who chart their lives by Dylan's cockeyed parables tease out the details. I always go for tone, spirit, music. If ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'' was his death album--it wasn't, but you know how people talk--this is his immortality album. It describes an eternal circle on masterful blazz and jop readymades that render his grizzled growl as juicy as Justin Timberlake's tenor--Tony Bennett's, even. It's profound, too, by which I mean very funny. 'I'm sitting on my watch so I can be on time,' he wheezes, because time he's got plenty of.&quot; Christgau gave the album a rare A+. Later, when ''[[The Village Voice]]'' conducted its [[Pazz &amp; Jop]] Critics Poll for 2001, ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' topped the list, the third Dylan album to accomplish that feat. Unfortunately, when the album's release date finally came, it was not a day of celebration. ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' reached stores on [[September 11, 2001]], the same morning terrorists hijacked four domestic, American airplanes, crashing them into New York's World Trade Center and the Pentagon Building in Washington, D.C. Like a number of other albums completed before that day (such as [[Wilco]]'s ''[[Yankee Hotel Foxtrot]]''), the music press re-evaluated ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' in the context of those attacks. Just as some critics found Dylan's health scare reflected in ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'', which had been completed before Dylan's hospitalization, many saw ''Love and Theft'''s imagery as a reflection of the immediate reaction, the paranoid aftermath, and the apocalyptic nature surrounding the attacks themselves. The two treacherous characters in &quot;Tweedle Dee &amp; Tweedle Dum&quot; are described as &quot;Living in the Land of Nod/Trustin' their fate to the Hands of God/They pass by so silently.&quot; In &quot;Mississippi,&quot; lyrics like &quot;City's just a jungle, more games to play/Trapped in the heart of it, trying to get away&quot; and &quot;Sky full of fire, pain pourin' down&quot; were read as prescient, as were some in &quot;Summer Days,&quot; where Dylan sang &quot;Yes, I'm leaving in the morning just as soon as the dark clouds lift/Gonna break the roof in - set fire to the place as a parting gift.&quot; &quot;Honest With Me&quot; featured such lines as &quot;Well, I'm stranded in the city that never sleeps&quot; and &quot;When I left my home the sky split open wide/I never wanted to go back there - I'd rather have died.&quot; &quot;Sugar Baby&quot; featured a verse where Dylan sings &quot;Every moment of existence seems like some dirty trick/Happiness can come suddenly and leave just as quick/Any minute of the day the bubble could burst/Try to make things better for someone, sometimes, you just end up making it a tho
asily won both tests against [[Australia national rugby union team|Australia]] and lost the first three tests against the [[All Blacks]], but did find victory in the final test. After the glittering decade of the 1950s, the first tour of the 1960s proved not nearly as successful as previous ones. The 1962 tour to South Africa saw the Lions still win 16 of their 25 games, but did not fair well against the [[South Africa national rugby union team|Springboks]], losing all three tests. The 1966 tour to Australia and New Zealand started off very well for the Lions who stormed through Australia, winning five non-tests and drawing one, most notably defeating Australia in in two tests aswell. The Lions however experienced mixed results during the New Zealand leg of the tour, as well as losing all of the tests against the [[All Blacks]]. The Lions also played a test against [[Canada national rugby union team|Canada]] on their way home, winning 19 to 8 in [[Toronto]]. The 1968 tour of South Africa saw the Lions win 15 of their 16 provincinal matches, but the team actually lost three tests against the [[South Africa national rugby union team|Springboks]] and drew one. ===1970-1979=== The [[1970s]] saw a renaissance for the Lions. The [[1971]] team, centred around the skilled Welsh half-back pairing of [[Gareth Edwards]] and [[Barry John]], secured a series win over the All Blacks. The tour started with a loss to [[Queensland]] but proceeded to storm through the next provincinal fixtures, winning 11 games in a row. The Lions then went on to defeat the [[All Blacks]] in [[Dunedin]]. The Lions would only lose a single match on the rest of the tour, and won the test series against New Zealand, winning and drawing the last two games, to take the series two wins to one. Arguably the best-known and most successful Lions team toured South Africa in [[1974]] under the esteemed Irish forward [[Willie John McBride]]. It went through 22 games unbeaten, and triumphed 3-0 (with one drawn) in the test series. The test series was beset by violence. The management of the Lions concluded that the Springboks dominated their opponents with physical aggression. At that time, in test matches the referee was from the home nation, there were only substitutions if a doctor agreed that a player was physically unable to continue and there were no video cameras and sideline officials to keep actions such as punching, kicking, and head-butting to a minimum. The Lions decided &quot;to get their retaliation in first&quot; with the infamous '99 call' (''99'' is a shortening of 999 which in Britain and Ireland is the phone number for the emergency services such as the police, ambulance or fire brigade). The idea was that a South African referee would be unlikely to send off all of the Lions if they all retaliated against &quot;blatant thuggery&quot;. At the battle of [[EPRFU Stadium|Boet Erasmus Stadium]], one of the most violent in rugby history, there is famous video footage of [[JPR Williams]] running over half of the pitch and launching himself at van Heerden after such a call. The 1977 tour to New Zealand saw the Lions drop only one non-test out of 21 games, a loss to a [[University|Universities]] side. The team did not win the test series though, winning one game but losing the other three. ===1980-2005=== The Lions toured South Africa in 1980. The team completed a flawless non-test record, winning 14 out of 14 non-test matches on the tour. The Lions did however lose the first three tests to [[South Africa national rugby union team|South Africa]], winning the last one, though the series had already been won by the Springboks. The 1983 tour to New Zealand, was successful on the non-test front, losing all but two games, but the team was white-washed in the test series against the [[All Blacks]]. The Lions tour to Australia in 1989 was a short affair, being only 12 matches in total. The tour was very successful for the Lions, who won all eight non-tests and won the test series against [[Australia national rugby union team|Australia]], three to one. The Lions tour to New Zealand in 1993 was the last of the amateur era. The tourists won six and lost four non-test matches and losing the test series two games to one. The 1997 tour to South Africa was a success for the Lions, who completed the tour only losing two games in total. The Lions won the test series two games to one. In 2001 a ten game tour took place in Australia, which saw the Wallabies win the test series two games to one. The latest tour was to New Zealand in 2005. ==Lions tours== The Lions comprise a touring team which currently plays three southern-hemisphere teams: # [[Australia national rugby union team|Australia]] # [[South Africa national rugby union team|South Africa]] # [[All Blacks|New Zealand]]. They also routinely toured in [[Argentina national rugby union team|Argentina]] before [[World War II]]. Tours currently take place every four years, the most recent one, the [[2005 British and Irish Lions tour to New Zealand]], taking place in [[2005]]. The next planned tour will visit [[2009 British and Irish Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] in [[2009]]. In a break with tradition, a first 'home' fixture against [[Argentina national rugby union team|Argentina]] took place at [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]] on [[May 23]], [[2005]], before the Lions went to [[All Blacks|New Zealand]]. It finished in a 25-all draw. On tour, mid-week games take place against local provinces or clubs as well as the weekend full tests against the host's national team. Tension normally exists between those selected for the tests and those who turn out only for the mid-week games. During the 2005 Lions tour, the visitors won all the provincial matches; the [[All Blacks]] won the test matches; and the [[New Zealand Maori]] won their game. ===List of pre-war Lions tours=== The following table lists all Lions before [[World War II]]: {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; !Year !To !Captain !Head coach !Result !Score |- |1888 | [[1888 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|New Zealand&lt;br/&gt; &amp; Australia]] |[[Bob Seddon]] - England&lt;BR/&gt;[[Andrew Stoddart]] - England | | |- |1891 |[[1891 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Bill Maclagen]] - Scotland | |Won |3-0 |- |1896 |[[1896 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Johnny Hammond]] | |Won |3-1 |- |1899 | [[1899 British Lions tour to Australia|Australia]] |[[Matthew Mullineux]] - England | |Won |3-1 |- |1903 |[[1903 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Mark Morrison]] - Scotland | |Lost |0-1 (with 2 draws) |- |1904 | [[1904 British Lions tour to Australia and New Zealand|Australia&lt;br/&gt; &amp; New Zealand]] |[[David Bedell-Sivright]] - Scotland | |Won Lost |3-0 (Australia) 0-1 (New Zealand) |- |1908 | [[1908 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|New Zealand&lt;br/&gt; &amp; Australia]] |[[AF Harding]] | |Lost |0-2 (with 1 draw) |- |1910 |[[1910 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Tom Smyth]] - Ireland | |Lost |1-2 |- |1910 |[[1910 British Lions tour to Argentina|Argentina]] |[[John Raphael]] - England | |Won |1-0 |- |1924 |[[1924 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Ronald Cove-Smith]] - England | |Lost |0-3 (with 1 draw) |- |1927 |[[1927 British Lions tour to Argentina|Argentina]] |[[David MacMyn]] - Scotland | |Won |4-0 |- |1930 |[[1930 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|New Zealand&lt;br/&gt; &amp; Australia]] |[[Doug Prentice]]- England | |Lost Lost |3-1 (New Zealand) 0-1 (Australia) |- |1936 |[[1936 British Lions tour to Argentina|Argentina]] |[[Bernard Gadney]] - England | |Won |1-0 |- |1938 |[[1938 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Sam Walker]] - Ireland | |Lost |1-2 |} ===List of post-war Lions tours=== The following table lists all Lions tours since [[World War II]]: {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; !Year !To !Captain !Head coach !Result !Score |- |1950 | [[1950 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|New Zealand&lt;br/&gt; &amp; Australia]] |[[Karl Mullen]] - Ireland | |Lost Won |0-3 (New&amp;nbsp;Zealand&amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;with&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;draw) 2-0 (Australia) |- |1955 |[[1955 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Robin Thompson]] - Ireland | |Draw |2-2 |- |1959 |[[1959 British Lions tour to Australia and New Zealand|Australia&lt;br/&gt; &amp; New Zealand]] |[[Ronnie Dawson]] - Ireland | |Won Lost |2-0 (Australia) 1-3 (New Zealand) |- |1962 | [[1962 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Arthur Smith (rugby player)|Arthur Smith]] - Scotland | |Lost |0-3 (with 1 draw) |- |1966 |[[1968 British Lions tour to Australia, New Zealand and Canada|Australia,&lt;br/&gt; New Zealand&lt;BR/&gt; &amp; Canada]] |[[Mike Campbell-Lamerton]] - Scotland | |Won Lost |2-0 (Australia) 0-4 (New Zealand) |- |1968 | [[1968 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Tom Kiernan]] - Ireland | |Lost |0-3 (with 1 draw) |- |1971 | [[1971 British Lions tour to New Zealand|New Zealand]] |[[John Dawes]] - Wales |[[Carwyn James]] - Wales |Won |2-1 (with 1 draw) |- |1974 |[[1974 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Willie John McBride]] - Ireland |[[Syd Millar]] - Ireland |Won |3-0 (with 1 draw) |- |1977 | [[1977 British Lions tour to New Zealand|New Zealand]] |[[Phil Bennett]] - Wales |[[John Dawes]] - Wales |Lost |1-3 |- |1980 |[[1980 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] |[[Bill Beaumont]] - England |[[Noel Murphy]] - Ireland |Lost |1-3 |- |1983 |[[1983 British Lions tour to New Zealand|New Zealand]] |[[Ciaran Fitzgerald]] - Ireland |[[Jim Telfer]] - Scotland |Lost |0-4 |- |1989 |[[1989 British Lions tour to Australia |Australia]] |[[Finlay Calder]]- Scotland |[[Ian McGeechan]] - Scotland |Won |2-1 |- |1993 |[[1993 British Lions tour to New Zealand|New Zealand]] |[[Gavin Hastings]] - Scotland |[[Ian McGeechan]] - Scotland |Lost |1-2 |-
row... *In the PBS cartoon [[Arthur (TV series)]], a 'daydream' sequence features Buster Baxter, Arthur's best friend, emerging from a space shuttle and exhibiting the powers of the FF (one limb streches, one bursts into flame, one turns invisible, and one turns into orange rock) *Not necesarilly a parody, but in [[Slayers]], a character named Zelgadis has rocky skin. It's blue, though, not orange. ==See also== * [[Bibliography of Fantastic Four titles]] * [[Ultimate Fantastic Four]] * [[Ultimate Marvel]] * [[The Four]] * [[Maximum Fantastic Four]] ==Footnotes== *{{fnb|1}} Lee, Stan, ''Origins of Marvel Comics'' ([[Simon and Schuster]]/Fireside Books, 1974) p. 16. Note: Predates publisher's change to ampersand in corporate name. *{{fnb|2}} Ibid. *{{fnb|3}} Ibid., p. 17 *{{fnb|4}} For example, at [http://www.comicsreporter.com/index.php/briefings/commentary/38/ ''The Comics Reporter''] (&quot;Everybody picks this one, and with good reason. Possibly Stan Lee's best script, combined with Jack Kirby and Joe Sinnott at the height of their prowess. Photo-collages, giant Kirby machines, human drama....&quot;), [http://www.comicbookgalaxy.com/2006/01/first-look-barry-windsor-smiths-new.html ''Comic Book Galaxy''] (&quot;The greatest Ben Grimm story will always be &quot;This Man, This Monster&quot; from ''Fantastic Four'' #51&quot;), [http://www.cinescape.com/0/editorial.asp?aff_id=0&amp;obj_id=26618&amp;this_cat=Comics ''Cinescape''] (&quot;'This Man, This Monster' is still probably one of the best single issues of comics ''ever''&quot;), and [http://www.buzzscope.com/features.php?id=907 ''Buzzscope''] (&quot;[O]ne of the greatest FF, and therefore superhero comic stories, ever&quot;). The story was presented in its 20-page entirety in the book ''Marvel: Five Fabulous Decades of the World's Greatest Comics'' by Les Daniels (ISBN 0810938219). {{fnb|5}} [http://www.ew.com/ew/report/0,6115,1078809_1_0_,00.html ''Entertainment Weekly'' July 1, 2005: &quot;'Fantastic' Voyage?: ''Fantastic Four'' has incredible trouble — The would-be blockbuster had a tough time getting released&quot;, by Scott Brown] ==References== *[http://www.marvelpics.co.uk Official Marvel Picture site] *[http://www.fantasticfourdvd.com Official Fantastic Four movie webpage] *[http://www.ffplaza.com/ The Fantastic Four @ FFPlaza.com] *[http://www.fantasticfourheadquarters.com/ A site looking at the critical history and media of the Fantastic Four] *[http://www.knightmare6.com/faq/fantastic_four Knightmare6.com, Fantastic Four] *[http://members.aol.com/drg4/ffx.html DRG4's Fantastic Four the Animated Series Page] *[http://marvel.toonzone.net/fanfourtas/ Fantastic Four: The Animated Series (1994-5) @ Marvel Animation Age] *[http://www.austinchronicle.com/issues/dispatch/1999-11-19/screens_video.html A review of the 1994 FF Film] *[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120667/ The IMDb entry on the 2005 feature] *[http://dialbforblog.com/archives/49/ Dial B for Blog: Secret Origins of the Fantastic Four] *[http://www.teako170.com/ffmovie.html The Fantastic Four-Gotten: In-depth article of the 1994 film - includes cast/crew comments, interviews, photos] ==External links== *[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Comics/Titles/F/Fantastic_Four/ DMOZ - Open source directory listing for The Fantastic Four] [[Category:Fantastic Four]] [[Category:Fictional families]] [[Category:Marvel Comics superhero teams]] [[Category:Marvel Comics titles]] [[da:Fantastic Four]] [[de:Die Fantastischen Vier (Comic)]] [[es:Los 4 Fantásticos]] [[fi:Ihmeneloset]] [[fr:Les Quatre Fantastiques]] [[he:ארבעת המופלאים]] [[it:Fantastici Quattro]] [[ja:ファンタスティック・フォー]] [[nl:Fantastic Four]] [[pt:Fantastic Four]] [[simple:The Fantastic Four]] [[sv:Fantastiska fyran]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Filtration</title> <id>11665</id> <revision> <id>39083872</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T16:36:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>World Pumps</username> <id>914351</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the separation process. For the mathematical concept see [[filtration (abstract algebra)]]. For the noun see [[filter]].'' In [[chemistry]] and [[alchemy]], '''filtration''' is the process of using a [[filter (chemistry)|filter]] to mechanically [[separation of mixtures|separate]] a [[mixture]]. ==Methods of Filtration== There are many different methods of filtration, but all aim to attain the [[separation of mixtures|separation]] of two or more substances. This is achieved by some form of interaction between the substance or objects to be removed and the filter. In addition the substance that is to pass through the filter must be a [[fluid]], i.e. a [[liquid]] or [[gas]]. The simplest method of filtration is to pass a solution of a solid and fluid through a porous interface so that the solid is trapped, while the fluid passes through. This principle relies upon the size difference between the particles making up the fluid, and the particles making up the solid. By extending this principle, it is possible to separate any two things with a significant or reliable size difference. For example an experiment to prove the existence of [[Microorganism|microscopic organisms]] involves the comparison of water passed through unglazed [[porcelain]] and unfiltered [[water]]. When left in sealed containers the filtrated water takes longer to go foul, showing that very small items (such as [[bacterium|bacteria]]) can be removed from fluids by filtration. A further disadvantage with the physical barrier method of filtration is that the substance being filtered from the fluid will clog the channels through the filter over time. Thus the filter becomes less and less efficient over time (for example, a [[vacuum cleaner]] bag). Thus methods have been developed to prevent this from happening. Most such methods involve replacing the filter. However, if the filter is needed for a continuous process, this is highly problematic, and complex scraping and in-situ cleaning mechanisms have to be used. For separation where there is a very small size difference, chemical filters may be used. These will use a filter that has properties so that undesirable items are attracted and retained by the filter, and the fluid from which it is to be separated is not. Filters of this kind most often take the form of [[electrostatic]] attractions. These form of filters again have the problem of either becoming clogged, or the active sites on the filter all become used by the undesirable. However, most chemical filters are designed so that the filter can be flushed with a chemical that will remove the undesirables and allow the filter to be re-used. Filtration is a more efficient method for the [[separation of mixtures]] than [[decantation]], but is much more time consuming. If very small amounts of [[solution]] are involved, most of the solution may be soaked up by the filter medium. ==Filter media== *[[Filter paper]] *[[Diatomaceous earth]] *Expanded [[perlite]] *[[Sinter]]ed [[glass]] *[[Gasmask]] *[[Wire mesh]] ==See also== * [[Separation of mixtures]] * [[microfiltration]], [[ultrafiltration]], [[nanofiltration]], [[reverse osmosis]] ==External links== *[http://www.filtsep.com Filtration+Separation website] [[Category:Analytical chemistry]][[Category:Unit operations]][[Category:Alchemical processes]] [[de:Filtration]] [[fr:Filtration]] [[ko:여과]] [[nl:Filtratie]] [[ja:ろ過]] [[pl:Filtracja]] [[zh:过滤]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Francis Ferdinand</title> <id>11667</id> <revision> <id>15909400</id> <timestamp>2004-06-15T02:13:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>John Kenney</username> <id>10512</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Follies</title> <id>11668</id> <revision> <id>35669769</id> <timestamp>2006-01-18T12:53:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Urbane legend</username> <id>208031</id> </contributor> <comment>Multiple - see talk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the musical. For the architectural term, see [[Folly]].}} '''''Follies''''' is a [[Musical theater|musical]] with music and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and a book by [[James Goldman]]. ==Synopsis== ''Follies'' is set in a crumbling old [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] theatre, scheduled for demolition, during a reunion for all the past members of the &quot;Weismann&amp;rsquo;s Follies&quot;; a musical [[revue]] (based on the [[Ziegfeld Follies]]) which played in that theatre between the World Wars. The musical mostly focuses on two couples, Buddy and Sally Durant Plummer and Ben and Phyllis Rogers Stone, who are attending the reunion. Sally and Phyllis were both showgirls in the Follies as are many of the other guests. Both marriages are having problems because Buddy, a traveling salesman, is having an affair with a girl on the road, Sally is still in love with Ben as she was years ago, and Ben is so self-absorbed that Phyllis feels emotionally abandoned. The two couples interact with each other and other partygoers, and throughout the first half, musical numbers from the old Follies are performed by the characters, sometimes accompanied by the ghosts of their former selves. These songs are [[pastiche]]s of songs by popular songwriters of the past. The second half contains a string of [[vaudeville]]-style numbers reflecting the characters' own problems and joys, before returning to the theatre for the end of the reunion party. ==Musical numbers== '''Act I''' *Beautiful Girls *Don't Look at Me *Waiting for the Girls Upstairs *Rain on the Roof *Ah, Paris! *Broadway Baby *Road You Didn't Take *In Buddy's Eyes *Who's That Woman? *I'm Still Here *Too Many Mornings'' '''Act
|[ z ]}} || {{IPA|[ z ]}} || {{IPA|[ z ]}} || {{IPA|[ z ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiced alveolar affricate|dz]] ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ח || 8 || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless velar fricative|x]]~[[voiceless pharyngeal fricative|ħ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ x ]}} || {{IPA|[ ħ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ħ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ħ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ħ, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ ħ, x ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ט || 9 || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar plosive|t]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ t ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless dental plosive|t̪]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̴̪ ]}} (5) || {{IPA|[ t̴̪ ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̪ˁ ]}} (6) || {{IPA|[ t̪ʼ ]}} (7) |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|י ||10 || {{IPA|[ [[palatal approximant|j]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ך כ || 20 || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless velar plosive|k]], [[voiceless velar fricative|x]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ k, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ k, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ k, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ k, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ k, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ k ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ל || 30 || {{IPA|[ [[alveolar lateral approximant|l]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ l~ɫ ]}} || {{IPA|[ l ]}} || {{IPA|[ l ]}} || {{IPA|[ l ]}} || {{IPA|[ l ]}} || {{IPA|[ l ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ם מ || 40 || {{IPA|[ [[bilabial nasal|m]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ן נ || 50 || {{IPA|[ [[alveolar nasal|n]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ n ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[dental nasal|n̪]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ n̪ ]}} || {{IPA|[ n̪ ]}} || {{IPA|[ n̪ ]}} || {{IPA|[ n̪ ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ס || 60 || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ s ]}} || {{IPA|[ s ]}} || {{IPA|[ s ]}} || {{IPA|[ s ]}} || {{IPA|[ s ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar affricate|ts]] ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ע || 70 || [ {{IPA|[[glottal stop|ʔ]] ~ [[voiced pharyngeal fricative|ʕ]]}}, &amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;] || [ - ] || [ {{IPA|ʕ, [[velar nasal|ŋ]],}} &amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;] || [ {{IPA|ʕ}} ] || [ {{IPA|ʕ}} ] || [ {{IPA|ʕ, [[voiced velar fricative|ɣ]]}} ] || [ {{IPA|ʕ, ɣ}} ] |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ף פ || 80 || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless bilabial plosive|p]], [[voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ p, f ]}} || {{IPA|[ p, f ]}} || {{IPA|[ f ]}} || {{IPA|[ p, f ]}} || {{IPA|[ p, [[voiceless bilabial fricative|ɸ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ p ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ץ צ || 90 || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar affricate|ʦ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʦ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʦ ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s̴]] ]}} (5) || {{IPA|[ s̴ ]}} || {{IPA|[ sˁ ]}} (6) || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar affricate|ʦʼ]], [[voiceless postalveolar affricate|ʧʼ]], [[voiceless alveolar lateral affricate|t͡ɬʼ]] ]}} (7) |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ק || 100 || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless velar plosive|k]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ k ]}} || {{IPA|[ k ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiced velar plosive|ɡ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless uvular plosive|q]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ q ]}} || {{IPA|[ kʼ ]}} (7) |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ר || 200 || {{IPA|[ [[voiced uvular fricative|ʁ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[uvular trill|ʀ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[alveolar trill|r]]~[[alveolar flap|ɾ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ r~ɾ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɾ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɾ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɾ ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ש || 300 || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]], [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʃ, s ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʃ, s ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʃ, s ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʃ, s ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʃ, [[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative|ɬ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless postalveolar affricate|ʧ]], [[voiceless alveolar lateral affricate|t͡ɬ]], s ]}} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ת || 400 || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar plosive|t]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ t, [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless dental plosive|t̪]], [[voiceless dental fricative|θ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̪, &amp;theta; ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̪, θ ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̪, θ ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̪ ]}} |} ===Notes=== # unwritten in initial and final positions, though often not written at all # unwritten in final positions # archaic # h initial or after consonants, ch everywhere else # [[velarization|velarized]] or [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized]] # pharyngealized # sometimes said to be [[ejective consonant|ejective]] but more likely [[glottalized]]. # i in final positions or before consonants # often not written at all ---- * Historically, the consonants ב ''bet'', ג ''gimel'', ד ''dalet'', כ ''kaf'', פ ''pe'', and ת ''tav'' each had two sounds: one hard ([[plosive consonant]]), and one soft ([[fricative consonant]]), depending on the position of the letter and other factors. When vowel diacritics are used, the hard sounds are indicated by a central dot called ''[[dagesh]]'' (דגש), while the soft sounds lack a ''dagesh''. In [[masoretic]] manuscripts, the soft fricative consonants are indicated by a small line on top of the letter; this diacritical mark is called ''raphe'' (רפה), but its use has been largely discontinued in printed texts. * א ''alef'', ה ''he'', ו ''vav'' and י ''yod'' are consonants that can sometimes fill the position of a vowel. ''vav'' and ''yod'' in particular are more often vowels than they are consonants. * ש ''shin'' and ''sin'' are two separate [[phoneme|phonemes]] written with the same letter. They are not mutually [[allophony|allophonic]]. When vowel diacritics are used, the two phonemes are differentiated with a ''shin-dot'' or ''sin-dot''; the shin-dot is above the upper-right side of the letter, and sin-dot is above the upper-left side of the letter. * In [[Israel]]'s general population, many consonants have merged to the same pronunciation. They are: ** א ''alef'' with ''ayin'' and (varyingly) ה ''he'' ** ב ''bet'' (without ''dagesh'') with ו ''vav'' ** ח ''het'' with כ ''kaf'' (without ''dagesh'') ** ט ''tet'' with ת ''tav'' (both with and without dagesh) ** כ ''kaf'' (with ''dagesh'') with ק ''qof'' ** ס ''samekh'' with שׂ ''sin'' (but not with שׁ ''shin'') ** צ ''tsadi'' with the consonant cluster תס ''tav-samekh'' ===Vowel formation=== Some of the letters, as well as their consonantal function, also acted as ''matres lectionis'' to represent vowels, as follows: {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- !Symbol!!Name!!Vowel formation |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|א || alef || ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ה || he || ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ו || vav || ô, û |- | align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|י || yod || î, ê, ệ |} ===Ancient Hebrew=== Some of the variations in sound mentioned above are due to a systematic feature of [[Ancient Hebrew]]. The six consonants /p t k b d g/ were pronounced differently depending on their position. These letters were also called BeGeDKePHeT ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/beɪgɛd'kɛfɛt/}}) letters. (The full details are very complex; this summary omits some points.) They were pronounced as stops [p t k b d g] at the beginning of a syllable, or when doubled. They were pronounced as [[fricative]]s {{unicode|[p̄ ṯ ḵ ḇ ḏ ḡ]}} &amp;mdash; [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[f θ x v ð ɣ]}} when preceded by a vowel. The stop and double pronunciations were indicated by the ''dagesh''. In Modern Hebrew the sounds {{unicode|[ḏ]}} and {{unicode|[ḡ]}} have reverted to [d] and [g] respectively, and {{unicode|[ṯ]}} has become [t], so only the remaining three consonants /b k p/ show variation. ו ''vav'' was a semivowel /w/ (as in English, not as in German). ח ''het'' and ע ''ayin'' were [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] [[fricative consonant|fricatives]], צ ''tsadi'' was an [[emphatic consonant|emphatic]] /s/, ט ''tet'' was an emphatic /t/, and ק ''qof'' was /q/. All these are common [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] [[consonant]]s. שׂ ''sin'' (the /s/ variant of ש ''shin'') was originally different from both שׁ shin and ס ''samekh'', but had become /s/ the same as ס ''samekh'' by the time the vowel pointing was devised. Because of [[cognate]]s with other [[Semitic language]]s, this phoneme is known to have originally been a [[lateral consonant]], most likely [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] the [[fricative]] {{IPA|/ɬ/}} (as in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''ll'') or the [[affricate]] {{IPA|/tɬ/}} (as in [[Náhuatl]] ''tl''). ==History== [[Archaeology|Archeological]] evidence indicates that the original Hebrew script is related to the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician script]] that was in wide use in the [[Middle East]] region at the end of the [[2nd millennium BCE]]. (Eventually, in [[Europe]], this alphabet evolved into the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and [[Roman alphabet|Roman]] alphabets). Phoenician script was borrowed by the [[Hebrews]] during the [[12th century BCE|12th]] or [[11th century BCE]], and around the [[9th century BCE]], a distinct Hebrew variant, the original &quot;Hebrew script&quot;, emerged. This script was widely used in the ancient kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] until they fell in the [[8th century BCE|8th]] and [[6th century BCE|6th]] centuries BCE, respectively. Following the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylonian exile]], [[Jew|Jews]] gradually stopped using the Hebrew script, and instead adopted the [[Babylon|Babylonian]] [[Aramaic script]] (which was also originally derived from the Phoenician script). This script, used for writing Hebrew, later evolved into the Jewish, or &quot;square&
