text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
Security Bureau]] (SB), [[National Police Agency (Japan)|National Police Agency]]
=== [[Jordan]] ===
*[[Dairat al-Mukhabarat]]
=== [[South Korea]] ===
*[[National Intelligence Service (South Korea)|National Intelligence Service]] (NIS)
=== [[Libya]] ===
*[[Jamahiriya el-Mukhabarat]]
=== [[Luxembourg]] ===
*[[Service de Renseignement de l'Etat]] (State Intelligence Service)
=== [[Malaysia]] ===
*[[Cawangan Khas]] (Special Branch)
*[[Jabatan Risikan Persekutuan]] (Federal Intelligence Department)
*[[Kor Risikan DiRaja]] (Royal Intelligence Corps)
=== [[Maldives]] ===
*[[National Security Service (Maldives)|National Security Service]] (NSS)
=== [[Isle of Man|Man, Isle of]] ===
* [[Special Branch]]
=== [[Mexico]] ===
*[[Centro de Investigacion y Seguridad Nacional]] (CISEN) (National Security and Investigation Centre)
=== [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]] ===
*[[Information and Security Service of the Republic of Moldova|Serviciul de Informaţii şi Securitate al Republicii Moldova]] (SIS) (Information and Security Service of the Republic of Moldova)
=== [[Morocco]] ===
*[[Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire du Maroc|Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire]] (DST) (Directorate of Territorial Surveillance)
=== [[Netherlands]] ===
*[[General Intelligence and Security Service|Algemene Inlichtingen- en Veiligheidsdienst]] (AIVD) (General Intelligence and Security Service)
*[[Military Intelligence and Security Service|Militaire Inlichtingen- en Veiligheidsdienst]] (MIVD) (Military Intelligence and Security Service)
=== [[New Zealand]] ===
*[[Government Communications Security Bureau]]
*[[New Zealand Security Intelligence Service|Security Intelligence Service]]
=== [[Nigeria]] ===
*[[State Security Service]] (SSS)
*[[National Intelligence Agency (Nigeria)|National Intelligence Agency]] (NIA)
=== [[Norway]] ===
*[[Politiets Sikkerhetstjeneste]] (PST) (Police Security Agency)
*[[Nasjonal Sikkerhetsmyndighet]] (NSM) (National Security Authority)
*[[Norwegian National Intelligence Service|Forsvarets Etterretningstjeneste]] (Defence Intelligence Agency)
=== [[Pakistan]] ===
*[[Inter-Services Intelligence|Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI)
=== [[Philippines]] ===
*[[Intelligence Group]], Philippine National Police
*[[Intelligence Service of the Armed Forces of the Philippines]] (ISAFP)
*[[National Intelligence Coordinating Agency]] (NICA)
*[[National Bureau of Investigation]] (NBI)
=== [[Poland]] ===
*[[Agencja Wywiadu]] (AW) (Foreign Intelligence Agency)
*[[Agencja Bezpieczeństwa Wewnetrznego|Agencja Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego]] (ABW) (Internal Security Agency)
*[[Wojskowe Służby Informacyjne]] (WSI) (Military Intelligence Service)
=== [[Portugal]] ===
*[[Sistema de Informações da República Portuguesa]] (SIRP) (Intelligence System of the Republic of Portugal)
*[[Serviço de Informações de Segurança]] (SIS) (Security Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviço de Informações Militares]] (SIM) (Military Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviço de Informações Estratégicas de Defesa]] (SIED) (Strategic Defense Intelligence Service)
=== [[Romania]] ===
*[[Romanian Intelligence Service|Serviciul Român de Informatii]] (SRI) (Romanian Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviciul de Informatii Externe]] (SIE) (External Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviciul de Protectie şi Paza]] (SPP) (Protection and Security Service)
*[[Directia Generala de Informatii a Apararii]] (DGIA) (Directorate General of Defence Intelligence)
** Directia de Informatii Militare (DIM) (Directorate of Military Intelligence)
** Directia de Siguranta Militara (DSM - J2) (Directorate of Military Security)
*[[Directia Generala de Informatii si Protectie Interna]] (DGIPI) (Directorate General of Information and Internal Protection) (Ministry of the Interior)
*[[Directia Generala de Protectie si Anticoruptie]] (DGPA) (Directorate General of Protection and Anti-Corruption) (Ministry of Justice)
*[[Serviciul de Telecomunicatii Speciale]] (STS) (Special Telecommunications Service)
=== [[Russia|Russian Federation]] ===
*[[FSB (Russia)|Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti]] (FSB) (Federal Security Service)
*[[GRU|Glavnoye Razvedyvatelnoye Upravlenie]] (GRU) (Main Intelligence Directorate)
*[[Sluzhba Vneshney Razvedki]] (SVR) (Foreign Intelligence Service)
=== [[Saudi Arabia]] ===
*[[Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah]] (General Intelligence Service)
=== [[Serbia]] ===
*[[Bezbednosno Informativna Agencija]] (BIA) (Security Information Agency)
=== [[Singapore]] ===
*[[Internal Security Department]] (ISD)
*[[Security and Intelligence Department]] (SID)
=== [[Slovakia]] ===
*[[Slovenská informačná služba]] (SIS) (Slovak Information Service)
*[[Vojenské spravodajstvo]] (Military Intelligence)
**[[Vojenská spravodajská služba]] (VSS) (Military Intelligence Service)
**[[Vojenské obranné spravodajstvo]] (VOS) (Military Defence Service)
*[[Národný bezpečnostný úrad]] (NBÚ) (National Security Bureau)
=== [[Slovenia]] ===
*[[Slovenska Obveščevalno-Varnostna Agencija]] (SOVA) (Slovenian Intelligence and Security Agency)
=== [[South Africa]] ===
*[[National Intelligence Agency]] (NIA)
*[[South African Secret Service]] (SASS)
*[[South African National Defence Force Intelligence Division]] (SANDF-ID)
*[[Crime Intelligence (SAPS)|Crime Intelligence Division, South African Police Service]]
=== [[Spain]] ===
*[[Centro Nacional de Inteligencia]] (CNI) (National Intelligence Centre)
=== [[Sweden]] ===
*[[Militära underrättelse- och säkerhetstjänsten]] (MUST) (Military Intelligence and Security Service)
*[[Swedish Security Service|Säkerhetspolisen]] (SÄPO) (Security Police)
*[[Kontoret för särskild inhämtning]] (KSI)
*[[Swedish National Defence Radio Establishment|Försvarets Radioanstalt]] (FRA) (Defence Radio Establishment)
=== [[Switzerland]] ===
*[[Strategischer Nachrichtendienst]] (SND) (Strategic Intelligence Service)
*[[Dienst für Analyse und Prävention]] (DAP) (Analysis and Prevention Service)
*[[Militärischer Nachrichtendienst]] (MND) (Military Intelligence Service)
*[[Luftwaffennachrichtendienst]] (LWND) (Air Force Intelligence Service)
=== [[Syria]] ===
*[[Idarat al-Mukhabarat al-Amma]] (Directorate of State Intelligence)
*[[Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya]] (Department of Military Intelligence)
*[[Idarat al-Mukhabarat al-Jawiyya]] (Directorate of Air Force Intelligence)
=== Taiwan ===
''See [[#Republic of China|Republic of China]]''
=== [[Turkey]] ===
*[[Milli Istihbarat Teskilati]] (MIT) (National Intelligence Organization)
*[[Jandarma Istihbarat ve Terorle Mucadele]] (JITEM)
=== [[Turkmenistan]] ===
*[[Committee for National Security]] (KNB)
=== [[Ukraine]] ===
* [[Holovne Upravlinnya Rozvidky]] (HUR) (Central Intelligence Directorate)
* [[Sluzhba Bezpeky Ukrayiny]] (SBU) (Security Service of Ukraine)
**[[Upravlinnya Derzhavnoyi Okhorony]] (UDO) (State Guard Directorate)
* [[Sluzhba Zovnishnioyi Rozvidky]] (SZR) (External Intelligence Service)
=== [[United Kingdom]] ===
*[[Defence Intelligence Staff]] (DIS)
*[[Government Communications Headquarters]] (GCHQ)
*[[UK Joint Intelligence Committee|Joint Intelligence Committee]] (JIC)
*[[RAF Intelligence|Royal Air Force Intelligence Branch]]
*[[Intelligence Corps]]
*[[Police Intelligence]]
*[[Secret Intelligence Service]] (SIS or MI6)
*[[MI5|Security Service]] (MI5)
*[[Special Branch]]
=== [[United States]] ===
*[[Air Intelligence Agency]] (AIA)
*[[Army Intelligence]]
*[[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA)
**[[National Clandestine Service]] (NCS)
*[[Coast Guard Intelligence]]
*[[Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA)
*[[Office of Intelligence]], [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]]
*[[Bureau of Intelligence and Research]] (INR), [[United States Department of State|Department of State]]
*[[Office of Intelligence Support]], [[United States Department of the Treasury|Department of the Treasury]]
*[[National Security Division]], [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
*[[Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate]]
*[[Marine Corps Intelligence]]
*[[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]] (NGA)
*[[National Intelligence Council]] (NIC)
*[[National Reconnaissance Office]] (NRO)
*[[National Security Agency]] (NSA)
*[[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI)
*[[United States Secret Service]] (USSS)
===[[Venezuela]]===
*[[Dirección de los Servicios de Inteligencia y Prevención]] (DISIP) (Directorate of Intelligence and Prevention Services)
===[[Vietnam]]===
*[[Second Central Commission of Military Intelligence|Tổng cục 2 tình báo quân đội]] (TC2) (Second Central Commission of Military Intelligence)
===[[Zimbabwe]]===
*[[Central Intelligence Organization]] (CIO)
==See also==
<!-- section with alphabetical order -->
*[[List of historical intelligence agencies]]
*[[List of law enforcement agencies]]
*[[List of protective service agencies]]
*[[Secret police]]
*[[Secret service]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/world/index.html FAS report]
[[Category:Intelligence agencies| ]]
[[Category:Lists of organizations|Intelligence agencies]]
[[de:Liste der Nachrichtendienste]]
[[el:Κατάλογος υπηρεσιών πληροφοριών]]
[[eo:Spionorganiza&#309;oj]]
[[fr:Liste des services secrets]]
[[pl:S&#322;u&#380;by specjalne]]
[[sv:Lista över underrättelseorganisationer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet Engineering Task Force</title>
<id>15285</id>
<revision>
<id>40895096</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T18:57:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alvestrand</username>
<id>50958</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Internet Engineering Task Force''' ('''IETF''') develops and promotes [[Internet]] standards; in particular those of the [[TCP/IP]] [[protocol suite]]. It is an open, all-volunteer [[standards organization]], with no formal membership or membership requirements.
It is organized into a large number of [[IETF Working Group|working group]]s, |
t resistance effort into a worldwide Islamic fundamentalist movement.
The Soviet Union withdrew its troops in February 1989, but continued to aid the government, led by [[Mohammed Najibullah]]. Massive amounts of aid from the CIA and Saudi Arabia to the mujahadin also continued. After the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]], the Najibullah government was overthrown on [[April 18]], [[1992]] when [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] mutinied, and allied himself with [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]], to take control of [[Kabul]] and declare the Islamic State of Afghanistan.
==History of Afghanistan (1992 to present)==
''Main article: [[History of Afghanistan since 1992]]''
When the victorious [[mujahidin]] entered [[Kabul]] to assume control over the city and the central government, internecine fighting began between the various militias, which had coexisted only uneasily during the Soviet occupation. With the demise of their common enemy, the militias' ethnic, clan, religious, and personality differences surfaced, and the civil war continued.
An interim [[Islamic Jihad Council]] was put in place, first led by [[Sibghatullah Mojadeddi]] for two months, then by [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]]. Fighting among rival factions intensified.
In reaction to the anarchy and [[warlord]]ism prevalent in the country, and the lack of Pashtun representation in the Kabul government, a movement of religious scholars, many of them former mujahideen, arose. The [[Taliban]] took control of 90% of the country by [[1998]], limiting the opposition mostly to a small, largely [[Tajiks|Tajik]] corner in the northeast and the [[Panjshir valley]]. The opposition formed the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], which continued to receive [[diplomatic recognition]] in the [[United Nations]] as the government of [[Afghanistan]].
In response to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the [[United States]] and its coalition allies launched a successful [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|invasion of Afghanistan]] to oust the Taliban government. Sponsored by the UN, Afghan factions met in [[Bonn]] and chose a 30 member interim authority led by [[Hamid Karzai]]. After governing for 6 months, former King Zahir Shah convened a [[Loya Jirga]], which elected Karzai president, and gave him authority to govern for two more years. Then, on 9 October 2004, Karzai was elected president in Afghanistan's first ever direct presidential election.
==See also==
*[[Timeline of Afghan history]]
*[[History of present-day nations and states]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1162668.stm BBC: Country profile: Afghanistan]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/18/international/asia/18AFGH.html HISTORY: For Ages, Afghanistan Is Not Easily Conquered, New York Times, 9/18/2001]
==Further reading==
*Anthony Arnold, ''Afghanistan's Two-Party Communism''
*Henry S. Bradsher, ''Afghanistan and the Soviet Union''
*David B. Edwards, ''Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad''
*Louis Dupree, ''Afghanistan''
*Arnold Charles Fletcher, ''Afghanistan: Highway of Conquest''
*Vartan Gregorian, ''The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Politics of Reform and Modernization'', 1840-1946
*Kawun Kakar Hasan, ''Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amin 'Abdal-Rahman Khan''
*W. Kerr Fraser-Tytler, ''Afghanistan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia''
*Raiz Muhammad Khan, ''Untying the Afghan Knot: Negotiating the Soviet Withdrawal''
*Richard S. Newell, ''The Politics of Afghanistan''
*Leon B. Poullada, ''Reform and Rebellion in Afghanistan'', 1919-1929
*Olivier Roy, ''Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan''
*Barnett Rubin, ''The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the International System''
*[http://www.spongobongo.com/her9886.htm Donald Newton Wilber], ''Afghanistan''
*Bernard, P. 1994. “The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia.” In: ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250.'' Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing., pp. 99-129.
*Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the ''Hou Hanshu''." 2nd Draft Edition.[http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html]
*Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' &#39759;&#30053; ''by Yu Huan'' &#39770;&#35938;'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation. [http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html]
*Sarianidi, V. I. 1971. “The Lapis Lazuli Route in the Ancient East.” V. I. Sarianidi. ''Archaeology Magazine'', January 1971, pp. 12-15.
*Sarianidi, Victor. 1985. ''The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan''. Harry N. Abrams, New York.
*Sarianidi, Victor. 1989. “Early Kushan Jeweller's Art.” ''International Association for the Study of the Cultures of Central Asia Information Bulletin'', Issue 15. Moscow, Nauka Publishers, pp. 124-134.
*Sarianidi, V. 1990-1992 “Tilya Tepe: The Burial of a Noble Warrior.” ''PERSICA'' XIV, 1990-1992, pp. 103-130.
*Vogelsang, Willem. 2002. The Afghans.
*Watson, Burton. Trans. 1961. '''''Records of the Grand Historian of China:''' Translated from the '''Shih chi''' of Ssu-ma Ch'ien''. Chap. 123. The Account of Ta-yüan. Columbia University Press.
*Wood, John. 1872. ''A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus''. New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the "Geography of the Valley of the Oxus" by Henry Yule. John Murray, London.
==References==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5380.htm#history U.S. Department of State Background Note] on Afghanistan
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html Library of Congress Country Study] of Afghanistan
* [http://www.rulers.org/rula1.html#afghanistan Rulers.org — Afghanistan] list of rulers for Afghanistan
[[Category:History of Afghanistan]]
{{Link FA|no}}
[[af:Geskiedenis van Afghanistan]]
[[de:Geschichte Afghanistans]]
[[es:Historia de Afganistán]]
[[fa:&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1740;&#1582; &#1575;&#1601;&#1594;&#1575;&#1606;&#1587;&#1578;&#1575;&#1606;]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Afghanistan]]
[[gl:Historia de Afganistán]]
[[he:&#1492;&#1497;&#1505;&#1496;&#1493;&#1512;&#1497;&#1492; &#1513;&#1500; &#1488;&#1508;&#1490;&#1504;&#1497;&#1505;&#1496;&#1503;]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Afghanistan]]
[[no:Afghanistans historie]]
[[pl:Historia Afganistanu]]
[[pt:História do Afeganistão]]
[[sv:Afghanistans historia]]
[[ru:История Афганистана]]
[[zh:&#38463;&#23500;&#27735;&#21382;&#21490;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of modern Greece</title>
<id>13814</id>
<revision>
<id>41372021</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:29:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wiz9999</username>
<id>667093</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Wars and crises (1913&ndash;1920) */ wikied</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unref}}
{{History of Greece}}
[[Image:ac.othon.jpg|frame|right|80px|King Othon in traditional Greek dress]]
==Treaty of London==
The '''history of modern Greece''' began with the recognition of [[Greece|Greek]] independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[1832]] after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. The first leader of independent Greece, [[John Capodistria]], had been assassinated in [[1831]]. At the insistence of the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], and [[Russia]], the [[1832]] [[London Conference of 1832|Treaty of London]] made Greece a monarchy. [[Otto of Greece|Otto of Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria]] was chosen as its first [[List of Kings of Greece|King]] in [[1832]] and he arrived at the provisional capital, Nafplion, in [[1833]] aboard a British warship.
==Reign of King Othon (1833&ndash;1863)==
When the 17-year-old Bavarian Prince [[Otto of Greece|Otto]] was installed by the [[London Conference of 1832]] as King of Greece, he adopted the Greek name Othon. His troubled reign lasted for 30 years before he and his wife [[Queen Amalia of Greece| Queen Amalia]] left the way they came, aboard a British warship. During the early years of his reign a group of [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] Regents ruled in his name, and made themselves very unpopular by trying to impose German ideas of orderly government on the turbulent Greeks. Nevertheless they laid the foundations of a Greek administration, army, justice system and education system. Othon was sincere in his desire to give Greece good government, but he suffered from two great handicaps. He refused to renounce his [[Roman Catholic]] faith in favour of [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodoxy]], and his marriage to [[Queen Amalia of Greece|Queen Amalia]] remained childless. This meant he could neither be crowned as King of Greece under the Orthodox rite nor establish a dynasty.
The Bavarian Regents ruled until [[1837]], when at the insistence of [[United Kingdom| Britain]] and [[France]] (who still saw Greece as a sort of [[protectorate]]), they were recalled and Othon thereafter appointed Greek ministers, although Bavarian officials still ran most of the administration and the army. But Greece still had no [[legislature]] and no [[constitution]]. Greek discontent grew until a revolt broke out in [[Athens]] in September [[1843]]. Othon agreed to grant a constitution, and convened a National Assembly which met in November. The new constitution created a [[Bicameralism|bicameral parliament]], consisting of an Assembly (''Vouli'') and a Senate (''Gerousia''). Power then passed into the hands of a group of politicians, most of whom who had been commanders in the war of independence against the Ottomans.
Greek politics in the [[19th century]] was dominated by th |
973)
*[[Tom Constanten]] - keyboards (1968 - 1970)
*[[Keith Godchaux]] - keyboards (1971 - 1979)
*[[Donna Jean Godchaux]] - vocals (1972 - 1979)
*[[Brent Mydland]] - keyboards, vocals (1979 - 1990)
*[[Vince Welnick]] - keyboards, vocals (1990 - 1995)
{| class="toccolours" border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0; width: 375px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #E2E2E2;"
|+ <big>Grateful Dead Band Members (By Year)</big>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1965-1967)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Ron "Pigpen" McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1967-1968)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Ron "Pigpen" McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1968-1970)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Ron "Pigpen" McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] <BR>
* [[Tom Constanten]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1970-1971)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Ron "Pigpen" McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1971)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Ron "Pigpen" McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1971-1972)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Ron "Pigpen" McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] <BR>
* [[Keith Godchaux]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1972-1973)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Ron "Pigpen" McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] <BR>
* [[Keith Godchaux]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] <BR>
* [[Donna Jean Godchaux]] - [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1973-1975)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Keith Godchaux]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] <BR>
* [[Donna Jean Godchaux]] - [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1975-1979)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Keith Godchaux]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] <BR>
* [[Donna Jean Godchaux]] - [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1979-1990)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Brent Mydland]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
! bgcolor="#E7EBEE" | (1990-1995)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Vince Welnick]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] <BR>
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] <BR>
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] <BR>
|-
|}
== Discography ==
*''[[The Grateful Dead (album)|The Grateful Dead]]'' ([[1967]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/McKernan)
*''[[Anthem of the Sun]]'' ([[1968]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan)
*''[[Two from the Vault]]'' (1968: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan)
*''[[Aoxomoxoa]]'' ([[1969]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan/Constanten)
*''[[Live/Dead]]'' (1969: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan/Constanten)
*''[[History of the Grateful Dead, Volume One (Bear's Choice)]]'' ([[1970]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan)
*''[[Workingman's Dead]]'' (1970: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan)
*''[[American Beauty (album)|American Beauty]]'' (1970: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan)
*''[[Grateful Dead (album)| Grateful Dead]]'' (aka ''Skull & Roses'') ([[1971]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/McKernan)
*''[[Hundred Year Hall]]'' ([[1972]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/McKernan/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Europe '72]]'' (1972: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/McKernan/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Skeletons from the Closet (Best of the Grateful Dead)]]'' ([[1973]]: compilation)
*''[[Wake of the Flood]]'' (1973: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Grateful Dead From the Mars Hotel]]'' ([[1974]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Steal Your Face]]'' (1974: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[One From the Vault]]'' ([[1975]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Blues for Allah]]'' (1975: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Terrapin Station]]'' ([[1977]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[What a Long Strange Trip It's Been]]'' (1977: compilation)
*''[[Shakedown Street]]'' ([[1978]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Go to Heaven]]'' ([[1980]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Reckoning (Grateful Dead album)|Reckoning]]'' ([[1981]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Dead Set]]'' ([[1981]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[In the Dark]]'' ([[1987]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Built to Last]]'' ([[1989]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Dylan & The Dead]]'' (live, with [[Bob Dylan]]) ([[1989]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Dozin' at the Knick]]'' ([[1990]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Without a Net]]'' (1990: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Infrared Roses]]'' ([[1991]]: live compilation)
*''[[Grayfolded]]'' ([[1996]]: live compilation)
*''[[Grateful Dead 1977-1995]]'' (1996: compilation)
*''[[The Arista Years]]'' ([[1996]]: compilation)
*''[[Fallout from the Phil Zone]]'' ([[1997]]: live compilation)
*''[[So Many Roads 1965-1995]]'' ([[1999]]: boxed set)
*''[[The Golden Road]]'' ([[2001]]: boxed set, consisting of the Dead's years with Warner Brothers Records, 1967-1972)
*''[[Postcards of the Hanging]]'' ([[2002]]: live compilation)
*''[[The Very Best of The Grateful Dead]]'' ([[2003]]: compilation)
*''[[Beyond Description]]'' ([[2004]]: boxed set, consisting of the Dead's years with Grateful Dead Records and Arista Records, 1973-1989)
*''[[Rare Cuts and Oddities 1966]]'' ([[2005]])
*''[[The Complete Fillmore West 1969]]'' ([[2005]]: boxed set, live)
=== Dick's Picks ===
The above list does not include the ''Dick's Picks'' series of concert recordings taken from the band's archives, selected by archivist [[Dick Latvala]] and, after his death, [[David Lemieux]]. Started in [[1993]], as of [[January 14]], [[2006]] there are thirty-six volumes in the series, each covering a part or all of one or more concerts. About three new volumes were being released each year.
* Vol. 1: December 19, 1973 from [[Tampa, Florida]]
* Vol. 2: October 31, 1971 from the [[Ohio Theatre]], [[Columbus, Ohio]]
* Vol. 3: May 22, 1977 from the [[Hollywood Sportatorium]], [[Hollywood, Florida]]
* Vol. 4: February 13 and 14, 1970 from the [[Fillmore East]], [[New York City]]
* Vol. 5: December 26, 1979 from the [[Oakland Arena]], [[Oakland, California]]
* Vol. 6: October 14, 1983 from the [[Hartford Civic Center]], [[Hartford, Connecticut]]
* Vol. 7: September 1974 from the [[Alexandra Palace]], [[London, England]]
* Vol. 8: May 2, 1970 from [[Harpur College]], [[Binghamton, New York]]
* Vol. 9: September 16, 1990 from [[Madison Square Garden]], New York City
* Vol. 10: December 29 and 30, 1977 from the [[Winterland]], [[San Francisco, California]]
* Vol. 11: September 27, 1972 from the [[Stanley Theater (Jersey City)|Stanley Theater]], [[Jersey City, New Jersey]]
* Vol. 12: June 26, 1974 from the [[Providence Civic Center]], [[Providence, Rhode Island]] and June 28, 1974 from the [[Boston Garden]], [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
* Vol. 13: May 6, 1981 from the [[Nassau Coliseum]], [[Long I |
ost abundant of all organisms. They are ubiquitous in [[soil]], [[water]], and as [[symbiosis|symbiont]]s of other organisms. Many [[pathogen]]s, disease-causing organisms, are bacteria. Most are minute, usually only [[1 E-6 m|0.5-5.0 &mu;m]] in their longest dimension, although giant bacteria like ''[[Thiomargarita namibiensis]]'' and ''[[Epulopiscium fishelsoni]]'' may grow past 0.5 mm in size. They generally have [[cell wall]]s, like [[plant]] and [[fungus|fungal]] [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s, but with a very different composition ([[peptidoglycan]]s). Many move around using [[flagellum|flagella]], which are different in structure from the flagella of other groups.
== History ==
The first bacteria were observed by [[Antony van Leeuwenhoek]] in 1676 using a single-lens microscope of his own design. The name ''bacterium'' was introduced much later, by [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg]] in 1828, derived from the [[Greek word]] &#946;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#951;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957; meaning "small stick". Because of the difficulty in describing individual bacteria and the importance of their discovery to fields such as medicine, biochemistry and geochemisty, the history of bacteria is generally described as the history of [[microbiology]].
==Reproduction==
Bacteria reproduce through [[asexual reproduction]] which results in [[cell division]]. Two identical [[Cloning|clone]] '''daughter cells''' are produced. [[Bacterial growth|Bacterial population growth]] is thus sometimes said to follow an approximate [[exponential growth]] phase.
== Movement ==
[[image:flagella.png|thumb|100px|left|
A-Monotrichous;
B-Lophotrichous;
C-Amphitrichous;
D-Peritrichous;]]
''Motile'' bacteria can move about, either using [[flagellum|flagella]], [[bacterial gliding]], or changes of buoyancy. A unique group of bacteria, the [[spirochaete]]s, have structures similar to flagella, called [[axial filament]]s, between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive [[helix|helical]] body that twists about as it moves.
Bacterial flagella are arranged in many different ways. Bacteria can have a single polar flagellum at one end of a cell, clusters of many flagella at one end or flagella scattered all over the cell, as with ''[[Peritrichous]]''. Many bacteria (such as ''E.coli'') have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to reorient and introduces an important element of [[random]]ness in their forward movement. (see external links below for link to videos).
Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain [[stimulus | stimuli]], behaviors called ''taxes'' - for instance, [[chemotaxis]], [[phototaxis]], [[mechanotaxis]] and [[magnetotaxis]]. In one peculiar group, the [[myxobacteria]], individual bacteria attract to form swarms and may differentiate to form fruiting bodies. The [[myxobacteria]] move only when on solid surfaces, unlike ''E. coli'' which is motile in liquid or solid media.
== Groups and identification ==
[[image:bacteria_shape.png|right|framed|Bacteria come in a wide variety of shapes:
<!--"-shaped" is incorrect here: if an object is physically SHAPED into the form of a rod, then the object is "rod-SHAPED"; however, if an object's STATE-OF-BEING has the SHAPE of a rod, then the object is "rod-SHAPE"-->
<!--also, "round-shaped" or "round-shape" is nonsensical; "round" suffices
also, no periods at the end of each line, except last: line-breaks suffice as delimiters-->
<br />A. Rod-shape
<br />B. Round or spherical
<br />C. Round in clusters
<br />D. Round in twos
<br />E. Spiral
<br />F. Comma-shape.]]
Bacteria come in a variety of different shapes. Most are rod-shape, sphere-shape, or helix-shape; these are referred to as [[bacillus|bacilli]], [[coccus|cocci]], and [[spirillum|spirilla]], respectively. An additional group, [[vibrio]]s, are comma-shape. Shape is no longer considered a defining factor in the classification of bacteria, but many genera are named for their shape (e.g., ''[[Bacillus]]'', ''[[Streptococcus]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus]]''), and it is an important part in their identification.
Another important tool is [[Gram staining]], named after [[Hans Christian Gram]] who developed the technique. This separates bacteria into two groups, based on the composition of their cell wall. The first formal grouping of bacteria into phyla was based largely on this test:
* '''Gracilicutes''' - bacteria with a second cell membrane containing [[lipid]]s, giving them [[Gram-negative]] stains
* '''Firmicutes''' - bacteria with a single membrane and thick [[peptidoglycan]] wall, giving them [[Gram-positive]] stains
* '''Mollicutes''' - bacteria with no second membrane or wall, giving them [[Gram-negative]] stains.
The archaebacteria were originally included as the Mendosicutes. As given, these phyla are no longer believed to represent monophyletic groups. The Gracilicutes have been divided into many different phyla. Most gram-positive bacteria are placed in the phyla [[Firmicutes]] and [[Actinobacteria]], which are closely related. However, the Firmicutes have been redefined to include the [[mycoplasma]]s (Mollicutes) and certain Gram-negative bacteria.
== Benefits and dangers ==
Bacteria are both harmful and useful to the [[natural environment|environment]], and [[animal]]s, including [[human]]s. The role of bacteria in disease and infection is important. Some bacteria act as [[pathogen]]s and cause [[tetanus]], [[typhoid fever]], [[pneumonia]], [[syphilis]], [[cholera]], [[foodborne illness]], [[leprosy]], and [[tuberculosis]](TB). [[Sepsis]], a systemic infectious syndrome characterized by shock and massive vasodilation, or localized infection, can be caused by bacteria such as ''[[Streptococcus]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus]]'', or many gram-negative bacteria. Some bacterial infections can spread throughout the host's body and become ''systemic''. In [[plant]]s, bacteria cause [[leaf spot]], [[fireblight]], and [[wilting|wilts]]. The mode of infection includes contact, air, food, water, and [[insect-borne]] microorganisms. The hosts infected with the pathogens may be treated with [[antibiotic]]s, which can be classified as [[bacteriocide|bacteriocidal]] and [[bacteriostatic]], which at concentrations that can be reached in bodily fluids either kill bacteria or hamper their growth, respectively. [[Antiseptic]] measures may be taken to prevent infection by bacteria, for example, prior to cutting the skin during surgery or swabbing skin with alcohol when piercing the skin with the needle of a syringe. [[Sterilization (microbiology)|Sterilization]] of surgical and dental instruments is done to make them ''sterile'' or pathogen-free to prevent contamination and infection by bacteria. ''Sanitizers'' and [[disinfectants]] are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens to prevent contamination and risk of infection.
In soil, microorganisms which reside in the [[rhizosphere]] (a zone that includes the root surface and the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking) help in the transformation of molecular dinitrogen gas as their source of nitrogen, converting it to nitrogenous compounds in a process known as [[nitrogen fixation]]. This serves to provide an easily absorbable form of nitrogen for many plants, which cannot fix nitrogen themselves. Many other bacteria are found as [[symbiont]]s [[Bacteria in the human body|in humans]] and other organisms. For example, the presence of the [[gut flora]] in the large intestine can help prevent the growth of potentially harmful microbes.
The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable. Highly specialized groups of microorganisms play important roles in the [[mineralization]] of specific classes of organic compounds. For example, the decomposition of [[cellulose]], which is one of the most abundant constituents of plant tissues, is mainly brought about by aerobic bacteria that belong to the genus ''[[Cytophaga]]''. This ability has also been utilized by humans in industry, waste processing, and [[bioremediation]]. Bacteria capable of digesting the [[hydrocarbons]] in [[petroleum]] are often used to clean up [[oil spill]]s. Some beaches in [[Prince William Sound]] were fertilized in an attempt to facilitate the growth of such bacteria after the infamous 1989 [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]]. These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil.
Bacteria, often in combination with [[yeast]]s and [[mold]]s, are used in the preparation of [[fermentation|fermented]] foods such as [[cheese]], [[pickle]]s, [[soy sauce]], [[sauerkraut]], [[vinegar]], [[wine]], and [[yogurt]]. Using [[biotechnology]] techniques, bacteria can be [[bioengineer]]ed for the production of therapeutic drugs, such as [[insulin]], or for the [[bioremediation]] of [[toxic waste]]s.
== Miscellaneous ==
Two [[organelle]]s, [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] and [[chloroplast]]s, are generally believed to have been derived from [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] bacteria.
Microorganisms are widely distributed and are most abundant where they have food, moisture, and the right temperature for their multiplication and growth. They can be carried by air currents from one place to another. The [[human body]] is home to billions of microorganisms; they can be found on skin surfaces, in the intestinal tract, in the mouth, nose, and other body openings. They are in the air one breathes, the water one drinks, and the food one eats.
The great antiquity of the bacteria has enabled them to evolve a great deal of genetic diversity. They are far more diverse than, say, the [[mammal]]s or [[insect]]s. For instance, the genetic distance between ''E. coli'' and ''Thermus aquaticus'' is greater than the distance |
t;small, yellow and [[leech]]like" fish. When a Babel fish is inserted into the [[ear]] canal it allows the wearer to "instantly understand anything said... in any form of language." This was both a useful [[plot device]] for Adams, who wrote on the subject that he always found the ability of all aliens to speak [[English language|English]] very strange; and also the starting point for a joke about the existence of [[God]].
According to the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'', the Babel fish was put forth as a [[fideism|fideist]] example for the non-existence of God:
:''"I refuse to prove that I exist," says God, "for [[scientific evidence|proof]] denies [[faith]], and without faith I am nothing."''
:''"But," says Man, "the Babel fish is a dead giveaway isn't it? It could not have [[evolution|evolved]] by chance. It proves that You exist, and so therefore, by Your own arguments, You don't. [[Q.E.D.]]"''
:''"Oh dear," says God, "Oh dear, I hadn't thought of that," and promptly vanishes in a puff of [[logic]].''
:''"Oh, that was easy," says Man, and for an encore goes on to prove that black is white and gets himself killed on the next [[zebra crossing]].''
The fish feeds on mental energy created while composing a sentence, and apparently excretes mental energy in a form that can be understood by others. It was revealed in the [[Quintessential Phase]] that it also, like [[dolphins]], has the power to effectively teleport itself and its host (in a plural zone) out of fatal danger.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:babelfish.gif|thumb|right|240px|A babel fish]] -->
The fish's name refers to the [[Tower of Babel]], a [[Biblical]] story, which describes events in [[Abrahamic]] theology which led to [[God]] confusing the [[language]]s of Man in order to prevent the Tower's construction, among other things.
"Babel" is composed of two words from the [[Assyrian]] or [[Babylonian]] language, ''bab'' = "gate" and ''el'' = "God", hence, "the gate of God". The Bible states a guess-etymology from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''bilbul'' = "confusion" or ''bilbel'' = "confused".
{{HitchhikerMiscellanea}}
[[Category:Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]
[[Category:Fictional alien species]]
[[Category:Fictional fish]]
[[Category:Fictional parasites]]
[[de:Babelfisch]]
[[eo:Babelfiŝo]]
[[fr:Babel fish]]
[[it:Pesce di Babele]]
[[no:Babel fisk]]
[[hu:B%C3%A1bel-hal]]
[[fi:Baabelin kala]]
[[sv:Babelfisk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brain event</title>
<id>3820</id>
<revision>
<id>35753297</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T01:00:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Celcius</username>
<id>287645</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
Anything that happens in the [[brain]] is a '''brain event.''' While clearly a kind of [[physical event]], some philosophers, when they discuss [[the mind-body problem]], argue that ''some'' (certainly not all) brain events are also [[mental event]]s.
[[Category:Central nervous system]]
{{biology-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Binary-coded decimal</title>
<id>3821</id>
<revision>
<id>42154892</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:31:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jef-Infojef</username>
<id>156187</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Binary-coded decimal''' ('''BCD''') is, after character encodings, the most common way of encoding [[decimal]] digits in [[computing]] and in [[electronics|electronic]] systems.
In BCD, a [[numerical digit|digit]] is usually represented by four ([[binary numeral system|binary]]) [[bit]]s, of which the leftmost (written conventionally) has value 8, and the remaining three have values 4, 2, and 1. Many other ways of encoding ten values in four bits have been used, but in general only the combinations of bits which have values in the range 0-9 are valid. (Other combinations are sometimes used for [[sign]] or other indications.)
==Basics==
To BCD-encode a decimal number using the common encoding, each digit is encoded using the four-bit binary bit pattern for each digit. For example, the number 127 would be:
0001 0010 0111
Since most computers store data in eight-bit [[byte]]s, there are two common ways of storing four-bit BCD digits in those bytes:
*each digit is stored in one byte, and the other four bits are then set to all zeros, all ones (as in the [[EBCDIC]] code), or to 0011 (as in the [[ASCII]] code)
*two digits are stored in each byte.
A widely used variation of the two-digits-per-byte encoding is called "packed BCD", where numbers end with a sign 'digit', for which the preferred values are 1100 for + and 1101 for &minus;. In packed BCD the number 127 would be represented as the bytes 00010010 01111100, and &minus;127 as 00010010 01111101.
While BCD does not make optimal use of storage (about 1/6 of the available memory is not used in packed BCD), conversion to ASCII, EBCDIC, or the various encodings of Unicode is trivial, as no arithmetic operations are required. More dense packings of BCD exist; these avoid the storage penalty and also need no arithmetic operations for common conversions.
Unlike pure binary encodings large numbers can easily be displayed by splitting up the [[nibble]]s and sending each to a different character with the logic for each display being a simple mapping function. Converting from pure binary to decimal for display is much harder involving integer multiplication or divide operations. The [[BIOS]] in PCs usually keeps the date and time in BCD format, probably for historical reasons (it avoided the need for binary to ASCII conversion).
BCD is still in wide use, and [[decimal]] arithmetic is often carried out using BCD or similar encodings.
==BCD in electronics==
BCD is very common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of [[digital]] [[logic]], and not containing a [[microprocessor]]. By utilising BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical [[7-segment display]]s to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to 'pure' binary.
The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded [[microcontroller]] or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities.
==Higher-density encodings==
If a decimal digit requires four bits, then three decimal digits require 12 bits. However, since 2<sup>10</sup>>10<sup>3</sup>, if three decimal digits are encoded together then only 10 bits are needed. Two such encodings are
''[[Chen-Ho encoding]]'' and ''[[Densely Packed Decimal]]''. The latter has the advantage that subsets of the encoding encode two digits in the optimal 7 bits and one digit in 4 bits, as in regular BCD.
==IBM and BCD==
[[IBM]] used the terms '''binary-coded decimal''' and '''BCD''' for six-bit ''alphameric'' codes that represented numbers, upper-case letters and special characters. Some variation of BCD was used in most early IBM computers, including the [[IBM 1620]], [[IBM 1400 series]] and non-[[IBM 700/7000 series#Decimal Architecture (7070/7072/7074)|Decimal Architecture]] members of the [[IBM 700/7000 series]]. With the introduction of [[System/360]], IBM replaced BCD with 8-bit [[EBCDIC]].
Bit positions in BCD were usually labelled ''B, A, 8, 4, 2'' and ''1.'' For encoding digits, ''B'' and ''A'' were zero. The letter '''A''' was encoded ''(B,A,1).''
In the 1620 BCD ''alphamerics'' were encoded using digit pairs, with the "zone" in the even digit and the "digit" in the odd digit. Input/Output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard six-bit BCD codes.
In the Decimal Architecture [[IBM 7070]], [[IBM 7072]], and [[IBM 7074]] ''alphamerics'' were encoded using digit pairs (using [[two-out-of-five code]] in the digits, '''not''' BCD) of the 10-digit word, with the "zone" in the left digit and the "digit" in the right digit. Input/Output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard six-bit BCD codes.
==Addition With BCD==
To perform [[addition]] in BCD, you can first add-up in binary format, and then perform the [[conversion]] to BCD afterwards. This conversion involves adding 6 to each group of four
digits that has a value of greater-than 9. For example:
*9 (1001) + 6 (0110) = 15 (1111) in binary.
However, in binary we cannot have a value greater-than 9 (1001) per-group ("[[nybble]]").
We must therefore add 6 to that group:
*1111 +6 (0110) = 10101
which gives us two-groups of four (the groups are every four digits from right-to-left, which themselves are read from left-to-right):
*1 and 0101 (which, in full groups of four, are: 0001 and 0101, making one byte, two nybbles).
This gives us the 15 in BCD which is the correct result: 0001 is a decimal 1, and 0101 a decimal 5.
See also [ |
ses had not been reported.<ref>Lomborg, Bjorn. [http://www.economist.com/printedition/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=1522706 "Thought control"]. ''The Economist'', 9-Jan-2003. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref>
*Entertainment media took notice. The US [[Showtime]] program ''[[Bullshit!]]'' featured an episode entitled "Environmental Hysteria" in which Lomborg criticised environmentalists' refusal to accept a [[cost-benefit analysis]] of environmental questions, and stressed the need to prioritise some issues above others.<ref>[http://www.sho.com/site/ptbs/topics.do?topic=eh ''Bullshit'', "Environmental Hysteria"]. Showtime.</ref> ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' noted, "Lomborg pulls off the remarkable feat of welding the techno-optimism of the Internet age with a lefty's concern for the fate of the planet."<ref>[http://www.lomborg.com/files/lombquo.doc "Early Praise for The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World"]. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref>
*On the Web, the [[Union of Concerned Scientists]] strongly criticised ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', claiming it to be "seriously flawed and fail[ing] to meet basic standards of credible scientific analysis", accusing Lomborg of presenting data in a fraudulent way, using flawed logic and selectively citing non-peer-reviewed literature.<ref>[http://www.ucsusa.org/global_environment/archive/page.cfm?pageID=533 "UCS examines The Skeptical Environmentalist by Bjørn Lomborg"]. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref> Lomborg countered that some of the scientists involved in this report were also named and criticised in ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', and thus had a [[vested interest]] in discrediting it and its author.
Lomborg's pivotal involvement in the Copenhagen Consensus and the book that followed served to keep him in the media eye through 2004-2005.
== References ==
<div style="font-size:90%;">
<references/>
</div>
* Bjørn Lomborg: ''The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World''. Cambridge University Press 2001 (ISBN 0521010683).
* Nichola Wade: "From an Unlikely Quarter, Eco-Optimism". ''The New York Times'', [[7 August]] [[2001]].
* Stephen Schneider, John P. Holdren, John Bongaarts, Thomas Lovejoy: "Misleading Math about the Earth". ''Scientific American,'' January 2002.
== See also ==
*[[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Environmental skepticism]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Bias (statistics)]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.lomborg.com/ Lomborg's personal website], with own articles, links to related broadcasts on radio and TV, and Lomborg's opinion on the issues with the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty.
* [http://www.lomborg-errors.dk/ Kåre Fog's "Lomborg errors" website] contains a catalogue of claims of errors in Lomborg's The Skeptical Environmentalist, Fog's opinion on Lomborg and his career.
* [http://www.wired.com/news/wiredmag/1,2167,63595,00.html Wired magazine interviews Lomborg, June 2004], regarding the [[Copenhagen Consensus]].
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9396230?tocId=9396230 Article on Bjørn Lomborg] in the online edition of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. The article was written by [[Michael Allaby]], author of [http://www.michaelallaby.com/pages/books/books_full_list.htm many (although not peer-reviewed) books] on climate, who had previously expressed ideas similar to Lomborg. If you cannot access the full text, click the first link in [http://www.google.com/search?q=britannica+online+lomborg&start=0&start=0 this Google search].
* [http://www.grist.org/advice/books/2001/12/12/of/ Grist magazine article] Rebuttals from scientists working in the various fields his book makes claims about.
* [http://www.stichting-han.nl/lomborg.htm HAN investigation of complaints made by Lomborg critics], by a number of Dutch scientists of the complaints made by Lomborg critics.
* [http://www.disinfopedia.org/wiki.phtml?title=Bjorn_Lomborg Article about Bjørn Lomborg] on [[Sourcewatch]], a project similar to [[Wikipedia]].
* [http://info-pollution.com/lomborg.htm Correcting myths from Bjørn Lomborg], extensive collection of criticisms of Lomborg, with replies.
* [http://www.csicop.org/si/2002-11/environment.html Skeptical About ''The Skeptical Environmentalist''], Richard M. Fisher's review of ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', in "[[The Skeptical Inquirer]]".
* [http://www.lomborg.com/files/RidleySciAmerLomborg.pdf Letter in Support of Lomborg in ''Scientific American''], a defense of Lomborg's work, from the eminent geneticist [[Matt Ridley]], former editor of ''[[The Economist]]''.
[[Category:1965 births|Lomborg, Bjørn]]
[[Category:Living people|Lomborg, Bjørn]]
[[Category:Danish environment|Lomborg]]
[[Category:Danish political scientists|Lomborg, Bjørn]]
[[Category:Danish writers|Lomborg, Bjørn]]
[[Category:Global warming skeptics|Lomborg, Bjørn]]
[[da:Bjørn Lomborg]]
[[de:Bjørn Lomborg]]
[[nl:Bjørn Lomborg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Counted Sorrows</title>
<id>5017</id>
<revision>
<id>25672786</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-16T18:04:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Banana04131</username>
<id>379197</id>
</contributor>
<comment>mergeing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[The Book of Counted Sorrows]]"</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buttfuck</title>
<id>5018</id>
<revision>
<id>31530521</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-15T22:40:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dan100</username>
<id>150280</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.214.251.126|66.214.251.126]] ([[User talk:66.214.251.126|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anal sex]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Banda Islands</title>
<id>5020</id>
<revision>
<id>38983687</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T23:04:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BandaBesarIslandSeenFromFortBelgica.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Banda Besar island seen from [[Fort Belgica]].]]
The '''Banda Islands''' ('''Kepulauan Banda''' in [[Bahasa Indonesia]]) are a group of ten small volcanic [[island]]s in the [[Banda Sea]], about 140km south of [[Seram]] island and about 2000km east of [[Java (island)|Java]], and are part of the [[Indonesia|Indonesian]] province of [[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]]. The capital city is [[Bandanaira]], located on the island of the same name. They rise out of 4-6 km deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately 180 km&sup2;. They have a population of about 15,000. Until the mid 19th century the Banda Islands were the only source of the spices [[nutmeg]] and [[mace (spice)|mace]], produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for [[scuba diving]] and [[snorkeling]].
== History ==
The Portuguese navigator [[António de Abreu]] was the first [[Europe]]an to encounter the islands, in [[1512]]. Controlling production of [[nutmeg]] and [[Mace (spice)|mace]] was a major motivation for the Dutch conquest of the islands in the 1621, led by [[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]]. At the time nutmeg was one of the "fine spices" kept expensive in Europe by disciplined manipulation of the market, but a desirable commodity for Dutch traders in the ports of India as well; economic historian [[Fernand Braudel]] notes that India consumed twice as much as Europe (Braudel 1984, p. 219). The lucrative monopoly over supply was ruthlessly enforced,: the Dutch decimated and displaced the indigenous Bandanese and the islands were subsequently settled by imported slaves, convicts and indentured labourers (to work the nutmeg plantations), as well as in-migrants from elsewhere in Indonesia.
The population of the Banda Islands prior to Dutch conquest is generally estimated to have been around 13-15,000 people, some of whom were Malay and Javanese traders, as well as Chinese and Arabs. The actual numbers of Bandanese who were killed, forcibly expelled or fled the islands in 1621 remain uncertain. But readings of historical sources suggest around one thousand Bandanese likely survived in the islands, and were spread throughout the nutmeg groves as forced labourers (Hanna 1978, p.54; Loth 1995, p.18). Shipments of surviving Bandanese were also sent to Batavia ([[Jakarta]]) to work as slaves in developing the city and its fortress. Some 530 of these individuals were later returned to the islands because of their much-needed expertise in nutmeg cultivation (something sorely lacking among newly-arrived Dutch settlers) (Hanna 1978, p.55; Loth 1995, p.24).
[[Fort Belgica]], one of many forts built by the [[Dutch East India Company]], is one of the largest remaining European forts in Indonesia.
[[Religion|Religious]] violence, spilling over from intercommunal conflict in Ambon, affected the islands slightly in the late [[1990s]], damaging the previously prosperous [[tourism]] industry.
== Geography ==
There are seven inhabited islands and several that are uninhabited. The inhabited islands are:
[[Image:BandaVolcano.JPG|thumb|right|280px|The active volcano Gunung Api in the Banda Islands]]
Main group:
*Banda Neira, or Naira, the island with the administrative capital and a small airfield (as well as accommodation for visitors).
*Gunung Api, an active volcano with a peak of about 650m
*Banda Besar is the largest island, 12km long and 3km wide. It has three main |
ALE '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
[[Taligent]] '''DONE'''<br>
talk<br>
talk bomb<br>
talker system<br>
talk mode<br>
TALL<br>
tall card<br>
Tandem Application Language<br>
Tandem Computers<br>
[[Tandy Corporation|Tandy]] '''DONE'''<br>
[[Andrew S. Tanenbaum|Tanenbaum, Andrew]] '''DONE'''<br>
tanked<br>
TANSTAAFL<br>
TAO<br>
TAOS<br>
TAP<br>
tap '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
tape '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
tape archive<br>
tape drive<br>
tape head<br>
[[Tape Operating System]]<br>
[[Telephony Application Programming Interface|TAPI]] '''DONE'''<br>
[[Tar (file format)|tar]] '''DONE'''<br>
tar and feather<br>
[[Tar (file format)|tarball]]<br>
targa<br>
Targa Graphics Adaptor<br>
target<br>
Target-Machine Description Language<br>
TARTAN<br>
Task Control Block<br>
task scheduling<br>
[[Turbo Assembler|TASM]]<br>
TASS<br>
taste '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
tautological probability<br>
tautological set<br>
tautology<br>
TAWK '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant<br>
Taxis<br>
tayste<br>
taz<br>
TBF<br>
TBIL<br>
TBK<br>
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tc<br>
[[T-carrier|T-carrier system]] '''DONE'''<br>
TCB<br>
TCGS<br>
TC/IX<br>
[[Tcl]] '''DONE'''<br>
Tcl Consortium<br>
tcl-debug<br>
Tcl-DP<br>
tclhttpd<br>
tclx<br>
TCM<br>
TCO<br>
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TCOL<br>
TCOL.Ada<br>
[[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] '''DONE'''<br>
[[Internet protocol suite|TCPIP]] '''DONE''' <br>
[[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] '''DONE'''<br>
tcsh<br>
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TCVN 5773<br>
TCVN 6056<br>
td<br>
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TDFL<br>
TDI<br>
TDM '''DONE'''<br>
[[Time division multiple access|TDMA]] '''DONE'''<br>
TDR<br>
Teamwork<br>
Technical/Office Protocol<br>
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technology '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
Technology Enabled Relationship Manager<br>
Technology of Object-Oriented Languages and Systems<br>
TechRef<br>
[[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]] '''DONE'''<br>
tee<br>
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telco<br>
TELCOMP<br>
Telecommunication Display Device<br>
Telecommunications Device for the Deaf<br>
Telecommunications Industry Association<br>
[[telecommuter|telecommuting]]<br>
teledildonics<br>
telematics<br>
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TELEPAC<br>
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[[telephone|telephony]] '''DONE'''<br>
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Telerat<br>
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[[Teleprinter|Teletype]] '''DONE'''<br>
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Teletype Corporation<br>
teletypewriter '''DONE'''<br>
TeleUSE<br>
[[Television|television]] '''DONE'''<br>
Television Interface Adaptor<br>
[[Telnet|TELNET]] '''DONE'''<br>
Telocator Alphanumeric Protocol<br>
Telon<br>
TELOS<br>
TELSIM<br>
template code<br>
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temporal database<br>
temporal logic<br>
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[[Ten15]]<br>
tendinitis<br>
ten-finger interface<br>
tennis elbow<br>
tense<br>
[[Tensor product|tensor product]] '''DONE'''<br>
tenured graduate student<br>
[[Tera|tera-]] '''DONE'''<br>
[[Terabyte|terabyte]] '''DONE'''<br>
[[FLOPS|teraflop]]<br>
teraflop club<br>
TERM<br>
TERMAC<br>
termcap<br>
terminak<br>
[[Computer terminal|terminal]] '''DONE'''<br>
Terminal Access Controller<br>
terminal adapter '''DONE'''<br>
Terminal Adaptor '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
terminal brain death<br>
[[terminal emulation]] '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
[[terminal emulator]] '''DONE'''<br>
terminal illness<br>
terminal junkie<br>
terminal node<br>
Terminal Oriented Social Science<br>
[[TPX|Terminal Productivity eXecutive]]<br>
terminal server<br>
[[Terminate and Stay Resident]] '''DONE'''<br>
termination analysis<br>
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[[ternary]] '''DONE'''<br>
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terrabyte<br>
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test '''DONE'''<br>
Test coverage<br>
testing '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
TET<br>
[[TeX]] -- ''''''DONE''''''<br>
TeX-78<br>
TeX-82<br>
[[Texas Instruments]] '''DONE'''<br>
Texinfo<br>
text<br>
text-based<br>
[[text editor]] '''DONE'''<br>
Text Encoding Initiative<br>
[[Binary and text files|text file]]<br>
Text Processing Utility<br>
Text Reckoning And Compiling<br>
text segment<br>
[[Speech synthesis|Text To Speech]]<br>
texture<br>
tf<br>
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TFTP '''DONE'''<br>
tg<br>
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TGS Systems<br>
tgz '''DONE'''<br>
th<br>
thanks in advance<br>
That's not a bug, that's a feature!<br>
T.H.E<br>
The Cuckoo's Egg<br>
The Force<br>
The Internet Account<br>
The MathWorks, Inc.<br>
The Metadata Company<br>
The Microsoft Network<br>
The Mythical Man-Month '''DONE'''<br>
The Network<br>
THEO<br>
theology<br>
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theory change<br>
There's More Than One Way To Do It<br>
Theseus<br>
The story of Mel, a Real Programmer<br>
The World Of Cryton<br>
the X that can be Y is not the true X<br>
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thin client '''DONE'''<br>
ThingLab<br>
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Thinking Machines Corporation<br>
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third generation computer<br>
third generation language -- ''''''DONE''''''<br>
third normal form<br>
This can't happen<br>
this dictionary<br>
This time, for sure!<br>
thn<br>
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thread '''DONE'''<br>
threaded<br>
threaded code '''DONE'''<br>
threading<br>
Thread Language Zero<br>
thread-safe '''DONE'''<br>
three-finger salute '''DONE'''<br>
three-letter acronym '''DONE'''<br>
three-tier '''DONE'''<br>
throughput '''DONE'''<br>
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Tim Berners-Lee '''DONE'''<br>
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time division multiple access '''DONE'''<br>
time division multiplexing '''DONE'''<br>
Time Domain Reflectometer '''DONE'''<br>
timeout<br>
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time-sharing '''DONE'''<br>
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Time to Live -- ''''''DONE''''''<br>
time zone '''DONE'''<br>
TINC '''DONE'''<br>
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Tiny BASIC<br>
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Tiny Clos<br>
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TIPL<br>
tip of the ice-cube<br>
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tk '''DONE'''<br>
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T. Kohonen<br>
TK!Solver<br>
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TLA '''DONE'''<br>
TLAs '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
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TL/I<br>
T Lisp<br>
TM<br>
tm<br>
(TM)<br>
TMDL<br>
TMG<br>
TMRC '''DONE'''<br>
TMRCie<br>
TMS 9900<br>
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tn3270<br>
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TNSTAAFL<br>
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TNXE6<br>
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to a first approximation<br>
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to a zeroth approximation<br>
toeprint<br>
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TOK<br>
token<br>
token bus<br>
token ring '''DONE'''<br>
Tom Knight<br>
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Tony Hoare<br>
tool <br>
tool bar<br>
toolbook<br>
Toolbuilder<br>
Tool Builder Kit<br>
Tool Command Language<br>
TOOLS<br>
toolsmith<br>
TOP<br>
top-down design<br>
Top-Down Model '''DONE'''<br>
topic drift<br>
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topic thread<br>
top-level domain '''DONE'''<br>
topology '''DONE'''<br>
TOPS-10<br>
TOPS-20 '''DONE'''<br>
Tornado<br>
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total function '''DONE'''<br>
totally ordered<br>
totally ordered set '''DONE'''<br>
total ordering<br>
toto<br>
touchpad<br>
touch screen '''DONE'''<br>
tourist<br>
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Tower Technology Corporation<br>
toy<br>
Toy/Ada<br>
toy language<br>
toy problem<br>
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tp<br>
TPF '''DONE'''<br>
TP/IX<br>
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TPU<br>
TPX<br>
tr<br>
TRAC<br>
traceroute -- ''''''DONE''''''<br>
trace scheduling<br>
track<br>
track ball<br>
tracker ball<br>
tracking<br>
trackpad<br>
Trackpoint<br>
tractor feed<br>
TrafoLa<br>
Trafola-H<br&g |
ise of political liberties that the regime interpreted as contrary to the established order. In addition, the regime denied the population access to information other than that disseminated by the government-controlled media. The [[Sigurimi]] routinely violated the privacy of persons, homes, and communications and made arbitrary arrests. The courts ensured that verdicts were rendered from the party's political perspective instead of affording due process to the accused, who were often sentenced without even the formality of a trial.
Mao's death in [[1976]] and the defeat of the [[Gang of Four (China)|Gang of Four]] in China's subsequent inner-party struggle in [[1977]] and [[1978]] led to the [[Sino-Albanian split]] and Albania's retreat into political isolation, with Hoxha claiming the [[anti-revisionist]] mantle to criticize both [[Moscow]] and [[Beijing]].