the history of Ammon. When the Israelites invaded Canaan, they passed by the frontier of the Ammonites (Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 19, 37; Josh. xiii. 25). From their original territory the Ammonites are supposed to have been expelled by [[Sihon]], king of the [[Amorites]], who was said to have been found by the Israelites, after their deliverance from [[Egypt]], in possession of [[Gilead]], that is, of the whole country on the left bank of the Jordan, lying to the north of the Arnon ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 21:13). By this invasion, the Ammonites were driven out of Gilead across the upper waters of the Jabbok where it flows from south to north, which henceforth continued to be their western boundary (Numbers 21:24; Deuteronomy 2:37 and 3:16). The other limits of the Ammonitis, or country of the Ammonites ('Lmmanitis chora', [[2 Maccabees]] 4:26) were not exactly defined. On the south it probably adjoined the land of Moab; on the north it may have met that of the king of [[Geshur]] ([[Joshua]] 12:5); and on the east it may have melted away into the desert peopled by [[Kedarites]] and other nomadic tribes. The chief city of the country was ''[[Rabbah]]'' or ''Rabbath Ammon'', i.e. the metropolis of the Ammonites (Deut. 3:11), called ''Rabbathammana'' by the later [[Greeks]] ([[Polybius]] v. 7. 4). [[Ptolemy Philadelphus]] changed its name to Philadelphia, and made it a large and strong city with an [[acropolis]], situated on both sides of a branch of the Jabbok, today known as Nahr `Amman, the river of Ammon -- whence the designation &quot;city of waters&quot; ([[2 Samuel]] 12:27); see Survey of E. Pal (Pal. Explor. Fund), pp. 19ff. The city of [[Amman, Jordan]] is located on roughly the same site. The country to the south and east of Amman is distinguished by its fertility; and ruined towns are scattered thickly over it, attesting that it was once occupied by a population that, however fierce, was settled and industrious; a fact indicated also by the tribute of grain paid annually to [[Jotham of Judah|Jotham]] (2 Chr. 27:5). ==In the [[Torah]], [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] and [[Book of Judges|Judges]]== ===Descent=== According to the pedigree given in [[Genesis]] xix. 37-38, the Ammonites were closely related to the Israelites and still more closely to their neighbors in the south, the Moabites. This relationship is supported by the fact that all names of Ammonitish persons show a pure [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]] character. But the above passage indicates also the contempt and hatred for the Ammonites felt by the Hebrews ([[Deuteronomy]] xxiii. 4). The Torah excludes the progeny of Ammonites from the assembly of the Lord (but cf. Deut. ii. 19, 37, in which the consciousness of relationship seems to be at the root of the regard shown to Ammon). Both the Ammonites and Moabites are sometimes spoken of under the common name of the children of Lot ([[Deuteronomy]] 2:19; [[Psalms]] 83:8). Both tribes hired [[Balaam]] to curse [[Israel]], which he instead blessed (Deut. 23:4). Also known as the ''Beni-ammi'' ([[Genesis]] 19:38), the Ammonites and the Israelites, throughout the Old Testament and recorded history, were antagonists. ===Role in the Israelite Exodus=== When the Israelites of the Exodus paused before their territory, the Ammonites prohibited them from passing through their lands. For this act, they were denied entry into &quot;the congregation of the Lord&quot; until ten generations had passed (Deuteronomy 23:3). Sometimes a slight distinction only seems to be made between the Ammonites and their southern brothers, the Moabites. Deut. xxiii. 4, 5, for instance, states that the Ammonites and Moabites hired [[Balaam]] to curse the Israelites, while in Num. xxii. 3 et seq. Moab alone is mentioned. Some authorities overcome this discrepancy by the help of the emended text of Num. xxii. 5, according to which Balaam came &quot;from the land of the children of Ammon.&quot; This is the reading of most ancient versions; the Septuagint, however, has it like the present Hebrew text: &quot;the children of his people&quot; (&quot;ammo&quot;) (see Balaam). ===In the time of the Judges=== In Judges, iii. 13, the Ammonites appear as furnishing assistance to King [[Eglon]] of Moab against Israel; but in Judges, x. 7, 8, 9, in which not only Gilead is oppressed but a victorious war is waged also west of the Jordan, Ammon alone is mentioned. The speech of Jephthah which follows, however, is clearly addressed to the Moabites as well, for he speaks of their god [[Chemosh]] (Judges, xi. 18-24). Some scholars find that these varying statements conflict (compare Deut. xxiii. 3); others conclude that the brother-nations still formed a unit. The small nation of Ammon could face Israel only in alliance with other non-Israelites (compare II Chron. xx. and Ps. lxxxiii. 7). The attack of King [[Nahash]] upon the frontier city Jabesh in Gilead was easily repulsed by Saul (I Sam. xi., xiv. 47). ==During the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]== Attacks by the Ammonites on Israelite communities east of the Jordan were the impetus behind the unification of the tribes under [[Saul the King|Saul]], who defeated them. ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 11:11). From II Sam. x. 2, it may be concluded that [[Nahash]] assisted David out of hatred for Saul; but his son [[Hanun]] provoked David by ill-treating his ambassadors, and brought about the defeat of the Ammonites, despite assistance from their northern neighbors in [[Aram]] (ibid. x. 13). Their capital Rabbah was captured (ibid. xii. 29), and numerous captives were taken from &quot;all the cities of the children of Ammon.&quot; In 2 Samuel 12:31, King David is described slaughtering Ammonites: :''And he brought forth the people that were therein, and put them under saws, and under harrows of iron, and under [[axe]]s of iron, and made them pass through the [[brick]]-[[kiln]]: and thus did he unto all the cities of the children of Ammon.'' David's treatment of the captives (ibid. xii. 31) was not necessarily barbarous; the description may be interpreted to mean that he employed them as laborers in various public works. Some scholars claim that these passages recount symbolic gestures of submission common to the times rather than actual reports of massacres. The Chronicler, however, takes it in the most cruel sense (I Chron. xx. 3). The Ammonites, themselves, had a reputation for exceeding cruelty in warfare (I Sam. xi. 2; [[Amos]], i. 13). The new king, [[Shobi]], a brother of Hanun, evidently appointed by David, kept peace, his attitude being even friendly (II Sam. xvii. 27). There were Ammonite [[mercenaries]] in David's army (ibid. 23, 27) and Solomon's chief wife, the mother of his heir, was Naamah, the Ammonitess (I Kings, xiv. 21; compare xi. 1), probably a daughter of Shobi. She became the mother of [[Rehoboam]] ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 14:31; [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 12:13). After this, hostilities again broke out, under [[Jehoshaphat]] (II Chron. xx.), [[Jeroboam II]] (Amos, i. 13) and under [[Jotham]], who subjected the Ammonites (II Chron. xxvii. 5). From the [[Assyria|Assyrian]] inscriptions, we learn that the Ammonite king [[Baasha ben Ruhubi| Ba'sa (Baasha)]] son of [[Ruhubi]], with 1000 men, joined [[Ahab]] and the Syrian allies against [[Shalmaneser III]] at the [[Battle of Karkar]] in [[853 BC]]. They may at this time have been [[vassal]]s of [[Bar-Hadad II]], the Aramaean king of [[Damascus]]. In [[734 BC|734]] their king [[Sanipu]] was a vassal of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] and his successor, [[Pudu-ilu]], held the same position under [[Sennacherib]] and [[Esarhaddon]]. An Assyrian [[tribute]]-list from this period, showing that Ammon paid one-fifth of Judah's tribute, gives evidence of the scanty extent and resources of the country (see Schrader, &quot;K.A.T.&quot; pp. 141 et seq.; Delitzsch, &quot;Paradies,&quot; p. 294; Winckler, &quot;Geschichte Israels,&quot; p. 215). Somewhat later, their king [[Amminadab (Ammon)|Amminadab I]] was among the tributaries who suffered in the course of the great Arabian campaign of [[Assurbanipal]]. Other kings attested to in contemporary sources are [[Barakel]] (attested to in several contemporary [[seal (device)|seal]]s and [[Hissalel]] who reigned about 620 BCE (and who is mentioned on an inscription on a bottle found at [[Tel Siran]], Jordan along with his son, King Amminadab II, who reigned around 600 BCE.) With the neighbouring tribes, the Ammonites under King [[Baalis]] helped the [[Babylonian]] monarch [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadrezzar]] against [[Jehoiakim]] (2 Kings 24:2); and if they joined [[Zedekiah]]'s conspiracy ([[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 27:3), and were threatened by the [[Babylonian]] army ([[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] 21:20), they do not appear to have suffered greatly. ==Subsequent History== [[Image:Levant 800.png|thumb|400px|right|Map of the southern [[Levant]], c.[[800 BCE]].]] In the time of [[Nebuchadnezzar II|Nebuchadnezzar]], the Ammonites seem to have been fickle in their political attitude. They assisted the [[Babylonia]]n army against the Jews (II Kings, xxiv. 2); encroached upon the territory of the [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]]; and occupied [[Heshbon]] and [[Jazer]] ([[Jeremiah]] xlix. 1; ''cf.'' [[Zephaniah]] ii. 8); but the prophetic threatenings in Jer. ix. 26, xxv. 21, xxvii. 3, and [[Ezra]], xxi. 20, point to rebellion by them against Babylonian supremacy. They received [[Jew]]s fleeing before the Babylonians (Jer. xl. 11), and their king, [[Baalis]], instigated the murder of [[Gedaliah]], the Babylonians' Jewish governor of Jerusalem and its environs (ibid. xl. 14, xli. 15). At the time of the rebuilding of Jerusalem by Ezra and [[Nehemiah]], they were hostile to the Jews, and [[Tobiah]], an Ammonite (possibly the governor of Ammon), incited them to hinder the work (Neh. iii. 35). But inter-marriages between Jews and Ammoni
in the stuff :Of this drab [[canvas]] we accept as life&amp;mdash; :It is because we are not bold enough! ::([[Roy Campbell (Poet)|Roy Campbell]]'s [[translation]]) Six of the poems were suppressed, but printed later as ''Les Épaves'' (&quot;The Wrecks&quot;) ([[Brussels]], [[1866]]). Another [[edition]] of ''Les fleurs du mal'', without these poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in [[1861]]. His other works include ''Petits Poèmes en prose'' (&quot;Small Prose poems&quot;); a series of art reviews published in the ''Pays, Exposition universelle'' (&quot;Country, World Fair&quot;); studies on [[Gustave Flaubert]] (in ''Lartisge'', [[October 18]], 1857); on [[Théophile Gautier]] (''Revue contemporaine'', [[September]], [[1858]]); various articles contributed to Eugene Crepet's ''Poètes francais''; ''Les Paradis artificiels: opium et haschisch'' (&quot;French poets; Artificial Paradises: opium and hashish&quot;) ([[1860]]); and ''Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac'' (&quot;A Final Chapter of the history of works of Balzac&quot;) ([[1880]]), originally an article entitled &quot;Comment on paye ses dettes quand on a du génie&quot; (&quot;How his debts are paid when one has genius&quot;), in which his criticism turns against his friends [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Théophile Gautier]], and [[Gérard de Nerval]]. Baudelaire had learned [[English language|English]] in his childhood, and [[Gothic novel]]s, such as [[Matthew Gregory Lewis|Lewis]]'s ''[[The Monk]]'', became some of his favorite reading matter. In [[1846]] and [[1847]] he became acquainted with the works of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], in which he found tales and poems which had, he claimed, long existed in his own brain, but had never taken shape. From this time till [[1865]] he was largely occupied with his translated versions of Poe's works, which were widely praised. These were published as ''Histoires extraordinaires'' (&quot;Extraordinary stories&quot;) ([[1852]]), ''Nouvelles histoires extraordinaires'' (&quot;New extraordinary stories&quot;) (1857), ''Aventures d'Arthur Gordon Pym'' (see [[The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym]]), ''Eureka'', and ''Histoires grotesques et sérieuses'' (&quot;Grotesque and serious stories&quot;) ([[1865]]). Two [[essay]]s on Poe are to be found in his ''Oeuvres complètes'' (&quot;Complete works&quot;) (vols. v. and vi.). Meanwhile his [[finance|financial]] difficulties increased, particularly after his publisher Poulet Malassis went bankrupt in [[1861]], and in [[1864]] he left Paris for [[Belgium]], partly in the hope of selling the [[copyright|rights]] to his works. For many years he had a long-standing relationship with a [[Mulatto]] [[woman]], [[Jeanne Duval]], whom he helped to the end of his life. He had recourse to [[opium]], and in Brussels he began to [[alcoholism|drink to excess]]. He suffered a massive stroke in 1866 and [[paralysis]] followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in &quot;maisons de santé&quot; in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on [[August 31]], [[1867]]. Many of his works were published posthumously. He is buried in the [[Cimetière du Montparnasse]], Paris. ==Influence== Baudelaire is one of the most famous [[decadence|Decadent]] poets, but before the [[20th century]], when his work underwent considerable re-evaluation, he was generally considered by many to be merely a [[drug addict]] and a very vulgar author. ==Trivia== He was possibly the inspiration for the Baudelaire characters in [[Lemony Snicket]]'s &quot;[[A Series of Unfortunate Events]].&quot; French Black Metallers [[Alcest]] have used a poem by [[Baudelaire]] in their 2005 demo, Le Secret, on the song, Elevation. ==Bibliography== * ''Salon de 1845'', [[1845]] * ''Salon de 1846'', [[1846]] * ''La Fanfarlo'', [[1847]] * ''[[Les fleurs du mal]]'', [[1857]] * ''[[Les paradis artificiels]]'', [[1860]] * ''[[Réflexions sur Quelques-uns de mes Contemporains]]'', [[1861]] * ''[[Le Peintre de la Vie Moderne]]'', [[1863]] * ''[[Curiosités Esthétiques]]'', [[1868]] * ''[[L'art romantique]]'', [[1868]] * ''[[Le Spleen de Paris/Petits Poémes en Prose]]'', [[1869]] * ''Oeuvres Posthumes et Correspondance Générale'', [[1887]]-[[1907]] * ''Fusées'', [[1897]] * ''Mon Coeur Mis à Nu'', [[1897]] * ''Oeuvres Complètes'', [[1922]]-53 (19 vols.) * ''Mirror of Art'', [[1955]] * ''The Essence of Laughter'', [[1956]] * ''Curiosités Esthétiques'', [[1962]] * ''The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays'', [[1964]] * ''Baudelaire as a Literary Critic'', [[1964]] * ''Arts in Paris 1845-1862'', [[1965]] * ''Selected Writings on Art and Artist'', [[1972]] * ''Selected Letters of Charles Baudelaire'', [[1986]] * ''Critique d'art; Critique musicale'', [[1992]] ==Online texts== ===in French=== *[[:fr:s:Charles Baudelaire|Original works by Baudelaire at the French Wikisource]] *[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com full online texts in french] *[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com/madame_bovary_flaubert Madame Bovary par Gustave Flaubert] *[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com/peintres_aquafortistes.php Peintres et aquafortistes] *[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com/les_fleurs_du_mal.php Les Fleurs du Mal: full online downloadable text] ===in English=== *[http://www.linesofadvance.com/baudelaire.html &quot;The Painter of Modern Life&quot; Complete Annotated Text at Lines of Advance] *[http://www.poetry-archive.com/b/baudelaire_charles.html Selected works at Poetry Archive] *[http://www.tonykline.co.uk/Browsepages/French/Baud18.htm Another selection] *[http://fleursdumal.org/ Les Fleurs du Mal full text online with Translations] *[http://hometown.aol.co.uk/invictusanathem/ Au Lecteur (to the reader) - English Translation] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{gutenberg author|id=Charles_Baudelaire|name=Charles Baudelaire}} *[http://fleursdumal.org FleursDuMal.org] Definitive online presentation of Fleurs du mal, featuring the original French alongside multiple English translations *[http://www.boaeditions.org/books/flowers.html Flowers of Evil and Paris Spleen] A fine translation by [[William Holmes Crosby, Jr. | W.H. Crosby]] *[http://www.veinotte.com/baudelaire/ A large site in English] *[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com/ A comprehensive website in French] *[http://www.fisheseye.com/baudelaire.htm/ Baudelaire's Paris - An ebook literary tour with suggested poems in English and French at each location] *[http://www.livejournal.com/tools/memories.bml?keyword=baudelaire&amp;user=larvatus&amp;sortby=des larvatus' LiveJournal Memorable baudelaire Entries] A work in progress, in English, translating, interpreting, and commenting prose poems and critical writings by Baudelaire, with references and links to other resources *[http://www.poetes.com/baud/index.php Poetes.com] {{1911}} [[Category:1821 births|Baudelaire, Charles]] [[Category:1867 deaths|Baudelaire, Charles]] [[Category:French poets|Baudelaire, Charles]] [[Category:French art critics|Baudelaire, Charles]] [[Category:Wagnerites|Baudelaire, Charles]] [[Category:Former Students of Lycée Louis-le-Grand|Baudelaire, Charles]] [[cs:Charles Baudelaire]] [[cy:Charles Baudelaire]] [[da:Charles Baudelaire]] [[de:Charles Baudelaire]] [[et:Charles Baudelaire]] [[el:Κάρολος Μπωντλαίρ]] [[eo:Charles Baudelaire]] [[es:Charles Baudelaire]] [[fr:Charles Baudelaire]] [[gl:Charles Baudelaire]] [[hr:Charles Baudelaire]] [[io:Charles Baudelaire]] [[it:Charles Baudelaire]] [[he:שארל בודלר]] [[lt:Šarlis Bodleras]] [[nl:Charles Baudelaire]] [[ja:シャルル・ボードレール]] [[no:Charles Baudelaire]] [[pl:Charles Baudelaire]] [[pt:Charles Baudelaire]] [[ro:Charles Baudelaire]] [[ru:Бодлер, Шарль]] [[sk:Charles Baudelaire]] [[fi:Charles Baudelaire]] [[sv:Charles Baudelaire]] [[tr:Charles Baudelaire]] [[zh:波德莱尔]] [[sr:Шарл Болдер]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CiteYourSourcesDebate</title> <id>5807</id> <revision> <id>32972627</id> <timestamp>2005-12-28T07:38:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ral315</username> <id>111703</id> </contributor> <comment>Fixing double redirect ([[Special:DoubleRedirects]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia talk:Citing sources]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Casey at the Bat</title> <id>5808</id> <revision> <id>38764270</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T14:17:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MusiCitizen</username> <id>52187</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''Casey at the Bat'''&quot; (subtitled &quot;A Ballad of the Republic&quot;) is a [[poem]] on the subject of [[baseball]], written in [[1888]] by [[Ernest Thayer]]. It was first published in the ''[[San Francisco Examiner]]'' on [[June 3]], 1888, but was popularized by [[DeWolf Hopper]] in many [[vaudeville]] performances; Hopper gave the poem's first stage recitation on [[August 14]], 1888 at [[New York City|New York]]'s Wallack Theatre in the presence of the [[Chicago Cubs|Chicago]] and [[San Francisco Giants|New York]] baseball teams, the White Stockings and the Giants; August 14, 1888 was also Thayer's 25th birthday. The first recorded version of ''Casey at the Bat,'' as sung by [[Russell Hunting]], hit the music charts in 1893. DeWolf Hopper's more famous version will not be released until October 1906. ==Premise and plot== The poem is about a baseball team from the fictional town of Mudville, who are losing during the last inning of a game but could win if they can last long enough to let &quot;mighty Casey&quot; get at bat. Casey, their star player, is beloved by the fans and so confident in his abilities that he doesn't swing at the first two pitches, both strikes. As a work the poem encapsulates much of the appeal of baseball, including the involvement of the crowd. Although not well known in its entirety, the last verse has attained something of the s
perors|Koko]] [[de:Kōkō]] [[ja:光孝天皇]] [[pl:Kōkō]] [[zh:光孝天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Uda</title> <id>10495</id> <revision> <id>31359888</id> <timestamp>2005-12-14T19:16:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.196.4.226</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Uda''' (宇多天皇 ''Uda Tennō'') ([[May 5]], [[867]]- [[July 19]], [[931]]) was the 59th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from [[November 7]], [[887]] to [[July 3]], [[897]]. His birthname was '''Sadami''' (定省). Emperor Uda was the seventh son of [[Emperor Koko|Emperor Kōkō]] by Princess Madarako whose grandfather was [[Emperor Kammu]]. His father, Emperor Kōkō, demoted his sons from the rank of imperial royals to that of subjects in order to reduce the state expenses, as well as their political influence. Then Sadami was given the clan name of [[Minamoto]] and named '''Minamoto no Sadami'''. Later, in [[887]], when Kōkō needed to appoint his successor, Sadami was once again promoted to the Imperial Prince rank with support of [[Sessho and Kampaku|Kampaku]] ([[regent]]) [[Fujiwara no Mototsune]], since Sadami was adopted by a half-sister of Mototsune. After the death of his father in November of that year, he ascended to the throne. In the beginning of his reign, Mototsune held the office of Kampaku, serving as regent. After Mototsune's death, [[Fujirwara no Tokihira]] and [[Sugawara no Michizane]] were in Uda's favor. Uda founded [[Ninnaji|Ninna-ji Temple]] and after his abdication made it his residence. In [[897]] he abdicated in favor of his eldest son by a Fujiwara woman, [[Emperor Daigo|Prince Atsuhito]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Koko|Emperor Kōkō]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Daigo]] | years=887-897}} {{end box}} [[Category:867 births|Uda]] [[Category:931 deaths|Uda]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Uda]] [[de:Uda (Kaiser)]] [[ja:宇多天皇]] [[zh:宇多天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Daigo</title> <id>10496</id> <revision> <id>26895630</id> <timestamp>2005-10-30T17:42:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Elvenscout742</username> <id>154069</id> </contributor> <comment>What's Jipan :) ?</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Daigo''' can refer to: *[[Emperor Daigo]], [[Emperor of Japan]]. *[[Daigo family]], a Japanese noble family. *[[Daigo, Fushimi, Kyoto]], a district of [[Fushimi, Kyoto|Fushimi ward]]. *[[Daigo, Ibaraki]], a town in [[Ibaraki Prefecture]]. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Suzaku</title> <id>10497</id> <revision> <id>41852471</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:50:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nihonjoe</username> <id>446342</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix dbl redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Suzaku''' can refer to: *[[Emperor Suzaku]], [[emperor of Japan]]. *[[Suzaku, (Kyoto)]], one of ancient main streets in [[Kyoto]]. *[[SUZAKU FPGA Boards]], a line of small form-factor FPGA boards. *'''Suzaku''', The [[ASTRO-E|ASTRO-EII]] spacecraft, a joint venture of NASA and the Japanese Space Agency JAXA was renamed &quot;Suzaku&quot; on [[July 10]], [[2005]]. *The Japanese name for Zhu Que, [[Fenghuang|phoenix]] guardian of the South, and one of the [[Ssu Ling]]. *Any of a number of [[anime]], [[manga]], or Japanese [[game]] representations or references to the aforementioned guardian of the South, including: **A character in ''[[YuYu Hakusho]]'' who is the head of the Saint Beasts. Suzaku, with his bird friend Murg (Murugu) fight [[Yusuke Urameshi]] while Suzaku's infested minions stalk and attempt to kill [[Keiko Yukimura]] (Kayko Yukimura). **A character in ''[[Descendants of Darkness]]'' (''Yami no Matsuei'') who is one of Tsuzuki's shikigami, or guardian beasts. **A character in ''[[Fushigi Yūgi]]''. It is the worshipped god of the southern kingdom, Hong Nan. The Suzaku Seven protect the Priestess of Suzaku, Miaka, on her quest to summon the [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] god. Its mortal enemy is the dragon Seiryu. **The [[bitbeast]] companion of [[Kai Hiwatari]] in the [[Beyblade]] franchise. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Murakami</title> <id>10498</id> <revision> <id>41529228</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:37:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vald</username> <id>462750</id> </contributor> <comment>ru:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Murakami''' (村上) can refer to: *[[Emperor Murakami]], [[emperor of Japan]]. *[[Murakami, Niigata]], a city in [[Niigata prefecture]]. *[[Haruki Murakami]], a writer of contemporary literature. *[[Ryu Murakami]], writer of contemporary literature and filmmaker. *[[Takashi Murakami]], modern artist and founder of the [[Superflat]] movement. *[[Gennosuke Murakami]], a [[fictional character]] in the ''[[Usagi Yojimbo]]'' [[comic book]] series. == See also == *[[Japanese name]] {{disambig}} [[Category:Japanese surnames]] [[de:Murakami]] [[pt:Murakami]] [[ru:Мураками]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Earless seal</title> <id>10500</id> <revision> <id>38657203</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T20:14:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dinoguy2</username> <id>140946</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Classification */ +subfamilies and extinct species</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Earless Seals | image = GreySealBottling.jpg | image_caption = Grey seal, bottling | regnum = [[Animal|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal|Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Carnivora]] | subordo = [[Pinniped|Pinnipedia]] | familia = '''Phocidae''' | familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821 | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = ''[[Monachus]]'' (Monk Seals)&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Mirounga]]'' (Elephant Seal)&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Lobodon]]'' (Crabeater Seals)&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Leptonychotes]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Hydrurga]]'' (Leopard Seals)&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Ommatophoca]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Erignathus]]'' (Bearded Seals)&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Phoca]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Halichoerus]]'' (Grey Seals)&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Cystophora]]'' (Hooded Seals) }} The '''true seals''' or '''earless seals''' are one of the three main groups of [[mammal]]s within the seal [[suborder]], [[Pinniped|Pinnipedia]]. All true seals are members of the family '''Phocidae'''. They are sometimes called ''crawling seals'', to distinguish them from the [[fur seal]]s and [[sea lion]]s of family [[Otariidae]]. [[Phocidae|Phocids]] are the more highly specialized for aquatic life of the two groups and, unlike [[Otariidae|otariids]], lack external ears and cannot bring their hind flippers under their body to walk on them. They are more streamlined than [[fur seal]]s and [[sea lion]]s, and can therefore swim more effectively over long distances than those can. However, because they cannot turn their hind flippers downward, they are very clumsy on land, having to wriggle with their front flippers and abdominal muscles; this method of locomotion is called [[galumphing]] (see [[Jabberwocky]] for the origin of that word). Additionally, true seals do not communicate by &quot;barking&quot; like the [[fur seal]]s and [[sea lion]]s of family [[Otariidae]]. The communicate by slapping the water and grunting. ==Feeding and reproduction== [[Image:Argentina-Puerto_Madrew-Sea_Lion.jpg|thumbnail|190px|left|Earless Seal in Argentina]] While otariids are built for speed and maneuverability in the water, phocids are built for efficient, economical movement. This allows most phocids to make long foraging trips to exploit prey resources that are far from land, whereas otariids are tied to rich [[upwelling]] zones close to their breeding sites. The phocid reproductive cycle is characterized by temporal and spatial separation between feeding and maternal investment; in other words, a pregnant female spends a long period of time foraging at sea, building up her fat reserves, and then returns to the breeding site and uses her stored energy reserves to provide milk for her pup. It should be noted that the [[common seal]] ([[harbor seal]] in the U.S.), ''Phoca vitulina,'' does not separate foraging and maternal investment; instead, it displays a reproductive strategy similar to those of otariids, in which the mother makes short foraging trips between nursing bouts. Because a phocid mother's feeding grounds are often hundreds of kilometers from the breeding site, this means that she must fast while she is lactating. This combination of fasting with lactation is one of the most unusual and extraordinary behaviors displayed by the Phocidae, because it requires the mother seal to provide large amounts of energy to her pup at a time when she herself is taking in no food (and often, no water) to replenish her stores. Because they must continue to burn fat reserves to supply their own metabolic needs while they are feeding their pups, phocid seals have developed an extremely thick, fat-rich milk that allows them to provide their pups with a large amount of energy in as small a period of time as possible. This allows the mother seal to maximize the efficiency of her energy transfer to the pup and then quickly return to sea to replenish her reserves. The length of lactation in phocids ranges from 28 days in the [[Northern Elephant Seal]] to just 3&amp;ndash;5 days in the [[Hooded Seal]]. The nursing period is ended by the mother, who departs to sea and leaves her pup at the breeding site. Pups will continue to nurse if given the opportunity, and &quot;milk stealers&quot; that suckle from unrelated, sleeping femal
Karzai|Hamid Karzai]] | }} [[Category:1940 births|Rabbani, Burhanuddin]] [[Category:Living people|Rabbani, Burhanuddin]] [[Category:Afghan heads of state]] [[ar:برهان الدين رباني]] [[da:Burhanuddin Rabbani]] [[de:Burhanuddin Rabbani]] [[ko:부르하누딘 랍바니]] [[ja:ブルハーヌッディーン・ラッバーニー]] [[no:Burhanuddin Rabbani]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Birds</title> <id>4612</id> <revision> <id>15902874</id> <timestamp>2002-07-16T13:44:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.149.37.192</ip> </contributor> <comment>*fix redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bird]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Boeing 747</title> <id>4614</id> <revision> <id>41951422</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:09:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andypasto</username> <id>157574</id> </contributor> <comment>A 747 can take-off with 3 engines, not just cruise and this is true of all 747s.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right [[Image:Singapore.b747.london.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Singapore Airlines Boeing 747-412]] |} The '''Boeing 747''', commonly called the '''Jumbo Jet''', is one of the most recognizable modern airliners and is the largest [[airliner]] [[as of 2006|currently]] in airline service. First flown commercially in 1970, it held the size record for more than 35 years, although it has been surpassed by the [[Airbus A380]] (due to enter service in late 2006). The [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]]-built [[Antonov An-225]], a [[cargo aircraft|transport]], remains the world's largest aircraft in service (the [[Spruce Goose]] had a larger wing-span). The four-engine 747, produced by [[Boeing Commercial Aircraft]], uses a [[double decker|two-deck]] configuration, where the small upper deck is usually used for business-class passengers[http://www.united.com/page/article/0,6722,3071,00.html]. A typical three-class layout accommodates 416 passengers while a two-class layout accommodates a maximum of 524 passengers. A single-class layout could seat up to 624 passengers according to the airplane [http://www.boeing.com/assocproducts/aircompat/acaps/7474sec2.pdf description] by Boeing. The hump created by the upper deck has made the 747 a highly recognizable icon of air travel. The 747 flies at high-subsonic speeds (typically 0.85 [[Mach number|Mach]] or 570 [[Miles per hour|mph]] or 910 [[km/h]]) and features intercontinental range (8,430 statute miles, or 13,570 km, for the [[Boeing 747-400|747-400]] version). In some configurations this is sufficient to fly non-stop from [[New York]] to [[Hong Kong]] &amp;mdash; a third of the way around the globe. In 1989, a [[Qantas]] 747-400 flew non-stop from [[London]] to [[Sydney]], a distance of 11,185 miles (18,000 km), in 20 hours and 9 minutes, although this was a delivery flight with no passengers or freight aboard. [[As of 2006|By January 2006]], a total of 1428 aircraft have been built or ordered in various 747 configurations, making it a profitable product for Boeing [http://active.boeing.com/commercial/orders/displaystandardreport.cfm?cboCurrentModel=747&amp;optReportType=AllModels&amp;cboAllModel=747&amp;ViewReportF=View+Report]. [[image:virgin.b747-400.g-vbig.taxi.arp.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Virgin Atlantic Airways Boeing 747-400 &quot;Tinker Belle&quot; taxiing to the take off point at London Heathrow Airport]] ==History== ===Development=== [[Image:Boeing 747 prototype.JPG|thumb|175px|left|The prototype 747, &quot;City of Everett&quot;, at the [[Museum of Flight]] in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington]].]] The 747 was born from the explosion of air travel in the 1960s. The era of commercial jet transportation, led by the enormous popularity of the [[Boeing 707]], had revolutionized long distance travel and made possible the concept of the &quot;[[global village]].&quot; Boeing had already developed a study for a very large airplane while bidding on a US military contract for a huge airlifter. Boeing lost the contract to [[Lockheed]]'s [[C-5 Galaxy]] but came under pressure from its most loyal airline customer, [[Pan Am]], to develop a giant passenger plane that would be over twice the size of the 707. In 1966 Boeing proposed a preliminary configuration for the airliner, to be called the 747. Pan Am ordered 25 of the initial 100 series. The original design was a full-length double-decker fuselage. Issues with evacuation routes caused this idea to be scrapped in favor of a [[Wide-body aircraft|wide-body design]]. At the time, it was widely thought that the 747 would be replaced in the future with an SST ([[supersonic transport]]) design. In a shrewd move, Boeing designed the 747 so that it could easily be adapted to carry freight. Boeing knew that if and when sales of the passenger version dried up (see below regarding the future sales of the 747), the plane could remain in production as a cargo aircraft. The cockpit was moved to a shortened upper deck so that a nose cone loading door could be included, thus creating the 747's distinctive &quot;bulge&quot;. The supersonic transports, including the [[Concorde]] and Boeing's never-produced [[Boeing 2707|2707]], never lived up to expectations, such planes being too expensive to operate profitably at a time when fuel prices were soaring, and also there were difficulties of operating such aircraft due to regulations regarding flying supersonic over land. The 747 was expected to become obsolete after sales of 400 units. But the 747 outlived many of its critics and production passed the 1,000 mark in 1993. The expected slow-down in sales of the passenger version in favour of the freighter model has only been realized in the early 2000s, around 2 decades overdue. The development of the 747 was a huge undertaking. Boeing did not have a facility large enough to assemble the giant aircraft, so the company built an all-new assembly building near [[Everett, Washington]]. The factory is the largest building by volume ever built. [[Pratt and Whitney]] developed a massive [[high-bypass turbofan engine]], the [[Pratt &amp; Whitney JT9D|JT9D]], which was initially used exclusively with the 747. To appease concerns about the safety and flyability of such a massive aircraft, the 747 was designed with four backup [[hydraulic]] systems, split control surfaces, multiple structural redundancy, and sophisticated flaps that allowed it to use standard-length runways. During the flight certification period, Boeing built an unusual training device known as &quot;Waddell's Wagon&quot; (named after the 747 test pilot, Jack Waddell) which consisted of a mock-up cockpit mounted on the roof of a truck. It was intended to train pilots on how to taxi the aircraft from the high upper deck position. Boeing had promised to deliver the 747 to Pan Am by 1970, meaning that it had less than four years to develop, build and test the airplane. Work progressed at such a breakneck pace that all those who worked on the development of the 747 were given the nickname &quot;The Incredibles&quot;. The massive cost of developing the 747 and building the Everett factory meant that Boeing had gambled its very existence on the 747's success, and the company was nearly bankrupted in the early 1970s. The gamble paid dividends, however, and Boeing enjoyed a monopoly in the very large passenger aircraft industry for years. In fact, the record and benchmark set by the 747 would only be surpased, more than 35 years after its first delivery, by the [[Airbus A380]], built by Boeing's rival. ===In service=== [[Image:delta.b747.anet.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|Delta Boeing 747, operated by Pan Am, at London Heathrow Airport in May 1974.]] Initially, many airlines regarded the 747 with skepticism. [[McDonnell Douglas]] (which now has been absorbed by Boeing) and [[Lockheed]], were working on wide-body three-engine &quot;[[tri-jet]]s&quot;, which were significantly smaller than the proposed 747. Many airlines believed the 747 would prove too large for an average long distance flight, investing instead in tri-jets. There were also concerns that the 747 would not be compatible with existing airport infrastructure, similar concerns that the [[Airbus A380]] currently faces, however compounded even more due to its double-decker feature. Another issue raised by the airlines was fuel efficiency. A three-engine airliner burns significantly less fuel per flight than a four-engine, and with airlines trying to lower costs, fuel efficiency was an important issue that would briefly return to haunt Boeing in the 1970s. Many of the airlines' fears came to bear in the 1970s. The Arab oil crisis and economic stagnation in the United States lowered the number of airline passengers and made it difficult for airlines to fill their new 747s. [[American Airlines]] replaced coach seats on its 747s with [[piano]] bars in an attempt to attract more customers: eventually, it relegated its 747s to cargo service and then sold them. [[Continental Airlines]] also removed its 747s from service after several years. The advent of smaller, more efficient widebodies, starting with the trijet [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10|DC-10]] and [[Lockheed Tristar|L-1011]] and followed by the twinjet [[Boeing 767|767]] and [[Airbus A300|A300]], took away much of the 747's original market, especially as airline deregulation made point-to-point international service more common. Other airlines that have removed 747s from their fleet include [[Air Canada]], [[Aer Lingus]], [[Scandinavian Airlines System|SAS]], [[TAP Air Portugal|TAP]], and [[Olympic Airways]]. However, many international airlines continued to use the 747 on their busiest routes. The type remained popular among [[Asia]]n airlines for short and medium-range flights between major cities: in [[Japan]], domestic airlines continue to pack 747s to their maximum passenger capacity. Elsewhere, 747s remain popul