In 1981, Hoxha ordered the execution of several party and government officials in a new purge. Prime Minister [[Mehmet Shehu]] was reported to have committed suicide following a further dispute within the Albanian leadership in December [[1981]], but is often believed to have been killed.
Later, Hoxha withdrew into semi-retirement and turned most state functions over to [[Ramiz Alia]]. Hoxha's death on [[April 11]], [[1985]], at the age of 76 led to some relaxation in internal and foreign policies under his successor Ramiz Alia, as communist party rule weakened throughout Eastern Europe, culminating in Albania's abandonment of one-party rule in [[1990]] and the reformed Socialist Party's defeat in the [[1992]] elections.
==See also==
*[[History of Albania]]
==References==
*Albania in Occupation and War, Owen S. Pearson, I B Tauris, 2005, ISBN 1845111044
==External links==
*[http://www.enverhoxha.info/indexeng.htm Enver Hoxha tungjatjeta]
*[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/index.htm Enver Hoxha Reference Archive at marxists.org]
*[http://www.diacritica.com/degenerate/5/enver.html ''Comrade Loulou and the Fun Factory'' - A critical and satirical view of Hoxha]
*[http://www.albanian.com/main/history/hoxha.html Albanian.com article on Hoxha]
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|King Victor Emmanuel III]] (''de jure'') |
title= [[Leader of Albania]] |
years= 1944&ndash;1985 |
after= [[Ramiz Alia]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Albania|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:Albanian communists|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:Albanian politicians|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:Communist rulers|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:Atheists|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:1908 births|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:1985 deaths|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[br:Enver Hoxha]]
[[da:Enver Hoxha]]
[[de:Enver Hoxha]]
[[el:Ενβέρ Χότζα]]
[[et:Enver Hoxha]]
[[es:Enver Hoxha]]
[[fa:انور خوجه]]
[[fr:Enver Hoxha]]
[[it:Enver Hoxha]]
[[nl:Enver Hoxha]]
[[ja:エンヴェル・ホッジャ]]
[[no:Enver Hoxha]]
[[pl:Enver Hodża]]
[[pt:Enver Hoxha]]
[[ru:Ходжа, Энвер]]
[[sq:Enver Hoxha]]
[[fi:Enver Hoxha]]
[[sv:Enver Hoxha]]
[[tr:Enver Hoca]]
[[zh:恩維爾·霍查]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hirohito</title>
<id>10287</id>
<revision>
<id>41993456</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:28:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Splash</username>
<id>285145</id>
</contributor>
<comment>unsprot: vandalism was light, so let's try just a brief protection at first</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Hiro2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito)]]
'''Hirohito''' (裕仁) ([[April 29]], [[1901]] &ndash; [[January 7]], [[1989]]) was the 124th [[Emperor of Japan]] according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from [[1926]] to [[1989]]. Since his death he has been known as '''Emperor Shōwa''' (昭和天皇, ''Shōwa Tennō'') in [[Japan]], although he is widely referred to as Hirohito, or Emperor Hirohito, outside of Japan. His reign was the longest of any historical Japanese emperor, and oversaw many significant changes to Japanese society.
== Early life ==
Born in the Aoyama Palace in [[Tokyo]], Hirohito was the first son of then [[Crown Prince]] [[Taisho Emperor|Yoshihito]] and then-[[Empress Teimei|Crown Princess Sadako]]. His childhood title was 迪宮 'Michi no miya' (Prince Michi). He became heir apparent upon the death of his grandfather, [[Emperor Meiji]], on [[July 30]], [[1912]]. His formal investiture as Crown Prince took place on [[November 2]], [[1916]].
He attended the boy's department of [[Gakushuin]] Peer's School from [[1908]] to [[1914]] and then a special institute for the Crown Prince (Tōgū-gogakumonsho) from [[1914]] to [[1921]]. On [[November 29]], [[1921]], he became [[regent]] of [[Japan]], in place of his ailing father. In [[1922]], Prince Regent Hirohito took a six month tour of the [[United Kingdom]] and five other [[Europe]]an countries ([[France]]; [[Italy]], [[Vatican City]]; [[the Netherlands]]; and [[Belgium]]) thus becoming the first Japanese crown prince to travel abroad.
He married his distant cousin Princess [[Empress Kojun|Nagako]], the eldest daughter of [[Kuniyoshi, Prince Kuni]], on [[January 26]], [[1924]]. There were seven children from the marriage:
#Princess Teru (''Teru no miya Shigeko''), b. December 9, 1925, d. July 23, 1961; m. October 10 1943 Prince Morihiro (b. May 6, 1916, d. February 1, 1969), the eldest son of Prince [[Naruhiko, Prince Higashikuni|Higashikuni Naruhiko]] and his wife, Princess Toshiko, the eighth daughter of Emperor Meiji; lost status as imperial family members, October 14, 1947.
#Princess Hisa (''Hisa no miya Sachiko''), b. September 10, 1927, d. March 8, 1928.
#Princess Taka (''Taka no miya Kazuko''), b. September 30, 1929, d. May 26, 1989; m. May 5, 1950 Mr. Toshimichi Takatsukasa (b. August 26, 1923, d. January 27, 1966), eldest son of Nobusuke Takatsukasa [peer].
#Princess Yori (''Yori no miya Atsuko''), b. March 7, 1931; m. October 10, 1952 Mr. Takamasa Ikeda (b. October 21, 1927), eldest son of former Marquis Nobumasa Ikeda.
#[[Crown Prince]] [[Akihito]] (now HM The Emperor), b. December 23, 1933; m. April 10, 1959 Miss [[Empress Michiko of Japan|Michiko Shoda]] (b. October 20, 1934), elder daughter of Mr. Hidesaburo Shoda, former president and chairman of Nisshin Flour Milling Company.
#[[Masahito, Prince Hitachi|Prince Hitachi]] (''Hitachi no miya Masahito''), b. November 28, 1935; m. October 30, 1964 Miss Hanako Tsugaru (b. July 19, 1940), fourth daughter of former Count Yoshitaka Tsugaru.
#Princess Suga (''Suga no miya Takako''), b. March 2, 1939; m. March 3, 1960 Mr. Hisanaga Shimazu, son of former Count Hisanori Shimazu.
==Accession==
[[Image:Time-magazine-cover-hirohito-1928.jpg|thumb|Hirohito, pictured on the cover the American newsmagazine ''Time'', on the occasion of his coronation.]]
On [[December 25]], [[1926]], upon the death of his father Yoshihito, he succeeded to the throne and a new era ''Shōwa'' (Enlightened Peace) was proclaimed. He was [[coronation|crowned]] emperor on [[November 10]], [[1928]] in [[Kyoto]]. The new emperor had the distinction of being the first Japanese monarch in several hundred years whose biological mother was his predecessor's official wife.
==Early reign==
The first part of Hirohito's reign as sovereign (between 1926 and [[1945]]) took place against a background of increasing military power within the government, through both legal and extralegal means. The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] and [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] had held [[veto]] power over the formation of cabinets since [[1900]], and between 1921 and [[1944]] there were no fewer than 64 incidents of right-wing political violence.
One notable case was the assassination of moderate [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Inukai Tsuyoshi]] in [[1932]], which marked the end of any real [[civilian control of the military]]. This was followed by an attempted [[February 26 Incident|military coup]] in February [[1936]], mounted by junior Army officers; it was occasioned by a loss of ground by the militarist faction in [[Diet of Japan|Diet]] elections. The coup resulted in the murder of a number of high government and Army officials, and was put down with Hirohito angrily assuming a major role in confronting them.
Still, from the [[1930s]] on, the military clique held almost all political power in Japan, and pursued policies that eventually led Japan to fight the [[second Sino-Japanese War]] and [[World War II]].
==World War II==
During [[World War II]], under Hirohito's leadership, Japan formed [[military alliance|alliance]]s with [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Fascist Italy]], forming the [[Axis Powers|Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis]]. In the immediate aftermath of the war, many believed that Emperor Shōwa was an evil mastermind behind the war, while others claimed that he was simply a powerless [[figurehead]].
Many people in China, Taiwan, Korea and Southeast Asia see Hirohito as Asia's [[Hitler]] of World War II, and some feel he should have been tried for [[war crime]]s. Because of this, many Asians residing in countries that were subject to Japanese invasion retain a hostile attitude towards the [[Japanese imperial family]]. The central question is how much real control Hirohito had over the Japanese military during the two wars. The view promoted by both the Japanese Imperial Palace and the American occupation forces immediately after World War II had Hirohito behaving strictly according to protocol, remaining at a distance from the decision-making processes. On the other hand, [[Herbert P. Bix|Herbert Bix]] has recently produced evidence suggesting that the emperor worked through intermediaries to exercise a great deal of control over the military, and that he may even have been the prime mover of most of the events of the two wars.
On [[September 4]], [[1941]], the Japanese Cabinet met to consider the war plans prepared by Imperial General Headquarters, and decided that:
:''Our Empire, for the purpose of self-defence and self |
[selective availability]] of the Global Positioning System on [[May 1]], [[2000]]. The first documented placement of a cache with GPS assistance took place on [[May 3]], [[2000]], by [[Ulmer, Dave|Dave Ulmer]] of [[Beaver Creek, Oregon]]. The location was posted on the [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]] news://sci.geo.satellite-nav. By [[May 6]], [[2000]], it had been found twice and logged once (by [[Teague, Mike|Mike Teague]] of [[Vancouver, Washington]]).
Well over 200,000 geocaches are currently placed in 220 countries around the world, registered on various Web sites devoted to geocaching.
=== Origin of the name ===
In the early beginning the activity was originally referred to as ''GPS stash hunt'' or ''gpsstashing''. This was changed after a discussion in the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/gpsstash/ gpsstash] discussion group at [[eGroups]] (now [[Yahoo!]]). On [[May 30]], [[2000]], Matt Stum suggested to change the name "stash" into "cache" and also mentioned "geocaching" as the name of the activity.[http://geocaching.gpsgames.org/history/geocacheword.txt]
==Geocaches==
[[Image:Geocache.jpg|thumb||Geocache [http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=f0450e73-f417-4855-ae28-1ac87e63806a Loonse en Drunense Duinen] in [[The Netherlands]]]]
For the traditional geocache, a geocacher will place a waterproof container, containing a log book (with pen or pencil) and treasures, then note the cache's [[Latitude and longitude|coordinates]]. These coordinates, along with other details of the location, are posted online. Other geocachers obtain the coordinates from the [[Internet]] and, using handheld GPS receivers, seek out the cache. The finding geocachers record their exploits in the logbook and online. Geocachers are free to take objects from the cache in exchange for leaving something of similar or higher [[value]], so there's [[treasure]] for the next person to find.
Typical cache treasures aren't high in intrinsic [[value]]. Aside from the logbook, common cache contents are [[U.S. two dollar bill|Two dollar bills]] or other unusual [[coin]]s or [[currency]]; small toys; ornamental buttons; and CDs or books. Also common are "hitchhikers" (a.k.a. travelers or [[Travel Bug]]s), which are objects moved from cache to cache, and whose travels may be logged online. Occasionally, higher value items are included in geocaches, normally reserved for the "first finder," or those locations which are harder to reach.
[[Image:TravelBug.jpg|thumb|A [[Travel Bug]]]]
Geocaches can range in size from "microcaches," too small to hold anything more than a tiny paper log, to those placed in five-gallon buckets or even larger containers.
If a geocache has been vandalized or stolen, it is said to have been "plundered" or "muggled." The latter term plays off the fact that those not familiar with geocaching are called "geo-muggles" or just [[Muggle (disambiguation)|muggle]]s, a term borrowed from the [[Harry Potter]] series of books. If a cacher discovers that a cache has been muggled, an e-mail to the cache owner is appropriate so it can either be deactivated, repaired, or replaced.
== Variations ==
There are many types of caches. Some are easy enough to be called "drive-bys", "park 'n' grabs" ("PNG's"), or "cache and dash". Others are very difficult: [http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=e357a41d-80c8-4979-b46d-088247b9660c under water],
[http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=bfd77652-25cd-487d-8a6d-5bc9c204ad53 many staged multi-caches],
[http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=98d386cb-1ec5-4703-93ef-db82be17acc4 challenging cryptography],
[http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCKR3C 50 feet up a tree], [http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=1c322b4e-2f8d-40f9-9f3e-4d1bf9daeb6e on high mountain peaks], [http://www.brillig.com/geocaching/antarctica.shtml on the] [[Antarctica|Antarctic continent]] or [http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GC5803 above the] [[Arctic Circle]].
Variations of geocaches include:
* Traditional: A basic cache. Contains one container with a log book at minimum, usually toys.
* Multi-cache: requires a visit to one or more intermediate points to determine the coordinates of the cache.
* Mystery/puzzle cache: Coordinates listed are not the coordinates for the cache. The seeker must solve a puzzle to find the actual coordinates.
* Event cache: a meeting for geocachers, found by [[Calendar date|date]], [[hour]] and [[Latitude and longitude|coordinates]]
* [http://www.cacheintrashout.org Cache-In Trash-Out] (CITO) Events: A variation on the event cache, where geocachers get together at a particular location and clean up the trash in the area.
* Letterbox hybrid: This is a hybrid between geocaching and the much older activity of [[letterboxing]]. In addition to a logbook and trade items, it contains a rubber stamp to stamp your log book. Letterboxers carry their own stamp with them, to stamp the letterbox's log book.
* [[Webcam]]: a location with a public web cam. You must have someone watching the camera on a computer to "capture" your image, or you can bring your own [[lap-top]] with you.
* Virtual: a location to visit simply for what is already there. To prove you visited the site, you are generally required to either email the cache owner with information such as a date or a name on a plaque, or post a picture of yourself at the site with GPS receiver in hand.
* Locationless or reverse cache: the opposite of a traditional cache, as the game is to find a specific type of object, like a one-room schoolhouse, then log its coordinates and post a picture holding your GPS in front of the cache site.
* Earthcache: A type of "cache-less cache" sponsored and approved by the [[Geological Society of America]]. The locations do not have items, but contain information about the geology, fossils and local environment.
* Moving/traveling cache: The finder logs the cache, trades trinkets, then hides the cache in a different place.
Geocaching.com, currently the most popular caching Web site, no longer lists caches without a physical object, including locationless/reverse, virtual, webcam, and earth caches (however, existing virtual, webcam, and earth caches have been grandfathered in and "finds" to them can still be logged at the site). [[Groundspeak|Groundspeak, Inc.]], the site's owners, have created a [[waymarking]] website, at waymarking.com, to handle non-physical object caches.
== Internet ==
There are a number of Web sites that list geocache sites around the world. The best known is [http://www.geocaching.com geocaching.com], which dates from 2000 and whose owners have attempted to commercialize the activity, including attempts to trademark the word "geocache". These attempts have often proved controversial in the community. Geocaching.com claims to be "The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site" despite the lack of any governing body which might grant this status.
In the [[United States]], where most geocaching services are hosted, coordinates are not protected by copyright but cache data are. Commercial Web sites listing geocache data are generally protective of their data. People using publicly available data taken from geocaching.com have been threatened with lawsuits by Groundspeak, Inc., owners of the site. One of the most notable examples of this is that of Ed Hall who in 2001 was threatened with a lawsuit if he didn't place a notice stating that all geocaching data used in the creation of his geocache maps was copyrighted by Groundspeak, Inc. His site now acknowledges the various sources of cache data he uses. [http://www.brillig.com/geocaching/offline_reasons.shtml]
==See also==
{{Commons|Geocaching}}
* [[List of geocaching organizations]] - by states / provinces / countries
* [[Bookcrossing]]
* [[Degree Confluence Project]]
* [[Benchmarking (geolocating)]]
* [[Benchmark (surveying)]]
* [[Geodashing]]
* [[Letterboxing]]
* [[Geocaching Software]]
* [[Paperless Geocaching]]
* [[Geocoins]]
* [[Postcrossing]]
* [[Trigpointing]]
==External links==
=== Cache listing sites ===
* [http://www.geocaching.com Geocaching.com (Groundspeak)]
* [http://www.TerraCaching.com/ TerraCaching.com]
* [http://www.navicache.com Navicache.com]
* [http://geocaching.gpsgames.org GPSgames.org]
* [http://www.movingcache.com Moving Cache.com]
* [http://www.earthcache.org/ EarthCache]
* [http://www.cistrail.net/ Cistrail]
* [http://www.brillig.com/geocaching/ Buxley's Geocaching Waypoint (Ed Hall)]
* [http://www.podcacher.com/ PodCacher.com]
=== Similar and related activities ===
* [http://www.geocaching.com/mark/ Benchmarking using a GPS]
* [http://www.geohikes.co.uk GeoHikes] A site dedicated to providing walking routes in the UK which pass geocaches.
* [http://www.gpsgames.org GPSGames.org] Geodashing, Minutewar, Geogolf, and more...
* [http://www.waymarking.com Waymarking.com] Waymarking
* [http://www.timeinacapsule.com Time In A Capsule] An Adventure for Your Descendants: Secreting capsules in the remote wilderness for your family to retrieve years later.
=== Tools ===
* [http://earth.google.com/ Google Earth]
* [http://www.gpsbabel.org/ GPSBabel] Convert to a bazillion formats; transfer waypoints to receivers under any OS
* [http://boulter.com/gqs/ Jeff Boulter's 'Geocaching Quick Search' service]
* [http://www.baconizer.com/geohelper/ GeoHelper]: Entering Geocaching.com-style coordinates will generate a Mapquest map
* [http://adventuresingeocaching.blogspot.com/2005/12/geocaching-software.html Geocaching Software Review] An excellent review of various Geocaching software tools - featured on many sites and discussed on a [http://www.PodCacher.com/ PodCacher.com] podcast.
=== Miscellaneous ===
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~prime.sus |
not recognised by the international community, which continued to press for a settlement involvinng the Patriotic Front. Finally in 1979 under the [[Lancaster House Agreement]], its legal status as the British colony of Southern Rhodesia was restored, in preparation for free elections and independence as Zimbabwe.
== Majority rule ==
In elections in March 1980, [[Robert Mugabe]]'s ZANU party won the election, with 53 out of 80 seats reserved for black voters, with Joshua Nkomo's ZAPU gaining 27, and Muzorewa's UANC only three. The Republic of Zimbabwe came into being on [[April 18]], 1980, in a ceremony attended by Britain's [[Charles, Prince of Wales]]. A song was written and sung by [[Bob Marley]] to celebrate the independence of Zimbabwe also called 'Zimbabwe'. He was invited to perform a concert at the country's independence festivities, and this song, was, of course, included.
As well as changing the name of the country, the new government changed numerous [[Place names in Zimbabwe|place names]] in 1982, starting with the capital, Salisbury, which was renamed [[Harare]]. The main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, was renamed in honour of [[Samora Machel]], President of [[Mozambique]].
== Constitution and parliamentary system ==
The new [[Constitution]] provided for a non-executive President as Head of State with a Prime Minister as Head of Government. The first President was Rev. [[Canaan Banana]] with Robert Mugabe as Prime Minister. In 1987, the Constitution was amended to provide for an Executive President and the office of Prime Minister was abolished. The constitutional changes came into effect on [[1 January]] [[1988]] with Robert Mugabe as President.
The [[Parliament]] was [[bicameral]], with the House of Assembly being directly elected and the Senate consisting of indirectly elected and nominated members, including tribal chiefs. Under the Constitution, there were two separate voters rolls, one for the black African majority, who had 80 % of the seats in [[Parliament]] and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities, such as [[Coloured]]s (people of mixed race) and Asians, who held 20 %.
This gave whites disproportionate representation, and in 1986 the Constitution was amended to scrap this system, replacing the white seats in with seats filled by nominated members. Many white MPs joined [[ZANU]], which then reappointed them. In 1990, the Senate was abolished, and the House of Assembly's membership was increased to include members nominated by the President.
==After independence==
Following independence, there was increasingly bitter rivalry between ZAPU and ZANU, with guerrilla activity starting again, in Matabeleland (south-western Zimbabwe). Nkomo (ZAPU) left for exile in Britain, and did not return until Mugabe guaranteed his safety. On [[February 17]], [[1982]] Nkomo, accused of plotting a coup, was dismissed. Armed resistance in his stronghold of [[Matabeleland]], in the west, was met with bloody government repression. At least 20,000 died in the ensuing massacres, known in Zimbabwe as the [[Gukurahundi]].
A peace accord was negotiated and on [[December 30]], [[1987]] Mugabe became head of state after reforming the constitution to usher in a presidential regime. On [[December 19]], [[1989]] ZAPU merged with ZANU under the name ZANU-Patriotic Front ([[ZANU-PF]]).
Although most whites had left Zimbabwe after independence, mainly for neighbouring [[South Africa]], those who remained continued to wield disproportionate control of some sectors of the economy, especially agriculture. In the late-1990s whites accounted for less than 1% of the population but owned 70% of [[arable land]].
On [[December 9]], [[1997]] a national strike paralyzed the country. Mugabe was panicked by demonstrations by Zanla ex-combatants (war veterans), who had been the heart of the liberation struggle 20 years earlier. He agreed to pay them large gratuities and pensions, which proved to be a wholly unproductive and unbudgeted financial commitment.
Mugabe also raised the issue of land ownership by white farmers. In a populist move, he began land redistribution, which brought the government into headlong conflict with the International Monetary Fund. Amid a severe drought in the region, the police and military were instructed not to stop the invasion of white-owned farms by the war veterans and youth militia.
In February 2000, Mugabe tried to change the constitution by holding a constitutional referendum, in a move that would have allowed the president to serve two more terms (another 10 years) and the power to dissolve Parliament. The defeat of the referendum weakened the ruling party.
Mugabe won a parliamentary majority for ZANU-PF. He was also able to appoint 30 of the Members of Parliament. The presidential elections in [[March 2002]] were critical to the Southern African region. An important concern was that if the elections were not free and fair, this would have a destabilizing effect on the region, causing more economic turmoil in countries like [[South Africa]] and [[Botswana]]. Mugabe won a controversial victory against [[Morgan Tsvangirai]] of the Movement for Democratic Change. It is alleged that violence was used in anti-Mugabe strongholds to prevent citizens from voting.
==International criticism==
[[Amnesty International]] has made numerous allegations of Mugabe committing human rights abuses against his political opponents, minority groups such as homosexuals, and white landowning families and their farm workers.
The [[European Union]] imposed travel sanctions on Mugabe and his inner circle of ZANU-PF elite, while the [[United States]] imposed economic sanctions which froze his assets and made any business dealings with him illegal.
In 2002 Zimbabwe was suspended from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. This suspension was extended at the 2003 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM). Soon afterwards, Zimbabwe left the Commonwealth.
==See also==
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[History of present-day nations and states]]
==External links==
* [http://www.historyofnations.net/africa/zimbabwe.html History of Zimbabwe]
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5479.htm Background Note: Zimbabwe]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10489a.htm Monomotapa]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/fromthearchive/story/0,12269,1228860,00.html 'Zimbabwe will collapse if you go, whites are warned'] in ''[[The Guardian]]''
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
[[Category:History of Zimbabwe| ]]
[[de:Geschichte Simbabwes]]
[[fr:histoire du Zimbabwe]]
[[fr:histoire de la Rhodésie du sud]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Russia</title>
<id>14115</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42026100</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:08:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tawker</username>
<id>212671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/218.101.74.136|218.101.74.136]] ([[User talk:218.101.74.136|Talk]]) to last version by Irpen</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{History of Russia}}
The '''[[history of Russia]]''' begins with that of the [[Early East Slavs|East Slavs]], the ethnic group that eventually split into the [[Russians]], [[Ukrainians]], and [[Belarusians]]. The first East Slavic state, [[Kievan Rus']], adopted [[Christianity]] from the [[Byzantine Empire]] in 988, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and [[Slavs|Slavic]] cultures that defined Russian culture for the next seven centuries. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state, leaving a number of states competing for claims to be the heirs to its civilization and dominant position. After the 13th century, [[Muscovy]] gradually came to dominate the former cultural center. In the 18th century, the principality of Muscovy had become the huge [[Russian Empire]], stretching from [[Poland]] eastward to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Expansion in the western direction sharpened Russia's awareness of its backwardness and shattered the isolation in which the initial stages of expansion had occurred. Successive regimes of the 19th century responded to such pressures with a combination of halfhearted reform and repression. [[Russian serfdom]] was [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|abolished in 1861]], but its abolition was achieved on terms unfavorable to the [[peasant]]s and served to increase revolutionary pressures. Between the abolition of serfdom and beginning of [[World War I]] in [[1914]], the [[Stolypin reform]]s, the [[Russian Constitution of 1906|constitution of 1906]] and [[Duma|State Duma]] introduced notable changes in economy and politics of Russia, but the [[tsar]]s were still not willing to cede autocratic rule.
Military defeat and food shortages triggered the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] in [[1917]], bringing the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist]] [[Bolshevik]]s to power. Between [[1922]] and [[1991]], the history of Russia is essentially the [[history of the Soviet Union]], effectively an ideologically based empire which was roughly coterminous with the Russian Empire, whose last monarch, Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], ruled until 1917. From its first years, government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the communists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves beginning in March [[1918]]. However, by the late [[1980s]], with the weaknesses of its economic and political structures becoming acute, significant changes in the economy and the party leaderships spelled the end of the Soviet Union.
The [[History of post-Soviet Russia|history of the Russian Federation]] is brief, dating back only to the collapse of the Soviet Union in late [[1991]]. But Russia has existed as a state for over a thousand years, and during most of the 20th century Russia was the core of the Soviet Union. Since gai |
Party of Spain]] and various nationalist, leftist, and independence-terrorist movements, such as the [[Free Canaries Movement]] and the [[MPAIAC]].
===Until Today===
After Franco's death and the installation of a democratic [[constitutional monarchy]], a bill of [[self-governance|autonomy]] was put forth for the Canary how another communities, which was approved in 1982. In 1983, the first autonomous elections were held, and were won by the Spanish socialist party, [[PSOE]]. The current ruling party is the [[Canarian Coalition]].
==Physical geography==
The islands and their capitals are:
*[[Gran Canaria]] (capital [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]]);
*[[Tenerife]] (capital [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]);
*[[Lanzarote]] (capital [[Arrecife]]);
*[[La Palma]] (capital [[Santa Cruz de La Palma]]);
*[[La Gomera]] (capital [[San Sebastián de La Gomera]]);
*[[El Hierro]] (capital [[Valverde]]);
*[[Fuerteventura]] (capital [[Puerto del Rosario]]).
The nearest island is 108 km from the northwest African coast.
The islands form the [[Macaronesia]] [[ecoregion]] with the [[Azores]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Madeira Islands|Madeira]], and the [[Savage Isles]]. The [[Teide]] volcano on Tenerife is the highest mountain in [[Spain]], and the third largest volcano on Earth. According to the position of the islands with respect to the [[trade wind]]s, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species are conserved, like the [[drago|dragon]] tree ''Dracaena draco'' and the [[Laurisilva]] forests.
Four of Spain's 13 national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community:
*[[Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente]] on La Palma,
*[[Garajonay National Park]] on La Gomera,
*[[Teide]] National Park on Tenerife,
*[[Timanfaya National Park]] on Lanzarote.
==Political geography==
The '''Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands''' consists of two [[provinces of Spain|provinces]], [[Las Palmas (province)|Las Palmas]] and [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife (province)|Santa Cruz de Tenerife]], whose capitals ([[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] and [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]) are co-capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands is ruled by an assembly named ''cabildo insular''.
<br clear="all"><br>
[[Image:Canary Islands map by William Dampier 1699 - Project Gutenberg eText 15675.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Maps of the Canary Islands drawn by [[William Dampier]] during his voyage to [[New Holland]] in [[1699]].]]
[[image:canary-map.jpg|Map of the Canary Islands|right|thumb|300px]]
The international boundary of the Canaries are the subject of dispute between Spain and Morocco. Morocco does not agree that the laws regarding territorial limits allow Spain to claim for itself sea-bed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, because the Canary Islands are autonomous. The boundary is relevant for possible seabed oil deposits and other ocean resource exploitation. Morocco therefore does not formally agree to the territorial boundary; it rejected a 2002 unilateral Spanish proposal. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2070.html Reference: CIA World Factbook]
Morocco has also made some vague historical claims to the Canary Islands themselves, but these claims have not been formally pursued.
==Economy==
The economy is based primarily on [[Tourism in Spain|tourism]], which makes up 32% of the GDP. The Canaries receive about 10 million tourists per year. Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily [[banana]]s and [[tobacco]], are grown for export to Europe and the Americas. Ecologists are concerned that the resources, especially in the more [[arid]] islands, are being overexploited but they still have lots of natural resources like tomatoes, potatoes, onions, cochineal, sugarcane, grapes, vines, dates, oranges, lemons, figs, wheat, barley, corn, apricots, peaches and almonds.
The economy size is 25 billion euro (2001 [[Gross Domestic Product]] figures). This is two times the size of [[Costa Rica]]'s economy and one-third that of [[Venezuela]]. A remarkable fact is that if you take into account their population and surface area, the Canary Islands have one of the most powerful economies of the Central Atlantic region, including the zone known as "Macaronesian" (which includes [[Cape Verde]], [[Madeira]], [[Azores]] and the Canary Islands). The islands experienced continued growth during a consecutive 20 year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually. This growth was fuelled mainly by huge amounts of [[Foreign Direct Investment]], mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments) and European Funds (near 11 billion euro in the period from 2000 to 2007) since the Canary Islands is labeled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds).
The combination of high mountains, being a part of Europe, and clean air has made the [[Roque de los Muchachos]] peak (on La Palma island) a leading location for [[telescope]]s like the [[Grantecan]].
The islands are outside [[European Union]] customs territory, though politically within the EU. The [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2|ISO 3166-1 α-2]] code ''IC'' is reserved for representing them in customs affairs. Goods subject to Spanish customs and excise duties and Value Added Tax ([[VAT]]), such as [[tobacco]] or [[electronics|electronic]] goods, are therefore significantly cheaper in the Canaries. The islands do not have a separate [[TLD|Internet country code]] from the rest of Spain. The currency is the [[euro]].
Canarian time is [[WET]], one hour less than that of mainland [[Spain]] and the same as that of [[London]].
==See also==
*[http://www.heureka.clara.net/tenerife/canary.htm Las Islas Canarias]
* [[Canarian cuisine]]
* Spanish wikipedia: [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islas_Canarias Islas Canarias]
==Sources and References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2070.html Reference: CIA World Factbook]
*Alfred Crosby, ''Ecological Imperialism : The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900'' (Cambridge University Press) ISBN 0521456908
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Canary_Islands.html WorldStatesmen]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2070.html International Territorial Disputes]
==Other External links==
{{Commons|Category:Canary Islands}}
*[http://www.grancanaria.com/ Gran Canaria] (portal of Gran Canaria, in Spanish, English, German, French, Swedish)
*[http://www.heureka.clara.net/tenerife/tenerife.htm Tenerife]
*[http://www.sun4free.com/ Tenerife] (Information site about the largest island in the Canaries)
*[http://www.islanzarote.com/ Lanzarote] (the portal of Lanzarote Island, in Spanish/English/French/German)
*[http://www.icanarias.com/ Lanzarote] (Travel Information about Lanzarote, in Spanish/English/French/German)
*[http://www.sunnyfuerteventura.com/ Fuerteventura] (Comprehensive guide to the island of Fuerteventura)
* Fuerteventura [http://www.geocities.com/fuerteventuraholidayhomes/] Information about Fuerteventura
*[http://www.grancanarianet.com Info, maps and forum about Gran Canaria]
*[http://www.excursiononline.com Tourist Activities in the Canaries]
*[http://www.atlas101.com/lapalmalinks.html La Palma web Links]
* [http://www.fotosantiguascanarias.org/fotos.cfm Old photos Canary Islands and the Canary Islanders]
*[http://www.fotocommunity.com/pc/pc/cat/168 Pictures from the Canary Islands]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm Canary Islands pose little risk of mega-tsunami]
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5652141/ Scientist warns of Atlantic tidal wave]
*[http://www.acadian-cajun.com/canary.htm Canary Island Settlers of Louisiana]
*[http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/] Official Statistics about Canary Islands
*[http://www.canary-island-map.com/ Canary Island Map] (Information and Maps about each Island)
{{Canary Islands}}
{{Spain}}
[[Category:Canary Islands|Canary Islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Spain]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[Category:Spain geography stubs]]
[[af:Kanariese-eilande]]
[[als:Kanarische Inseln]]
[[ar:منطقة جزر الكناري الذاتية الحكم]]
[[an:Canarias]]
[[ast:Canaries]]
[[zh-min-nan:Canaria Kûn-tó]]
[[be:Канарскі архіпэляг]]
[[ca:Illes Canàries]]
[[cs:Kanárské ostrovy]]
[[da:De Kanariske Øer]]
[[de:Kanarische Inseln]]
[[et:Kanaari saared]]
[[es:Canarias]]
[[eo:Kanarioj]]
[[eu:Kanariar Uharteak]]
[[fa:جزایر قناری]]
[[fr:Canaries]]
[[fy:Kanaryske Eilannen]]
[[gl:Illas Canarias]]
[[ko:카나리아 제도]]
[[hr:Kanari]]
[[id:Kepulauan Canary]]
[[ia:Canarias]]
[[is:Kanaríeyjar]]
[[it:Isole Canarie]]
[[hu:Kanári-szigetek]]
[[nl:Canarische Eilanden]]
[[ja:カナリア諸島]]
[[no:Kanariøyene]]
[[pl:Wyspy Kanaryjskie]]
[[pt:Canárias]]
[[ro:Insulele Canare]]
[[ru:Канарские острова]]
[[sl:Kanarski otoki]]
[[fi:Kanariansaaret]]
[[sv:Kanarieöarna]]
[[vi:Quần đảo Canaria]]
[[uk:Канарські острови]]
[[zh:加那利群岛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chuck D</title>
<id>5718</id>
<revision>
<id>39840436</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T05:19:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TimMony</username>
<id>123108</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv to last by ZS</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Mistachuck.jpg|right|thumb|Cover of "Autobiography of Mistachuck"]]
'''Chuck D''' (real name: '''Carlton Douglas Ridenhour,''' born [[August 1]], [[1960]]) is a rapper, composer, actor, author, radio personality and producer. Chuck was born in [[Roosevelt]], [[Long Island, New York|Long Island]], [[New York]], [[United States|USA]]. He helped further [[1980s]] political [[rap music]] as the controversial and influential lead rapper of [[Public Enemy]].
After graduating from [[Roosevelt Junior-Senior High School]], Chuck went to [[Adelphi University]] in [[Long Island, New York]]. During his rap career |
ision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balder</title>
<id>4060</id>
<revision>
<id>37682045</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T15:07:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>131.7.52.17</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Prose Edda */ bypass redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Manuscript_Baldr.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Balder's death is portrayed in this illustration from an [[18th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]
'''Balder''' ([[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] '''Baldr''', modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Faroese language|Faroese]] '''Baldur''', '''Balder''' is the name in modern [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Danish language|Danish]] and an [[Old Norse orthography|anglicized]] form) is, in [[Norse Mythology]], the god of innocence, beauty, joy, purity, and peace, and is [[Odin]]'s second son. His wife is called [[Nanna (Norse deity)|Nanna]] and his son [[Forseti]]. Balder had a ship, the largest ever built, named [[Hringhorni]], and a hall, called [[Breidablik]]. '''Phol''' may have been a German name for Balder, based on the second [[Merseburg Incantations|Merseburg charm]], where the same person seems to be referred to as Phol and ''Balder''.
==The Prose Edda==
In the [[Gylfaginning]] section of [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]] Balder is described as follows.
{|
|
:''Annarr sonr Óðins er Baldr, ok er frá honum gott at segja. Hann er svá fagr álitum ok bjartr svá at lýsir af honum, ok eitt gras er svá hvítt at jafnat er til Baldrs brár. Þat er allra grasa hvítast, ok þar eptir máttu marka fegrð hans bæði á hár ok á líki. Hann er vitrastr ása ok fegrst talaðr ok líknsamastr. En sú náttúra fylgir honum at engi má haldask dómr hans. Hann býr þar sem heita Breiðablik, þat er á himni. Í þeim stað má ekki vera óhreint[.]'' - ''Text of T''
|
:The second son of Odin is Baldr, and good things are to be said of him. He is best, and all praise him; he is so fair of feature, and so bright, that light shines from him. A certain herb is so white that it is likened to Baldr's brow; of all grasses it is whitest, and by it thou mayest judge his fairness, both in hair and in body. He is the wisest of the Æsir, and the fairest-spoken and most gracious; and that quality attends him, that none may gainsay his judgments. He dwells in the place called Breidablik, which is in heaven; in that place may nothing unclean be[.] - ''Brodeur's translation''
|
|}
Apart from this gushing description Balder is known primarily for the myth surrounding his death. His death is seen as the first in the chain of events which will ultimately lead to the destruction of the gods at [[Ragnarok]]. Balder will be reborn in the new world, however, as foretold in the [[Völuspá]].
[[Image:Balder.jpg|thumb|right|The Christ-like aspects of Balder are clearly emphasized in this illustration of ''[[Baldrs draumar]]''.]]
He had a dream of his own death (or his mother had the same dreams). Since dreams were usually prophetic, this depressed him, and his mother [[Frigg]] made every object on earth [[vow]] never to hurt Balder. All but one, an insignificant weed called the [[mistletoe]], made this vow. Frigg had thought it too unimportant and nonthreatening to bother asking it to make the vow (alternatively, it seemed too young to swear). When [[Loki]], the mischief-maker, heard of this, he made a magical spear from this plant. He hurried to the place where the gods were indulging in their new pastime of hurling objects at Balder, which would bounce off without harming him. Loki gave the spear to Balder's brother, the blind god [[Höðr]], who then inadvertently killed his brother with it. For this act, Odin and [[Rind]] had a child named [[Váli (son of Odin)|Váli]], who was born solely to punish Höðr, who was slain.
Balder was ceremonially burnt upon his ship, Hringhorni, the largest of all ships. As he was carried to the ship, Odin whispered in his ear. This was to be a key riddle asked by Odin (in disguise) of the giant [[Vafthruthnir]] (and which was, of course, unanswerable) in the [[Vafthruthnismal]] (the riddle also appears in the riddles of [[Gestumblindi]] in [[Hervarar saga]]). The dwarf [[Lit (Norse)|Lit]] was kicked by [[Thor]] into the funeral fire and burnt alive. Nanna, Balder's wife, also threw herself on the funeral fire to await the end of Ragnarok when she would be reunited with her husband (alternatively, she died of grief). Balder's horse with all its trappings was also burned on the pyre. The ship was set to sea by [[Hyrrokin]], a [[giantess]], who came riding on a wolf and gave the ship such a push that fire flashed from the rollers and all the earth shook.
Upon Frigg's entreaties, delivered through the messenger [[Hermóðr|Hermod]], [[Hel (goddess)|Hel]] promised to release Balder from the underworld if all objects alive and dead would weep for him. And all did, except a [[giantess]], [[Thokk]], who refused to mourn the slain god. And thus Balder had to remain in the underworld, not to emerge until after Ragnarok, when he and his brother Höðr would be reconciled and rule the new earth together with Thor's sons.
When the gods discovered that the [[giantess]] had been [[Loki]] in disguise, they hunted him down and bound him to three rocks. Then they tied a serpent above him, the venom of which dripped onto his face. His wife [[Sigyn]] gathered the venom in a bowl, but from time to time she had to turn away to empty it, at which point the poison would drip onto Loki, who writhed in pain, thus causing earthquakes. He would free himself, however, in time to attack the gods at Ragnarok.
<br style="clear:both">
==The Poetic Edda==
[[Image:Loki and Hod.jpg|thumb|right|[[Loki]] tricks [[Höðr]] to shoot Balder.]]
In the [[Elder Edda]] the tragic tale of Balder is hinted at rather than told at length. Among the visions which the Norse Sibyl sees and describes in the weird prophecy known as the [[Völuspá]] is one of the fatal mistletoe. "I behold," says she, "Fate looming for Balder, Woden's son, the bloody victim. There stands the Mistletoe slender and delicate, blooming high above the ground. Out of this shoot, so slender to look on, there shall grow a harmful fateful shaft. Hod shall shoot it, but Frigga in Fen-hall shall weep over the woe of Wal-hall." Yet looking far into the future the Sibyl sees a brighter vision of a new heaven and a new earth, where the fields unsown shall yield their increase and all sorrows shall be healed; then Balder will come back to dwell in Odin's mansions of bliss, in a hall brighter than the sun, shingled with gold, where the righteous shall live in joy for ever more.
==Gesta Danorum==
Writing about the end of the [[12th century]], the old Danish historian [[Saxo Grammaticus]] tells the story of Balder in a form which professes to be historical. According to him, '''Balderus''' and '''Høtherus''' were rival suitors for the hand of Nanna, daughter of [[Gewar]], King of Norway. Now Balderus was a demigod and common steel could not wound his sacred body. The two rivals encountered each other in a terrific battle. Though Odin and Thor and the rest of the gods fought for Balderus, he was defeated and fled away, and Høtherus married the princess. Nevertheless Balderus took heart of grace and again met Høtherus in a stricken field. But he fared even worse than before. Høtherus dealt him a deadly wound with a [[magic sword]], which he had received from Miming, the satyr of the woods; and after lingering three days in pain Balderus died of his hurt and was buried with royal honours in a barrow.
==Beowulf==
In [[Beowulf]] Balder appears as the [[geatish]] prince [[Herebeald]], who is killed by his brother [[Hæþcyn]] ([[Höðr]]). The king [[Hreðel]] replaces [[Odin]] as the grieving father.
==Analogues==
The legendary death of Balder resembles the legendary death of the [[Iran|Persia]]n hero [[Isfendiyar]] in the epic [[Shahnama]]. Balder has also been likened to [[Jesus]], as [[C. S. Lewis]] did when he said he "loved Balder before Christ."
==Culture==
Balder has inspired much art and poetry.
:I heard a voice, that cried,<br />
:"Balder the Beautiful<br />
:Is dead, is dead!"<br />
:--[[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]
In 1997, [[Burzum]] released the ambient album ''[[Dauði Baldrs]]'' [Balder's Death]: focused exclusively on the legend of Balder.
==Balder's brows==
In [[Scandinavian language|Scandinavian]], the ''[[Scentless Mayweed]]'' (''[[Matricaria perforata]]'') is named ''Balder's brows'' because of its whiteness.
==References==
* Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (transl.) (1916). ''The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson''. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. ''Available online at http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/index.php''.
* Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.). ''Snorra-Edda: Formáli & Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita''. 2005. http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Norse gods]]
[[Category:Germanic deities]]
[[bg:Балдур]]
[[ca:Bàlder]]
[[cs:Baldr]]
[[da:Balder]]
[[de:Balder]]
[[el:Μπαλντρ]]
[[es:Baldur]]
[[eo:Baldr]]
[[fr:Baldr]]
[[gl:Balder]]
[[hr:Baldr]]
[[is:Baldur]]
[[it:Baldr]]
[[he:בלדר]]
[[lt:Baldras]]
[[nl:Baldr]]
[[ja:バルドル]]
[[no:Balder]]
[[nn:Balder]]
[[pl:Baldur]]
[[pt:Balder]]
[[ru:Бальдр]]
[[fi:Balder]]
[[sv:Balder]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Breidablik</title>
<id>4061</id>
<revision>
<id>36148466</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T00:06:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rh</username>
<id>121748</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Norse mythology]], '''Breiðablik''' (often Anglicized '''Breidablik''') is the home of [[Baldr]] in [[Asgard]] where he lives with his wife [[Nanna]]. The house itself is said to have a silver roof, upheld by golden pillars.
{{NorseM |
bscriber systems now being improved with Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) equipment to accommodate Internet and other digital signals; trunk systems include fiber-optic cable and microwave radio relay
<br>''international:''
satellite earth stations - 2 Intersputnik (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions), 1 Intelsat, 1 Eutelsat, 1 Inmarsat, 1 Globalstar
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 31, FM 304, shortwave 17 (2000)
'''Radios:'''
3,159,134 (December 2000)
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
150 (plus 1,434 repeaters) (2000)
'''Televisions:'''
3,405,834 (December 2000)
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
more than 300 (2000)
'''Internet users:'''
2.69 million (2001)
'''[[Country code]]:''' CZ
:''See also :'' [[Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Communications in the Czech Republic| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in the Czech Republic</title>
<id>5851</id>
<revision>
<id>27718247</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-08T12:51:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tex23</username>
<id>507751</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Port - Mělník</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Railways:'''
<br>''total:''
9,435 km
<br>''standard gauge:''
9,341 km 1.435-m standard gauge (2,946 km electrified at three voltages; 1,868 km double track)
<br>''narrow gauge:''
94 km 0.760-m narrow gauge (1998)
* [[České dráhy]] (ČD) (English: ''Czech Railways'') is the major Czech railway company.
*City with [[Metro|underground]] railway system: [[Prague]] (see the [[Prague Metro]] article)
*Cities with trams: [[Brno]], [[Liberec]], [[Most]], [[Olomouc]], [[Ostrava]], [[Plzeň]], [[Prague]]
'''Highways:'''
<br>''total:''
127,693 km
<br>''paved:''
127,693 km (including 498 km of expressways)
<br>''unpaved:''
0 km (1998 est.)
'''Highways in the Czech Republic:'''
* [[Highway D1|D1]]
* [[Highway D2|D2]]
* [[Highway D3|D3]]
* [[Highway D5|D5]]
* [[Highway D8|D8]]
* [[Highway D11|D11]]
* [[Highway D47|D47]]
'''Waterways:'''
677 km; the [[Elbe]] (Labe) is the principal river
'''Pipelines:'''
natural gas 53,000 km (1998)
'''Ports and harbors:'''
[[Děčín]], [[Mělník]], [[Prague]], [[Ústí nad Labem]]
'''Airports:'''
114 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
43
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
2
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
10
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
14
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
<br>''under 914 m:''
16 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
71
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
28
<br>''under 914 m:''
42 (1999 est.)
'''Heliports:'''
1 (1999 est.)
==See also==
* [[Czech Republic]]
* [[List of airports in Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Transportation in the Czech Republic|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Czech Republic/Transnational issues</title>
<id>5852</id>
<revision>
<id>15904042</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-28T09:49:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of the Czech Republic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of the Czech Republic</title>
<id>5853</id>
<revision>
<id>40037579</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T17:54:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm sp in lnk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#8888dd
| age=18 years of age
| availability=2,414,728 (2005 est.)
| service=1,996,631 (2005 est.)
| reaching age=66,583 (2005 est.)
| active=
| amount= $2.17 billion (2004)
| percent GDP= 1.81% (2005)
}}
The '''Czech Armed Forces''' ([[Czech Language|Czech]]: ''Armáda České republiky'') consists of Land and [[Czech air force|Air Forces]] and of specialized support units. Being a member of [[NATO]] since [[1999]], the [[Czech Republic]] completes a major overhaul of the extensive [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] armed forces which until [[1989]] formed one of the pillars of the [[Warsaw Pact]] military alliance. Czech forces have been gradually downsized from 200,000 to 35,000 and at the same time modernized and reoriented toward defensive posture. In year [[2004]] the army transformed into fully professional organization and compulsory military service has been ended.
==Structure==
The structure of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic is as follows:
*The Army
**Joint Forces
***Joint Forces Command
***Land Forces
***[[Czech Air Force|Air Force]]
***Joint Forces Support Units
**Support and Training Forces
*The Military Office of President of the Republic
*The [[Prague Castle|Castle]] Guard
==Recent operations==
The Czech Republic is a member of the [[United Nations|UN]] and [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] and has contributed to numerous peacekeeping operations, including [[IFOR]]/[[SFOR]] in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]], [[Desert Shield]]/[[Desert Storm]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Kosovo]] and Iraq.
Current deployments (as of 2005):
*[[Kosovo]]: NATO Operation "Joint Enterprise" ([[KFOR]]) - 500 soldiers
*[[Iraq]]: Coalition Operation of Multinational Forces - 96 soldiers
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]: European Union Operation (ALTHEA) - 65 soldiers
*[[Afghanistan]]: NATO Operation ([[ISAF]]) - 17 soldiers
==External links==
*[http://www.army.cz/scripts/detail.php?pgid=122 Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic] (English)
*[http://www.natoaktual.cz Information Center about NATO] (Czech)
*[http://www.czechairforce.cz/index.php Czech Air Force-unofficial site] (English)
{{NATO}}
[[Category:Military of the Czech Republic|Military of the Czech Republic]]
[[cs:Armáda České republiky]]
[[sl:Armada Češke republike]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Czech Republic/History</title>
<id>5854</id>
<revision>
<id>15904044</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-22T23:35:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy</username>
<id>20318</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>update to avoid double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the Czech lands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of the Czech Republic</title>
<id>5855</id>
<revision>
<id>35312672</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T21:15:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Czech Republic}}
Until [[1989]], the foreign policy of Czechoslovakia had followed that of the [[Soviet Union]]. Since independence, the Czechs have made integration with Western institutions their chief foreign policy objective.
Fundamental to this objective is Czech membership in the [[European Union]]. The Czech Republic became a member of the [[EU]] in May [[2004]]. This followed signature of the Treaty of Accession with nine other candidate nations in [[1993]]. Although there have been disagreements with established EU member nations over some economic issues, such as agricultural quotas and a recent amendment to the gaming law, relations are good.
The Czech Republic is a member of the [[United Nations]] and participates in its specialized agencies. It is a member of the [[General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs]]. It maintains diplomatic relations with more than 85 countries, of which 63 have permanent representation in Prague. The Czech Republic became a member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]], along with Poland and Hungary, on [[12 March]] [[1999]]. This membership represents a milestone in the country's foreign policy and security orientation.
'''Disputes - international:'''
[[Liechtenstein]] claims restitution for 1,600 km² of land in the Czech Republic confiscated from its royal family in [[1918]]; the Czech Republic insists that the power to claim restitution does not go back before February [[1948]], when the communists seized power; individual [[Sudeten German]] claims for restitution of property confiscated in connection with their expulsion after [[World War II]]; agreement with [[Slovakia]] signed [[24 November]] [[1998]] resolves issues of redistribution of former Czechoslovak federal land - approval by both parliaments is expected in [[2000]].
'''Illicit drugs:'''
major transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and minor transit point for [[Latin American]] cocaine to Western Europe; domestic consumption - especially of locally produced synthetic drugs - on the rise
:''See also :'' [[Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Government of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Czech Republic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Czech Republic/Sacrum</title>
<id>5856</id>
<revision>
<id>15904046</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dreamyshade</username>
<id>32</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect to Holy Roman Empire</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Holy Roman Empire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Climbing</title>
<id>5857</id>
<revision>
<id>41649479</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:13:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Martin Hinks</username>
<id>264571</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikipedia is not a link collection</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Valkyrie (The Roaches).jpg|thumb|250px|Climbers on "Valkyrie" at [[the Roaches]].]]
:''Climber'' is also a synonym for [[vine]].
'''Climbing''' is going up, or, |
ials [[cellulose]], [[lignin]], and [[pectin]]. After the fibre has been separated, it is sold under the name [[Manila hemp|Manila]]. The fibre gets its name from the capital of the [[Philippines]].
==Harvesting==
Growers harvest abacá fields every three to eight months. They cut down the mature plants, but allow the roots to remain in the ground. New plants then grow from the old roots. The leaf sheaths are detached in strips. The pulp is scraped off, leaving only the fibre strands, which are twisted into rope. Abacá fibre is strong, buoyant, and has a great natural resistance to water, sun, and wind. Abacá is also used for paper products.
==Scientific classification==
The abacá plant belongs to the [[banana]] family, Musaceae. Its scientific name is ''Musa textilis''.
Other common names for Manila hemp include Cebu hemp and Davao hemp.
==External sources of information==
-The [[World Book]] encyclopedia set, 1988.
==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abaca}}
*[http://www.univie.ac.at/Voelkerkunde/apsis/aufi/aurel/novara/nov1319.htm Historical notes]
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=MUTE6 Plants USDA]
[[Category:Zingiberales]]
[[bg:Абака]]
[[cs:Banánovník textilní]]
[[da:Abaca]]
[[et:Kanepbanaan]]
[[es:Abacá]]
[[fr:Abaca]]
[[gl:Abacá]]
[[it:Abaca]]
[[ja:マニラアサ]]
[[pl:Banan manilski]]
[[pt:Abacá]]
[[sv:Abaca]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abaddon</title>
<id>2474</id>
<revision>
<id>40060638</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T21:15:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RoboDick</username>
<id>815650</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|the Hebrew word}}
'''Abaddon''' is a [[Biblical Hebrew]] word meaning "destruction".
In [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical]] poetry (Job 26:6; Proverbs 15:11) it comes to mean "place of destruction", or the realm of the dead, and is associated with [[Sheol]]. Abaddon is also one of the compartments of [[Gehenna]].
In [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 9:11, it is described personified as the [[Abaddon (demon)|demon Abaddon]], "Angel of the Abyss", rendered in Greek as [[Apollyon]].
==Reference==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abaddon}}
*Article about abaddon from the 11th edition [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] (1911)
{{Catholic}}
{{1911}}
==External links==
*[http://www.tmgnow.com/repository/planetary/the_threat3.html THE ARMIES OF ABADDON]
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/A10_ADA/ABADDON.html Abaddon]
[[Category:Hebrew words]]
[[Category:New Testament places]]
[[Category:Tanakh places]]
[[da:Abaddon]]
[[de:Abaddon]]
[[es:Abaddon]]
[[fr:Abaddon]]
[[pl:Abaddon (anioł)]]
[[pt:Abaddon]]
[[ru:Абаддон]]
[[fi:Abaddon]]
[[sv:Abaddon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abadeh</title>
<id>2475</id>
<revision>
<id>18667481</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-12T11:47:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robert Horning</username>
<id>82392</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Sources */ Adding link to 1911 Encyclopedia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abadeh''' (&#1570;&#1576;&#1575;&#1583;&#1607;) is a city in [[Iran]], in the province of
[[Fars]], situated at an elevation of 6200 feet in a fertile plain on the high road between [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] and [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]], 140 miles from the former and 170 miles from the latter. [[As of 2004]], the population was estimated to be 58,200. [http://www.gazetteer.de/c/c_ir.htm]
It is the chief place of the Abadeh-[[Eghlid]] district, which is famed for its carved wood-work, made of the wood of [[pear]] and [[box tree]]s.
==Sources==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abadeh}}
* {{1911}}
[[Category:Cities in Iran]]
==External links==
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/A10_ADA/ABADEH.html Abadeh] Article about Abadeh from the 11th edition Encyclopedia Britannica (1911).</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abae</title>
<id>2476</id>
<revision>
<id>40743011</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T18:54:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stoa</username>
<id>831111</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>"Stub article"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abae''' (rabai), is a town in the N.E. corner of [[Phocis]], in
[[Greece]], famous in early times for its [[oracle]] of [[Apollo]],
one of those consulted by [[Croesus]] (Herod. i. 46). It was
rich in treasures (Herod. viii. 33), but was sacked by the
[[Iran|Persia]]ns, and the [[temple (Greek)|temple]] remained in a ruined state. The
oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g. by the [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebans]]
before [[Leuctra]] (Paus. iv. 32. 5). The temple seems to have
been burnt again during the [[Sacred War]], and was in a very
dilapidated state when seen by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (x. 35), though
some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple,
was undertaken by [[Hadrian]]. The sanctity of the shrine
ensured certain privileges to the people of Abac (Bull.
Corresp. Hell. vi. 171), and these were confirmed by the
Romans. The [[polygonal]] wabs of the acropolis may still be
seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill
standing about 500 ft. above the little plain of Exarcho;
one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls
below. The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the
town. An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are
a [[stoa]] and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the
British School at [[Athens, Greece|Athens]] in [[1894]], but very little was found.
See also W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, ii. p. 163i Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi. pp. 291-312 (V. W. Yorke). . (E. GR.)
{{Ancient-Greece-stub}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abae}}
[[Category:History of Greece]]
[[de:Abai]]
[[pl:Aba (miasto greckie)]]
[[pt:Abas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abakan</title>
<id>2477</id>
<revision>
<id>42107888</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:52:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ezhiki</username>
<id>48143</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>slight copyedit; recat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For the river Abakan, see [[Abakan River]]''
</br>''For the Abakan assault rifle, see [[AN-94]]''
----
[[Image:Abakan Coat of arms.jpg|thumb|125px|City coat of arms]]
'''Abakan''' ({{lang-ru|Абака&#769;н}}) is the capital of the [[Khakassia|Republic of Khakassia]] in [[Russia]], in South [[Siberia]]. It is located in the central part of [[Minusinsk Depression]], at the confluence of the rivers [[Yenisei River|Yenisei]] and [[Abakan River|Abakan]], at {{coor dm|53|43|N|91|27|E|}}; at approximately the same longitude as [[Hamburg]] and [[Minsk]]. Population: 165,197 ([[2002]] [[Russian Census (2002)|Census]]); 159,000 ([[January 1]], [[1994]] est.).
Abakan fort ({{lang|ru|Абаканский острог}}) was built at this location in [[1675]], also known as '''Abakansk'''. In [[Russian Empire]] it belonged to [[Yenisei]] [[gubernia]]. During [[1823]]&ndash;[[1931]] the grown settlement was known as '''Ust-Abakanskoye''', [[1914]]&ndash;[[1925]]: Abakan, [[1925]]&ndash;[[1931]]: '''Khakassk'''. It received the status of town and its current name in 1931.
Abakan (together with [[Tayshet]]) was a terminal of the major [[Abakan-Taishet Railway]]. Now it is an important railway junction.
The city has a river port, an airport, industry enterprises, university, three theatres.
==External links==
*[http://www.abakan.ru Abakan web portal]
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abakansk}}
[[Category:Cities and towns of Khakassia]]
[[de:Abakan (Stadt)]]
[[es:Abakán]]
[[eo:Abakan]]
[[fr:Abakan]]
[[gl:Abakán - Абакан]]
[[ko:아바칸]]
[[hr:Abakan, grad]]
[[io:Abakan]]
[[it:Abakan (città)]]
[[nn:Abakan]]
[[os:Абакан]]
[[pl:Abakan (miasto)]]
[[ru:Абакан]]
[[fi:Abakan (kaupunki)]]
[[sv:Abakan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abana River</title>
<id>2478</id>
<revision>
<id>32506708</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-23T18:27:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NekoDaemon</username>
<id>239574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Hebrew Bible/Tanakh places]] → [[Category:Tanakh places]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abana''' (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas) and PHARPAR,
the "rivers of [[Damascus, Syria]]" (2 [[Books of Kings|Kings]] v. 12), now generally identified with the Barada (i.e. ''cold'') and the A`waj
(i.e. ''crooked'') respectively, though if the reference
to Damascus be limited to the city, as in the [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
version of the [[Old Testament]], Pharpar would be the modern
[[Taura]]. Both streams run from west to east across the plain of
Damascus, which owes to them much of its fertility, and lose
themselves in marshes, or lakes, as they are called, on the
borders of the great [[Arabia]]n desert. [[John McGregor]], who gives
an interesting description of them in his Rob Roy on the
[[Jordan River|Jordan]], affirmed that as a work of hydraulic engineering,
the system and construction of the canals, by which the Abana
and Pharpar were used for irrigation, might be considered as
one of the most complete and extensive in the world. As the
Barada escapes from the mountains through a narrow gorge,
its waters spread out fan-like, in canals or ''rivers'', the
name of one of which, Nahr [[Banias]], retains a trace of Abana.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abana}}
''From [[Gutenberg Encyclopedia]] ([[1911]])''
'''See Also:''' [[Amana (bible)]]
[[Category:Rivers of Syria]]
[[Category:Tanakh places]]
[[pl:Abana]]</text>
</revi |
le", which is the [[central business district]] (CBD), [[North Adelaide]] and the surrounding [[Adelaide Parklands]]. It is the oldest [[municipal]] authority in Australia and was established in 1840, when Adelaide and Australia's first mayor, [[James Hurtle Fisher]], was elected. From 1919 onwards, the City has had a [[List of Mayors and Lord Mayors of Adelaide|Lord Mayor]], the current being Lord Mayor [[Michael Harbison]]. The City of Adelaide has a population of approximately 18,000 people in an area of 15.57 km². The population of the [[inner city]] has dwindled from its peak of about 250,000 as the metropolitan area has expanded. The entire metropolitan region, including the city proper, has a population of 1,080,990 people (2001 census) in an area of 870km², and is divided into 18 autonomous [[local government areas]]. However, as South Australia's capital and most populous city, the State Government co-operates extensively with the City of Adelaide - a relationship manifest in the Capital City Committee {{ref|capcity}}, which is primarily concerned with the planning of Adelaide's urban development and growth.
==Demographics==
[[Image:Rundle Mall.JPG|right|thumb|280px|Rundle Mall- Adelaide's main shopping street]]
[[Image:Adelaide City Torrens.JPG|right|thumb|280px|Adelaide skyline from the [[River Torrens]]]]
As of [[June 2004]], Adelaide had a metropolitan population of more than 1,124,315, making it Australia's fifth largest city. In the 2002-2003 period the population grew by 0.6%, while the national average was 1.2%. Some 70.3% of the population of South Australia is resident within the metropolitan area, making South Australia one of the most centralised states. Major areas of population growth in recent years were in outer suburbs such as [[Mawson Lakes, South Australia|Mawson Lakes]] and [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]]. Adelaide's inhabitants occupy 325,000 houses, 57,000 detached, row terrace or town houses and 49,000 flats, apartments and caravans.
Major areas of population growth in recent years were in outer suburbs such as [[Mawson Lakes, South Australia|Mawson Lakes]] and [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]]. Overseas born Adelaideans composed 24.6% (242, 092) of the total population. The North-Eastern Suburbs (such as Golden Grove and [[Salisbury, South Australia|Salisbury]]) and suburbs close to the CBD had a higher ratio of overseas born residents. Wealthier and more well-educated Adelaideans are concentrated on the coastal suburbs (such as [[Brighton, South Australia|Brighton]] and [[Hallett Cove, South Australia|Hallett Cove]]) and South-Eastern suburbs (such as [[Burnside, South Australia|Burnside]] and [[Waterfall Gully, South Australia|Waterfall Gully]]). Almost a fifth (17.9%) of the population had university qualifications. The number of Adelaideans with vocational qualifications (such as tradespersons) fell from 62.1% of the labour force in the 1991 census to 52.4% in the 2001 census.
Overall, Adelaide is ageing much more rapidly than other Australian capital cities. Just under a quarter (24.1%) of Adelaide's population is aged 55 years or older, in comparison to the national average of 19.9%. To further compound the situation, Adelaide has the lowest number of children (under-15 year olds), which composed 18.7% of the population, compared to the national average of 20.4%. In regards to three highest ancestries, 38% of the population identified themselves as [[English people|English]], 34% as Australian (which is most likely primarily of [[Anglo-Celtic]] background) and 8.4% as [[Irish people|Irish]]. The three most-spoken languages other than [[Australian English|English]] were: 3.5% for [[Italian Language|Italian]], 2.3% for [[Greek Language|Greek]] and 1.2% for [[Vietnamese Language|Vietnamese]]. {{ref|adelabsstats}}
==Economy==
Adelaide's economy is primarily based around manufacturing, defence technology and research, commodity export and corresponding service industries. It has large [[manufacturing]], [[Defense (military)|defence]] and [[research]] [[Zoning|zones]]. They contain car manufacturing plants for [[Holden|General Motors Holden]] and [[Mitsubishi Motors Corporation|Mitsubishi]], and plants for medical equipment and [[electronic component]] production. Almost half of all cars produced in Australia are made in Adelaide.{{ref|carmanufacture}} The global media conglomerate [[News Corporation]] was founded in and until 2004 incorporated in Adelaide and is still considered its 'spiritual' home by [[Rupert Murdoch]]. Australia's largest oil company, [[Santos Limited|Santos]] (South Australia Northern Territory Oil Search) and the prominent South Australian brewery, [[Coopers Brewery|Coopers]] calls Adelaide their home. The collapse of the [[State Bank of South Australia|State Bank]] in 1992 resulted in large levels of state [[Public debt|debt]] (as much as A$4 billion). The collapse had meant that successive governments had enacted lean budgets, cutting [[Public finance|spending]], which had been a setback to the further [[Economic development|development]] of the city and state. The debt has recently been reduced with the State Government once again receiving a AAA+ Credit Rating.{{ref|creditrating}} The South Australian economy (very closely tied to Adelaide's) still enjoys a trade surplus and has higher per capita growth than Australia as a whole. {{ref|growth}}
[[Image:HMAS Rankin SSK-78.jpg|left|thumb|280px|The Adelaide-built [[Collins class submarine|Collins Class]] submarine HMAS Rankin]]
Adelaide is home to a large proportion of Australia's defence industries which contribute over AUD$1 billion to South Australia's Gross State Product. 70% of Australian defence companies are located in Adelaide. The principal government military research institution, the [[Defence Science and Technology Organisation]], and other defence technology organisations such as [[Tenix Defence Systems|Tenix]] are located in [[Salisbury, South Australia|Salisbury]] near [[RAAF Base Edinburgh]] and others near [[Technology Park, Adelaide|Technology Park]]. The [[Australian Submarine Corporation]], based in the industrial suburb of [[Osborne, South Australia|Osborne]] was charged with constructing Australia's [[Collins class submarine|Collins Class]] [[Submarines]] and recently won a AUD$6 billion contract to construct the [[Royal Australian Navy|Royal Australian Navy's]] new air-warfare destroyers. {{ref|defencestate}}
There are 466 829 employed people in Adelaide, with 62.3% employed full-time and 35.1% employed part-time. In recent years there has been a growing trend towards part-time (which includes casual) employment, increasing from only 11.6% of the workplace in 1991, to over a third today. 15% of workers are employed in manufacturing, 5% in construction, 15% in retail trade, 11% in business services, 7% in education and 12% in health and community services. The median weekly individual income for people aged 15 years and over is $300-$399 per week. The median family income is $800-$999 per week.{{ref|adelabsstats}} Adelaide's housing and living costs are substantially lower than that of other Australian cities, with housing being notably cheaper. The median Adelaide house price is half that of [[Sydney]] and two-thirds that of [[Melbourne]]. The unemployment rate (as of October 2005) was 4.8%. {{ref|livingcost}}
==Education==
:''Main article: [[South Australia#Education|Education in South Australia]]''
[[Image:Art Gallery of South Australia.JPG|280px|right|thumb|Art Gallery of South Australia]]
Adelaide is home to campuses of all three of South Australia's universities. The [[University of Adelaide]] is a member of the [[Group of Eight (Australian universities)|Group of Eight]] and was founded in 1874, making it the third oldest university in Australia. It has five campuses in the Adelaide area; one being its primary campus on [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]] and another being the [[National Wine Centre of Australia|National Wine Centre]]. The [[University of South Australia]] was formed in 1991 from a merger between the South Australian Institute of Technology and the South Australian Colleges of Advanced Education. Four of its six campuses are located in Adelaide, with two in the CBD itself. [[Flinders University]], located in [[Bedford Park, South Australia|Bedford Park]] is named after British navigator and explorer [[Matthew Flinders]] and was founded in 1966. It is a mid-sized institution with a medical school at the adjacent [[Flinders Medical Centre]]. Leading US private university, [[Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Mellon]], is to establish two Adelaide campuses offering both Australian and US [[Academic degree|degrees]] in 2006. The Heinz School will specialise in [[Information technology|IT]] and government management and be based in [[Victoria Square, Adelaide|Victoria Square]], while another campus at [[Light Square, Adelaide|Light Square]] will specialise in new media and entertainment . These institutions attract students from across Australia and around the world, earning Adelaide’s international recognition as a [http://www.adelaide.sa.gov.au/council/publications/Brochures/IAEC_Adelaide_brochure_web.pdf &#8216;City of Education&#8217;].
School education in Adelaide is provided by a variety of public and private schools, which are the responsibility of the State Government. These schools operate under the [[South Australian Certificate of Education]] (SACE), with [[International Baccalaureate]]s (IB) offered at many as well. The [[Tertiary education|Tertiary Education]] system in Adelaide is extensive, with five out of eight centres of [[TAFE South Australia]] in the city itself, including the Douglas Mawson institute of Technology. They specialise in non-university higher education offering a viable alternative.
==Culture==
[[Image:Adel Convention Centre.jpg|280px|right|thumb|Adelaide Convention Centre, |
t are not to be confounded: ''frottage'', ''frotteurism'' and ''frot''. ''Frottage'' is the preferred term for various forms of genital rubbing as part of normal sexual activity. Frottage is sometimes confused with a sexual disorder known as ''frotteurism'', and improperly referred to as such. Properly the term ''frotteurism'' has no meaning except the sexual disorder. Slang sometimes abbreviates ''frottage'' to "frot". Properly ''frot'' is the technical term for male-male genital sex.
=== Colloquialisms ===
* "dry fucking" or "dry humping", two people engaging in clothed frottage in a manner that simulates intercourse.
* "[[grinding (dance)|grinding]]" or "freaking", a modern dancing style which involves partners rubbing their clothed bodies on one another.
* "frotteur [[geek]]", a colloquialism for a person with a devotion to an atypical scenario for frottage.
== External links ==
* [http://www.nvsh.nl/Website_Engels/Texts/Sexual_Information/Basics/Skills_1.htm#greatsex "Great sex without intercourse", NVSH] (contains graphic depictions)
[[Category:Sex moves]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F-16</title>
<id>11642</id>
<revision>
<id>15909378</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Council of Constantinople</title>
<id>11643</id>
<revision>
<id>42067132</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:12:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Irmgard</username>
<id>8884</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Ecumenical council|council_name=First Council of Constantinople|council_date=[[381]]|accepted_by=[[Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Lutheranism]]||previous=[[First Council of Nicaea]]|next=[[Council of Ephesus]]|convoked_by=Emperor [[Theodosius I]]|presided_by=[[Timothy of Alexandria]], [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Gregory Nazianzus]], and [[Nectarius of Constantinople|Nectarius]]|attendance=150 (no representation of Western Church)|topics=[[Arianism]], [[Apollinarism]], Saberianism, [[Holy Spirit]], successor to Meletius|documents=[[Nicene_Creed#The_Nicene_Creed_of_381|Nicene Creed of 381]], seven [[canon law|canon]]s (three disputed)}}
The '''First Council of Constantinople''' (second [[ecumenical council]]) was called by [[Theodosius I]] in [[381]] to confirm the [[Nicene Creed]] and deal with other matters of [[Arianism|the Arian controversy ]].
==Background==
The [[First Council of Nicaea | Council of Nicaea]] did not end the [[Arianism|Arian]] controversy which it had been called to clarify. By [[327]] [[Emperor Constantine]] had begun to regret the decisions that had been made at the [[First Council of Nicaea | Nicene Council]]. He granted amnesty to the Arian leaders and exiled [[Athanasius]] because of [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]]. Even during numerous exiles, Athanasius continued to be a vigorous defender of [[Nicene Christianity]] against Arianism. The [[Cappadocian Fathers]] also took up the torch, their Trinitarian discourse was influential in the council at [[Constantinople]].
Up until about [[360]], theological debates mainly dealt with the [[Christology|Divinity of Jesus]], the 2nd person of the [[Trinity]]. However, because the Council of Nicaea had not clarified the divinity of the [[Holy Spirit]], the 3rd person of the Trinity, it became a target for [[heretics]]. The [[Macedonians (religious group)|Macedonians]] denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit. This was also known as [[Pneumatomachianism]].
==The proceedings==
[[Timothy of Alexandria]], [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Gregory Nazianzus]], and [[Nectarius of Constantinople]] successively presided. Gregory Nazianzus was appointed [[List of Patriarchs of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]], but soon resigned from the position a few months later, and Nectarius was then put in his place.
The council affirmed the [[Nicene_creed#The_original_Nicene_Creed_of_325|original Nicene creed]] of faith as true and an accurate explanation of Scripture. This council also developed a statement of faith which included the language of Nicea, but expanded the discussion on the Holy Spirit to combat heresies. It is called the [[Nicene_creed#The_Nicene_Creed_of_381|Nicene Creed of 381]] and was a commentary on the original Nicene formula. It expanded the 3rd article of the creed dealing with the [[Holy Spirit]], as well as some other changes, see [[Nicene_creed#Comparison_between_creed_of_325_and_creed_of_381]]. About the Holy Spirit the article of faith said he is "the Lord, the Giver of Life, Who proceeds from the Father, With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified". The statement of proceeding from the Father is seen as significant because it established that the Holy Spirit must be of the same essence ([[ousia]]) as [[God the Father]].
This Council's decision regarding the Holy Spirit also gave official endorsement to the concept of the [[Trinity]]. By the end of the 4th century, the [[Theodosius_I#Nicene_Christianity_becomes_the_state_religion|Byzantine Emperor Theodosius]] "issued a decree that the doctrine of the Trinity was to be the offical state religion and that all subjects shall adhere to it" (See [http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch24.htm "Constantine, the first Christian emperor," Antiquity Online])
Seven [[canon law|canon]]s, four of these doctrinal canons and three disciplinary canons, are attributed to the Council and accepted by both the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]]; the [[Roman Catholic|Roman Catholic Church]] accepts only the first four[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-59.htm#P3825_663549].
The first canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-60.htm#P3837_667000] is an important dogmatic condemnation of all shades of Arianism, also of Macedonianism and Apollinarianism.
The second canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3886_685104] renews the Nicene legislation imposing upon the bishops the observance of diocesan and patriarchal limits.
The famous third canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3914_689786] declares that because [[Constantinople]] is [[New Rome]] the bishop of that city should have a pre-eminence of honour after the Bishop of Old Rome. Baronius wrongly maintained the non-authenticity of this canon, while some medieval Greeks maintained (an equally erroneous thesis) that it declared the [[Bishop of Constantinople]] in all things the equal of the [[Bishop of Rome]]. The purely human reason of Rome's ancient authority, suggested by this canon, was never admitted by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], which always based its claim to supremacy on the [[Apostolic Succession|succession]] of [[St. Peter]]. Nor did Rome easily acknowledge this reordering of rank among the ancient [[patriarchate]]s of the East. It was rejected by the [[Papal Legate]]s at the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. [[Pope Leo the Great]] (Ep. cvi in P.L., LIV, 1003, 1005) declared that this canon has never been submitted to Rome and that it was a violation of the Nicene order. At the [[Fourth Council of Constantinople]] in 869 the Roman legates ([[J. D. Mansi]], XVI, 174) acknowledged Constantinople as second in patriarchal rank. In 1215, at the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] (op. cit., XXII, 991), this was formally admitted for the new Latin patriarch, and in 1439, at the [[Council of Florence]], for the Greek patriarch (Hefele-Leclercq, Hist. des Conciles, II, 25-27). The Roman correctores of Gratian (1582), at dist. xxii, c. 3, insert the words: "canon hic ex iis est quos apostolica Romana sedes a principio et longo post tempore non recipit."
The fourth canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3937_698189] declares invalid the consecration of [[Maximus of Constantinople]], the [[Cynic]] philosopher and rival of [[Gregory of Nazianzus]], as [[Bishop of Constantinople]].
The fifth canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3958_706331]
might have been passed the next year, 382, and is in regard to a ''Tome'' of the Western bishops, perhaps that of [[Pope Damasus I]].
The sixth canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3984_712263]
might belong to the year 382 as well and was passed at the [[Quinisext Council]] as #95 and limits the ability to accuse bishops of wrongdoing.
The seventh canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P4014_722138]
regards procedures for admiting heretics into ''orthodoxy''.
[[Pope Damasus I]] was not invited (or declined to attend), thus sometimes this council is called the unecumenical council. However, it was affirmed as ecumenical at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451.
==Aftermath==
This council effectively handled [[Arianism]] and it began to die out with more condemnations at a council by [[Ambrose of Milan]] in [[381]]. With the discussion of [[Trinitarian]] doctrine now developed and well under agreement to orthodox and Biblical understanding, it led to [[Christology]]. Christology would be the topic of the [[Council of Ephesus]] of 431 and the [[Council of Chalcedon]] of 451.
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04308a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: First Council of Constantinople]
[[category:patristics|Constantinople 1]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:381]]
[[Category:House of Theodosius]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Church councils]]
[[cs:1. konstantinopolský koncil]]
[[de:Er |
has far superior stopping power to most pistol cartridges. Additionally, with 20 and 30 round magazines, the firepower is dramatically preferable to a pistol.
=== Personal defense weapons ===
In both civilian use and among the military's lighter armored soldiers, it is common to use a carbine. However, due to some of the reasons mentioned elsewhere in this article, such as muzzle blast and recoil, these carbines are generally chambered in lighter rounds than some of their heavier (or shorter) counterparts. Due to the low wounding power of a single round, personal defense weapons depend on high volumes of fire for effectiveness. This may make such carbines successful in military use. In civilian use, where fully automatic fire is impractical or illegal, and shot placement is more critical, acceptance may be lower, as a pistol involves single shots. However, firing a pistol effectively at any significant range requires good training, since the absence of a buttstock makes precise ranged aim difficult.
=== Future acceptance and use ===
To what extent armies will adopt even lighter carbines, and to what extent they will be avoided has yet to be seen entirely. It is likely that harder hitting, or at least higher penetrating weapons will become more common, due to a rise in use of body armor making weaker weapons ineffective. Stacked against this is mainly the amount of urban warfare that is required, which favours lighter carbine weapons.
The modern usage of the term carbine covers much the same scope as it always had, of lighter weapons (generally rifles) with barrels of less than about 18 inches (460 mm). These weapons can be considered carbines, while rifles with barrels of 20 inches (510 mm) or more are generally not considered carbines unless specifically named so, and depending on the weapon power. Modern carbines are chambered in calibers from pistol calibers to full power rifle cartridges usually up to, but not including, the high velocity magnum rifle cartridges. In the more powerful cartridges, the short barrel of a carbine has significant disadvantages in velocity, and the high residual pressure when the bullet exits the barrel results in substantially greater [[Wiktionary:muzzle blast|muzzle blast]]. [[Flash suppressor]]s and [[Wiktionary:muzzle brake|muzzle brake]]s are common solutions to this problem, which may ease their acceptance.
For the military and security forces there is emerging a wide range of less than lethal PDW options. These range from [[taser]]s to microwave beam type weapons.
== Usage ==
=== Pistol caliber carbines ===
One of the more unusual classes of carbine is the pistol caliber carbine. These first appeared soon after metallic cartridges became common. These were developed as "companions" to the popular [[revolvers]] of the day, firing the same cartridge but allowing more velocity and accuracy than the revolver. These were carried by [[cowboys]], lawmen, and others in the [[Old West]]. The classic combination would be a [[Winchester rifle | Winchester]] lever action carbine and a [[Colt]] revolver in .44-40 or .45 Colt.
Modern equivalents also exist, such as the [[Ruger Police Carbine]], which uses the same magazine as the Ruger [[pistols]] of the same caliber. The [[Beretta Cx4 Storm]] shares magazines with many [[Beretta]] pistols, and shares its design with the [[Beretta Px4 Storm]] pistol. The recent introduction of such products may indicate that there is a growing demand for these companion carbines.
The primary advantage of a pistol caliber carbine, other than the usually-added buttstock or shoulder rest for increased accuracy, is the fact that in general a longer barrel will yield higher projectile velocity. This results in greater stopping power and increased ability to penetrate body armor. Additionally, many pistol calibers, such as .45 ACP, have much heavier projectiles, such as 230 grain (15 g), than rifles do, 55 grains (3.6 g) being common in 22-caliber rounds like .22-250 and .223.
===Ultra carbines===
Firearms with shoulder stocks and barrels less than 16 in (406 mm) in length are classified as "short barreled rifles" (under the US [[National Firearms Act]] or '''NFA'''), and are sometimes restricted in the same way that [[Sawn-off shotgun|sawed off shotgun]]s and [[machine gun]]s are. Because of this, rifles with barrels of less than 16 in (406 mm), or pistols with shoulder stocks, are rare. "Kits" exist which will convert a [[GLOCK]] pistol to a carbine.
=== Air carbines ===
In the world of [[airgun]]s, there is a small but growing class of what are also called "ultra carbines", that have extremely short barrels. These may be rifles with barrels cut down to as short as 8 inches (203 mm), or pistols converted into carbines with the addition of a shoulder stocks. These are generally not restricted legally in the same way some firearms are.
=== Other carbines ===
Another class of carbine is a semi-automatic version of a [[submachine gun]], with an extended barrel, just over 16 inches (406 mm) long, which will escape ban by some "assault weapon" legislation. While functionally identical to other carbines, these are banned in some places as "assault weapons" based on their cosmetic similarity to submachine guns. However, they may not accept certain parts (such as magazines or collapsing stocks) from the submachine guns they resemble. These are a popular compromise for (American) shooters who would like to own a submachine gun but cannot due to local restrictions or the prohibitive cost of buying a civilian legal submachine gun (since the end of the [[Federal assault weapons ban|Clinton assault weapons ban]], this has become less prohibitive). While these submachine gun lookalikes are acceptable for use for self defense, the media generally portrays them as being used for violent crime. As such, this may make them a poor choice for a personal defense weapon. This does not deter many of the more vocal proponents of personal defense firearms, who typically recommend a pistol and a higher power weapon, like a carbine or a [[shotgun]].
In some historical cases the term ''machine carbine'' was the official title for sub-machine guns. Examples are the [[Sten]] and [[Owen gun]]s. Equally to confuse the non-automatic version of the [[Sterling submachine gun]] was also a "Carbine".
== See also ==
* [[M1 Carbine]]
* [[M2 Carbine]]
* [[M3 Carbine]]
* [[M4 Carbine]]
* [[XM8 Carbine]]
* [[De Lisle carbine]]
[[Category:Rifles]]
[[bg:Карабина]]
[[da:Karabin]]
[[de:Karabiner]]
[[es:Carabina]]
[[he:קרבין]]
[[no:Karabin]]
[[pl:Karabinek (broń)]]
[[pt:Carabina]]
[[sl:Karabinka]]
[[sv:Karbin]]
[[zh:卡宾枪]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Concrete music</title>
<id>6581</id>
<revision>
<id>15904711</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-22T01:33:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Musique concrète]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese cuisine</title>
<id>6583</id>
<revision>
<id>42091068</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:43:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LDHan</username>
<id>734962</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Typical dishes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}
{{cookbook}}
'''Chinese cuisine''' is widely seen as representing one of the richest and most diverse culinary heritages in the [[world]]. It originated in different regions of [[China]] and has been introduced to other parts of the world — from [[Southeast Asia]] to [[North America]] and [[Western Europe]].
A meal in [[Chinese culture]] is typically seen as consisting of two general components: (1) a [[carbohydrate]] source or [[starch]], known as 主食 in the [[Chinese language]] (''zhǔshí'' <sup>[[Pinyin|?]]</sup> , ''lit.'' "main food", staple) — typically [[rice]], [[noodle]]s, or [[mantou]] (steamed buns), and (2) accompanying ''dishes'' of [[vegetable]]s, [[fish]], [[meat]], or other items, known as 菜 (''cài''<sup>[[Pinyin|?]]</sup> , ''lit.'' "vegetable") in the Chinese language. (This [[culture|cultural conceptualization]] is in some ways in contrast to [[Western cuisine|Western meals]] where [[meat]] or [[protein|animal protein]] is often considered the ''[[main course|main dish]]''.)
As is well known throughout the world, rice is a critical part of much of Chinese cuisine. However, in many parts of China, particularly [[North China]], [[wheat]]-based products including [[noodles]] and [[mantou|steamed buns]] (饅頭) predominate, in contrast to [[South China]] where rice is dominant. Despite the importance of rice in Chinese cuisine, at extremely formal occasions, it is sometimes the case that no rice at all will be served; in such a case, rice would only be provided when no other dishes remained. [[Soup]] is usually served at the end of a [[meal]] to satiate one's [[appetite]]. Owing to western influences, serving soup in the beginning of a meal is also quite normal in modern times.
[[Chopsticks]] are the primary [[eating utensil]] in Chinese culture for solid foods, while soups and other liquids are enjoyed {{ref|1}} with a wide, flat-bottomed [[spoon]] (traditionally made of [[ceramic]]). It is reported that wooden chopsticks are losing their dominance due to recent [[logging]] shortfalls in China and [[East Asia]]; many Chinese eating establishments are considering a switch to a more environmentally sustainable eating utensil, such as plastic chopsticks. On the other hand, disposable chopsticks made of wood/bamboo have all but replaced reusable ones in small resturants. In most dishes in Chinese cuisine, foods are prepared in small |
e. For the former mayor of [[Nepean]], see [[Ben Franklin (politician)]].''
[[Image:Benjamin Franklin by Jean-Baptiste Greuze.jpg|thumb|right|Benjamin Franklin by [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]] 1777]]
'''Benjamin Franklin''' ({{OldStyleDate|January 17|1706|January 6}} &ndash; [[April 17]] [[1790]]) was one of the most prominent of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founders]] and early [[Politics of the United States|political figures]] and [[statesman|statesmen]] of the [[United States]].
Considered the earliest of the Founders, Franklin was noted for his curiosity, ingenuity and diversity of interests. His wit and wisdom is proverbial to this day. As much as anyone else, he shaped the [[American Revolution]] despite never holding national elective office. As a leader of the [[Enlightenment]] he had the attention of scientists and intellectuals all across Europe. As an agent in [[London]] before the Revolution, and Minister to [[Early Modern France|France]] during, he more than anyone defined the new nation in the minds of Europe. His success in securing French military and financial aid was decisive for American victory over [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]]. He invented the [[lightning rod]]; he was an early proponent of [[Thirteen Colonies|colonial unity]]; historians hail him as the "First American". The city of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] marked Franklin's 300th birthday in January 2006 with a wide array of exhibitions, and events citing Franklin's extraordinary accomplishments throughout his illustrious career.
Born in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]] to a [[tallow|tallow-maker,]] Franklin learned printing from his older brother and became a newspaper editor, printer, and merchant in Philadelphia, becoming very wealthy. He spent many years in [[England]] and published the famous ''[[Poor Richard's Almanac|Poor Richard's Almanack]]'' and the ''[[Pennsylvania Gazette (newspaper)|Pennsylvania Gazette]]''. He formed both the first [[public library|public lending library]] and [[fire department]] in America as well as the [[Junto]], a political discussion club.
He became a [[national hero]] in America when he convinced [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] to repeal the unpopular [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]]. A diplomatic genius, Franklin was almost universally admired among the French as American minister to Paris, and was a major figure in the development of positive [[Franco-American relations]]. From 1775 to 1776, Franklin was [[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]] under the [[Continental Congress]] and from 1785 to his death in 1790 was [[Governor of Pennsylvania|President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania]].
Franklin was interested in [[science]] and [[technology]], carrying out his famous [[electricity]] [[experiment]]s and invented the [[Franklin stove]], medical [[catheter]], lightning rod, [[swimfin]]s, [[glass harmonica]], and [[bifocals]]. He also played a major role in establishing the higher education institutions that would become the [[Ivy League]]'s [[University of Pennsylvania]] and the [[Franklin and Marshall College]]. In addition, Franklin was a noted linguist, fluent in five languages. He also practiced and published on [[astrology]] (see ''[[Poor Richard's Almanac]]'').
Franklin was also noted for his [[philanthropy]] and several liaisons, including that which produced his illegitimate Loyalist son [[William Franklin]], later the [[governor of New Jersey|colonial governor]] of [[New Jersey]]. Towards the end of his life, he became one of the most prominent early American [[Abolitionism|abolitionists]]. Today Franklin is pictured on the U.S. [[U.S. one hundred-dollar bill|$100 bill]].
==Biography==
===Ancestry===
Franklin's father, Josiah Franklin, was born at [[Ecton]], [[Northamptonshire]], [[England]] on [[December 23]], [[1657]], the son of Thomas Franklin, a [[blacksmith]] and [[farmer]], and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in [[Nantucket]], [[Massachusetts]] on [[August 15]], [[1667]], to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife [[Mary Morrill]], a former [[indentured servant]].
Around 1677, Josiah married Anne Child at Ecton, and over the next few years had three children. These half-siblings of Benjamin Franklin included Elizabeth ([[March 2]], [[1678]]), Samuel ([[May 16]], [[1681]]), and Hannah ([[May 25]], [[1683]]).
Sometime during the second half of 1683, the Franklins left [[England]] for [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]. While in Boston, they had several more children, including Josiah Jr. ([[August 23]], [[1685]]), Ann ([[January 5]], [[1687]]), Joseph ([[February 5]], [[1688]]), and Joseph ([[June 30]], [[1689]]) (the first Joseph having died soon after birth).
Josiah's first wife Anne died in Boston on [[July 9]], [[1689]]. He married to Abiah Folger on [[November 25]], [[1689]] in the [[Old South Church, Boston, Massachusetts|Old South Church]] of Boston by the Rev. Samuel Willard.
Josiah and Abiah had the following children: John ([[December 7]], [[1690]]), Peter ([[November 22]],[[1692]]), Mary ([[September 26]], [[1694]]), James ([[February 4]], [[1697]]), Sarah ([[July 9]], [[1699]]), Ebenezer ([[September 20]], [[1701]]), Thomas ([[December 7]], [[1703]]), '''Benjamin''' ([[January 17]], [[1706]]), Lydia ([[August 8]], [[1708]]), and Jane ([[March 27]], [[1712]]).
===Early life===
[[Image:Autograph of Benjamin Franklin (from Nordisk familjebok).png|thumb|300px|Autograph of Benjamin Franklin]]
Benjamin Franklin was born on Milk Street in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] on [[January 17]], [[1706]] [http://www.alumni.upenn.edu/club/benbday/birthdate.html]. His father, Josiah Franklin, was a [[tallow]] chandler, a maker of candles and soap, whose second wife was Benjamin's mother. Josiah's marriages produced 17 children; Benjamin was the fifteenth and youngest son. He attended [[Boston Latin School]] but did not graduate. His schooling ended at ten, then worked for his father, and at 12 he became an [[apprenticeship|apprentice]] to his brother James, a printer who published the ''New England Courant'', [[History of American newspapers|the first truly independent newspaper in the colonies.]] While a printing apprentice, he wrote under the pseudonym of 'Silence Dogood' who was ostensibly a middle-aged widow. His brother and the Courant's readers did not initially know the real author. James was not impressed when he discovered his popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin left his apprenticeship without permission and in so doing became a fugitive.
At the age of 17, Franklin ran away to [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived he worked in several printer shops around town. However, he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects. After a few months, while working in a printing house, Franklin was induced by Pennsylvania Governor Sir William Keith to go to [[London, England|London]], ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Finding Keith's promises of backing a newspaper to be empty, Franklin worked as a [[compositor]] in a printer's shop in what is now the Church of St Batholomew the Great, Smithfield. Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of a merchant named Thomas Denham, who gave Franklin a position as clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in Denham's merchant business.
Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade. By 1730, Franklin had set up a printing house of his own and had contrived to become the [[History of American newspapers|publisher of a newspaper called "The Pennsylvania Gazette".]] The Gazette gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations. Over time, his commentary, together with a great deal of savvy about cultivating a positive image of an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect. Even after Franklin had achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he would habitually sign his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer'.
Franklin was initiated into the local [[Freemason]] lodge in 1731 (new style), and became grand master in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Philadelphia.[http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/franklin_b/franklin_b.html] He edited and published the first Masonic book in America, a reprint of [[James Anderson]]'s [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/25/ The Constitutions of the Free-Masons] that same year. He remained a Freemason for the rest of his life.
===Deborah Read===
In 1724, while a boarder in the Read home, Franklin had courted [[Deborah Read]] before going to London at Governor Keith's request. At that time, Miss Read's mother was wary of allowing her daughter to wed a seventeen-year old who was on his way to London. Her own husband having recently died, Mrs. Read declined Franklin's offer of marriage.
While Franklin was finding himself in London, Deborah married a man named John Rodgers. This proved to be a regrettable decision. Rodgers shortly avoided his debts and prosecution by fleeing to [[Barbados]], leaving Deborah behind. With Rodgers' fate unknown, and bigamy an offense punishable by [[Flagellation|public whipping]] and [[prison|imprisonment]], Deborah was not free to remarry.
Franklin himself had his own actions to ponder. In 1730, Franklin acknowledged an illegitimate son named [[William Franklin|William]], who eventually became the last Loyalist governor of [[New Jersey]]. While the identity of William's mother remains unknown, perhaps the responsibility of an infant child gave Franklin a reason to take up residence with Deborah Read. William would be raised in the Franklin household but eventually broke with his father |
e_insert(node.left, key, value), node.key, node.value, node.right)
'''else''':
'''return''' TreeNode(node.left, node.key, node.value, binary_tree_insert(node.right, key, value))
The part that is rebuilt uses &Theta;(log ''n'') space in the average case and &Omega;(''n'') in the worst case (see [[big-O notation]]).
In either version, this operation requires time proportional to the height of the tree in the worst case, which is [[Big O notation|O]](log ''n'') time in the average case over all trees, but &Omega;(''n'') time in the worst case.
Another way to explain insertion is that in order to insert a new node in the tree, its value is first compared with the value of the root. If its value is less than the root's, it is then compared with the value of the root's left child. If its value is greater, it is compared with the root's right child. This process continues, until the new node is compared with a leaf node, and then it is added as this node's right or left child, depending on its value.
=== Deletion ===
There are several cases to be considered:
* '''Deleting a leaf:''' Deleting a node with no children is easy, as we can simply remove it from the tree.
* '''Deleting a node with one child:''' Delete it and replace it with its child.
* '''Deleting a node with two children:''' Suppose the node to be deleted is called ''N''. We replace the value of N with either its in-order successor (the left-most child of the right subtree) or the in-order predecessor (the right-most child of the left subtree).
<center>
[[Image:binary_search_tree_delete.svg|Deleting a node with two children from a binary search tree]]
</center>
Once we find either the in-order successor or predecessor, swap it with N, and then delete it. Since either of these nodes must have less than two children (otherwise it cannot be the in-order successor or predecessor), it can be deleted using the previous two cases. In a good implementation, it is generally recommended to avoid consistently using one of these nodes, because this can unbalance the tree.
Here is C++ sample code for a destructive version of deletion (we assume the node to be deleted has already been located using search):
'''void''' DeleteNode(struct node*& node) {
'''if''' (node->left == '''NULL''') {
delete node;
node = node->right;
} '''else if''' (node->right == '''NULL''') {
delete node;
node = node->left;
} '''else''' {
''// Node has two children - get max of left subtree''
struct node*& temp = node->left;
'''while''' (temp->right != '''NULL''') {
temp = temp->right;
}
node->value = temp->value;
DeleteNode(temp);
}
}
Although this operation does not always traverse the tree down to a leaf, this is always a possibility; thus in the worst case, it requires time proportional to the height of the tree. It does not require more even when the node has two children, since it still follows a single path and visits no node twice.
=== Traversal ===
Once the binary search tree has been created, its elements can be retrieved [[in-order traversal|in order]] by recursively traversing the left subtree, visiting the root, then recursively traversing the right subtree. The tree may also be traversed in [[pre-order traversal|pre order]] or [[post-order traversal|post order]] traversals.
<pre>
def traverse_binary_tree(treenode):
if treenode is None: return
left, nodevalue, right = treenode
traverse_binary_tree(left)
visit(nodevalue)
traverse_binary_tree(right)
</pre>
Traversal requires &Omega;(''n'') time, since it must visit every node. This algorithm is also O(''n''), and so asymptotically optimal.
=== Sort ===
A binary search tree can be used to implement a simple but inefficient [[sort algorithm]]. Similar to [[insertion sort]], we insert all the values we wish to sort into a new ordered data structure, in this case a binary search tree, then traverse it in order, building our result:
<pre>
def build_binary_tree(values):
tree = None
for v in values:
tree = binary_tree_insert(tree, v)
return tree
def traverse_binary_tree(treenode):
if treenode is None: return []
else:
left, value, right = treenode
return (traverse_binary_tree(left) + [value] + traverse_binary_tree(right))
</pre>
The worst-case time of <tt>build_binary_tree</tt> is &Omega;(''n''<sup>2</sup>) &mdash; if you feed it a sorted list of values, it chains them into a [[linked list]] with no left subtrees. For example, <tt>build_binary_tree</tt>([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) yields the tree (None, 1, (None, 2, (None, 3, (None, 4, (None, 5, None))))).
There are a variety of schemes for overcoming this flaw with simple binary trees; the most common is the [[self-balancing binary search tree]]. If this same procedure is done using such a tree, the overall worst-case time is [[Big O notation|O]](''n''log ''n''), which is [[asymptotically optimal]] for a [[comparison sort]]. In practice, the poor cache performance and added overhead in time and space for a tree-based sort (particularly for node allocation) makes it inferior to other asymptotically optimal sorts such as [[quicksort]] and [[heapsort]] for static list sorting. On the other hand, it is one of the most efficient methods of ''incremental sorting'', adding items to a list over time while keeping the list sorted at all times.
== Types of binary search trees ==
There are many types of binary search trees. [[AVL tree]]s and [[red-black tree]]s are both forms of [[self-balancing binary search tree]]s. A [[splay tree]] is a binary search tree that automatically moves frequently accessed elements nearer to the root. In a [[treap]] ("tree [[heap (data structure)|heap]]"), each node also holds a priority and the parent node has higher priority than its children.
=== Optimal binary search trees ===
If we don't plan on modifying a search tree, and we know exactly how often each item will be accessed, we can construct an '''optimal binary search tree''', which is a search tree where the average cost of looking up an item (the ''expected search cost'') is minimized.
Assume that we know the elements and that for each element, we know the proportion of future lookups which will be looking for that element. We can then use a [[dynamic programming]] solution, detailed in section 15.5 of ''Introduction to Algorithms'', to construct the tree with the least possible expected search cost.
Even if we only have estimates of the search costs, such a system can considerably speed up lookups on average. For example, if you have a BST of English words used in a [[spell checker]], you might balance the tree based on word frequency in text corpuses, placing words like "the" near the root and words like "agerasia" near the leaves. Such a tree might be compared with [[Huffman tree]]s, which similarly seek to place frequently-used items near the root in order to produce a dense information encoding; however, Huffman trees only store data elements in leaves.
== See also ==
* [[data structure]]
* [[Trie]]
* [[Hash table]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.goletas.com/solutions/collections/ Iterative Implementation of Binary Search Trees in C#]
*[http://cslibrary.stanford.edu/110/ An introduction to binary trees from Stanford]
*[http://www.bitesizeinc.net/power.programming.binary.tree.html Power Programming - Binary Tree]
*[http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/binarySearchTree.html Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures - Binary Search Tree]
*[http://aspn.activestate.com/ASPN/Cookbook/Python/Recipe/286239 Binary Search Tree Example in Python]
== References ==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.2.2: Binary Tree Searching, pp.426&ndash;458.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 12: Binary search trees, pp.253&ndash;272. Section 15.5: Optimal binary search trees, pp.356&ndash;363.
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
[[Category:Sort algorithms]]
[[da:Binært søgetræ]]
[[de:Binärer Suchbaum]]
[[es:Árbol binario de búsqueda]]
[[fr:Arbre binaire de recherche]]
[[he:עץ חיפוש]]
[[ja:2分探索木]]
[[pl:Drzewo poszukiwań binarnych]]
[[pt:Árvore de busca binária]]
[[ru:Двоичное дерево поиска]]
[[uk:Бінарне дерево пошуку]]
[[zh:二元搜尋樹]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Binary tree</title>
<id>4321</id>
<revision>
<id>41793611</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:14:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rspeer</username>
<id>84458</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv tests</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], a '''binary tree''' is a [[tree data structure|tree]] [[data structure]] in which each node has at most two [[child node|children]]. Typically the child nodes are called ''left'' and ''right''. One common use of binary trees is [[binary search tree]]s; another is [[binary heap]]s.
[[Image:binary_tree.svg|right|192|thumb|A simple binary tree of size 9 and depth 3, with a root node whose value is 2]]
==Definitions for rooted trees==
A directed edge connects the [[Parent node|parent]] to the [[Child node|child]].
A node that has no children is called a [[Leaf node|leaf]].
The '''depth''' of a node n is the length of the path from the root to the node. The set of all nodes at a given depth is sometimes called a '''level''' of the tree.
The '''height''' of a node n is the length of the path from the node n to its furthest leaf.
Nodes t |
lin and his contemporaries.
* The [[Franklin Templeton Investments]] firm (originally Franklin Distributors, Inc.) was named in honor of Benjamin Franklin and uses his [[portrait]] in their [[logo]].
* Franklin was summoned via [[witchcraft]] into the [[twentieth century]] for a 2-part episode on the TV show ''[[Bewitched]]''.
* The [[children's literature|children's novel]], ''[[Qwerty Stevens: Stuck in Time with Benjamin Franklin]]'', has the main characters using their [[time travel|time machine]] to bring Ben Franklin into modern times and then to travel back with him to [[1776]].
* A [[1992]] [[Saturday Night Live]] [[parody|spoof]] of ''[[Quantum Leap]]'', "Founding Fathers", had Ben Franklin traveling through time with [[George Washington]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]] to help modern day Americans with [[deficit]] reduction, only to find twentieth century [[reporters]] are only interested in [[scandal]] and [[sensationalism]].
* The science-fiction TV show ''[[Voyagers!]]'' had the main characters helping Ben Franklin fly his [[kite flying|kite]] in one episode and save his mother from a fictionalized [[salem witch trials|Salem Witch Trial]] in the next episode.
* Comedian [[Stephen Colbert]] interviewed Franklin on his March 1, 2006 show, questioning him about his national bird proposal, his inventions, how he died, and whether he took money from [[Jack Abramoff]].
==See also==
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[List of places named for Benjamin Franklin]]
==References==
===Secondary sources===
*Douglas Anderson. ''The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin'' (1997). BF in terms of intellectual history
*[http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, "Franklin"]. Biography written in 1931, with links to sources.
*H. W. Brands. ''The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin'' (2000)
*M. H. Buxbaum., ed. ''Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin'' (1987).
*[[I. Bernard Cohen|I. Bernard Cohen]]. ''Benjamin Franklin's Science'' (1990). One of several books by Cohen on Franklin's science.
*Paul W. Conner. ''Poor Richard's Politicks'' (1965). Analyzes BF's ideas in terms of the Enlightenment
*[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0057-169 "Franklin as Printer and Publisher"] in ''The Century'' (April 1899) v. 57 pp. 803-18. By Paul Leicester Ford.
*[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0058-172 "Franklin as Scientist"] in ''The Century'' (Sept 1899) v.57 pp. 750-63. By Paul Leicester Ford.
*[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0058-201 "Franklin as Politician and Diplomatist"] in ''The Century'' (Oct 1899) v. 57 pp. 881-899. By Paul Leicester Ford.
*Walter Isaacson. ''Benjamin Franklin: An American Life'' (2002). Popular biography.
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=34300175 Ralph L. Ketcham, ''Benjamin Franklin'' (1966)] Short biography.
*Edmund S. Morgan. ''Benjamin Franklin'' (2003). Short introduction to Franklin.
*Stacy Schiff. ''A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America'' (2005)
*[http://www.bartleby.com/225/index.html#6 Stuart Sherman "Franklin" ] 1918 article on Franklin's writings.
*Carl Van Doren. ''Benjamin Franklin'' (1938; reprinted 1991). Biography.
*Gordon Wood, ''The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin'' (2005). Interpretive essay.
*Blaine McCormick, editor, ''Ben Franklin: America's Original Entrepreneur -- Franklin's Autobiography for Modern Times'' (2005). The only modern adaptation of Franklin's original 18th-century Autobiography.
===Primary sources===
*''Benjamin Franklin Reader'' edited by Walter Isaacson (2003)
*''Writings'' (The Library of America edition) (1987), available online at [http://www.infomotions.com/etexts/literature/american/1700-1799/]
*[http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/index.html] Leonard Labaree, et al., eds., ''The Papers of Benjamin Franklin'', 37 vols. to date (1959-2003), definitive edition, through 1781. This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in large academic libraries. It is most useful for detailed research on specific topics. [http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/indexintro.html] The ''Index'' is online.
*"''[[The Way to Wealth]]''." Applewood Books; November 1986. ISBN 0918222885
*"''[[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin]]''." Dover Pubns; June 7, 1996. ISBN 0486290735
*"''[[Poor Richard's Almanack]]''." Peter Pauper Press; November 1983. ISBN 0880889187
* ''Poor Richard Improved'' by Benjamin Franklin (1751)
*"''[[The Poetry of Minor Connecticut Wits]]''." Scholars Facsimilies & Reprint; September 2000. ISBN 0820110663
*"''[[Writings (Franklin)|Writings]]''." ISBN 0940450291
*"''[[On Marriage]]''."
*"''[[Satires and Bagatelles]]''."
*"''[[A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain]]''."
*"''[[Fart Proudly: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School]]''." Carl Japikse, Ed. Frog Ltd.; Reprint ed. May, 2003. ISBN 1583940790
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Benjamin Franklin}}
*{{gutenberg author| id=Benjamin+Franklin | name=Benjamin Franklin}}
*[http://literalsystems.org/abooks/doku.php?id=audiobook:dialogue_between_franklin_and_the_gout "Dialogue Between Franklin and the Gout" Creative Commons audio recording.]
*[http://www.benfranklin300.com/ Benjamin Franklin 300 (1706 - 2006)] - The official web site of the Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary.
*[http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm Guide to Benjamin Franklin]
*[http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/thumbnail15.html Portrait of Benjamin Franklin (PD)] ([http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/fi/0000000f.htm large version])
*[http://www.pbs.org/benfranklin/ Website for PBS Franklin Television Series]
*[http://www.aip.org/history/gap/ Published physics papers - Letter IV: Farther Experiments and Observations in Electricitry and Letter XI]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ar/14308.htm US State Department - Benjamin Franklin: First American Diplomat]
*[http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/fellows/bob_morse_04/ A Comprehensive Collection of Franklin&#8217;s Electrical Works: The Electrical Writings of Benjamin Franklin, Created and Collected by Robert A. Morse (2004)]
*[http://www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org The website of Benjamin Franklin House, 36 Craven Street, London, his only surviving residence which is now being converted into a Franklin museum and study-centre]
*e-texts of Benjamin Franklin's autobiography
**[http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography/ HTML version] at [http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/ The Electric Ben Franklin]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/148 Project Gutenberg edition]
**[http://www.ftrain.com/franklin_improving_self.html Franklins list of 13 virtues]
*[http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=4994 Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790), ''The Literary Encyclopedia'']
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Franklin_Benjamin}}
*[http://www.planetware.com/boston/ben-franklin-birthplace-us-ma-ben.htm Franklin's birthplace with map]
*[http://ben.clusty.com/ Ben Franklin web portal] at Clusty.com
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/25/ The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1734). An Online Electronic Edition.] Edited and published by Franklin the year he became Grand Master of Masons of Pennsylvania
*[http://www.english.udel.edu/lemay/franklin/ Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History] by J. A. Leo Lemay
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=None | title=[[Postmaster General of the United States]]<br>''Under the Continental Congress'' | years=1775&ndash;1776 | after=[[Richard Bache]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[John Dickinson (1732-1808)|John Dickinson]] | title=[[List of Governors of Pennsylvania|Presidents of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania]] | years=1785&ndash;1790 | after=none}}
{{end box}}
<!--[[Image:Benjaminfranklin.jpg|thumb|240px|Portrait of Benjamin Franklin]]-->
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[[zh:本傑明·富蘭克林]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Banach space</title>
<id>3989</id>
<revision>
<id>42055826</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:23:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Buster79</username>
<id>307253</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Relationship to Hilbert spaces */ changed a semicolon and a comma to a pair of em dashes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Banach spaces''', named after [[Stefan Banach]] who studied them, are one of the central objects of study in [[functional analysis]]. Many of the infinite-dimensional [[function space]]s studied in functional analysis are examples of Banach spaces.
== Definition ==
Banach spaces are defined as [[completeness (topology)|complete]] [[normed vector space]]s. This means that a Banach space is a [[vector space]] ''V'' over the [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] numbers with a [[nor |
ck to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam [[locomotive]] were on waggon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century. Steam-hauled public railways began with the [[Liverpool and Manchester]] and [[Stockton and Darlington]] Railways of the late 1820s. The construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the Industrial Revolution.
After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles, but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.
==Social effects==
The industrial revolution led to a number of social problems within the newly developed [[working class]]. Children worked under miserable conditions and the families lived in [[slum|bad housing]].
===Child labour===
[[Child labour]] existed before the Industrial Revolution, and in fact dates back to [[prehistoric times]], but during the Industrial Revolution it grew far more abusive than ever before.[http://www.galbithink.org/child.htm] Politicians tried to limit child labour by law. Factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children work from the age of five years onward, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In [[1833]], the first [[law]] against child labour, the [[Factory Act of 1833]], was passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory [[inspector]]s supervised the execution of this law. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws improved the situation; however child labour remained a problem in [[Europe]] up to the 20th century.
===Housing situation===
[[image:Glasgow-slum.png|thumb|200px|Slum in [[Glasgow]], 1871]]
In 1832, James Phillips Kay, an Edinburgh doctor, published a detailed report on the working conditions of the poor and describes worker's housing establishments as follows: <br>
:''Here, without distinction of age or sex, careless of all decency, they are crowded in small and wretched apartments; the same bed receiving a succession of tenants until too offensive for their unfastidious senses.'' <sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup><br>
In 1842, a Sanitary Report was produced by Edwin Chadwick:<br>
:"In a cellar in Pendleton, I recollect there were three beds in the two apartments of which the habitation consisted, but having no door between them, in one of which a man and his wife slept; in another, a man, his wife and child; and in a third two unmarried females.(...)I have met with upwards of 40 persons sleeping in the same room, married and single, including, of course, children and several young adult persons of either sex."
===Luddites===
{{main|Luddite}}
The rapid industrialization of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The textile industry in particular industrialized early, and many weavers found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers and others, turned their animousity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of [[Ned Ludd]], a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in [[1811]]. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government had to take drastic measures to protect industry.
===Organization of labour===
:''See also [[History of the labour movement|Labour history]]''
Conditions for the working class were so bad during the industrial revolution, unions were formed to help protect the rights of the working man. The main method the unions used to effect change was [[strike action]]. Strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. The management was upset because strikes took their precious working force away for a large period of time, and the unions had to deal with riot police and various middle class prejudices that striking workers were the same as criminals, as well as loss of income. The strikes often led to violent and bloody clashes between police and workers. Factory managers usually reluctantly gave in to various demands made by strikers, but the conflict was generally long standing.
In England, the [[Combination Laws|Combination Act]] forbade workers to form any kind of trade union from [[1799]] until its repeal in [[1824]]. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted.
In 1842, Cotton Workers in England staged a widespread strike.
===Other effects===
[[Image:graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_01.png|right|thumb|300px]]
[[Image:Global Carbon Emission by Type.png|right|thumb|300px|Roughly exponential increase in carbon dioxide emissions from [[fossil fuels]], driven by increasing energy demands since the Industrial Revolution]]
The application of steam power to the industrial processes of [[printing]] supported a massive expansion of [[newspaper]] and popular [[book]] [[publishing]], which reinforced rising [[literacy]] and demands for mass political participation. Universal white male [[suffrage]] was adopted in the United States, resulting in the election of the popular [[Andrew Jackson]] in 1828 and the creation of political parties organised for mass participation in elections. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Reform Act 1832]] addressed the concentration of population in districts with almost no representation in Parliament, expanding the electorate, leading to the founding of modern political parties and initiating a series of reforms which would continue into the 20th century. In France, the [[July Revolution]] widened the franchise and established a [[constitutional monarchy]]. Belgium established its independence from the [[Netherlands]], as a constitutional monarchy, in 1830. Struggles for liberal reforms in [[Switzerland]]'s various cantons in the 1830s had mixed results. A further series of attempts at political reform or revolution would sweep Europe in 1848, with mixed results, and initiated massive migration to North America, as well as parts of South America, [[South Africa]], and [[Australia]]. The mass migration of rural families into urban areas saw the growth of bad living conditions in cities, long work hours without the traditional agricultural breaks (such as after harvest or in mid winter), a rise in child labour (the children received less pay and benefits than adults) and the rise of nationalism in most of Europe. The increase in coal usage saw a massive increase in atmospheric pollution.
The Industrial Revolution had significant impacts on the structure of society. Prior to its rise, the [[Public sphere|public]] and [[private sphere]]s held strong overlaps; work was often conducted through the home, and thus was shared in many cases by both a wife and her husband. However, during this period the two began to separate, with work and home life considered quite distinct from one another. This shift made it necessary for one partner to maintain the home and care for children. Women, holding the distinction of being able to [[breastfeeding|breastfeed]], thus more often maintained the home, with men making up a sizeable fraction of the workforce. With much of the family income coming from men, then, their power in relation to women increased further, with the latter often dependent on men's income. This had enormous impacts on the defining of [[gender role]]s and was effectively the model for what was later termed the [[traditional family]].
However, the need for a large workforce also pressured many women into industrial work, where they were often paid much less in relation to men. This was in large part due to a lack of organised labour among women to push for benefits and wage increases, and in part to ensure women's continued dependence on a man's income to survive.
==Intellectual paradigms==
===Capitalist===
{{main|Capitalism}}
The advent of [[The Enlightenment]] provided an intellectual framework which welcomed the practical application of the growing body of scientific knowledge &mdash; a factor evidenced in the systematic development of the steam engine, guided by scientific analysis, and the development of the political and [[sociology|sociological]] analyses, culminating in [[Adam Smith]]'s [[The Wealth of Nations]].
==Criticism==
===Marxism===
{{main|Marxism}}
[[Karl Marx]] saw the industrialization process as the logical [[dialectics|dialectical]] progression of feudal economic modes, necessary for the full development of [[capitalism]], which he saw as in itself a necessary precursor to the development of [[socialism]] and eventually [[communism]]. According to Marx, industrialization polarizes societies into the [[bourgeoisie]] (those who own the [[means of production]], e.g., the factories and land) and the much larger [[proletariat]] (the working class who actually perform the [[labour (economics)|labour]] necessary to extract something valuable from the means of production). Marx asserts that the relationship between the two classes is fundamentally parasitic, insofar as the proletariat are always undercompensated for the true value of their labour by the bourgeoisie (according to the [[labour theory of value]]), which allows the bourgeoisie to grow absurdly wealthy through nothing more than the wholesale exploitation of the proletarians' labour.
Rapid advancements in technology left many skilled workers unemployed, as one agricultural and manufacturing task after another was mechanized. The flig |
uld leave. When he left, Dickens saw him off from [[Ramsgate]] pier. Shortly thereafter Dickens published ''David Copperfield,'' in which the character [[Uriah Heep (fictional character)|Uriah Heep]] is said to have been modelled on Andersen&mdash;a backhanded compliment, to put it mildly.
Andersen continued to publish many works, although still hoping to excel as both [[novelist]] and [[dramatist]], but was unsuccessful in the attempt. He disdained the enchanting ''Fairy Tales'', the composition of which had proved his unique genius. He did, however, continue to write them, and two more collections appeared in 1847 and 1848. After a long silence, Andersen published a new novel ''[[To be or not to be (novel)|To be or not to be]]'' in 1857. He continued publishing his ''Fairy Tales'' in instalments, until 1872. He published his last stories at [[Christmas]] this year.