acob Bekenstein]] and [[Stephen Hawking]] have shown that black holes have the maximum possible entropy of any object of equal size. This makes them likely end points of all entropy-increasing processes. The role of entropy in cosmology remains a controversial subject. Recent work has cast extensive doubt on the heat death hypothesis and the applicability of any simple thermodynamic model to the universe in general. Although entropy does increase in an expanding universe, the maximum possible entropy rises much more rapidly and leads to an &quot;entropy gap,&quot; thus pushing the system further away from equilibrium with each time increment. Complicating factors, such as the energy density of the vacuum and macroscopic [[quantum mechanics|quantum]] effects, are difficult to reconcile with thermodynamical models, making any predictions of large-scale thermodynamics extremely difficult. == Entropy in literature == * Isaac Asimov's [[The Last Question]], a short science fiction story about entropy * [[Thomas Pynchon]], an American author who deals with entropy in many of his novels * [[Diane Duane]]'s [[Young Wizards]] series, in which the protagonists' ultimate goal is to slow down entropy and delay heat death. * Gravity Dreams by L.L. Modesitt Jr. * The Arrow of Time, an essay by journalist K.C. Cole, takes the physical law of entropy and metaphorically applies it to real life. * [[Jeremy Rifkin]]'s ''[[Entropy: A New World View]]'', a notorious misinterpretation of entropy [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_10.html#section04of09] * The [[Planescape]] setting for [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]] includes the [[Doomguard]] faction, who worship entropy. == See also == * [[Arrow of time]] * [[Black hole]] * [[Entropic force]] * [[Entropy of mixing]] * [[Information entropy]] * [[Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy]] (in [[dynamical system]]s) * [[Logarithmic units]] * [[Maxwell's demon]] * [[Residual entropy]] * [[Thermodynamic potential]] * [[Negentropy]] == External links == * [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/entropy.html Entropy Explained] - Correction of common misconceptions, and explaining the true meaning of entropy. * [http://www.draaisma.net/rudi/entropy_chaos.html Entropy and chaos] * [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/therm/entropcon.html Entropy concepts at HyperPhysics] * [http://www.entropysimple.com/content.htm Entropy is Simple...If You Avoid the Briar Patches] * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-12 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':Entropy] * [http://random.hd.org/ Java &quot;entropy pool&quot; for cryptographically-secure unguessable random numbers] * [http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0004055 Entropy in Relation to Free Energy] * [http://entropysite.com/entropy_is_simple/ ''Entropy Is Simple, Qualitatively''] article by Frank Lambert on http://EntropySite.com/ * [http://www.2ndlaw.com/entropy.html ''Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics''] Molecular approach to entropy. * [http://www.secondlaw.com/six.html Entropy for students in general chemistry] Simple approach to the second law, in Q and A form. * [http://www.entropylaw.com/index.html ''All About Entropy''] ''The laws of thermodynamics, and order from disorder.'' == References == * {{ cite book | last = Fermi | first = Enrico | authorlink = Enrico Fermi | year = 1937 | title = Thermodynamics | publisher = Prentice Hall | id = ISBN 048660361X }} * {{ cite book | last = Kroemer | first = Herbert | coauthors = Charles Kittel | year = 1980 | title = Thermal Physics | edition = 2nd Ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman Company | id = ISBN 0716710889 }} * {{ cite book | last = Penrose | first = Roger | authorlink = Roger Penrose | year = 2005 | title = The Road to Reality : A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe | id = ISBN 0679454438 }} * {{ cite book | last = Reif | first = F. | year = 1965 | title = Fundamentals of statistical and thermal physics | publisher = McGraw-Hill | id = ISBN 0070518009 }} &lt;!--Categories--&gt; &lt;!--Interwiki--&gt; [[Category:Entropy| ]] [[Category:Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics]] [[ar:إنتروبية]] [[ca:Entropia]] [[cs:Entropie]] [[da:Entropi]] [[de:Entropie]] [[eo:Entropio]] [[es:Entropía (termodinámica)]] [[fa:انتروپی]] [[fi:Entropia]] [[fr:Entropie]] [[gl:Entropía]] [[he:אנטרופיה]] [[hr:Entropija]] [[ia:Entropia]] [[it:Entropia (termodinamica)]] [[ja:エントロピー]] [[ko:엔트로피]] [[lv:Entropija]] [[nl:Entropie]] [[nn:Entropi]] [[no:Entropi]] [[pl:Entropia (termodynamika)]] [[pt:Entropia]] [[ru:Термодинамическая энтропия]] [[sl:Entropija]] [[sr:Ентропија]] [[sv:Entropi]] [[uk:Термодинамічна ентропія]] [[zh:熵 (熱力學)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Expert</title> <id>9892</id> <revision> <id>37714947</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T19:20:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.220.110.179</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''expert''' is someone widely recognized as a [[reliabilism|reliable]] source of [[knowledge]], [[technique|technique]], or [[skill|skill]] whose judgment is accorded authority and status by the public or their peers. Experts have prolonged or intense experience through practice and education in a particular field. The opposite of an expert is generally known as a [[layperson]], while someone who occupies a middle grade of understanding is generally known as a [[technician]] and often employed to assist experts. A person may well be an expert in one field and a layperson in many other fields. The concepts of experts and [[expertise]] is debated within the field of [[epistemology]] under the general heading of [[expert knowledge]]. In specific fields, the definition of expert is well established by consensus and therefore it is not necessary for an individual to have a professional or academic qualification for them to be accepted as an expert. In this respect, a shepherd with 50 years of experience tending flocks would be widely recognized as having complete expertise in the use and training of sheep dogs and the care of sheep. Another example from [[computer science]] is that an [[expert system]] may be taught by a human and thereafter considered an expert often outperforming human beings at particular tasks. In [[law]], an [[expert witness]] must be recognized by [[Logical argument|argument]] and [[authority]]. The term is widely used informally, with people being described as 'experts' in order to bolster the relative value of their opinion, when no [[objective]] criteria for their expertise is available. The term [[crank (person)|crank]] is likewise used to disparage opinions. [[Academic elitism]] arises when 'experts' become convinced that only they understand their field of study (or anything at all). [[Category:Skills]] [[cs:Expert]] [[da:Ekspert]] [[de:Fachmann]] [[fr:Expert]] [[it:Esperto]] [[zh:专家]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Afghanistan</title> <id>9895</id> <revision> <id>35047445</id> <timestamp>2006-01-13T19:06:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Daniel11</username> <id>63985</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Trade and Industry */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The economic outlook of '''[[Afghanistan]]'s Economy''' has improved significantly since [[2002]] due to the infusion of over $2 billion in international assistance, dramatic improvements in agricultural production, and the end of a four-year drought in most of the country. However, Afghanistan remains extremely poor, landlocked, and highly dependent on foreign aid, farming, and trade with neighboring countries. It is probable that it will take the remainder of the decade, continuing donor aid and attention to raise Afghanistan's living standards up from its current status among the lowest in the world. Much of the population continues to suffer from shortages of housing, clean water, electricity, medical care, and jobs, but the Afghan government and international donors have remained committed to improving access to these basic necessities by prioritizing infrastructure development, education, housing development, jobs programs, and economic reform over the year of [[2005]]. The replacement of the [[opium]] trade - which can account for one-third of the country's GDP - is one of several potential spoilers for the economy over the long term. ==Economic History== Historically, there has been a dearth of information and reliable statistics about Afghanistan's economy. The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion and ensuing civil war destroyed much of the underdeveloped country's limited infrastructure and disrupted normal patterns of economic activity. Gross domestic product has fallen substantially since the [[1980s]] because of loss of labor and capital and disruption of trade and transport. Continuing internal strife hampered both domestic efforts at reconstruction as well as international aid efforts. According to the [[International Monetary Fund]], the Afghan economy grew 20% in the [[fiscal year]] ending in March [[2004]], after expanding 30% in the previous 12 months. The growth is attributed to international aid and to the end of [[drought]]s. An estimated US$4.4 billion of aid entered the nation in 2004, about equal to the its [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. A GDP of US$4 billion in fiscal year [[2003]] was recalculated by the IMF to US$6.5 billion, after adding proceeds from [[opium]] products. ==Agriculture== The Afghan economy continues to be overwhelmingly agricultural, despite the fact that only 12% of its total land area is arable and less than 6% currently is cultivated. Agricultural production is constrained by an almost total dependence on erratic winter snows and spring rains for water; irrigation is primitive. Relatively little use is made of machines, chemical fertilizer, or pesticides. Grain production is Afghani
BIS) * [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) * Group of Fifteen (G-15) * [[Group of 77]] (G-77) * [[Inter-American Development Bank]] (IDB) * [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) * International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ([[World Bank]]) * [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) * [[International Criminal Court]] (party since [[2005]]) * [[International Chamber of Commerce]] * [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]] (ICFTU) * [[International Development Association]] (IDA) * [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] (IFAD) * [[International Finance Corporation]] (IFC) * [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]] (IFRCS) * [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO) * [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO) * [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) * [[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO) * [[Interpol]] * [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC) * [[International Organization for Migration]] (IOM) * [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=50% align=left valign=top&gt; * [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Red Cross]] * [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) * [[Latin American Economic System]] (LAES) * [[Latin American Integration Association]] (LAIA) * [[Mercosur]] (associate) * [[Nonaligned Movement]] (NAM) * [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) * [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW) * [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] (PCA) * [[Rio Group]] * [[United Nations]] (UN) ** [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UN Conference on Trade &amp; Development]] (UNCTAD) ** [[United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization|UN Educational, Scientific, &amp; Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO) ** [[United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]] (UNHCR) ** [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UN Industrial Development Organization]] (UNIDO) ** [[United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan|UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan]] (UNMOGIP) ** [[United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|UN Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (MONUC) ** [[United Nations Truce Supervision Organization|UN Truce Supervision Organization]] (UNTSO) * [[Universal Postal Union]] (UPU) * [[World Confederation of Labor]] (WCL) * [[World Customs Organization]] (WCO) * [[World Federation of Trade Unions]] (WFTU) * [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) * [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) * [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO) * [[World Tourism Organization]] (WToO) * [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt; ==External links== ''All sites are in Spanish.'' *[http://www.gobiernodechile.cl/ Government of Chile] (English translation available) *[http://www.congreso.cl/ National Congress] *[http://www.presidencia.cl/ Presidency] *[http://www.poderjudicial.cl/ Judicial Branch] {{South America in topic|Politics of}} {{OAS}} [[Category:Politics of Chile]] [[de:Politisches System Chiles]] [[es:Política de Chile]] [[fr:Politique du Chili]] [[pt:Política do Chile]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Chile</title> <id>5494</id> <revision> <id>41594333</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:44:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dismas</username> <id>152983</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">==Overview== [[Chile]] has a market-oriented economy characterized by a high level of foreign trade. During the early [[1990s]], Chile's reputation as a role model for [[economic reform]] was strengthened when the democratic government of [[Patricio Aylwin]] - which took over from the military in [[1990]] - deepened the economic reform initiated by the military government. Growth in real [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] averaged 8% during the period 1991-1997, but fell to half that level in 1998 because of tight monetary policies implemented to keep the [[current account deficit]] in check and lower export earnings - the latter a product of the global financial crisis. After a decade of highly impressive growth rates, Chile experienced a moderate [[recession]] in [[1999]] brought on by the global economic slowdown and exacerbated by a severe [[drought]] reducing crop yields and causing [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] shortfalls and rationing. Chile experienced negative economic growth for the first time in more than 15 years. Despite the effects of the recession, Chile maintained its reputation for strong financial institutions and sound policy that have given it the strongest sovereign bond rating in South America. After averaging real GDP growth rates of around 7% in the 1990s, the economy grew 3.4% in 1998 and contracted 1.1% in 1999. By the end of 1999, exports and economic activity had begun to recover. The economy has recovered in 2000, with Asian markets rebounding and [[copper]] prices edging up. GDP growth for 2001 is expected in the 5%-6% range. The inauguration of [[Ricardo Lagos]] in March 2000, succeeding [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle|Eduardo Frei]], will keep the presidency in the hands of the center-left Concertacion coalition that has held office since the return of civilian rule in 1990. The government's limited role in the economy, Chile's openness to international trade and investment, and the high domestic savings and investment rates that propelled Chile's economy to average growth rates of 8% during the decade before the recession are still in place. The 1973-90 military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have continued privatization at a slower pace. Policy measures such as the [[privatization]] of the national pension system encourage domestic investment, contributing to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 22% of GDP in [[2000]]. Unemployment peaked well above Chile's traditional 4%-6% range during the recession and is stubbornly remaining in the 8%-10% range well into the economic recovery. Despite recent labour troubles, wages have on average risen faster than inflation over the last several years as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The share of Chileans with incomes below the [[poverty line]]--roughly $4,000/year for a family of four--fell from 46% of the population in 1987 to 18% in 2003. Maintaining a moderate [[inflation]] level is a foremost Central Bank objective. In 1996, December-to-December inflation stood at 8.2%, falling to 6.1% in 1997 and to 4.7% in 1998. The rate fell to only 2.3% during the 1999 recession. Most wage settlements and spending decisions are indexed, reducing inflation volatility (See [[Unidad de Fomento]]). The rate for 2000 was 4.75%. The establishment of a compulsory [[private sector]] pension system in [[1981]] was an important step toward increasing domestic savings and the pool of investment capital. Under this system, most regular workers pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds. This large capital pool has been supplemented by substantial foreign investment. Total public and private investment in the Chilean economy has remained high despite current economic difficulties. The government recognizes the necessity of private investment to boost worker productivity. The government also is encouraging diversification, including such non-traditional exports as fruit, wine, and fish to reduce the relative importance of basic traditional exports such as copper, timber, and other natural resources. Chile's welcoming attitude toward [[foreign direct investment]] is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans. Registration is simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital. The Central Bank decided in May 1999 on the removal of the 1-year residency requirement on foreign capital entering Chile under Central Bank regulations, generally for portfolio investments. A modest capital control mechanism known as the &quot;Encaje,&quot; which requires international investors to place a percentage of portfolio investment in non-interest-bearing accounts for up to 2 years, has been effectively suspended through reduction to zero of the applicable percentage; the mechanism could be resurrected depending on economic circumstances. Total foreign direct investment flows in 2000 contracted to $3.6 [[billion]] (3.6 G$), down from $9.2 billion in 1999, and $4.6 billion in 1998. The 2000 figure is about 13% of GDP. In 2000, Chile experienced an outflow of $1.4 billion, largely the result of diminished inward foreign investment and--for a second year running--elevated levels of Chilean direct investment abroad ($4.8 billion). ==Foreign Trade== Chile's economy is highly dependent on international trade. In [[1999]], exports increased to $18.3 billion from $15.6 billion in 1999, and imports increased to $16.9 billion from $14 billion the previous year. Exports accounted for about 25% of GDP. Chile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports; the state-owned firm [[CODELCO]] is the world's second-largest copper-producing company. Foreign private investment has developed many new mines, and the private sector now produces more copper than [[CODELCO]]. Copper output continued to increase in 2000. Non-traditional exports have grown faster than those of copper and other minerals. In [[1975]], non-mineral exports made up just over 30% of total exports, whereas now they account for about 60%. The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh fruit and pro
the Most High.&quot; But you are brought down to the grave, to the depths of the pit. Those who see you stare at you, they ponder your fate: &quot;Is this the man who shook the earth and made kingdoms tremble, the man who made the world a desert, who overthrew its cities and would not let his captives go home?&quot; ({{bibleverse||Isaiah|14:9-17|NIV}} - this is commonly held to be a [[dual prophecy]] about the King of [[Babylon]] and Satan)&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;And there was war in heaven. Michael and his angels fought against the dragon, and the dragon and his angels fought back. But he was not strong enough, and they lost their place in heaven. The great dragon was hurled down &amp;mdash; that ancient serpent called the devil, or Satan, who leads the whole world astray. He was hurled to the earth, and his angels with him.&quot; ({{bibleverse||Revelation|12:7-9|NIV}})&lt;/blockquote&gt; The [[epic poetry|epic]] poem by [[John Milton]], ''[[Paradise Lost]]'', has a stylized depiction of the devil that influenced [[C. S. Lewis]] (''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'' and ''[[Space Trilogy]]''), and the [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] characters [[Melkor]] and [[Sauron]]. ===Islam=== {{main|Iblis}} In Islam the Devil is referred to as [[Iblis]], also called the [[Shaitan]] (a word referring to evil devil-like beings). According to the [[Qur'an]], God (called [[Allah]] in Islam) created the Devil out of &quot;smokeless fire&quot;, while he created man out of clay. The primary characteristic of the Devil, besides [[hubris]], is that he has no power other than the power to cast evil suggestions into the heart of men. According to the verses of the Qur’an, the Devil's mission until the [[Qiyamah]] or Resurrection Day (''yaum-ul-qiyama'') is to deceive Adam's children (mankind). After that, he will be put into the fires of Hell along with those whom he has deceived. The Devil is also referred to as one of the Djinns (genies), as they are all created from the smokeless fires. The Qur'an does not depict ''Shaitan'' as the enemy of Allah, for Allah is supreme over all his creations and Iblis is just one of his creations. Unlike the Zoroastrian beliefs, all good and bad deeds are from Allah himself and only he can save humanity from the evils of his universe and his creations. Shaitan's single enemy is humanity. He intends to discourage humans from obeying God. Thus, humankind is warned to struggle (&lt;i&gt;jihad&lt;/i&gt;) against the mischiefs of the Shaitan and temptations he puts them in. The ones who succeed in this are rewarded with Paradise (&lt;i&gt;jannath ul firdaus&lt;/i&gt;), attainable only by righteous conduct. He was expelled from the grace of Allah when he failed to pay homage to Adam, the father of all mankind. He claimed to be superior to Adam, on the grounds that man was created of earth unlike himself. Even the other angels showed a degree of suspicion when Allah informed them about the creation of man as the regent (caliph) of all things on Earth, but they ultimately prostrated before Adam to show their homage. However, Iblis, adamant in his view that man is a worthless being, never bowed his head before any other than Allah. This caused him to be expelled by Allah, a fact that Iblis blamed on humanity. Initially, the Devil was successful in deceiving Adam, but once his intentions became clear, [[Adam and Eve]] repented to Allah and were freed from their misdeeds and forgiven. Allah gave them a strong warning about Iblis and the fires of Hell and asked them and their children (humankind) to stay away from the deceptions of their senses caused by the Devil. (For a more detailed account, see ([[Iblis]] or [[Shaitan]].) ===Judaism=== In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the biblical word ''ha-satan'' means ''adversary'' or ''obstacle'', or even &quot;the [[prosecutor]]&quot; (recognizing that God is viewed as the ultimate [[Judge]]). In the [[book of Job]] (Iyov), ha-satan is the title, not the proper name, of an [[angel]] submitted to God; he is the divine court's chief prosecutor. In Judaism ha-satan does not make evil, rather points out to God the evil inclinations and actions of humankind. In essence ha-satan has no power unless humans do evil things. After God points out [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]]'s piety, ha-satan asks for permission to test the faith of Job. The righteous man is afflicted with loss of family, property, and later, health, but he still stays faithful to God. At the conclusion of this book God appears as a [[whirlwind]], explaining to all that divine justice is inscrutable with human intellect. In the epilogue Job's possessions are restored and he has a second family to &quot;replace&quot; the one that died. There is no evidence in [[Torah]], or in the books of the [[Nevi'im|Prophets]] and other writings, to suggest that God created an [[evil]] being. In fact, the [[Book of Isaiah]], Job, [[Ecclesiastes]], and [[Deuteronomy]] all have passages which God is credited for creating both the good and the evil of this world. The Hebrew word for evil used above is usually translated as 'calamity', 'disaster' or 'chaos'. ===No concept of the devil in Hinduism=== * In contrast to the Christian traditions and [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]] does not recognize any central evil force or entity such as the Devil opposing God but does recognize that different beings (e.g., [[asuras]]) and entities can perform evil acts and cause suffering in the world. * See external site, [http://www.shaivam.org/hipgodco.htm the Hindu Answer to Question, &quot;Is there an Evil force against God?&quot;] * However, for Hindus and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavites]], in particular, it is believed that [[Vishnu]] incarnates to destroy evil when evil has reached its maximum. (see [[avatar]].) Additionally, the problem of evil is mostly explained by the concept of [[Karma in Hinduism|Karma]]. ===Ayyavazhi=== [[Ayyavazhi]], officially an offshoot of Hinduism, in Tamil Nadu, believes in a [[Satan]]-like figure, [[Kroni]]. Kroni, according to Ayyavazhi is the primordial manifestation of evil and manifests in various forms of evil, i.e., [[Ravana]], [[Duryodhana]], etc., in different ages or [[yuga]s. In response to such manifestation of evil, believers, in Ayya-Vazhi religion believe that God, as [[Vishnu]] manifests in His [[avatar]]s, [[Rama]], [[Krishna]], to destroy evil. Eventually, the [[Ekam]] with the spirit (the spirit taken by Narayana only for incarnating in the world) of [[Narayana]] incarnates in the world as [[Ayya Vaikundar]] to destroy the final manifestaion of Kroni, [[Kaliyan]]. Kroni, the spirit of [[Kali Yuga]] is said to be omnipresent in this age and that is why one of the reasons, followers of Ayya Vazhi, like most Hindus, believe that the current yuga, Kali Yuga is so degraded. ===Buddhism=== A Devil-like figure in Buddhism is [[Mara (demon)|Mara]]. == Names of the devil == === The original names === Originally, only the epithet of &quot;the satan&quot; or &quot;the adversary&quot; was used to denote the character in the Hebrew deity's court that later became known as &quot;the Devil&quot;. The article was lost and this title became a proper name: '''Satan'''. There is no unambiguous basis for the Devil in the Torah, the Prophets, or the Writings. [[Zechariah]] 3:1--&quot;And he showed me Joshua the high priest standing before the angel of the Lord, and ha-satan standing at his right hand to resist him.&quot; This reading has since been erroneously interpreted by some to mean Satan, &quot;the Devil&quot;, but such is not the case. The [[Hebrew Bible]] views ha-satan as an angel ministering to the desires of God, acting as Chief Prosecutor. '''The tempter''': [[Matthew 4:3]]--&quot;And when the tempter came to him.&quot; None escape his temptations. He is continually soliciting men to sin. In Matthew 10:25 and 12:24, [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 3:22, and openly in [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 11:18-19 there is an implied connection between Satan and [[Beelzebub]] (originally a [[Semitic]] [[deity]] called Baal-zebul, one of the [[Baal]]s.) '''Beelzebub''' (lit. ''Lord of the Flies'') has now come to be analogous to Satan. '''The wicked one''': Matt. 13:19--&quot;Then cometh the wicked one.&quot; [[Matthew 6:13|Matt. 6:13]]; 1 John 5:19. This title suggests that Satan is one who is wicked himself. [[Abrahamic religion]]s generally regarded sin as a physical manifestation of opposition to God, and therefore evil; dissent only comes from the topic of 'where does sin come from?' In [[Gospel of John|John]] 12:31 and 14:30 Satan is called '''Prince of this World''' (Rex Mundi); this became a nickname for him. In 2 Corinthians 6:15 the Devil is referred as '''[[Belial]]'''. &quot;What agreement does Christ have with Belial?&quot; [[1 Peter]] 5:8--&quot;Your adversary the devil.&quot; By adversary is meant one who takes a stand against another. In the Christian worldview, Satan is the adversary of both God and humanity. '''The Devil, diabolos''': This name is ascribed to Satan at least 33 times in the Christian scriptures and indicates that Satan is an accuser or slanderer (Rev. 12:9). '''The [[European dragon|Dragon]]''' or '''The Old Serpent''': These epithets are used extensively in the [[Book of Revelation]]. '''The Beast''' (Book of Revelation 13:1-18) is a term John the Evangelist used to refer to a &quot;puppet&quot; of the dragon's (Satan); this name appears several times in the book of Revelation, and it became another nickname for Satan. '''[[Abaddon]]''' or '''[[Apollyon]]''': Referred to in Revelation 9:11, commonly interpreted as the name of Satan in Hebrew and [[Greek language|Greek]] respectively. However, the actual Abaddon mentioned in the [[Book of Revelation]] is the name of an angel &quot;holding the key to the Abyss&quot;, so the original text does not originally point to Satan. There are some who erroneously claim that the word 'devil' is from 'd'evil' -'of