In the English-speaking world, the stories of ''[[The Ugly Duckling]],'' ''[[The Emperor's New Clothes]],'' and ''[[The Princess and the Pea]]'' are cultural universals; everyone knows them, though few can name the author. They have become part of our common heritage, and, like the tales of [[Charles Perrault]], are no longer distinguished from actual folk-tales such as those of the [[Brothers Grimm]]. Andersen himself was highly inspired by the [[Arabian Nights]]. A few of his stories such as [http://www.pacificnet.net/~johnr/cgi/aesop1.cgi?hca&a126 "The Wild Swans"] and [http://www.pacificnet.net/~johnr/cgi/aesop1.cgi?hca&a24 The Rose-Elf] are adaptations of older folktales (for example, "The Wild Swans" might be a retelling of [http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~wbarker/fairies/grimm/049.html The Six Swans] as recorded by the Brothers Grimm.)
Andersen is often categorised as an author writing for children. However, he did not like to be stereotyped. The overall character of Andersen's stories is dark, sometimes even cruel, and redemption often comes at a high price. One of his famous stories, [[The Ugly Duckling]], is a story that Anderson explained in his personal correspondence as a story that could be generalized broadly. In particular, he was writing the story as a tribute to those who like himself had (what were regarded at the time as) 'deviant' sexual feelings. There is, therefore, nothing 'innocent' or 'pure' about his stories. In that vein, Linda de Haan and Stern Nijland claim to have been inspired by H.C. Anderson's story of the Ugly Duckling in their controversial work "[[King and King]]".
== Fairy tales ==
Some of his most famous fairy tales include:
* [[The Angel]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheAngel_e.html]
* [[The Bell (fairy tale)|The Bell]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheBell_e.html]
* [[The Emperor's New Clothes]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheEmperorsNewClothes_e.html]
* [[The Fir Tree]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheFirTree_e.html]
* [[The Happy Family]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheHappyFamily_e.html]
* [[The Little Match Girl]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheLittleMatchGirl_e.html]
* [[The Little Mermaid]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheLittleMermaid_e.html]
* [[Little Tuk]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/LittleTuck_e.html]
* [[The Nightingale]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheNightingale_e.html]
* [[The Old House]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheOldHouse_e.html]
* [[Ole Lukoie]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/OleLukoie_e.html]
* [[The Princess and the Pea]] (also known as ''The Real Princess'') [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/ThePrincessOnThePea_e.html]
* [[The Red Shoes (fairy tale)|The Red Shoes]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheRedShoes_e.html]
* [[The Shadow (fairy tale)|The Shadow]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheShadow_e.html]
* [[The Snow Queen]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheSnowQueen_e.html]
* [[The Steadfast Tin Soldier]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheSteadfastTinSoldier_e.html]
* [[The Story of a Mother]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheStoryOfAMother_e.html]
* [[The Swineherd]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheSwineherd_e.html]
* [[Thumbelina]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/Thumbelina_e.html]
* [[The Ugly Duckling]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheUglyDuckling_e.html]
* [[The Wild Swans]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheWildSwans_e.html]
== Naming conventions ==
Most English (as well as German and French) sources use the name "Hans Christian Andersen", but in [[Denmark]] and the rest of [[Scandinavia]] he is usually referred to as merely "H. C. Andersen" (pronounced as ''Ho Say Andersen''). His name ''Hans Christian'' is a traditional Danish name (and is used as a single name, though originally a combination of two individual names. It is incorrect to use only one of the two parts.) It is an accepted custom in Denmark to use only the initials in this and a few other names (other examples include ''H.P.'', short for ''Hans Peter'' and ''J.C.'' short for ''Jens Christian''). This tradition is as strong as the American "middle initial".
== Miscellaneous trivia ==
H.C. Andersen is also a Finnish band. Its name is a [[pun]]: They play hardcore-[[punk rock|punk]] and hardcore is often abbreviated "HC".
== Bibliography==
* Jackie Wullschläger ''Hans Christian Andersen. The Life of a Storyteller'', Penguin, 2000, ISBN 014028320X
== External links ==
{{wikiquote|Hans Christian Andersen}}
{{wikisourcepar|Author:Hans Christian Andersen|Hans Christian Andersen}}
{{commons|Hans Christian Andersen}}
*{{imdb name|id=0026153|name=Hans Cristian Andersen}}
* [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/index_e.html The Hans Christian Andersen Center] - contains many Andersen's stories in Danish and English
* [http://dr.dk/hcandersen Hans Christian Andersen Bicentenary Website] from [http://dr.dk Danish Broadcasting Corp. (DR)]- Internationally acclaimed and award-winning website that features countless audio fairytales and interactive, multimedia features in Danish and English
* [http://www.hca2005.com/ Official web site] of the Hans Christian Andersen 2005 Bicentenary Festival.
* [http://www.hcandersen-homepage.dk/ Hans Christian Andersen Information] (mainly in Danish) contains information about his life, childhood home, Hans Christian Andersen House and museum, fairy tales and stories, literary activities, drawings, papercuts and picture pages.
* The [http://www.omsd.dk/themes/hc_andersen_uk/uk_hc_andersen_main_frame.htm Orders and Medals Society of Denmark] has descriptions of Hans Christian Andersen's Medals and Decorations.
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/04/arts/04hans.html And the cobbler's son became a princely author] Details of Andersen's life and the celebrations.
* [http://andersen.com.ua/ Hans Christian Andersen Fairy Tales] in [http://andersen.com.ua/english.html English], [http://andersen.com.ua/russian.html Russian] and [http://andersen.com.ua/ukrainian.html Ukrainian]
* [http://hca.gilead.org.il/ Hans Christian Andersen: Fairytales and Stories] Text of most of Andersen's fairy tales, with an extensive introduction and art based on Andersen's papercuts.
* [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ Free audio recording] of ''[[The Little Match Girl]]'' from [http://www.librivox.org Librivox]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Hans_Christian_Andersen|name=Hans Christian Andersen}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Huckleberry</title>
<id>13551</id>
<revision>
<id>40608883</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T20:22:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BorgHunter</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Huckleberry.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Wild huckleberry in the [[Mount Hood National Forest]]. The floral remnants, signifying a [[false berry]], are visible on the apex of the fruit.]]
'''Huckleberry''' is a name used in [[North America]] for several [[plant]]s in two closely related genera in the family [[Ericaceae]], ''[[Gaylussacia]]'' and ''[[Vaccinium]]''.
While some ''Vaccinium'' species, such as the '''Red Huckleberry''', are always called huckleberries, other species may be called [[blueberry|blueberries]] or huckleberries depending upon local custom. Similar ''Vaccinium'' species in [[Europe]] are called [[bilberry|bilberries]].
Note that there is much confusion in naming of berries in [[American English]]. Huckleberry is also sometimes used for the unrelated ''[[Solanum]] melanocerasum'' (garden huckleberry), which is a small annual bush |
l [[6 December]] [[1922]], Ireland was part of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. During the [[Irish Potato Famine|Great Potato Famine]] in 1845-1849 the island's population of over 8 million fell by 30%. 1 million Irish died of starvation, another 1.5 million were forced to emigrate, which set the emigration pattern for the century to come and would result in a constant decline up to the 1960s. From [[1874]], but particularly from [[1880]] under [[Charles Stewart Parnell]], the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] moved to prominence with its attempts to achieve [[Home Rule]], which would have given Ireland some autonomy without requiring it to leave the United Kingdom. It seemed possible in [[1911]] when the [[House of Lords]] lost their veto, and [[John Redmond]] secured the Third [[Home Rule Act 1914]]. The [[unionist]] movement, however, had been growing since [[1886]] among Irish [[Protestant]]s, fearing that they would face discrimination, and lose economic and social privileges if Irish [[Catholics]] were to achieve real political power. Though Irish unionism existed throughout the whole of Ireland, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century unionism was particularly strong in parts of [[Ulster]], where industrialisation was more common in contrast to the more agrarian rest of the island. (Any tariff barriers would, it was feared, most heavily hit that region.) In addition, the Protestant population was more strongly located in Ulster, with unionist majorities existing in about four counties. Under the leadership of the [[Dublin]]-born [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] and the northerner [[James Craig|Sir James Craig]] they became more militant. In [[1914]], to avoid rebellion in Ulster, the British [[Prime Minister]] [[Herbert Asquith]], with agreement of the leadership of the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] leadership, inserted a clause into the bill providing for home rule for 26 of the 32 counties, with an as of yet undecided new set of measures to be introduced for the area temporarily excluded. Though it received the [[Royal Assent]], the Third [[Home Rule Act 1914]]'s implementation was suspended until after the [[World War I|Great War]]. (The war at that stage was expected to be ended by 1915, not the four years it did ultimately last.) For the prior reasons Redmond and his Irish [[National Volunteers]] supported the Allied cause, and tens of thousands joined the British Army.
In January [[1919]], after the December 1918 [[Irish (UK) general election, 1918|general elections]], 73 of Ireland's 106 [[Member of Parliament|MPs]] elected were [[Sinn Fein]] members who refused to take their seats in the [[British House of Commons]]. Instead they set up an extra-legal Irish parliament called [[Dáil Éireann]]. This Dáil in January [[1919]] issued a [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] and proclaimed an [[Irish Republic]]. This Declaration of Independence was mainly a restatement of the 1916 Proclamation with the additional provision that Ireland was no longer a part of the [[United Kingdom]]. Despite this, the new [[Irish Republic]] remained unrecognised internationally except by [[Lenin]]'s [[Russian Republic]]. Nevertheless the Republic's [[Aireacht]] (ministry) sent a delegation under [[Ceann Comhairle]] [[Sean T. O'Kelly]] to the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919]], but it was not admitted. After the bitterly fought [[Anglo-Irish War|War of Independence]], representatives of the [[British government]] and the Irish rebels negotiated the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] in 1921 under which the British agreed to the establishment of an independent Irish State whereby the [[Irish Free State]] (in the [[Irish language]] ''Saorstát Éireann'') with [[dominion status]] was created. The [[Dáil]] narrowly ratified the treaty.
The Treaty was not entirely satisfactory to either side. It gave more concessions to the Irish than the British had intended to give but did not go far enough to satisfy republican aspirations. The new Irish Free State was in theory to cover the entire island, subject to the proviso that six counties in the northeast, termed "Northern Ireland" (which had been created as a separate entity under the ''[[Government of Ireland Act 1920]]'') could opt out and choose to remain part of the United Kingdom, which it duly did, to no-one's surprise. The remaining twenty-six counties became the [[Irish Free State]], a [[constitutional monarchy]] over which the British monarch reigned (from 1927 with the title [[monarchy in the Irish Free State|King of Ireland]]). It had a [[Governor-General of the Irish Free State|Governor-General]], a [[bicameral]] parliament, a cabinet called the "Executive Council" and a prime minister called the [[President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State|President of the Executive Council]].
The [[Irish Civil War]] was the direct consequence of the creation of the Irish Free State. Anti-Treaty forces, led by [[Eamon de Valera]], objected to the fact that acceptance of the Treaty ''abolished'' the [[Irish Republic]] of 1919 to which they had sworn loyalty, arguing in the face of public support for the settlement that the "people have no right to do wrong". They objected most to the fact that the state would remain part of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] and that [[Teachta Dála|Teachtaí Dala]] would have to swear an oath of fidelity to [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]] and his successors. Pro-Treaty forces, led by [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], argued that the Treaty gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire to and develop, but the freedom to achieve it".
At the start of the war, the [[Irish Republican Army]] (IRA) split into two opposing camps: a pro-treaty IRA and an anti-treaty IRA. The pro-Treaty IRA became part of the new [[Irish Army|National Army]]. However, through the lack of an effective command structure in the anti-Treaty IRA, and their defensive tactics throughout the war, [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Collins]] and his pro-treaty forces were able to build up an army capable of overwhelming the anti-Treatyites. British supplies of artillery, aircraft, machine-guns and ammunition boosted pro-treaty forces, and the threat of a return of Crown forces to the Free State removed any doubts about the necessity of enforcing the treaty. The lack of public support for the anti-treaty Irregulars, and the determination of the government to overcome them, contributed significantly to their defeat.
The National Army suffered 800 fatalities and perhaps as many as 4000 people were killed altogether. As their forces retreated, the Irregulars showed a major talent for destruction and the economy of the Free State suffered a hard blow in the earliest days of its existence.
[[Image:Irishpopulation.png|400px|left|Irish population through the [[20th century]].]]
On the [[29 December]] [[1937]] a new constitution, the [[Constitution of Ireland]], came into force. It replaced the Irish Free State by a new state called simply "Ireland". Though this state's ''constitutional'' structures provided for a [[President of Ireland]] instead of a king, it was not technically a republic. The principal key role possessed by a head of state, that of representing the state symbolically internationally remained vested in ''statute law'' in the King as an ''organ''. On [[1 April]] [[1949]] the Republic of Ireland Act declared a republic, with the functions previously given to the King given instead to the President of Ireland.
The Irish state had remained a member of the then [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] after independence until the declaration of a republic in April 1949. Under Commonwealth rules declaration of a republic automatically terminated membership of the association, consequently Ireland ceased to be a member.
The Republic of Ireland joined the [[United Nations]] in [[1955]] and the [[European Community]] (now the [[European Union]]) in [[1973]]. Irish governments have sought the peaceful reunification of Ireland and have usually cooperated with the [[British government]] in the violent conflict with the [[Provisional IRA]] in Northern Ireland known as the "[[The Troubles|Troubles]]". A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, the [[Belfast Agreement]], was approved in [[1998]] in referenda north and south of the border, and is currently being implemented, albeit more slowly than many would like.
==Politics==
{|align=right
| [[Image:Marymca.jpg|thumb|150px|[[President of Ireland]], [[Mary McAleese]].]]
|}
''Main article: [[Politics of the Republic of Ireland]]''
The state is a [[republic]], with a parliamentary system of government. The [[President of Ireland]], who serves as [[head of state]], is elected for a seven-year term and can be re-elected only once. The president is largely a [[figurehead]] but can still carry out certain [[constitution]]al powers and functions, aided by the [[Council of State]], an advisory body. The ''[[Taoiseach]]'' ([[prime minister]]), is appointed by the president on the nomination of parliament. The Taoiseach is normally the leader of the political party which wins the most seats in the national elections. It has become normal in the Republic for [[coalition]]s to form a government, and there has not been a single-party government since the period of [[1987]]–[[1989]].
The [[bicameral]] [[parliament]], the ''[[Oireachtas]]'', consists of a Senate, [[Seanad Éireann]], and a lower house, [[Dáil Éireann]]. The Seanad is composed of sixty members; eleven nominated by the Taoiseach, six elected by two universities, and 43 elected by public representatives from panels of candidates established on a vocational basis. The Dáil has 166 members, ''[[Teachta Dála|Teachtaí Dála]]'', elected to represent multi-seat constituencies under the system of [[proportional representation]] by |
tches
|Paperback: ISBN 0552142360
|First published [[1995]].
|[[Opera]], ''[[The Phantom of the Opera]]'', [[Goth|the Gothic subculture]],
|- align="left"
|''[[Feet of Clay]]''
|The City Watch
|Paperback: ISBN 0552142379
|First published [[1996]].
|Cop Novels, [[List of fictional robots|Robots]] ([[RoboCop]] and ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' come in for particular attention), Jewish Mythology, [[atheism]], murder (or, here, attempted assassination) mysteries, ethnicity and minorities, [[heraldry]], [[slavery]]/[[serfdom]]
|- align="left"
|''[[Hogfather]]''
|Death, The Wizards
|Paperback: ISBN 0552145424
|First published [[1996]]. Came 137th in the [[Big Read]].
|[[Christmas]]; Children's stories; [[religion]] as [[mythology]], the [[christ myth]], and settling the two big Questions for a child: Is there a Santa Claus (Hogfather), and What does the toothfairy do with all those teeth, anyway?, [[belief]]
|- align="left"
|''[[Jingo (novel)|Jingo]]''
|The City Watch
|Hardback: ISBN 0575065400 - Paperback: ISBN 055214598X
|First published [[1997]].
|[[War]], [[Diplomacy]], [[Racism]] and [[Xenophobia]], [[Multiculturalism]], [[Jingoism]], [[Imperialism]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[submarines]]
|- align="left"
|''[[The Last Continent]]''
|Rincewind, The Wizards
|Hardback: ISBN 0385409893 - Paperback: ISBN 0552146145
|First published [[1998]].
|Action/Adventure, Evolution/Creation, [[Australia]]
|- align="left"
|''[[Carpe Jugulum]]''
|The Witches
|Hardback: ISBN 0385409923 - Paperback: ISBN 0552146153
|First published [[1998]].
|[[Vampire]] novels, [[Existentialism]], Tradition versus Change, morality
|- align="left"
|''[[The Fifth Elephant]]''
|The City Watch
|Hardback: ISBN 0385409958 - Paperback: ISBN 0552146161
|First published [[1999]]. Came 153rd in the [[Big Read]].
|[[Diplomacy]], [[Eastern European]] [[folklore]] and [[literature]], ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'', Political-[[conspiracy]] novels, [[petroleum]], the [[global economy]], [[national myths]], [[werewolves]]
|- align="left"
|''[[The Truth (novel)|The Truth]]''
|Miscellaneous, the City Watch
|Hardback: ISBN 0385601026 - Paperback: ISBN 0552147680
|First published [[2000]]. Came 193rd in the [[Big Read]].
|[[Watergate scandal|Watergate]], [[Newspaper]]s, ''[[Neverwhere]]'', ''[[Pulp Fiction]]'', ''[[The Front Page]]'' and ''[[His Girl Friday]]''
|- align="left"
|''[[Thief of Time]]''
|Death, the History Monks
|Hardback: ISBN 0385601883 - Paperback: ISBN 0552148407
|First published [[2001]]. Came 152nd in the [[Big Read]].
|[[Wuxia]] and [[Martial arts film]]s, [[Chaos]], [[James Bond]] movies, [[Quantum Physics]], [[The Beatles|The Fab Four]] and the [[Apocalypse]]
|- align="left"
|''[[The Last Hero]]''
|Rincewind, The Silver Horde
|Hardback: ISBN 057506885X - Paperback: ISBN 0575073772
|First published [[2001]]. Published in a larger format, fully illustrated by [[Paul Kidby]].
|[[Legends]], [[Prometheus]], [[D&D]], [[Conan the Barbarian]], the [[Space shuttle]], [[Apollo 13]], the designs of [[Leonardo da Vinci]], ''[[Catch-22]]''
|- align="left"
|''[[The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents]]''
|Miscellaneous
|Hardback: ISBN 0385601239 - Paperback: ISBN 055255202X
|First published [[2001]]. A children's Discworld book. Winner of the 2001 [[Carnegie Medal]].
|[[Beatrix Potter]], [[The Pied Piper of Hamelin]], ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]''
|- align="left"
|''[[Night Watch (novel)|Night Watch]]''
|The City Watch, the History Monks
|Hardback: ISBN 0385602642 - Paperback: ISBN 0552148997
|First published [[2002]]. Received the [[Prometheus Award]] in [[2003]]. Came 73rd in the [[Big Read]].
|Cop Novels, Historical novels (esp. ''[[Les Misérables]]''), [[time travel]], the [[French Revolution]], the [[Peterloo Massacre]], [[Spanish Inquisition|the Spanish Inquisition]], the [[Grandfather paradox]]
|- align="left"
|''[[The Wee Free Men]]''
|Tiffany Aching
|Hardback: ISBN 0385605331 - Paperback: ISBN 0552549053
|First published [[2003]]. Another children's Discworld book.
|Folklore, Mythic [[Scotland]], as seen in ''[[Braveheart]]'' and ''[[Highlander]]'', the [[fairy]] paintings of [[Richard Dadd]]; [[subjective experience]], [[the Smurfs]]
|- align="left"
|''[[Monstrous Regiment (novel)|Monstrous Regiment]]''
|Miscellaneous, the City Watch
|Hardback: ISBN 0552149411 - Paperback: ISBN 0552149411
|First published [[2003]]. For the origin of the title of this novel, see [[The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women]].
|[[Folk song]] (especially [[Sweet Polly Oliver]]), [[Joan of Arc]], [[cross-dressing#Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people|women who disguise themselves as men to join the army]] (e.g. [[Gauntlett Bligh Barker|Colonel Gauntlett Bligh Barker]] and [[Mulan]]), the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (possibly as interpreted through [[Bernard Cornwell]]'s ''[[Sharpe]]'' novels), [[World War I|First World War]] (especially the patriotism and "Home by Christmas" mentality), [[feminism]], wartime journalism
|- align="left"
|''[[A Hat Full of Sky]]''
|Tiffany Aching
|Hardback: ISBN 0385607369 - Paperback: ISBN 0552551449
|First published [[2004]]. A third children's Discworld book.
|The history and folklore of witches in Britain, mind controlling [[Extraterrestrial_life|alien]]s in [[science fiction]], arguably [[Jill Murphy]]'s ''[[The Worst Witch]]''
|- align="left"
|''[[Going Postal]]''
|Miscellaneous
|Hardback: ISBN 0385603428 - Paperback: ISBN 0552149438
|First published [[2004]].
|[[Politics]], [[confidence trick|con men]], [[corporate crime]] and [[business practices]], monopolies ([[Fox Entertainment Group|Fox]] and [[Rupert Murdoch]]; and [[AT&T]] and its [http://www.nwfusion.com/news/2004/083004widernetgoldenboy.html "Golden Boy"]), [[Ayn Rand]] and [[Objectivist philosophy]], history of the [[Post Office]], the [[Internet]], [[hack (technology slang)|hacking]] or more specifically [[phreaking]]; [[fraternal organisation]]s, [[stamp collecting]]
|- align="left"
|''[[Thud!]]''
|The City Watch
|Hardback: ISBN 0060815221
|Published September 2005
|Politics, Cop Novels, [[Affirmative Action]], ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'', [[Plato]], ''[[The Lord Of The Rings]]'', ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', [[race relations]], [[fatherhood]], [[chess]]
|- align="left"
|''[[Wintersmith]]''
|Tiffany Aching
|Hardback: ISBN 0385609841
|A brief excerpt was read at the 2004 Convention. Due for publication September 28, 2006.
|&nbsp;
|- align="left"
|''[[Making Money]]''
|Miscellaneous
|&nbsp;
|Future novel, confirmed recently by Terry as the book he's begun writing as of the completion of ''Wintersmith''. Set to be the second novel featuring [[Moist von Lipwig]]. The title and the end of ''Going Postal'' would seem to indicate that it involves the Ankh Morpork mint.
|&nbsp;
|- align="left"
|''[[I Shall Wear Midnight]]''
|Tiffany Aching
|&nbsp;
|Possible future novel, hinted at in 'The Art of Discworld'.
|&nbsp;
|- align="left"
|No title as yet
|Rincewind
|&nbsp;
|Possible future novel featuring Rincewind - From 'The Art of Discworld'.
|&nbsp;
|- align="left"
|''Nation''
|Unknown
|&nbsp;
|Possible future novel about a nation consisting of one person - From Orange Word interview
|&nbsp;
|- align="left"
|''Unseen Academicals''
|The Wizards
|&nbsp;
|Possible future novel about soccer/football at the Unseen University' - From [http://www.alternativenation.net/forums/showthread.php?t=87270 Alternative Nation] interview.
|&nbsp;
|- align="left"
|''Scouting for Trolls''
|Unknown
|&nbsp;
|Possible future novel - From [http://www.alternativenation.net/forums/showthread.php?t=87270 Alternative Nation] interview.
|&nbsp;
|}
===Short stories===
There are also four short stories by Pratchett based in the Discworld: ''[[Theatre of Cruelty (Discworld)|Theatre of Cruelty]]'', ''[[Death and What Comes Next]]'', ''[[Troll Bridge]]'' and ''[[The Sea and Little Fishes]]''. The first two are available [http://www.lspace.org/books/index.html online]. The third was published in ''After The King: Stories in honour of [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'', and the fourth in ''Legends'', edited by [[Robert Silverberg]].
In addition, all of these stories, as well as such Discworld miscellany as the history of [[Thud]] and the Ankh-Morpork national anthem have been collected as part of a compilation of all Pratchett's shortwork, ''[[Once More* *With Footnotes]]''.
===Quiz books===
Thus far, there are also two [[Discworld]] [[Quiz]]books compiled by [[David Langford]]:
* ''[[The Unseen University Challenge]]'', parodying the TV quiz show ''[[University Challenge]]''
* ''[[The Wyrdest Link]]'', parodying the TV quiz show ''[[The Weakest Link]]''
===The Maps===
Furthermore, there are four '''Mapps''':
* ''[[The Streets of Ankh-Morpork]]'' (1993)
* ''[[The Discworld Mapp]]'' (1995)
* ''[[A Tourist Guide to Lancre]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Death's Domain]]'' (1999)
The first two were drawn by Stephen Player, based on plans by Pratchett and [[Stephen Briggs]], the third is a collaboration between Briggs and Kidby, and the last is by [[Paul Kidby]]. All also contain booklets written by Pratchett and Briggs.
==='Science' books===
Pratchett has also collaborated with [[Ian Stewart (mathematician)|Ian Stewart]] and [[Jack Cohen (scientist)|Jack Cohen]] on three books using the Discworld to illuminate [[popular science]] topics through means of a completely fictional story. Each book could be seen as containing a short Discworld novel in its own right, with chapters switching between the story and notes on real science related to it. The books released are:
* ''[[The Science of Discworld]]''
* ''[[The Science of Discworld II: The Globe]]''
* ''[[The Science of Discworld |
sources: international treaties, custom, and general principles of law (cf. Art. 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice). International treaty law is comprised of obligations states expressly and voluntarily accept between themselves in [[treaty|treaties]]. Customary international law is derived from the consistent practice of States accompanied by ''opinio juris'', i.e. the conviction of States that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation. Judgments of international tribunals as well as scholarly works have traditionally been looked to as persuasive sources for custom in addition to direct evidence of state behavior. Attempts to codify customary international law picked up momentum after the [[Second World War]] with the formation of the [[International Law Commission]] (ILC). Codified customary law is made the binding interpretation of the underlying custom by agreement through treaty. For states not party to such treaties, the work of the ILC may still be accepted as custom applying to those states. General principles of law are those commonly recognized by the major legal systems of the world.
Certain norms of international law achieve the binding force of [[peremptory norm]]s (''jus cogens'') as to include all states with no permissible derogations. Legal principles common to major legal systems may also be invoked to supplement international law when necessary.
==Interpretation of International Law==
Where there are disputes about the exact meaning and application of national laws, it is the responsibility of the courts to decide what the law means. In international law as a whole, there are no courts which have the authority to do this. It is generally the responsibility of states to interpret the law for themselves. Unsurprisingly, this means that there is rarely agreement in cases of dispute.
The [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]] writes on the topic of interpretation that:
: "A treaty shall be interpreted in [[good faith]] in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose." (article 31(1))
This is actually a compromise between three different theories of interpretation:
* The textual approach is a restrictive interpretation which bases itself on the "ordinary meaning" of the text, the actual text has considerable weight.
* A subjective approach considers the idea behind the treaty, treaties "in their context", what the writers intended when they wrote the text.
* A third approach bases itself on interpretation "in the light of its object and purpose", i.e. the interpretation that best suits the goal of the treaty, also called "effective interpretation".
These are general rules of interpretation; specific rules might exist in specific areas of international law.
==Enforcement by states==
Apart from a state's natural inclination to uphold certain norms, the force of international law has always come from the pressure that states put upon one another to behave consistently and to honor their obligations. As with any system of law, many violations of international law obligations are overlooked. If addressed, it is almost always purely through [[diplomacy]] and the consequences upon an offending state's reputation. Though violations may be common in fact, states try to avoid the appearance of having disregarded international obligations. States may also unilaterally adopt sanctions against one another such as the severance of economic or diplomatic ties, or through reciprocal action. In some cases, domestic courts may render judgment against a foreign state (the realm of private international law) for an injury, though this is a complicated area of law where international law intersects with domestic law.
States have the right to employ force in self-defense against an offending state that has used force to attack its territory or political independence. States may also use force in collective self-defense, where force is used against another state. The state that force is used against must authorize the participation of third-states in its self-defense. This right is recognized in the [[United Nations Charter]].
==Enforcement by international bodies==
''See main article: [[international legal system]].''
Violations of the UN Charter by members of the United Nations may be raised by the aggrieved state in the [[UN General Assembly|General Assembly]] for debate. The General Assembly cannot make binding resolutions, but under the "[[UN General Assembly Resolution 377|Uniting for Peace]]" resolution (GA/RES/0377) it declared it could authorize the use of force if there had been Breaches of the Peace or Acts of Aggression, provided that the Security Council due to a negative vote of a permanent member failed to act. It could call for other collective measures (such as economic sanctions) given a situation constituted the milder "threat to the Peace". The legal significance of such a resolution is unclear, as the General Assembly cannot issue binding resolutions.
They can also be raised in the [[Security Council]]. The Security Council can pass resolutions under Chapter VI of the UN Charter to recommend "Pacific Resolution of Disputes." Such resolutions are not binding under international law, though they usually are expressive of the council's convictions. In rare cases, the Security Council can pass resolutions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter related to "threats to Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of Aggression," and these are legally binding under international law, and can be followed up with economic sanctions, military action, and similar uses of force through the auspices of the United Nations.
It has been argued that resolutions passed outside of Chapter VII can also be binding; the legal basis for that is the Council's broad powers under Article 24(2), which states that "in discharging these duties (exercise of primary responsibility in international peace and security), it shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations". The mandatory nature of such resolutions was upheld by the [[International Court of Justice]] in its advisory opinion on [[Namibia]]. The binding nature of such resolutions can be deduced from an interpretation of their language and intent.
States can also, upon mutual consent, submit disputes for arbitration by the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), located in [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]. The judgments given by the Court in these cases are binding, although it possesses no means to enforce its rulings.
The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations to make such a request. Some of the advisory cases brought before the court have been controversial with respect to the courts competence and jurisdiction.
Often enormously complicated matters, ICJ cases (of which there have been less than 150 since the court was created from the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]] in 1945) can stretch on for years and generally involve thousands of pages of pleadings, evidence, and the world's leading specialist public international lawyers. As of [[2005]], there are twelve cases pending at the ICJ. Decisions made through other means of arbitration may be binding or non-binding depending on the nature of the arbitration agreement, whereas decisions resulting from contentious cases argued before the ICJ are always binding on the involved states.
Though states (or increasingly, [[international organizations]]) are usually the only ones with standing to address a violation of international law, some treaties, such as the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] have an optional [[Protocol (treaty)|protocol]] that allows individuals who have had their rights violated by member states to petition the international [[Human Rights Committee]].
==History==
''See main article: [[history of international law]].''
Through the ages a code developed for the relations and conduct between nations. Even when nations were at [[war]], [[envoy]]s were often considered immune to violence.
The first formal attempts in this direction, which over time have developed into the current international law, stem from the era of the [[Renaissance]] in [[Europe]].
In the [[Middle Ages]] it had been considered the obligation of the [[Church]] to mediate in international disputes. During the [[Council of Constance]] (1414) [[Pawel Wlodkowic]], rector of [[Jagiellonian University]] ([[Kraków]], [[Poland]]), theologian, lawyer and diplomat, presented the theory that all, including [[Paganism|pagan]], nations have right to self-govern and to live in peace and possess their land.
At the beginning of the 17th century, several generalizations could be made about the political situation:
# Self-governing, autonomous states existed.
# Almost all of them were governed by monarchs.
##The Peace of Westphalia is often cited as being the birth of the modern nation-states, establishing states as sovereigns answering to no-one within its own borders.
# Land, wealth, and trading rights were often the topics of wars between states.
Some people assert that international law developed to deal with the new states arising, others claim that the lack of influence of the [[Pope]] and the [[Catholic church]] gave rise to the need for new generally-accepted codes in Europe.
The [[France|French]] [[monk]] [[Emeric Cruce]] ([[1590]]–[[1648]]) came up with the idea of having representatives of all countries meeting in one place to discuss their conflicts so as to avoid war and create more peace. He suggested this in his ''The New Cyneas'' ([[1623]]), choosing [[Venice]] to be the selected city for all of the repre |
ion that [[poppet valve|valves]] or [[cylinder head]] [[gasket]]s are leaking, [[piston]] rings are broken, cylinders are worn or that the [[engine block]] is cracked.
== Saab Variable Compression engine ==
Because cylinder bore diameter, piston stroke length, and combustion chamber volume are almost always constant, the compression ratio for a given engine is almost always constant.
One exception is the [[experiment]]al [[Saab automobile|Saab]] Variable Compression (SVC) engine. This engine uses a technique to dynamically alter the volume of the combustion chamber (V<sub>c</sub>), which, via the above equation, changes the compression ratio (CR).
To alter V<sub>c</sub>, the SVC "lowers" the [[cylinder head]] closer to the [[crankshaft]]. It does this by replacing the typical one-part engine block with a two-part block, with the crankshaft in the lower block, and the cylinders in the upper portion. The two blocks are [[hinge]]d together at one side (imagine a book, lying flat on a table, with the front cover held an inch or so above the title page). By pivotting the upper block around the hinge point, the V<sub>c</sub> (imagine the air between the front cover of the book and the title page) can be modified. In practice, the SVC adjusts the upper block through a small range of motion, using a [[hydraulic]] actuator.
However, the SVC project was shelved by [[General Motors]] (the owner of Saab Automobile) due to cost.
== Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) Engines==
The SAAB SVC is a very late addition to the world of VCR engines, the first being built and tested by [[Harry Ricardo]] in the [[1920s]], it lead on him devising the [[octane rating]] system that we still use today. The company has recently been involved with working with the "Office of Advanced Automotive Technologies" to produce a modern [[petrol]] VCR engine that showed an efficiency comparable with that of a [[Diesel]]. Many companies have been carrying out their own research in to VCR Engines including [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]], [[Volvo]], PSA/[[Peugeot]]-[[Citroën]] and [[Renault]].
== External links ==
*[http://www.fs.isy.liu.se/Lab/SVC/ SVC]
[[Category:engine technology]]
[[category:Saab engines]]
[[de:Verdichtungsverhältnis]]
[[es:Relación de compresión]]
[[sk:Kompresný pomer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chromosome walking</title>
<id>6864</id>
<revision>
<id>18700286</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-12T21:42:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Snow</username>
<id>34289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chromosome walking''' is a method in [[genetics]] for identifying and [[sequencing]] long parts of a [[DNA]] strand, e.g., a [[chromosome]]. As the traditional [[chain termination method]] does not allow long DNA strands to be sequenced, this method works by dividing the long sequence into several consecutive short ones.
The basic technique is as follows:
# A [[primer (molecular biology)|primer]] that matches the beginning of the DNA to sequence is used to synthesize a short DNA strand complementary to the unknown sequence, starting with the primer (see [[PCR]]).
# The new short DNA strand is sequenced using the [[chain termination method]].
# The end of the sequenced strand is used as a primer for the next part of the long DNA sequence.
That way, the short part of the long DNA that is sequenced keeps "walking" along the sequence. The method can be used to sequence entire chromosomes (thus, ''chromosome walking''). A different method with the same purpose which becomes more popular for large-scale sequencing (e.g., the [[Human Genome Project]]) is [[shotgun sequencing]].
==See also==
* [[Shotgun sequencing]] - an alternative method, using random, rather than consecutive, sub-strands.
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[pl:Spacer po chromosomie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Concordat of Worms</title>
<id>6865</id>
<revision>
<id>40362161</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:40:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Concordat of Worms''', sometimes called the ''Pactum Calixtinum'' by papal historians, was an agreement between [[Pope Calixtus II]] and Holy Roman Emperor [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]] on [[September 23]] [[1122]] near [[Worms, Germany|Worms]]. It brought to an end the first phase of the power struggle between the [[Papacy]] and the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s. The King was recognized as having the right to invest bishops with secular authority ("by the lance") in the territories they governed, but not with sacred authority ("by ring and [[Crozier|staff]]").
Following efforts by Lamberto Scannabecchi (later [[Pope Honorius II]]) and the [[Diet of Wurzburg|Diet of Würzburg]] (1121) in 1122, Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V agreed to end the [[Investiture Controversy]]. By the terms of the agreement, the election of bishops and abbots in Germany was to take place in the emperor's presence as judge between potentially disputing parties, [[simony|free of bribes]], thus retaining to the emperor a crucial role in choosing these great territorial magnates of the Empire. Beyond the borders of the Empire, in [[Burgundy]] and [[Italy]], the Emperor was to forward the symbols of authority within six months. Calixtus' reference to the feudal homage due the emperor on appointment is guarded: "shall do unto thee for these what he rightfully should" was the wording of the ''privilegium'' granted by Calixtus. The Emperor's right to a substantial imbursement on the election of a bishop or abbot was specifically denied.
The Emperor renounced the right to invest them with ring and [[crosier]], the symbols of their spiritual power, and guaranteed election by the canons of cathedral or abbey and free consecration. The two parties ended by granting one another peace.
The Concordat was confirmed by the [[First Council of the Lateran]] in [[1123]].
==External links==
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/worms1.html Concordat]: text in English
[[Category:Investiture Controversy]]
[[Category:1122]]
[[de:Wormser Konkordat]]
[[fr:Concordat de Worms]]
[[it:Concordato di Worms]]
[[la:Vormatiae concordatus]]
[[nl:Concordaat van Worms]]
[[ja:ヴォルムス協約]]
[[pl:Konkordat wormacki]]
[[pt:Concordata de Worms]]
[[ru:Вормский конкордат]]
[[sl:Wormski konkordat]]
[[fi:Wormsin konkordaatti]]
[[sv:Wormskonkordatet]]
<!-- This was perhaps meant to be a link to a different language; please fix it if you can: konkrodat --></text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Context-free language</title>
<id>6867</id>
<revision>
<id>40434778</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T14:55:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''context-free language''' is a [[formal language]] that is accepted by some [[pushdown automaton]]. Context-free languages can be generated by [[context-free grammar|context-free grammars]].
==Examples==
An archetypical context-free language is <math>L = \{a^nb^n:n\geq1\}</math>, the language of all non-empty even-length strings, the entire first halves of which are <math>a</math>'s, and the entire second halves of which are <math>b</math>'s. <math>L</math> is generated by the grammar <math>S\to aSb ~|~ ab</math>, and is accepted by the pushdown automaton <math>M=(\{q_0,q_1,q_f\}, \{a\}, \{a,b,z\}, \delta, q_0, \{q_f\})</math> where <math>\delta</math> is defined as follows:
<center>
<math>\delta(q_0, a, z) = (q_0, a)</math><br>
<math>\delta(q_0, b, ax) = (q_1, x)</math><br>
<math>\delta(q_1, b, ax) = (q_1, x)</math><br>
<math>\delta(q_1, b, bz) = (q_f, z)</math><br>
</center>
Context-free languages have many applications in [[programming languages]]; for example, the language of all properly matched parenthesis is generated by the grammar <math>S\to SS ~|~ (S) ~|~ \lambda</math>. Also, most arithmetic expressions are generated by context-free grammars.
== Closure Properties ==
Context-Free Languages are [[closure (mathematics)|closed]] under the following operations. That is, if "L" and "P" are Context-Free Languages and "D" is a Regular Language, the following languages are Context-Free as well:
* the [[Kleene star]] ''L''<sup>*</sup> of ''L''
* the [[homomorphism]] φ(L) of "L"
* the [[concatenation]] ''LP'' of ''L'' and ''P''
* the [[union (set theory)|union]] ''L''&cup;''P'' of "L" and "P"
* the [[intersection]] (with a Regular Language) ''L''&cap;''D'' of "L" and "D"
Context-Free Languages are not closed under [[complement (complexity)|complement]], [[intersection]], or [[difference]].
==See also==
There is a [[pumping lemma]] for context-free languages, that gives a necessary condition for a language to be context-free.
== References ==
* {{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X}} Chapter 2: Context-Free Languages, pp.91–122.
{{Formal languages and grammars}}
[[Category:formal languages]]
[[cs:Bezkontextový jazyk]]
[[de:Kontextfreie Sprache]]
[[he:שפה חופשית הקשר]]
[[pl:Język bezkontekstowy]]
[ |
ther contemporary works, such as ''[[The Book of Good Love]]'' by [[Juan Ruiz]] and [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio's]] ''[[Decameron]],'' which may have been one of Chaucer's main sources of inspiration. Chaucer indeed adapted several of Boccaccio's stories to put in the mouths of his own pilgrims, but what sets Chaucer's work apart from his contemporaries' is his characters. Compared to Boccaccio's main characters - seven women and three men, all young, fresh and well-to-do, and given Classical names - the characters in Chaucer are of extremely varied stock, including representatives of most of the branches of the middle classes at that time. Not only are the participants very different, but they tell very different types of tales, with their personalities showing through both in their choices of tales but also in the way they tell them.
The idea of a pilgrimage appears to have been mainly a useful device to get such a diverse collection of people together for literary purposes. The Monk would probably not be allowed to undertake the pilgrimage and some of the other characters would be unlikely ever to want to attend. Also all of the pilgrims ride horses, there is no suggestion of them suffering for their religion. None of the popular [[shrine]]s along the way are visited and there is no suggestion that anyone attends [[mass (liturgy)|mass]], so that it seems much more like a tourist's jaunt. It may be that Chaucer's intent was to ridicule the sort of people who unthinkingly went on such pilgrimages.
Chaucer does not pay that much attention to the progress of the trip. He hints that the tales take several days but he does not detail any overnight stays. Although the journey could be done in one day this speed would make telling tales difficult and three to four days was the usual duration for such pilgrimages. The 18th of April is mentioned in the tales and [[Walter William Skeat]], a [[19th century]] editor, determined [[17 April]], [[1387]] as the probable first day of the tales.
Scholars divide the tales into ten fragments. The tales that make up a fragment are directly connected, usually with one character speaking to and handing over to another character, but there is no connection between most of the other fragments. This means that there are several possible permutations for the order of the fragments and consequently the tales themselves. The above listing is perhaps the most common in modern times, with the fragments numbered I-X, but an alternative order is listing them A-G, with the tales from the Physician's until the Nun's Priest's placed before the Wife of Bath's. The exception to the independence between fragments are the last two. The Manciple's tale is the last tale in XI but fragment X starts with the parson's prologue by saying that the Manciple had finished his tale. The reason that they are kept as two different fragments is that the Manciple starts his short tale in the morning but the parson's tale is told at four in the afternoon. It is assumed that Chaucer would have amended his manuscript or inserted more tales to fill the time.
Two early [[manuscript]]s of the tale are the [[Hengwrt manuscript]] and the [[Ellesmere manuscript]].
==Significance==
It is sometimes argued that the greatest contribution that this work made to [[English literature]] was in popularising the literary use of the [[vernacular]] language, [[English language|English]] (rather than [[French language|French]] or [[Latin]]). However, several of Chaucer's contemporaries&mdash;[[John Gower]], [[William Langland]], and [[the Pearl Poet]]&mdash;also wrote major literary works in English, making it unclear how much Chaucer was responsible for starting a trend rather than simply being part of it.
The title of the work has become an everyday phrase in the language and has been variously adapted and adopted. Recently an animated version of some of the tales has been produced for British [[television]]. As well as a version with [[Modern English]] dialogue, there were versions in the original Middle English and [[Welsh language|Welsh]].
The postulated return journey has intrigued many and continuations have been written as well as tales written for the characters who are mentioned but not given a chance to speak. The [[Tale of Beryn]] is a tale by an anonymous author within a [[15th century]] manuscript of the work. The tales are rearranged and there are some interludes in Canterbury, which they had finally reached, and Beryn is the first tale on the return journey, told by the Merchant. [[John Lydgate]]'s ''[[Siege of Thebes]]'' is also a depiction of the return journey but the tales themselves are actually prequels to the tale of classical origin told by the Knight in Chaucer's work.
In [[2004]], Professor [[Linne Mooney]] was able to identify the [[scrivener]] who worked for Chaucer as an [[Adam Pinkhurst]]. Professor Mooney, working at the [[University of Cambridge]], was able to match Pinkhurst's signature on an oath he signed to his lettering on a copy of ''The Canterbury Tales'' that was transcribed from Chaucer's working copy.
==Stage and film adaptations==
*[[Pasolini]]
*[[2005]], [[Royal Shakespeare Company]]
{{Section-stub}}
==Notes==
{{note|shrine}} The shrine was later destroyed by Protestant iconoclasts taking liberties with [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]'s order simply to dissolve the assets of the monasteries; a [[visitor attraction]] called '''''The Canterbury Tales''''' may currently be seen in Canterbury [http://www.canterburytales.org.uk/home.htm].
==External links==
{{wikisource}}
*[http://www.librarius.com/ "Modern English translation of the Canterbury Tales"]
*[http://www.bookrags.com/notes/ct/ BookRags Study Guide] for "Canterbury Tales" at [http://www.bookrags.com BookRags.com]
*{{gutenberg|no=2383|name=The Canterbury Tales and Other Poems}}
*[http://www.bl.uk/treasures/caxton/homepage.html Originals from the British Library]High resolution scans of William Caxton's two editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (probably printed in 1476 and 1483)
*Audio clip from [http://people.bu.edu/bobl/middle_english.htm The Miller's Tale and The Second Nun's Tale]
*[http://www.llgc.org.uk/drych/drych_s007.htm The Hengwrt Chaucer]
*[http://www.herr-rau.de/archiv/chaucer/miller1.mp3 Audio clip from the first part of the Miller's Tale]
*[http://www.herr-rau.de/archiv/chaucer/miller2.mp3 Audio clip from the second part of the Miller's tale]
*[http://www.synchicity.com/chaucer/index.html Audio clip from the first part of the Visioner's tale]
*[http://www.herr-rau.de/archiv/chaucer/prologue.mp3 Audio clip from the prologue of the Canterbury Tales]
*[http://www.canterburytales.org/canterbury_tales.html Chaucer's Canterbury Tales ~ Presented by ELF]
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=5 Changes in the Griselda Story: Chaucer's ''The Clerk's Tale'']
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=6 The Purpose of Chaucer's Retraction] an article from [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/ Shadowed Realm - Your Guide to Medieval History]
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/canterbury/ Spark Notes]
* [http://www.gradesaver.com/ClassicNotes/Titles/canterbury/ Classic Notes]
* [http://www.canterburytales.org.uk/home.htm Visitor attraction in Canterbury]
==Further reading==
Kolne, V.A. and Glending Olson (Eds.) (2005). ''The Canterbury Tales: Fifteen Tales and The General Prologue; Authoritative Text, Sources and Backgrounds, Criticism'' (2nd ed.). New York, London: W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-92587-0. LC PR1867.K65 2005. A Norton Critical Edition, this book offers valuable primary texts and secondary criticism.
{{Chaucer}}
[[Category:14th century books|Canterbury Tales]]
[[Category:The Canterbury Tales| ]]
[[bg:Кентърбърийски разкази]]
[[de:Canterbury Tales]]
[[es:Cuentos de Canterbury]]
[[fa:حکایتهای کنتربری]]
[[ja:カンタベリー物語]]
[[nl:Canterbury Tales]]
[[pl:Opowieści kanterberyjskie]]
[[sv:Canterbury Tales]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Christine de Pizan</title>
<id>7628</id>
<revision>
<id>40836958</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T09:05:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dimadick</username>
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<comment>/* External links */ Added category "Women writers"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Christine de Pisan - Project Gutenberg eBook 12254.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Christine de Pizan, showing the interior of an apartment at the end of the 14th or commencement of the 15th century]]
{{French literature (small)}}
'''Christine de Pizan''' ([[1364]] -[[1430]]) was a remarkable [[medieval]] writer, [[rhetorician]] and critic, who strongly challenged [[misogynist]] thinking by successfully establishing her authority, even in the midst of the male-dominated realm of arts, as a female writer. De Pizan’s prolific writings, forty-one known pieces, written over her career of at least thirty years (1399-1429), earned her fame as Europe’s first professional woman writer (Redfern 74). In particular, her success stems from a wide range of innovative writing techniques that critically challenged renowned male writers who, to Pizan’s dismay, incorporated misogynist scrutiny within their literary works. Overall, de Pizan and her writings have been celebrated and embraced; she is seen as a [[feminist]] foremother who effectively utilized language to demonstrate that women, with distinctive abilities, could play an integral role within society.
==Life==
Christine de Pizan was born in [[Venice]]. She was the daughter of Tommaso di Benvenuto da Pizzano (Thomas de Pizan), a physician, professor of astrology, and Councillor of the Republic of Venice. Following Christine’s birth, Thomas de Pizan accepted an appointment to the court of [[Charles V of France]], as the King’s [[astrologer]], [[alchemist]], and |
of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]. If Gilgamesh was a historical king, he probably reigned in about the [[26th century BC]]. Some of the earliest Sumerian texts spell his name as ''Bilgamesh''.
In most texts, Gilgamesh is written with the determinative for divine beings (''DINGIR'') - (''Tenger'') - [[Tangra]], but there is no evidence for a contemporary cult, and the [[Sumer]]ian Gilgamesh myths suggest the deification was a later development (unlike the case of the [[Akkad]]ian god-kings). Historical or not, Gilgamesh became a legendary protagonist in the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]].
==Gilgamesh in popular culture==
[[Image:Gilgamesh Enkidu cylinder seal.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Gilgamesh and [[Enkidu]], cylinder seal from [[Ur]] III]]
Sumerian Gilgamesh has inspired several works in modern popular culture:
* ''[[Gilgamesh the King]]'' by [[Robert Silverberg]].
* The book "How like a god" by Brenda W. Clough is based on the epic.
* "[[Gilgamesh (Final Fantasy)|Gilgamesh]]" appears in various incarnations in the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series.
* The hero of [[Namco]]'s ''[[Tower of Druaga]]'' and its sequels is also named Gilgamesh.
* "Gilgamesh" is also a character in TV series [[Xena: Warrior Princess]].
* An [[Gilgamesh (anime)|anime show]] by the same name, aired in 2003.
* "Gilgamesh" is a Japanese rock band.
* "Gilgamesh" were a British band 1972 - 1978. They released two albums "Gilgamesh" (1975) and "Another Fine Tune You've Got Me Into" (1978)
* In the [[Marvel Comics]] [[Marvel Universe|universe]], a character known as the [[Forgotten One (comics)|Forgotten One]] claimed to have been the historical Gilgamesh.
* ''[[Gilgamesh (opera)|Gilgamesh]]'', an [[opera]] by [[Serbia|Serbian]] composer [[Rudolf Brucci]] based on the Epic.
* Gilgamesh is also a character in the game [[Fate/stay night]], produced by [[TYPE-MOON]].
* ''[[Darmok (TNG episode)|Darmok]]'', an episode of [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]] is inspired by the tale of Gilgamesh.
* Gilgamesh appeared in Timewyrm: Genesys, the first novel of the Doctor Who New Adventures.
* ''[[Gilgamesh (movie)|Gilgamesh]]'', by the film director Roger Christian ([[Pre-production]]).
* ''[[The Norton Anthology of World Literature, Beginnings to A.D. 100, Volume A, Second Edition]]'' pp. 10-12.
* ''[[In the Skin of a Lion]]'' by [[Michael Ondaatje]] contains themes from "[[The Epic of Gilgamesh]]".
* In ''[[Highlander: The Series]]'', Gilgamesh was rumored to be the first immortal ever recorded by a "watcher", and would be the sole reason behind the formation of the watcher organization.
* In [[Namco]]'s [[Tales of Symphonia]], a title Zelos Wilder can earn.
* "Gilgamesh" is a character in [[David Gemmel|David Gemmel's]] Sipstrassi Stones series of books.
* "Gilgamesh Wulfenbach" is a character in [[Phil Foglio|Phil]] and [[Kaja Foglio|Kaja]] Foglio's series of ''[[Girl Genius]]'' comics.
* "Gilgamesh" is one of the answers in [[John_Locke_(Lost)|John Locke]]'s crossword in the [[Lost_(TV_series)|Lost]] episode [[Episodes of Lost (Season 2)#Collision|Collision]]
* "Gilgamesh" is an Argentinean comic book series by Robin Wood.
* "Gil Gamesh" is a major character in [[Philip Roth|Philip Roth's]] novel [[The Great American Novel (Roth)|The Great American Novel]]. In the book, Gamesh is a sinister, Babylonian pitcher who attempts to kill an umpire.
* "Project Gilgamesh" attempts to create a supersoldier, but instead creates a villain named Bane, in ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''.
* The Novel "To the Land of the Living" By Robert Silverberg. Is a major adaption of the legend.. and so much more.
==See also==
*[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]
*[[Chaldean mythology]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2982891.stm BBC News (April 2003): Gilgamesh tomb believed found]
*[http://www.strippedbooks.com/comics/stripped03/gilgamesh01.html Stripped Books: Stephen Mitchell on Gilgamesh -- Comics-form adaptation of a talk by translator/poet Stephen Mitchell about the epic poem]
[[Category:Sumerian mythology]]
[[Category:Mythological kings]]
[[ar:گلگامش]]
[[bg:Гилгамеш]]
[[ca:Gilgamesh]]
[[da:Gilgamesh]]
[[de:Gilgamesch]]
[[es:Gilgamesh]]
[[fr:Gilgamesh]]
[[ko:길가메시 서사시]]
[[is:Gilgamesharkviða]]
[[it:Gilgamesh]]
[[he:גילגמש]]
[[ku:Gilgameş]]
[[nl:Gilgamesh]]
[[ja:ギルガメシュ]]
[[no:Gilgamesj]]
[[pt:Gilgamesh]]
[[ru:Гильгамеш]]
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[[fi:Gilgamesh]]
[[sv:Gilgamesh]]
[[th:กิลกาเมช]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gluten</title>
<id>13152</id>
<revision>
<id>41484428</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T17:52:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.147.129.130</ip>
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<comment>/* Maladies caused by gluten */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the food product made from gluten see [[Wheat gluten (food)]].''
[[image:Wheat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Wheat - a prime source of gluten]]
'''Gluten''' is an amorphous [[ergastic substance|ergastic]] [[protein]] found combined with [[starch]] in the [[endosperm]] of some [[cereal]]s, notably [[wheat]], [[rye]], and [[barley]]. It constitutes about 80% of the proteins contained in wheat, and is composed of the proteins [[gliadin]] and [[glutenin]]. Gluten is responsible for the [[elastic|elasticity]] of kneaded [[dough]], which allows it to be [[leavening agent|leavened]], as well as the "chewiness" of baked products like [[bagel]]s.
== Extraction ==
Gluten can be extracted from the [[flour]] of wheat and other grains by washing the [[starch]] out. To do this, a simple [[dough]] of flour and water is rinsed with plain water and kneaded until the rinsing water remains clear and free from starch and [[bran]]. For chemical, non-food purposes, a [[salt|saline]] solution provides better results. The remaining lump of gluten should have a stringy, sticky texture reminiscent of [[chewing gum]]
== Usage ==
Cooked gluten becomes firm to the bite and soaks up a certain amount of the surrounding [[broth]] and its taste. It is therefore commonly used in [[vegetarian cuisine]], notably [[Buddhist cuisine|Chinese Buddhist]] and [[vegan|vegan cuisine]], where one variety is called [[wheat gluten (food)|seitan]]. Some consider it a convincing [[imitation meat]] (particularly duck) when the broth is flavored accordingly.
In the process of [[baking]], gluten is responsible for keeping the [[fermentation]] gases in the dough, allowing it to rise. After baking, the [[denaturation (biochemistry)|coagulate]]d gluten ensures that the final product keeps its shape.
== Occurrence ==
Gluten is found in some cereals (e.g., [[wheat]], [[rye]], [[barley]]) and their end products. No gluten is contained in [[rice]] (even [[glutinous rice]]), [[wild rice]], [[maize]] (corn), [[millet]]s, [[buckwheat]], [[quinoa]], or [[amaranth]]. [[Oat]]s and [[teff]] do not contain gluten, but are sometimes grown directly adjacent to, and/or milled on the same equipment as, other grains that do contain gluten, and so are commonly contaminated. Non-cereals such as [[soybean]]s and [[sunflower seed]]s contain no gluten.
Other varieties of wheat such as [[kamut]] and [[spelt]] have slightly different forms of gluten. Many people who are unable to digest gluten for non-celiac reasons are able to digest these varieties. People suffering from [[coeliac disease]] are advised to avoid all forms of wheat.
== See also ==
* [[Textured vegetable protein]]
* [[Wheat gluten (food)]]
[[Category:nutrition]]
[[be:Глютэн]]
[[da:Gluten]]
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[[es:Gluten]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Domestic goat</title>
<id>13153</id>
<revision>
<id>41569525</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T05:19:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fir0002</username>
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<comment>/* Meat */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For general information on goats, including [[mythology]] and [[wild]] [[species]], see [[Goat]]. This article focuses on the [[domestic]] species.''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Domestic Goat
| status = {{StatusDomesticated}}
| image = Goat face.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Caprinae]]
| genus = ''[[Goat|Capra]]''
| species = ''[[Wild Goat|C. aegagrus]]''
| subspecies = '''''C. a. hircus'''''
| trinomial = ''Capra aegagrus hircus''
| trinomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)
}}
The '''domestic [[goat]]''' (Capra aegagrus hircus) is a [[domesticated]] subspecies of the [[Wild Goat]] of south-west [[Asia]] and eastern [[Europe]].
Domestic goats are one of the oldest domesticated species. For thousands of years, they have been utilized for their [[milk]], [[meat]], [[hair]], and [[skin]]s all over the world. In the last century they have also gained some popularity as [[pet]]s.
Female goats are referred to as ''does'' or ''nannies'', intact males as ''bucks'' or ''billies''. [[Castration|Castrated]] males are ''wethers'', offspring are ''kids''. Goat meat is sometimes called '''chevon'''.
==History==
[[Image:Male goat.jpg|thumb|250px|Male goat, also called a buck]]
Goats seem to have been first [[domesticated]] roughly 10,000 years ago in the [[Zagros]] Mountains of [[Iran]].[http://web.utk.edu/~persian/goat.htm] Ancient cultures and [[tribe]]s began to keep them for easy access to [[milk]], [[hair]], [[meat]], and [[skin]]s. Domestic goats were generally kept in herds that wandered on hills or other grazing areas, often tended by [[goatherd]]s who were frequently [[children]] or [[adolescent]]s, similar to the more widely known [[shepherd]]. Th |
nal judicial institutions|international court]] proposed at the beginning of the [[20th century]], to hear prize cases. An international agreement to create it, the ''Convention Relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court'', was made at the [[Hague]] on [[October 18]], [[1907]].
The International Prize Court was to hear appeals from national courts concerning prize cases. It was later modified by the ''Additional Protocol to the Convention Relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court'' [http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/1907k.htm], done at the Hague on [[October 18]], [[1910]]. However, neither the convention nor the subsequent protocol ever entered into force, since none of the signatories ever ratified it, and the court never came into existence.
The Convention was opposed, particularly by elements within the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], as a violation of national sovereignty.
It was innovative for the time, in being both the first ever treaty for a truly international court (as opposed to a mere arbitral tribunal), and in providing individuals with access to the court, going against the prevailing doctrines of international law at the time, according to which only states had rights and duties under international law. The protocol was an attempt to resolve some concerns expressed by the United States at the court, who felt it to be in violation of its constitution, which provided for its Supreme Court to have the final judicial authority.
A number of ideas from the International Prize Court can be seen in present day international courts, such as its provision for judges ''ad hoc'', later adopted in the Permanent Court of International Justice (now the [[International Court of Justice]]).
[[Category:Prize warfare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imam</title>
<id>15240</id>
<revision>
<id>40930661</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T23:19:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bubuka</username>
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<minor />
<comment>ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
'''''Imam''''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: إمام ,[[Persian language| Persian]]: امام ) is an Arabic word meaning "Leader". The ruler of a country might be called the Imam, for example. However, the capitalized term or ''The Imam'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''' الإمام''') has important connotations in the [[Islam|Islamic]] tradition especially in [[Shia]] Beliefs .
__TOC__
==Prayer Leader==
The common everyday use of the word is for a person leading [[Salah|Muslim congregational prayers]] (salah). In this meaning the imam is not required to be a [[clergy|cleric]].
==Clerical "Imams"==
===Shia "Imams"===
In the [[Shia]] context, '''''[[Shia Imam|Imam]]''''' has a meaning more central to belief.
The Shia believe that The Imam is someone who is able to lead mankind in all aspects of life. In addition they believe that an Imam is a perfect example in everything. According to Shia, an Imam is a leader that ''must'' be followed since he is appointed by [[Allah]] (GOD).
The Shia interpretation is that the Quran clearly says that only God can appoint an ''Imam'' and no one else has the power to designate one. The incident of [[Ghadir Khom|Ghadeer-e-Khum]] is referenced as when Muhammad declared [[Ali]] as the leader of the community after him.
According to the Twelve-Imam [[Shiite]], Imam is a divine status like Prophethood. A Prophet can also be an Imam but not all Prophets are Imams. Since Prophet Muhammad is the last Prophet, there could be no Prophets after him and so the 12 Imams are not Prophets but only Imams. These 12 Imams are as great in a sense as all the previous prophets except Prophet Muhammed who is the greatest of all. Following is a listing of the rightful successors of [[Muhammad]], as recognized by ("Twelver") Shias. Each Imam was the son of the previous Imam, except for Husayn who was the brother of Hasan and Ali being Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. The Shi'a argue that is in Honor of the Muhammed that God made the Imams of his lineage through [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]] and it is not a simple inheritance like a kingdom. See [[Shia Imams]] for details.
# [[Ali|Ali ibn Abu Talib]] ([[600]]–[[661]])
# [[Hasan ibn Ali]] ([[625]]–[[669]])
# [[Husayn ibn Ali]] ([[626]]–[[680]])
# [[Ali ibn Husayn]] ([[658]]–[[713]]), also known as ''Zainul Abideen''
# [[Muhammad al-Baqir|Muhammad al Baqir]] ([[676]]–[[743]])
# [[Ja'far al-Sadiq|Jafar as Sadiq]] ([[703]]–[[765]])
# [[Musa al-Kazim|Musa al Kazim]] ([[745]]–[[799]])
# [[Ali al-Rida|Ali ar Rida]] ([[765]]–[[818]])
# [[Muhammad al-Taqi|Muhammad at Taqi]] ([[810]]–[[835]])
# [[Ali al-Hadi|Ali al Hadi]] ([[827]]–[[868]])
# [[Hasan al-Askari|Hasan al Askari]] ([[846]]–[[874]])
# [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|Muhammad al Mahdi]] ([[868]]–?))
The [[Ismailis]] trace a different line of Imams, branching at one of Husayn's descendants, [[Ismail bin Jafar]].
The [[Zaiddiyah]] trace a different line, branching at Husayn's grandson, [[Zaid]].
===Sunni "Imams"===
The term is also used for a recognized religious leader or teacher in [[Islam]], often for the founding scholars of the four [[Sunni]] [[madhhab]]s, or schools of [[fiqh|religious jurisprudence ''(fiqh)'']]. For example, ''Imam [[Abu Hanifa]]''. Or the Imams of the sciences related to [[Hadith]] such as Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Imam Abu Dawood. Or the heads of the Prophet's descendants in their times such as Imam Ali, Imam Hasan, Imam Hussein, and Imam [[Jafar Sadiq]].
==Theocratical "Imams"==
In a few historical cases, the title of imam was used for a [[de facto]] Muslim theocratic ruler, especially [[Sectarianism|sectarian]], sort of a mini-[[caliph]] or [[Mahdi]]; notably :
* in northern [[Yemen]]
* in [[Oman]]
* in [[Chechnya]] and in Muslim regions of [[Russia]]
==See also==
*[[Shia Imam]]
* [[Women as imams]]
==External links==
*For a slightly more detailed description of the Shiite belief (and for the other names and titles of the twelve Imáms), see, for example, http://www.bahai-library.org/books/dawnbreakers/preface/prefislam.html .
*[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/index.html Graphical illustration of the Shia sects]
*[http://www.akhbari.com Akhbari sub-sect], a Shia school of thought; including Khomeini's
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Imams|*Iman]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[ar:إمام]]
[[da:Imam]]
[[de:Imam]]
[[es:Imán (religión)]]
[[eo:Imamo]]
[[fa:امام]]
[[fr:Imam]]
[[ko:이맘]]
[[id:Imam]]
[[it:Imam]]
[[he:אימאם]]
[[ka:იმამი]]
[[nl:Imam]]
[[ja:イマーム]]
[[no:Imam]]
[[pl:Imam]]
[[pt:Imam]]
[[ru:Имам]]
[[sk:Imám]]
[[sl:Imamiti]]
[[sv:Imam]]
[[th:อิมาม]]
[[tr:İmam]]
[[zh:阿訇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Instrument flight rules</title>
<id>15242</id>
<revision>
<id>39741376</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T15:16:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
<id>241538</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{mergefrom|Air traffic control#Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|IFR}}
{{mergefrom|Air traffic control#Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)}}
'''Instrument flight rules (IFR)''' is a set of regulations and procedures for flying [[aircraft]] without the assumption that pilots will be able to see and avoid obstacles, terrain, and other air traffic; it is an alternative to [[visual flight rules]] (VFR), where the [[aviator|pilot]] is primarily or exclusively responsible for ''see-and-avoid''.
==Separation==
The most important concept of IFR flying is that it allows continued flight operations in reduced visibility, during which time the ability of a pilot to physically see and avoid collision with other aircraft or obstacles is severely reduced, or even impossible. The distance that is achieved when avoiding obstacles or other aircraft is termed ''separation''. In [[controlled airspace]], [[air traffic control]] (ATC) separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other IFR aircraft by applying separations based on time, distance, and altitude differences between aircraft, by relying either on [[radar]] or reports of aircraft positions traditionally sent as voice radio transmissions, but increasingly as electronic data exchanges.
Generally, in most controlled airspaces, IFR aircraft require an ATC ''clearance'' for each part of the flight, typically providing a heading or route, altitude, and ''clearance limit'' (the farthest the aircraft can fly without a new clearance). In very busy areas, typically near major airports, clearances may also be required for VFR aircraft, and ATC may also provide separation between IFR and VFR aircraft or even between VFR aircraft. In uncontrolled airspace, IFR aircraft do not require clearances, and they separate themselves from each other by using charted minimum altitudes to avoid terrain and obstacles, standard cruising altitudes to avoid aircraft flying in different directions, and radio reports over mandatory locations. In the United States and Canada, all airspace from 18,000 to 60,000 feet (5,586 to 18,288 meters) is designated as ''Class A'', requiring all aircraft to operate under IFR.
==Weather==
One advantage of IFR is the ability to fly an aircraft in [[instrument meteorological conditions]] (IMC), weather conditions that do not meet the minimum visibility requirements for VFR. In such conditions the pilot will control the attitude of the aircraft by watching the [[flight instruments]], and will rely entirely on ATC for separation (though large airliners and, increasingly, smaller aircraft now carry their own terrain- and collision-avoidance systems such as [[TCAS]]). It is important, however, not to confuse IFR with IMC: the vast majority of IFR flying is done under [[visual meteorological conditions]] (VMC), and in many c |
the word ''blind''.
There are three [[antonym]]s of euphemism: ''[[dysphemism]]'', ''[[cacophemism]]'', and ''[[power word]]''. The first can be either offensive or merely humorously deprecating with the second one generally used more often in the sense of something deliberately offensive. The last is used mainly in arguments to make a point seem more correct.
==The evolution of euphemisms==
Euphemisms may be formed in a number of ways. ''[[Periphrasis]]'' or ''[[circumlocution]]'' is one of the most common -- to "speak around" a given word, implying it without saying it. Over time, circumlocutions become recognized as established euphemisms for particular words or ideas.
To alter the pronunciation or spelling of a [[taboo]] word (such as a [[swear word]]) to form a euphemism is known as ''[[taboo deformation]]''. There are an astonishing number of taboo deformations in English, of which many refer to the infamous [[four-letter word]]s. In [[American English]], words which are unacceptable on television, such as ''[[fuck]]'', may be represented by deformations such as ''freak'' &mdash; even in children's cartoons. Some examples of [[Cockney rhyming slang]] may serve the same purpose &mdash; to call a person a ''berk'' sounds less offensive than to call him a ''[[cunt]]'', though ''berk'' is short for ''Berkshire Hunt'' which rhymes with ''cunt''.
[[Bureaucracy|Bureaucracies]] such as the [[military]] and large [[corporation]]s frequently spawn euphemisms of a more deliberate (and to some, more sinister) nature. Organizations coin ''[[doublespeak]]'' expressions to describe objectionable actions in terms that seem neutral or inoffensive. For example, a term used for radiation leaked from an improperly operated [[nuclear power plant]] is ''sunshine units''. Similarly, employees of the fast-food chain [[McDonald's]] refer to putting any food into a [[microwave]] as "putting it in the [[queue]]".
Militaries at [[war]] frequently do kill people, sometimes deliberately and sometimes by mistake; in doublespeak, the first may be called ''neutralizing the target'' and the second ''[[collateral damage]]''. A common term when a [[soldier]] accidentally is killed (''buys the farm'') by the side they are fighting for is ''[[friendly fire]]''. ("Buy the farm" has its own interesting [http://www.snopes.com/language/phrases/farm.htm history].)
''[[execution (legal)|Execution]]'' is an established euphemism referring to the act of putting a person to death, with or without judicial process. It originally referred to the execution, i.e. the carrying out, of a [[death warrant]], which is an authorization to a sheriff, prison warden, or other official to [[capital punishment|put a named person to death]]. In legal usage, ''execution'' can still refer to the carrying out of other types of orders; for example, in U.S. legal usage, a [[writ of execution]] is a direction to enforce a [[civil law (common law)|civil]] [[judgment|money judgment]] by seizing property. Likewise, [[lethal injection]] itself is an euphemism for putting the convict to death by poisoning.
Likewise, industrial unpleasantness such as [[pollution]] may be toned down to ''outgassing'' or ''runoff'' &mdash; descriptions of physical processes rather than their damaging consequences. Some of this may simply be the application of precise technical terminology in the place of popular usage, but beyond precision, the advantage of technical terminology may be its lack of emotional undertones, the disadvantage being the lack of [[real life|real-life]] [[context]].
==Euphemisms for the profane==
Profane words and expressions are generally taken from three areas: [[religion]], [[excretion]], and [[sex]]. While [[profanity|profanities]] themselves have been around for some time, their limited use in public and by the [[media]] has only in the past decade become socially acceptable, and there are still many expressions which cannot be used in polite conversation. The common marker of acceptability would appear to be use on [[prime-time]] [[television]] or in the presence of children. Thus, ''damn'' (and most other religious profanity) is acceptable, and as a consequence, euphemisms for religious profanity have taken on a very stodgy feeling. Excretory profanity such as ''[[piss]]'' and ''[[shit]]'' may be acceptable in adult conversation, while euphemisms like ''Number One'' and ''Number Two'' are preferred for use with children. Most sexual terms and expressions either remain unacceptable for general use or have undergone radical rehabilitation (''[[penis]]'' and ''[[vagina]]'', for instance).
===Religious euphemisms===
Euphemisms for [[God]] and [[Jesus]] are used by Christians to avoid taking the name of God in a vain oath, which would violate one of the [[Ten Commandments]]. Jews say ''Adonai'' (Lord) when reading scriptures that refer to God "by name".
Euphemisms for [[hell]], [[Damnation#Religious|damnation]], and the [[devil]], on the other hand, are often used to avoid invoking the power of the adversary.
===Excretory euphemisms===
While ''[[urinate]]'' and ''[[defecate]]'' are not euphemisms, they are used almost exclusively in a clinical sense. The basic [[Anglo-Saxon]] words for these functions, ''piss'' and ''shit'', are considered vulgarities, despite the use of ''piss'' in the [[King James Version|King James Bible]] (in Isaiah 36:12 and elsewhere).
The word ''[[manure]]'', referring to animal feces used as [[fertilizer]] for plants, literally means "worked with the hands", alluding to the mixing of manure with earth. Several [[zoo]]s market the byproduct of [[elephants]] and other large [[herbivores]] as ''Zoo Doo'', and there is a brand of [[chicken]] manure available in garden stores under the name ''Cock-a-Doodle Doo''. Similarly, the string of letters ''BS'' often replaces the word ''[[bullshit]]'' in polite society.
There are any number of lengthier [[periphrasis|periphrases]] for excretion used to excuse oneself from company, such as to ''powder one's nose'' or to ''[[see a man about a horse]]'' (or ''dog''). Slang expressions which are neither particularly euphemistic nor [[dysphemistic]], such as ''take a leak'', form a separate category.
===Sexual euphemisms===
The Latin term ''pudendum'' and the Greek term ''αιδοίον'' (''aidoion'') for the genitals literally mean "shameful thing". ''Groin'' and ''crotch'' refer to a larger region of the body, but are euphemistic when used to refer to the genitals. Euphemisms are more common in reference to sexual practices or orientations, particularly non-heterosexual ones, as shown in this quote from the UK version of ''[[Queer as Folk (UK)|Queer as Folk]]'', which includes both euphemisms and dysphemisms regarding male homosexuality:
:Because I'm queer I'm gay I'm homosexual I'm a poof I'm a poofta I'm a ponse I'm a bum boy batty boy backside artist bugger I'm bent, I am that arse bandit, I lift those shirts, I'm a faggot-assed fudgepackin' shitstabbin' uphill gardener I dine at the downstairs restaurant I dance at the other end of the ballroom I'm Moses and the parting of the red cheeks I fuck and am fucked, I suck and am sucked, I rim them and wank them and every single man has had the fucking time of his life, and I'm not a pervert.
Virtually all other [[sexual slang|sexual terms]] are still considered profane and unacceptable for use even in a euphemistic sense.
==Euphemisms for death==
The English language contains numerous euphemisms related to dying, [[death]], [[burial]], and the people and places which deal with death. The practice of using euphemisms for death is likely to have originated with the [[Magical thinking|"magical"]] belief that to speak the word 'death' was to invite death (where to "draw Death's attention" is the ultimate bad-fortune -- a common theory holds that death is a taboo subject in most English-speaking cultures for precisely this reason).
It may be said that one is not dying, but ''fading quickly'' because ''the end is near''. People who have died are referred to as having ''passed away'' or ''passed'' or ''departed''. ''Deceased'' is a euphemism for 'dead', and sometimes the ''deceased'' is said to have ''gone to a better place'', but this is used primarily among the religious with a concept of [[heaven]].
There are many euphemisms for the dead body, some polite and some profane, as well as [[dysphemism]]s such as ''worm food'', or ''dead meat''. The corpse was once referred to as ''the shroud (or house or tenement) of clay'', and modern funerary workers use terms such as ''the loved one'' (title of a [[novel]] about [[Hollywood]] undertakers by [[Evelyn Waugh]]) or ''the dearly departed''. (They themselves have given up the euphemism ''funeral director'' for ''grief therapist'', and hold ''arrangement conferences'' with relatives.) Among themselves, mortuary technicians often refer to the corpse as the ''client''.
Contemporary euphemisms and dysphemisms for death tend to be quite colorful, and someone who has died is said to have ''passed away'', ''passed on'', ''bit the big one'', ''bought the farm'', ''croaked'', ''given up the ghost'' (originally a more respectful term), ''kicked the bucket'', ''gone south'', ''tits up'', ''shuffled off this mortal coil'' (from [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Hamlet]]''), or ''assumed room temperature''. When buried, they may be said to be ''pushing up daisies'' or ''taking a dirt nap'' or ''six feet under''. There are hundreds of such expressions in use. (Old [[Burma-Shave]] jingle: "If daisies are your favorite flower, keep pushin' up those miles per hour!")
Euthanasia also attracts euphemisms. One may ''put him out of his misery'', ''put him to sleep'', or ''have him put down'', the latter phrases being used primarily with non-humans.
There are a few euphemisms for killing which are neither respectful n |
double or triple bonds between carbon atoms, are divided into:
#*[[alkene]]s
#*[[alkyne]]s
[[Image:Kalottenmodell_Ethin.png|thumb|right|180px|A model of the alkyne called [[Ethyne]]]]
== The number of hydrogen atoms ==
The number of hydrogen atoms in hydrocarbons can be determined, if the number of carbon atoms is known, by using these following equations:
*Alkanes: C<sub>''n''</sub>H<sub>''2n+2''</sub>
*Alkenes: C<sub>''n''</sub>H<sub>''2n''</sub> (assuming only one double bond)
*Alkynes: C<sub>''n''</sub>H<sub>''2n-2''</sub> (assuming only one triple bond)
Each of these hydrocarbons must follow the 4-hydrogen rule which states that all carbon atoms must have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that it can hold (the limit is four). Note, an extra bond removes 2 hydrogen atoms and only saturated hydrocarbons can attain the full four. This is because of the unique positions of the carbon's four electrons.
== Molecular graph==
Usually carbon backbone is represented as molecular [[graph theory|graph]] in which only carbon atoms are represented as [[vertex|vertices]] and bonds as [[edge|edges]]. [[Molecular graph]]s contain the structure of the hydrocarbon in which missing hydrogen atoms can be added in a unique way. Hydrocarbons are extensively studied in [[mathematical chemistry]].
== Petroleum ==
Liquid geologically-extracted hydrocarbons are referred to as [[petroleum]] (literally "rock oil") or [[mineral oil]], while gaseous geologic hydrocarbons are referred to as [[natural gas]]. All are significant sources of [[fuel]] and raw materials as a [[feedstock]] for the production of [[organic chemistry|organic chemicals]] and are commonly found in the Earth´s subsurface using the tools of [[petroleum geology]].
[[Oil reserves]] in sedimentary rocks are the principal source of hydrocarbons for the energy, [[transport]] and chemicals industries. The extraction of liquid hydrocarbon [[fuel]] from a number of [[sedimentary basin]]s has been integral to modern [[energy development]].
Hydrocarbons are of prime economic importance because they encompass the constituents of the major [[fossil fuel]]s ([[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], etc.) and [[biofuel]]s, as well as [[plastic]]s, [[wax]]es, [[solvent|solvents]] and [[Mineral oil|oil]]s. In urban [[pollution]], these components--along with NOx and [[sunlight]]--all contribute to the formation of [[tropospheric ozone]].
== [[Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion|Burning Hydrocarbons]] ==
Hydrocarbons are one of [[Earth]]'s most important natural resources. Hydrocarbons are currently the main source of the world’s electric energy and heat sources (such as home heating) because of the energy produced when burnt. Hydrocarbons are all substances with low [[entropy]] (meaning they hold a lot of energy potential), which can be released and harnessed by burning them. Often this energy is used directly as heat such as in home heaters, which use either oil or natural gas. The hydrocarbon is burnt and the heat is used to heat water, which is then circulated in pipes around the building heating every room. A similar principle is used to create electric energy in [[power plants]]. Hydrocarbons (usually [[coal]]) are burnt and the energy released in this way is used to turn water in to [[steam]], which is used to turn a [[turbine]] that generates energy much like a [[windmill]] does.
In an ideal reaction the waste would be only water and carbon dioxide but because the coal is not pure or clean there are often many toxic byproducts such as [[Mercury_(element)|mercury]] and [[arsenic]]. Also, incomplete [[combustion]] causes the production of carbon-monoxide which is toxic because it will bind with [[hemoglobin]] more readily than oxygen, so if it is breathed in oxygen can not be absorbed, causing suffocation. Also, incomplete [[combustion]] has a biproduct of [[carbon]] in the form of soot.
Coal reserves will last for decades and possibly beyond [[2100]]. Mostly in response to [[climate change|climate concerns]], [[clean coal]] [[technology]] is currently under [[development]]. For example, the [[UK]] and [[China]] have signed an [[agreement]] to develop such technology with carbon dioxide emissions capture and storage in both China and the [[EU]] by [[2020]]. Similar research is being conducted in the [[United States|U.S.]] and other countries.
{{commons|Gallery Hydrocarbons}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.worldofmolecules.com/fuels/methane.htm The Methane Molecule]
*[http://www.gasresources.net/DisposalBioClaims.htm Dismissal of the Claims of a Biological Connection for Natural Petroleum.]
*[http://www.gasresources.net/Introduction.htm An introduction to the modern petroleum science, and to the Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum origins.]
*[http://www.aapg.org/explorer/2002/11nov/abiogenic.cfm Abiogenic Gas Debate 11:2002 (EXPLORER)]
== See also ==
*[[Abiogenic petroleum origin]]
*[[Energy storage]]
*[[Petroleum geology]]
*[[Oil well]]
*[[Fractional distillation]]
*[[Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion]]
[[Category:Hydrocarbons|*]]
[[Category:Fossil fuels]]
[[Category:Soil contamination]]
[[ar:هيدروكربون]]
[[bg:Въглеводород]]
[[ca:Hidrocarbur]]
[[cs:Uhlovodík]]
[[da:Kulbrinte]]
[[de:Kohlenwasserstoffe]]
[[es:Hidrocarburo]]
[[eo:Hidrokarbono]]
[[fa:هیدروکربن]]
[[fr:Hydrocarbure]]
[[ko:탄화수소]]
[[io:Hidrokarbido]]
[[id:Hidrokarbon]]
[[it:Idrocarburi]]
[[he:פחמימן]]
[[lv:Ogļūdeņraži]]
[[ms:Hidrokarbon]]
[[nl:Koolwaterstof]]
[[ja:炭化水素]]
[[no:Hydrokarbon]]
[[nn:Hydrokarbon]]
[[pl:Węglowodór]]
[[pt:Hidrocarboneto]]
[[ru:Углеводороды]]
[[simple:Hydrocarbon]]
[[sr:Угљоводоник]]
[[su:Hidrokarbon]]
[[fi:Hiilivety]]
[[sv:Kolväte]]
[[th:ไฮโดรคาร์บอน]]
[[vi:Hyđrocacbon]]
[[tr:Hidrokarbon]]
[[zh:烃]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Halogen</title>
<id>13258</id>
<revision>
<id>42050389</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:27:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wayward</username>
<id>184087</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.251.44.130|209.251.44.130]] ([[User talk:209.251.44.130|talk]]) to last version by Geoking66</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses the group of [[chemical element]]s in the [[periodic table]]:for the light bulb, see [[Halogen_lamp#The_halogen_lamp|the halogen lamp]].''
{| align="right" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
! [[Periodic table group|Group]]
! [[Group 17 element|17]]
|-
! [[Periodic table period|Period]]
|-
! [[Period 2 element|2]]
| {{element cell| 9|Fluorine|F| |Gas|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 3 element|3]]
| {{element cell|17|Chlorine|Cl| |Gas|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 4 element|4]]
| {{element cell|35|Bromine|Br| |Liquid|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 5 element|5]]
| {{element cell|53|Iodine|I| |Solid|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 6 element|6]]
| {{element cell|85|Astatine|At| |Solid|Halogens|Natural radio}}
|-
! [[Period 7 element|7]]
| {{element cell|117|ununseptium|Uus| |Solid|Halogens|Undiscovered|ununseptium|#fcfece}}
|}
The '''halogens''' are a [[chemical series]]. They are the [[chemical element|elements]] in [[Periodic table group|Group 17]] (old-style: VII or VIIA) of the [[periodic table]]: [[fluorine]] ('''F'''), [[chlorine]] ('''Cl'''), [[bromine]] ('''Br'''), [[iodine]] ('''I'''), [[astatine]] ('''At''') and the as yet undiscovered [[ununseptium]] ('''Uus'''). The term halogen was coined to mean elements which produce [[salt]] in union with a [[metal]]. It comes from [[18th century]] scientific [[France|French]] nomenclature based on erring adaptations of [[Greek language|Greek]] roots.
These elements are [[diatomic]] [[molecule]]s in their natural form. They require one more [[electron]] to fill their outer [[electron shell|electron shells]], and so have a tendency to form a singly-charged [[Electric charge|negative]] [[ion]]. This negative ion is referred to as a ''halide'' ion; [[salt|salts]] containing these ions are known as [[halide|halides]].
Halogens are highly [[reactivity|reactive]], and as such can be harmful or lethal to [[biological]] [[organisms]] in sufficient quantities. Chlorine and iodine are both used as [[disinfectants]] for such things as [[drinking water]], swimming pools, fresh wounds, dishes, and surfaces. They kill [[bacteria]] and other potentially harmful [[microorganisms]], a process known as [[Sterilization_%28microbiology%29|sterilization]]. Their [[Reaction (physics)|reactive]] properties are also put to use in [[Bleaching agent|bleaching]]. Chlorine is the active ingredient of most [[Cloth|fabric]] bleaches and is used in the production of most [[paper]] products.
Halide ions combined with single [[hydrogen]] [[atoms]] form the [[hydrohalic acid|''hydrohalic'' acid]]s (i.e., HF, HCl, HBr, HI), a series of particularly strong [[Acid|acids]]. (HAt, or "hydrastatic acid", should also qualify, but it is not typically included in discussions of hydrohalic acid due to astatine's extreme instability toward [[alpha decay]].)
They react with each other to form [[interhalogen]] [[Chemical compound|compounds]]. Diatomic interhalogen compounds (BrF, ICl, ClF, etc.) bear strong superficial resemblance to the pure halogens.
Many synthetic [[organic compounds]] such as [[plastic]] [[polymers]], and a few natural ones, contain halogen atoms; these are known as ''halogenated'' compounds or [[organic halide]]s. Chlorine is by far the most abundant of the halogens, and the only one needed in relatively large amounts (as chloride ions) by humans. For example, chloride ions play a key role in [[brain]] function by mediating the action of the inhibitory transmitter [[GABA]] and are also used by the body to produce stomach acid. Iodine is needed in trace amounts for the product |
ferus przewalskii''
*** [[Horse|Domestic Horse]], ''Equus caballus''
*** [[Donkey]], ''Equus asinus''
*** [[African Wild Ass]], ''Equus africanus''
**** [[Nubian Wild Ass]], ''Equus africanus africanus''
**** [[Somali Wild Ass]], ''Equus africanus somalicus''
*** [[Onager]] or [[Asiatic Ass]], ''Equus hemionus''
**** [[Mongolian Wild Ass]], ''Equus hemionus hemionus''
**** [[Syrian Wild Ass]], ''Equus hemionus hemippus'' ([[Extinction|extinct]])
**** [[Gobi Kulan]] or [[Dziggetai]] , ''Equus hemionus luteus''
**** [[Turkmenian Kulan]], ''Equus hemionus kulan''
**** [[Persian Onager]], ''Equus hemionus onager''
**** [[Indian Wild Ass]] or [[Khur]], ''Equus hemionus khur''
*** [[Kiang]], ''Equus kiang''
**** [[Western Kiang]], ''Equus kiang kiang''
**** [[Eastern Kiang]], ''Equus kiang holdereri''
**** [[Southern Kiang]], ''Equus kiang polyodon''
*** [[Plains Zebra]], ''Equus quagga''
**** [[Quagga]], ''Equus quagga quagga'' ([[Extinction|extinct]])
**** [[Burchell's Zebra]], ''Equus quagga burchellii''
**** [[Grant's Zebra]], ''Equus quagga boehmi''
**** [[Selous' zebra]], ''Equus quagga borensis''
**** [[Chapman's Zebra]], ''Equus quagga chapmani''
**** [[Crawshay's Zebra]], ''Equus quagga crawshayi''
*** [[Mountain Zebra|Cape Mountain Zebra]], ''Equus zebra''
*** [[Mountain Zebra|Hartmann's Mountain Zebra]], ''Equus hartmannae''
*** [[Grevy's Zebra]], ''Equus grevyi''
** Family [[Tapiridae]]: tapirs, 4 species in one genus
** Family [[Rhinocerotidae]]: rhinoceroses, 5 species in 4 genera
==See also==
*[[Evolution of the Horse]]
==References==
* Duncan, P. (ed.). 1992. Zebras, Asses, and Horses: an Action Plan for the Conservation of Wild Equids. IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
* Equid Specialist Group 1996. Equus ferus. In: IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on [[21 January]] [[2006]].
* Equid Specialist Group 1996. Equus ferus ssp. przewalskii. In: IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on [[21 January]] [[2006]].
* Groves, C.P. & Bell, H.B. 2004. New investigations on the taxonomy of the zebras genus Equus, subgenus Hippotigris. Mammalian Biology. 69: 182-196.
* Higuchi et al. 1987. Mitochondrial DNA of the Extinct Quagga: Relatedness and Extent of Postmortem Change. Journal of Molecular Evolution 25:283-287.
* International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Bull.Zool.Nomencl., 60:81-84.
{{horse-stub}}
[[Category:Equids| ]]
[[bg:Коне]]
[[de:Pferde]]
[[es:Equidae]]
[[eo:Ekvedoj]]
[[fr:Equidae]]
[[ko:말과]]
[[it:Equus]]
[[he:סוסיים]]
[[la:Equidae]]
[[lt:Arkliniai]]
[[nl:Paardachtigen]]
[[pl:Koniowate]]
[[pt:Equus]]
[[sv:Hästdjur]]
[[vi:Họ Ngựa]]
[[zh:马科]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of economists</title>
<id>10231</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42097942</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:39:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Atlastawake</username>
<id>74742</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* S */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is an alphabetical list of well-known '''[[economists]]'''. Economists are scholars conducting research in the field of [[economics]].
{{compactTOC5}}
===A===
*[[George Akerlof]]
*[[Armen Alchian]]
*[[Maurice Allais]]
*[[Roy G D Allen]]
*[[Elisabeth Altmann-Gottheiner]]
*[[Takeshi Amemiya]]
*[[Georges Anderla]]
*[[Kenneth Arrow]]
*[[Thomas Attwood]]
*[[Robert J. Aumann]]
===B===
*[[Ludwig Bamberger]]
*[[Paul A. Baran]]
*[[Robert Barro]]
*[[Frederic Bastiat]]
*[[Peter Thomas Bauer]]
*[[Robert Dudley Baxter]]
*[[Gary Becker]]
*[[Truman Bewley]]
*[[Jagdish Bhagwati]]
*[[Kenneth Binmore]]
*[[Fischer Black]]
*[[Walter Block]]
*[[Eugen von Boehm-Bawerk]]
*[[Giovanni Botero]]
*[[William Brainard]]
*[[William Breit]]
*[[Donald Brown]]
*[[James M. Buchanan]]
*[[Raymond Burgess]]
===C===
*[[Bryan Caplan]] <!--not well-known?-->
*[[David Card]]
*[[Henry Charles Carey]]
*[[Edward Chamberlain]]
*[[Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.]]
*[[Steven N. S. Cheung]]
*[[Colin Clark]]
*[[John Bates Clark]]
*[[John Maurice Clark]]
*[[Ronald Coase]]
*[[Jean Baptiste Colbert]]
*[[Nicolaus Copernicus]]
*[[Antoine Augustin Cournot]]
*[[Caio Koch-Weser]]
*[[Charles Bickerdike]]
===D===
*[[Partha Dasgupta]]
*[[Hernando de Soto (economist)|Hernando de Soto]]
*[[Gerard Debreu]]
*[[Harold Demsetz]]
*[[Pat Devine]]
*[[Armando Di Filippo]]
*[[Peter Diamond_economist|Peter Diamond]]
*[[Maurice Dobb]]
*[[Evsey Domar]]
*[[Rudi Dornbusch]]
*[[Jules Dupuit]]
===E===
*[[Francis Ysidro Edgeworth]]
*[[Massimo Ellul]]
*[[Kenneth G. Elzinga]]
*[[Friedrich Engels]]
*[[Robert Engle]]
===F===
*[[Günter Faltin]]
*[[Eugene Fama]]
*[[Henry Fawcett]]
*[[Irving Fisher]]
*[[Marcus Fleming]]
*[[Robert Fogel]]
*[[Bruno Frey]]
*[[David Friedman]]
*[[Milton Friedman]]
*[[Ragnar Anton Kittil Frisch|Ragnar Frisch]]
*[[Masahisa Fujita]]
*[[Celso Furtado]]
*[[Mark Furtado]]
===G===
*[[James K. Galbraith|James Kenneth Galbraith]]
*[[John Kenneth Galbraith]]
*[[John Geanakoplos]]
*[[Henry George]]
*[[Silvio Gesell]]
*[[Victor Ginsburgh]]
*[[Edward Glaeser]]
*[[Clive Granger]]
*[[Alan Greenspan]]
*[[Keith Griffin]]
*[[Elgin Groseclose]]
*[[Dominique Guellec]]
*[[ismail Gunes]]
===H===
*[[Trygve Haavelmo]]
*[[Gottfried Haberler]]
*[[Mahbub ul Haq]]
*[[Arnold Harberger]]
*[[Roy Forbes Harrod|Sir Roy F. Harrod]]
*[[John Harsanyi]]
*[[Oliver Hart]]
*[[Jerry A. Hausman]]
*[[Robert Haveman]]
*[[Fumio Hayashi]]
*[[Friedrich Hayek]]
*[[Henry Hazlitt]]
*[[James Heckman]]
*[[Eli Heckscher]]
*[[Hazel Henderson]]
*[[Noreena Hertz]]
*[[Robert Heilbroner]]
*[[John Hicks]]
*[[Jack Hirshleifer]]
*[[Hans Hermann Hoppe]]
*[[Branko Horvat]]
===I===
*[[Ken Ichi Inada]]
*[[Otmar Issing]]
===J===
*[[Munir Jalil]]
*[[William Jevons]]
*[[Marshall Jevons]]
*[[Leif Johansen]]
===K===
*[[Nicholas Kaldor]]
*[[Michal Kalecki]]
*[[Leonid Kantorovich]]
*[[Ethan Kaplan]]
*[[Peter Kenen]]
*[[John Maynard Keynes]]
*[[Daniel Kahneman]]
*[[Steve Keen]]
*[[Charles Kennedy (economist)|Charles Kennedy]]
*[[Israel Kirzner]]
*[[Lawrence Klein]]
*[[Frank Knight]]
*[[Nikolai Kondratiev]]
*[[Tjalling Koopmans]]
*[[Janos Kornai]]
*[[Naum Krasner]]
*[[Lawrence B. Krause]]
*[[Jan Kregel]]
*[[Paul Krugman]]
*[[Simon Kuznets]]
*[[Finn Kydland]]
===L===
*[[Ludwig Lachmann]]
*[[Art Laffer]]
*[[Steven Landsburg]]
*[[Oskar Lange]]
*[[Wassily Leontief]]
*[[Richard Levin]]
*[[Steven Levitt]]
*[[Harvey Leibenstien]]
*[[Evsei Liberman]]
*[[Erik Lindahl]]
*[[Friedrich List]]
*[[Max O. Lorenz]]
*[[Robert Lucas, Jr.]]
*[[Edward Luttwak]]
===M===
*[[Thomas Malthus]]
*[[Gerard de Malynes]]
*[[N. Gregory Mankiw]]
*[[Harry Markowitz]]
*[[Alfred Marshall]]
*[[Karl Marx]]
*[[Richard Maybury]]
*[[Daniel McFadden]]
*[[Carl Menger]]
*[[David Miles]]
*[[John Stuart Mill]]
*[[Jacob Mincer]]
*[[James Mirrlees]]
*[[Marta Misas]]
*[[Ludwig von Mises]]
*[[Franco Modigliani]]
* [[Herbert Mohring]]
*[[Gustave de Molinari]]
*[[Michio Morishima]]
*[[Robert Mundell]]
*[[John Muth]]
*[[Alva Myrdal]]
*[[Gunnar Myrdal]]
===N===
*[[John Forbes Nash]]
*[[John von Neumann]]
*[[Douglass North]]
===O===
*[[Ronald Oaxaca]]
*[[Bertil Ohlin]]
*[[Arthur Melvin Okun]]
===P===
*[[Vilfredo Pareto]]
*[[Jacques Parizeau]]
*[[Luigi Pasinetti]]
*[[Edith Penrose]]
*[[Carlota Perez]]
*[[Douglas Peters]]
*[[Sir William Petty]]
*[[Arthur Cecil Pigou]]
*[[Michael Polanyi]]
*[[Richard Posner]]
*[[Edward Prescott]]
===Q===
*[[Danny Quah]]
*[[Francois Quesnay]]
===R===
*[[Frank Plumpton Ramsey]]
*[[Daniel Raymond]]
*[[George Reisman]]
*[[David Ricardo]]
*[[Lionel Robbins]]
*[[Abraham Robinson]]
*[[Denis Robertson]]
*[[Joan Robinson]]
*[[Harvey S. Rosen]]
*[[Sherwin Rosen]]
*[[Alvin Roth]]
*[[Murray Rothbard]]
*[[Ariel Rubinstein]]
*[[Isaak Russman]]
*[[Bert Rürup]]
*[[Tadeusz Rybczynski]]
*[[ Justinian Rweyemamu]]
===S===
*[[Jeffrey Sachs]]
*[[Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon|Henri de Saint-Simon]]
*[[Paul Samuelson]]
*[[Jose Santana]]
*[[Thomas J. Sargent]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Say]]
*[[Louis Say]]
*[[Herbert Scarf]]
*[[Thomas Schelling]]
*[[Gustav von Schmoller]]
*[[Theodore Schultz]]
*[[E. F. Schumacher|Ernst Schumacher]]
*[[Joseph Schumpeter]]
*[[Anna Schwartz]]
*[[Amartya Sen]]
*[[Nassau William Senior]]
*[[G. L. S. Shackle]]
*[[Robert Shiller]]
*[[Findlay Shirras]]
*[[Andrei Shleifer]]
*[[Martin Shubik]]
*[[Ota Sik]]
*[[Herbert Simon]]
*[[Julian Lincoln Simon]]
*[[Eugen Slutsky]]
*[[Jason Smith (economist)|Jason Smith]]
*[[Adam Smith]]
*[[Andrzej Sławiński]]
*[[Thomas Smith]]
*[[Vernon Smith]]
*[[Manmohan Singh]]
*[[Robert Solow]]
*[[Werner Sombart]]
*[[Hugo F. Sonnenschein]]
*[[Thomas Sowell]]
*[[Michael Spence]]
*[[Piero Sraffa]]
*[[T. N. Srinivasan]]
*[[George Joseph Stigler]]
*[[Joseph E. Stiglitz]]
*[[Lawrence Summers]]
*[[William Graham Sumner]]
*[[Paul Sweezy]]
*[[Paolo Sylos Labini]]
*[[Edward Szczepanik]]
===T===
*[[Lester G. Telser]]
*[[Richard Thaler]]
*[[Duncan Thomas]]
*[[Lester Thurow]]
*[[Jan Tinbergen]]
*[[James Tobin]]
*[[Michael Todaro]]
*[[Giulio Tremonti]]
*[[Anne Turgot]]
*[[Amos Tversky]]
===U===
*[[Christopher Udry]]
*[[Kazuhide Uekusa]]
*[[Hirofumi Uzawa]]
===V===
*[[Alexander Van der Bellen]]
*[[Bruno van Pottelsberghe]]
*[[Eugen Varga]]
*[[Thorstein Veblen]]
*[[William Vickrey]]
*[[Jacob Viner]]
*[[Robert W. Vishny]]
*[[Paul Volcker]]
===W===
*[[Léon Walras]]
*[[John Glen Wardrop]]
*[[Alfred Weber]]
*[[Max Weber]]
*[[Knut Wicksell]]
*[[Philip H Wicksteed]]
*[[Friedrich von Wieser]]
*[[Walter E. Williams]]
*[[Oliver Williamson]]
===X===
===Y===
*[[Janet Yellen]]
*[[Arthur Young]]
===Z===
==See also==
*[[The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]
*[[List of economics consultan |
he census bureau''. Ph.D. dissertation, [[Columbia University]] School of Mines ([[1890]])
* [[W.J. Eckert]], ''Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation'' ([[1940]]) [[Columbia University]]. 136 pp. Index.
* [[Stanislaw Ulam]], "[[John von Neumann]], 1903-1957," ''Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society'', vol. '''64''', ([[1958]])
* Arthur W. Burks, [[Herman Goldstine|Herman H. Goldstine]], and [[John von Neumann]], "Preliminary discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument," ''Datamation'', September-October [[1962]].
* [[Gordon Bell]] and [[Allen Newell]], ''Computer Structures: Readings and Examples'' ([[1971]]).
==Books for further reading==
See [[List of books on the history of computing]]
== See also ==
* [[Charles Babbage Institute]]
** '''History of computing hardware'''
*** [[History of operating systems]]
** [[History of the internet]]
*** [[History of the graphical user interface]]
* [[Computer architecture]] &ndash; how computers are designed
** [[Computers in fiction]]
* [[Computing timeline]]
** [[Mainframe computer]]
*** [[Minicomputer]]
**** [[Personal computer|Microcomputer]]
***** [[Nanotechnology]]
* [[CPU design]] &ndash; includes an evolutionary history of CPU architecture and design
** [[History of computer hardware in communist countries]]
* [[Programming language timeline]]
Links to first-generation electronic computers (use [[Vacuum tube]]s):
*[[Atanasoff Berry Computer]]
*[[BARK]]
*[[Bendix G-15]]
*[[BESK]]
*[[BINAC]]
*[[CSIRAC]]
*[[DEUCE]]
*[[EDSAC]]
*[[EDVAC]]
*[[ENIAC]]
*[[Ferranti Mark I]]
*[[Ferranti Mercury]]
*[[IAS machine]]
*[[IBM 650]]
*[[IBM 701]]
*[[IBM 704]]
*[[IBM 709]]
*[[ILLIAC]]
*[[LEO computer]]
*[[MANIAC I]]
*[[Manchester Mark I]]
*[[NORC]]
*[[ORDVAC]]
*[[PEGASUS (computer)]]
*[[Pilot ACE]]
*[[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]]
*[[SARA (computer)]]
*[[SEAC (computer)|SAAC]]
*[[Small-Scale Experimental Machine]]
*[[SWAC (computer)|SWAC]]
*[[Strela computer]]
*[[UNIVAC I]]
*[[UNIVAC 1101]]
*[[UNIVAC 1102]]
*[[UNIVAC 1103]]
*[[UNIVAC 1103A]]
*[[UNIVAC 1105]]
*[[Whirlwind (computer)]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.old-computers.com/ OLD-COMPUTERS.COM], extensive collection of information and pictures about old computers
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Computers_and_Internet/History/ Yahoo Computers and History]
*[http://www.sri.com/about/timeline/allmagnetic-logic.html "All-Magnetic Logic"] computer developed at SRI International, in 1961
*[http://www.algana.co.uk/FamousNames/FamousNamesFrameset.htm ''Famous Names in the History of Computing.''] Free source for history of computing biographies.
*[http://ox.compsoc.net/~swhite/history.html Stephen White's excellent computer history site] (the above article is a modified version of his work, used with [[History of computing/Permission|Permission]])
*[http://www.computerhistory.org/ Computer History Museum]
*[http://www.piercefuller.com/collect/ Paul Pierce's computer collection]
*[http://computer.org/history/development/index.html IEEE computer history timeline]
*[http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/zuse.html Konrad Zuse, inventor of first working programmable digital computer]
*[http://www.computer50.org/ ''The story of the Manchester Mark I''], 50th Anniversary website at the [[University of Manchester]]
*[http://www.virtualtravelog.net/entries/000047.html ''The Moore School Lectures and the British Lead in Stored Program Computer Development (1946&ndash;1953)''], article from Virtual Travelog
*[http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/computerhistory.html Logarithmic timeline of greatest breakthroughs since start of computing era in 1623]
*[http://www.rowayton.org/rhs/Computers/welcome.html Rowayton Historical Society's Birthplace of the World's First Business Computer]
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/STS-035Spring2004/CourseHome/index.htm MIT STS.035 &ndash; History of Computing] from [[MIT]] OpenCourseWare for [[undergraduate]] level
*[http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/EarlyBritish.html Early British Computers]
*[http://www.scriptol.org/history.php Evolution of programming languages] New features with each new language. Popular languages.
*[http://www.tomandmaria.com/Tom/Resources/ResourceFile.htm Key Resources in the History of Computing]
*[http://www.cbi.umn.edu Charles Babbage Institute]
*[http://www.computer.org/annals IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]
[[Category:Early computers|*History of computing hardware]]
[[Category:History of computing|Computing hardware]]
[[Category:One-of-a-kind computers|*History of computing hardware]]
<!-- Interlanguage links -->
[[ca:Història de la informàtica]]
[[el:Ιστορία των υπολογιστών]]
[[es:Historia del hardware]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'informatique]]
[[it:Storia del Personal Computer]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van de computer]]
[[pl:Historia informatyki]]
[[ru:История вычислительной техники]]
[[sv:Datorhistoria]]
[[pt:História do hardware]]
{{Link FA|fr}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hausdorff space</title>
<id>13637</id>
<revision>
<id>40537385</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T07:18:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>138.26.76.22</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Definitions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[topology]] and related branches of [[mathematics]], a '''Hausdorff space''', '''separated space''' or '''T<sub>2</sub> space''' is a [[topological space]] in which points can be ''separated by neighbourhoods''. Of the many [[separation axiom]]s that can be imposed on a topological space, the Hausdorff condition is the most frequently used and discussed .
Hausdorff spaces are named for [[Felix Hausdorff]], one of the founders of topology. In fact, Hausdorff's original definition of a topological space included the Hausdorff condition as an axiom.
==Definitions==
Suppose that ''X'' is a [[topological space]]. Let ''x'' and ''y'' be [[point (topology)|points]] in ''X''. We say that ''x'' and ''y'' can be ''[[separated by neighbourhoods]]'' if [[existential quantification|there exists]] a [[neighbourhood (topology)|neighbourhood]] ''U'' of ''x'' and a neighbourhood ''V'' of ''y'' such that ''U'' and ''V'' are [[disjoint]] (''U'' &cap; ''V'' = {{unicode|&empty;}}).
<div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Hausdorff space.png|200px|The points x and y, here represented by dots on opposite sides of the picture, are separated by their respective neighbourhoods U and V, here represented by disjoint open disks with the original dots at their centres.]]</div>
''X'' is a '''Hausdorff space''' if any two [[distinct]] points of ''X'' can be separated by neighborhoods. This is why Hausdorff spaces are also called ''T<sub>2</sub> spaces'' or ''separated spaces''.
''X'' is a '''preregular space''' if any two [[topologically distinguishable]] points can be separated by neighbourhoods. Preregular spaces are also called ''R<sub>1</sub> spaces''.
The relationship between these two conditions is as follows. A topological space is Hausdorff [[if and only if]] it is both preregular and [[Kolmogorov space|Kolmogorov]] (i.e. distinct points are topologically distinguishable). A topological space is preregular if and only if its [[Kolmogorov quotient]] is Hausdorff.
==Examples and counterexamples==
Almost all spaces encountered in [[mathematical analysis|analysis]] are Hausdorff; most importantly, the [[real number]]s are a Hausdorff space. More generally, all [[metric space]]s are Hausdorff. In fact, many spaces of use in analysis, such as [[topological group]]s and [[topological manifold]]s, have the Hausdorff condition explicitly stated in their definitions.
A simple example of a topology that is [[T1 space|T<sub>1</sub>]] but is not Hausdorff is the [[cofinite topology]].
[[Pseudometric space]]s typically are not Hausdorff, but they are preregular, and their use in analysis is usually only in the construction of Hausdorff [[gauge space]]s. Indeed, when analysts run across a non-Hausdorff space, it is still probably at least preregular, and then they simply replace it with its Kolmogorov quotient, which is Hausdorff.
In contrast, non-preregular spaces are encountered much more frequently in [[abstract algebra]] and [[algebraic geometry]], in particular as the [[Zariski topology]] on an [[algebraic variety]] or the [[spectrum of a ring]]. They also arise in the [[model theory]] of [[intuitionistic logic]]: every [[complete lattice|complete]] [[Heyting algebra]] is the algebra of [[open set]]s of some topological space, but this space need not be preregular, much less Hausdorff.
==Properties==
One of the nicest properties of Hausdorff spaces is that [[Limit (topology)|limit]]s of [[sequence]]s, [[net (topology)|net]]s, and [[filter (topology)|filter]]s are unique whenever they exist. In fact, a topological space is Hausdorff if and only if every net (or filter) has at most one limit. Similarly, a space is preregular if all of the limits of a given net (or filter) are topologically indistinguishable.
A useful alternative characterization of Hausdorff spaces is the following. A topological space ''X'' is Hausdorff [[iff]] the diagonal &Delta; = {(''x'',''x'') | ''x'' &isin; ''X''} is [[closed set|closed]] as a subset of the [[product space]] ''X'' &times; ''X''.
[[Subspace (topology)|Subspace]]s and [[product topology|products]] of Hausdorff spaces are Hausdorff, but [[quotient space]]s of Hausdorff spaces need not be Hausdorff. In fact, ''every'' topological space can be realized as the quotient of some Hausdorff space.
Hausdorff spaces are [[T1 space|T<sub>1</sub>]], meaning that all [[singleton (mathematics)|singleton]]s are closed. Similarly, preregular spaces are [[R0 space|R<sub>0</sub>]].
Another nice property of Hausdorff spaces is that [[compact set]]s are always closed. This m |
n]] leaves for French franc
* 1973: [[Madagascar]] leaves (1972 according to another source)
* 1973: [[Mauritania]] leaves
* 1974: [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]] leaves
* 1984: [[Mali]] rejoins (1 franc = 2 [[Malian franc]]s)
* 1985: [[Equatorial Guinea]] joins (1 "franco" = 4 [[ekwele|bipkwele]])
* 1997: [[Guinea-Bissau]] joins (1 franc = 65 [[Guinea Bissau peso|pesos]])
===European Monetary Union===
In 1998 in anticipation of [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]], the [[Council of the European Union]] addressed the monetary agreements France has with the CFA Zone and [[Comoros]] and ruled that:
* the agreements are unlikely to have any material effect on the [[monetary policy|monetary]] and [[exchange rate regime|exchange rate policy]] of the [[Euro zone]]
* in their present forms and states of implementation, the agreements are unlikely to present any obstacle to a smooth functioning of [[economic and monetary union]]
* nothing in the agreements can be construed as implying an obligation for the [[European Central Bank]] (ECB) or any national [[central bank]] to support the convertibility of the CFA and [[Comorian franc]]s
* modifications to the existing agreements will not lead to any obligations for the European Central or any national central bank
* the French Treasury will guarantee the free convertibility at a fixed parity between the [[euro]] and the CFA and Comorian francs
* the competent French authorities shall keep the [[European Commission]], the European Central Bank and the Economic and Financial Committee informed about the implementation of the agreements and inform the Committee prior to changes of the parity between the euro and the CFA and Comorian francs
* any change to the nature or scope of the agreements would require Council approval on the basis of a Commission recommendation and ECB consultation
==Institutions==
Strictly speaking, there actually exist two different currencies called CFA franc: the West African CFA franc ([[ISO 4217]] currency code XOF), and the Central Africa CFA franc ([[ISO 4217]] currency code XAF). They are distinguished in French by the meaning of the abbreviation CFA. These two CFA francs have the same exchange rate with the euro (1 euro = 655.957 XOF = 655.957 XAF), and they are both guaranteed by the French treasury ([[Trésor public]]), but the West African CFA franc cannot be used in Central African countries, and the Central Africa CFA franc cannot be used in West African countries.
===West African===
The West African CFA franc (XOF) is just known in [[French language|French]] as the ''Franc CFA'', where CFA stands for ''Communauté financière d'Afrique'' ("Financial Community of Africa"). It is issued by the BCEAO (''[[Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest]]'', i.e. "Central Bank of the West African States"), located in [[Dakar]], [[Senegal]], for the 8 countries of the UEMOA (''Union Économique et Monétaire Ouest Africaine'', i.e. "[[West African Economic and Monetary Union]]"):
*[[Benin]]
*[[Burkina Faso]]
*[[Côte d'Ivoire]]
*[[Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[Mali]]
*[[Niger]]
*[[Senegal]]
*[[Togo]]
These 8 countries have a total population of 75.5 million inhabitants ([[2003]]) and a combined GDP of 36.96 billion USD in [[2003]]. This is about the same population and GDP as [[Vietnam]].
In [[2004]], the 1994 series of West African banknotes were switched for a new series. These new notes have updated security features, and are more modern in design. The switch has also been welcomed by some because of the perception that the old bills were dirty and disease-ridden ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3654920.stm 1]). Despite this, there are fears that those living in rural regions will not hear of the changeover, and as a result, will lose their savings when the older series notes are demonetarized. As well, the color of the 5,000 CFA bill was changed from blueish to green, which could leave open the possiblility of the illiterate being shortchanged when switching from the old to the new series.
The anglophone states of [[Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Sierra Leone]], and the francophone state of [[Guinea]], have formed the [[West African Monetary Zone]] (WAMZ) and will introduce a common currency, the ECO, on [[1 December]] [[2009]]. [[Liberia]] is also set to join this monetary zone, and the ultimate goal is to unite the [[UEMOA]] and the [[WAMZ]] to form a single West African monetary zone.
[[Mauritania]], a former French colony in West Africa, uses the [[Mauritanian ouguiya]] and not the CFA franc.
===Central African===
The Central Africa CFA franc (XAF) is just known in [[French language|French]] as the ''Franc CFA'', where CFA stands for ''Coopération financière en Afrique centrale'' ("Financial Cooperation in Central Africa"). It is issued by the BEAC (''[[Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale]]'', i.e. "Bank of the Central African States"), located in [[Yaounde]], [[Cameroon]], for the 6 countries of the CEMAC (''Communauté Économique et Monétaire de l'Afrique Centrale'', i.e. "[[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa]]"):
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Chad]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[Gabon]]
These 6 countries have a total population of 34.15 million inhabitants ([[2003]]) and a combined GDP of 28.3 billion USD in [[2003]]. This is about the same population as [[Tanzania]], and the same GDP as [[Kazakhstan]].
[[Equatorial Guinea]], the only former Spanish colony in the zone, adopted the CFA in 1984.
==Denominations==
[[Coin]]s in circulation
*1 franc
*5 francs
*10 francs
*25 francs
*50 francs
*100 francs
*200 francs
*250 francs
*500 francs
[[Banknote]]s in circulation
*1,000 francs
*2,000 francs
*5,000 francs
*10,000 francs
==Current XOF/XAF exchange rates==
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=AUD&to=XAF&submit=Convert AUD] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=CAD&to=XOF&submit=Convert CAD] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=EUR&to=XAF&submit=Convert EUR] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=GBP&to=XOF&submit=Convert GBP] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=INR&to=XAF&submit=Convert INR] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=NZD&to=XOF&submit=Convert NZD] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=USD&to=XAF&submit=Convert USD]
==See also==
*[[Economy of Africa]]
*[[Comorian franc]]
*[[Currencies related to the euro]]
*[[CFP franc]]
==External links==
*[http://www.globalfinancialdata.com/index.php3?action=showghoc&country_name=Franc_Communaute_Financiere_Africaine_(CFA) History of the CFA franc]
*[http://www.banque-france.fr/gb/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm Franc zone information at Banque de France] (in [[English language|English]])
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm Franc zone information at Banque de France] (in French, but more extensive than the English version)
*[http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/1998/l_320/l_32019981128en00580059.pdf Decision of the Council of Europe on [[23 November]] [[1998]] regarding the CFA and Comorian francs] (Adobe Acrobat ([[PDF]]) file)
*[http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/subjindx/subpdfs/124euro.pdf "For better or worse: the euro and the CFA franc"], Africa Recovery, Department of Public Information, United Nations
===West African===
*[http://www.bceao.int/ Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest] (Central Bank of West African States)
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.uemoa.int/ Union Economique et Monétaire Ouest Africaine (UEMOA)] (Official Site of the West African Economic and Monetary Union)
*[http://www.home.earthlink.net/~wburson/Latest.htm "The Many Varieties of West African States Banknotes"] by Weldon D. Burson
===Central African===
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.beac.int/ Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale] (Bank of the Central Africa States)
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.cemac.cf/ Communauté Economique et Monétaire de l'Afrique Centrale] (Official Site of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa)
===Other===
*[http://www.banque-centrale.mg Central Bank of Madagascar]
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.usenghor-francophonie.org/textintegral/conferences/messmer/titre.htm Passé et Avenir du Franc C.F.A.]