e the [[limit (category theory)|limits and colimits]] of category theory. The terminology is somewhat confusing: inverse limits are limits, while direct limits are colimits. [[Category:Category theory]] [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[de:Limes (Kategorientheorie)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Interplanetary travel</title> <id>15111</id> <revision> <id>40168606</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T18:13:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nickshanks</username> <id>20152</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* [[Orbital mechanics]] of interplanetary travel */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">By definition, '''interplanetary travel''' is [[travel]] between bodies in a given star system. == Current achievements in interplanetary travel == NASA's [[Apollo program]] landed twelve people on the [[Moon]] and returned them to [[Earth]]: Apollo 11-17, except 13, i.e. six missions, each with three astronauts of which two landed on the Moon. [[unmanned space mission|Robot probes]] have been sent to fly past most of the major planets of the [[Solar system]]. The most distant probe spacecraft [[Pioneer 10]], [[Pioneer 11]], [[Voyager 1]] and [[Voyager 2]] are on course to leave the Solar system, but will cease to function long before reaching the [[Oort cloud]]. Robot landers such as [[Viking program|Viking]] and [[Mars Pathfinder |Pathfinder]] have already landed on the surface of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and several [[Venera]] and [[Vega program|Vega]] spacecraft have landed on the surface of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]. The [[NEAR Shoemaker]] orbiter successfully landed on the asteroid [[433 Eros]], even though it was not designed with this maneuver in mind. ==[[Orbital mechanics]] of interplanetary travel== To date, the only form of [[spacecraft propulsion]] used for interplanetary missions is the chemical [[rocket engine]]. The limitations of this engine dictate the trajectories and travel times required for interplanetary travel. All objects in a star system are in orbit around the star; if they were not, they would have &quot;left&quot; the system or fallen into the star long ago. This implies that one cannot simply point oneself at another planet and fly in that direction, because upon arrival the planet will be moving at an inappropriate relative velocity or may have moved altogether. For instance, if a [[spacecraft]] were to start from the Earth and fly to Mars, its final velocity will be close to Earth's orbital velocity which is much higher than that of Mars. This is because any spacecraft starting on a planet is also in orbit around the Sun, and a brief glance at the planetary speeds and distances demonstrates that the power of a chemical rocket pales in comparison to the relative speeds of the planets. In order to make interplanetary travel possible, a reduction in the total amount of energy needed to do so is required. For many years this meant using the [[Hohmann transfer orbit]]. Hohmann demonstrated that the lowest energy transfer between any two orbits is to elongate the orbit so that its apogee lies over the orbit in question. Once the spacecraft arrives, a second application of thrust will re-circularize the orbit at the new location. In the case of planetary transfers this means adjusting the spacecraft, originally in an orbit almost identical to Earth's, such that the [[apogee]] is on the far side of the Sun near the orbit of the other planet. A spacecraft traveling from Earth to Mars via this method will arrive near Mars orbit in approximately 18 months, but because the orbital velocity is greater when closer to the center of mass (ie. the Sun) and slower when farther from the center, the spacecraft will be travelling quite slowly and a small application of thrust is all that is needed. If the manoeuver is timed properly, Mars will be &quot;arriving&quot; under the spacecraft when this happens. The Hohmann transfer applies to any two orbits, not just those with planets involved. For instance it is the most common way to transfer satellites into [[geostationary orbit]], after first being &quot;parked&quot; in [[low earth orbit]]. However the Hohmann transfer takes an amount of time similar to 1/2 of the orbital period of the outer orbit, so in the case of the outer planets this is many years &amp;ndash; too long to wait. It is also based on the assumption that the points at both ends are massless, as in the case when transferring between two orbits around Earth for instance. With a planet at the destination end of the transfer, calculations become considerably more difficult. One technique, known as the [[gravitational slingshot]], uses the [[gravity]] of the planets to modify the path of the spacecraft without using fuel. In typical example, a spacecraft is sent to a distant planet on a path that is much faster than what the Hohmann transfer would call for. This would typically mean that it would arrive at the planet's orbit and continue past it. However if there is a planet between the departure point and the target, it can be used to bend the path toward the target, and in many cases the overall travel time is greatly reduced. A prime example of this are the two craft of the [[Voyager program]], which used slingshot effects to change trajectories several times in the outer solar system. This method is not easily applicable to Earth-Mars travel however, although it is possible to use other nearby planets such as [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] or even the [[Moon]] as slingshots. Another technique uses the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]] of the target planet to slow down. In this case the spacecraft is sent on a high-speed transfer, which would normally mean it would go right past its target upon arrival. By passing into the atmosphere this extra speed is lost, and the amount of energy lost to transport the weight of the required [[heat shield]] is considerably less than the weight of the rocket fuel that would be needed to provide the same amount of energy. This concept, known as [[aerobraking]], was first used on the [[Apollo program]] wherein the returning spacecraft did not bother to re-enter Earth orbit in a transfer, and instead re-entered immediately at the end of the journey. Similar systems are included on most basic plans for a manned mission to Mars. Recent advances in [[computing]] have allowed old mathematical solutions to be re-investigated, and have led to a new system for calculating even lower-cost transfers. Paths have been calculated which link the [[Lagrange points]] of the various planets into the so-called [[Interplanetary Transport Network]]. The transfers on this system are slower than Hohmann transfers, but use even less energy, and are particularly useful for sending spacecraft between the inner planets. ==Improved methods== There are a number of designs for more efficient spacecraft propulsion methods (as measured by [[specific impulse]]) that could, speed up interplanetary space missions greatly and allow greater design &quot;safety margins&quot; by reducing the imperative to make spacecraft lighter. If developed, such designs would use trajectories far different to Hohmann transfers. The most likely near-term development is that of electric propulsion, which uses an external source such as a [[nuclear reactor]] to generate [[electricity]], which is then used to accelerate a chemically inert propellant to speeds far higher than achieved in a chemical rocket. A prototype of this technology has already been used on NASA's [[Deep Space 1|Deep Space One]]. A more ambitious, nuclear-powered version was intended for an unmanned Jupiter mission, the [[Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter]], originally planned for launch sometime in the next decade. Due to a shift in priorities at NASA that favored manned space missions, the project lost funding in 2005, effectively cancelling the JIMO mission. See the [[spacecraft propulsion]] article for a discussion of a number of other technologies that could, in the medium to longer term, be the basis of interplanetary missions. Unlike the situation with [[interstellar travel]], the barriers to fast interplanetary travel involve engineering and economics rather than any basic physics. While manned interplanetary travel (with the arguable exception of the Apollo program) has not yet been achieved, a trip to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is probably feasible, even with chemical rocket propulsion, and could probably be achieved within a decade (at most two) if the funds were made available. [[NASA]]'s &quot;Design Reference Mission&quot; proposes a Mars exploration program costing $50 billion, but others have made detailed proposals with projected costs much less (see [[Mars Direct]]).</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Interference</title> <id>15112</id> <revision> <id>39683851</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T03:37:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Falcorian</username> <id>153128</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Adding text to picture.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[image:wavepanel.png|right|frame|'''Interference of two circular waves''' - Wavelength (decreasing bottom to top) and Wave centers distance (increasing to the right). Absolute value snapshots of the (real-valued, scalar) wave field. As time progresses, the wave fronts would move outwards from the two centers, but the dark regions (destructive interference) stay fixed.]] '''Interference''' is the [[Superposition principle|superposition]] of two or more [[wave]]s resulting in a new wave pattern. As most commonly used, the term usually refers to the interference of waves which are [[correlated]] or [[Coherence (physics)|coherent]] with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same [[frequency]]. Two non-monochrom
lorado|Winter Park]] Ski Resort. Denver's early years as a major train hub of the west are still very visible today. Trains stop in Denver at historic [[Union Station (Denver)|Union Station]], where travelers can meet up with RTD's 16th Street Free MallRide or use light rail to tour the city. === Airports === *[[Denver International Airport]], the sixth busiest airport in the world, fifth in the U.S. *former [[Stapleton International Airport]] (replaced by Denver International Airport and closed in [[1995]]) *former [[Lowry Air Force Base]] (flights stopped around [[1965]]) ==Denver's sister cities== Denver is the second oldest [[sister city]] in the [[United States]] in its relationship with [[Brest, France]], started in 1948. In 1947, Amanda Knecht, a teacher at East High School, visited WWII ravaged Brest. When she came back, she shared her experiences in the city with her students, and her class raised $32,000 in change to help rebuild the children's wing of Brest's hospital. The gift was proceeded with the development of the sister city program with Brest. Denver's [[Sister Cities International]] develops programs to foster relations between all the cities. All of Denver's sister cities have parks in the city named after them (except the newest sister city, [[Ulaanbaatar]], [[Mongolia]], which will eventually have its own park). The list of Denver's sister (aka twinned) cities includes [[Axum]] ([[Ethiopia]]), [[Brest, France|Brest]] ([[France]]), [[Chennai]] ([[India]]), [[Cuernavaca]] ([[Mexico]]), [[Karmiel]] ([[Israel]]), [[Kunming]] ([[China]]), [[Nairobi]] ([[Kenya]]), [[Potenza]] ([[Italy]]), [[Takayama]] ([[Japan]]), and [[Ulaanbaatar]] ([[Mongolia]]). ==Education== ===Public Schools=== Denver's public schools are operated by [[Denver Public Schools]]. See their Wikipedia page for more information. ===Colleges and universities=== Denver's many colleges and universities range in age and study programs. The city boasts [[Catholic]] and [[Jewish]] institutions, as well as a well respected health sciences school, and colleges set in downtown and around the suburbs. *[[University of Denver]] *[[Metropolitan State College of Denver]] *[[University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center]] (which shares a campus with the [[Metropolitan State College of Denver]] and the [[Community College of Denver]]) *[[Johnson &amp; Wales University]] *[[Regis University]] *[[Community College of Denver]] *[[Art Institute Of Colorado]] *[[CollegeAmerica-Denver]] *[[Denver Automotive &amp; Diesel College]] *[[Heritage College &amp; Heritage Institute|Heritage College]] *[[National American University: Denver]] *[[Westwood College Of Technology]] (which also has a campus in south Denver) *[[Yeshiva Toras Chaim Talmudical Seminary]] == Culture == [[Image:Denver mosaic.jpg|thumb|left|600px|The Rocky Mountains west of Denver help people navigate the city by serving as a directional reference.]] &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt; === Landmarks === Denver hosts a great and rich history of culture, and continues to remain a true testament to &quot;Colorful Colorado&quot;. Landmarks and historical points of interest include: [[Image:Danielsfisher.png|150px|left|thumbnail|The 16th Street Mall, along with the D&amp;F Tower, reminding visitors of Denver's origins]] *[[16th Street Mall]], a pedestrian-only street located in the middle of Downtown Denver and home to many shopping, residential, and office buildings. *[[Avenue Theater]], a professional theater located in the Downtown Denver vicinity. *[[Museum of the Black American West]], reflects the history of [[African Americans]] in the West and Denver. *[[Brown Palace Hotel]], a historic hotel that has hosted many celebrities, dignitaries, and other important people *[[Buckhorn Exchange]], Denver's oldest restaurant, a historic old-west [[steakhouse]] [[Image:Cathedralimmaculateconception.jpg|150px|right|]] *[[Cathedral Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, Denver|Cathedral Basilica of the Immaculate Conception]] is where Pope John Paul II gave mass twice in [[August]], [[1993]] *[[Civic Center, Denver|Civic Center]], a [[neoclassical]] park, and the cultural, art and governmental center of Denver *[[Colorado Convention Center]] *[[Colorado State Capitol]] *[[Confluence Park]], where the city started at the confluence of the [[South Platte River|South Platte]] and [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]]. *[[Daniels &amp; Fisher Tower|D&amp;F Tower]], when it was built in [[1910]], it became the tallest building west of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] *[[Denver's Downtown Aquarium]] *[[Denver Art Museum]], the largest art museum between Kansas City and San Francisco *[[Denver Botanic Gardens]] *[[Denver Mint]], the single largest producer of coins in the world *[[Denver Museum of Nature and Science]] *[[Denver Performing Arts Complex]] — The second largest performing arts center in the US after [[New York City]]'s [[Lincoln Center]]. [[Image:DPL_Central_Branch.JPG|frame|The central branch of the '''Denver Public Library''', designed by [[Michael Graves]].]] *[[Denver Public Library]], serving Denver's educational and entertainment needs from 23 locations and a bookmobile. *Denver Zoo *[[Ellie Caulkins Opera House]] *[[Four Mile House]], an important stop on the [[Cherokee Trail]] and the oldest standing residential building in the metropolitan area *[[Kirkland Museum of Fine &amp; Decorative Art]], A museum featuring works of [[Vance Kirkland]] and others. *[[Molly Brown House]], where [[Molly Brown]] lived in Denver *[[Red Rocks]], This Denver owned park and outdoor amphitheater 15 miles west of Denver near [[Morrison, CO]] is world famous for its awe-inspiring red rock formations and its amphitheater with near perfect acoustics that has featured famous concerts by [[U2]], [[The Beatles]], [[Neil Young]] and others. *[[Richthofen Castle]], a [[castle]] built by the uncle and godfather of the [[Red Baron]] *[[Six Flags Elitch Gardens]] - A rare downtown [[Amusement Park]] *[[Tattered Cover]], a very popular independent bookstore with two locations in Denver ([[LoDo]], and [[Cherry Creek]]), and one in the suburb of [[Highlands Ranch, Colorado|Highlands Ranch]]. [[Image:DSCN5726 denverunionstationfront e.jpg|250px|left|Hisotric Union Station]] *[[Union Station (Denver)|Union Station]], a magnificent three-story building and the hub of the new [[Fastracks|FasTracks]] [[commuter rail]] network. *[[Wells Fargo Center (Denver)|Wells Fargo Center]], a.k.a. the &quot;cash register&quot; or &quot;mailbox&quot; building, one of the city's most identifiable buildings. ===Music=== See [[Music in Denver]]. === Sports === It is well known that Denver is a true blue sports town. The [[Denver Broncos]] of the [[NFL]], particularly have been able to pack in crowds of nearly 70,000 since their AFL origins c. 1959-1966. In the 1980s and '90s, one of the top priorities of Mayor [[Federico Peña]] was the construction of [[Coors Field]], and bringing major league baseball to the city and county, the [[Colorado Rockies]]. For sports loving America, Denver is more than just the capital of Colorado. {{seealso|U.S. cities with teams from four major sports}} ====Sports teams==== &lt;!-- Table Header --&gt; &lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ADADAD&quot;&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;300px&quot;&gt;'''''Club'''''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Sport'''''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Founded'''''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''League'''''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Venue'''''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Logo'''''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;!-- Rows --&gt; &lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Denver Broncos]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[American Football|Football]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[1960]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[National Football League]]; [[American Football Conference|AFC]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[INVESCO Field at Mile High]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:DenverBroncos_100.png|50px|Denver Broncos Logo]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Colorado Rockies]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Baseball]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[1993]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Major League Baseball]]; [[National League|NL]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Coors Field]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:ColoradoRockies_100.png|50px|Colorado Rockies Logo]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Colorado Avalanche]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Ice Hockey]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[1995]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[National Hockey League]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Pepsi Center]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:Colorado_Avalanche.gif|50px|Colorado Avalanche Logo]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Denver Nuggets]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Basketball]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[1967]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&
a place humans go upon death are even fewer. According to most depictions, upon death, Jews who have sinned spend twelve miserable months in ''gehenna'' before going to heaven, although some accounts suggest that certain classes of sinners never go to heaven. In short, Judaism does not have a notion of hell as a place ruled by Satan (God's dominion is total, and Satan is but one of God's angels), and does not have a notion of eternal damnation. The reason sinful Jews spend eleven months in ''gehenna'' is not so much a form of punishment but rather a period of purification necessary before entering heaven, or before being physically resurrected in the Messianic Age. Christians in general hold that [[Hell]] is a fiery place of torment that never ceases. A small minority believe it is not permanent and that those who go there will eventualy be extinguished. Those who hold that it never ceases also believe that those who die go directly to [[Heaven]] or hell, whereas those who see it as transitory believe that the dead are unconscious until the judgment day after which some inherit immortality and live on the restored earth (paradise) and reprobates go for a period of torment in hell. Many Christians see heaven and hell as rewards and punishments necessary to motivate good and bad behavior. Although the [[Pharisees]] and [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbis]] believed that good people would be rewarded in a &quot;world to come,&quot; the notion that this promise should motivate good behavior is anathema in Judaism. Thus, [[Maimonides]] wrote: :A man should not say: I shall carry out the precepts of the Torah and study her wisdom in order to receive all the blessings written therein or in order to merit the life of the World to Come and I shall keep away from the sins forbidden by the Torah in order to be spared the curses mentioned in the Torah or in order not to be cut off from the life of the World to Come. It is not proper to serve God in this fashion. For one sho serves thus serves out of fear. Such as way is not that of the prophets and sages. Only the ignorant, and the women and children serve god in this way. These are trained to serve out of fear until they obtain sufficient knowledge to serve out of love. One who serves God out of love studies the Torah and practices the precepts and walks in the way of wisdom for no ulterior motive at all, neither out of fear of evil nor in order to acquire the good, but follows the truth because it is true and the good will follow the merit of attaining to it. It is the stage of Abraham our father whom the Holy One, blessed be He, called &quot;My friend&quot; ([[Isaiah]] 41:8 &amp;ndash; ''ohavi'' = the one who loves me) because he served out of love alone. It is regarding this stage that the Holy One, Blessed be He, commanded us through Moses, as it is said: &quot;You shall love the Lord your God&quot; ([[Deuteronomy]] 6:5). When man loves God with a love that is fitting he automatically carries out all the precepts of love. (Maimonides ''Yad'' Chapter 10, quoted in Jacobs 1973: 159) == The Messiah == Jews believe that a descendant of King [[David]] will one day appear to restore the Kingdom of [[Israel]]. Jews refer to this person as [[Jewish eschatology|Moshiach]], translated as [[messiah]] in English and [[messiah|Christos]] in Greek. The Hebrew word 'moshiach' (messiah) means 'anointed one,' and refers to a mortal human being. The ''moshiach'' is held to be a human being who will be a descendant of [[King David]], and who will usher in an era of peace, prosperity, and spiritual understanding for Israel and all the nations of the world. The traditional Jewish understanding of the messiah is fully human, born of human parents, without any supernatural element, and is best elucidated by [[Maimonides]] (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon), in his commentary on the [[Talmud]]. The messiah is expected to have a relationship with God similar to that of the [[Nevi'im|prophets]] of the [[Tanakh]]. In brief, he holds that the job description, as such, is this: :All of the people Israel will come back to Torah; The people of Israel with be gathered back to the land of Israel; The [[Temple in Jerusalem]] will be rebuilt; Israel will live among the nations as an equal, and will be strong enough to defend herself; Eventually, war, hatred and famine will end, and an era of peace and prosperity will come upon the Earth. He adds: :&quot;And if a king shall stand up from among the House of David, studying Torah and indulging in commandments like his father David, according to the written and oral Torah, and he will coerce all Israel to follow it and to strengthen its weak points, and will fight The Lord's wars, this one is to be treated as if he were the anointed one. If he succeeded [and won all nations surrounding him. Old prints and mss.] and built a Holy Temple in its proper place and gathered the strayed ones of Israel together, this is indeed the anointed one for certain, and he will mend the entire world to worship the Lord together ... But if he did not succeed until now, or if he was killed, it becomes known that he is not this one of whom the Torah had promised us, and he is indeed like all [other] proper and wholesome kings of the House of David who died.&quot; He also clarified the nature of the Messiah: :&quot;Do not imagine that the anointed King must perform miracles and signs and create new things in the world or resurrect the dead and so on. The matter is not so: For [[Rabbi Akiba]] was a great scholar of the sages of the [[Mishnah]], and he was the assistant-warrior of the king Ben Coziba &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Simon bar Kokhba]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; ... He and all the Sages of his generation deemed him the anointed king, until he was killed by sins; only since he was killed, they knew that he was not. The Sages asked him neither a miracle nor a sign...&quot; (Main article: ''[[Moshiach]]'') The Christian view of Jesus goes beyond such claims. Although Jews and Christians both refer to biblical prophecies concerning the coming of the messiah, they interpret them differently. For Christians, the messiah, Jesus Christ, is fully human and fully divine. In this view, Jesus offers salvation to all humans by his self-sacrifice. He is the divine [[Logos|Word of God]] who clothes himself in our humanity, so that human beings can be participants in divine life. Jesus sits in heaven at the right hand of God and will judge humanity by his very presence in the [[end of days]]. The liberation and peace brought by the messiah, in Christian terms, is primarily the result of his manifesting the truth of God in all spheres of life. Prophetic references to the future glory of Jerusalem are not interpreted in merely political or geographical terms, but as indications of the restoration of all creation that his unveiled presence will bring about. Christian readings of the Hebrew Bible find hundreds of references to Jesus. This takes the form in some cases of specific prophesy, but in most cases of foreshadowing by types or forerunners. Traditionally, most Christian readings of the Bible maintained that almost every prophecy was actually about the coming of Jesus, if read corectly. In other words, Christianity traditionally has taught that the entire Old Testament of the Bible was a prophecy about the coming of Jesus. To learn more about the differences between these two concepts, see [[messiah]], [[Jewish messiah]], and [[Jesus]]. === Catholic views === [[Catholicism]] traditionally taught that &quot;[[Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus|there is no salvation outside the Church]]&quot;, which some, particularly [[Feenyism|Fr. Feeney]] in the 19th century, interpreted as saying only Catholics can be saved. However, the Catholic Church's position is a bit more nuanced than that. The Catholic Church teaches that God's intended way of saving the human race is through the Catholic Church, and there is no source of saving grace which is not already contained within the Church. It should be noted that in this sense, ''any'' church founded on Peter's rock, may properly be called a &quot;Catholic&quot; Church - Roman Catholic is but one of these though the largest. At the same time, it does not deny the possibility that those not visibly members of the Church may attain salvation as well. Jesus is the path of salvation, and whilst some know they are on that path others can travel the same Way without knowing the name of the street they are on. In recent times, this teaching has been most notably expressed in the encyclicals [[Singulari Quidem]] (1856), [[Quanto Conficiamur Moerore]] (1863) and [[Dominus Iesus]] (2000). The latter document has taken criticism for claiming that non-Christians are in a &quot;gravely deficient situation&quot; as compared to Catholics. [[Pope John Paul II]] on [[October 2]] of 2000 emphasized that this document did not say that non-Christians were actively denied salvation: &quot;...this confession does not deny salvation to non-Christians, but points to its ultimate source in Christ, in whom man and God are united&quot;. The Pope then, on [[December 6]], issued a statement to further emphasize that the Church continued to support its traditional stance that salvation was available to believers of other faiths: &quot;The gospel teaches us that those who live in accordance with the [[Beatitudes]]--the poor in spirit, the pure of heart, those who bear lovingly the sufferings of life--will enter God's kingdom.&quot; He further added, &quot;All who seek God with a sincere heart, including those who do not know Christ and his church, contribute under the influence of Grace to the building of this Kingdom.&quot; On [[August 13]], [[2002]], [[United States|American]] Catholic bishops issued a joint statement with leaders of [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Conservative Judaism]], called &quot;Reflections on Covenant and Mission&quot;, which af
evisions:''' 22,000 (1997) The state broadcaster is '''[[Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa]]''' or KNR, which provides one television and one radio service nationwide. '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 1 (1999) '''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GL :''See also :'' [[Greenland]] {{greenland-stub}} [[Category:Communications by country|Greenland]] [[Category:Greenland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transport in Greenland</title> <id>12125</id> <revision> <id>40058772</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:59:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gcapp1959</username> <id>298824</id> </contributor> <comment>typo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''transport''' system in '''[[Greenland]]''' is very unusual in that it has no railways, no inland waterways and virtually no roads between towns. There is a total of 150 km of roads in the entire country; 60 km of the roads are paved. There is only one pair of towns that are connected by a road, Ivittuut and Kangilinnguit. The rest are isolated. Historically the major means of transportation have been by boat round the coasts of the country in summer and by [[dog sled]] in winter, particularly in the north and east. There are ports at [[Kangerluarsoruseq]], [[Kangerlussuaq]], [[Nanortalik]], [[Narsarsuaq]], [[Nuuk]] (Godthåb) and [[Sisimiut]]. Following the ceding of operational control of Greenland to the [[United States]] by [[Denmark]] for the period in which that country was occupied by [[Germany]] during [[World War II]], [[airport]]s were built on the island. The airports were codenamed Bluie West One through to Bluie West Eight on the west of the island and Bluie East One to Bluie East Four on the eastern side. The largest of those airports, Bluie West Eight, now renamed [[Kangerlussuaq Airport]], remains the international hub for travel to Greenland, as it is the only airport that has a large enough runway to service [[jumbo jet]]s. American authorities at one time entertained the idea of building a road from Kangerlussuaq to the second largest airport, in Narsarsuaq, several hundred kilometres to the south. The idea was abandoned after feasibility studies failed to prove it was possible. Greenland now has a total of 18 airstrips, 14 of which are paved. All internal flights are operated by [[Air Greenland]]. The name was anglicized in 2002 from the [[Danish language|Danish]] Grønlandsfly. International flights are limited to thrice weekly flights from [[Copenhagen]] to Kangerlussuaq and also to Narsarsauq with Air Greenland. Icelandair fly from [[Reykjavík]] to Narsarsuaq and offer &quot;day trips to the wilderness&quot; from Reykjavík to [[Kulusuk]] on the east coast. ==See also== *[[Greenland]] [[Category:Transportation in Greenland| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Greenland</title> <id>12126</id> <revision> <id>41604527</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:11:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dismas</username> <id>152983</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>make link direct</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Greenland Homerule]] does not have control of '''[[Greenland]]'s military or foreign affairs'''. The [[Defense (military)|defense]] of [[Greenland]] is therefore the responsibility of [[Denmark]]. However, the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) does realize the [[strategy|strategic]] value of Greenland, and may provide somewhat to its defense (the novel ''[[Red Storm Rising]]'' depicts such a scenario). Greenland houses [[United States|America]]n and Danish military bases: the best-known is the American [[Thule Air Base]]. The Danish military has a dog sledge patrol called [[Sirius-patruljen]], which is headquartered in [[Daneborg]]. Greenland also has a [[coastguard]] that inspects the Greenlandic coast and carries out search and rescue operations. ==External links== [http://members.eunet.at/castaway/stations/gro-stations.html Former and present military locations] {{Mil-stub}} {{Greenland-stub}} [[Category:Militaries|Greenland]] [[Category:Greenland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Greenland</title> <id>12127</id> <revision> <id>35601576</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T22:57:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Arcturus</username> <id>66675</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Minor copyedit</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Being part of the Kingdom of [[Denmark]], the '''foreign relations of Greenland''' are handled in cooperation with the Danish Government and [[Greenlandic home rule authority]]. Unlike Denmark proper, Greenland is no longer part of the [[European Union]]. '''Disputes - international:''' [[Qaanaaq]] (formerly Thule) is a sensitive area. Uncontested dispute with [[Canada]] over [[Hans Island]] sovereignty in the Kennedy Channel between Canadian [[Ellesmere Island]] and [[Greenland]]. :''See also :'' [[Greenland]] {{greenland-stub}} [[Category:Greenland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Grenada</title> <id>12128</id> <revision> <id>41861996</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:19:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Macellarius</username> <id>876801</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Demographics */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{Grenada infobox}} '''Grenada''' is an [[island nation]] in the southeastern [[Caribbean Sea]] including the southern [[Grenadines]]. Grenada is the second-smallest independent country in the [[Western Hemisphere]] (after [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]). It is located north of [[Trinidad and Tobago]], and south of [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]. == History == ''Main article: [[History of Grenada]]'' The recorded history of Grenada begins in [[1498]], when [[Christopher Columbus]] first sighted the island and named it ''Conception''. At the time of settlement, the island was occupied either by [[Caribs|Island Caribs]] (Kalinago) or by their mainland cousins, the Kariña. After a failed [[Kingdom of England|English]] settlement attempt, the [[France|French]] 'purchased' the island from the indigenous people in [[1650]], which resulted in warfare with the Caribs of [[Dominica]] and [[St. Vincent]] who feared losing their trade routes to the mainland. The island was ceded to the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1763]] by the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]]. Grenada was made a [[Crown Colony]] in [[1877]]. The island was a province of the short-lived [[West Indies Federation]] from [[1958]] to [[1962]]. In 1967 Grenada attained the position of &quot;Associated State of the United Kingdom&quot;, which meant that Grenada was now responsible for her own internal affairs, and the UK was responsible for her defence and foreign affairs. Independence was granted in [[1974]] under the leadership of the then [[Eric Gairy|Premier Sir Eric Matthew Gairy]], who became the first [[Prime Minister of Grenada]]. Eric Gairy's government became increasingly authoritarian and dictatorial, prompting a ''[[Coup d'état|coup d'état]]'' in March [[1979]] by the charismatic and popular left-wing leader of the [[New Jewel Movement]], [[Maurice Bishop]]. Bishop's failure to allow elections, coupled with his [[Marxist-Leninist]] socialism and cooperation with communist [[Cuba]] did not sit well with the country's neighbours, including [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Barbados]], [[Dominica]] and the [[United States]]. A power struggle developed between Bishop and a [[Stalinist]] sect within the ruling [[People's Revolutionary Government (PRG)]], loyal to the more hardline communist ideologue and co-founder of the NJM, [[Bernard Coard]]. This led to Bishop's house arrest; he and many others were eventually executed at Fort George on [[October 19]], [[1983]]. Six days later, the island was invaded by forces from the United States at the behest of [[Eugenia Charles|Dame Eugenia Charles]], of Dominica. Five other Caribbean nations participated with Dominica and the USA in the campaign, called [[Operation Urgent Fury]]. Although the [[Governor-General]], [[Paul Scoon|Sir Paul Scoon]] later stated that he had requested the invasion, the governments of the United Kingdom and Trinidad and Tobago expressed anger at having not been consulted. The forces quickly captured the ringleaders and hundreds of Cuban &quot;advisors&quot; (most of whom were labourers working on the construction of a major [[airport]] for the island, which the British completed a year later). A publicised tactical concern of the United States was the safe recovery of U.S. [[national]]s enrolled at [[St. George's University]]. However, it should be noted that the island of Grenada could have become a corner of a triangle comprised also of Cuba and Nicaragua, both also declared enemies of US interests at that time. These three countries could have militarily controlled the deep water passages, thereby controlling the movement of oil from [[Venezuela]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]] (supplies then considered vital by US military planners). In 2000-2002 much of the controversy of the late 1970s and early 1980s was once again brought into the public consciousness with the opening of the truth and reconciliation commission. The commission was chaired by a Catholic priest, [[Mark Haynes|Friar Mark Haynes]], and was tasked with uncovering injustices arising from the PRA, Bishop's regime, and before. It held a number of hearings around the country. The commission was formed, bizarrely, because of a school project. [[Robert Fanovich|Brother Robert Fanovich]], head of Presentation Brothers' College (PBC) in St. George's tasked some of his senior students with conducting a research project into the era and specifically into the fact tha
[1968]] - [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]] (a system for which [[hypertext]] and the [[computer mouse]] were developed) is publicly demonstrated for the first time in [[San Francisco]]. *[[1969]] - An [[Olympic Airlines|Olympic Airways DC-6B crashes]] near [[Athens]] during a storm, killing 93 people. *[[1972]] - [[United Airlines Flight 533]] crashes near [[Chicago Midway Airport]], killing 45 people. *[[1976]] - [[The Eagles]] release the album ''[[Hotel California]]''. *[[1980]] - [[John Lennon]] is murdered by [[Mark David Chapman]] in [[New York City]]. *[[1981]] - [[No. 21 Mine explosion]] in [[Whitwell, Tennessee]] kills 13. *[[1987]] - The [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]] is signed. *1987 - The [[Queen Street Massacre]]: Frank Vitkovic shoots and kills 8 people at the offices of [[Australia Post]] in [[Melbourne, Australia]] before being killed himself. *[[1989]] - Dave S. Clean Date (starts his journey of recovery). *[[1991]] - The leaders of [[Russia]], [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]] sign an agreement dissolving the [[Soviet Union]] and establishing the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]. *1991 - The [[Romanian Constitution]] is adopted in a referendum. *[[1993]] - The [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) is signed into law by US President [[Bill Clinton]]. *[[1994]] - US President [[Bill Clinton]] signs a bill enacting [[United States]] participation in the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]. *[[1998]] - [[Tadjena massacre]]: 81 people are killed by armed groups in [[Algeria]]. *[[2004]] - The [[Cuzco Declaration]] is signed in [[Cuzco]], [[Peru]], establishing the [[South American Community of Nations]]. *2004 - The population of the Australian state of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] reaches 5 million for the first time. *2004 - Crazed [[Pantera]] fan [[Nathan Gale]] shoots and kills Pantera guitarist [[Dimebag Darrell]] at a night club in [[Columbus, Ohio]]. *[[2005]] - [[Southwest Airlines Flight 1248]] slides off the runway at [[Chicago Midway Airport]], killing a 6-year-old boy and injuring 11 other people. *2005 - [[Ante Gotovina]], Croatian army general accused of war crimes, was captured in the [[Playa de las Americas, Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] by the Spanish police ==Births== *[[65 BC]] - [[Horace]], Roman poet (d. [[8 BC]]) *[[1542]] - [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]] (d. [[1587]]) *[[1626]] - Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] (d. [[1689]]) *[[1678]] - [[Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole of Wolterton]], English diplomat (d. [[1757]]) *[[1708]] - [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1765]]) *[[1730]] - [[Jan Ingenhousz]], Dutch-born British physiologist and botanist (d. [[1799]]) *[[1765]] - [[Eli Whitney]], American inventor (d. [[1825]]) *[[1815]] - [[Adolph Menzel]], German painter and graphic artist (d. [[1905]]) *[[1816]] - [[August Belmont, Sr.]], Prussian-born American financier (d. [[1890]]) *[[1832]] - [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]], Norwegian author and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1910]]) *[[1848]] - [[Joel Chandler Harris]], American author and folklorist (d. [[1908]]) *[[1861]] - [[William C. Durant]], American automobile pioneer (d. [[1947]]) *1861 - [[Aristide Maillol]], French sculptor (d. [[1944]]) *[[1862]] - [[Georges Feydeau]], French playwright (d. [[1921]]) *[[1864]] - [[Camille Claudel]], French graphic artist (d. [[1943]]) *[[1865]] - [[Jean Sibelius]], Finnish composer (d. [[1957]]) *[[1886]] - [[Diego Rivera]], Mexican painter (d. [[1957]]) *[[1890]] - [[Bohuslav Martinů]], Czech composer (d. [[1959]]) *[[1894]] - [[James Thurber]], American writer (d. [[1961]]) *[[1911]] - [[Lee J. Cobb]], American actor (d. [[1976]]) *[[1913]] - [[Delmore Schwartz]], American Poet (d. [[1966]]) *[[1915]] - [[Ernest Lehman]], American screenwriter (d. [[2005]]) *[[1918]] - [[Gérard Souzay]], French baritone (d. [[2004]]) *[[1919]] - [[Peter Tali Coleman]], American politician (d. [[1997]]) *[[1923]] - [[Rudolph Pariser]], Chinese-born American chemist *[[1925]] - [[Sammy Davis Jr.]], American actor and singer (d. [[1990]]) *[[1927]] - [[Vladimir Shatalov]], Soviet Union-born cosmonaut *[[1930]] - [[Maximilian Schell]], Austrian-born Swiss actor, film director, and author *[[1933]] - [[Flip Wilson]], American comedian (d. [[1998]]) *[[1936]] - [[David Carradine]], American actor *[[1937]] - [[James MacArthur]], American actor *1937 - [[Arne Næss Jr.]], Norwegian mountain climber and businessman (d. [[2004]]) *[[1939]] - Sir [[James Galway]], Northern Irish flautist *[[1943]] - [[Jim Morrison]], American singer ([[The Doors]]) (d. [[1971]]) *1943 - [[Mary Woronov]], American actress *[[1947]] - [[Gregg Allman]], American musician *1947 - [[Thomas R. Cech]], American chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1948]] - [[Gary Thain]], New Zealand bassist ([[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]]) (d. [[1975]] *[[1949]] - [[Robert Sternberg]], Proposed the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence *[[1950]] - [[Rick Baker]], American film makeup artist *[[1951]] - [[Jan Eggum]], Norwegian singer-songwriter *[[1953]] - [[Kim Basinger]], American actress *[[1956]] - [[Warren Cuccurullo]], American musician *[[1957]] - [[Phil Collen]], British guitarist ([[Def Leppard]]) *[[1961]] - [[Ann Coulter]], American author, political commentator, and attorney *[[1962]] - [[Marty Friedman (guitarist)|Marty Friedman]], American guitarist *[[1964]] - [[Teri Hatcher]], American actress *[[1966]] - [[Sinéad O'Connor]], Irish musician *[[1968]] - [[Mike Mussina]], American baseball player *[[1973]] - [[Corey Taylor]], American singer ([[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]]) *[[1975]] - [[Kevin Harvick]], American NASCAR driver *[[1976]] - [[Dominic Monaghan]], German-born British actor *1976 - [[Naimee Coleman]], Irish singer and songwriter *[[1978]] - [[Ian Somerhalder]], American actor *1978 - [[Vernon Wells (baseball player)|Vernon Wells]], American baseball player *[[1982]] - [[Michael Essien]], [[Ghana national football team|Ghanaian]] international footballer *[[1986]] - [[Amir Khan (boxer)|Amir Khan]], British boxer *[[1993]] - [[AnnaSophia Robb]], American child actress ==Deaths== *[[899]] - [[Arnulf of Carinthia]] (b. [[850]]) *[[1626]] - [[John Davies (poet)|John Davies]], English poet (b. [[1569]]) *[[1632]] - [[Philippe van Lansberge]], Flemish astronomer (b. [[1561]]) *[[1638]] - [[Ivan Gundulic]], Croatian poet (b. [[1589]]) *[[1643]] - [[John Pym]], English statesman (b. [[1583]]) *[[1649]] - [[Noël Chabanel]], French Jesuit missionary (b. [[1613]]) *[[1680]] - [[Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester]], English politician (b. [[1606]]) *[[1691]] - [[Richard Baxter]], English clergyman (b. [[1615]]) *[[1695]] - [[Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville]], French orientalist (b. [[1625]]) *[[1709]] - [[Thomas Corneille]], French dramatist (b. [[1625]]) *[[1722]] - [[Liselotte von der Pfalz]], [[Duchess of Orléans]] and sister-in-law of King [[Louis XIV of France]] (b. [[1652]]) *[[1745]] - [[Etienne Fourmont]], French orientalist (b. [[1683]]) *[[1744]] - [[Marie-Anne de Mailly-Nesle duchess de Châteauroux|Marie-Anne de Mailly-Nesle, Duchess de Châteauroux]], French mistress of King [[Louis XV of France]] (b. [[1717]]) *[[1746]] - [[Charles Radclyffe]], British politician (b. [[1693]]) *[[1756]] - [[William Stanhope, 1st Earl of Harrington]], British statesman and diplomat *[[1768]] - [[Jean Denis Attiret]], French Jesuit missionary and painter (b. [[1702]]) *[[1830]] - [[Benjamin Constant]], Swiss writer (b. [[1767]]) *[[1859]] - [[Thomas de Quincey]], British author (b. [[1785]]) *[[1864]] - [[George Boole]], British mathematician and philosopher, inventor of Boolean algebra (b. [[1815]]) *[[1907]] - King [[Oscar II of Sweden]] (b. [[1829]]) *[[1917]] - [[Mendele Moykher Sforim]], Russian writer (b. [[1836]]) *[[1952]] - [[Charles Lightoller]], British second officer on the Titanic (b. [[1874]]) *[[1958]] - [[Tris Speaker]], American baseball player (b. [[1888]]) *[[1963]] - Field Marshal [[Sarit Dhanarajata]], [[Prime Minister of Thailand]] (b. [[1908]]) *[[1978]] - [[Golda Meir]], Russian-born [[Prime Minister of Israel]] (b. [[1898]]) *[[1980]] - [[John Lennon]], British musician, singer, and songwriter (b. [[1940]]) *1980 - [[Darby Crash]], American singer and songwriter ([[The Germs]]) (b. [[1958]]) *[[1982]] - [[Marty Robbins]], American singer (b. [[1925]]) *[[1983]] - [[Slim Pickens]], American actor (b. [[1919]]) *[[1984]] - [[Luther Adler]], American actor (b. [[1903]]) *[[1992]] - [[William Shawn]], American magazine editor (b. [[1917]]) *[[1994]] - [[Tom Jobim]], Brazilian composer and arranger (b. [[1927]]) *[[1999]] - [[Kuczka Péter]], Hungarian writer, poet, and science fiction editor (b. [[1923]]) *[[2001]] - [[Don Tennant]], American advertising executive (b. [[1922]]) *[[2003]] - [[Rubén González]], Cuban pianist ([[Buena Vista Social Club]]) *2003 - [[Hans Hotter]], German bass-baritone (b. [[1909]]) *[[2004]] - [[Dimebag Darrell]] (Darrell Abbott), American guitarist (b. [[1966]]) *[[2005]] - [[Georgiy Zhzhonov]] [[Russia]]n actor and author (b. [[1915]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Buddhism]] - The [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] of [[Gautama Buddha]] * [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - The solemnity of the [[Immaculate Conception]] of the Virgin Mary: a [[Holy Day of Obligation]] * Also see [[December 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]] * [[Bulgaria]] - Day of the Student (studentski praznik) * [[Italy]] - In [[Milan]], the [[opera]] season starts. * [[Malta]] - Public Holiday. * [[Holidays in Romania|Romania]] - [[Constitution Day]] * Afflux ([[Discordian calendar|50 Aftermath]]) ([[Discordianism]]) * [[Panama]] - Mother's Day ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/8 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[December 7]] - [[December 9]] - [[November 8]] - [[January 8]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:8 Desember]] [[ar:8 ديسمبر]] [[an
itings of St. Augustine,Hail Satan. * ''[[The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity]]'', by Jeffrey Burton Russell (Meridian, New York 1977) is &quot;a history of the personification of evil&quot; which, to make things clear, he calls &quot;the Devil&quot;. Accessible and engaging, full of photographs illustrating the text, this is the first of a four volume series on the history of the concept of the Devil. The following volumes are, Satan: The Early Christian Tradition, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages, and Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World. * ''[[The Devil in Legend and Literature]]'', by Maximilian Rudwin (Open Court, La Salle, Illinois, 1931, 1959) is a compendium of &quot;the secular and sacred adventures of Satan&quot;. Engaging, wide-ranging and good-humored (and out-of-print for thirty years), this &quot;classic&quot; was re-printed in 1989. ==See also== *[[Antichrist]] *[[The Devil (Tarot card)]] *[[Devil worship]] *[[False prophet]] *[[Fiend (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)]] *[[Hierarchy of devils]] *[[Names of the demons]] *[[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] *[[Robert the Devil]] *[[Samael]] *[[Satanic Ritual Abuse]] *[[Tasmanian Devil]] ==External links== *[http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/devil.htm The Devil - Unjustly Maligned] [[Category:Christian mythology]] [[Category:Demons]] [[Category:Jewish mythology]] [[Category:Mythology]] [[Category:Abrahamic mythology]] [[ca:Dimoni]] [[de:Teufel]] [[eo:Satano]] [[es:Diablo]] [[fr:Diable]] [[he:&amp;#1513;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1503;]] [[id:Iblis]] [[ja:&amp;#24746;&amp;#39764;]] [[kw:Dyowl]] [[mk:Ѓавол]] [[nl:Duivel]] [[no:Djevelen]] [[pl:Diabe&amp;#322;]] [[pt:Diabo]] [[simple:Devil]] [[sv:Satan]] [[zh:魔鬼]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diesel engine</title> <id>8540</id> <revision> <id>42129449</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:37:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.139.195.162</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Diesel applications */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dieselmotor_vs.jpg|180px|right]] [[Image:Lumbar patent dieselengine.jpg|180px|right]] The '''diesel engine''' is a type of [[internal combustion engine]]; more specifically, it is a [[compression ignition engine]], in which the [[fuel]] is [[ignition|ignited]] by being suddenly exposed to the high temperature and pressure of a compressed gas, rather than by a separate source of ignition, such as a spark plug, as is the case in the [[gasoline engine]]. This is known as the [[diesel cycle]], after German engineer [[Rudolf Diesel]], who invented it in 1892 and received the [[patent]] on [[February 23]], [[1893]]. Diesel intended the engine to use a variety of fuels including [[coal dust]]. He demonstrated it in the 1900 [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|''Exposition Universelle'']] ([[World's Fair]]) using peanut oil (see [[biodiesel]]). ==How diesel engines work== When a gas is compressed, its temperature rises (see the [[combined gas law]]); a diesel engine uses this property to ignite the fuel. Air is drawn into the cylinder of a diesel engine and compressed by the rising [[piston]] at a much higher [[compression ratio]] than for a spark-ignition engine, up to 25:1. The air temperature reaches 700–900[[Celsius|°C]], or 1300–1650 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]. At the top of the piston [[Stroke (disambiguation)| stroke]], [[diesel]] [[fuel]] is injected into the [[combustion chamber]] at high pressure, through an atomising nozzle, mixing with the hot, high-pressure air. The resulting mixture ignites and burns very rapidly. This contained explosion causes the gas in the chamber to heat up rapidly, which increases its pressure, which in turn forces the piston downwards. The [[connecting rod]] transmits this motion to the [[crankshaft]], which is forced to turn, delivering rotary power at the output end of the crankshaft. [[Scavenging]] (pushing the exhausted gas-charge out of the cylinder, and drawing in a fresh draught of air) of the engine is done either by ports or valves. To fully realize the capabilities of a diesel engine, use of a [[turbocharger]] to compress the intake air is necessary; use of an [[intercooler|aftercooler/intercooler]] to cool the intake air after compression by the turbocharger further increases efficiency. In very cold weather, diesel fuel thickens and increases in viscosity and forms wax crystals or a gel. This can make it difficult for the fuel injector to get fuel into the cylinder in an effective manner, making cold weather starts difficult at times, though recent advances in diesel fuel technology have made these difficulties rare. A commonly applied advance is to electrically heat the [[fuel filter]] and fuel lines. Other engines utilize small electric heaters called [[glow plug]]s inside the cylinder to warm the cylinders prior to starting. A small number use resistive grid heaters in the intake manifold to warm the inlet air until the engine reaches operating temperature. Engine block heaters (electric resistive heaters in the engine block) plugged into the utility grid are often used when an engine is shut down for extended periods (more than an hour) in cold weather to reduce startup time and engine wear. A vital component of any diesel engine system is the [[governor (device)|governor]], which limits the speed of the engine by controlling the rate of fuel delivery. Unlike a petrol (gasoline) engine, the incoming air is not throttled, so the engine would overspeed if this was not done. Older governors were driven by a gear system from the engine (and thus supplied fuel only linearly with engine speed). Modern electronically-controlled engines achieve this through the [[electronic control module]] (ECM) or [[electronic control unit]] ([[ECU]]) - the engine-mounted &quot;computer&quot;. The ECM/ECU receives an engine speed signal from a [[sensor]] and then using its [[algorithm]]s and look-up calibration tables stored in the ECM/ECU, it controls the amount of fuel and its timing (the &quot;start of injection&quot;) through electric or hydraulic [[actuators]] to maintain engine speed. Controlling the timing of the '''start of injection''' of fuel into the pistons is key to minimising their [[emissions]] and maximising the [[fuel economy]] (efficiency) of the engine. The exact timing of starting this fuel injection into the cylinder is controlled electronically in most of today's modern engines. The timing is usually measured in units of crank angle of the piston before [[Top Dead Center]] (TDC). For example, if the [[ECM]]/[[ECU]] initiates fuel injection when the [[piston]] is 10 degrees before TDC, the start of injection or &quot;timing&quot; is said to be 10 deg BTDC. The optimal timing will depend on both the engine design as well as its speed and load. Advancing (injecting when the piston is further away from TDC) the start of injection results in higher in-cylinder pressure and higher efficiency but also results in higher emissions of Oxides of Nitrogen ([[NOx]]). At the other extreme, very retarded start of injection or timing causes incomplete combustion. This results in higher Particulate Matter (PM) emissions and higher smoke. ==Fuel injection in diesel engines== ===Mechanical and electronic injection=== Older engines make use of a mechanical fuel pump and valve assembly which is driven by the engine crankshaft, usually via the timing belt or chain. These engines use simple injectors which are basically very precise spring-loaded valves which will open and close at a specific fuel pressure. The pump assembly consists of a pump which pressurizes the fuel, and a disc-shaped valve which rotates at half crankshaft speed. The valve has a single aperture to the pressurized fuel on one side, and one aperture for each injector on the other. As the engine turns the valve discs will line up and deliver a burst of pressurized fuel to the injector at the cylinder about to enter its power stroke. The injector valve is forced open by the fuel pressure and the diesel is injected until the valve rotates out of alignment and the fuel pressure to that injector is cut off. Engine speed is controlled by a third disc, which rotates only a few degrees and is controlled by the throttle lever. This disc alters the width of the aperture through which the fuel passes, and therefore how long the injectors are held open before the fuel supply is cut, controlling the amount of fuel injected. This contrasts with the more modern method of having a separate fuel pump (or set of pumps) which supplies fuel constantly at high pressure to each injector. Each injector then has a solenoid which is operated by an electronic control unit, which enables more accurate control of injector opening times depending on other control conditions such as engine speed and loading, resulting in better engine performance and fuel economy. This design is also mechanically simpler than the combined pump and valve design, making it generally more reliable, and less noisy, than its mechanical counterpart. Both mechanical and electronic injection systems can be used in either direct or indirect injection configurations. ''(see below)'' ===Indirect injection=== {{main|Indirect injection}} An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the combustion chamber, called a prechamber, where combustion begins and then spreads into the main combustion chamber. diesel engines from ford and chevrolet used in the 80's and early 90's up to 2000 used this system of fuel injection...it was very inefficient and could never have the same power potential as direct injection. ===Direct injection=== Modern diesel engines make use of one of the following [[Fuel injection#Direct injection|direct injection]] methods: ====Distributor pump direct injection==== The first incarnations of direct injection diesels used a rotary pump much like indirect injection diesels,
tosis-dependent pathway for T cell activation is not present during necrosis, and has opened exciting possibilities in tumor immunity research. == Laboratory assays for apoptosis == The gold standard for detecting apoptosis in progress is still direct inspection for pyknotic bodies under [[microscope|light microscope]] or [[electron microscope]]. Less rigorous assays include: * [[TUNEL assay]], in which broken DNA ends are labeled preferentially. Note, however, that this will also detect less-orderly cell death such as [[necrosis]]. * [[Caspase]] assay, in which caspase cleavage of a marker protein allows detection. == History and highlights in apoptosis research == A timeline of apoptosis research can be found in Cell Death and Differentiation (2002) 9:349-54.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11965486&amp;query_hl=2] ===Early research, and the &quot;worm people&quot; at Cambridge=== [[Sydney Brenner]]'s studies on animal development began in the late-[[1950s]] in what was to become the [[Laboratory of Molecular Biology]] (LMB) in [[Cambridge]], UK. It was at this lab that during the 1970s and 1980s, a team led by [[John Sulston]] succeeded in tracing the [[nematode]] ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans | C. elegan's]]'' entire embryonic cell lineage. In other words, Sulston and his team had traced where each and every cell in the roundworm's embryo came from during the division process, and where it ended up. [[H. Robert Horvitz]] arrived from the US at the LMB in 1974, where he collaborated with Sulston. Both would share the 2002 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] with Brenner, and Horvitz would go back to the US in 1978 to establish his own lab at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. Brenner's original interests were centered in [[genetics]] and in the development of the nervous system, but cell lineage and differentiation inevitably led to the study of cell fate: &quot;One aspect of the cell lineage particularly caught my attention: in addition to the 959 cells generated during worm development and found in the adult, another 131 cells are generated but are not present in the adult. These cells are absent because they undergo programmed cell death,&quot; as Horvitz narrated in his Nobel Lecture &quot;Worms, Life and Death,&quot; delivered on [[8 December]]. 2002 [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/2002/horvitz-lecture.html]. ''Programmed cell death'' had been known long before &quot;the worm people&quot; began to publish their celebrated findings. In 1964 Richard A. Lockshin and Carroll Williams published their contribution on &quot;Endocrine potentiation of the breakdown of the intersegmental muscles of silkmoths&quot; in the ''Journal of insect physiology'' (10 p. 643), where they used the concept of &quot;programmed cell death,&quot; during a time when not much research was being carried out on this topic. John W. Saunders, Jr., stated the following in his 1966 contribution titled &quot;Death in Embryonic Systems&quot;: &quot;abundant death, often cataclysmic in its onslaught, is part of early development in many animals; it is the usual method of eliminating organs and tissues that is useful only during embryonic or larval life...&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=5332319]. A little further on, this author lamented that too little had been done to analyze the significance of this process. Saunders, it should be noted, recognized that he was building on earlier work by A. Glücksmann, and others. Saunders and Lockshin reciprocally acknowledged that they benefitted from each other's work, and both pointed out the possibility that cell death might be regulated. Their observations helped to lead later work toward the genetic pathways of programmed cell death. ===Coining of the term ''apoptosis''=== In a signal article published in 1972, John F. Kerr, Andrew H. Wyllie and A. R. Currie, coined the term &quot;apoptosis&quot; in order to differentiate naturally-occurring developmental cell death, from the [[necrosis]] that results from acute tissue injury [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=4561027]. They also noted that the structural changes characteristic of apoptosis (see the section on Morphology, above) were present in cells that died in order to maintain an equilibrium between cell proliferation and death in a particular tissue (see [[Apoptosis#Homeostasis | Homeostasis]], above). ===1988=== Landmark research by David L. Vaux and colleagues described the anti-apoptotic and tumorigenic (tumor-causing) role of the human cancer gene ''bcl-2'' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3262202]. Researchers had been hot in the track of [[oncogene]]s (genes that played a prominent role in causing cancer), and now more and more of the pieces were falling into place. However, although ''[[bcl-2]]'' was the first component of the cell death mechanism to be cloned in any organism, identification of other components of the vertebrate mechanism had to await the linking of apoptosis (in vertebrate systems) with the mechanism for programmed cell death in the worm. ===1990s and later=== In 1991, Ron Ellis, Junying Yuan and Horvitz released a rounded and up-to-date account of research on programmed cell death in their &quot;Mechanisms and Functions of Cell Death&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1809356]. Among other important work at Horvitz's laboratory, graduate students Hilary Ellis and Chand Desai had made the first discovery of genes that encode apoptosis-inducing proteins: ''ced-3'' and ''ced-4''. Ron Ellis also identified a gene with an opposite effect: ''ced-9''. The product of this gene, CED-9, protects cells from programmed cell death, so its expression (or lack of) conveys a life-or-death decision on individual cells. In December 1992, David Vaux and Stuart Kim showed that human Bcl-2 could inhibit programmed cell death in the worm, thus linking PCD and apoptosis, revealing them to be the same, evolutionarily conserved process[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1470921&amp;query_hl=14]. In 1994, Michael Hengartner published a paper showing that ''ced-9'' had similar sequence to ''[[bcl-2]]'' (which is not, actually, a single gene but a whole family of mammalian genes). Horvitz would recount in his Nobel Lecture: &quot;I believe that the fact that Bcl-2 proved to look like a worm protein that antagonized programmed cell death helped convince researchers that the function of Bcl-2 was to antagonize the cell death process. I also believe that this similarity made the worm cell-death pathway suddenly a topic of major interest in the biomedical community, as this pathway was no longer simply an abstract formalism derived from complicated genetic studies of a microscopic soil-dwelling roundworm but rather a framework for a process fundamental to human biology and human disease.&quot; In 1992, two independent teams working at pharmaceutical companies had identified and purified interleukin-1-beta-converting enzyme (ICE) in human cells, and succeeded in cloning the DNA sequence of this cysteine protease [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1574116], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1373520]. The following year, graduate students Shai Shaham and Junying Yuan working in Horvitz's laboratory identified ICE as the mammalian counterpart of CED-3 (that is, the product of the ''ced-3'' gene in ''C. elegans'').[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8242740&amp;query_hl=4] In 1997, a protein similar to CED-4 was identified, in the laboratory of Xiaodong Wang (Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas), which they called Apaf-1 (apoptotic protease activating factor). The team published their results in an article entitled &quot;Apaf-1, a human protein homologous to C. elegans CED-4, participates in cytochrome c-dependent activation of caspase-3&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9267021]. Wang and his team identified and reconstituted the mitochondrial pathway to apoptosis (see Biochemical execution, above). Their published results illuminated whole new avenues of research on inflammatory diseases, cancer, and apoptosis, in general. By 1998, research on the topic had already increased, as attested in the editorial &quot;Cell Death in Us and Others,&quot; written by an important contributor to apoptosis research, Pierre Golstein, in the [[28 August]]. 1998 issue of ''Science'': &quot;Although there have been scattered reports on the topic of cell death for more than a century, the 20,000 publications on this topic within the past 5 years reflect a shift from historically-mild interest to contemporary fascination.&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9735040] Kerr, Wyllie, and Currie, who coined the term apoptosis (''falling leaves'' in Greek), meant, among other features, to remark on the de-adhesiveness of apoptotic cells from their natural surroundings, following programmed cell death. [[Anoikis]] (''homeless'' in Greek) is chronologically an inverse process: de-adhesiveness of viable cells from their surroundings inducing programmed cell death. Integrins are essential adhesive molecules in this process, but additional factors probably play a role. Beyond the physi