*[http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC4719.htm The CFA franc zone and the EMU]
*[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=USD&to=XAF&submit=Convert U.S. Dollar to CFA Franc (BEAC) Exchange Rate - Yahoo! Finance]
{{AfricanCurrencies}}
[[Category:Economy of Benin]]
[[Category:Economy of Chad]]
[[Category:Monetary unions]]
[[ca:Franc CFA]]
[[cs:CFA frank]]
[[de:CFA-Franc]]
[[es:Franco CFA]]
[[fr:Zone franc]]
[[hr:CFA franak]]
[[ja:CFAフラン]]
[[lt:CFA frankas]]
[[nl:CFA-frank]]
[[no:CFA-franc]]
[[pl:Frank CFA]]
[[pt:Franco CFA]]
[[sv:CFA-franc]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Consciousness</title>
<id>5664</id>
<revision>
<id>41968131</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:08:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Semiconscious</username>
<id>302094</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+portal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{portalpar|Mind and Brain}}
'''Consciousness''' is a quality of the [[mind]] generally regarded to comprise such key features as [[subjectivity]], [[self-awareness]], [[sentience]], [[sapience]], and the ability to [[perception|perceive]] the relationship between [[personal identity|oneself]] and one's [[natural environment|environment]]. It is a subject of much research in [[philosophy]], [[psychology]], [[neurology]], and [[cognitive science]]. Consciousness differs itself from moral [[conscience]], often designed by |
ww.pmo.gov.uk/output/Page2988.asp].
Tony Blair secured the revision of [[Clause IV]] of the party constitution, which had been adopted in [[1918]], and which committed the party to 'the [[common ownership]] of the means of production'. This was widely interpreted in the past as a policy of [[nationalisation]]:
:"To secure for all the workers by hand or by brain the full fruits of their industry and the most equitable distribution thereof that may be possible upon the basis of the common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange, and the best obtainable system of popular administration and control of each industry of service."
A special conference of the party approved the change in March [[1995]]. The key phrase of the new clause IV is:
:"The Labour Party is a democratic socialist party. It believes that by the strength of our common endeavour we achieve more than we achieve alone, so as to create for each one of us the means to realise our true potential and for all of us a community in which power, wealth and opportunity are in the hands of the many not the few, where the rights we enjoy reflect the duties we owe, and where we live together, freely, in a spirit of solidarity, tolerance and respect."
An earlier attempt to modify clause IV, by [[Hugh Gaitskell]], had failed, after which most Labour leaders regarded it as a distraction. Tony Blair was, however, determined to signal his mastery of the party and his complete rejection of those policies, such as nationalisation, which were seen to damage Labour.
[[Image:Labour manifesto 97.jpg||thumb|The cover of Labour's [[1997 general election]] [[manifesto]]|right]]
The name change coincided with a dramatic revival of the party's fortunes. The "modernisation" of Labour party policy, and the unpopularity of the Conservative government, greatly increased Labour's appeal to "[[middle England]]". The party was concerned not to put off potential voters who had previously supported the Conservatives, and pledged to keep to the spending plans of the previous government, and not to increase the basic rate of income tax. Unexpectedly defeated for a fourth consecutive time in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1992|1992 election]], the party won the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 election]] with a majority of 179. Following a period of government and in particular after a second and third election victory in [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]], the name has diminished in significance in British political life. The Labour Party is generally referred to in the media as 'the Government' rather than 'New Labour'. However, the name is still used in party literature.
One of the first acts of the Labour government was to give the [[Bank of England]] operational independence in setting interest rates, a move that had not been foreshadowed in the manifesto or during the election campaign. Labour held to its pledges to keep to the spending plans set by the Conservatives, causing strain with those members of the party who had hoped that the landslide would lead to more radical policies. In December [[1997]], 47 left-wing Labour MPs rebelled when the government carried through the previous administration's plans to cut the benefits paid to new lone parents. The government also promoted wider use of [[Public Private Partnerships]] and the [[Private Finance Initiative]], which were opposed particularly by trade unions as a form of [[privatisation]].
In practice, the New Labour government were far closer to large corporations and rich businessmen than any other Labour government which preceded it. New Labour attracted donations from companies and rich individuals on a large scale, and often the largest benefactors have received peerages and ministerial positions. This could have influenced the range and type of policies pursued, as many of the Policy Taskforces instigated in [[1997]] and [[1998]] found a place for large numbers of industrialists, including [[Lord Simon]], a former chairman of [[BP]], [[Lord Sainsbury]] of the supermarket dynasty, and [[Alec Reed]] of Reed Employment. There have been various reports regarding the effect of such close links and policies such as [[Public-Private Partnership]] schemes, deregulation of utilities, privatisation and the tendency to [[outsource]] government services. The policy role of the Labour Party itself in the New Labour government could arguably be described as fairly minor.
The party won a further landslide majority (on a 59% turnout) in [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001]], the first time ever that the Labour Party won two successive full terms of office. The second term saw increases in public spending, especially on the [[National Health Service]], which the government insisted must be linked to the reforms it was proposing. Spending on education was likewise increased, with schools encouraged to adopt "specialisms". The Prime Minister's spokesman [[Alastair Campbell]] was much criticised by education professionals and teachers' trade unions when he stated that this policy meant the end of "the bog-standard [[Comprehensive Schools|comprehensive]]".
Labour's foreign policy kept it close to the [[United States]]. Tony Blair managed to persuade [[Bill Clinton]] to take a more active role in [[Kosovo]] in [[1999]], and UK forces assisted in the international coalition which attacked the [[Taliban]] regime in [[Afghanistan]] in [[2001]]. The UK was one of the allies of the United States that actually participated in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. The decision to engage in the conflict was met with much public disapproval, and many called Tony Blair's credibility into question when doubts emerged as to whether intelligence concerning Iraq's [[Weapons of mass destruction|Weapons of Mass Destruction]] was at all reliable. This loss of support contributed to the substantial reduction of Labour's majority in the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]].
The name "New Labour" has been widely satirised. Critics associate the new name with an unprecedented use of '[[spin doctor|spin doctoring]]' in the party's relationship with media. The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] attempted to tarnish the new Labour tag during the 1997 election campaign using the slogan 'New Labour, New Danger'. After [[Gordon Brown]]'s budgets became more and more [[Keynesian]], ''[[Private Eye]]'' began to call the party 'New' Labour. Oddly, it continues to do so even in articles relating an example of privatisation or free-market initiatives by Labour (a frequent theme, especially in Doing the Rounds, the medical column, and In the Back, the investigative section), or other right-wing or [[neoliberalism|neoliberal]] policies, in which context the ironic inverted commas would be more appropriate around "Labour" than around "New".
In left-wing circles, the name "New Labour" or [[Neo]] Labour is used [[pejorative]]ly to refer to the perceived domination of the Labour Party by its right-wing. Indeed, some [[socialists]] argue that Labour has become so fond of [[neo-liberal]] policies it is [[Thatcherism|Thatcherite]] rather than [[Democratic Socialism|Democratic Socialist]].
==The Labour Party today==
[[Image:LabourCampaignPoster20050115 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|333px|right|thumb|Labour, the incumbent party displayed campaign posters, even prior to the 2005 election being called. This one is seen in [[Brighton]] in mid-January, [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]].]]
The party's popularity has declined since 2001 with a sharp drop in membership reported. Nevertheless, Labour won the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005| 2005 general election]] with a reduced majority of 66 (now 64 following a [[Dunfermline and West Fife by-election, 2006|by-election]] loss to the [[Liberal Democrats]]), despite only taking 35.3% of the popular vote. [[Tony Blair]] has said he will serve a full third term, which implies that he will retire in 2010 at the very latest. However, he has recently faced defeat in the [[House of Commons]] over controversial policies, and his authority is increasingly coming under question in the media and on the Labour back-benches.
It is likely that Blair will retire earlier than that to allow time for his successor to settle in before another election campaign. If the pattern of recent elections is followed, the [[United Kingdom general election, 2009/10|next election]] will be held on [[June 11]], [[2009]] to coincide with elections to the [[European Parliament]]. This would suggest the announcement of Blair's resignation by Summer [[2008]] to allow for the leadership election and a "coronation" at the party conference in the autumn. Following the alleged [[Granita (restaurant)|Granita agreement]], [[Gordon Brown]], the long serving [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], has been widely expected to succeed Blair and become Labour Leader and [[Prime Minister]]. However, with the young, vibrant "new Blair" David Cameron being elected as the new leader of the Conservitive Party, Brown may be seen as to dour a figure to succeed by many in the party, as well as by the wider electorate.
[[Home Secretary]], [[Charles Clarke]], has said recently he expects there to be a leadership contest when [[Tony Blair]] steps down. Potential competitors to [[Gordon Brown]] could be current [[Secretary of State for Defence]], [[John Reid]], or [[Secretary of State for Health]], [[Patricia Hewitt]]. Also many tip [[Minister of State for Communities and Local Government]], [[David Miliband]], to be Blair's real preference to succeed him.
{{seealso|Politics of the United Kingdom}}
==Leaders of the Labour Party since 1906==
From [[1906]] until [[1922]] the leader was formally "Chairm |
his'' was Sampras-Agassi for the ages."
* Wimbledon semi-final 2000: lost to [[Patrick Rafter]] 7-5, 4-6, 7-5, 4-6, 6-3. This match was universally praised for its asthetic beauty as the world's greatest baseliner battled the game's most fluid and athletic volleyer over five tense sets.
* Australian Open 2001 semi-final: defeated Patrick Rafter 7-5, 2-6, 6-7(5), 6-2, 6-3. Exacted some revenge for 2000 Wimbledon semi loss to Rafter. Rallied from 2 sets to 1 down to stun Rafter in front of an energized Australian crowd.
* Wimbledon semi-final 2001: lost to Patrick Rafter 2-6, 6-3, 3-6, 6-2, 8-6. Although not considered possible, the rematch topped the standard set by their encounter from the year before.
* US Open 2001 quarter-final: lost to Pete Sampras 6-7(9), 7-6(2), 7-6(2), 7-6(5). Match featured no breaks of serve. Many consider this the best Agassi-Sampras match played.
* US Open 2002 final: lost to Pete Sampras 6-3, 6-4, 5-7, 6-4. Sampras' final competitive match.
* French Open 2003 2nd round: defeated [[Mario Ancic]] 5-7, 1-6, 6-4, 6-2, 7-5. Rallied back from two sets to love against the young and powerful Ancic to win the match. One of only six matches Agassi has won after being down two sets to love. Three of them have been at the [[French Open]].
* French Open 2004 1st round: lost to [[Jerome Haehnel]] 4-6, 6-7(4), 3-6. Shock first round loss to lowly French career journeyman. Arguably the greatest upset in French Open history.
* US Open 2004 quarter-final: lost to Roger Federer 3-6, 6-2, 5-7, 6-3, 3-6. 5th set marred by record-breaking winds. By far Roger Federer's most difficult match en route to the title.
* Australian Open 2005 4th round: defeated [[Joachim Johansson]] 6-7(4), 7-6(5), 7-6(3), 6-4. Won despite Johansson's world-record 51 aces.
* French Open 2005 1st round: lost to [[Jarkko Nieminen]] 5-7, 6-4, 7-6, 1-6, 0-6. Possibly Agassi's last match at the French Open. He led two sets to one heading into the fourth set, but a pinched sciatic nerve hampered Agasi's movement very noticeably. Agassi limped off the court with tears in his eyes after the match. The match was a major indicator to many that Agassi's career might be coming to a close soon.
* US Open 2005 quarter-final: defeated [[James Blake]] 3-6, 3-6, 6-3, 6-3, 7-6(6). Agassi had never come back from two sets down in the US Open. This was called the best match of the 2005 Open and one of the best in US Open history.
* US Open 2005 semi-final: defeated [[Robby Ginepri]] in his third consecutive five-set thriller: 6-4, 5-7, 6-3, 4-6, 6-3. At 35 years old, he played his best tennis in the fifth set.
* US Open 2005, final: lost to Roger Federer in his sixth US Open final. In the finale of Agassi's magic run at the Open which included 3 five-set matches in a row, Agassi met Federer and appeared to have the upper hand, being up a break in the third set with the match tied at one set each. However, Federer withstood the pressure and rallied to beat Agassi 6-3, 2-6, 7-6(1), 6-1.
* Tennis Masters Cup 2005, Round Robin: lost to [[Nikolay Davydenko]] 6-4, 6-2. Agassi was suffering from a sprained ankle injured while he was playing racquetball three weeks before. Although the match itself was unremarkable, the afterward was, when one of the tournament organizers absurdly accused Agassi of faking injury and losing on purpose because he (Agassi) was playing in Shanghai. It turned out that the same injury would cause Agassi to withdraw the 2006 Australian Open.
==Titles (60)==
{| {{pt}}
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|'''Legend (Singles)'''
|- bgcolor="#e5d1cb"
| Grand Slam (8)
|- bgcolor="ffffcc"
| Tennis Masters Cup (1)
|- bgcolor="gold"
| Olympic Gold (1)
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
| ATP Masters Series (17)
|- bgcolor="#ffffff"
| ATP Tour (33)
|}
===Singles (60)===
{| {{pt}}
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|'''No.'''
|'''Date'''
|'''Tournament'''
|'''Surface'''
|'''Opponent in the final'''
|'''Score'''
|-
|1.
|[[November 23]], [[1987]]
|[[Itaparica]], [[Brazil]]
|Hard
|[[Luiz Mattar]] ([[Brazil]])
|7-6 6-2
|-
|2.
|[[February 15]], [[1988]]
|[[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Mikael Pernfors]] ([[Sweden]])
|6-4 6-4 7-5
|-
|3.
|[[April 25]], [[1988]]
|[[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], [[United States|USA]]
|Clay
|[[Jimmy Arias]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-2
|-
|4.
|[[May 2]], [[1988]]
|[[Forest Hills]], [[United States|USA]]
|Clay
|[[Slobodan Zivojinovic]] ([[Yugoslavia]])
|7-5 7-6 7-5
|-
|5.
|[[July 11]], [[1988]]
|[[Stuttgart|Stuttgart Outdoors]], [[Germany]]
|Clay
|[[Andres Gomez]] ([[Ecuador]])
|6-4 6-2
|-
|6.
|[[July 25]], [[1988]]
|[[Stratton, Vermont|Stratton]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Paul Annacone]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-4
|-
|7.
|[[August 15]], [[1988]]
|[[Livingston]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Jeff Tarango]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-4
|-
|8.
|[[October 2]], [[1989]]
|[[Orlando, Florida]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Brad Gilbert]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-1
|-
|9.
|[[February 5]], [[1990]]
|[[San Francisco]], [[United States|USA]]
|Carpet
|[[Todd Witsken]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-1 6-3
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|10.
|[[March 12]], [[1990]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]])
|6-1 6-4 6 6-2
|-
|11.
|[[July 16]], [[1990]]
|[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Jim Grabb]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-1 6-4
|- bgcolor="ffffcc"
|12.
|[[November 12]], [[1990]]
|[[Tennis Masters Cup|Tour Championships]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]]
|Carpet
|[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]])
|5-7 7-6 7-5 6-2
|-
|13.
|[[April 1]], [[1991]]
|[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Derrick Rostagno]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 1-6 6-3
|-
|14.
|[[July 15]], [[1991]]
|[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Petr Korda]] ([[Czechoslovakia]])
|6-3 6-4
|-
|15.
|[[April 27]], [[1992]]
|[[Atlanta]], [[United States|USA]]
|Clay
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|7-5 6-4
|- bgcolor="#e5d1cb"
|'''16.'''
|'''[[June 22]], [[1992]]'''
|'''[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]]'''
|Grass
|[[Goran Ivanišević]] ([[Croatia]])
|6-7 6-4 6-4 1-6 6-4
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|17.
|[[July 20]], [[1992]]
|[[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
|Hard
|[[Ivan Lendl]] ([[United States|USA]])
|3-6 6-2 6-0
|-
|18.
|[[January 2]], [[1993]]
|[[San Francisco]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Brad Gilbert]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-7 6-2
|-
|19.
|[[February 22]], [[1993]]
|[[Scottsdale]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|Marcos Ondruska ([[Russia]])
|6-2 3-6 6-3
|-
|20.
|[[February 2]], [[1994]]
|[[Scottsdale]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|Luiz Mattar ([[Brazil]])
|6-4 6-3
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|21.
|[[July 25]], [[1994]]
|[[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
|Hard
|Jason Stoltenberg ([[Australia]])
|6-4 6-4
|- bgcolor="#e5d1cb"
|'''22.'''
|'''[[August 29]], [[1994]]'''
|'''[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Michael Stich]] ([[Germany]])
|6-1 7-6 7-5
|-
|23.
|[[October 17]], [[1994]]
|[[Vienna]], [[Austria]]
|Carpet
|[[Michael Stich]] ([[Germany]])
|7-6 4-6 6-2 6-3
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|24.
|[[October 31]], [[1994]]
|[[Paris]], [[France]]
|Carpet
|[[Marc Rosset]] ([[Switzerland]])
|6-3 6-3 4-6 7-5
|- bgcolor="#e5d1cb"
|'''25.'''
|'''[[January 16]], [[1995]]'''
|'''[[Australian Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|4-6 6-1 7-6 6-4
|-
|26.
|[[February 6]], [[1995]]
|[[San Jose, California|San Jose]]
|Hard
|[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 1-6 6-3
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|27.
|[[March 13]], [[1995]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]]
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|3-6 6-2 7-6
|-
|28.
|[[July 17]], [[1995]]
|[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]]
|Hard
|[[Stefan Edberg]]([[Sweden]])
|6-4 2-6 7-5
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|29.
|[[July 24]], [[1995]]
|[[Montreal]]
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|3-6 6-2 6-3
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|30.
|[[August 7]], [[1995]]
|[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]]
|Hard
|[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]])
|7-5 6-2
|-
|31.
|[[August 14]], [[1995]]
|[[New Haven]]
|Hard
|[[Richard Krajicek]] ([[Netherlands]])
|3-6 7-6 6-3
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|32.
|[[March 18]], [[1996]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]]
|Hard
|[[Goran Ivanišević]] ([[Croatia]])
|3-0 40-0
|- bgcolor="gold"
|33.
|[[July 22]], [[1996]]
|[[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]], [[Atlanta]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Sergi Bruguera]] ([[Spain]])
|6-2 6-3 6-1
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|34.
|[[August 5]], [[1996]]
|[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]]
|Hard
|[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]])
|7-6 6-4
|-
|35.
|[[February 9]], [[1998]]
|[[San Jose, California|San Jose]]
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-4
|-
|36.
|[[March 2]], [[1998]]
|[[Scottsdale]]
|Hard
|[[Jason Stoltenberg]] ([[Australia]])
|6-4 7-6
|-
|37.
|[[July 20]], [[1998]]
|[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]]
|Hard
|[[Scott Draper]] ([[Australia]])
|6-2 6-0
|-
|38.
|[[July 27]], [[1998]]
|[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]]
|Hard
|[[Tim Henman]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]])
|6-4 6-4
|-
|39.
|[[October 19]], [[1998]]
|[[Ostrava]]
|Carpet
|[[Jan Kroslak]] ([[Slovakia]])
|6-2 3-6 6-3
|-
|40.
|[[April 5]], [[1999]]
|[[Hong Kong]]
|Hard
|[[Boris Becker]] ([[Germany]])
|6-7 6-4 6-4
|- bgcolor="#e5d1cb"
|'''41.'''
|'''[[May 24]], [[1999]]'''
|'''[[French Open]]'''
|Clay
|[[Andrei Medvedev]] ([[Ukraine]])
|1-6 2-6 6-4 6-3 6-4
|-
|42.
|[[August 16]], [[1999]]
|[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]]
|Hard
|[[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] ([[Russia]])
|7-6 6-1
|- bgcolor="#e5d1cb"
|'''43.'''
|'''[[August 30]], [[1999]]'''
|'''[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Todd Martin]] ([[United |
n|Culture of Iceland}}
Some famous Icelanders include alternative rock band [[The Sugarcubes]], its singer [[Björk]]; artist collective [[GusGus]]; avant-garde rock band [[Sigur Rós]]; and novelist [[Halldór Laxness]], winner of the [[Nobel Prize for literature]] in 1955. In addition, the former world [[chess]] champion [[Bobby Fischer]] became an Icelandic citizen on [[March 21]], [[2005]]. Russian pianist [[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] has been a citizen since 1972.
Iceland's literacy rate is among the highest in the world, and a love of literature, art, chess, and other intellectual pursuits is widespread.
Iceland has world renowned nightlife. Downtown Reykjavík has many clubs and pubs that often feature live bands. Icelanders tend to go out much later than other Europeans, with many nightclubs receiving patronage starting around midnight.
An important key to understanding Icelanders and their culture (and which differentiates them from many contemporary [[Nordic]] peoples) is the high importance they place on the traits of [[independence]] and [[self-reliance]]. Icelanders are proud of their Viking heritage and [[Icelandic language]]. Modern Icelandic remains close to the [[Old Norse]] spoken in the [[Viking Age]].
Icelandic society and culture is very "woman friendly," with many women in leadership positions in government and business. Women retain their names after marriage, since Icelanders generally do not use [[surname]]s but [[patronym]]s or [[matronym]]s. In addition, homosexuals are very well accepted in the society.
One of the most popular activities in Iceland is visiting the geothermal spas. In earlier times it was essential for survival against the cold but nowadays it is a popular social activity. There are of course health benefits to a hot dip and it is considered essential for the older generation. There are scores of geothermal pools throughout the country but they are not for the shy. One of the pools can be found inside a cave and is for nude bathing only. This is particularly popular with tourists and is featured in the Volcano Show movie. Special consideration is made for hygiene and bathers are required to take a naked communal shower before entering the pools. Amusingly, some of the pools have diagrams in the changing rooms to show you which areas to clean thoroughly while showering. However, Icelanders (like most Scandanavians) are very tolerant of nudity. This can be a bit of a surprise for people of other cultures not least to say a little embarrassing at times. The most famous spa is the [[Blue Lagoon (geothermal spa)|Blue Lagoon]] near Keflavik Airport which is popular with day trippers to Iceland.
=== Icelandic Cuisine ===
[[Image:P1010018-minni.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The Icelandic national food, þorramatur.]]
Iceland offers wide varieties of traditional cuisine. ''Þorramatur'' (food of the ''þorri'') is the Icelandic national food. Nowadays ''þorramatur'' is mostly eaten during the ancient [[Nordic]] month of ''þorri'', in January and February, as a tribute to old culture. ''Þorramatur'' consists of many different types of food, for example sour ram's testicles, rotten shark, burned sheep heads, sheep's head jam, blood pudding, dried fish (often [[cod]] or [[haddock]]) with butter and many other courses that are considered delicious among many islanders.
===See also===
* [[Artists of Iceland]]
* [[Icelandic literature]]
* [[List of Icelandic authors]]
* [[List of Icelandic language poets]]
* [[Music of Iceland]]
* [[Nightlife in Reykjavík]]
==Miscellaneous facts about Iceland==
* It is mandatory to keep headlights on while driving, even in daylight. Most cars commercially sold in Iceland are equipped to make this automatic.
* In 2004, [[United Kingdom|British]] citizens made up the single largest group of tourists to Iceland (60,000) followed by [[United States|Americans]] (48,000).
* The tallest structure in Western Europe is located in Iceland; it is the 412 metre high [[Longwave radio mast Hellissandur]] near Hellissandur.
* The state [[television]] service in Iceland did not broadcast during July until 1983, or on Thursdays until 1987 - however, there are now several terrestrial channels, and foreign channels are widely available via satellite and cable.
* Iceland is located partly on the North American [[tectonic plate]] and partly on the Eurasian one.
* The Icelandic language is the closest language to [[Old Norse]], the language of the [[Viking]]s.
* The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the [[arctic fox]]. It came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea.
* There are no native reptiles or amphibians on the island.
* There are around 1300 known species of [[insects]] on Iceland (ca. 1100 of them [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]]), which is rather low compared with other countries.
* During the last Ice Age almost all of the country was covered by permanent snow and glacier ice. This explains the low number of living species.
* Another explanation of the low number of plants and animals is the fact that this is one of the newest land masses in the world, and is built almost exclusively of volcanic rocks made of magma which welled up from the core of the Earth. The oldest rocks which can be found on the surface were formed about 16 million years ago. Most of the island is much younger, while parts of the Iceland basalt plateau which is not exposed on the surface can be up to 25 million years old. The whole island is actually a part of a mid-ocean ridge that is exposed above sea level, the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]] to be precise. Formed out in the ocean, it would be very hard for animals and plants to get out to the island.
* When humans arrived, [[birch forest]] and woodland probably covered 25-40% of Iceland’s land area. But soon the settlers started to remove the trees and forests to create fields and grazing land. During the early 20th century the forests were at their minimum and were almost wiped out of existence. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees since, but this can not be compared with the original forests. Some of those planted forests have included new foreign species.
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Iceland]]
* [[Foreign relations of Iceland]]
* [[Icelandic name|Naming conventions of Iceland]]
* [[Icelandic nationalism]]
* [[Icelandology]]
* [[Icelandic beer]]
*
* [[List of Icelanders]]
* [[List of universities in Iceland]]
* [[Military of Iceland]]
* [[Reporters without borders]] world-wide press freedom index 2005: rank 1 out of 167 countries (7 way tie)
* [[Stamps and postal history of Iceland]]
* [[Transportation in Iceland]]
==References==
* <cite>[http://www.statice.is/ Statistics Iceland]</cite>
* <cite>[http://www.lmi.is/landsurvey.nsf/pages/index.html The National Land Survey of Iceland]</cite>
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Iceland}}
* [http://iceland.is/ Official Gateway of Iceland]
* [http://www.iceland.org/ Iceland.org (Icelandic Foreign Service)]
* [http://www.althingi.is/vefur/upplens.html Alþingi's website in English]
* [http://www.government.is/ The government's website in English]
* [http://www.icetrade.is/EN/ The Trade Council of Iceland]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A487613 H2G2 Guide Entry for Iceland]
* {{Is icon}} [http://www.islandsmyndir.is/ Picture gallery from www.islandsmyndir.is]
* [http://www.karahnjukar.is/EN Kárahnjúkar dam, Iceland's largest hydroelectric project]
* [http://www.vegagerdin.is/vefur2.nsf/pages/english.html Travel information from the Public Roads Administration]
* {{De icon}} [http://www.islenska.de Íslenska, a magazine in German about Iceland]
* [http://www.davidmetraux.com/iceland.html Photographs of Iceland]
* [http://www.iceland-forum.com Iceland-Forum, discussions about Iceland]
* [http://www.icelandic.hi.is/coursetest.php University of Iceland: Icelandic online] (A free, online Course in Modern Icelandic Language and Culture.)
* [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Icelandic Icelandic Recipes on CookBookWiki.com]
* [http://news-from-iceland.com News from Iceland (weekly updated)]
* [http://icelandreview.com/ Iceland Review]
* [http://www.iceland-hotels-travel.com/ Hotel and Travel Tours in Iceland]
* [http://www.outdoors.is/ Hiking and mountaineering in Iceland]
* {{wikitravel}}
{{Nordic Council}}
{{EFTA}}
{{NATO}}
{{Europe}}
<!-- interwiki -->
[[Category:Former Danish colonies]]
[[Category:Former Norwegian colonies]]
[[Category:Iceland]]
[[Category:Islands of Iceland]]
[[Category:North Atlantic Islands]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
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[[fiu-vro:Island']]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Italy</title>
<id>14532</id>
<revision>
<id>41980217</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:44:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bookofjude</username>
<id>94969</id>
</contrib |
cks are also known in the building trades as compressed earth blocks or CEBs.
==History==
[[Image:Shebli2.jpg|right|thumb|The brickwork of [[Shebeli Tower]] displays 12th century craftsmanship.]]
[[Image:Roskilde domkirke west fassade.jpg|thumb|West face of Roskilde Cathedral in Roskilde, Denmark]]
In the [[Near East]] and [[India]], bricks have been in use for more than five thousand years. The [[Tigris]]-[[Euphrates]] plain lacks [[rock (geology)|rock]]s and [[tree]]s. [[Sumerian architecture|Sumerian]] structures were thus built of plano-convex [[mudbrick]]s, not fixed with [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] or with [[cement]]. As plano-convex bricks (being rounded) are somewhat unstable in behaviour, Sumerian bricklayers would lay a row of bricks perpendicular to the rest every few rows. They would fill the gaps with [[bitumen]], [[straw]], [[reed (plant)|marsh reeds]], and [[weed]]s.
The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians and the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] also used mudbrick extensively, as can be seen in the ruins of [[Buhen]], [[Mohenjo-daro]] and [[Harappa]], for example. In the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] particularly, all bricks corresponded to sizes in a perfect [[ratio]] of 4:2:1, and made use of the [[decimal system]]. The ratio for brick dimensions 4:2:1 is even today considered optimal for effective bonding.
The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] made use of fired bricks, and the Roman [[legion]]s, which operated mobile kilns, introduced bricks to many parts of the empire. Roman bricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised its production. The use of bricks in Southern and Western [[Germany]], for example, can be traced back to traditions already described by the Roman architect [[Vitruvius]].
In the [[12th century]], bricks from Northern [[Italy]] were re-introduced to Northern Germany, where an independent tradition evolved. It culminated in the so-called [[brick Gothic]], a reduced style of [[Gothic architecture]] that flourished in [[Northern Europe]], especially in the regions around the [[Baltic Sea]] which are without natural rock resources. Brick Gothic buildings, which are built almost exclusively of bricks, are to be found in [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Poland]] and [[Russia]]. However, bricks were long considered an inferior substitute for natural rock.
During the [[Renaissance]] and the [[Baroque]], visible brick walls were unpopular and the [[brickwork]] was often covered with [[plaster]]. It was only during the mid-[[18th century]] that visible brick walls regained some degree of popularity, as illustrated by the [[Dutch Quarter]] of [[Potsdam]], for example.
==Construction and types==
[[Image:BrickMakingTurnOfTheCentury.jpg|thumb|left|Brick making at the beginning of the [[20th century]].]]
Hard-burned brick should be used for face work exposed to the weather, and soft brick for filling, [[foundation (architecture)|foundations]], and the like. The mainstay standard US brick measures approximately 8 x 4 x 2.25 [[inch]]es (203 x 102 x 57 [[millimetre|millimeter]]s), and has a crushing strength of between 1000 and 3000 lbf/in&sup2; (7 to 21 [[megapascal]]s) depending on quality. The modern standard [[UK]] brick size is 215 x 102.5 x 65 millimetres.
A highly impervious and ornamental surface may be laid on brick either by [[salt glaze pottery|salt glazing]], in which salt is added during the burning process, or by the use of a "slip," which is a glaze material into which the bricks are dipped. Subsequent reheating in the kiln fuses the slip into a glazed surface integral with the brick base.
===Proportions===
Regardless of size, bricks are usually manufactured with the depth equal to half the length (assuming that the brick is laid horizontally). This allows for several convenient layouts which must necessarily interweave the bricks in any structure, often both at the corners and within the wall depth in order to ensure the greatest possible durability of the structure.
==Use==
[[Image:Dixie_Highway_Maitland.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A brick section of the old [[Dixie Highway]] East Florida Connector ([[Pre-1945 Florida State Road 3|SR 3]]) on the west side of [[Lake Lily]] in [[Maitland, Florida]]. It was built in [[1915]] or [[1916]], paved over at some point, and restored in [[1999]].]]
Bricks are typically used for building. In the USA at one time, it was popular to [[pavement (material)|pave]] roads with bricks, but they were found incapable of withstanding heavy traffic. Brick paving is again coming back into use as a method of [[traffic calming]] or as a decorative surface in [[pedestrianized zone|pedestrian precincts]].
Bricks are also used in the [[metallurgy]] and [[glass]] industries for lining [[furnace]]s. They have various uses, especially [[refractory]] bricks such as [[silica]], [[magnesia]], [[chamotte]] and neutral ([[chromomagnesite]]) [[fire brick|refractory bricks]]. This type of brick must have a series of properties such as good [[thermal shock]] resistance, [[refractory|refractoriness]] under load, high melting point, satisfactory [[porosity]] (which can influence several other properties), all of which are high-temperature properties. There is a large refractory brick industry, especially in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Japan]] and the [[U.S.A.]]
<br clear="all"/>
==See also==
{{commons|Bricks}}
*[[Masonry]]
*[[Brickwork]]
*[[Ceramic]]s
*[[Fire brick]]
*[[Mud brick]]
[[Category:Construction]]
[[Category:Materials]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Bricks]]
[[be:Цэгла]]
[[da:Mursten]]
[[de:Ziegel]]
[[et:Tellis]]
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[[eo:Briko]]
[[fr:Brique (matériau)]]
[[nl:Baksteen]]
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[[pl:Cegła]]
[[pt:Tijolo]]
[[ru:Кирпич]]
[[fi:Tiili]]
[[sv:Tegelsten]]
[[zh:磚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Béla Bartók</title>
<id>4527</id>
<revision>
<id>42108722</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:58:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bartók Béla 1927.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Béla Bartók in 1927]]
'''Béla Viktor János Bartók''' ([[March 25]], [[1881]] &ndash; [[September 26]], [[1945]]) was a [[Hungarian]] [[composer]], [[pianist]] and collector of Eastern [[Europe]]an and [[Middle East]]ern [[folk music]]. Bartók is usually considered one of the greatest composers of the 20th century. He was one of the founders of the field of [[ethnomusicology]], the study of folk music and the music of non-Western cultures.
==Childhood and early years==
Bartók grew up in the [[Kingdom of Hungary|Greater Hungary]] of the Austro-Hungarian Empire which was partitioned by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I. His birthplace, Nagyszentmiklós (Great St Nicholas), became [[Sânnicolau Mare]], [[Romania]]. After his father died in [[1888]], Béla's mother, Paula, took her family to live in Nagyszőlős (today [[Vinogradiv]], [[Ukraine]]), and then to Pozsony (today [[Bratislava]], [[Slovakia]]). When [[Czechoslovakia]] was created in [[1918]] Béla and his mother found themselves on opposite sides of the border.
==Early musical career==
He later studied [[piano]] under [[István Thoman]] and composition under [[János Koessler]] at the [[Franz Liszt Academy of Music|Royal Academy of Music in Budapest]]. There he met [[Zoltán Kodály]] and together they collected folk music from the region. This was to have a major impact on his style. Previously, Bartók's idea of Hungarian folk music was derived from the gypsy melodies to be found in the works of [[Franz Liszt]], and in [[1903]] Bartók had written a large [[orchestra]]l work, ''Kossuth,'' which honored [[Lajos Kossuth]], hero of the Hungarian revolution of [[1848]], incorporated such gypsy melodies.
==Emergence and influences on Bartók's music==
Upon discovering [[Magyars|Magyar]] peasant folk song (which he regarded as true Hungarian folk music, as opposed to the gypsy music used by Liszt) Bartók began to incorporate folk songs into his own compositions and write original folk-like tunes, as well as frequently using folksy rhythmic figures.
It was the music of [[Richard Strauss]], whom he met at the [[Budapest]] premiere of ''[[Also sprach Zarathustra]]'' in [[1902]], that had most influence. This new style emerged over the next few years. Bartók was building a career for himself as a pianist, when in [[1907]], he landed a job as piano professor at the Royal Academy. This allowed him to stay in [[Hungary]] rather than having to tour Europe as a pianist, and also allowed him to collect more folk songs, notably in [[Transylvania]]. Meanwhile his music was beginning to be influenced by this activity and by the music of [[Claude Debussy]] that Kodály had brought back from Paris. His large scale orchestral works were still in the manner of [[Johannes Brahms]] or Richard Strauss, but he wrote a number of small piano pieces which show his growing interest in folk music. Probably the first piece to show clear signs of this new interest is the [[String Quartet No. 1 (Bartók)|String Quartet No. 1]] ([[1908]]), which has several folk-like elements in it.
==Middle years and career==
In [[1909]], Bartók married [[Márta Ziegler]]. Their son, Béla Jr., was born in [[1910]].
In [[1911]], Bartók wrote what was to be his only [[opera]], ''[[Bluebeard's Castle]]'', dedicated to his wife, Márta. He entered it for a prize awarded by the Hungarian Fine Arts Commission, but they said it was unplayable, and rejected it out of hand. The opera remained unperformed until 1918, when Bartók was pressured by the government to remove the name of the librettist, [[Béla Balázs]], from the program on account of his political views. Bartók refused, and eventually withdrew the work. For the remainder of his life, Bartók did not feel greatly attached to the government or institution |
her the [[Mukti Bahini]] ("Freedom Fighters"), an armed group of young students, workers, farmers and other civilians.
Following a military crackdown on civilians in East Pakistan on 25th March [[1971]], Major [[Ziaur Rahman]] declared the independence of Bangladesh on behalf of [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] on 26th March [[1971]]. This started the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] in which the [[Mukti Bahini]], joined by 400,000 Indian soldiers in December, faced the [[Pakistani Army]] of 100,000. On 16th December [[1971]], the Pakistani Army surrendered to the [[Mitro Bahini]] (Allied Forces of Bangladesh Forces and [[Indian Army]]). Bangladesh quickly gained recognition from most countries and with the signing of the [[Shimla Accord]], the remaining countries too accepted the new nation. Bangladesh joined the [[United Nations]] in [[1974]].
== Government of East Pakistan ==
On 14th October 1955, the last governor of [[East Bengal (province)|East Bengal]] (Amiruddin Ahmad) became the first Governor of East Pakistan. At the same time the last Chief Minister of East Bengal became the first Chief Minister of East Pakistan. This system lasted until the military coup of 1958 when the post of Chief Minister was abolished in both East Pakistan and West Pakistan. From 1958 to 1971 the administration was largely in the hands of the President of Pakistan and the Governor of East Pakistan who at times held the title of [[Martial Law|Martial Law Administrator]].
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Tenure||Governor of East Pakistan
|-
|14th October 1955 - March 1956||Amiruddin Ahmad
|-
|March 1956 - 13th April 1958||[[A. K. Fazlul Huq]]
|-
|13th April 1958 - 3rd May 1958||Hamid Ali (acting)
|-
|3rd May 1958 - 10th October 1958||Sultanuddin Ahmad
|-
|10th October 1958 - 11th April 1960||Zakir Hussain
|-
|11th April 1960 - 11th May 1962||Lt Gen Mohammad Azam Khan
|-
|11th May 1962 - 25th October 1962||[[Ghulam Faruque]]
|-
|25th October 1962 - 23rd March 1969||Abdul Munim Khan
|-
|23rd March 1969 - 25th March 1969||Mirza Nurul Huda
|-
|25th March 1969 - 23rd August 1969||Muzaffaruddin (martial law administrator)
|-
|23rd August 1969 - 1st September 1969||[[Sahabzada Yaqub Khan]] (martial law administrator)
|-
|1st September 1969 - 7th March 1971||Syed Mohammad Ahsan
|-
|7th March 1971 - 31st August 1971||[[Tikka Khan]] (martial law administrator)
|-
|31st August 1971 - 14th December 1971||Abdul Motaleb Malik
|-
|14th December 1971 - 16th December 1971||[[A. A. K. Niazi]] (martial law administrator)
|-
|16th December 1971||Province of East Pakistan dissolved
|}
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Tenure||Chief Minister of East Pakistan||Political Party
|-
|August 1955 - September 1956||Abu Hussain Sarkar||Krishan Sramik Party
|-
|September 1956 - March 1958||Ata-ur-Rahman Khan||[[Awami League]]
|-
|March 1958||Abu Hussain Sarkar||Krishan Sramik Party
|-
|March 1958 - 18th June 1958||Ata-ur-Rahman Khan||Awami League
|-
|18th June 1958 - 22nd June 1958||Abu Hussain Sarkar||Krishan Sramik Party
|-
|22nd June 1958 - 25th August 1958||Governor's Rule||
|-
|25th August 1958 - 7th October 1958||Ata-ur-Rahman Khan||Awami League
|-
|7th October 1958||Post abolished||
|-
|16th December 1971||Province of East Pakistan dissolved||
|}
==See also==
* [[Partition of India]]
* [[East Bengal (province)|East Bengal]]
* [[West Pakistan]]
* [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.bangladeshgov.org Government of Bangladesh]
* [http://www.pakistan.gov.pk Government of Pakistan]
== References ==
* {{note|exploitation}} [[Bangladesh Liberation War#Economic_exploitation|Bangladesh Liberation War]]
* {{note|warstat}} [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat2.htm War Statistics]
[[Category:History of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Historical regions of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Bangladesh Liberation War]]
[[nl:Oost-Pakistan]]
[[pt:Paquistão do Leste]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E. O. Wilson</title>
<id>10313</id>
<revision>
<id>42072615</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:07:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mccready</username>
<id>318404</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Criticism */ tried to remove POV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward_O_Wilson.jpg|right|thumb||275px|Edward O. Wilson]]
'''E. O. Wilson''', or '''Edward Osborne Wilson''', (born [[June 10]], [[1929]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[entomologist]] and [[biologist]] known for his work on [[ecology]], [[evolution]], and [[sociobiology]]. Edward O. Wilson is internationally regarded as the dean of biodiversity studies. Wilson's specialty is [[ant]]s, in particular their use of [[pheromones]] for [[communication]]. He is also famous for starting the sociobiology debate, one of the greatest scientific controversies of the late 20th century, when he suggested in his ''[[Sociobiology: The New Synthesis]]'' ([[1975]]) that animal (and by extension human) behavior can be studied using an evolutionary framework. He is also credited with bringing the term ''[[biodiversity]]'' to the public.
Wilson's many scientific and [[conservationism|conservation]] honors include the 1990 [[Crafoord Prize]], a 1976 U.S. [[National Medal of Science]], and two [[Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction|Pulitzer Prizes]]. In 1995 he was named by ''Time Magazine'' as one of the 25 most influential people in America.
He was born in [[Birmingham, Alabama]], attained the rank of [[Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Eagle Scout]], graduated from the [[University of Alabama]] and received his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] from [[Harvard University]]. Wilson received a D.Sc. from [[Bates College]] in 1996.
==Early life==
After the divorce of his parents, Edward and Inez Wilson, at the age of seven, Wilson grew up in several different cities and towns, moving around with his father, and stepmother Pearl. In his [[autobiography]] ''Naturalist'' he describes his formative years in [[Washington DC]] and in the countryside around [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]. From an early age he was interested in [[natural history]]. At the age of seven he was blinded in the right eye by a [[cataract]] (caused by a fish fin which jerked into his eye while fishing); this accident reduced his ability to watch mammals and birds and so he concentrated instead on insects. At the age of sixteen, intent on becoming an [[entomologist]], he began by collecting [[Diptera|flies]], but the shortage of insect pins caused by the [[Second World War]] caused him to switch to [[ant]]s, which could be stored in vials, and with the encouragement of Marion R. Smith, a myrmecologist from the [[National Museum of Natural History]], he began a survey of all the ants of [[Alabama]].
Entering [[university]] (the only way to pursue a career in entomology) at that time was an unusual choice and Wilson felt that he and his family would be unable to afford it. For this reason he attemped to enlist in the [[US Army]] so that after leaving the army he could get assistance in paying for college. However he failed the medical due to his impared sight. He was able to enter college, however, as the [[University of Alabama]] was open to all graduates of Alabama's [[high school]] system, and which had affordable fees.
==Beliefs==
Wilson coined the phrase '''scientific humanism''' (when referring to [[Humanism]]) as "the only [[worldview]] compatible with science's growing knowledge of the real world and the laws of nature". {{ref|Wilson}}
==Academic work==
===The selfish gene===
Wilson has argued that the preservation of the [[gene]], rather than the individual, is the focus of [[evolution]] (a theme explored in more detail and popularized by [[Richard Dawkins]]' ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'').
===Sociobiology===
Wilson inadvertently created one of the greatest scientific controversies of the late 20th century when he suggested that animal (and by extension human) behaviour can be studied using an [[evolution]]ary framework, which came to be known as [[sociobiology]].
====Criticism====
{{sectNPOV}}
Some critics accused Wilson of [[racism]], and he was physically attacked for his views when a group of black African student poured water on his head. However, Wilson did not intend to apply a 'survival of the fittest' model on human society as had been true of so-called [[social Darwinism|social Darwinists]]. The controversy caused a great deal of personal grief for Wilson; some of his colleagues at Harvard, such as [[Richard Lewontin]] and the late [[Stephen Jay Gould]], were vehemently opposed to his ideas.
Wilson was surprised by attacks on his theory, much to the astonishment of his critics. He wrote that “the political objections forcefully made by the Sociobiology Study Group of [[Science for the People]] in particular took me by surprise.” Wilson had not considered his paper relevant to political analysis such as [[Marxist]]s offered. He was annoyed with his critics for “blind-siding” him. He objected that no one had made him aware of their feelings while he was writing his book, even though several of them, Gould and Lewontin included, were well aware of his project. Furthermore, he was angered because he felt that the critics were being hysterical and misrepresenting his position. He rejected the charge that his theory was [[biological determinism|biologically deterministic]], and pointed to several passages in articles he had written which he claimed had already addressed their concerns, for example,
<blockquote>"The moment has come to stress that there is a dangerous trap in sociobiology, one which can be avoided only by constant vigilance. The trap is the naturalistic fallacy of ethics which uncritically concludes that what is, should be. The ‘what is’ in human nature is to a large extent the heritage of a Pleistocene hunter-gatherer existence. When any genetic bias is demonstrated, it cannot be used to jus |
tml 'Devonian Times;' life and ecology.]
*[http://www.nd.edu/~cneal/al375/Kimb_Geology.html Devonian reef system in northwest Australia.]
* {{cite web | title=International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)| work=Geologic Time Scale 2004| url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/ | accessdate=Sept 19 | accessyear=2005}}
{{Devonian Footer}}
[[Category:Devonian| ]]
[[ca:Devonià]]
[[cy:Defonaidd]]
[[da:Devon (jordalder)]]
[[de:Devon (Geologie)]]
[[es:Devónico]]
[[et:Devon]]
[[fr:Dévonien]]
[[he:דבון]]
[[it:Devoniano]]
[[ja:デボン紀]]
[[lt:Devonas]]
[[nl:Devoon]]
[[no:Devon (geologi)]]
[[pl:Dewon]]
[[pt:Devoniano]]
[[ru:Девонский период]]
[[sl:Devon (geološka doba)]]
[[sv:Devon (period)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dungeon Master (disambiguation)</title>
<id>7993</id>
<revision>
<id>33911924</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-05T00:56:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CatherineMunro</username>
<id>8316</id>
</contributor>
<comment>format per [[MOSDAB|Manual of Style (disambiguation pages)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dungeon Master''' may mean:
* [[Dungeon Master]] (or ''dungeonmaster'' or ''DM''), the organizer of a Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game
** [[Gamemaster]], the generic term used by other role-playing gaming companies
* [[Dungeon Master (computer game)]], the first 3D realtime role-playing computer game
* [[Dungeons_%26_Dragons_%28TV_series%29#Main_characters|Dungeon Master]], a main character on the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' animated TV series
* ''[[The Dungeonmaster]]'', a 1985 fantasy film ([http://imdb.com/title/tt0089060/ IMDb])
* ''Dungeon Master'', the owner or master of a [[dungeon (BDSM)|BDSM dungeon]] (a place equipped for the playing out of BDSM sexual fantasies)
* ''Dungeon Master'', the master of [[Lord Ao]], a god in the fictional world of [[Abeir-Toril]]
* ''dm'' (for Dungeon Master), a program included in some versions of [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD Unix]] and operating systems derived from it, which could be used to restrict the playing of games on a computer to certain times of the day ([http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=dm&apropos=0&sektion=0&manpath=4.4BSD+Lite2&format=html dm manual page from 4.4BSD]).
{{disambig}}
[[da:Dungeon Master]]
[[de:Dungeon Master]]
[[ja:&#12480;&#12531;&#12472;&#12519;&#12531;&#12510;&#12473;&#12479;&#12540;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Thompson (explorer)</title>
<id>7994</id>
<revision>
<id>42108745</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:58:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sbmcmull</username>
<id>129228</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''David Thompson''' ([[April 30]], [[1770]] &ndash; [[February 10]], [[1857]]), was an [[English-Canadian]] surveyor and explorer. He was born in [[London]], and died in [[Montreal]], [[Canada East]].
Thompson was a [[fur]] trader of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. From 1792 to 1812, he explored and mapped the country west of [[Hudson Bay]] and [[Lake Superior]], across the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the headwaters of the [[Columbia River]] and down the Columbia to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. He was the first [[Europe]]an to explore the Columbia from source to mouth. In 1797, he left the Hudson's Bay Company and joined the [[North West Company]]. The maps he made of the Columbia River basin east of the [[Cascade Mountains]] were of such high quality and detail that they continued to be regarded as authoritative well into the mid-[[20th century]].
The land mass mapped by Thompson amounted to 3.9 million square kilometres of wilderness (1/5th of the continent). His contemporary, the great explorer [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]], remarked that Thompson did more in ten months than he would have thought possible in two years. Thompson's [[1814]] map, his greatest achievement, was so accurate that 100 years later it was still the basis for many of the maps issued by the Canadian government and the railways. Thompson also completed the exacting survey of much of the Canada/U.S. boundary along the [[49th parallel]] in the west, and from the St. Lawrence River to Lake of the Woods in Ontario.
He married [[Charlotte Small]], a [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]], the "Woman of the Paddle Song." He and Charlotte had 13 children.
In his published journals, Thompson recorded seeing large footprints near [[Jasper, Alberta]], in [[1811]]. It has been suggested that these prints were similar to what has since been called the [[sasquatch]].
Alexander Mackenzie strongly resented some of Thompson's actions and wrote a letter to the king in which he is said to have denounced Thompson for marrying a Métis.
Thompson died in Montreal in near obscurity, his achievements almost unrecognized. He is interred there in the [[Mount Royal Cemetery]]. However, in 1957, one hundred years after his death, the Canadian government honored him with his image on a [[List of people on stamps of Canada|Canadian postage stamp]]. His prowess as a geographer is now well-recognized. He has been called "the greatest land geographer who ever lived."
Planning is underway for bicentennial recognition of Thompson's trans-mountain exploits. Visit [http://www.davidthompson200.org DavidThompson200] for more information.
==External links==
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=38340 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
* [http://www.davidthompsonthings.com/geog1.html "The greatest land geographer who ever lived: A short history" by J.B. Tyrell]
* [http://www.thefurtrapper.com/david_thompson.htm David Thompson Canadian Fur Trader and Mapmaker]
* [http://www.n2.net/prey/bigfoot/legends/davidthompson.htm Bigfoot Encounters: David Thompson]
[[Category:1770 births|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:1857 deaths|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Canadian cartographers|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:English Canadians|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Explorers of Canada|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Explorers of British Columbia|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Londoners|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:People from Quebec|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Surveyors|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Welsh Canadians|Thompson, David]]
[[pl:David Thompson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dioscoreales</title>
<id>7995</id>
<revision>
<id>37289523</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:10:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Dioscoreales
| image = Tamus communis02.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''[[Dioscorea communis]]''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Dioscoreales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Hook.f.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
[[Burmanniaceae]]<br />
[[Dioscoreaceae]]<br />
[[Nartheciaceae]]
}}
'''Dioscoreales''' is an order of [[monocot]]s formerly grouped with the [[Liliales]]. The best known species is the [[yam (vegetable)|Yam]] (genus ''Dioscorea''). The order includes three families.
[[Category:Liliopsida]]
{{monocot-stub}}
[[da:Yams-ordenen]]
[[de:Yamswurzelartige]]
[[fr:Dioscoreales]]
[[nl:Dioscoreales]]
[[no:Dioscoreales]]
[[pt:Dioscoreales]]
[[fi:Dioscoreales]]
[[sv:Dioscoreales]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disabilities</title>
<id>7996</id>
<revision>
<id>15906025</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-12T02:50:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarquin</username>
<id>83</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect Disability</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Disability]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disabilities/Disability Etiquette</title>
<id>7998</id>
<revision>
<id>15906027</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T11:20:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Disability etiquette]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Default</title>
<id>8000</id>
<revision>
<id>37080692</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T14:26:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PlatypeanArchcow</username>
<id>233390</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">Typically, '''default''' is the result when no action is taken. The term has specific meanings in various fields, including:
* [[Default (law)]]
* [[Default (finance)]]
* [[Default (computer science)]] — also contains consumer electronics usage
* [[Default logic]]
* [[Default (band)]]
* To default in '''[[tennis]]''' is to fail to participate in or complete a match; for example, due to an injury. If a player defaults, the opponent is considered to have won the match.
* [[defaults (software)]] is the utility that manipulates [[Mac OS X]] [[plist]] (preference) files.
{{disambig}}
[[ja:デフォルト]]
[[ru:По умолчанию]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deposition</title>
<id>8002</id>
<revision>
<id>41491831</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:55:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shadow1</username>
<id>690159</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Deposition''' is a word used in many fields to describe different processes:
*In [[law]], '''[[deposition (law)|deposition]]''' is t |
ogy]]. Today the [[Church of Scientology]] practices and sells modern Dianetics.
Dianetics has been highly controversial since its launch in 1950. It has been criticized as [[pseudoscience]] and [[quackery]] by professional scientists and members of the medical community, and it has achieved no recognition among the mainstream scientific community as a ''bona fide'' [[scientific theory]]. While many practitioners of Scientology testify that they have found Dianetics techniques to be personally effective, there is a lack of independently corroborated empirical evidence in mainstream scientific literature for Hubbard's claims and the effectiveness of his methods. The troubled histories of the organizations established to promote Dianetics have added to the controversy that surrounds Dianetics.
==Basic concepts of Dianetics==
Hubbard coined the name Dianetics from the [[Greek language|Greek]] stems ''dia'', meaning "through," and ''nous'', meaning "mind," resulting in a word similar to the already-existing Greek adjective ''dianoētik-os'' διανοητικ-ός, meaning "mental". The suffix "-etics" may have been inspired by [[cybernetics]], a [[vogue idea]] at the time, or [[semantics]]. Hubbard placed Dianetics in the same class as both of these concepts and made an explicit connection between the three concepts, stating that Dianetics "forms a bridge between the [other] two." <ref>Hubbard, "[http://www.dianetics.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/articles/terra/ Terra Incognita: The Mind]", ''The Explorers Journal'', winter 1949 / spring 1950</ref>
Dianetics is presented as a systematic method of identifying the causes of and relieving many of an individual's mental, emotional or (psychosomatically) physical problems. Hubbard described Dianetics as "an organized science of thought built on definite axioms: statements of natural laws on the order of those of the physical sciences". <ref>Winter, J.A. ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 18 (Julian Press, 1987 reprint)</ref>
According to Dianetics, the human mind may be considered as being made up of "mental image pictures." A mental image picture contains the many perceptions of a past moment, such as sounds, color, time of day and other perceptions. For Dianetic's purposes these can be considered as literal pictures which can be viewed. Dianetics focuses on one particular type of mental image picture that Hubbard called the [[engram (Dianetics)|engram]]. Engrams differ from other mental image pictures in that they contain unconciousness. This unconciousness makes them unavailable as normal memories would be. Engrams are painful memories that are not normally accessible to the consciousness of an individual. Engrams are defined in Dianetics as "a complete recording of a moment of [[unconsciousness]] containing physical pain or painful emotion and all perceptions." <ref> [[Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health]] page 79 and Glossary </ref> The primary activity of Dianetics is to help a person bring these half-hidden, painful memories into full conscious view. Hubbard dubbed the well-functioning conscious aspect of the mind the "analytical mind," which is claimed to be a flawless machine akin to a perfectly functioning calculator. The collection of mental engrams are stored in the unconscious "[[reactive mind]]" (or "reactive bank"). Engrams are claimed to be the source of virtually all mental and emotional troubles or "aberrations."
With Dianetics, Hubbard claimed to have discovered the fundamental "dynamic principal of existence," which he expressed as a command to life, to "SURVIVE!" Hubbard proposed that physical or mental traumas caused "aberrations" in the mind, which produced adverse physical and emotional effects. He postulated that since pain was a threat to survival, the human mind sought to avoid it. Thus, in moments of stress the conscious "[[analytical mind]]" would shut down and create engrams that are stored in the normally inaccessible "reactive mind".
With the use of Dianetics techniques, Hubbard claimed, the reactive mind could be reached at will and all stored engrams could be purged. The central technique was "auditing," a two-person question-and-answer therapy designed to isolate and dissipate engrams (or "mental masses"). A counselor called an auditor addresses a series of questions to a subject, observes and records the subject's responses, and returns repeatedly to memories or areas of discussion that appear to be fraught with pain or stress until such time that the troubling memory has been identified and satisfactorily confronted. Through this method, the reactive mind could be "cleared" of its content; a person who had completed this process of "clearing" would be a "[[Clear (Scientology)|Clear]]".