1852]]-[[1870]], reigning as [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]]; his son, [[Eugene Bonaparte]] ([[1856]]-[[1879]]), styled the [[Prince Imperial]], died fighting the [[Zulu]]s in [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]], [[South Africa]]. With his death, the family lost much of its remaining political appeal, though claimants continued to assert their right to the imperial title. ==The family tree== [[Carlo Buonaparte|Carlo-Maria]] ([[Ajaccio]] [[1746]]-[[Montpellier]] [[1785]]) married [[Maria Letizia Ramolino]] (Ajaccio [[1750]] - Rome [[1836]]) in [[1764]]. He was a minor official in the local courts. They had eight children: #[[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph]] ([[Corte]] [[1768]]-[[Florence, Italy|Florence]] [[1844]]), King of Naples and Spain, married [[Julie Clary]], sister of Napoleon's childhood sweetheart, [[Désirée Clary|Désirée]], who was to become the wife of [[Charles XIV of Sweden]]. #*3 daughters: #*[[Julie Joséphine Bonaparte]] ([[1796]]-[[1796]]) #*[[Zénaïde Laetitia Julie Bonaparte]] ([[1801]]-[[1854]]) #*[[Charlotte Napoléone Bonaparte]] ([[1802]]-[[1839]]) #[[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon]] (1769-1821) Emperor #*Napoleon Joseph (1811-1832) [[Napoleon II]], son of Archduchess [[Marie Louise]] of [[Austria]] # [[Lucien Bonaparte|Lucien]] ([[Ajaccio]] [[1775]]-[[Viterbo]] [[1840]]) #*2 daughters with first wife, Katherina Boyer #*10 children with second wife, Alexandrine von Bleschamps, including: #*[[Pierre Napoleon Bonaparte]] #*[[Louis Lucien Bonaparte]] #*[[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte]] ornithologist and politician # Maria-Anna or [[Elisa Bonaparte|Elisa]] (Ajaccio [[1777]]-near Trieste [[1820]]), grand-duchess of [[Tuscany]] #*5 children #[[Louis Bonaparte|Louis]], ([[1778]] - [[1846]]) married [[Hortense de Beauharnais]], Napoleon's stepdaughter #*[[Napoleon Charles Bonaparte]] ([[1802]]-[[1807]]) #*[[Napoleon Louis Bonaparte]] ([[1804]]-[[1831]]) #*[[Napoleon III|Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte]] ([[1808]]-[[1873]]) Emperor, married [[Empress Eugénie|Maria Eugenia Ignacia Augustina Palafox de Guzmán Portocarrero y Kirkpatrick]] #**[[Napoléon Eugène, Prince Imperial|Napoleon Eugene Louis John Joseph]] ([[1856]]-[[1879]]) #Maria Paola or [[Pauline Bonaparte|Pauline]] (Ajaccio [[1780]]-Florence [[1825]]), married in [[1797]] to French general [[Charles Leclerc]] and later married Prince [[Borghese]]. #Maria Annunziata or [[Caroline Bonaparte|Caroline]], married [[Joachim Murat]] #[[Jérôme Bonaparte|Jérôme]] (Ajaccio [[1784]]-[[Massy]], [[Essonne]],[[1860]]), King of Westphalia #*2 children from first marriage, to [[Elizabeth Patterson|Betsey Patterson]] of [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], including: #*[[Jérôme Napoleon Bonaparte]], married [[Susan May Williams]] #**2 sons: #**[[Charles Joseph Bonaparte]], [[U.S. Attorney General]] #**[[Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II]], married [[Caroline Le Roy Appleton Edgar]] #***2 children: #***[[Louise-Eugénie Bonaparte]] ([[1873]]-[[1923]]), married in [[1896]] Count [[Adam Carl von Moltke-Huitfeld]] ([[1864]]-[[1944]]) #***[[Jerome Napoleon Charles Bonaparte]] (1878-1945), married in [[1914]] [[Blanche Pierce Stenbeigh]]: no children. #*3 children from second marriage, to [[Catharina of Württemberg]], including: #*[[Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte]] ([[September 9th]] 1822 - [[March 18th]] [[1891]]), called ''Plon-Plon'' ∞ [[Marie Clothilde]] ([[1843]]-[[1911]]), daughter of [[Victor Emanuel II of Italien]] #**[[Napoléon Victor Jérôme Frédéric Bonaparte]] ([[July 18th]] [[1862]] - [[May 3rd]] [[1926]]) ∞ [[Clémentine Albertine Marie Léopoldine of Belgium]] ([[1872]]-[[1955]]) #***[[Napoléon Louis Bonaparte]] ([[1914]]-[[1997]]) #****[[Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte the 2nd|Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte]] (* [[1950]]) #*****Jean (* [[1986]]) #****[[Jérôme Bonaparte the 2nd|Jérôme Bonaparte]] (* [[1957]]) #**[[Luis Bonaparte]] ([[July 16th]] [[1864]] - [[October 14th]] [[1932]]) - russ. general #**[[Laetitia Bonaparte]] ([[December 20th]] [[1866]] - [[October 24th]] [[1926]]) #*[[Mathilde Bonaparte]], married Prince [[Anatole Demidoff di San Donato]]: no children #* [[Marie Bonaparte]],Napoleon's great-great-grand-niece ==Current descendants== The current head of the family is the prince Napoleon ([[Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte II]], born [[1950]]), great-great-grandson of [[Jérôme Bonaparte]] by his second marriage; he has a son [[Jean Bonaparte|Jean]] (born [[1986]]) and a brother, Jérôme Bonaparte, (born [[1957]]), unmarried. There are no remaining descendants in male line from any other of Napoleon's brothers. There are, however, numerous descendants of Napoleon's illegitimate son [[Walewski]] from his union with [[Rachel Félix]]. ==See also== * [[History of France]] * [[History of Spain]] * [[History of Italy]] * [[History of the Netherlands]] * [[Napoleon (disambiguation)]] ==External links== *[http://perso.club-internet.fr/ameliefr/E-Genealogie.html Genealogy of the Bonaparte family] [[Category:Royal families]] [[Category:The Bonapartes|*]] [[Category:Family trees]] [[de:Bonaparte]] [[eo:Bonaparte]] [[fr:Maison Bonaparte]] [[nl:Bonaparte]] [[pl:Bonaparte (ród)]] [[ru:Бонапарты]] [[uk:Бонапарт]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Beta sheet</title> <id>4906</id> <revision> <id>38764840</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T14:23:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Isnow</username> <id>180201</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ +zh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Note to editors: please add more info to this article if possible --&gt; [[Image:BetaPleatedSheetProtein.png|right|thumb|200px|Diagram of &amp;beta;-pleated sheet with H-bonding between protein strands]] The '''&amp;beta; sheet''' (also '''&amp;beta;-pleated sheet''') is a commonly occurring form of regular [[secondary structure]] in [[protein]]s, first proposed by [[Linus Pauling]] and [[Robert Corey]] in [[1951]]. It consists of two or more [[amino acid]] sequences within the same protein that are arranged adjacently and in parallel, but with alternating orientation such that [[hydrogen bond]]s can form between the two strands. The amino acid chain is almost fully extended throughout a &amp;beta; strand. The [[amine|N-H]] groups in the backbone of one strand establish hydrogen bonds with the [[carbonyl|C=O]] groups in the backbone of the adjacent, parallel strand(s). The cumulative effect of multiple such hydrogen bonds arranged in this way contributes to the sheet's stability and structural rigidity and integrity. The &amp;alpha;-C atoms of adjacent strands stand 350 picometres (0.35 nm) apart. The side chains from the amino acid residues found in a &amp;beta; sheet structure may also be arranged such that many of the adjacent sidechains on one side of the sheet are hydrophobic, while many of those adjacent to each other on the alternate side of the sheet are polar or charged (hydrophilic). Some sequences involved in a &amp;beta; sheet, when traced along the backbone, take a ''hairpin turn'' in orientation (direction), sometimes through one or more [[proline]]s. Beta sheets actually are not flat as the name might imply. The strands that make up the structure are upon closer observation actually very loosely wound right-hand helices. This is a consequence of the phi and psi rotational angles that are repeated across the backbone of the peptide strands. Beta sheet aggregation causes certain diseases including neural diseases like Alzheimer's. ==See also== *[[tertiary structure]] *[[alpha helix|&amp;alpha; helix]] *[[collagen helix]] *[[Foldamers]] Beta sheets when amassed can form amyloid plaques, which in turn, can cause Alzheimer's Disease. ==External links== *[http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame_sheeten.htm Interactive model of an anti-parallel &amp;beta; sheet] *[http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame_psheeten.htm Interactive model of a parallel &amp;beta; sheet] plug-in required [[Category:biochemistry]] [[Category:Protein structural motifs]] [[de:Beta-Faltblatt]] [[es:Beta-lámina]] [[ja:Βシート]] [[nl:Bèta-sheet]] [[pl:Harmonijka beta]] [[zh:Β－折叠层]] {{biochem-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Basel-Stadt</title> <id>4909</id> <revision> <id>15903157</id> <timestamp>2003-03-05T06:55:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Docu</username> <id>8029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Basel-City]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Beryl</title> <id>4910</id> <revision> <id>41585775</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:41:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Feezo</username> <id>155651</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Varieties */ Removed link to [[Heliodor]], since it's a redirect to [[Beryl]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Emerald rough 300x422.jpg|thumb|Beryl var. [[emerald]].]] The [[mineral]] '''beryl''' is a [[beryllium]] [[aluminium]] [[Silicate minerals#Cyclosilicates|cyclosilicate]] with the chemical formula Be&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(&lt;nowiki&gt;SiO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;. The [[hexagonal]] [[crystal]]s of beryl may be very small or range to several meters in size. Terminated crystals are relatively rare. Beryl exhibits [[conchoidal fracture]], has a [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|hardness]] of 7.5-8, a [[specific gravity]] of 2.63-2.80. It has a vitreous lustre and can be transparent or translucent. Its cleavage is poor basal and its habit is dihexagonal bipyramidal. Pure beryl is colorless, but it is frequently tinted by impurities; possible colors are [[green]], [[blue]], [[yellow]], [[red]], and [[white]]. The name comes f
cally and 3:1:4.5 horizontally. This definition are the absolute proportions for the Danish national flag to this day, for both the civil version of the flag (&quot;''Stutflaget''&quot;), as well as the merchant flag (&quot;''Handelsflaget''&quot;). Both flags are identical. A somewhat curious regulation came in [[1758]] concerning Danish ships sailing in the [[Mediterranean]]. These had to carry the King's cypher logo in the center of the flag, to distinguish them from Maltese ships, due to the similarity of the flag of the Order of St. John (a.k.a. the [[Knights Hospitaller]]). To the best of knowledge, this regulation has never been revoked, however it is probably no longer done. According to the regulation of [[June 11]], [[1748]] the colour was simply red, which is common known today as &quot;Dannebrog rød&quot; (&quot;''Dannebrog red''&quot;). The only available red fabric colour in [[1748]] was made of [[bracken root]], which make a brownish red. The private company, [[Dansk Standard]], regulation number 359 of [[2005]], defines the red colour of the flag as [[Pantone]] 186c. No official nuance definition of &quot;Dannebrog rød&quot; exists. During the next about 150 years nobody paid much attention to actually abide fully to the proportions of the flag given in the [[1748]] regulation, not even the government. As late as [[1892]] it was stated in a series of regulations that the correct lengths of the two last fields in the flag were 6/4. Some interested in the matter made inquires into the issue and concluded that the 6/4 length would make the flag look blunt. Any new flag would also quickly become unlawful, due to wear and tear. They also noted that the flag currently used had lengths, of the last two fields, anywhere between 7/4 to 13/6. So in May [[1893]] a new regulation to all chiefs of police, stated that the police should not intervene, if the two last fields in the flag were longer than 6/4 as long as these did not exceed 7/4, and provided that this was the only rule violated. This regulation is still in effect today and thus the legal proportions of the National flag is today anywhere between ''3:1:3 width / 3:1:4.5 length'' and ''3:1:3 width / 3:1:5.25 length''. That some confusion still exists in this matter can be seen from the regulation of [[May 4]], [[1927]], which once again states that Danish merchant ships have to fly flags according to the regulation of [[1748]]. ===Splitflag=== [[image:Flag of Denmark (state).svg|thumb|250px|right|The ''Splitflag'' - the Danish State Flag. [[Image:FIAV_26.png]] Proportions: 56:107]] [[image:Naval Ensign of Denmark.svg|thumb|250px|right|The ''Orlogsflag'' - the Danish Naval Flag. [[Image:FIAV_01.png]] Proportions: 56:107]] The ''Splitflag'' or ''Orlogsflag'' have similar specifications, but legally, they are two different flags. The ''Splitflag'' is a Danish flag ending in a swallow-tail, it is ''Dannebrog red'', and is used on land. The ''Orlogsflag'' is a ''Splitflag'' with a deeper red colour and is only used on sea. The ''Orlogsflag'' with no markings, may only be used by the [[Royal Danish Navy]]. There are though a few exceptions to this. A few institutions have been allowed to fly the clean ''Orlogsflag''. Same flag with markings has been approved for a few dozen companies and institutions over the years. Furthermore, the ''Orlogsflag'' is only described as such if it has no additional markings. Any swallow-tail flag, no matter the color, is called a ''Splitflag'' provided it bears additional markings. The first regulation regarding the ''Splitflag'' dates from [[March 27|27 March]], [[1630]], where King [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]] orders that Norwegian &quot;Defensionskibe&quot; (merchants ships with guns) may only use the ''Splitflag'' if they are in war-service under Denmark. In [[1685]] an order, distributed to a number of cities in [[Slesvig]], says that all ships must carry the Danish flag, and in [[1690]] all merchants ships is forbidden to use the ''Splitflag'', with the exception of ships sailing in the East Indies, West Indies and at the coast of Africa. In [[1741]] it is re-stated that the regulation of [[1690]] is still very much in effect, that merchants ships may not use the ''Splitflag''. At the same time it is now allowed the [[Danish East India Company]] to use the ''Splitflag'' when past the equator. It is obvious that some confusion must have existed regarding the ''Splitflag''. In [[1696]] the Admiralty presented the King with a proposal for a standard regulating both size and shape of the ''Splitflag''. In the same year a Royal resolution defines the proportions of the ''Splitflag'', which in this resolution is called ''Kongeflaget'' (the King's flag), as follows: ''The cross must be 1/7 of the flags height. The two first fields must be square in form with the sides three times the cross width. The two outer fields are rectangular and 1½ the length of the square fields. The tails are the length of the flag''. These numbers are the basic for the ''Splitflag'', or ''Orlogsflag'', today, though the numbers have been slightly altered. The term ''Orlogsflag'' dates from [[1806]] and denotes use in the [[Royal Danish Navy]]. From about [[1750]] to early [[1800]]'s a number of ships / companies which the government has interests in, received approval to used the Splitflag. From the mid [[1800]]'s to [[1899]] another bunch of institutions and private companies also received approval to use the Splitflag. Especially after [[1870]] the government generous and with little thought hand out approval to all kinds to institutions. In royal resolution of October 25, [[1939]] for the [[Danish Navy]], it is stated that the ''Orlogsflag'' is a ''Splitflag'' with a deep red (&quot;''Kraprød''&quot; or &quot;''dybrød''&quot;) colour. Like the National flag, no nuance is given, but in modern days this is given as 195U. Furthermore the size and shape is corrected in this resolution to be: ''The cross must be 1/7 of the flags height. The two first fields must be square in form with the height of 3/7 of the flags height. The two outer fields are rectangular and 5/4 the length of the square fields. The tails are 6/4 the length of the rectangular fields''. Comparing this to the [[1696]] resolution one can see that both the rectangular fields and the tails have become smaller. ===Who may use what?=== [[Image:Dannebrog.gif]] 1. '''Stutflag''': This is the national flag of Denmark and is used by for all civilian purposes including the merchant navy. Any Dane can have a flagpole in the garden and use the flag according to the law. When the flag is not hoisted, for instance during darkness, a long narrow version called a ''vimpel'' or a wider version called a ''stander'' can be flown. 2. '''Splitflag''': The use of the ''swallow-tail'' flag is restricted to the Danish Government and Navy. Note: The Naval Flag has a darker hue than the State Flag. Private yachts and motor boats are allowed to use the Naval Flag with the letters ''Y.F.''(for '''Yacht Flag''') superimposed in the upper canton. This flag is not allowed on boats for hire. 3. '''Kongeflag''' (literally: ''The King's Flag''): This is the flag of the [[Monarch]]. It is currently used by H.M. Queen [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]]. 4. '''Dronningeflag''' (literally: ''The Queen's flag''). This is the flag of the consort of the monarch. The main difference from the flag of the monarch is that this version of the royal coat-of-arms lacks the supporters, two wild men. This flag was used by H.M. Queen [[Ingrid of Sweden|Ingrid]], and is currently not in use, since the Prince Consort, H.R.H. [[Prince Henrik of Denmark|Prince Henrik]] uses a special flag with a his personal coat of arms in the centre (originally, he used a flag with a crowned &quot;H&quot; in the centre). 5. '''Rigsforstanderflag''': This flag is used by the leading member of the Royal Family when the Queen is abroad, and shows that the person currently assumes the constitutional duties of the Monarch. This person remains the ''de facto'' Monarch, until the Monarch returns to Danish territory. 6. '''Tronfølgerflag''': This is the flag of the Crown Prince of Denmark, currently H.R.H. [[Crown Prince Frederik of Denmark|Crown Prince Frederik]]. 7. '''Kongehusflag''': This flag can be used by any member of the [[Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg|Danish Royal Family]]. 8. '''Forsvarsminister''': This is the flag of the [[Defence Minister of Denmark|Minister of Defence]]. 9. '''Admiral''': Used on a ship to indicate that an [[Admiral]] is on board. 10. '''Viceadmiral''': Used on a ship to indicate that a [[Vice Admiral]] is on board. 11. '''Kontreadmiral''': Used on a ship to indicate that an [[Rear Admiral]] is on board. 12. '''Postflag''': This is the former flag of the Royal Danish Mail and Telegraph ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Kongelig Post og Telegrafvæsen''), now [[Post Danmark]]. 13. '''Statens skibe''': This flag is used on ships owned by the Danish State. 14. '''DSB''': This flag is used by the [[Danske Statsbaner|DSB]], the state railway company (''Danske Statsbaner''). 15. '''Havnepoliti''': This is used by the Danish [[Water police|harbour police]]. ==Flag days== {{nationalflags}}&lt;!-- to edit this table, go to [[Template:Nationalflags]] --&gt; ==References== * ''Dannebrog - Vort Flag'', Lieutenant Colonel Thaulow, Forlaget Codan, Copenhagen 1943 * ''Dannebrog'', Helga Bruhn, Forlaget Jespersen og Pios, Copenhagen 1949 * ''Danebrog - Danmarks Palladium'', E. D. Lund, Forlaget H. Hagerups, Copenhagen 1919 * ''DS 359:2005 ’Flagdug’'', Dansk Standard, 2005 ==External links== *{{FOTW|id=dk|title=Denmark}} [[Category:Danish culture]] [[Category:National flags|Denmark]] [[Category:Nordic Cross Flags|Denmark]] [[da:Dannebrog]] [[de:Flagge Dänemarks]] [[et:Taani lipp]] [[es:Bandera de Dinamarca]] [[eo:Dannebrog]] [[fi:Tanskan lippu]] [[fr:Drapeau du Dane
]] Institute of Astronomy claim to have calculated that dark matter only comes in clumps larger than about 1,000 light-years across, implying an average speed of dark matter particles of 9km/s, corresponding to a relatively warm 10,000 degrees [[Celsius]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4679220.stm]. == Alternative explanations == An alternative to dark matter is to suppose that the inconsistencies are due to an incomplete understanding of [[gravitation]]. One approach is to attempt to reconcile [[gravitation]] with [[quantum mechanics]] and to explain mass and its creation within gravitation, as in some [[Scalar-tensor theory|scalar-tensor theories]], which couple [[scalar]] fields like the [[Higgs]] field to the [[curvature]] given through the [[Riemann]] tensor or its traces. In many of such theories, the scalar field equals the [[inflaton]] field, which is needed to explain the [[inflation]] of the universe after the [[Big Bang]], as the dominating factor of the [[quintessence]] or Dark Energy. To explain the observations, the gravitational force has to become stronger than the Newtonian approximation at great distances or in weak fields. For instance, this can be done by assuming a negative value of the [[cosmological constant]] (the value of which is believed to be positive based on recent observations) or by assuming [[The Modified Newtonian Dynamics|Modified Newtonian Dynamics]] (MOND), which corrects [[Newton's laws]] at small acceleration. However, constructing a [[relativistic]] MOND theory has been troublesome, and it is not clear how the theory can be reconciled with [[gravitational lensing]] measurements of the deflection of light around galaxies. The leading relativistic MOND theory, proposed by [[Mordehai Milgrom|Milgrom]]'s colleague [[Jacob Bekenstein|Professor Bekenstein]] in 2004 is called &quot;TeVeS&quot; for Tensor-Vector-Scalar and solves many of the problems of earlier attempts. Another approach, proposed by Finzi (1963) and again by Sanders (1984), is to replace the gravitational potential energy with the expression :&lt;math&gt;U=\frac{GM(1-Be^{-r/\rho})}{(1-B)r}&lt;/math&gt; where ''B'' and ''&amp;rho;'' are adjustable parameters. However, such approaches run into difficulties explaining the different behavior of different galaxies and clusters, whereas one can easily describe such differences by assuming different quantities of dark matter. For a deeper discussion of this subject, see [[Modified Newtonian dynamics]]. Another proposed explanation is [[Nonsymmetric Gravitational Theory]]. Two other theories which propose modifications to general relativity have recently been proposed. M. Reuter and H. Weyer have proposed that Newton's constant grows at large scales due to quantum effects [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0410117]. Another proposal by Cooperstock and Tieu suggested that the galaxy rotation problem could be explained with the results of [[general relativity]], amplified by non-linear effects so that the behavior of the galaxy as a whole becomes non-Newtonian [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0507619]. A problem in this model was found when it was shown that this model gives rise to a &quot;thin, singular disk&quot; of 2-dimensional matter in the galactic plane [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0508377/]. In a [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0510750 recent article] it is shown that Cooperstock's and Tieu's model implies that the thin disk must be made out of &quot;exotic matter, either [[cosmic strings]] or struts with negative energy density&quot;. Cooperstock and Tieu have since published an [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0512048 article] in which they argued that the thin disk was an artefact of approximations made by their model. However, in a [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0512553 comment on that article], D. Vogt and P. S. Letelier have disputed this. They show that the removal of the thin disk generates two other singular mass surface layers. ==Dark matter in popular culture== {{main|Dark matter (fiction)}} Mentions of dark matter occur in some video games and other works of fiction. In such cases, it is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical properties, such as dark matter and matter voiding each other on contact. Such descriptions are often inconsistent with the properties of dark matter proposed in physics and cosmology. &lt;!-- Please do not add examples of dark matter in popular culture to this section. Add them to the main article on the subject, [[Dark matter (fiction)]] \\--&gt; == See also == * [[Dark energy star]] ==References== *Polar Magnetic Phenomena and Terrella Experiments, in ''The Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expedition 1902-1903'' (publ. 1913, p.720 on 'dark matter') * [http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2003/abell2029/ Hot News for Cold Dark Matter] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/missing.shtml Most of Our Universe is Missing] == External links == *[http://astron.berkeley.edu/~mwhite/darkmatter/hdm.html Hot dark matter] *[http://lpsc.in2p3.fr/tep/fred/dm.html Dark matter Portal] *[http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0404175 G. Bertone, D. Hooper, and J. Silk, &quot;Particle Dark Matter: Evidence, Candidates and Constraints&quot;] *[http://www.livingreviews.org/lrr-2002-4 Timothy J. Sumner, &quot;Experimental Searches for Dark Matter&quot;] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4679220.stm &quot;Dark matter comes out of the cold&quot;] *[http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=3556105 The Economist: Young solar systems are like cosmic snooker games, and the universe is flat] *[http://www.wired.com/news/space/0,2697,66487,00.html Scientists Find Missing Matter (Wired.com Feb 3rd 2005) ] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_east/4288633.stm Astronomers find starless galaxy (BBC News [[23 February]] 2005)] *[http://www.physorg.com/news6850.html Elliptical galaxies have dark matter halo as well] *[http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/061005_tech.htm Dark matter History and More on Elliptical galaxies and the Mystery of dark matter] *[http://xxx.lanl.gov/find/grp_physics/1/abs:+AND+Dark+Matter/0/1/0/past,2005/0/1 Recent papers on dark matter on arXiv.org] *Feuerbacher, Björn and Ryan Scranton (2006). &quot;[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/astronomy/bigbang.html Evidence for the Big Bang]&quot;, FAQ at [http://www.talkorigins.org/ talkorigins.org]. [[Category:Celestial mechanics]] [[Category:Cosmology]] [[Category:Dark matter|*]] [[Category:Large-scale structure of the cosmos]] [[ar:مادة مظلمة]] [[bg:Тъмна материя]] [[ca:Matèria fosca]] [[cs:Temná hmota]] [[da:Mørkt stof]] [[de:Dunkle Materie]] [[el:Σκοτεινή ύλη]] [[es:Materia oscura]] [[fr:Matière noire]] [[gl:Materia escura]] [[ko:암흑물질]] [[hr:Tamna tvar]] [[io:Sombra materio]] [[id:Materi gelap]] [[it:Materia oscura]] [[he:חומר אפל]] [[nl:Donkere materie]] [[ja:暗黒物質]] [[pl:Materia ciemna]] [[pt:Matéria escura]] [[ru:Скрытая масса]] [[sk:Tmavá hmota]] [[sl:Temna snov]] [[sr:Тамна материја]] [[fi:Pimeä aine]] [[sv:Mörk materia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ducati</title> <id>8652</id> <revision> <id>15906623</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ducati Motor Holding]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ducati Motor Holding</title> <id>8653</id> <revision> <id>41915959</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:22:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Izaakb</username> <id>979400</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ cleaned up links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:ducatilogol.gif|thumb||Ducati logo all black]] '''Ducati Motor Holding''' ({{nyse|DMH}}) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[motorcycle]] manufacturer located in [[Bologna]]. Ducati motorcycles have long been known for their excellence in design and performance. From the first post-war bicycle-like low-displacement motorbikes Ducati has grown over the years into a racing giant that is consistently competitive in both the racing arena and the world motorcycle marketplace. In the 1960s, Ducati earned its place in motorcycling history by producing the fastest 250cc road bike available, the Mach 1. [[Image:Ducati mach1 800.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Ducati Mach 1]]]] In the 1970s Ducati began producing large-displacement L-twin motorcycles and in 1973 released a L-twin with the trademark [[desmodromic valve]] design. In 1985, [[Cagiva]] bought Ducati. In 1996, Texas Pacific Group bought 51% of the company for $325 million and renamed the company Ducati Motor SpA. In December 2005 Ducati went back into Italian hands with the sale of Texas Pacific's stake to Investindustrial Holdings, the investment fund of Carlo and Andrea Bonomi. Ducati is best known for high performance motorcycles characterized by trellis-style frames and large capacity four-stroke, [http://www.ducati.com/bikes/techcafe.jhtml?detail=article&amp;value=technical&amp;part=technical&amp;artID=1 90-degree L-twin] [[engine]]s featuring a [http://www.ducati.com/bikes/techcafe.jhtml?detail=article&amp;value=technical&amp;part=technical&amp;artID=2 desmodromic valve design]. Modern Ducatis remain among the dominant performance motorcycles available today partly because of the Desmo valve design, which is nearing its 50th year in production. (Desmodromic valves are those which are positively closed by a leverage system, rather than relying on the more conventional [[spring (device)|spring]]s to close the valves). While most other manufacturers have adopted wet-clutches (with the spinning parts bathed in oil) Ducati uses dry clutches in most of its motorcycles. This eliminates the [[parasitic loss|power loss from oil viscosity]] drag on the engine even though the engagement may not be
!-- FAIR USE of Gta1-pc.jpeg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gta1-pc.jpeg for rationale. FAIR USE of Gta3-pc-police.jpeg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gta3-pc-police.jpeg for rationale. --&gt; [[Category:1998 computer and video games|Grand Theft Auto 1.1]] [[Category:Cancelled Nintendo 64 games]] [[Category:Cancelled Sega Saturn games|Grand Theft Auto 1.1]] [[Category:Game Boy Color games|Grand Theft Auto 1.1]] [[Category:Grand Theft Auto|Grand Theft Auto 1.1]] [[Category:PC games|Grand Theft Auto 1.1]] [[Category:PlayStation games|Grand Theft Auto 1.1]] [[Category:Third-person shooters|Grand Theft Auto 1.1]] [[Category:Vehicular combat games|Grand Theft Auto 1.1]] [[de:Grand Theft Auto]] [[es:Grand Theft Auto]] [[fr:Grand Theft Auto (jeu vidéo)]] [[it:Grand Theft Auto]] [[ja:Grand Theft Auto]] [[pl:Grand Theft Auto (gra)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gothic</title> <id>12953</id> <revision> <id>41744359</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:46:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Leyasu</username> <id>543529</id> </contributor> <comment>Gothic metal is not grim and morbid.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Gothic}} '''Gothic''' may mean: As it relates to the [[Goths]] (''Gothos'', ''Getas''), a Germanic tribe: *[[Gothic language]] *[[Gothic alphabet]] From a [[Renaissance]] perspective (originally Italian, ''gotico'', with connotations of &quot;rough, barbarous&quot;), it conveyed the opposite of '[[Classical Antiquity|classical]]' or '[[Ancient Rome|Roman]]', hence: * [[High Medieval]] northern European art, especially architecture: **[[Gothic art]] **[[Gothic architecture]] **[[International Gothic]] **[[Gothic Revival architecture]] originating in the 18th century **[[Gothic (moth)]], a species of noctuid moth named after its patterns reminiscent of Gothic architecture * Another name for [[Blackletter]], a script developed in the Middle Ages From the 18th century, the word came to mean [[Germanic]] in general (synonymously with [[Teutonic]]), with grim overtones (e.g. from the contrast of [[Germanic mythology]] with classical [[Greek mythology]]): * [[Gothic novel]], a British literary genre from the late 18th and early 19th century, with a Victorian revival a hundred years later From its use in [[Romanticism]], the word in the 20th century came to refer to anything dark or gloomy: * [[Gothic horror]] * [[Goth]] subculture * [[Gothic rock]] * [[Gothic_metal#Gothic_doom|Gothic-Doom]] * [[Gothic fashion]] * [[Gothic (computer game)]], a roleplaying computer game * [[Gothic (movie)|''Gothic'' (movie)]], a 1986 film by Ken Russell * [[Gothic (album)|''Gothic'' (album)]], a 1992 album by the heavy metal band Paradise Lost More recent uses: * Another name for [[sans-serif]] typefaces * [[Japanese gothic typeface]], a common printing style in Japanese printing * [[Gothic Chess]], a chess variant ==See also== *[[Gothicismus]] *[[Germanic]] {{disambig}} [[ca:Gòtic]] [[da:Gotik]] [[de:Gothic]] [[eo:Goto]] [[fr:Gothique]] [[it:Gotico]] [[he:&amp;#1490;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1492;]] [[ja:&amp;#12468;&amp;#12471;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;]] [[nl:Gotiek]] [[pl:Architektura gotycka]] [[pt:Estilo gótico]] [[ro:Arhitectur&amp;#259; gotic&amp;#259;]] [[ru:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;]] [[sv:Gotik]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Goddess Venus</title> <id>12954</id> <revision> <id>15910600</id> <timestamp>2002-10-03T14:34:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TUF-KAT</username> <id>8351</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Venus (mythology)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>George Pólya</title> <id>12955</id> <revision> <id>41716408</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:40:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SheldonN</username> <id>936276</id> </contributor> <comment>Added Wikipedia reference to How to Solve It</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Pólya''' ([[December 13]], [[1887]] - [[September 7]], [[1985]], in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] ''Pólya György'') was a [[mathematician]], who was born in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] and died in [[Palo Alto]], [[United States|USA]]. He worked on a great variety of mathematical topics, including [[series (mathematics)|series]], [[number theory]], [[combinatorics]], and [[probability]]. In his later days, he spent considerable effort on trying to characterize the general methods that people use to solve problems, and to describe how problem-solving should be taught and learned. He wrote three books on the subject: ''[[How to Solve It]]'', ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics'', and ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Reasoning''. In [[How_to_Solve_It|''How to Solve It'']], Pólya provides general [[heuristics]] for solving problems of all kinds, not simply mathematical ones. The book includes advice for teaching students mathematics and a mini-encyclopedia of heuristic terms. It was translated into several languages and has sold over a million copies. Russian [[physicist]] [[Zhores Ivanovich Alferov|Zhores I. Alfyorov]], ([[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel laureate]] in [[2000]]) praised it, saying he was very pleased with Pólya's famous book. In 1976 The Mathematical Association of America established the George Pólya award for &quot;for articles of expository excellence published in the College Mathematics Journal.&quot; In ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I'', Pólya discusses [[inductive reasoning]] in mathematics, by which he means reasoning from particular cases to the general rule. (He also includes a chapter on the technique called [[mathematical induction]], but that technique is not his main theme.) In ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II'', he discusses more general forms of [[inductive logic]] that can be used to roughly determine to what degree a conjecture (in particular, a mathematical conjecture) is plausible. Some quotes: *How I need a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy chapters involving [[quantum mechanics]]. (This is a mnemonic for the first fourteen digits of [[pi|π]]; the lengths of the words are the digits) * If you can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it. *A great discovery solves a great problem, but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may be modest, but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery. ==Bibliography== * {{cite book | last = Pólya | first = George | title = How to Solve It | publisher = Penguin Books | year = 1990 | id = ISBN 0140124993 }} includes foreword by [[Ian Stewart (mathematician)|Ian Stewart]] == See also == * [[Polya distribution]] * [[Pólya Prize]] == External links == *[http://www.cis.usouthal.edu/misc/polya.html George Pólya: How to Solve It] *[http://www.maa.org/Awards/polya.html The George Pólya Award] *{{MacTutor Biography|id=Polya}} [[Category:1887 births|Polya, George]] [[Category:1985 deaths|Polya, George]] [[Category:20th century mathematicians|Polya, George]] [[Category:Combinatorists|Polya, George]] [[Category:Hungarian mathematicians|Polya, George]] [[de:George Pólya]] [[fr:George Pólya]] [[hu:Pólya György]] [[no:George Pôlya]] [[sl:George Pólya]] [[sv:George Pólya]] [[zh:喬治·波利亞]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>OpenGL Utility Toolkit</title> <id>12956</id> <revision> <id>40364172</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the OpenGL toolkit. GLUT can also stand for [[glucose transporter]].'' The '''[[OpenGL]] Utility [[widget toolkit|Toolkit]]''' ('''GLUT''') is a library of utilities for OpenGL programs, which primarily perform system-level [[input/output|I/O]] with the host [[operating system]]. Functions performed include window definition, window control, and monitoring of [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]] and [[Computer mouse|mouse]] input. Routines for drawing a number of geometric primitives (both in solid and wireframe mode) are also provided, including [[cube (geometry)|cube]]s, [[sphere]]s, and the [[Utah teapot]]. GLUT even has some limited support for creating pop-up windows. GLUT was written by [[Mark Kilgard|Mark J. Kilgard]], author of ''OpenGL Programming for the X Window System'' and ''The CG Tutorial: The Definitive Guide to Programmable Real-Time Graphics'' while he was working for [[Silicon Graphics]] Inc. The two aims of GLUT are to allow the creation of rather portable code between operating systems (GLUT is [[cross-platform]]) and to make learning OpenGL easier. Getting started with OpenGL programming while using GLUT often takes only a few lines of code and requires no knowledge of operating system&amp;ndash;specific windowing [[application programming interface|API]]s. All GLUT functions start with the &lt;code&gt;glut&lt;/code&gt; prefix (for example, &lt;code&gt;glutPostRedisplay&lt;/code&gt; rerenders the current screen). Freeglut and its spin-off, OpenGLUT, are [[open source]] alternatives to GLUT. Freeglut attempts to be a fairly exact clone, OpenGLUT adds a number of new features to the API. Both have the advantage of licensing that permits users to modify and redistribute the library. ==See also== * [[GLU]] * [[GLUI]] ==External links== *[http://ww
and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] leave to meet with [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leader [[Joseph Stalin]] at the [[Yalta Conference]]. *[[1952]] - A [[tropical storm]] forms north of [[Cuba]] and moves northeast making landfall in [[Florida]]. It is the earliest reported formation of a tropical storm on record in the [[Atlantic basin]]. * [[1957]] - President [[Iskander Mirza]] of [[Pakistan]] lays the foundation-stone of the [[Guddu Barrage]] across river [[river Indus|Indus]] near [[Sukkur]]. *[[1962]] - For the first time in 400 years [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] and [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] align. * [[1966]] - [[Pakistan]] suggests a six-point agenda with [[Kashmir]] dispute as number one item for the proposed [[Indo-Pak]] ministerial talks after [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965 war]]. *[[1967]] - The [[American Basketball Association]] is formed. *[[1971]] - After a coup in [[Uganda]], [[Idi Amin]] replaces [[President]] [[Milton Obote]] as leader. *[[1972]] - The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[embassy]] in [[Dublin]] is destroyed in protest over [[Bloody Sunday (1972)|Bloody Sunday]]. *[[1976]] - [[Groundhog Day gale of 1976]] hits the north-eastern [[United States]] and south-eastern [[Canada]]. *[[1979]] - [[Sid Vicious]] dies of a [[heroin]] [[overdose]]. *[[1980]] - [[Abscam]]: Reports surface that [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] personnel were targeting members of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] in a [[sting operation]]. *1980 - Founding congress of the [[Revolutionary Communist Party of Turkey]]. *[[1982]] - [[Hama Massacre]]: The government of [[Syria]] attacks the town of [[Hama]] and kills thousands of people. *[[1986]] - [[Nurse]] [[Anita Cobby]] is found dead in a paddock in [[Prospect, New South Wales|Prospect]], a [[suburb]] of [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]. She had been robbed, raped, and murdered. Five men ([[Micheal Murphy]], [[Gary Murphy]], [[Les Murphy]], [[Micheal Murdoch]], and [[John Travers]]) are later sentenced to life [[imprisonment]] without [[parole]] in [[June]] of [[1987]] for [[Anita Cobby]]'s murder. *[[1989]] - [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]: The last [[Soviet Union]] armored column leaves [[Kabul]], ending nine years of military occupation. *[[1990]] - [[Apartheid]]: In [[South Africa]] [[President of South Africa|President]] [[F.W. de Klerk]] allows the [[African National Congress]] to legally function again and promises to set [[Nelson Mandela]] free. *[[1998]] - A [[Cebu Pacific Air]] [[DC-9]]-32 crashes into a mountain near [[Cagayan de Oro]], [[Philippines]], killing 104. *[[2002]] - Wedding of Crown Prince [[Willem-Alexander]] of the Netherlands to the Argentinean born [[Máxima Zorreguieta]] in Amsterdam. *[[2006]] - An aging [[Egyptian]] passenger ferry carrying more than 1,400 people sinks in the [[Red Sea]] off the Saudi coast. ==Births== *[[1208]] - [[James I of Aragon]] (d. [[1276]]) *[[1455]] - King [[John of Denmark]] (d. [[1513]]) *[[1494]] - [[Bona Sforza]], queen of [[Sigismund I of Poland]] (d. [[1557]]) *[[1502]] - [[Damião de Góis]], Portuguese philosopher (d. [[1574]]) *[[1506]] - [[René de Birague]], French cardinal and chancellor (d. [[1583]]) *[[1522]] - [[Lodovico Ferrari]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1565]]) *[[1600]] - [[Gabriel Naudé]], French librarian and scholar (d. [[1653]]) *[[1613]] - [[Noël Chabanel]], French Jesuit missionary (d. [[1649]]) *[[1621]] - [[Johannes Schefferus]], Alsatian-born humanist (d. [[1679]]) *[[1649]] - [[Pope Benedict XIII]] (d. [[1730]]) *[[1650]] - [[Nell Gwynne]], English actress and royal mistress (d. [[1687]]) *[[1669]] - [[Louis Marchand]], French organist and harpsichordist (d. [[1732]]) *[[1695]] - [[William Borlase]], English naturalist (d. [[1772]]) *[[1700]] - [[Johann Christoph Gottsched]], German writer (d. [[1766]]) *[[1711]] - [[Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz]], Austrian diplomat (d. [[1794]]) *[[1714]] - [[Gottfried August Homilius]], German composer (d. [[1785]]) *[[1717]] - [[Ernst Gideon Freiherr von Laudon]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1790]]) *[[1754]] - [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand]], French politician (d. [[1838]]) *[[1802]] - [[Jean Baptiste Boussingault]], French chemist (d. [[1887]]) *[[1803]] - [[Albert Sidney Johnston]], American Confederate general (d. [[1862]]) *[[1829]] - [[Alfred Brehm]], German zoologist (d. [[1884]]) *[[1841]] - [[François-Alphonse Forel]], Swiss hydrologist (d. [[1912]]) *[[1875]] - [[Fritz Kreisler]], Austrian violinist (d. [[1962]]) *[[1878]] - [[Alfréd Hajós]], Hungarian swimmer (d. [[1955]]) *[[1882]] - [[James Joyce]], Irish author (d. [[1941]]) *[[1887]] - [[Ernst Hanfstängl]], German pianist and politician (d. [[1975]]) *[[1888]] - [[Frederick Lane]], Australian swimmer (d. [[1969]]) *[[1890]] - [[Charles Correll]], American actor (d. [[1972]]) *[[1893]] - [[Cornelius Lanczos]], Hungarian mathematician (d. [[1974]]) *[[1895]] - [[George Halas]], American football player, coach, and league founder (d. [[1983]]) *[[1897]] - [[Howard Deering Johnson|Howard Johnson]], American hotelier (d. [[1972]]) *[[1901]] - [[Jascha Heifetz]], Lithuanian violinist (d. [[1987]]) *[[1905]] - [[Ayn Rand]], Russian-born author (d. [[1982]]) *[[1913]] - [[Poul Reichhardt]], Danish actor (d. [[1985]]) *[[1915]] - [[Abba Eban]], Israeli diplomat (d. [[2002]]) *[[1918]] - [[Hella S. Haasse]], Dutch writer *[[1923]] - [[James Dickey]], American poet and author (d. [[1997]]) *1923 - [[Bonita Granville]], American actress (d. [[1988]]) *1923 - [[Red Schoendienst]], baseball player and manager *1923 - [[Liz Smith (journalist)|Liz Smith]], American gossip columnist *[[1924]] - [[Elfi von Dassanowsky]], Austrian-American producer and musician *[[1925]] - [[Elaine Stritch]], American actress *[[1926]] - [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]], French politician *[[1927]] - [[Stan Getz]], American musician (d. [[1991]]) *[[1928]] - [[Aloyisus Leon Higginbotham, Jr.]], civil rights activist and author *[[1931]] - [[Dries van Agt]], Dutch politician *1931 - [[Judith Viorst]], American author *[[1932]] - [[Robert Mandan]], American actor *[[1937]] - [[Tom Smothers]], American musician and comedian *[[1940]] - [[David Jason]], English actor *[[1942]] - [[Christine Keeler]], British model *1942 - [[Graham Nash]], British musician *[[1944]] - [[Geoffrey Hughes]], British actor *[[1947]] - [[Farrah Fawcett]], American actress *1947 - [[Melanie Safka]], American singer *[[1949]] - [[Brent Spiner]], American actor *1949 - [[Ross Valory]], American musician ([[Journey (band)|Journey]]) *[[1954]] - [[Christie Brinkley]], American model *[[1963]] - [[Eva Cassidy]], American singer (d. [[1996]]) *[[1966]] - [[Robert DeLeo]], American musician ([[Stone Temple Pilots]]) *[[1967]] - [[Arturs Irbe]], Latvian hockey player *[[1969]] - [[Valeri Karpin]], Russian footballer *[[1972]] - [[Dana International]], Israeli singer *[[1975]] - [[Ieroklis Stoltidis]], Greek football player *1975 - [[Todd Bertuzzi]], Canadian hockey player *[[1976]] - [[James Hickman]], British swimmer *[[1977]] - [[Shakira]], Colombian singer *[[1983]] - [[Jordin Tootoo]], Canadian hockey player *[[1987]] - [[Martin Spanjers]], American actor &lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt; ==Deaths== *[[1124]] - Duke [[Bořivoj II of Bohemia]] *[[1218]] - [[Konstantin of Rostov]], Prince of Novgorod (b. [[1186]]) *[[1250]] - King [[Eric XI of Sweden]] (b. [[1216]]) *[[1461]] - [[Owen Tudor]], Welsh founder of the Tudor dynasty of England *[[1529]] - [[Baldassare Castiglione]], Italian writer (b. [[1478]]) *[[1580]] - [[Bessho Nagaharu]], Japanese retainer (b. [[1558]]) *[[1594]] - [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]], Italian composer (b. [[1525]]) *[[1648]] - [[George Abbot (English writer)|George Abbot]], English writer *[[1660]] - [[Govert Flinck]], Dutch painter (b. [[1615]]) *1660 - [[Gaston, Duke of Orléans]], French politician (b. [[1608]]) *[[1661]] - [[Lucas Holstenius]], German humanist (b. [[1596]]) *[[1688]] - [[Abraham Duquesne]], French naval officer (b. [[1610]]) *[[1704]] - [[Guillaume François Antoine, Marquis de l'Hôpital]], French mathematician (b. [[1661]]) *[[1712]] - [[Martin Lister]], English naturalist and physician *[[1714]] - [[John Sharp]], English Archbishop of Yorkshire (b. [[1643]]) *[[1768]] - [[Robert Smith (mathematician)|Robert Smith]], English mathematician (b. [[1689]]) *[[1769]] - [[Pope Clement XIII]] (b. [[1693]]) *[[1802]] - [[Welbore Ellis, 1st Baron Mendip]], British statesman (b. [[1713]]) *[[1895]] - [[Archduke Albert (1817-1895)|Archduke Albert]], Austrian general (b. [[1817]]) *[[1907]] - [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], Russian chemist (b. [[1834]]) *[[1922]] - [[William Desmond Taylor]], Irish film director (b. [[1872]]) *[[1925]] - [[Jaap Eden]], Dutch skater and cyclist (b. [[1873]]) *[[1942]] - [[Daniil Kharms]], Russian playwright (b. [[1906]]) *[[1948]] - [[Bevil Rudd]], South African athlete (b. [[1894]]) *[[1950]] - [[Constantin Carathéodory]], Greek mathematician (b. [[1873]]) *[[1956]] - [[Charles Grapewin]], American actor (b. [[1869]]) *[[1957]] - [[Grigory Landsberg]], Russian physicist (b. [[1890]]) *[[1969]] - [[Boris Karloff]], English actor (b. [[1887]]) *[[1970]] - [[Bertrand Russell]], British mathematician and philosopher, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] (b. [[1872]]) *[[1979]] - [[Sid Vicious]], English musician ([[Sex Pistols]]) (b. [[1957]]) *[[1980]] - [[William Howard Stein]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1911]]) *[[1987]] - [[Carlos José Castilho|Castilho]], Brazilian footballer (b. [[1927]]) *1987 - [[Alistair MacLean]], Scottish novelist (b. [[1922]]) *[[1992]] - [[Bert Parks]], American television host (b. [[1914]]) *[[1995]] - [[Donald Pleasence]], English actor (b. [[1919]]) *[[1996]] - [[Gene Kelly]], American dancer, act
ors however had a minimum age of 30 and they were under oath. From an Athenian perspective, where the young are rash and age brings wisdom and where an oath is a serious matter, both of these requirements gave jurors more weight than the citizens attending the assembly. Here only the legislative function of courts will be described, though this by no means exhausts the relevance of the courts to the workings of the democracy. ===Shifting balance between Assembly and Courts=== As the system evolved, the courts (that is, citizens under another guise) intruded upon the power of the assembly. From 355 BC political trials were no longer held in the assembly, but only in a court. In 416 BC the [[graphe paranomon]] (&quot;indictment against measures contrary to the laws&quot;) was introduced. Under this anything passed by the assembly or even proposed but not yet voted on, could be put on hold for review before a jury — which might annul it and perhaps punish the proposer as well. Remarkably, it seems that a measure blocked before the assembly voted on it did not need to go back to the assembly if it survived the court challenge: the court was enough to validate it. Once again it is important to bear in mind the lack of 'neutral' state intervention. To give a schematic scenario by way of illustration: two men have clashed in the assembly about a proposal put by one of them; it passed, and now the two of them go to court with the loser in the assembly prosecuting both the law and its proposer. The quantity of these suits was enormous: in effect the courts became a kind of upper house. In the 5th century there was in effect no procedural difference between an executive decree and a law: they were both simply passed by the assembly. But from 403 BC they were set sharply apart. Henceforth laws were made not in the assembly, but by special panels of 1000 citizens drawn from the annual jury pool of 6000. They were known as the ''nomothetai'', the lawmakers. Here again it is not anything like a legislative commission sitting down to discuss the pros and cons and drafting proposals, but the format is that of a trial, voting yes or no after a clash of speeches. ===Citizen-initiator=== The institutions sketched above — assembly, officeholders, council, courts — are incomplete without the figure that drove the whole system, ''Ho boulomenos'', he who wishes, or anyone who wishes. This expression encapsulated the right of citizens to take the initiative: to stand to speak in the assembly, to initiate a public law suit (that is, one held to affect the political community as a whole), to propose a law before the lawmakers or to approach the council with suggestions. Unlike officeholders, the citizen initiator was not vetted before taking up office or automatically reviewed after stepping down — it had after all no set tenure and might be an action lasting only a moment. But any stepping forward into the democratic limelight was risky and if someone chose (another citizen initiator) they could be called to account for their actions and punished. The degree of participation among citizens varied greatly, along a spectrum from doing virtually nothing towards something like a fulltime committent. But for even the most active citizen the formal basis of his political activity was the invitation issed to everyone (every qualified free male Athenian citizen) by the phrase &quot;whoever wishes&quot;. There are then three functions: the officeholders organized and saw to the complex protocols; ''Ho boulomenos'' was the initiator and the proposer of content; and finally the people, massed in assembly or court or convened as lawmakers, made the decisions, either yes or no, or choosing between alternatives. ==Participation and exclusion== ===Size and make-up of the Athenian population=== The population of Attica can only be roughly guessed at as the Athenians themselves never conducted a complete census. Numbers of [[slaves]] and [[metic]]s (resident aliens) in particular will have fluctuated. During the [[4th century BC]], the population of Athens may well have comprised some 250,000—300,000 people. Citizen families may have amounted to 100,000 people and out of these some 30,000 will have been the adult male citizens entitled to vote in the assembly. In the mid-5th century the number of adult male citizens was perhaps as high as 60,000, but this number fell precipitously during the Peloponnesian war. This slump was permanent due to the introduction of a stricter definition of citizen described below. From a modern perspective these figures seem pitifully small, but in the world of Greek city-states Athens was huge: most of thousand or so Greek cities could only muster 1000-1500 adult male citizens and Corinth, a major power, had at most 15,000. The non-citizen component of the population was divided between metics and slaves, with the latter perhaps somewhat more numerous. Around 338 BC the orator [[Hyperides]] (fragment 13) claimed that there were 150,000 slaves in Attica, but this figure is probably not more than an impression: slaves outnumbered those of citizen stock but did not swamp them. ===Citizenship in Athens=== Only adult male Athenian citizens who had completed their military training as [[ephebe]]s &amp;ndash; effectively twenty years and over &amp;ndash; had the right to vote in Athens. This excluded a majority of the population, namely [[Slavery#Slavery in Greece|slaves]], women and resident foreigners ([[metic]]s). Also disallowed were citizens whose rights were under suspension (typically for failure to pay a debt to the city: see [[Atimia (loss of citizen rights)|atimia]]); for some Athenians this amounted to permanent (and in fact inheritable) disqualification. Still, in contrast with oligarchical societies, there were no real property requirements limiting access. (The property classes of [[Solon]]'s constitution remained on the books, but they were a dead letter). Given the exclusionary and ancestral conception of citizenship held by Greek [[city-states]], a relatively large portion of the population took part in the government of Athens and of other radical democracies like it. At Athens some citizens were far more active than others, but the vast numbers required just for the system to work testify to a breadth of particpation among those eligible that greatly exceeded any present day democracy. Athenian citizens had to be legitimately descended from citizens&amp;mdash;after the reforms of Pericles in [[450 BC]] on both sides of the family, excluding the children of Athenian men and foreign women. Although the legislation was not retrospective, five years later the Athenians removed 5000 from the citizen registers when a free gift of corn arrived for all citizens from an Egyptian king. Citizenship could be granted by the assembly and was sometimes given to large groups (Plateans in 427 BC, Samians in 405 BC), but by the 4th century only to individuals and by a special vote with a quorum of 6000. This was generally done as a reward for some service to the state. In the course of a century the numbers involved were in the hundreds rather than thousands. This reflected the general conception of the ''polis'' as a community, somewhat like an extended family, rather than as a territorial state. Modern democracies too have their own exclusions: resident foreigners (legal and otherwise), individuals below a certain age and in some cases incarcerated citizens and those who have committed felonies. The modern form has other limitations as well: the right of voting is usually restricted to once every several years, and voters merely get to choose their representatives in the legislative or executive branches&amp;mdash;and it is these representatives, not the voters themselves, who make policy decisions (with the exception of occasional [[referendum|referenda]]). ==Main bodies of governance== There were three political bodies where citizens gathered in numbers running into the hundreds or thousands. These are the assembly (in some cases with a quorum of 6000), the council of 500 (''[[boule]]'') and the courts (a minumum of 200 people, but running at least on some occasions up to 6000). Of these three bodies it is the assembly and the courts that were the true sites of power — although courts, unlike the assembly, were never simply called the ''demos'' (the People) as they were manned by a subset of the citizen body, those over thirty. But crucially citizens voting in both were not liable to review and prosecution as were council members and all other officeholders. In the 5th century BC we often hear of the assembly sitting as a court of judgement itself for trials of political importance and it is not a coincidence that 6000 is the number both for the full quorum for the assembly and for the annual pool from which jurors were picked for particular trials. By the mid-4th century however the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial. ===Council of 500=== The council (''boule'') of 500, the largest board of officeholders, formed a steering committee for the assembly, drafting legislation and setting its agenda. A citizen could serve on the council twice in their lifetime. Any citizen could submit proposals to the council for drafting. Technically it was forbidden for the assembly to vote on measures without a pre-proposal (''probouleuma'') from the council. These might be concrete, worked-out proposals or 'open', that is little more than items on the agenda. The council, or rotating sections of it, also served as a kind of front desk for the state, on duty in the council chamber 24 hours a day. Every day of the year one of these councillors was head of state for the day (for instance, holding the keys to the treasury and the seal of the city and being responsible for greeting foreign envoys, and in the 5th century presidi
the manufacture of [[azo dye]]s. It reacts with nitric(III) acid to form diazonium salt which can undergo coupling reaction to form azo compound.As azo-compounds are highly coloured, they are widely used in dyeing industries, such as: * [[Methyl orange]] * [[Direct brown 138]] * [[Sunset yellow]] FCF * [[Ponceau]] ===drugs=== * [[Chlorpheniramine]] is an antihistamine the helps to relief allergic disorders due to cold, hay fever, itchy skin, insect bites and stings. * [[Chlorpromazine]] is a tranquilliser that sedates without inducing sleep. It is used to relieve anxiety, excitement, restlessness or even mental disorder. * [[Acetaminophen]] is also known as paracetamol or p-acetaminophenol, an analgesic that relieves pains such as headaches. It is believed to be less corrosive to the stomach and is an alternative to aspirin. == See also == * [[IUPAC nomenclature]] for the official naming rules for amines. [[Category:Amines]] [[ar:أمين]] [[cs:Amin]] [[de:Amine]] [[es:Amina]] [[fr:Amine (chimie)]] [[he:אמין (כימיה)]] [[nl:Amine]] [[ja:アミン]] [[lv:Amīni]] [[pl:Amina]] [[pt:Amina]] [[ru:Амины]] [[fi:Amiini]] [[sv:Amin]] [[vi:Amin]] [[zh:胺类]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adrian I</title> <id>1415</id> <revision> <id>15899899</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian I]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>April 29</title> <id>1416</id> <revision> <id>42163647</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:08:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rklawton</username> <id>754622</id> </contributor> <comment>rv non-noteable - and please don't kick my a**</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt; {| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=29}} |} '''[[April 29]]''' is the 119th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (120th in [[leap year]]s). There are 246 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1672]] - [[Franco-Dutch War]]: [[Louis XIV of France]] invades the [[Netherlands]]. *[[1770]] - [[James Cook]] arrives at and names [[Botany Bay]], [[Australia]]. *[[1854]] - The [[Ashmun Institute]] is officially chartered, becoming the first college for [[African American]] students. *[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Maryland]]'s House of Delegates votes not to secede from the [[United States|Union]] *[[1862]] - American Civil War: [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] falls to [[United States|Union]] forces under Admiral [[David Farragut]]. *[[1895]] - Sir [[Malcolm Sargent]] (29 April [[1895]] – [[3 October]] [[1967]]) was a British conductor, organist and composer, born in [[Ashford]], [[Kent]], [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1903]] - A 30 million cubic-metre landslide kills 70 in [[Frank, Alberta]], [[Canada]]. *[[1910]] - [[Andrew Fisher]] becomes [[Prime Minister of Australia]] for the second time. *[[1916]] - [[Easter Rebellion]]: [[Martial law]] in [[Ireland]] is lifted and the rebellion is officially over with the surrender of Irish nationalists to British authorities in [[Dublin]]. *[[1944]] - &quot;[[Dancing Romeo]],&quot; the last [[Our Gang]] film, premiers. *[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Germany|German]] Army in [[Italy]] unconditionally surrenders to the [[Allies]]. *1945 - World War II: Start of [[Operation Manna]]. *1945 - [[Adolf Hitler]] marries his long-time partner [[Eva Braun]] in a [[Berlin]] bunker and designates Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]] as his successor. *1945 - [[Holocaust]]: The [[Dachau concentration camp]] is liberated by [[United States]] troops. *[[1946]] - Former [[Prime Minister of Japan]] [[Hideki Tojo]] and 28 former [[Japan]]ese leaders are indicted for [[war crime]]s. *[[1967]] - After refusing induction into the [[United States Army]] the day before (citing religious reasons), [[Muhammad Ali]] is stripped of his [[boxing]] title. *[[1969]] - [[Jazz]] musician [[Duke Ellington]] receives the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]. *[[1970]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[United States]] and [[South Vietnam]]ese forces invade [[Cambodia]] to hunt [[Viet Cong]]. *[[1974]] - [[Watergate Scandal]]: President [[Richard Nixon]] announces the release of edited transcripts of [[White House]] tape recordings related to the scandal. *[[1975]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Frequent Wind]] &amp;ndash; The last [[United States|U.S.]] citizens begin evacuation from [[Saigon]] prior to an expected [[North Vietnam]]ese takeover. United States involvement in the war comes to an end. *[[1992]] - [[1992 Los Angeles riots]]: [[Riot]]s in [[Los Angeles, California]], follow the acquittal of [[police officer]]s charged with excessive force in the beating of [[Rodney King]]. Over the next three days 54 people are killed and hundreds of buildings are destroyed. *[[1997]] - The [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] of [[1993]] enters into force, outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of [[chemical weapon]]s among its signatories. *[[2002]] - The [[United States]] is re-elected to the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]], one year after losing the seat it had held for 50 years. *[[2004]] - [[Richard Cheney]] and [[George W. Bush]] testify before the [[9/11 Commission]] in a closed, unrecorded hearing in the [[Oval Office]]. *[[2004]] - Last [[Oldsmobile]] produced *[[2005]] - [[Apple Computer]] releases Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger to the public. ==Births== *[[1665]] - [[James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde]], Irish statesman and soldier (d. [[1745]]) *[[1667]] - [[John Arbuthnot]], English physician and satirist (d. [[1735]]) *[[1686]] - [[Peregrine Bertie, 2nd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven]], English statesman (d. [[1742]]) *[[1727]] - [[Jean-Georges Noverre]], French dancer and ballet master (d. [[1810]]) *[[1762]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan]], French marshal (d. [[1833]]) *[[1780]] - [[Charles Nodier]], French writer (d. [[1844]]) *[[1837]] - [[Georges Boulanger]], French general and politician (d. [[1891]]) *[[1854]] - [[Henri Poincaré]], French mathematician and physicist (d. [[1912]]) *[[1863]] - [[William Randolph Hearst]], American publisher (d. [[1951]]) *[[1876]] - Empress [[Zauditu of Ethiopia]] (d. [[1930]]) *[[1879]] - Sir [[Thomas Beecham]], English conductor (d. [[1961]]) *[[1882]] - [[H.N. Werkman]], Dutch artist and printer (d. [[1945]]) *[[1885]] - [[Egon Erwin Kisch]], Czech journalist and author (d. [[1948]]) *[[1893]] - [[Harold Urey]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1981]]) *[[1895]] - [[Malcolm Sargent]], English conductor (d. [[1967]]) *[[1899]] - [[Duke Ellington]], American jazz pianist and bandleader (d. [[1974]]) *[[1901]] - [[Hirohito]], [[Emperor of Japan]] (d. [[1989]]) *[[1907]] - [[Fred Zinnemann]], Austrian-born American film director (d. [[1997]]) *[[1909]] - [[Tom Ewell]], American actor (d. [[1994]]) *[[1917]] - [[Celeste Holm]], American actress *[[1918]] - [[George Allen (football)|George Allen]], American football player and coach (d. [[1990]]) *[[1920]] - [[Harold Shapero]], American composer *[[1925]] - [[Ned Austin]], American character actor *[[1929]] - [[Walter Kempowski]], German author *1929 - [[Peter Sculthorpe]], Australian composer *[[1930]] - [[Jean Rochefort]], French actor *[[1931]] - [[Frank Auerbach]], German-born British painter *1931 - [[Lonnie Donegan]], Scottish musician (d. [[2002]]) *[[1933]] - [[Mark Eyskens]], [[Prime Minister of Belgium]] *1933 - [[Rod McKuen]], American poet and composer *[[1934]] - [[Luis Aparicio]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player *1934 - [[Otis Rush]], American musician *[[1936]] - [[Zubin Mehta]], Indian-born American conductor *[[1937]] - [[Jill Paton Walsh]], English writer *[[1938]] - [[Fred Dibnah]], English television personality (d.[[2004]]) *[[1942]] - [[Klaus Voormann]], German illustrator and musician *1942 - [[Galina Kulakova]], Soviet cross country skier *[[1944]] - [[Richard Kline]], American actor and television director *[[1945]] - [[Tammi Terrell]], American singer (d. [[1970]]) *[[1946]] - [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]], American film director and writer *[[1947]] - [[Olavo de Carvalho]], Brazilian philosopher *1947 - [[Tommy James]], American musician *1947 - [[Jim Ryun]], American athlete and politician *[[1951]] - [[Dale Earnhardt]], American race car driver (d. [[2001]]) *[[1952]] - [[Nora Dunn]], American actress *1952 - [[David Icke]], British writer *[[1954]] - [[Jerry Seinfeld]], American comedian *[[1955]] - [[Kate Mulgrew]], American actress *[[1956]] - [[Ketil Stokkan]], Norwegian singer *[[1957]] - [[Daniel Day-Lewis]], Irish actor *[[1958]] - [[Michelle Pfeiffer]], American actress *1958 - [[Eve Plumb]], American actress *[[1960]] - [[Robert J. Sawyer]], Canadian writer *1960 - [[Phil King]], English bassist *[[1964]] - [[Federico Castelluccio]], Italian-American actor *[[1966]] - [[Phil Tufnell]], English cricketer *[[1967]] - [[Curtis Joseph]], Canadian hockey player *1967 - [[Master P]], American rapper, composer, actor, athlete, and sports agent *[[1968]] - [[Carnie Wilson]], American singer *[[1970]] - [[Andre Agassi]], American tennis player *1970 - [[Uma Thurman]], American actress *[[1974]] - [[Pascal Cygan]], French footballer *[[1975]] - [[Eric Koston]], Thai-born skateboarder *[[1977]] - [[Claus Jensen]], Danish footballer *[[1980]] - [[Kian Egan]], Irish musician ([[Westlife]]) *[[1981]] - [[George McCartney]], Northern Irish footballer ==Deaths== *[[1380]] - [[Catherine of Siena]], Italian saint (b. [[1347]]) *[[1594]] - [[Thomas Cooper (bishop)|Thomas Cooper]], English bishop, lexicographer, and writer *[[1630]] - [[Agrippa d'Aubigné]], French poet (b. [[1552]]) *[[1658]] - [[John Cleveland]], English poet (b. [[1613]]) *[