The benefits of going "Clear" would be dramatic, according to Hubbard. A "Clear" would have no compulsions, repressions, pychoses or neuroses, and would enjoy a near-perfect memory as well as a rise in [[IQ]] of as much as fifty points. He also claimed that as much as seventy percent of illnesses were psychosomatic and could thus be cured by Dianetics. These included [[asthma]], poor [[eyesight]], [[color blindness]], [[deafness|hearing deficiencies]], [[stutter]]ing, [[allergy|allergies]], [[sinusitis]], [[arthritis]], [[high blood pressure]], [[heart disease|coronary trouble]], [[dermatitis]], [[ulcer]]s, [[migraine]], [[conjunctivitis]], [[morning sickness]], [[alcoholism]], [[tuberculosis]] and the [[common cold]], to which Clears would be immune. <ref>Hubbard, ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'', p. 125. New Era Publications, Copenhagen (1988)</ref> Hubbard also claimed that [[atheism]], "zealotism" (by which he seems to have meant [[fundamentalism]]) and [[homosexuality]] could be "cured" through Dianetics, as they were all caused by engrams. <ref>Hubbard, "Dianetics and Religion", ''Dianetic Auditor's Bulletin'' vol. 1 no. 4, October 1950</ref>
Hubbard claimed that unlike conventional medical or mental therapies, Dianetics would work every time if applied properly and "will invariably cure all psychosomatic ills and human aberrations." In April 1950, before the public release of Dianetics, he wrote: "To date, over two hundred patients have been treated; of those two hundred, two hundred cures have been obtained." <ref>Hubbard, "Dianetics". ''Astounding Science Fiction'', May 1950.</ref> Dianetics has been extensively advertized by the Church of Scientology as being able to effect physical cures. The Church's Dianetics website still includes claims that while a student seeks spiritual gain with Dianetics "the arthritis vanishes, myopia gets better, heart illness decreases, asthma disappears, stomachs function properly and the whole catalog of ills goes away and stays away." <ref>[http://www.dianetics.org/html/opencms/cos/dianetics/en_US/info/01/pg003.html Dianetics.org]</ref>
The best available total count of Clears in 2004 was 50,000, using analysis of official Scientology documents.<ref>[http://www.truthaboutscientology.com/stats/clears/ "Scientology Clears - Scientology's Stats Are Down"], TruthAboutScientology.com, Accessed [[01 March]] [[2006]]</ref>
==Dianetics procedure in practice==
The procedure of Dianetics therapy &ndash; known as ''auditing'', from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''audire'', "to listen" &ndash; is an activity undertaken by two people. One person, the "auditor", guides the other person, the "preclear" (often also referred to by Hubbard as the "patient"), through a series of steps set out in ''[[Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health]]'' and the accompanying ''Hubbard Dianetics Seminar'' work-book. The preclear's job is look at the mind and talk to the auditor. The auditor acknowledges what the preclear says, and controls the process so the preclear may put his full attention on a specific record of pain until he can be cheerful about it.
The auditor and preclear sit down in chairs facing each other. The process then follows in eleven distinct steps: <ref>This description is based on "[http://www.rehabilitatenz.co.nz/pages/dianetics-auditing-steps.html The Dianetics® Procedure—10 Simple Steps]"</ref>
:1. The auditor assures the preclear that he will be fully aware of everything that happens during the session.
:2. The preclear is instructed to close his eyes for the session, entering a state of "dianetic reverie", signified by "a tremble of the lashes". During the session, the preclear remains in full possession of his will and retains full recall thereafter.
:3. The auditor installs a "canceller", an instruction intended to absolutely cancel any form of positive suggestion that could accidently occur. This is done by saying "In the future, when I utter the word 'cancelled,' everything I have said to you while you are in a therapy session will be cancelled and will have no force with you. Any suggestion I may have made to you will be without force when I say the word 'cancelled.' Do you understand?"
:4. The auditor then asks the preclear to locate an exact record of something that happened to the preclear in his past: "Locate an incident that you feel you can comfortably face."
:5. The preclear is invited by the auditor to "Go through the incident and say what is happening as you go along."
:6a. The auditor instructs the preclear to recall as much as possible of the incident, going over it several times "until the |
be tied to the Jomon period, but one cannot entirely exclude the pre-Jomon period and that it might be responsible for a migration to the Americas. A major source of food in those pre-agricultural times came from fishing, then as now, and this would have limited for ecological reasons the area of expansion to the coastline, perhaps that of the Sea of Japan, but also father along the Pacific Coast" "The History and Geography of Human Genes" p253, Cavalli-Sforza ISBN 0691087504</ref>.
==History==
At first, contact with the [[Japanese people]] was friendly and both were equals in a trade relationship. However, eventually the Japanese started to dominate the relationship, and soon established large settlements on the outskirts of Ainu territory. As the Japanese moved north and took control over their traditional lands, the Ainu often gave up without resistance, but there was occasional resistance as exemplified in wars in [[1457]], [[1669]], and [[1789]], all of which were lost by the Ainu. Japanese policies became increasingly aimed at assimilating the Ainu in the [[Meiji period]], outlawing their language and restricting them to farming on government-provided plots. Ainu were also used in near-slavery conditions in the Japanese fishing industry. The island of Hokkaido was called ''Ezo'' or ''Ezo-chi'' during the [[Edo period]]. Its name was changed to Hokkaido during the [[Meiji Restoration]] as part of the programme to "unify" the Japanese national character under the aegis of the Emperor, thus reducing the local identity and autonomy of the different regions of Japan.
As Japanese citizens, the Ainu are now governed by Japanese laws (though one Ainu man was acquitted of murder because he asserted that he was not a Japanese citizen and the judge agreed{{fact}}) and judged by Japanese tribunals, but in the past, their affairs were administered by hereditary chiefs, three in each village, and for administrative purposes the country was divided into three districts, [[Saru]], [[Usu (district)|Usu]] and [[Ishikari]], which were under the ultimate control of Saru, though the relations between their respective inhabitants were not close and intermarriages were avoided. The functions of judge were not entrusted to these chiefs; an indefinite number of a community's members sat in judgement upon its criminals. Capital punishment did not exist, nor was imprisonment resorted to, beating being considered a sufficient and final penalty, except in the case of murder, when the nose and ears of the culprit were cut off or the tendons of his feet severed. Intermarriages between Japanese and Ainu are not infrequent, and at [[Sambutsu]] especially, on the eastern coast, many children of such marriages may be seen.
Today, many Ainu dislike the term Ainu and prefer to identify themselves as ''Utari'' (''comrade'' in the Ainu language). In official documents both names are used.
==Geography==
For historical reasons (primarily the [[Russo-Japanese War]]), nearly all Ainu live in Japan.
There is, however, a small number of Ainu living on [[Sakhalin]], most of them descendants of Sakhalin Ainu who were evicted and later returned. There is also an Ainu minority living at the southernmost area of the Kamchatka Peninsula and on the Kurile Islands. However, the only Ainu speakers remaining (besides perhaps a few partial speakers) live solely in Japan. There, they are concentrated primarily on the southern and eastern coasts of the island of [[Hokkaido]].
Due to intermarriage with the Japanese and ongoing absorption into the predominant culture, few living Ainu settlements exist. Many "authentic Ainu villages" advertised in Hokkaido are simply tourist attractions.
==Language==
The [[Ainu language]] is significantly different from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] in its [[syntax]], [[phonology]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and vocabulary. Although there have been attempts to show that they are related, the vast majority of modern scholars reject that the relationship goes beyond contact, i.e., mutual borrowing of words between Japanese and Ainu. In fact, no attempt to show a relationship with Ainu to any other language has gained wide acceptance, and Ainu is currently considered to be a [[language isolate]].
<!--ethnologue data is incorrect; see [[ainu language]]-->
==Culture==
Traditional Ainu culture is quite different from Japanese culture. Never shaving after a certain age, the men had full [[beard]]s and [[moustache]]s. Men and women alike cut their [[hair]] level with the shoulders at the sides of the head, but trimmed it semicircularly behind. The [[women]] [[tattoo]]ed their [[mouth]]s, [[arm]]s, [[Clitoris|clitorides]], and sometimes their [[forehead]]s, starting at the onset of [[puberty]]. The soot deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark was used for [[colour]]. Their traditional [[dress]] is a robe spun from the bark of the elm tree. It has long sleeves, reaches nearly to the feet, is folded round the body, and is tied with a girdle of the same material. Women also wear an undergarment of Japanese cloth. In winter the skins of animals were worn, with leggings of deerskin and boots made from the skin of dogs or [[salmon]]. Both sexes are fond of earrings, which are said to have been made of [[grape]]vine in former times, as also are bead necklaces called [[tamasay]], which the women prized highly. Their traditional cuisine consists of the flesh of [[bear]], [[fox]], [[wolf]], [[badger]], [[ox]] or [[horse]], as well as [[fish]], [[fowl]], [[millet]], [[vegetable]]s, [[herb]]s, and [[root]]s. They never ate raw [[fish]] or flesh, but always either boiled or roasted it. Their traditional habitations were reed-thatched huts, the largest 20 ft. square, without partitions and having a fireplace in the centre. There was no chimney, but only a hole at the angle of the roof; there was one window on the eastern side and there were two doors. The house of the village head was used as a public meeting place when one was needed. Instead of using furniture, they sat on the floor, which was covered with two layers of mats, one of rush, the other of flag; and for beds they spread planks, hanging mats around them on poles, and employing skins for coverlets. The men used [[chopstick]]s when eating; the women had wooden [[spoon]]s. [[Ainu cuisine]] is uncommonly eaten outside Ainu communities; there are only a few Ainu restaurants in Japan, all located in [[Tokyo]] and [[Hokkaido]].
===Religion===
The Ainu believe in [[Animism]], or that everything in nature has a ''[[kami|kamuy]]'' (spirit or god) on the inside. There is a hierarchy of the ''kamuy''. The most important is grandmother hearth ([[fire]]), then ''kamuy'' of the [[mountain]] (animals), then ''kamuy'' of the [[sea]] ([[Marine biology|sea animals]]), lastly everything else. They have no [[priests]] by profession. The village chief performs whatever religious ceremonies are necessary; ceremonies are confined to making libations of [[sake|rice beer]], uttering [[prayers]], and offering [[willow]] sticks with wooden shavings attached to them. These sticks are called [[Inau]] (singular) and [[Inau|nusa]] (plural). They are placed on an altar used to sacrifice the heads of killed animals. The Ainu people give thanks to the gods before eating and pray to the deity of fire in time of [[sickness]]. They believe their spirits are [[immortal]], and that their spirits will be rewarded hereafter by ascending to ''kamuy mosir'' (Land of the Gods).
Some Ainu in the north are members of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]].
===Sport===
The Ainu excel at many competitive physical activities. Due to their taller physical build, the Ainu have outshone the ethnic Japanese in typically Western sports like [[baseball]], [[football (soccer)|football]] (soccer), and [[track and field]] events. This has engendered much resentment from the ethnic Japanese but the athletic feats of the Ainu people are still celebrated throughout Asia nonetheless (Fitzhugh, 364-366)
==Institutions==
There are many different organizations of Ainu trying to further their cause in many different ways. There is an umbrella group of which most Hokkaido Ainu and some other Ainu are members, called the [[Hokkaido Utari Association]], originally controlled by the government with the intention of speeding Ainu assimilation and integration into the Japanese nation-state but which now operates mostly independently of the government and is run exclusively by Ainu.
[[Image:FlagofAinuNation.png|thumb|300px|Flag of the Ainu people. The Ainu flag was designed by the late Mr. Bikki Sunazawa in 1973. [[Cerulean blue]] stands for sky and sea, white for snow and red for arrow which is running in the snow beneath Hokkaido's sky. --''Nozomi Kariyasu'', March 21, 1999]]
==Subgroups==
*[[Tohoku Ainu]] (from [[Honshu]], no known living population)
*[[Hokkaido Ainu]]
*[[Sakhalin Ainu]]
*[[Kuril Ainu]] (no known living population)
*[[Kamchatka Ainu]]
*[[Amur Valley Ainu]] (probably none remain)
==See also==
*[[Ethnic issues in Japan]]
*[[Yukar]]
*[[Ainu music]]
*[[Honshu]]
*[[Hokkaido]]
*[[Sakhalin]]
*[[Kuril Islands]]
*[[Kamchatka peninsula]]
*[[Shogun]]
*[[Kennewick Man]]
==Notes==
<references/>
==References==
{{1911}}
*Article on the Ainu in ''Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity''.
*Kayano, Shigeru. ''Our Land Was a Forest: An Ainu Memoir'' (1994). Translated by Kyoko Selden and Lili Selden. Foreword by Mikiso Hane. Transitions--Asia and Asian America series. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
*{{cite book|author=Fitzhugh, W.|year=2004|title=Ainu:Spirit of a Northern People|publisher=Seattle: University of Washington Press|id=ISBN 0295979127}}
==External links==
*[http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/english/english.html The Ainu Museum]
*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/features/ainu/ Smithsonian Institute]
*[http://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/ Nippon Utari Kyokai]
* |
last version by Yms</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[object-oriented programming]], '''classes''' are used to group related variables and functions. A class describes a collection of [[Information hiding|encapsulated]] [[instance variable]]s and [[Method (object-oriented programming)|method]]s (functions), possibly with implementation of those types together with a constructor function that can be used to create objects of the class.
A class is a [[cohesion|cohesive]] package that consists of a particular kind of compile-time [[metadata]]. It describes the rules by which [[Object (object-oriented programming)|objects]] behave; these objects are referred to as "[[instance]]s" of that class. A class specifies the structure of data which each instance contains as well as the [[Method (computer science)|methods]] ([[Function (computer science)|functions]]) which manipulate the data of the object and perform tasks; such methods are sometimes described as "[[behavior]]". A method is a function with a special property that it has access to data stored in an object. A class is the most specific [[datatype|type]] of an object in relation to a specific [[layer]]. A class may also have a representation ([[metaobject]]) at run-time, which provides run-time support for manipulating the class-related [[metadata]].
Instances of a class will have certain aspects (aka: features, attributes or properties) in common. A class [[Person]] for example would describe the properties common to all instances of the Person class. One of the benefits of programming with classes is that all instances of a particular class will follow the defined behaviour of the class they instantiate. Each person is generally alike; but varies in such properties as "height" and "weight". The class would list types of such instance variables; and also define, via methods, the [[action (philosophy)|action]]s which humans can perform: "run", "jump", "sleep", "throw object", etc.
== Interfaces ==
A class can "implement" (or "realize") multiple [[interface (computer science)|interface]]s, each of which specify one or more abstract method signatures (name and type of the method and its parameters) which must be defined (overridden) in that class.
Unlike [[multiple inheritance]] where actual code is inherited (along with naming and logical conflicts) interfacing allows to define a behaviour-interface (methods) all implementing classes should be able to fulfill. Partial implementations of interfaces are not allowed, that is, every specified method has to have an implementation. However some languages do not require that every parameter combination needs to be supported.
Each interface of the class is associated with a type of [[object reference]]s referring to the interface, through which methods of objects can be invoked. Each reference points to a single instance of the class.
Each reference has a [[lifetime]], which specifies how long the reference can be used, usually bound to the time when some specific operations are invoked via the interface. It is assumed that there is a mechanism for accessing the object with a valid object reference. However, while the object reference is a reference to a specific location at any one time, over time the same object can be located at different places.
The [[object-oriented programming]] methodology is designed in such a way that the operations of any interface of a class are usually chosen to be independent of each other. This means that an interface places no requirements for clients to invoke the operations of one interface in any particular order. This approach has the benefit that client code can rely that the operations of an interface are available for use whenever the client holds a valid reference to the object. This will also result in a [[client-server]] (or layered) design where servers do not depend in any
way on the clients.
The methods that are not in any of the interfaces of a class are private to the class, and not intended to be depended on by other classes.
The "set of all interfaces of a class" is sometimes called the interface of the class.
The internal data structures defined as part of a class are not considered to be part of its interface. Rather, public ''accessor'' methods can be used to inspect or alter object data. The various [[object-oriented]] programming languages enforce this to various degrees. For example, [[Java programming language|Java]] does not allow the programmer to access the private data of a class at all, whereas in languages like [[Objective-C]] or [[Perl]] the programmer can do what they want. In [[C++]], private methods are visible but not accessible in the interface; however they are commonly made invisible by explicitly declaring fully abstract classes that represent the interfaces of the class.
== Structure of a class ==
[[Image:oop-uml-class-example.png|frame|right|UML notation for classes]]
A class contains a description of structure of data ("[[state (object-oriented programming)|state]]") stored in the objects of the class. The state of an object is stored in some resource, such as memory or a file. The storage is assumed to be located in a specific location, such that it is possible to access the object via [[reference (computer science)|reference]]s to the [[identity (object-oriented programming)|identity]] of the objects. However, the actual storage location associated with an object may change with time. In such situations, the identity of the object does not change. The state is encapsulated and every access to the state occurs via methods of the class. Specific data items in the state, such as xsize and ysize in the example, are sometimes called class attributes or class properties.
A class implements its interfaces by specifying methods that describe what operations can be performed on the data stored in the objects of the class. Each method specifies only tasks that are related to the stored data. [[Multimethod]]s can be used when a single task requires access to many objects' data.
A class also describes a set of [[invariant (computer science)|invariant]]s that are preserved by every method in the class. An invariant is a constraint on the state of an object that should be satisfied by every object of the class. The main purpose of the invariants is to establish what objects belong to the class. An invariant is what distinguishes [[datatype]]s and classes from each other, that is, a class does not allow use of all possible values for the state of the object, only those that are well-defined by the semantics of the intended use of the datatype. The set of supported methods often implicitly establishes an invariant. Some programming languages support specification of invariants as part of the definition of the class, and enforce them via the type system. Encapsulation of state is necessary for being able to enforce the invariants of the class.
An implementation of a class specifies [[constructor]] and [[destructor]] functions that allow creation and destruction of objects of the class. A constructor that takes arguments can be used to create an object from [[data]]. A destructor that returns a value can be used to obtain a [[representation]] of an object of a class. The main purpose of a constructor is to establish the invariant of the class, failing if the invariant isn't valid. The main purpose of a destructor is to destroy the identity of the object, invalidating any references in the process. Constructors and destructors are also sometimes used to reserve and release resources associated with the object.
A class can also implement a set of auxiliary [[function (programming)|functions]], sometimes called class functions or static methods. Static methods are often used to find, create or destroy objects of the class. Constructors and destructors are sometimes specified as static methods. Often, mechanisms for sending an object to another location or changing the class of an object are specified as static methods.
The class members can be designated as ''public'', ''private'' or ''protected''. Public [[access specifier]] means that all clients can access the member by its name. Private access specifier restricts the access to the class itself. Protected access specifier allows the class itself and all its subclasses to access the member. In addition, some languages, such as C++, support a mechanism where a function explicitly declared as ''friend'' of the class may access the members designated as private or protected. Access specifiers do not control visibility, in that even private members may be visible to client code. An inaccessible but visible member may be referred to at run-time (e.g. pointer to it can be returned from member functions), but all attempts to use it by referring to the name of the member from client code will be prevented by the type checker. Object-oriented design uses the access specifiers in conjunction with careful design of public method implementations to enforce class invariants. Access specifiers are intended to protect against accidental use of members by clients, but are not suitable for run-time protection of object's data. [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/]
==Associations between classes==
An [[association (object-oriented programming)|association]] between two classes is a type of a link between the corresponding objects. A (two-way) association between classes A and B describes a relationship between each object of class A and some objects of class B, and vice versa. Associations are often named with a verb, such as "subscribes-to".
An association role describes the role of an instance of a class when the instance participates in an association. An association role is related to each end of the association. The role describes an instance of a class f |
tish Empire]] expanded in this time to include colonies and [[Dominion]]s throughout the Americas, [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[Australasia]]. Although the [[Royal Navy]] is widely regarded as being vital for the rise of Empire, and British dominance in the world, the British Army played an important role in colonisation. Firstly, the British Army provided garrisons for the colonies, protecting them against foreign powers and hostile natives. Secondly, the troops also helped capture strategically important territories for the British, allowing the British Empire to expand throughout the globe.
The British Army fought American colonists in the [[American Revolutionary War]]; Irish rebels in the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|1798 rebellion]]; the Chinese in the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s; [[Māori]] tribes in the first of the [[New Zealand Wars]]; [[India]]n princely forces and [[British East India Company]] mutineers in the [[Indian Mutiny]]; the Boers in the [[Boer Wars]]; and [[Irish Republican Army|Irish separatists]] in the [[Anglo-Irish War]].
===European wars===
Despite its increasingly global commitments, Britain's backdoor was still unstable, and many wars on the European continent were fought with various opponents. As well as foreign powers, Britain was still not politically stable at home, with uprisings to support the direct heirs of [[James II of England|James II]], who had been deposed in the [[Revolution of 1688|Revolution of ]][[1688]]. The [[Jacobite Risings]] ended at the [[Battle of Culloden]], the last land battle on British soil.
On the continent, British foreign policy was to contain aggression by its competitor powers such as [[France]] and [[Spain]]. The territorial ambitions of the French led to the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] and the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. Russian activity led to the [[Crimean War]].
===World Wars===
By [[1914]], the United Kingdom's dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, notably [[Germany]]. The UK was allied with France (by the [[Entente Cordiale]]) and Russia, and when war broke out in [[1914]], the British Army sent the [[British Expeditionary Force]] to France and Belgium to prevent Germany from occupying these countries. The War would be the most devastating in British military history, with over 900,000 men killed and over 2 million wounded. In the early part of the war, the professional force of the BEF was decimated and, by turns, a volunteer (and then conscripted) force replaced it. Major battles included the [[Battle of the Somme]]. Advances in technology saw the advent of the [[tank]] and [[aircraft]] which were to be decisive in future battles. Trench warfare dominated strategy, and the use of chemical and poison gases added to the devastation.
In 1939, [[World War II]] broke out with the German invasion of [[Poland]]. British assurances to the Polish led the British Empire to declare war on Germany, allied with France. Again an Expeditionary Force was sent to France, only to be hastily evacuated as the German forces swept through the Low Countries and across France in [[1940]]. Only the [[Battle of Dunkirk|Dunkirk evacuations]] saved the entire Expeditionary Force from capture. Later, however, the British would have success defeating the Italians and Germans at the [[First Battle of El Alamein|Battle of El Alamein]] in [[North Africa]], and in the [[Battle of Normandy|D-Day invasions of Normandy]]. In the Far East, the British Army battled the [[Japan|Japanese]] in [[Burma]]. World War II saw the British army develop its Commando units including the Special Air Services.
===1945-1990===
After the end of World War II, the British Empire declined with the independence of [[India]], and other colonies in Africa and Asia. Accordingly the strength of the British military was reduced, in recognition of Britain's reduced role in world affairs. However, a large deployment of [[BAOR|British troops]] remained in Germany, facing the threat of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion. The [[Cold War]] saw massive technological advances in warfare, and the Army saw more technological advanced weapons systems installed.
Despite the decline of the British Empire, the Army was still deployed around the world, fighting in the [[Korean War]], the [[Suez crisis]] of [[1956]], and colonial wars in Oman and Malaysia. In [[1982]] the British Army, alongside the [[Royal Marines]], helped to recapture the [[Falkland Islands]] during the [[Falklands War]] against [[Argentina]].
In the three decades following 1969, the Army was heavily deployed in [[Northern Ireland]], to support the [[Royal Ulster Constabulary]] (later the [[Police Service of Northern Ireland]]) in their conflict with loyalist and republican paramilitary groups. The locally-recruited [[Ulster Defence Regiment]] was formed, later becoming the [[Royal Irish Regiment]] in 1992. Over 700 soldiers were killed during the [[Troubles]]. Following the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] ceasefires between 1994 and 1996 and since 1997, demilitarisation has taken place as part of the peace process, much reducing the military presence in the area.
===1990-present===
[[Image:British gulf war.jpg|thumb|200px|British soldiers training during the Gulf War]]
The ending of the [[Cold War]] saw a 40% cut in manpower, significantly reducing the size of the Army. Despite this, the Army has been deployed in an increasingly global role. In [[1991]], the United Kingdom was the second largest contributor to the coalition force that fought [[Iraq]] in the [[Gulf War]]. Later the Army would see service in the former [[Republic of Yugoslavia]] in the [[Bosnian War]] and the [[Kosovo War]]. In [[2003]], the United Kingdom was the only other major contributor to the United States led [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]].
The Army has also been deployed in many [[peacekeeping|peacekeeping operations]], such as in [[Sierra Leone]] and in the [[war against terrorism]]. Some peacekeeping operations are under [[United Nations]] mandates. The [[Special Air Service|SAS]] unit of the British Army is specifically trained for anti-terror operations, and fought in [[Afghanistan]] in [[2001]]. A squadron of SAS troops is always present on the UK mainland to respond to terrorist attacks.
There has been a reduction in the number of troops deployed in [[Northern Ireland]] since the [[Good Friday Agreement]] was signed in [[1998]]. In 2005, after the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] announced an end to armed conflict in Northern Ireland, it was revealed that the British Army would dismantle posts in the province and withdraw many troops.
==The Army today==
For equipment, see ''[[Modern equipment and uniform of the British Army]]''
===Statistics===
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;"
| bgcolor="#ff2222 align="center" colspan="2" | '''British Army statistics''' {{ref|statistics}}
|-
| Personnel (Regular Army)
| 103,780
|-
| Personnel ([[Territorial Army]])
| 35,000+
|-
| [[Main Battle Tank]]s
| 386 [[Challenger 2]]
|-
| [[Infantry fighting vehicle]]s
| 667 [[Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle|Warrior]] (789 purchased)
|-
|[[Armoured Personnel Carrier|APC]]s and reconnaissance vehicles
| 3,230 - 4,000+
|-
| [[Land Rover]]s
| 15,000
|-
|[[Artillery]] pieces and [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]]
| 2896
|-
|Air Defence
|337
|-
|[[Aircraft]]
| 300+
|}
{{note|statistics}} [http://www.armedforces.co.uk/army/listings/l0002.html Armed forces.co.uk]
===Current deployments===
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Country!!Dates!!Deployment!!Details
|-
|[[Afghanistan]] || [[2001]]- ||One [[Light infantry|light-role infantry]] battalion (on rotation) || British troops have been based in Afghanistan since the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|US-led invasion]] there in [[2001]]. The infantry battalion forms part of [[NATO]]'s [[International Security Assistance Force]]. It is expected that [[British 16 Air Assault Brigade|16 Air Assault Brigade]] will deploy to the country in [[2006]].
|-
| [[Belize]] || [[1981]]- || British Army Training and Support Unit Belize
||British troops have been based in [[Belize]] since the country gained independence from the UK in [[1981]]. Until [[1994]] Belize's neighbour, [[Guatemala]] claimed the territory, and British troops were based in Belize to provide a deterrent force
|-
| [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] || [[1995]]- || One light-role infantry battalion (on rotation) || British troops are based in Bosnia as peacekeepers under UN Security Council resolutions.
|-
| [[Brunei]] || [[1962]]- || One battalion from the [[Royal Gurkha Rifles]] and [[Army Air Corps]] flight ||Centre of the Army's jungle warfare school.
|-
| [[Canada]] || [[1972]]- || [[British Army Training Unit Suffield]]|| Training centre in the [[Alberta]] prairie. Regular exercises every year.
|-
| [[Cyprus]] || [[1960]]- || Two resident infantry battalions, [[Royal Engineers]], 16 Flight Army Air Corps and Joint Service Signals Unit at [[Ayios Nikolaos]]||The UK retains two [[Sovereign Base Areas]] in Cyprus after the island's independence. The bases serve as forward bases for deployment in the Middle East. British forces are also deployed separately with [[United Nations|UN]] forces.
|-
| [[Falkland Islands]] || [[1982]]- || An infantry company group and a Engineers Squadron || Constant occupation since [[1833]], except brief period in [[1982]] when [[Argentina]] invaded. Previously a platoon-sized [[Royal Marines]] Naval Party served as garrison. After 1982 the garrison was enlarged, and bolstered with an RAF base.
|-
| [[Germany]] || [[1945]]- || 1st (UK) Armoured Division as part of [[British Forces Germany]]||British forces remained in Germany after the end of [[World War II]]. Forces declined considerably after the end of the Cold War, although the lack of accommodation in the UK means force |
hose abode was in ''Álfheim'' according to the ''Grímnismál''.
==The region in Scandinavia==
===About the region and its folk===
The [[Ynglinga saga]], when relating the events of the reign of King [[Gudröd the Hunter|Gudröd]] (''Guðröðr'') the Hunter relates:
<blockquote>Álfheim, at that time, was the name of the land between the ''Raumelfr'' ['Raum Elf river', the modern Glomma river] and the ''Gautelfr'' ['Gaut Elf river', the modern Göta älv].</blockquote>
The words "at that time" indicates the name for the region was archaic or obsolete by the [[13th century]]. The element ''elfr'' is a common word for 'river' and appears in other river names. It is cognate with [[Middle Low German]] ''elve'' 'river' and the name of the river [[Elbe]]. The Raum Elf marked the border of the region of Raumaríki and the Gaut Elf marked the border of Gautland (modern [[Götaland]]). It corresponds closely to the historical Swedish province of [[Bohuslän]].
The name Álfheim here may have nothing to do with ''Álfar'' 'Elves', but may derive from a word meaning 'gravel layer'.
However the ''[[Thorsteins saga Víkingssonar]] '' claims that the two rivers and the country was named from King Álf the Old (''Álfr hinn gamli'') who once ruled there, and that his descendants were all related to the Elves and were more handsome than any other people except for the giants, a unique and possibly corrupt reference to giants being especially good looking. The ''[[Sögubrot af Nokkrum]]'' also mentions the special good looks of the kindred of King Álf the Old.
===Traditions of Álf the Old===
According to ''Thorsteins saga Víkingssonar'', King Álf the Old was married to Bryngerd (''Bryngerðr'') the daughter of King '''[[Raum the Old|Raum]]''' of Raumaríki.
But according to the ''[[Hversu Noregr byggdist]]'', Álf, also called Finnálf, was a son of King Raum who inherited from his father the land from the Gaut Elf river (the modern [[Göta älv]] river) north to the Raum Elf river (the modern [[Glomma]] river), and that the land was then called Álfheim.
Finnálf married Svanhild (''Svanhildr'') who was called Gold-feather (''Gullfj&#491;ðr'') and was the daughter of Day (''[[Dagr]]'') son of Dayspring (''[[Delling]]r'') by Sun (''[[Sol (goddess)|Sól]]'') daughter of ''[[Mundilfari]]''. Dag as a personification of day and the sun-goddess Sól are mentioned elsewhere, but only the ''Hversu'' mentions their daughter. Svandhild bore Finnálf a son named Svan the Red (''Svanr inn Rauðr'') who was father of Sæfari, father of Úlf (''Úlfr''), father of Álf, father of Ingimund (''Ingimundr'') and Eystein (''Eysteinn'').
According to the eddic poem ''[[Hyndluljód]]'' (stanza&nbsp;12), Óttar, whose genealogy is the subject of this poem, was son of Innstein (''Innsteinn''), son of Álf the Old, son of Úlf, son of Sæfari, son of Svan the Red. So the Innstein of the ''Hyndluljód'' and ''Eystein'' of the ''Hversu'' are presumably identical.
===Later kings of Álfheim===
====Stuff of Legend====
Later kings are mentioned in some sagas.
According to [[Saxo Grammaticus]]' ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' (Book 8), the sons of King [[Gandálf the Old]] joined King [[Harald Hildetand|Harald]] for the [[battle of Bråvalla]]. The ''[[Sögubrot af Nokkrum|Sögubrot]]'' names the sons of Gandálf as Álfar (''Álfarr'') and Álfarin (''Álfarinn'') and makes them members of King Harald's bodyguard. Presumably they died in the battle. But the kingdom of this Gandálf is not identified in these texts.
The ''Sögubrot'' also relates that [[Sigurd Ring|Sigurd Hring]] (''Sigurðr Hringr''), who was Harald's viceroy on the Swedish throne, married Álfhild, the daughter of King Álf the Old of Álfheim. But in a later passage she appears as a descendant of King Álf. The ''Hversu Novegr byggdist'' provides instead a lineage of King Álf the Old of Álfheim who was father of Álfgeir the father of Gandálf the father of Álfhild the mother of the famous [[Ragnar Lodbrok]] (by Sigurd Hring). That Álfhild's father was the same Gandálf whose sons were at the Battle of Bravalla makes good sense in legendary chronology. But this genealogy may have resulted from misidentification of Gandálf the Old of the battle of Bråvalla with Gandálf son of Álfgeir of the ''[[Ynglinga saga]]'' who is discussed below. Or if the two Gandálfs may be rightly identified then the chronology is badly garbled.
In all these accounts, the son of Hring and Álfhild was supposedly the famous Ragnar Lodbrok, husband of [[Áslaug]] (''Áslaugr'') the mother of Sigurd Hart (''Sigurðr Hj&#491;rt'') whose daughter Ragnhild (''Ragnhildr'') married [[Halfdan the Black]] and bore to him [[Harald I of Norway|Harald Fairhair]], the first historic king of all Norway.
''[[Illuga saga Gríðarfóstra]]'' relates of a king Áli of Alfheim and his queen Alfrun. When the queen died, the king married a beautiful but evil woman named Grimhild. She murdered him and tyrannized Alfheim until it was laid waste. His daughter Signy would marry king Hringr of Denmark.
====On the borders of history====
The ''Ynglinga saga'', ''Saga of Halfdan the Black'', and ''Saga of Harald Fairhair'', all included in the ''[[Heimskringla]]'', tell of kings of Álfheim at the end of the legendary period:
* '''Álf:''' His daughter Álfhild (''Álfhildr'') married King [[Gudröd the Hunter]] of [[Raumaríki]] and [[Vestfold|Westfold]] who brought with her half of the territory of [[Vingulmork]] as her dowry. She bore to Gudröd a son named Óláf (''Óláfr'') who was afterwards named Geirstada-Álf (''Geirstaða-Álfr'') and was the elder half-brother of [[Halfdan the Black]].
* '''Álfgeir:''' He as son of Álf. He regained Vingulmork and placed his son Gandálf (''Gandálfr'') over it as king.
* '''Gandálf:''' He was son of Álfgeir. Since this Gandálf was an older contemporary of Harald Fairhair and since the historical Viking leaders identified as sons of Ragnar Lodbrok in some traditions were also contemparies of Harald Fairhair, it is not impossible that Álfhild, the supposed mother of Ragnar Lodbrok, was the daughter of this Gandálf as the ''Hversu Noregr byggdist'' states. What is told in the ''[[Heimskringla]]'' is that after many indecisive battles between Gandálf and Halfdan the Black, Vingulmork was divided between them, Halfdan regaining the portion which had been the dowry of his grandfather's first wife Álfhild. Two sons of Gandálf named Hýsing (''Hýsingr'') and Helsing (''Helsingr'') later led a force against Halfdan but fell in battle and a third son named Haki fled into Álfheim. When Halfdan's son Harald Fairhair succeeded his father, Gandálf and his son Haki were both part of an alliance of kings who attacked Harald. Haki was slain but Gandálf escaped. There was further war between Gandálf and Harald. At last Gandálf fell in battle and Harald seized all of Gandálf's land up to the Raum Elf river, at that time not taking Álfheim itself.
But later parts of his saga show Harald in full control of the land west of the Gaut Elf river showing that Álfheim did soon become part of his kingdom. From that point it ceased to be an independent region. The Saga of Harald Fairhair relates that it was first conquered by the Swedish king Eirik Eymundsson ([[Erik Anundsson]]) who lost it to Harald Fairhair.
==Variant spellings==
Variant Anglicizations are: '''Álf''': ''Alf''&nbsp;; '''Álfar''': ''Alfar''&nbsp;; '''Álfarin''': ''Alfarin''&nbsp;; '''Álfgeir''': ''Alfgeir''&nbsp;; '''Álfheim''': ''Alfheim''&nbsp;; '''Álfhild''': ''Alfhild''&nbsp;; '''Áslaug''': ''Aslaug''&nbsp;; '''Finnálf''': ''Finnalf''&nbsp;; '''Frey''': ''Freyr''&nbsp;; '''Gandálf''': ''Gandalf''&nbsp;; '''Gimlé''': ''Gimle''&nbsp;; '''Grímnismál''': ''Grimnismal''&nbsp;; '''Gudröd''': ''Gudrod'', ''Guthröth''&nbsp;; '''Haki''': ''Hake''&nbsp;; '''Halfdan the Black''': ''Hálfdan the Black''&nbsp;; '''Raumaríki''': ''Raumarike'', ''Raumarik'', ''Raum's-ric''&nbsp;; '''Sæfari''': ''Saefari''&nbsp;; '''Sigurd Hart''': ''Sigurd Hjort'', ''Sigurth Hart''&nbsp;; '''Sigurd Hring''': ''Sigurd Ring'', ''Sigurth Hring''&nbsp;; '''Sól''': ''Sol''&nbsp;; '''Úlf''': ''Ulf''&nbsp;; '''Ull''': ''Ullr''&nbsp;; '''Völuspá''': ''Voluspá''.
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology|Alfheim]]
[[da:Alfheim]]
[[de:Lichtelfenheim]]
[[es:Alfheim]]
[[fr:Alfheim]]
[[lt:Alfheimas]]
[[nl:Alfheim]]
[[no:Alvheim]]
[[pt:Alfheim]]
[[ru:Льесальфахейм]]
[[fi:Alfheim]]
[[sv:Alfheim]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ask and Embla</title>
<id>1482</id>
<revision>
<id>38695622</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T00:53:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MTSbot</username>
<id>899034</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: lt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Faroe stamp 430 The First Human Beings.jpg|thumb|Ask and Embla on a postage stamp of the Faroe Islands, 2003 by [[Anker Eli Petersen]].]]
In [[Norse Mythology]] '''Ask and Embla''' were the first two humans created by the gods, analogous with [[Adam and Eve]].
[[Odin]] and his brothers, [[Ve]] and [[Vili]], created all nine worlds of Norse cosmology. They then found two logs on a beach and gave them a human shape. Odin gave them the breath of life; Vili gave them wit and emotions; Ve gave them senses and speech. These two people, Ask ("[[ash (tree)|ash]]"), the male, and Embla ("[[elm]]"), became the progenitors of humanity; they lived in [[Midgard]].
==Symbolism==
The idea that the first humans were shaped from tree-trunks is apparently a part of the cyclic notions, where light and darkness relieve each other, separated by the semidarkness of the dawn and dusk.
We all know the optical illusions of the twilight, where the outline of an object looks like a human being, an animal or some kind of living creature. But when we take a clos |
south.com/resources/antarctic-history/explorers/richardbyrd/ Richard Byrd]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref> However, it was not until [[October 31]], [[1956]] that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral [[George Dufek]] successfully landed on an aircraft.<ref>U.S. Navy. [http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm Dates in American Naval History: October]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref>
==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Antarctica}}
[[Image:Antarctica satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|150px|A satellite composite image of Antarctica]]
The continent of Antarctica is located mostly south of the [[Antarctic Circle]], surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]]. Antarctica is the southernmost [[land mass]] on Earth comprising more than 14 million&nbsp;km&sup2; making it the 5th largest continent. The coastline measures 17,968&nbsp;km. Physically, Antarctica is divided in two by the [[Transantarctic Mountains]] close to the neck between the [[Ross Sea]] and the [[Weddell Sea]]. The portion of the [[continent]] west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called [[Western Antarctica]] and the remainder [[Eastern Antarctica]], because they correspond roughly to the Eastern and Western Hemispheres relative to the [[Greenwich meridian]]. Western Antarctica is covered by the [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]]. About 98 percent of Antarctica is covered by an [[ice sheet]] that is, on average, 2.5 kilometers thick. [[Vinson Massif]], the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892&nbsp;meters, is located in the [[Ellsworth Mountains]]. The [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]] has been of recent concern because of the slight possibility of its collapse. If it does break down, [[Sea level change|ocean level]]s would rise by a few meters in a relatively short period of time. Despite its zero rainfall in some areas, the continent has approximately 90% of the world's fresh water--in the form of ice.<ref name="cia">Central Intelligence Agency [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html Factbook] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref>
[[Image:Mt erebus.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mt. Erebus]], an active volcano in [[Ross Island]].]]
Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only [[Deception Island]] and [[Mt. Erebus]] are active. Mount Erebus, located in [[Ross Island]], is the southernmost active volcano on Earth. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.<ref>British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/About_Antarctica/Rock/Volcanoes.html Volcanoes]. Retrieved February 13, 2006.</ref> In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.<ref>National Science Foundation. [http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100385 Scientists Discover Undersea Volcano Off Antarctica]. Retrieved February 13, 2006</ref>
Antarctica is home to more than 70 [[lake]]s that lie thousands of metres under the surface of the continental ice sheet, including one under the South Pole itself. [[Lake Vostok]], discovered beneath [[Russia]]'s [[Vostok Station]] in 1996, is the largest of these [[subglacial lake]]s. It is believed that the lake has been sealed off for 35 million years. There is some evidence that Vostok's waters may contain [[microorganism|microbial life]]. Due to the lake's similarity to [[Europa]], a moon of [[Jupiter]], confirming that life can survive in Lake Vostok might strengthen the argument for the presence of life on Europa.<ref>National Science Foundation [http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/02/fslakevostok.htm Lake Vostok] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref><ref>NASA [http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/stories/europa_vostok_0899.html Lake Vostok may teach us about Europa] Retrieved February 4, 2006.</ref>
{{seealso|Extreme points of Antarctica|Antarctic territories}}
== Geology ==
===Gondwana breakup===
More than 170 million years ago (Mya), Antarctica was part of the [[supercontinent]] [[Gondwana]]. [[Africa]] separated from Antarctica around 160 Mya follwed by [[India]] in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Mya). About 65 Mya, Antarctica (then still connected to [[Australia]]) had still tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a [[marsupial]] fauna, but by about 45 Mya [[Australia]]-[[New Guinea]] had separated from Antarctica and the first ice appeared. At around 25 Mya, due to the opening of the [[Drake Passage]] between Antarctica and [[South America]] and the resulting [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]], the ice spread quickly, displacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15 Mya, the continent has been mostly covered with ice.{{fact}}
{{sect-stub}}
==Climate==
{{Main|Climate of Antarctica}}
[[Image:Lake Fryxell.jpg|thumb|left|225px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice]] covering [[Lake Fryxell]], in the [[Transantarctic Mountains]], comes from [[glacier|glacial]] meltwater from the [[Canada Glacier]] and other smaller glaciers.]]
Antarctica is the coldest place on earth. Antarctica has little rainfall, with the South Pole getting none, making it a continental desert. Temperatures reach a minimum of between &minus;85 and &minus;90 degrees Celsius (&minus;121 and &minus;130 degrees Fahrenheit) in the winter and about 30&nbsp;degrees higher in the summer months. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects over 90% of the sunlight falling on it.<ref name="weather">British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/jds/weather/weather.htm ''Weather in the Antarctic''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref> Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. [[Weather front]]s rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. There is little [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] over the central portion of the continent, but [[ice]] there can last for extended time periods. However, heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22&nbsp;meters (48&nbsp;inches) in 48&nbsp;hours have been recorded. At the edge of the continent, strong [[katabatic wind]]s off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are often moderate. During summer more [[solar radiation]] reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the [[equator]] in an equivalent period.<ref name="cia" />
Depending on the latitude, long periods of constant darkness, or constant sunlight, mean that climates familiar to humans are not generally available on the continent. The [[aurora australis]], commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the south pole. Another unique spectacle is [[diamond dust]]. Diamond dust refers to a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. Diamond dust generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A [[sundog]], a frequent atmospheric [[optical phenomenon]], is a bright "spot" beside the true [[sun]].<ref name="weather" />
[[image:iceberg09.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Tabletop [[iceberg]]s in Antarctica]]
==Population==
{{seealso|Demographics of Antarctica}}
[[Image:Antarctic researchers.jpg|thumb|Two American researchers studying [[plankton]] through [[microscope]]s.]]
Although Antarctica has no permanent residents, a number of governments maintain permanent [[research station]]s throughout the continent. The population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed around the year.
[[Emilio Marcos Palma]] was the first person born in Antarctica (Base Esperanza) in 1978, his parents being sent there along with seven other families by the Argentinean government to determine if family life was suitable in the continent. In 1986 Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.<ref>''The Antarctic Sun'' [http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/oldissues2002-2003/answer.html Questions and answers] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>
==Flora and fauna==
{{seealso|Antarctic ecozone}}
===Flora===
{{main|Antarctic flora}}
[[Image:Lichen squamulose.jpg|thumb|left|More than 200 species of [[lichen]]s are known in Antarctica.]]
The climate of Antarctica does not allow for much vegetation to exist. A combination of freezing temperatures, [[soil]] quality, lack of moisture and sunlight limit the chances for plants to exist. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly mosses and liverworts. The autotrophic community is made up of mostly [[protist]]s. The [[flora]] of the continent largely consists of [[lichen]]s, [[bryophyte]]s, [[algae]], and [[fungi]]. Growth generally occurs in the summer and only for a few weeks, at most.
There are more than 200 species of lichens and approximately 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are [[phytoplankton]]. Multicolored [[snow algae]] and [[diatoms]] are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula: [[Antarctic hair grass]] and [[Antarctic pearlwort]].<ref>Australian Antarctic Division [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=5551 Antarctic Wildlife] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref>
===Fauna===
[[Image:Emperor penguin.jpg|thumb|165px|[[Emperor Penguin]]s in [[Ross Sea]], Antarctica.]]
Land [[fau |
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amara Sinha''' (c. [[375|AD 375]]) was a [[Sanskrit]] [[grammar]]ian and [[poet]], of whose personal history hardly anything is known.
He is said to have been "one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of [[Vikramaditya]]," and according to the evidence of Hsuan Tsang, this is the [[Chandragupta Vikramaditya]] ([[Chandragupta II]]) that flourished about AD 375.
Amara seems to have been a [[Buddhist]]; and an early tradition asserts that his works, with one exception, were destroyed during the persecution carried on by the orthodox [[Brahmin]]s in the [[5th century]]. The exception is the celebrated ''Amara-Kosha'' (''Treasury of Amara''), a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called ''Trikanda'' or the "Tripartite."
It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory. The first chapter of the ''Kosha'' was printed at [[Rome]] in Tamil character in 1798. An edition of the entire work, with English notes and an index by [[Henry Thomas Colebrooke|HT Colebrooke]], appeared at [[Serampore]] in 1808. The Sanskrit text was printed at [[Calcutta]] in 1831. A French translation by ALA Loiseleur-Deslongchamps as published at Paris in 1839.
==References==
*{{1911}}
==External links==
*[http://sanskrit.gde.to/doc_z_misc_amarakosha.html Amarakosha Sanskrit text]</text>
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'''Alfonso XII of Spain''' ([[November 28]], [[1857]]&ndash;[[November 25]], [[1885]]), was king of [[Spain]], reigning from 1875 to 1885, after a ''[[coup d'état]]'' restored the monarchy and ended the ephemeral [[First Spanish Republic]].
He was son of [[Isabella II of Spain]]. His biological paternity is uncertain, though his legal paternity is not: his mother was married to her homosexual cousin [[Francis of Asis de Bourbon]], Infante, and king Consort of Spain, eldest son of the duke of Cadiz, at the time of Alfonso's conception and birth. Alfonso's biological father is said to have been Enrique Puig y Moltó, a captain of the guard, or [[Francisco Serrano y Dominguez|General Serrano]].
When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave Spain by the [[revolution of 1868]], Alfonso accompanied them to [[Paris]], and from there he was sent to the [[Theresianum]] at [[Vienna]] to continue his studies. On [[June 25]] [[1870]] he was recalled to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, in the presence of a number of Spanish nobles who had followed the fortunes of the exiled queen. He assumed the title of Alfonso XII; for although no king of united Spain had previously borne the name, the Spanish monarchy was regarded as continuous with the more ancient monarchy, represented by the eleven kings of [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Castile]] also named [[Alfonso]]. Shortly afterwards he proceeded to the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]] in the [[United Kingdom]], to continue his military studies, and while there he issued, on the [[December 1]], [[1874]], in reply to a birthday greeting from his followers, a manifesto proclaiming himself the sole representative of the Spanish monarchy. At the end of the year, when Marshal Serrano left [[Madrid]] to take command of the northern army in the [[Carlist War]], Brigadier [[Arsenio Martínez Campos|Martinez Campos]], who had long been working more or less openly for the king, carried off some battalions of the central army to [[Sagunto]], rallied to his own flag the troops sent against him, and entered [[Valencia]] in the king's name. Thereupon the president of the council resigned, and the power was transferred to the king's plenipotentiary and adviser, [[Canovas del Castillo]]. In the course of a few days the king arrived at Madrid, passing through [[Barcelona]] and Valencia, and was received everywhere with acclamation (1875). In 1876 a vigorous campaign against the [[Carlists]], in which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of [[Infante Carlos of Spain|Don Carlos]] and his abandonment of the struggle. On [[January 23]], [[1878]] Alfonso married his cousin, Princess [[Maria de las Mercedes of Spain|Maria de las Mercedes]], daughter of the duc de Montpensier, but she died within six months of her marriage. Towards the end of the same year a young workman of [[Tarragona]], [[Juan Oliva Moncasi]], fired at the king in Madrid.
On [[November 29]], [[1879]] he married a much more distant relative, Archduchess [[Maria Christina of Austria]], daughter of [[Karl Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria]]. During the honeymoon a pastrycook named Otero fired at the young sovereigns as they were driving in Madrid.
The children of this marriage were:
* [[Maria de las Mercedes]], Princess of Asturias, ([[September 11]], [[1880]] &ndash; [[October 17]], [[1904]]), married on [[February 14]], [[1901]] to Prince Carlos of Bourbon, and titular heiress from the death of her father until the posthumous birth of her brother
* Maria Teresa, ([[November 12]], [[1882]] &ndash; [[September 23]], [[1912]]), married to Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria on [[January 12]], [[1906]]
* King [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]] who was king from the moment of his birth and thus never held any other Spanish titles from the crown, such as Infante or Prince of Asturias.
In 1881 the king refused to sanction the law by which the ministers were to remain in office for a fixed term of eighteen months, and upon the consequent resignation of Canovas del Castillo, he summoned [[Práxedes Mateo Sagasta]], the Liberal leader, to form a cabinet.
Alfonso died of [[tuberculosis]].
Coming to the throne at such an early age, he had served no apprenticeship in the art of ruling, but he possessed great natural tact and a sound judgment ripened by the trials of exile. Benevolent and sympathetic in disposition, he won the affection of his people by fearlessly visiting the districts ravaged by cholera or devastated by [[earthquake]] in 1885. His capacity for dealing with men was considerable, and he never allowed himself to become the instrument of any particular party. In his short reign, peace was established both at home and abroad, the finances were well regulated, and the various administrative services were placed on a basis that afterwards enabled [[Spain]] to pass through the disastrous war with the [[United States]] without even the threat |
riptures were formed. This teaching is preserved in both written [[Scripture]] and in unwritten [[Tradition]], neither being independent of the other.
*A belief in the necessity of [[sacrament]]s (generally counted as seven).
*The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship.
*Belief that the [[Eucharist]] is really, truly, and objectively the Body and Blood of Christ, through the [[Real Presence]]. Those that are quite distinctively Catholic believe that adoration and worship is due to the Eucharist, as the body and blood of Christ.
*[[Veneration]] of [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]] as the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] or [[Theotokos]], and veneration of the [[saint]]s.
*A distinction between ''adoration'' (''[[latria]]'') for God, and ''veneration'' (''dulia'') for saints. The term ''hyperdulia'' is used for a special veneration accorded to the Virgin Mary among the saints. Some do not accept the distinction between hyperdulia and dulia.
*The use of [[prayer for the dead]].
*Requests to the departed saints for intercessory prayers.
*Belief in Exorcisms
=== Sacraments or Sacred [[Mysteries]] ===
{{Main|Catholic sacraments}}
{{Main|Sacred Mysteries}}
Catholics administer seven [[Sacrament|sacraments]] or "sacred mysteries", traditionally listed in the following order (cf. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church''):
* [[Baptism]]
* [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]], also called [[Chrismation]]
* [[Eucharist]]
* [[Confession|Reconciliation of a Penitent]]
* [[Anointing of the Sick]]
* [[Holy Orders]]
* [[Holy Matrimony]] also known as "Marriage"
While the word ''[[mystery]]'' is used not only of these rites, but also with other meanings with reference to revelations of and about God and to God's mystical interaction with creation, the word ''[[sacrament]]'' (Latin: ''a solemn pledge''), the usual term in the West, refers specifically to these rites.
'''[[Baptism]]''' is the first sacrament of Christian initiation, the basis for all the other sacraments. Catholics consider baptism conferred in most Christian denominations "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit" (cf. Matthew 28:19) to be valid, since the effect is produced through the sacrament, independently of the faith of the minister, though not of the minister's intention. As stated in the [[Nicene Creed]], Baptism is "for the remission of sins", not only personal sins, but also of [[original sin]], which it remits even in infants who have committed no actual sins. Expressed positively, remission of sins means bestowal of the sanctifying grace by which the baptized person shares the life of God. The initiate "puts on Christ" (Galatians 3:27), and is "buried with him in baptism ... also raised with him through faith in the working of God" (Colossians 2:12).
'''[[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]]''' or '''Chrismation''' is the second sacrament of Christian initiation. Through it, the gift of the Holy Spirit conferred in baptism is "strengthened and deepened" (see ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'', [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a2.htm §1303]) by a sealing. Some theologies consider this to be the outward sign of the inner "Baptism of the Holy Spirit," the special gifts (or ''charismata'') of which may remain latent or become manifest over time according to God's will. Its "originating" minister is a validly consecrated bishop; if a priest (a "presbyter") confers the sacrament - as is done ordinarily in Eastern, Anglican, and Lutheran Churches and in particular cases in the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church - the link with the higher order is indicated by the use of chrism (also called myrrh) blessed by a bishop (in an [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], by the patriarch). In the East, and among Anglicans and Lutherans, the sacrament is administered immediately after baptism. In the West administration came to be postponed until the recipient's early adulthood; but in view of the earlier age at which children are now admitted to reception of the Eucharist, it is more and more restored in the Roman Catholic Church to the traditional order and administered before giving the third sacrament of Christian initiation. In the Lutheran and Anglican traditions, "Confirmation" has come to be seen as a mature expression of faith, graced by the laying-on of a bishop's hands, and separated as a rite from the actual conferring of the chrismation.
The '''[[Eucharist]]''' is the sacrament (the third of Christian initiation) by which, according to Catholic doctrine, Catholics receive their ultimate "daily bread," or "bread for the journey," by partaking of and in the Body and Blood of [[Jesus]] Christ and being participants in Christ's one eternal sacrifice. The bread and wine used in the rite are, according to Catholic faith, in the [[mystery|mystical]] action of the Holy Spirit, transformed to be objectively Christ's Body and Blood, his [[Real Presence]]. This transformation is suggested through the concept of [[metousiosis]] in the East and in several Western Churches. The Roman Catholic Church has officially adopted the philosophical formula of [[transubstantiation]] to describe the change in the elements (the bread and wine).
'''The Reconciliation of a Penitent''' (or, simply, ''Reconciliation''), ''Penance'' and ''[[Confession]]'' are names given to the first of the two sacraments of healing. It is also called the sacrament of '''conversion''', of '''forgiveness''', and of '''absolution''' (''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 1423-1424).[http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt2.htm#i] It is the sacrament of spiritual healing of a baptized person from the distancing from God involved in actual sins committed. It involves four elements: the penitent's contrition for sin (without which the rite does not have its effect), confession to a priest (it may be spiritually helpful to confess to another and doing such is actually encouraged within the Church, but only a priest has the power to administer absolution), absolution by the priest, and satisfaction (signs of repentance that help the penitent's growth). In early Christian centuries, the fourth element was quite onerous and generally preceded absolution, but now it usually involves a simple task (in some traditions called a "penance") for the penitent to perform, to make some reparation and as a medicinal means of strengthening against further sinning.
'''[[Anointing of the Sick]]''' (or '''Unction''') is the second sacrament of healing. In it those who are suffering a serious illness are anointed by a priest with oil blessed specifically for that purpose. "Seriously sick" does not necessarily mean "in immediate danger of death". In past centuries, when such a restrictive interpretation was customary, the sacrament came to be known as "Extreme Unction", i.e. "Final Anointing", as it still is among [[traditionalist Catholics]]. It was then conferred only as one of the "Last Rites". The other "Last Rites" are Confession (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, at least absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given), and the Eucharist, which, when administered to the dying, is known as "Viaticum", a word whose original meaning in [[Latin (language)|Latin]] was "provision for a journey". Since the advent of the AIDS crisis, the conferring of Anointing of the Sick has become customary at Communion-time in many urban Anglican and Lutheran parishes.
'''The Sacrament of Order''' is that which integrates men (and in some jurisdictions, also women) into the '''[[Holy Orders]]''' of bishops, priests (presbyters), and deacons, the threefold order of "administrators of the mysteries of God" (1 Corinthians 4:1), giving the person the mission to teach, sanctify, and govern, the three functions referred to in [[Latin (language)|Latin]] as the "tria munera". Only a bishop may administer this sacrament, as only a bishop holds the fullness of the Apostolic Ministry. Ordination as a bishop makes one a member of the body that has succeeded to that of the Apostles. Ordination as a priest configures a person to Christ the Head of the Church and the one essential Priest, empowering that person, as the bishops' assistant and vicar, to preside at the celebration of divine worship, and in particular to confect the sacrament of the Eucharist, acting "in persona Christi" (in the person of Christ). Ordination as a deacon configures the person to Christ the Servant of All, placing the deacon at the service of the Church, especially in the fields of the ministry of the Word, service in divine worship, pastoral guidance and charity.
'''Marriage''' (or '''[[Holy Matrimony]]''') joins two persons for mutual help and love (the unitive purpose), consecrating them for their particular mission of building up the Church and the world, and providing grace for accomplishing that mission. In Roman Catholic theology, the primary purpose of marriage seen as the bearing and raising children (the procreative purpose), and marriage may only be between one man and one woman. Western tradition sees the sacrament as conferred by the canonically expressed mutual consent of the partners in marriage; Eastern and some recent Western theologies not in communion with the see of Rome view the blessing by a priest as constituting the sacramental action.
== Footnotes ==
*<sup>1</sup> Webster's College Dictionary, 1991.
*<sup>2</sup> St Peter is sometimes called &ldquo;the first pope&rdquo;. However, if &ldquo;pope&rdquo; is defined as &ldquo;successor of St Peter&rdquo;, [[St. Linus]] is the first pope. The [[Catholic |
arliamentary supremacy) that replaced the kingdoms of Scotland and England (after the [[English Civil War]]) under the rule of [[Oliver Cromwell]] and his successors from [[1649]] to [[1660]]. It formed the first [[republic]] in the [[Anglosphere|English-speaking world]], though this quickly devolved into a quasi-monarchy. The Cromwellian Commonwealth is sometimes referred to as the Old Commonwealth in a British context.
Former Labour MP [[Tony Benn]] introduced a [[Commonwealth of Britain Bill]] several times which would abolish the monarchy and establish a British republic. It has never reached a second reading.