ute for &quot;didgeridoo&quot;. In Western Arnhem Land, one is more likely to hear of &quot;mago&quot;, and again, this is a specific term not to be used loosely. There is a general consensus that it is a matter of etiquette to reserve tribal names for tribal instruments, though retailers and businesses have been quick to exploit these special names for generic tourist-oriented instruments. == Construction and play == Authentic Aboriginal didgeridoos produced in traditionally-oriented communities in northern Australia are typically made from [[hardwood]]s, especially the various [[eucalyptus]] species that are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the region. The main trunk of the tree is often harvested, though branches are sometimes used as well. Aboriginal craftsmen spend considerable time searching for a suitable tree to make into a didgeridoo. The difficult part is in finding a tree that has been suitably hollowed out by [[termite]]s. If the hollow is too big or too small, it will make a poor quality instrument. A termite-bored didgeridoo has a resulting internal surface that creates non-harmonic resonant frequencies. (Unlike the regular [[harmonics]] produced by a bored or plastic pipe.) The first [[overtone]] is usually around an 11th higher than the fundamental frequency. This quality gives a distinct [[timbre]]: the classical didgeridoo sound. [[Image:Didgeridoo Embout1.jpg|frame|The wax mouthpiece often softens during play, forming a more perfect seal.]]When a suitable tree is found and cut down, a length of the main trunk or a segment of a branch is removed that will become the didgeridoo. The bark is taken off, the ends trimmed, and some shaping of the exterior then results in a finished instrument. This instrument may be painted or left undecorated. A rim of [[beeswax]] may be applied to the [[mouthpiece]] end. The didgeridoo is played with continuously vibrating lips to produce the drone while using a special breathing technique called [[circular breathing]]. This requires breathing in through the nose whilst simultaneously expelling air out of the mouth using the tongue and cheeks. By use of this technique, a skilled player can replenish the air in his lungs, and with practice can sustain a note for as long as desired. Recordings exist of modern didgeridoo players playing continuously for more than forty minutes, and some currently unsubstantiated claims peg times over one hour. == Cultural significance == The didgeridoo is sometimes played as a solo instrument for recreational purposes, though more usually it accompanies dancing and singing in ceremonial rituals. For Aboriginal groups of northern Australia, the didgeridoo is an integral part of ceremonial life, as it accompanies singers and dancers in religious rituals. Pair sticks, sometimes called [[clapstick]]s, establish the beat for the songs during ceremonies. The rhythm of the didgeridoo and the beat of the [[clapstick]]s are precise, and these patterns have been handed down for generations upon generations. Only men play the didgeridoo and sing during ceremonial occasions, whilst both men and women may dance. The taboo against women playing the instrument is not absolute; female Aboriginal didgeridoo players did exist, although their playing generally took place in an informal context. [http://aboriginalart.com.au/didgeridoo/myths.html] == The modern didgeridoo industry == Most didgeridoos found in shops are not authentic instruments. They are usually mass produced in factories or mass harvested in Australian forests, often by non-Aboriginal entrepreneurs but also sometimes by Aboriginal people. There are also didgeridoos that are made from plastic, leather, glass, [[agave]], [[yucca]] and other materials. For a cheap and simple didgeridoo, a length of [[polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] pipe makes an ideal beginner's instrument. The musician who wishes learn or play on a real instrument should be careful of retailers who make claims of authenticity; more likely than not, these retail instruments are imitations. It is hard to define what an authentic didgeridoo is. One definition would be that an original aboriginal didgeridoo is made from termite hollowed eucalyptus stems, harvested by the aboriginal didgeridoo maker and decorated by himself or another Aborigine artist, following the tribal traditions. Read more about the [http://www.ab-original.com.au/Info_pages/Original_aboriginal_didgeridoos.html original aboriginal didgeridoo], how to recognise termite hollowed [http://www.ab-original.com.au/Info_pages/Didgeridoo_from_Australia.html eucalyptus didgeridoos] and some [http://www.ab-original.com.au/Info_pages/Australian_didgeridoos.html urban myths] about it. ==Modern versions== In the 20th century, several &quot;modernised&quot; versions of the didgeridoo have been developed. The [[didjeribone]] [http://www.didjeribone.net/design.html] (also called &quot;slideridoo&quot; or &quot;slidgeridoo&quot;), a sliding didgeridoo made of plastic, was invented in second half of the 20th century by Australian didgeridoo player [[Charlie McMahon]]. It is constructed of two lengths of plastic tube, one of which is slightly narrower in diameter than the other, and which slides inside the wider tube in the manner of a [[trombone]] (hence the instrument's name). This allows players to achieve fundamental tones within the compass of a major sixth, ranging from low B♭ to high G. A [http://www.drdidg.com/Photos/photos.html keyed didgeridoo] (having keys somewhat like those of a saxophone, allowing the performer to play melodically) was developed in the late 20th century by the U.S. didgeridoo player [[Graham Wiggins]] (stage name Dr. Didg) and used on his CDs ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B00000062M Out of the Woods]'' (1995) (in the track &quot;Sun Tan&quot;) and ''[http://www.drdidg.com/Discography/Dust_Devils/dust_devils.html Dust Devils]'' (2002) (in the tracks &quot;T'Boli&quot; and &quot;Sub-Aqua&quot;). Wiggins built the unique and somewhat unwieldy instrument at the physics workshop of [[Oxford University]], from which he earlier obtained his Ph.D. In the mid to late 1990s, Marko Johnson (a didgeridoo player and teacher from Salt Lake City, Utah) developed the [http://www.didjbox.com didjbox], a compact instrument that functions along the same principles as a traditional didgeridoo. The didjbox emulates the length of a traditional instrument with a series of baffles that create a &quot;tortuous path&quot; of air. Most of these didjboxes measure between 18 and 24 inches in length. Johnson holds U.S. Patent #6664454 for his creation. ==Interesting facts== The spelling &quot;Didjeridoo&quot; was created in 1993 as a name for a by-now-legendary club in [[Luxembourg]]. Its owner had just read [[Bruce Chatwin]]'s ''The Songlines'', the club had been painted in earthen colours, and it was a place for music, so the instrument's name seemed most appropriate. However, neither &quot;Didgeridoo&quot; nor &quot;Didjeridu&quot; appeared to be correct for the club. A blend of both into &quot;Didjeridoo&quot; seemed just perfect. Before 1993, one never encountered this spelling, but it has since gained acceptance. A 2005 study, published in the [[British Medical Journal]], found that learning and practicing the didgeridoo helped reduce [[snoring]] and [[sleep apnea]], as well as daytime sleepiness [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/bmj.38705.470590.55v1]. This appears to work by strengthening muscles in the upper airway, thus reducing their tendency to collapse during sleep. The didjeridoo has also inspired the names of some bands from around the world including one from Portland, Oregon named [[DIJ]]. ==Famous didgeridoo players== *[[Mark Atkins]] *[[David Blanasi]] *[[Alan Dargin]] *[[Rolf Harris]] *[[David Hudson]] *[[Djalu Gurruwiwi]] *[[David Greenawald]] *[[Stephen Kent]] *[[Charlie McMahon]] *[[Adam Plack]] *[[Graham Wiggins]] *[[Gapanbulu Yunupingu]] *[[Makuma Yunupingu]] *[[Yomunu Yunupingu]] *[[Xavier Rudd]] *William Barton [http://www.didgesphere.com/] ==See also== * [[List of Australian Aboriginal musicians]] * [[Music of Australia]] * [[Circular breathing]] ==External links== * [http://www.dreamtime-didjeriduw3server.com/ Dreamtime, the site of the World Famous Didjeridu Mailing List] * [http://www.ididj.com.au iDIDJ Australia: Australian Didgeridoo Cultural Hub] * [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/dij/dij.html The physics of the didj] * [http://www.benjaminhammond.com/didge/ Physics of Dreamtime - Website on the physics of the didge with sound and graphics] * [http://www.djalu.com/ Rripangu Yirdaki (website of Djalu Gurruwiwi, renowned yirdaki craftsman)] * [http://www.flinders.edu.au/news/articles/?fj09v13s02 It's as Irish as - er - didgeridoo] * [http://www.hauart.de/flash/yedakiwork1.html Didge Circular Breathing - Flashmovie] * [http://www.didge.nl Didge Circular Breathing] * [http://www.EdDrury.com Extensive articles Tutorials and Interviews] * [http://www.maningrida.com Maningrida Community Art Centre] * [http://www.yirrkala.com/yidaki Yirrkala Community Art Centre] * [http://www.nambara.com.au Nambara Community Art Centre (Nhulunbuy)] * [http://www.bulabula-arts.com Ramingining Community Arts Centre] * [http://www.yidaki.com/whatsound.html What does a didgeridoo sound like?] *[http://www.didgethings.co.uk/ didgethings] [[Category:Wind instruments proper]] [[Category:Australian Aboriginal music]] [[cs:Didgeridoo]] [[de:Didgeridoo]] [[es:Didgeridoo]] [[eo:Diĝeriduo]] [[fr:Didgeridoo]] [[it:Didgeridoo]] [[he:דידג'רידו]] [[lb:Didgeridoo]] [[nl:Didgeridoo]] [[ja:ディジュリドゥ]] [[no:Didgeridoo]] [[pl:Didgeridoo]] [[pt:Didjeridu]] [[ru:Диджериду]] [[sl:Didžeridu]] [[fi:Didgeridoo]] [[sv:Didgeridoo]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dvorak</title> <id>8447</id> <revision> <id>41951599</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:11:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>
d border with Spain. There is a [[cable car]] which runs from a lower level in the centre of Gibraltar to one of the highest points on the Rock, with a stop halfway at the apes' den. The only transport link with Spain is by land, as Spain bans all air and ferry links with Gibraltar. Despite this, [[Gibraltar Airport]], maintains regular flight connections to [[London]] and [[Manchester]]. There were flights to [[Morocco]] but there was insufficient demand to sustain the service. Motorists, and on occasion, pedestrians crossing the border with Spain are randomly subjected to long delays and searches by the Spanish authorities. Spain has closed the border during disputes with the Gibraltar authorities, for example when the [[MV_Aurora|Aurora]] cruise ship called at Gibraltar. ==Military== The army garrison is provided by the [[Royal Gibraltar Regiment]], originally a part-time reserve force which was placed on the permanent establishment of the [[British Army]] in [[1990]]. The regiment includes full-time and part-time soldiers recruited from Gibraltar, as well as [[British Army]] regulars posted from other regiments. [[Image:Gibraltar_navy.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A Royal Navy base in Gibraltar.]] The [[Royal Navy]] maintains its [http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/static/pages/5375.html|Gibraltar Squadron] at the Rock. The squadron is responsible for the security and integrity of British Gibraltar Territorial Waters (BGTW). The shore establishment at Gibraltar is named [[Rooke]] after [[Sir George Rooke]] who captured the Rock for [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Charles]] (pretender to the Spanish throne) in 1704. Gibraltar's naval docks are an important base for [[NATO]]. Ships from the Spanish navy do not dock at Gibraltar. British and US nuclear submarines frequently visit the ''Z berths'' at Gibraltar (source: [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199798/cmhansrd/vo981109/text/81109w21.htm Hansard]). A Z berth provides the facility for nuclear submarines to visit for operational or recreational purposes, and for non-nuclear repairs. The [[Royal Air Force]] station at Gibraltar forms part of Headquarters British Forces Gibraltar. Although aircraft are no longer permanently stationed at [[RAF Gibraltar]], a variety of RAF aircraft make regular visits to the Rock. The Rock is believed to be a [[SIGINT]] listening post for [[telecommunications]] throughout North Africa, and because of its strategic location it still remains a key base for [[NSA]] and [[GCHQ]] coverage of the [[Mediterranean]]. ==Death on the Rock== In [[1988]] the British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] killed three unarmed [[Provisional IRA]] volunteers, Mairead Farrell, Sean Savage and Daniel McCann in Gibraltar as part of [[Operation Flavius]]. They were in Gibraltar on a PIRA operation. A car hired by the three was subsequently discovered laden with [[Semtex]] explosive. This incident was the subject of a contentious [[Thames Television]] documentary, ''[[Death on the Rock]]'', which many credit with being the main factor in Thames losing its [[ITV]] licence in 1992. The families of the deceased took the case to the [[European Court of Human Rights]] which by ten votes to nine held that the British Government had violated Article 2 of the [[European Convention on Human Rights|Convention]]. It also ruled that the three had been engaged in an act of terrorism, and consequently dismissed unanimously the applicants’ claims for damages, for costs and expenses incurred in the Gibraltar Inquest and the remainder of the claims for just satisfaction. ==Miscellaneous== * [[Communications in Gibraltar]] * [[Transport in Gibraltar]] ==See also== *[[Gibraltar Services Police]] *[[Royal Gibraltar Police]] == External links == {{commonscat|Gibraltar}} *[http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi Government of Gibraltar] *[http://www.gibraltar.gov.uk Government of Gibraltar - London Office] *[http://www.fsc.gi Gibraltar Financial Services Commission] *[http://www.gibraltar.gov.uk/natsymbols.asp National Symbols] *[[CIA Factbook]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gi.html] *[http://www.nic.gi Gibraltar ccTLD NIC] *[http://www.gibnet.com Gibraltar, the Unofficial Homepage] *[http://www.gbc.gi Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation (with radio streaming)] *[http://maps.google.com/?t=k&amp;ll=36.132052,-5.34502&amp;spn=0.064747,0.1157&amp;t=k Gibraltar at Google Maps] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2400673.stm Q&amp;A about Gibraltar at the BBC.co.uk] *[http://www.terraserver.com/imagery/image_gx.asp?cpx=-5.34643871337269&amp;cpy=36.1377186799092&amp;res=15&amp;provider_id=340&amp;t=pan&amp;dat= Satellite view of Gibraltar] {{Europe}} {{British dependencies}} [[Category:Disputed territories]] [[Category:European dependencies]] [[Category:Gibraltar| ]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[ar:محمية جبل طارق]] [[ast:Xibraltar]] [[zh-min-nan:Gibraltar]] [[ca:Gibraltar]] [[cs:Gibraltar]] [[da:Gibraltar]] [[de:Gibraltar]] [[et:Gibraltar]] [[el:Γιβραλτάρ]] [[es:Gibraltar]] [[eo:Ĝibraltaro]] [[fa:جبل‌الطارق]] [[fr:Gibraltar]] [[gl:Xibraltar - Gibraltar]] [[ko:지브롤터]] [[hr:Gibraltar]] [[io:Gibraltar]] [[id:Gibraltar]] [[ia:Gibraltar]] [[is:Gíbraltar]] [[it:Gibilterra]] [[he:גיברלטר]] [[la:Calpe]] [[lt:Gibraltaras]] [[lb:Gibraltar]] [[hu:Gibraltár]] [[mi:Kamaka]] [[nl:Gibraltar]] [[nds:Gibraltar]] [[ja:ジブラルタル]] [[no:Gibraltar]] [[nn:Gibraltar]] [[pl:Gibraltar]] [[pt:Gibraltar]] [[ro:Gibraltar]] [[ru:Гибралтар]] [[scn:Gibbilterra]] [[simple:Gibraltar]] [[sk:Gibraltár]] [[sl:Gibraltar]] [[sr:Гибралтар]] [[fi:Gibraltar]] [[sv:Gibraltar]] [[tr:Cebelitarık]] [[uk:Ґібралтар]] [[wa:Djibraltar]] [[zh:直布罗陀]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Gibraltar</title> <id>12078</id> <restrictions>edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed</restrictions> <revision> <id>42048210</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:03:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{sprotected}} ==Prehistoric== Evidence of [[hominid]] inhabitation of the Rock dates back to the [[Neanderthal]]s. A Neanderthal skull was discovered in [[Forbes' Quarry]] in 1848, indeed prior to the &quot;original&quot; discovery in the [[Neanderthal, Germany|Neander Valley]]. In 1926, the skull of a Neanderthal child was found in [[Devil's Tower]]. ==Ancient== The [[Phoenicians]] are known to have visited the Rock circa 950 BC and named the Rock ''[[Calpe]]''. The [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] also visited, however neither group appears to have settled permanently. [[Plato]] refers to Gibraltar as one of the [[Pillars of Hercules]] along with [[Jebel Musa]] or [[Monte Hacho]] on the other side of the Strait. Gibraltar was next visited by the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]s. Again, no permanent settlement was established. Following the [[fall of the Roman Empire]], Gibraltar was visited by the [[Vandals]] and later the [[Goths]]. The Vandals' stay was temporary; however, the [[Visigoth]]s were to remain on the [[Iberian peninsula]] from 414 to 711. The Gibraltar area and the rest of the South Iberian Peninsula was part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] during the second part of the 6th century, later reverting to the Visigoth Kingdom. ==Muslim== *[[711]] [[April 30]] - The [[Umayyad]] general [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]], leading a [[Berber]]-dominated army, sailed across the Strait from Ceuta. He first attempted to land on Algeciras but failed. Upon his failure, he landed undetected at the southern point of the Rock from present-day [[Morocco]] in his quest for Spain. Little was built during the first four centuries of [[Moorish]] control. (See [[Reconquista]].) *1160 - The [[Almohad]] Sultan [[Abd al-Mu'min]] ordered that a permanent settlement, including a [[castle]], be built. It received the name of ''Medinat al-Fath'' (City of the Victory). On completion of the works in the town, the Sultan crossed the Strait to inspect the works and stayed in Gibraltar for two months. The Tower of Homage of the castle remains standing today (Moorish Castle). *1231 - After the collapse of the Almohad Empire, Gibraltar was taken by [[Ibn Hud]], [[Taifa]] emir of Murcia. *1237 - Following the death of [[Ibn Hud]], his domains were handed over to [[Muhammed ibn Nasr]], the founder of the [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] [[kingdom of Granada]]. Therefore, Gibraltar changed hands again. *1274 - The second Nasrid king, [[Muhammed II al-Faqih]], gave Gibraltar over to the [[Marinid]]s, as payment for their help against the Christian kingdoms. *1309 - While the King [[Ferdinand IV of Castile]] laid siege on Algeciras, [[Alonso Pérez de Guzmán]] (known to the Spanish records as ''Guzmán el Bueno'') was sent to capture the town. This was the First Siege of Gibraltar. The Castilians took the Upper Rock from where the town was bombarded. The garrison surrendered after one month. Gibraltar then had about 1,500 inhabitants. *[[1310]] [[31 January]] - Gibraltar was granted its first Charter by the king Ferdinand IV of Castile. Being considered a high risk town, the charter included incentives to settle there such as the offering of freedom from justice to anyone who lived in Gibraltar for one year and one day. :This fact marked the establishment of the Gibraltar council. *1316 - Gibraltar was unsuccessfully besieged by the Nasrid [[caid]] Yahya (Second Siege of Gibraltar). *1333 June - A [[Marinid]]s army, lead by [[Abd al-Malik]], the son of [[Abul Hassan]], the Marinid sultan, recovered Gibraltar, after a five-month siege (Third Siege of Gibraltar). :King [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] attempted to retake Gibraltar aided by the fleet of the Castilian Admiral [[Alonso Jofre Tenorio]]. Even a ditch was dug across the isthmus. While laying the siege, the king was att
[[British East India Company]] declared Kidd a pirate. Various naval commanders were ordered to “''pursue and seize the said Kidd and his accomplices”'' for the ''“notorious piracies”'' {{an|4}} they had committed. On [[April 1]], [[1698]] Kidd reached [[Madagascar]]. Here Kidd found the first pirate of his voyage, [[Robert Culliford]], (the same man who had stolen Kidd’s ship years before) and his crew sailing the ''Mocha Frigate''. Kidd ordered his men to capture the ''Mocha Frigate''. Instead his men mutinied and joined the pirates of the ''Mocha Frigate''. Only 13 of Kidd’s men remained loyal to him. Deciding to return home, Kidd left the ''Adventure Galley'' behind ordering her to be burnt because she had become worm-eaten and leaky. By burning the ship, he was able to salvage every last scrap of metal, for example hinges. With the loyal remnant of his crew, he returned home in the captured ''Quedagh Merchant'', renamed ''Adventure Prize''. == Trial== When Kidd returned to New York City, he learned that he was a wanted pirate, and that several English [[men-of-war]] were searching for him. The governor (an investor) was away in [[Boston]], Massachusetts. With the help of his [[lawyer]], he [[Negotiation|negotiated]] with the governor in Boston and eventually agreed to come in to town. Regardless, he was [[arrested]] with his crew and placed in [[Stone Prison]], spending most of the time in [[solitary confinement]]. He was eventually (after over a year) sent to England to stand [[Trial (law)|trial]], and on [[May 8]] he was tried by [[Admiralty court|High Court of Admirality]] in London for the charges of piracy on high seas and the [[murder]] of William Moore. Whilst awaiting trial, Kidd was imprisoned in the infamous [[Newgate Prison]] and wrote several letters to the joint sovereigns, [[William III of England]] and [[Mary II of England]], demanding [[clemency]]. He stood trial without representation and was shocked to learn at trial that he was charged with Murder. He was found [[guilty]] on all charges (murder and five counts of piracy) and was [[hanging|hanged]] on [[May 23]], [[1701]] at '[[Execution Dock]]', [[Wapping]], in [[London]]. During the [[Execution (legal)|execution]], the hangman's rope broke and Kidd was hanged on the second attempt. His body was ''[[gibbet]]ed'' &amp;mdash; left to hang in an iron cage over the [[River Thames]], London, as a [[warning]] to [[future]] would-be pirates for two years. All his associates except his slaves were also convicted and hanged. Kidd's [[Whig]] backers were [[embarrassed]] by his trial. Gilbert indicates that they participated in the effort to convict him by depriving him of the money and information which might have provided him with some legal defense. In particular, his two sets of papers that showed that the two ships he had taken were French, were missing at his trial. These French papers (and others dated [[1700]]) resurfaced in the early [[20th century]], misfiled with other government papers in a [[London]] building. These papers call the extent of Kidd's guilt into question. ==Mythology and legend== The belief that Kidd left a buried [[treasure]] somewhere contributed considerably to the growth of his legend. This belief made its contribution to [[literature]] in [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s ''[[The Gold Bug]]'' and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s ''[[Treasure Island]]''. It also gave impetus to the never-ending treasure hunts on [[Oak Island]] in [[Nova Scotia]], in [[Suffolk County]], [[Long Island]] in [[New York]] where [[Gardiner's Island]] is located, [[Charles Island]] in Milford, [[Connecticut]], and in the [[Thimble Islands]] in [[Connecticut]]. Kidd also visited [[Block Island]] around [[1699]], where he was apparently supplied by Mrs. Mercy (Sands) Raymond, daughter of the mariner James Sands. The story has it that, for her hospitality, she was bid to hold out her apron, into which Kidd threw gold and jewels until it was full. After her husband Joshua Raymond died, Mrs. Raymond removed with her family to northern [[New London, CT]] (later Montville), where she bought much land. This Raymond family was thus said to have been &quot;enriched by the apron&quot;. == Films == The legend of Captain Kidd was made into a popular [[1945 in film|1945]] movie, ''[[Captain Kidd (1945 movie)|Captain Kidd]]'' starring [[Charles Laughton]] as Kidd, [[Randolph Scott]], [[Barbara Britton]] and [[John Carradine]]. Laughton reprised his role in the comic ''[[Abbott and Costello|Abbott and Costello Meet Captain Kidd]]'' (1952). == Music == Captain Kidd's legend is also the subject of a traditional English song ''Captain Kidd'' which takes the form of Kidd reminiscing about a rather inaccurate version of his life. One recording of it may be found on the [[Waterson:Carthy]] album ''Fishes and Fine Yellow Sand''. There's also a [[heavy metal]] song based on Kidd's adventures by [[Running Wild (band)]] called ''The Ballad of William Kidd'', released on ''[[The Rivalry]]'' album (1998). ==References== * {{anb|1}} Hamilton, Cochran. et al. ''Pirates of the Spanish Main, 1st Edition'', American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 1961. [http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&amp;PAGE=First LCCN 61010676] *Gilbert, H. (1986). ''The Book of Pirates''. London: Bracken Books. *Zacks, Richard (2002). ''The Pirate Hunter : The True Story of Captain Kidd''. Hyperion Books (ISBN 0786884517). ==See also== *[[Gardiners Island]] *[http://www.liquidtravel.org/show.php?TopicID=17&amp;ItemID=73 In Search of Captain Kidd's Adventure Galley] Captain Kidd in Madagascar *[http://www.bio.umass.edu/biology/conn.river/kidd.html Captain Kidd] Pirate's Treasure Buried in the Connecticut River [[Category:1645 births|Kidd, William]] [[Category:1701 deaths|Kidd, William]] [[Category:Disputed convictions|Kidd, William]] [[Category:Executed murderers|Kidd, William]] [[Category:Natives of Inverclyde|Kidd, William]] [[Category:British pirates|Kidd, William]] [[de:William Kidd]] [[ja:&amp;#12454;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12512;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12461;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12489;]] [[fr:William Kidd]] [[nl:William Kidd]] [[pt:William Kidd]] [[fi:Kapteeni Kidd]] [[sv:Kapten Kidd]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Calreticulin</title> <id>7120</id> <revision> <id>37831266</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:35:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zargulon</username> <id>359432</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Calreticulin''' is a [[protein]] that binds [[calcium|Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;]] [[ion]]s (a [[second messenger]] [[molecule]] in [[signal transduction]]), rendering it inactive. The Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; is bound with low [[Chemical affinity|affinity]], but high [[capacity]], and can be released on a signal (see [[inositol triphosphate]]). Calreticulin is located in storage compartments associated with the [[endoplasmic reticulum]]. Calreticulin is also known as calregulin, CRP55, CaBP3, calsequestrin-like protein and Ro/SS-A antigen. [[Category:Biochemistry]] [[Category:immunology]] [[Category:Proteins]] {{biochem-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Crannog</title> <id>7122</id> <revision> <id>40554790</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:23:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.19.249.114</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* References */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Loch Tay Crannog.jpg|thumb|200px|Reconstructed crannog on Loch Tay]] A '''crannog''' (also '''crannóg''' or '''crannoge''') is the name given in [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] to an [[artificial island]] or [[island|natural island]], used for a settlement. The name can also be used to refer to wooden platforms erected on shallow [[loch]] floors, although understandably few remains of this sort have been found. The choice of an island as a home is thought to have been for defence as well as the availability of food in the form of [[fish]] nearby. The crannog could be reached from the nearest shore by means of a causeway built up with stones, or else a wooden gangway built atop raised piles. An example of a reconstructed crannog is located at the ''Scottish Crannog Centre'' at [[Loch Tay]], Tayside. The islet of [[Eilean Domhnuill]], Loch Olabhat on [[North Uist]] may be the earliest crannog, dated to 3200-2800 BC in the [[Neolithic]] period. Most crannogs were in use from the [[Iron Age]] through to the early [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] period, at about the same time as the [[broch|brochs]], the [[wag|wags]], [[dun]]s and the larger [[roundhouse (dwelling)|roundhouses]]. The highest concentrations of crannogs (in Scotland) are found in several lochs within [[Dumfries and Galloway]] region, although many have been found in the [[Scottish Highlands|highlands]] as well. In the [[Grampian]] Highlands a well known crannog was built by the [[Burnetts of Leys]], whose family thence moved nearby to the present 16th century [[Crathes Castle]]. Reconstructed crannogs are located in [[Craggaunowen]], [[Ireland]]; the [[Irish National Heritage Park]], Wexford, Ireland; and on [[Loch Tay]] in [[Scotland]]. A variant of the crannog was the island [[dun]], which was a stone fort placed on a small, rocky island in a [[lochan]], or small lake. These were usually reached by means of a causeway built up from the nearest shore. The dun is the [[gaelic]] word for castle, and a number of Scottish castles use 'Dun-' as a prefix. == Construction == The construction of the [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] crannog began on a small island or shoal that was located within a loch or [[marsh]]. This rise was surrounded by a circle of [[oak]] [[Pile|piles]] with axe-sharpened bases that were driven into the bottom, forming a circular enclosure of about 200 ft. in diameter. The piles were then joined together by interlaced branch
:Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen|French text]], [[s:en:Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|English translation]]) ** Rules of procedure *** Rules of procedure of the National Assembly ([http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/connaissance/reglement.asp#P31_233 original text], [http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ac.asp English version]) ** Justice *** ''[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CCIVILL0.rcv Code civil]'' ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/code_civil_somA.htm official English translation]) *** ''[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CJURFINL.rcv Code des juridictions financières]'' *** ''[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CPROCPEL.rcv Code de procédure pénale]'' ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/cppsomA.htm official English translation]) *** ''[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CJUSADML.rcv Code de justice administrative]'' ** Budget *** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnTexteDeJorf?numjo=ECOX0104681L The LOLF] ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/lolf.htm official English translation]) ** Ombudsman *** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/texteconsolide/PPEAP.htm Law 73-6 of January 3, 1973], creating the position of the Ombudsman (updated version) ** Justice *** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CCIVILL0.rcv Civil Code, statutory part] *** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CPROCIV0.rcv Code of Civil Procedure, statutory part] ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/somncpca.htm official English translation]) *** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CPENALLL.rcv Criminal Code, statutory part] [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/code_penal_soman.htm official English translation]) *** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CPROCPEL.rcv Code of Criminal Procedure, statutory part] ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/cppsomA.htm official English translation]) *** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CJUSADML.rcv Code of Administrative Justice, statutory part] * Official documentation ** General *** ''[http://www.vie-publique.fr/decouverte_instit/sommaire.htm Vie publique&amp;nbsp;: découverte des institutions]'' *** ''Les pouvoirs publics. Textes essentiels 2005.'', ''[[La Documentation française]]'', ISBN 2110059613 ** Financial jurisdictions *** ''[http://www.ccomptes.fr/FramePrinc/frame01.htm La Cour des Comptes]'', [http://www.ccomptes.fr/anglais/anglais_1.htm The Court of Accounts] {{en icon}} ** Budget *** [[Alain Lambert]], [[Didier Migaud]], ''Réussir la LOLF, clé d'une gestion publique responsable et efficace. Rapport au Gouvernement'', September 2005, ISBN 2110955155 ([http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/rapports-publics/054000592/index.shtml page], [http://lesrapports.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/cgi-bin/brp/telestats.cgi?brp_ref=054000592&amp;brp_file=0000.pdf PDF]) *** [http://www.vie-publique.fr/decouverte_instit/approfondissements/approf_212.htm Presentation of the LOLF] *** Edward Arkwright, Stanislas Godefroy, Manuel Mazquez, Jean-Luc Bœuf, Cécile Courrèges, ''La mise en oeuvre de la loi organique relative aux lois de finances'', [[La Documentation Française]], 2005, ISBN 2110059443 ==See also== * ''[[Journal Officiel de la République Française]]'' * ''[[Légifrance]]'' ==External links== ''All external sites in French unless otherwise noted.'' * General ** [http://www.service-public.fr ''Service Public'', Official portal to public services] * Law ** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr Official online repository of laws and regulations] (''[[Légifrance]]'') ** [http://www.doc.diplomatie.fr/pacte/ Official online repository of treaties] in which France is a party * Assemblies ** [http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr Official site of the French National Assembly] ** [http://www.senat.fr Official site of the French Senate] ** [http://www.conseil-economique-et-social.fr Official site of the French Economic and Social Council] * Ombudsman ** [http://www.mediateur-republique.fr/ Official site] * Justice ** [http://www.courdecassation.fr Official site of the ''Cour de Cassation''] ** [http://www.conseil-etat.fr Official site of the ''Conseil d'État''] ** [http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/ Official site of the Constitutional Council] ** [http://www.ccomptes.fr/ Official site of the Court of Auditors] ** [http://www.conseil-superieur-magistrature.fr/ Official site of the High Council of the Magistracy] [[Category:Politics of France]] [[Category:Government of France| Government of France]] [[de:Französische Regierung]] [[fr:Gouvernement français]] [[he:ממשלת צרפת]] [[nl:Regering van Frankrijk]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>France/Economy</title> <id>10721</id> <revision> <id>15908518</id> <timestamp>2002-08-04T07:23:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Scipius</username> <id>488</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to [[Economy of France]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of France]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in France</title> <id>10722</id> <revision> <id>35575527</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:37:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 33.91 million (year end 2003) '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 41.68 million (year end 2003) '''Telephone system:''' highly developed &lt;br&gt;''domestic:'' extensive cable and microwave radio relay; extensive introduction of fiber-optic cable; domestic satellite system &lt;br&gt;''international:'' satellite earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] (with total of 5 antennas - 2 for [[Indian Ocean]] and 3 for [[Atlantic Ocean]]), NA [[Eutelsat]], 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Atlantic Ocean region); HF radiotelephone communications with more than 20 countries '''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:''' AM 41, FM about 3,500 (this figure is an approximation and includes many repeaters), shortwave 2 (1998) '''Radios:''' 55.3 million (1997) '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 584 (plus 9,676 repeaters) (1995) '''Televisions:''' 34.8 million (1997) '''[[Internet country code]]:''' .fr '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 62 (2000) '''[[Internet host]]s:''' 2,396,761 (2004) '''[[Internet user]]s:''' 21.9 million (2003) ==See also== * [[France]] * [[media in France]] * [[List of French newspapers]] ==External links== * [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/DF_communications.shtml Communications in France - at ''Discover France'' (English)] * [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/DF_communications2.shtml Phone, Fax and Minitel Services in France (English)] * [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/DF_communications3.shtml E-mail and the Internet in France (English)] * [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/DF_communications4.shtml Print and Broadcast Media in France (English)] [[Category:Communications by country|France]] [[Category:Communications in France| ]] [[fr:Téléphonie en France]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transportation in France</title> <id>10723</id> <revision> <id>40133360</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T10:53:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hektor</username> <id>119631</id> </contributor> <comment>/* [[Railway]]s */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA WFB 2003}} [[Image:France airport map.png|300px|thumb|right|Airports in France]] == [[Railway]]s == ''Total:'' 31,939 km (31,940 km are operated by French National Railways ([[SNCF]]); 14,176 km of SNCF routes are electrified and 12,132 km are double- or multiple-tracked) &lt;br&gt;''[[standard gauge]]:'' 31,840 km 1.435-m gauge &lt;br&gt;''[[narrow gauge]]:'' 99 km 1.000-m gauge (1998) Trains, unlike road traffic, drive on the left (except in [[Alsace-Moselle]]). Metro and tramway services are not considered trains and thus generally follow road traffic in driving on the right. See also: [[TGV]], [[high-speed rail]], [[French railway history]], [[Chemins de Fer de Provence]], [[Channel Tunnel]]. '''[[Rapid transit|Métro]]s''': * [[Paris Metro]], operated by the [[RATP]] (''Régie Autonome des Transports Parisiens'') and the [[RER]] * [[Laon]], [[Poma 2000]] * [[Lille]], [[VAL]] (''Véhicule Automatique Léger'', &quot;Light Automatic Vehicle&quot;), operated by [[Transpole]]. * [[Lyon Metro]] * [[Marseille]], operated by the RTM (''Régie des Transports de Marseille'') * [[Rennes Metro]], VAL * [[Toulouse]], VAL '''[[Tram|Tramway]]s and [[light rail]]ways:''' This mode of transport started disappearing in France at the end of the [[1930s]]. Since the [[1980s]], several cities have re-introduced it.&lt;br&gt;List of cities operating a tramway or light rail system: * [[Bordeaux]], since [[2003]] * [[Caen]], since [[2002]], 'trams on tyres' [[guided bus]] system featuring a single guidance rail while running on tyres (partially separate tracks) * [[Grenoble]], since [[1987]] * [[Île-de-France_(région)|Île-de-France]] **T1 between [[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint Denis]] and [[Noisy-le-Sec]], since [[1992]] **T2 between [[La Defense]] and [[Issy Plaine]], since [[1997]] * [[Lille]] &amp;mdash; [[Roubaix]] &amp;mdash; [[Tourcoing]] * [[Lyon]], since [[2001]] * [[Marseille]] * [[Montpellier]], since [[2000]] * [[Nancy]], since [[2000]], 'trams on tyres' [[guided bus]] system featuring a single guidance rail