===Australia===
The term also served when the six Australian [[colony | colonies]] [[Federation of Australia|federated]] to form the [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]] in [[1901]]. The [[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] created a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal, or national, government and the [[States and territories of Australia|States]] - the evolved status of the colonies. The Constitution stipulated that Australia was a [[constitutional monarchy]], where the [[Head of State]] is the British (or, since 1973, Australian) monarch, who is represented at the federal level by a Governor-General, and at the state level by six Governors, one for each state. The [[Parliament of Australia]] was derived from the British, Canadian and American systems to form a uniquely Australian system. It is largely based on the English [[Westminster System]], adopting many of its practices and precedents, but with a similar structure - [[House of Representatives]], and [[Senate]] - to the US Congress. In an Australian context, the term "Commonwealth" (capitalised) thus refers to the [[Government of Australia|federal government]] and "Commonwealth of Australia" is the official name of the country.
===Bahamas===
The [[Bahamas]], a [[Commonwealth Realm]], adopted the official style ''The Commonwealth of the Bahamas'' upon independence in [[1973]].
===Dominica===
The small [[Caribbean]] republic of [[Dominica]] has used the official style ''Commonwealth of Dominica'' since [[1978]].
==Countries that formerly used the style Commonwealth==
===Iceland===
[[Icelandic Commonwealth]] (''Þjóðveldið Íslands'') 930-1262.
===Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Commonwealth of Poland===
''Commonwealth'' is still an alternative translation of the official name of the Republic of Poland (''[[Rzeczpospolita]]''). [[Wincenty Kadłubek]] (Vincent Kadlubo, 1160-1223) used for the first time the original Latin term ''res publica'' in the context of Poland in his "Chronicles of the Kings and Princes of Poland". The name was used officially for the federal country formed by [[Poland]] and [[Lithuania]] 1569-1795.
It is also often referred as "[[Nobles' Commonwealth]]" (1505-1795, i.e. before the union).
In contemporary political doctrine of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], "our state is a Republic (Commonwealth) under presidency of the King". The commonwealth introduced a doctrine of religious tolerance (see [[Warsaw Confederation]]), had its own parliament ''[[Sejm]]'' (although elections were restricted to the gentry or ''[[szlachta]]'') and elected kings, who were bound to certain contracts ''[[Pacta conventa]]'' from the beginning of the reign. The foundation stones of the Commonwealth (also called the Golden Freedoms) used to be
* [[Elective monarchy|free election]] of the king
* ''Pacta conventa'', a binding pledge agreed to by the King on his election
* ''[[rokosz]]'', the right of rebellion against kings who did not rule in accordance with their pledge
* ''[[liberum veto]]'' (a later development), the right for a single representative to veto the entire proceedings of the Sejm
* ''[[confederatio]]'' ([[confederation]]), a military organisation of the citizens for the attainment of common political aims.
It is worth to note that "A commonwealth of good counsaile" was the title of
the 1607 English translation of the work of [[Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki]] "De optimo senatore" that presented to English readers many of the ideas present in the political system of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
===Philippines===
This was the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] in free association with the USA between 1935 and 1946.
==Subnational==
===United States===
:''See [[Commonwealth (United States)]] and [[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)]].''
Four [[U.S. state|states]] in the [[United States]] officially designate themselves "commonwealths": [[Kentucky]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Virginia]].
"Commonwealth" is also used in the U.S. to describe the political [[relationship]] between the [[United States]] and the overseas [[incorporated territory|unincorporated territories]] of [[Puerto Rico]] and of the [[Northern Marianas]].
==External links==
* [http://www.gov.au/sites/fed.html Commonwealth of Australia]
* [http://www.thecommonwealth.org/ Commonwealth of Nations Secretariat]
* [http://www.commonwealthfoundation.com/ Commonwealth Foundation]
* [http://www.rcsint.org/ Royal Commonwealth Society]
* [http://www.state.pa.us/ Commonwealth of Pennsylvania]
* [http://www.virginia.gov/cmsportal/ Commonwealth of Virginia]
* [http://www.ky.gov Commonwealth of Kentucky]
* [http://www.mass.gov Commonwealth of Massachusetts]
[[Category:Forms of government]]
[[nl:Gemenebest (algemeen)]]
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<comment>Added two new photographs I took of the 1541...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Commodore64_fdd1541_front.jpg|thumb|325px|Frontal view of the most common version of the '''Commodore 1541''' disk drive, with open disk slot. Note the 'in-up/down-out' locking mechanism (also used in the later 1541C version).]]
[[Image:Commodore64_fdd1541_back.jpg|thumb|325px|Back panel view of the '''Commodore 1541''' disk drive.]]The '''Commodore 1541''' (aka '''CBM 1541''', and originally called '''VIC-1541'''), made by [[Commodore International]], was the best-known [[floppy disk]] drive for the [[Commodore 64]] [[home computer]]. The 1541 was a single-sided 170 [[kilobyte]] drive for 5&frac14;" disks. The 1541 followed the previous [[Commodore 1540]] (meant for the [[Commodore VIC-20|VIC-20]]).
The disk drive used [[Group Code Recording]] and contained a [[MOS Technology|MOS]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] microprocessor, doubling as a [[disk controller]] and on-board [[disk operating system]] processor. The number of sectors per track varied from 17 to 21 (an early implementation of [[Zone Bit Recording]]). The drive's built-in disk operating system was [[Commodore DOS|CBM DOS 2.6]].
Use of "flippy disks" ("made" by cutting/punching a notch on the left-hand side of a double-sided disk, opposite the factory-made write-protect hole) would give access to the 'reverse' side of the disks, doubling the storage capacity. Each side of 170 [[kilobyte|KB]] was split into 664 'blocks' holding 256 [[byte]]s each; the [[file system]] made each block its own cluster.
==Introduction and early problems==
Priced at under [[United States dollar|US$]]400 at its introduction, the 1541 became widely popular. Although expensive by today's standards, a C64 plus a 1541 cost about $900, while an [[Apple II family|Apple II]] with no disk drive cost $1395. The demand caught Commodore by surprise, who struggled to produce the drive in adequate quantities.
Failure rates on the 1541 initially were very high, and the drives were virtually impossible to find. The lead editorial in the December [[1983]] issue of ''[[Compute!'s Gazette]]'' lamented that of seven drives the magazine had in its editorial offices, four had failed. Eventually the problems subsided and the drive became nearly as widely available as the C64 itself.
==Versions and third-party clones==
[[Image:Commodore 1541-II.jpg|thumb|325px|'''Commodore 1541-II''', the second of two upgraded versions of the CBM 1541 (the first upgrade was the 1541C). The 1541-II has the more modern 'radial handle' locking mechanism.]]There were two versions of the 1541 mechanics. Early models used a drive mechanism made by [[Alps Electric]], distinguishable by its push-down drive door. Later models utilized a drive mechanism manufactured by Newtronics ([[Mitsumi]]), which used a lever release. All but the very earliest 1541s can use either the Alps or Newtronics mechanism. Visually, the first models, of the ''VIC-1541'' denomination, had an off-white color like the VIC-20 and VIC-1540. Then, to match the look of the C64, [[Commodore International|CBM]] changed the drive's color to brown-beige and the name to ''Commodore 1541''.
The 1541's numerous shortcomings opened a market for a number of third-party clones of the disk drive, a situation that continued for the lifetime of the C64. Well-known clones were the ''Oceanic OC-118'' aka ''Excelerator+'', ''MSD'' 's single and dual drives, the ''Enhancer 2000'', the ''Indus GT'', and ''[[Creative Micro Designs|CMD]]'' 's ''FD-2000'' and ''FD-4000''. Nevertheless, the 1541 became the first disk drive to see widespread use in the home and Commodore sold millions of the units.
In [[1986]], Commodore released the '''1541C''', a revised version that offered quieter and slightly more reliable operation and a light beige case matching the color scheme of the Commodore 64C. It was replaced in [[1988]] by the '''1541-II''', which used an external power supply to provide cooler operation and allow the drive to have a smaller desktop footprint (the power supply "brick" b |
mall proportion of people will declare a match, while most of the audience sees the mixed light as greenish. These are the deuteranomalous observers. Next, as more red is added the majority will say that a match has been achieved. Finally, as yet more red is added, the remaining, protanomalous, observers will declare a match at a point where everyone else is seeing the mixed light as definitely reddish.
====Genetics of red-green color blindness====
Genetic red-green color blindness affects men much more often than women, because the [[gene]]s for the red and green color receptors are located on the X [[chromosome]], of which men have only one and women have two. Such a trait is called [[sex-linked]]. Genetic females (46, XX) are red-green color blind only if ''both'' their X chromosomes are defective with a similar deficiency, whereas genetic males (46, XY) are color blind if their only X chromosome is defective.
The gene for red-green color blindness is transmitted from a color blind male to all his daughters who are [[heterozygote]] carriers and are perceptually unaffected. In turn, a carrier woman passes on a mutated X chromosome region to only half her male offspring. The sons of an affected male will not inherit the trait, since they receive his Y chromosome and not his (defective) X chromosome.
Because one X chromosome is [[Barr body|inactivated]] at random in each cell during a woman's development, it is possible for her to have four different cone types, as when a carrier of protanomaly has a child with a deuteranomalic man. Denoting the normal vision alleles by P and D and the anomalous by p and d, the carrier is PD pD and the man is Pd. The daughter is either PD Pd or pD Pd. Suppose she is pD Pd. Each cell in her body expressses either her mother's chromosome pD or her father's Pd. Thus her red-green sensing will involve both the normal and the anomalous pigments for both colors. Such women are [[tetrachromat]]s, since they require a mixture of four spectral lights to match an arbitrary light.
===Blue-yellow color blindness===
Color blindness involving the inactivation of the short-wavelength sensitive cone system (whose absorption spectrum peaks in the bluish-violet) is called '''tritanopia''' or, loosely, blue-yellow color blindness. Mutation of the short-wavelength sensitive cones is called '''tritanomaly'''. Tritanopia is equally distributed among males and females, because the gene coding for the short-wavelength receptor is located on chromosome 7 and therefore not sex-linked, but since mutations in both copies are required, it is less frequently apparent.
===Monochromacy===
Complete inability to distinguish any colors is called [[monochromat|monochromacy]]. It occurs in three forms:
# ''cone monochromacy'', where only a single cone system appears to be functioning, so that no colors can be distinguished, but vision is otherwise more or less normal.
# ''[[achromatopsia]]'' or ''[[rod monochromacy]]'', where the retina contains no cone cells, so that in addition to the absence of color discrimination, vision in lights of normal intensity is difficult. While normally rare, achromatopsia is very common on the island of [[Pingelap]], a part of the [[Pohnpei]] state, [[Federated States of Micronesia]], where it is called ''maskun'': about 1/12 of the population there has it. The island was devastated by a storm in the [[18th century]], and one of the few male survivors carried a gene for achromatopsia; the population is now several thousand, of whom about 30% carry this gene.
# ''[[Color agnosia]]'' or "central achromatopsia", where the person can not perceive colors, even though the eyes are capable of distinguishing them. Some sources do not consider this to be true color blindness, because the failure is of perception, not of vision. It is a form of [[visual agnosia]].
==Diagnosis==
The [[Ishihara color test]], which consists of a series of pictures of colored spots, is the test most often used to diagnose red-green color deficiencies.
A figure (usually one or more [[Arabic numerals|Arabic digits]]) is embedded in the picture as a number of spots in a slightly different color, and can be seen with normal color vision, but not with a particular color defect.
The full set of tests has a variety of figure/background color combinations, and enable diagnosis of which particular visual defect is present.
The anomaloscope, described above, is also used in diagnosing anomalous trichromacy.
However, the Ishihara color test is criticized for containing only numerals and thus not being useful for young children, who have not yet learned to use numerals.
It is often stated that it is important to identify these problems as soon as possible and explain them to the children to prevent possible problems and psychological traumas.
For this reason, alternative color vision tests were developed using only symbols (square, circle, car).
Most clinical tests are designed to be fast, simple, and effective at identifying broad categories of color blindness. In academic studies of color blindness, on the other hand, there is more interest in developing flexible tests ([http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=15192692], for example) to collect thorough datasets, identify [[copunctal point]]s, and measure [[just noticeable difference]]s.
==Treatment and management==
There is generally no treatment to cure color deficiencies, however, certain types of tinted filters and contact lenses may help an individual to distinguish different colors better.
==Design implications of color blindness==
[[Color code]]s present particular problems for color blind people as they are often difficult or impossible for color blind people to understand.
Good [[graphic design]] avoids using color coding or color contrasts alone to express information, as this not only helps color blind people, but also aids understanding by normally sighted people. The use of [[Cascading Style Sheets]] on the [[world wide web]] allows pages to be given an alternative color scheme for color-blind readers. [http://wellstyled.com/tools/colorscheme2/index-en.html This color scheme generator] helps a graphic designer see color schemes as seen by eight types of color blindness.
It is sometimes claimed that in extreme emergencies everyone is color blind. When the need to process visual information as rapidly as possible arises, for example in a train or aircraft crash, the visual system may operate only in shades of grey, with the extra information load in adding color being dropped. This is an important possibility to consider when designing, for example, emergency brake handles or emergency phones.
==Misconceptions and compensations==
Color blindness is not the swapping of colors in the observer's eyes. Grass is never red, stop signs never green. Distinguishing a [[Granny Smith]] from a [[Braeburn]] is not a problem. The color impaired do not learn to call red "green" and vice versa.
Most color blind persons have learned their vulnerabilities and are acutely aware of just which colors will be confused. In some cases this can lead to an acute color sensitivity due to the fact that nuance of color will need to be categorized more clearly. A person who has limited ability to distinguish brown from red or green may become more concerned as to the shade of taupe or olive of a specific material than a person whose normal vision allows them to see exactly which shade of greenish-brown they are looking at.
The United States Military has found that color blind individuals can be more easily trained as snipers due to the fact that they are more acutely aware of differences in texture and pattern and thereby less likely to be fooled by camouflage patterns.
==See also==
*[[List of colors]]
*[[Tetrachromacy]]
==External links==
* [http://psychology.ucalgary.ca/pace/VA-Lab/colourperceptionweb/congenital.htm Congenital Colour Vision Deficiencies], description from the [[University of Calgary]]
* [http://www.eyecaresource.com/conditions/color-blindness/ Color Blindness Examples]
* [http://colorvisiontesting.com/online%20test.htm Color Vision Testing Made Easy], samples of this alternative test
* Attempts to simulate some rough features of color blind vision:
** [http://webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/2.html How do things look to colorblind people?], Causes of Color -- WebExhibits
** [http://colorvisiontesting.com/what%20colorblind%20people%20see.htm How the world looks to a color blind person], example images drawn using distorted colors
** [http://www.vischeck.com/ VisCheck], demonstrations of color blindness and simulation software
** [http://colorfilter.wickline.org/ ColorBlind Web Page Filter], shows how your web page looks under various forms of color blindness
** [http://www.etre.com/tools/colourcheck/ Etre Colour Check], determine the colour difference and contrast between any two colours used on your site
** [http://www.etre.com/tools/colourblindsimulator/ Etre Colour Blindness Simulator], upload your images and see how they look to a colour blind person
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<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages maintenance|You can help!]]) using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<te |
esent anything concretely, when the viewer sees the painting, it is nevertheless transformed into electrical signals that create a representation of the painting. Defined this way, information does not have to be related to truth, communication, or representation of an object. [[Entertainment]] in general is not intended to be informative. [[Music]], the [[performing arts]], [[amusement park]]s, works of [[fiction]] and so on are thus forms of information in this sense, but they are not forms of information according to the previous definitions above. Consider another example: food supplies both nutrition and taste for those who eat it. If information is equated to sensory input, then nutrition is not information but taste is.
== Information as an influence which leads to a transformation ==
Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example, [[DNA]]. The sequence of [[nucleotide]]s is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind. [[Systems theory]] at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to [[feedback]]) in the system can be called information. In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose.
When [[Marshall McLuhan]] speaks of [[Medium|media]] and their effects on human cultures, he refers to the structure of artifacts that in turn shape our behaviors and mindsets. Also, [[pheromone]]s are often said to be "information" in this sense.
In 2003, J. D. Bekenstein claimed there is a growing trend in [[physics]] to define the physical world as being made of information itself (and thus information is defined in this way).
See the section below on information as a property in physics. (Also see [[Gregory Bateson]].)
== Information as a property in physics ==
''Main article: [[Physical information]]''
Information has a well defined meaning in [[physics]]. Examples of this include the phenomenon of [[quantum entanglement]] where particles can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Information itself cannot travel faster than light even if the information is transmitted indirectly. This could lead to the fact that all attempts at physically observing a particle with an "entangled" relationship to another are slowed down, even though the particles are not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry.
Another link is demonstrated by the [[Maxwell's demon]] thought experiment. In this experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical property, [[entropy]], is demonstrated. A consequence is that it is impossible to destroy information without increasing the entropy of a system; in practical terms this often means generating heat. Thus, in the study of [[logic gates]], the theoretical lower bound of thermal energy released by an ''AND gate'' is more than for the ''NOT gate'' (because information is destroyed in an ''AND gate'' and simply converted in an ''NOT gate''). Physical information is of particular importance in the theory of [[quantum computers]].
== Etymology ==
According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the earliest historical meaning of the word ''information'' in [[English language|English]] was the act of ''informing'', or giving form or shape to the mind, as in education, instruction, or training. A quote from 1387: "Five books come down from heaven for information of mankind." It was also used for an ''item'' of training, ''e.g.'' a particular instruction. "Melibee had heard the great skills and reasons of Dame Prudence, and her wise informations and techniques." (1386)
The English word was apparently derived by adding the common "noun of action" ending "''-ation''" (descended through French from Latin "''-tio''") to the earlier verb ''to inform'', in the sense of to give form to the mind, to discipline, instruct, teach: "Men so wise should go and inform their kings." (1330) ''Inform'' itself comes (via French) from the Latin verb ''informare'', to give form to, to form an idea of. Furthermore, Latin itself already even contained the word ''informatio'' meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word ''information'' in English is unclear.
As a final note, the ancient Greek word for ''form'' was eidos, and this word was famously used in a technical philosophical sense by [[Plato]] (and later Aristotle) to denote the ideal identity or essence of something (see [[The Forms]]).
== Information is not data ==
The words, ''information'' and ''[[data]]'', are used interchangeably in many contexts. This may lead to their confusion. However, they are not synonyms.
Often data is defined as raw facts while information is processed data (as is the case in most of the article below). Another distinction that is made is that information is the things that we know and data is the representation of the information. As an example, we may be thinking about a favorite niece's age, who is four. We would tend to represent that with Arabic numerals (4), but we could represent it using Roman numerals (IV), tick marks (||||), or any other way we agree on. The information has not changed in each case, although the data has. Note that we tend to think of information in terms of declarative [[knowledge]]. That is, the facts we know such as a temperature, an age, etc. Information can also be skills and things we know how to do, which is called procedural knowledge.
An important consequence of this distinction is that information has [[meaning]] (i.e.: can inform), while data does not. Computers work with data (representations) and not information (meanings). This is why a computer will calculate the average employee number even though it is meaningless.
Note that one person's information may be another's data depending on whether the recipient understand the data (or its context). Also, when someone (or some<em>thing</em>, such as a [[computer system]]) is given a fact, it may only be data, but when they make sense of (or interpret) it, often by bringing it together with other facts, it may become information.
Information is usually thought of as, in a strict sense, a subset of data. However, sometimes the reverse interpretation can be taken (such as describing data as "raw information"). Data may also have a more specific sense in some fields (e.g.: referring to a certain type or set of <em>information</em> used in that context). When used pragmatically in everyday speech, it usually specifically refers to collections of numbers, or, in a wider sense, to any content not of relevance or interest to the speaker, or not (yet) understood by the speaker themselves in particular.
Data is unstructured, lacks context and may not be relevant to the recipient. When data is correctly organized, filtered and presented with context it can become information because it then has "value" to the recipient.<!-- rm? -->
Data which is not information (i.e.: has not yet informed or been given a context) is often called '''raw data'''.
<!-- add link to content and explain difference to? -->
== References ==
* Bekenstein, Jacob D. (2003, August). Information in the [[holographic principle|holographic universe]]. ''Scientific American''. Retrieved from http://www.referencenter.com
== See also ==
<!-- {{wikibookspar||Useless Information}} removed by User:Joeblakesley as it has no content ATM -->
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Information entropy]]
* [[Information geometry]]
* [[Information highway]]
* [[Information mapping]]
* [[Information overload]]
* [[Information processing]]
* [[Information processor]]
* [[Information technology]]
* [[Information theory]]
* [[Abstraction]]
* [[Algorithmic information theory]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Classified information]]
* [[Complexity]]
**[[Complex system]]
**[[Complex adaptive system]]
* [[Cybernetics]]
* [[Fisher information]]
* [[Free Information Infrastructure]]
* [[Freedom of information]]
* [[Library and Information Science]]
* [[Medium]]
* [[Observation]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Physical information]]
* [[Prediction]]
* [[Propaganda model]]
* [[Receiver operating characteristic]]
* [[Satisficing]]
* [[Shannon–Hartley theorem]]
**[[Claude Shannon]]
**[[Ralph Hartley]]
* [[Systems theory]]
{{col-end}}
== External links ==
* [http://isria.com International Security Research & Intelligence Agency], a consulting company specialized in information and international security-related issues that provides internet users with an [http://osint.isria.com Open Sources Center].
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information-semantic/ Semantic Conceptions of Information] Review by Luciano Floridi for the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/NEGENTROPY.html Principia Cybernetica entry on negentropy]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/IU.pdf Information & Uncertainty in Remote Perception Research]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/JahnATpages.pdf Information, Consciousness & Health]
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* [[Platform LSF]] [http://www.platform.com/products/lsf]
* [[NEC ExpressCluster]] [http://www.nec-online.com/page.asp?id=64]
* [[Novell Cluster Services]], [http://www.novell.com/documentation/oes/index.html?page=/documentation/oes/cluster_admin_lx/data/h4r4bw6c.html Novell Cluster Services for Linux and NetWare]
* [[Oracle Real Application Cluster]] (RAC)
* [[PolyServe]]
* [[Red Hat Cluster]]
* [[SteelEye LifeKeeper]]
* [[Sun N1 GridEngine]] [http://www.sun.com/software/gridware/ Sun N1 GridEngine]
* [[Veritas Cluster Server]] (VCS), from [[VERITAS Software]]
* [[Scyld Beowulf Cluster]] [http://www.scyld.com]]
* [[Platform Rocks]] [http://www.platform.com/rocks]
==See also==
* [[Cluster (programming)]]
* [[Cluster Resources, Inc.]]
* [[Distributed data store]]
* [[Flash mob computing]]
* [[Grid computing]]
* [[LinuxHPC]] [http://www.LinuxHPC.org]
* [[Peer-to-peer]]
* [[Symmetric multiprocessing]]
* [[Two-node cluster]]
* [http://www.buyya.com/cluster Cluster Computing Info Center]
==References==
* Karl Kopper: ''The Linux Enterprise Cluster: Build a Highly Available Cluster with Commodity Hardware and Free Software'', No Starch Press, ISBN 1593270364
* Evan Marcus, Hal Stern: ''Blueprints for High Availability: Designing Resilient Distributed Systems'', John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0471356018
* Greg Pfister: ''In Search of Clusters'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0138997098
* Rajkumar Buyya (editor): ''High Performance Cluster Computing: Architectures and Systems'', Volume 1, ISBN 0-13-013784-7, Prentice Hall, NJ, USA, 1999.
* Rajkumar Buyya (editor): ''High Performance Cluster Computing: Programming and Applications'', Volume 2, ISBN 0-13-013785-5, Prentice Hall, NJ, USA, 1999.
==External links==
* [http://www.beowulf.org/ Beowulf]
* [https://cajo.dev.java.net The cajo project] Free clustered computing using Java. (LGPL)
* [http://www.clusterbuilder.org Cluster Builder]- Research for building a cluster
* [http://www.clusterresources.com Cluster Resources]
* [http://bofh.be/clusterknoppix/ ClusterKnoppix]
* [http://www.clustermonkey.net ClusterMonkey] - On-line Cluster magazine
* [http://www.cs.sandia.gov/cplant Cplant, a non-Beowulf Linux cluster]
* [http://www.ieeetfcc.org/ IEEE task force on cluster computing, the leading academic community on cluster computing]
* [http://lcic.org/ Linux clustering information center]
* [http://linux-ha.org/CommercialSoftware List of commercial HA clustering Software for Linux]
* [http://www.linuxhpc.org/ LinuxHPC]
* [http://www.sun.com/software/grid Sun Grid Computing Solutions]
* [http://www.top500.org/ Top 500 Supercomputer List]
* [http://www.windowsnetworking.com/articles_tutorials/Cluster-Quorums.html Understanding How Cluster Quorums Work]
== Cluster sites ==
*[http://www.irb.hr/en/cir/projects/dcc/00006/ IRB]
*[http://www.sara.nl/userinfo/lisa/usage/batch/index.html SARA]
*[http://teragrid.ncsa.uiuc.edu/TGIA64LinuxCluster.html Teragrid]
*[http://www.tcf.vt.edu/systemX.html ViriginaTech]
*[http://www.westgrid.ca/support/topics/scheduling.php WestGrid]
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<page>
<title>Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kyoto Protocol]]
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<page>
<title>Carbon dioxide sink</title>
<id>5980</id>
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<id>42043510</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:05:52Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Forests */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:carbon_sequestration.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Carbon sequestration from a fossil-fuel power station]]
A '''carbon dioxide sink''' or '''CO<sub>2</sub> sink''' is a carbon reservoir that is increasing in size, and is the opposite of a carbon "source". The main sinks are the [[ocean]]s and growing [[vegetation]]. The concept has become more widely known through its application by the [[Kyoto Protocol]].
'''Carbon sequestration''' is the term describing processes that remove carbon from the [[biosphere]]. A variety of means of artificially capturing and storing carbon, as well as of enhancing natural sequestration processes, are being explored. This is intended to support the [[mitigation of global warming]].
== Natural sinks ==
=== Forests ===
The idea of carbon sinks based on growing trees rests on an understanding of the [[carbon cycle]]. Enormous amounts of carbon are naturally stored in trees. As part of [[photosynthesis]] trees absorb carbon dioxide from the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and store it as carbon while [[oxygen]] is released back into the atmosphere. Rapidly growing trees absorb a larger amount of carbon dioxide. Mature trees grow less rapidly and thus have a lower intake of carbon dioxide. Trees are about 20% carbon by weight. While individual trees die and decay, eventually releasing most stored carbon back to the atmosphere, the forest and the underlying ground as a whole continues to store carbon as dying or harvested trees are replaced by natural regeneration.
The dead trees, plants, and moss in [[peat]] bogs undergo slow anaerobic decomposition below the surface of the bog. This process is slow enough that in many cases the bog grows faster and fixes more carbon from the atmosphere than is released. Over time, the peat grows deeper. Peat bogs inter approximately one-quarter of the carbon in land plants and soils [http://www.mcgill.ca/reporter/32/15/roulet/].
Under some conditions, forests and peat bogs may become sources of CO<sub>2</sub>. This can happen, for example, when a forest is flooded by the construction of a hydroelectric dam. The rotting vegetation is a source of CO<sub>2</sub> and methane comparable in magnitude to the amount of carbon released by a fossil-fuel powered plant of equivalent power.
=== Oceans ===
Oceans are natural carbon dioxide sinks, and as the level of carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere, the level in the oceans also increases, creating potentially disastrous [[acidic Oceans|acidic oceans]]. Ocean water can hold a variable amount of dissolved CO<sub>2</sub> depending on temperature and pressure. [[Phytoplankton]] in the oceans, like trees, use photosynthesis to extract carbon from CO<sub>2</sub>. They are the starting point of the marine [[food chain]]. Plankton and other marine organisms extract CO<sub>2</sub> from the ocean water to build their skeletons and shells of the mineral [[calcite]], CaCO<sub>3</sub>. This removes CO<sub>2</sub> from the water and more dissolves in from the atmosphere. These calcite skeletons and shells along with the organic carbon of the organism eventually fall to the bottom of the ocean when the organisms die. The carbon or plankton cells have to sink to the deep water in 2000 to 4000 meter to be sequestered for ca. 1000 years. The sinking can be accelerated orders of magnitude when [[zooplankton]] prey on the cells and produce fast sinking fecal pellets or fecal strings, like the [[Antarctic krill]]. This process is called the [[biological pump]]. It has been theorized that the organic carbon within the accumulating ocean bottom sediments is how [[fossil fuel]]s are created.
== Enhancing natural sequestration==
=== Forests ===
Forests are carbon dioxide stores, but the sink effect exists only when they grow in size: it is thus naturally limited. The rate at which forests can sequester carbon, given the available land, is far exceeded by the rate at which it is released by the combustion of fossilised forests (coal, oil and natural gas). It seems clear that the use of forests to curb climate change can only be a temporary measure. Even optimistic estimates come to the conclusion that the planting of new forests is not enough to counter-balance the current level of [[greenhouse gas]] emissions [http://www.animana.org/tab2/22noeasyanswer.shtml]. To reduce U.S. carbon emissions by 7%, as stipulated in the Kyoto Protocol, would require the planting of "an area the size of Texas every 30 years", according to William H. Schlesinger, dean of the Nicholas School of the environment and earth sciences at Duke University, in Durham, N.C. [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/WEBONLY/publicfeature/jan04/0104bio2.html].
Furthermore, forests, particularly new ones, may not be straightforward carbon sinks. Although a forest is a net CO<sub>2</sub> sink over time, the plantation of new forests may also initially be a source of carbon dioxide emission when carbon from the soil is released into the atmosphere. Other studies indicate that the cooling effect of removing carbon by forest growth can be counteracted by the effects of the forest on reflection of sunlight, or [[albedo]]. Mid-to-high latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, and this contributes to warming.
The planting of forests provides a number of additional benefits including reduction of erosion, increased water capture, and economic benefits when sustainably harvested.
===Oceans===
One of the most promising ways to increase the carbon sequestration efficiency of oceans is to add micrometre-sized iron particles called [[hematite]] or iron sulfate to the water. This has the effect of stimulating growth of [[pl |
d to carry Israeli military identity papers. In the late 1970s, the [[Likud]] government of Israel began pressuring them to request Israeli citizenship by tying it to privileges such as the right to obtain a drivers licence or to travel in Israel. In March 1981, the community leaders imposed a socio-religious ban on Israeli citizenship. Protests came to a head after the November 1981 annexation (or effective annexation, see above) of the Golan Heights by Israel. They included a general strike that lasted for five months and demonstrations that sometimes became violent. The Israeli authorities responded by placing the protest leaders in administrative detention and imposing curfews and other restrictions. On April 1, 1982, a 24-hour curfew was imposed and soldiers went from door to door confiscating the old ID cards and replacing them by cards signifying Israeli citizenship. This action caused an international outcry including two condemnatory UN resolutions [http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/faabb796990cf95a852560d9005240cf!OpenDocument] [http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/8e7086664ce96d7a852560d900517333!OpenDocument]. Israel eventually relented, allowing the Arabs to retain their Syrian citzenship and also agreeing not to force them to serve in the army. This is how the situation remains today.
Syria has always demanded a full Israeli withdrawal from all of the Golan Heights, to the shoreline of the [[Sea of Galilee]] (the 1949 armistice line). Successive Israeli governments have expressed support for some Israeli withdrawal from the Golan without specifying the extent of this withdrawal. In return for this withdrawal, Israel demands that the area of the Golan falling under Syrian control become demilitarized and that other security measures are implemented to prevent a potential surprise Syrian attack.
Israel has always insisted that any agreement with Syria must include fully normalized diplomatic and economic relations. Prior to the 2000 negotiations, Hafez al-Assad did not offer travel and trade rights to Israelis, but in the 2000 negotiations he did agree to a peace deal of the same nature that Egypt and Jordan made.
Regarding the Golan Heights, [[Yitzhak Rabin]] stated:
<blockquote>Words are not enough about the Golan Heights. We must put them into actions... Withdrawal from the Golan is unthinkable, even in times of peace. Anyone considering withdrawal from the Golan Heights would be abandoning Israel&rsquo;s security. Let us invest, all of us together, in order to fulfil our obligations to the Golan Heights. And to you residents &mdash; those who made the Golan Heights what it is &mdash; you have all my respect.</blockquote>
When interviewed about an upcoming conference on [[United States|American]] TV network ''ABC'' on [[September 16]], [[1991]], Syrian president [[Hafez al-Assad]] said:
<blockquote>The efforts currently exerted are based on the Security Council Resolutions N° 242 and N° 338 on the basis of realizing a comprehensive peace in the region. The Golan, as an occupied Syrian territory, shall be reinstated, within the framework of such comprehensive peace, to its natural status as part of Syrian territory. Upon implementing the comprehensive solution for the two [[Arab]] and Israeli sides, comprehensive peace will prevail and documents will be achieve peace process. This as you know will be decided within the Conference, the Israeli side on the one hand and the Arab side on the other.</blockquote>
Also regarding the Heights, when asked about military conflict in the area, [[Moshe Dayan]] stated :
<blockquote>It would happen like this: We would send a tractor to plow someplace of no value, in the demilitarized zone, knowing ahead of time that the Syrians would begin to shoot. If they did not start shooting, we would tell the tractor to keep going forward, until the Syrians in the end would get nervous and start shooting. And then we would start firing artillery, and later also the airforce, and this was the way it was. I did this, and Laskov and Tzur [two previous commanders-in-chief] did it. [[Yitzhak Rabin]] did it when he was there , but it seems to me that it was Dado, more than anyone else, who enjoyed these games.</blockquote>
However, Dayan also noted regarding the Israeli farmers who lived at the base of the Heights:
<blockquote>They suffered a lot because of the Syrians. Look, as I said before, they lived in the [[kibbutz]]im, they farmed, raised children, lived and wanted to live there. The Syrians opposite them were soldiers who shot at them and they certainly did not like this. But I can tell you in absolute certainly: the delegation that came to convince Eshkol to attack the Heights did not think about these things. It thought about the land on the Heights. Listen, I am also a farmer. I'm from [[Nahalal]], not from [[Tel Aviv]], and I recognize this. I saw them, and I talked to them. They did not even try to hide their greed for that soil. That's what guided them.</blockquote>
During US-brokered negotiations 1999-2000, Israel offered to return ''most'' of the Golan Heights to Syria in exchange for peace and full recognition. Syria refused. Syria offered full recognition and peace in exchange for a complete return to the pre-1967 borders. Israel refused.
In late 2003, Syrian President [[Bashar al-Assad]] said he was ready to revive peace talks with Israel. Israel demanded Syria first disarm [[Hizbullah]], who launched many attacks on northern Israeli towns and army posts from Syrian and Lebanese territory. Peace talks were not initiated. The population currently resident in the Golan is, roughly speaking, half Druze and half Jewish.
Although the Golan Heights has generally been a peaceful area, a number of Golan residents from Majdal Shams have been jailed by the Israeli authorities for involvement in armed activities against the Israeli occupation. [http://www.damascus-online.com/golan/POWs.htm].
== Communities ==
The Golan Height's largest community and administrative center is the Jewish town of [[Katzrin]], built in the 1970s. The other Jewish communities are a number of [[Kibbutz|kibbutzim]] and [[moshav|moshavim]] (agricultural communities). There are also four [[Druze]] and [[Circassians|Circassian]] villages in the Northern part of the Golan Heights including [[Majdal Shams]], and an [[Alawite]] village called [[Ghajar]] that stretches on both side of the Lebanese-Israeli border.
==See also==
*[[International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict]]
*[[UN Security Council Resolution 242]]
*[[UN Security Council Resolution 452]]
*[[UN Security Council Resolution 465]]
*[[UN Security Council Resolution 471]]
*[[UN Security Council Resolution 497]]
*[[Six Day War]]
*[[Ramadan War]]/[[Yom Kippur War]]
*[[Shebaa Farms]]
*[[Israeli settlement]]
*[[Odem]]
==External links==
{{commons|Golan Heights}}
*[http://www.golan-gov.org/ Syrian view of the Golan Heights]
*[http://english.golan.org.il/ Israeli view of the Golan Heights]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Peace/67line.html The Line of June 4, 1967 and how it came to be]
*[http://www.hagalil.com/GuShalom/maamarim/dayan.htm| Excerpts from the [[Moshe Dayan]] Memoirs]
==Articles==
* Washington report: [http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/062000/0006010.html A View From Damascus: Internal Refugees From Golan’s 244 Destroyed Syrian Villages]
* Damascus online: [http://www.damascus-online.com/golan/Golan_town.htm Golan Heights Town Tells Tale of Israeli-Arab War]
* Washington report: [http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/1191/9111023.htm The Golan Heights: A History of Israeli Aggression]
==References==
*{{cite journal | author=Leon Sheleff | title=Application of Israeli law to the Golan Heights is not annexation | journal=Brooklyn journal of international law | year=1994 | volume=20, afl. 2 | pages=333-353}}
*{{cite journal | author=Asher Maoz | title=Application of Israeli law to the Golan Heights is annexation | journal=Brooklyn journal of international law | year=1994 | volume=20, afl. 2 | pages=355-396}}
*{{cite journal | author=Tayseer Maar'i & Usama Halabi | title=Life under occupation in the Golan Heights | journal=Journal of Palestine Studies | year=1992 | volume=22 | pages=78-93}}
{{Southwest_Asia}}
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[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:Geography of Israel]]
[[Category:Geography of Lebanon]]
[[Category:Geography of Syria]]
[[Category:Great Rift Valley]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:History of Syria]]
[[Category:Islamic history]]
[[Category:Jewish history]]
[[Category:Volcanoes by region]]
[[ar:هضبة الجولان]]
[[de:Golanhöhen]]
[[es:Altos del Golán]]
[[fr:Golan]]
[[hr:Golanska visoravan]]
[[he:רמת הגולן]]
[[lb:Golan]]
[[nl:Golanhoogten]]
[[ja:ゴラン高原]]
[[no:Golanhøyden]]
[[pl:Wzgórza Golan]]
[[simple:Golan Heights]]
[[sl:Golanska planota]]
[[sr:Голанска висораван]]
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<page>
<title>Galvanize</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Galvanization]]
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<title>Galvanization</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Galvanize''' redirects here. Galvanize is also the name of [[Galvanize (song)|a song]] by the [[Chemical Brothers]].''
'''Galvanization''' refers to any of several [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] |
Carlos Williams]] and others was organised and published in 1929 under the title ''[[Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress]]''. At his 47th birthday party at the Jolases' home, Joyce revealed the final title of the work and ''Finnegans Wake'' was published in book form on [[4 May]] [[1939]].
Joyce's method of stream of consciousness, literary allusions and free dream associations was pushed to the limit in ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'', which abandoned all conventions of plot and character construction and is written in a peculiar and obscure language, based mainly on complex multi-level puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than that used by [[Lewis Carroll]] in "[[Jabberwocky]]". If ''Ulysses'' is a day in the life of a city, the ''Wake'' is a night and partakes of the logic of dreams. This has led many readers and critics to apply Joyce's oft-quoted description in the Wake of ''Ulysses'' as his ''usylessly unreadable Blue Book of Eccles'' to the Wake itself. However, readers have been able to reach a consensus about the central cast of characters and general plot.
Much of the wordplay in the book stems from the use of multilingual puns which draw on a wide range of languages. The role played by Beckett and other assistants included collating words from these languages on cards for Joyce to use and, as Joyce's eyesight worsened, of writing the text from the author's dictation.
The view of history propounded in this text is very strongly influenced by [[Giambattista Vico]], and the metaphysics of [[Giordano Bruno]] of [[Nola]] are important to the interplay of the "characters". Vico propounded a cyclical view of history, in which civilisation rose from chaos, passed through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapsed back into chaos. The most obvious example of the influence of Vico's cyclical theory of history is to be found in the opening and closing sentences of the book. ''Finnegans Wake'' opens with the words 'riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs.' (with a pun on Vico in 'vicus') and ends 'A way a lone a last a loved a long the'. In other words, the first sentence starts on the last page and the last sentence on the first, turning the book into one great cycle. Indeed, Joyce said that the ideal reader of the ''Wake'' would suffer from ''ideal insomnia'' and, on completing the book, would turn to page one and start again, and so on in an endless cycle of reading.
==Joyce's legacy==
[[Image:Ireland - Dublin - St Stephen's Green - James Joyce.jpg|A bust of James Joyce in St. Stephen's Green in Dublin|thumb]]
Joyce's work has been subject to intense scrutiny by scholars of all types. He has also been an important influence on writers as diverse as [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], [[Flann O'Brien]], [[Máirtín Ó Cadhain]], [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Thomas Pynchon]] and [[William Burroughs]].
Joyce's influence is also evident in fields other than literature. The phrase "Three Quarks for Muster Mark" in Joyce's ''Finnegans Wake'' is often called the source of the physicists' word "[[quark]]", the name of one of the main kinds of [[elementary particle]]s, proposed by the physicist [[Murray Gell-Mann]]. ([[James Gleick]]'s book ''Genius'' notes that Gell-Mann may have found the Joycean antecedent after the fact; as Gleick observes, physicists have pronounced ''quark'' to rhyme with ''cork'' and not with ''Mark.'' It may be noted, however, against Gleick's speculation, that the discoverers of quarks were Americans who would have pronounced quark in the American, not the Irish accent.) The French philosopher [[Jacques Derrida]] has written a book on the use of language in ''Ulysses'', and the American philosopher [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Donald Davidson]] has written similarly on ''Finnegans Wake'' in comparison with [[Lewis Carroll]]. [[Vladimir Nabokov]] esteemed ''Ulysses'' greatly, listing it with [[Franz Kafka]]'s "[[The Metamorphosis]]" as one of the [[20th century]]'s greatest prose works. However, Nabokov was less than thrilled with ''Finnegans Wake'' (see ''[[Strong Opinions]],'' ''[[Lolita|The Annotated Lolita]]'' or ''[[Pale Fire]]''), an attitude which [[Jorge Luis Borges]] shared.
''Finnegans Wake'' is a recurring theme in [[Tom Robbins]]'s novel ''[[Fierce Invalids Home from Hot Climates]].'' In that novel, it is the favourite discussion topic of the [[Bangkok]]-based "C.R.A.F.T. Club" (Can't Remember A Fucking Thing). The protagonist, a [[CIA]] agent named Switters, contemplates writing a thesis about it. The life of Joyce is celebrated annually on June 16, [[Bloomsday]], in [[Dublin]] and in an increasing number of cities worldwide.
==Bibliography==
* ''[[Stephen Hero]]'' (written 1904-6: precursor to the ''Portrait'', published 1944)
* ''[[Chamber Music]]'' ([[1907 in literature|1907]] [[poem]]s)
* ''[[Dubliners]]'' ([[1914 in literature|1914]])
* ''[[Exiles (play)|Exiles]]'' ([[1915 in literature|1915]] [[play]])
* ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' ([[1916 in literature|1916]])
* ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' ([[1922 in literature|1922]])
* ''[[Pomes Penyeach]]'' ([[1927 in literature|1927]] poems)
* ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'' ([[1939 in literature|1939]])
==References==
'''General (print) '''
*[[Anthony Burgess|Burgess, Anthony]]. ''Joysprick: An Introduction to the Language of James Joyce'' (1973)
* ---''Here Comes Everybody: An Introduction to James Joyce for the Ordinary Reader'' (1965); also published as ''Re Joyce''.
*[[Richard Ellmann|Ellmann, Richard]]. ''[[James Joyce (biography)|James Joyce]]''. Oxford University Press, 1959, revised edition 1983.
*Igoe, Vivien. A Literary Guide to Dublin. ISBN 0-4136912-0-9
*Levin, Harry (ed. with introduction and notes). ''The Essential James Joyce''. Cape, 1948. Revised edition Penguin in association with Jonathan Cape, 1963.
*[[William H. Quillian|Quillian, William H.]] ''Hamlet and the new poetic: James Joyce and [[T.S. Eliot]]''. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1983.
*Read, Forrest. ''Pound/Joyce: The Letters of Ezra Pound to James Joyce, with Pound's Essays on Joyce''. New Directions, 1967.
'''General (web) '''
*[http://www.fathom.com/course/10701034/index.html How to Read Joyce], a seminar by [[Cambridge University Press]].
*[http://www.pgil-eirdata.org/html/pgil_datasets/authors/j/Joyce,James/life1.htm Detailed timeline of Joyce's life, contemporary critical comments and Joyce, &c.]
*[http://joycean.org/ Essays and Criticism about James Joyce; Texts of his Major Works]
*[http://www.james-joyce-music.com Music in the Works of James Joyce]
*[http://www.pulainfo.hr/en/jj.asp James Joyce the citizen of Pula]
*[http://www.histrica.com/g/celebs/james-joyce James Joyce in the Croatia]
*[http://www.jamesjoyce.nl James Joyce in the Netherlands]
*[http://libtext.library.wisc.edu/JoyceColl/ The James Joyce Scholars' Collection]
*[http://www.utulsa.edu/jjq The James Joyce Quarterly]
'''Dubliners'''
*[http://www.hackwriters.com/dubliners.htm In depth review of ''Dubliners'']
'''Ulysses'''
*[http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg158.htm Publication history of ''Ulysses'']
*[http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~rac101/ulysses/ A hypertextual, self-referential, complete edition of ''Ulysses'']
*[http://www.ulysses-art.demon.co.uk/scheme.html Schemata of ''Ulysses'']
*[http://www.threemonkeysonline.com/threemon_articleJames%20Joyce%20Ulysses.htm James Joyce’s ''Ulysses'': Why the Fuss? - An introduction to ''Ulysses'']
'''Finnegans Wake (print)'''
*[[Samuel Beckett|Beckett, Samuel]]; [[William Carlos Williams]]; et al. ''Our Exagmination Round His Factification For Incamination Of Work In Progress''. Shakespeare and Company, 1929.
*[[Anthony Burgess|Burgess, Anthony]] (ed.) ''A Shorter 'Finnegans Wake''', 1969.
*[[Joseph Campbell|Campbell, Joseph]] and Henry Morton Robinson. ''A Skeleton Key to Finnegan's Wake'', 1961.
*McHugh, Roland. ''Annotations to Finnegans Wake''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
*Tindall, William York. ''A Reader's Guide to Finnegans Wake''. Syracuse University Press, 1996 (First published 1969).
'''Finnegans Wake (web)'''
*[http://www.fweet.org Home Fweet Home ''Elucidations to Finnegans Wake'']
*[http://mural.uv.es/joesdel/Writing_Wake.html The Writing Of ''Finnegans Wake'']
*[http://www.kirbymountain.com/FWconcordance/fwc-main.html Concordance of Finnegans Wake]
*[http://www.finneganswiki.com Finnegans Wiki - a Wiki of Finnegans Wake]
'''Poems''' and '''Exiles'''
*[http://www.themodernword.com/joyce/joyce_works_other.html Poems and ''Exiles'' at themodernword.com]
*[http://www.cosmoetica.com/TOP4-DES4.htm Essay on Joyce’s ''Watching the Needleboats at San Sabba & On the Beach at Fontana'']
==Other external links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
*[http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/joyce/introduction/index.html James Joyce from Dublin to Ithaca Exhibition] from the collections of [[Cornell University]]
*[http://www.creativequotations.com/one/617.htm Creative Quotations from James Joyce]
*[http://www.themodernword.com/joyce The Brazen Head ]
* {{gutenberg author|id=James_Joyce|name=James Joyce}}
*[http://www.cluas.com/music/features/james_joyce.htm The influence of James Joyce on Popular Music] from [http://www.cluas.com/ music webzine CLUAS.com]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/JoyceColl The James Joyce Scholars' Collection] from the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center].
*[http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/ IQ Infinity: the Unknown James Joyce]
*[http://www.univ.trieste.it/~nirdange/school/joyceweb.htm The Ninth Annual Trieste Joyce School]
[[Category:1882 births|Joyce, James]]
[[Category:1941 deaths|Joyce, James]]
[[Category:Irish literature]]
[[Category:Irish |
A People's History of the World (Marxist view of history according to a leader of the International Socialist Tendency)
*[[Jürgen Habermas]], Communication and the Evolution of Society. (argues historical materialism must be revised to include communicative action)
==Note==
Brill publishers of Leyden publish a journal called "Historical Materialism" which explores different strands of theory in the tradition of Marx, Engels and the Western Marxists.
http://www.brill.nl/m_catalogue_sub6_id17936.htm
A variety of myths and lies about Marx's thought are refuted on this site: http://marxmyths.org/index.shtml
An extensive bibliography of modern commentaries on Marx's thought is available here: http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/sefd0/bib/marx.htm
==See also==
* [[Marxism]]
* [[Dialectical materialism]]
* [[Marxist historiography]]
* [[Karl Marx]]
== External links ==
* http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1894/friends/01.htm
* http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch02.htm
* http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/preface.htm
[[Category:Marxism]]
[[Category:Marxist theory]]
[[ast:Materialismu históricu]]
[[de:Historischer Materialismus]]
[[es:Materialismo histórico]]
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[[no:Historisk materialisme]]
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[[sv:Historisk materialism]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Huns</title>
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<comment>Revert vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Huns''' were a confederation of [[Eurasian]] tribes of disputed origin, who appeared in [[Europe]] in the [[4th century]]. It has also become a more general term for any number of [[Central Asia]]n [[equestrian nomads]] or semi-nomads. Most of these peoples are recorded by neighboring peoples to the south, east, and west as having occupied Central Asia roughly from the [[4th century]] to the [[6th century]] (with [[North Caucasian Huns|some surviving in the Caucasus]] until the early [[8th century]]).
==Origins and research==
Ever since [[Joseph de Guignes]] in the [[18th century]] identified the Huns with the ''[[Xiongnu]]'' or ''(H)siung-nu'', the research and debate about the Asian ancestral origins of the Huns has continued.
Recent research has suggested that many of the great [[confederation]]s of steppe warriors were not entirely of the same [[race]], but rather tended to be mixtures of [[Central Asia]]n and eastern [[Caucasoid|Caucasian]]. Also, many [[clan]]s may have claimed to be Huns simply based on the prestige and fame of the name, or it was attributed to them by outsiders describing their common characteristics, believed place of origin, or reputation. Thus it is probably fruitless to speculate on the [[ethnic group|ethnic origins]] and geographic home of the Huns.
The recent [[genetics|genetic]] research which says it is fruitless to speculate on the Huns ethnic origins is in contrast to older theories, which put forward more definitive answers about the Huns' origins — based on [[linguistics]], [[China#Arts.2C_scholarship.2C_and_literature|Chinese records]], [[archaeology]], and other indirect evidence. These theories contain various elements: that the name "Hun" first described a nomadic ruling group of warriors whose ethnic origins were in Central Asia, and was most likely in present day [[Mongolia]]; that they were possibly related to, or included in, the Xiongnu (the theory first suggested by Joseph de Guignes in the 18th century); that the Xiongnu were defeated by the Chinese [[Han Empire]]; and that this is why they left Mongolia and moved westward, eventually invading Europe 300 years later. Indirect evidence includes the transmission of the [[composite bow]] from [[Asia]] to the European countries of [[Hungary]], [[Russia]] and others; and that Europe, at some point, saw an influx of Asian genes. This traditional narrative, of a westward movement of people triggered by a Chinese war, is deeply ingrained in western (and eastern) historiography — but the evidence is often indirect or ambiguous (the Huns left practically no written records), there is no record for 300 years of what happened between the time they left China and arrived in Europe. It is further challenged by the recent genetic research showing little support for a distinct Hun people (even further sparking contention, see "Modern Huns" below).
One of the linguistic debates about the origins of the Huns is centered on [[Kama]], legendary ancestor-King of the Huns. Research is still ongoing to learn if there ever was a ruler among the Xiongnu with that name, and because none to date has been found, some have suggested that the Huns were entirely distinct from the Xiongnu. However, the Huns and/or Xiongnu were both said to have been largely military tribes with very few written records, so the research remains tentative. Additionally, some believe the story of Kama is probably more [[mythology]] than history.
To avoid confusion, this article will not treat on the Aparni "[[White Huns]]" (Akhun only in modern Turkish) of [[Procopius]], since while he calls them "Huns", others feel it clear that they were of a different cultural and physical stock.
==History==
[[Image:Huns empire.png|thumb|300px|left|The Hunnish empire stretched from the steppes of Central Asia into modern Germany, and from the Danube river to the Baltic Sea]]
=== 3rd-5th centuries ===
[[Dionysius Periegetes]] talks of people who may be Huns living next to the [[Caspian Sea]] in [[2nd century|second century AD]]. [[Ptolemy]] lists the "Chuni" as among the "Sarmatian" tribes in the second century, although it is not known for certain if these people were the Huns. The [[fifth century]] [[Armenians|Armenian]] historian [[Moses of Khorene]], in his "History of Armenia," introduces the ''Hunni'' near the [[Sarmatians]] and goes on to describe how they captured the city of Balk ("Kush" in [[Armenian language|Armenian]]) sometime between [[194]] and 214, which explains why the [[Greeks]] call that city ''Hunuk''.
Following the defeat of the [[Xiongnu]] by the Han, there was a century without significant Xiongnu references, followed by attempts by the Liu family of [[Tiefu]] Xiongnu to establish a state in western [[China]] (see [[Han Zhao]]). [[Chionites]] (OIONO/Xiyon) appear on the scene in [[Transoxiana]] as the [[Kidarite Kingdom|Kidarites]] begin to press on the [[Kushan Empire|Kushans]] in [[320]] and the [[Jie (ethnic group)|Jie]] ethnicity [[Hou]]/[[Later Zhao]] kingdom competes against the Liu family. Back west, the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] invite the Huns east of the [[Ukraine]] to settle [[Pannonia]] in [[361]], and in [[372]], under the leadership of [[Balimir]] their king, the Huns push toward the west and defeat the [[Alans]]. Back east again, in the early [[5th century]] [[Tiefu|Tiefu Xia]] is the last Xiongnu dynasty in Western China and the ''[[Alchon]]'' and ''[[Hunas|Huna]]'' appear in what is now [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]]. At this point deciphering Hunnish histories for the multi-linguist becomes easier with relatively well-documented events in [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[Armenia]]n, [[Iran]]ian, [[India]]n, and Chinese sources.
=== European Huns ===
[[Image:Romanian origins map.PNG|thumb|right|European Huns in the 5th century]]
Huns made an appearance in Europe in the [[4th century|Fourth Century AD]], appearing first north of the Black Sea area, forcing a large number of [[Goths]] to seek refuge in the Roman Empire; then later the Huns appear west of the Carpathians in Pannonia, probably sometime between 400 and 410, which was probably the trigger for the massive migration of Germanic tribes westward across the Rhine in December [[406]].
The establishment of the [[5th century]] Hun Empire marks one of the first well-documented appearances of the culture of [[horseback migration]] in history. Under the leadership of [[Attila the Hun]], these tribal people achieved military and diplomatic superiority over their rivals (most of them highly cultured) through weapons like the [[Hun bow]] and a system of pay-offs, financed by the plundering of wealthy Roman cities to the south, to retain the loyalties of a diverse number of tribes.
Attila's Huns incorporated groups of unrelated [[tribute|tributary]] peoples. In the European case [[Alans]], [[Gepid]]s, [[Sciri]], [[Rugians]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]] and [[Goths|Gothic tribes]] all united under the Hun family military elite. Some of Attila's Huns eventually settled in Pannonia after his death, but the Hun Empire would not survive Attila's passing. After his sons were defeated by [[Ardaric]]'s coalition [[Battle of Nedao|at the unidenified river Nedao]] in 454, the Hunnish empire ceased to exist.
The memory of the Hunnish invasion was [[oral tradition|transmitted orally]] among the [[Germanic peoples]] and is an important component in the [[Old Norse]] ''[[Völsunga saga]]'' and ''[[Hervarar saga]]'', and the [[Old German]] ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'', all portraying events in the [[Migrations period]], almost one millennium before their recordings. In the ''[[Hervarar saga]]'', the Goths make first contact with the bow-wielding Huns and meet them in an epic battle on the plains of the [[Danube]]. In the ''[[Völsunga saga]]'' and the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'', King Attila (''[[Atli]]'' in Norse and ''[[Etzel]]'' in German) defeats the [[Franks|Frankish]] king [[Sigebert I]] (''[[Sigurðr]]'' or ''[[Siegfried]]'') and the [[Burgundian]] King [[Guntram|Guntram I]] (''[[Gunnar]]'' or ''[[Gunther]]''), but is subsequently assassinated by Queen [[Fredegund]] (''[[Gudrun]]'' or ''[[Kriemhild]]''), the sister of |
ty success rate of approximately 5%, according to an internal study conducted by AA Intergroup in 1988. Other estimates put overall success rates however somewhere between 5 and 10%. Given that AA's membership is by definition, anonymous, and its administrative body -- the General Service Office, General Service Board and annual General Service Conference -- acknowledges the importance of anonymity, no records are kept on AA members, so non-anectdotal data about success rates cannot be obtained from official AA sources.
Many A.A. members share similar views on alcoholism and most would agree with the following statements:
* '''Alcoholism has no cure.''' Once an alcoholic, always an alcoholic. There is no way to make a "normal" drinker out of an alcoholic. Nor is there any way to make a non-alcoholic into an alcoholic. Alcoholics who do not drink can recover and function in normal society, but should they drink again, their active alcoholism will re-emerge quickly and be as debilitating as before. This is true even in cases where alcoholics have remained sober for many years before relapsing. The concept that "alcoholism has no cure" is one at variance with the remarks of A.A.'s two founders--each of whom specifically stated he had been "cured." So too A.A. Number Three (Bill D.) who stated he had been cured by the Lord. See Big Book, p. 191. In fact, for almost a decade after A.A.'s founding, all members from the mid-west and newspapers across U.S. trumpeted the fact that they had been cured and that the cure was reliance on the Creator. See Dick B. Cured; When Early AAs Were Cured and Why.
* '''Alcoholism is a progressive illness.''' Over time, alcoholics who continue to drink will get worse. Those who keep drinking will often die from alcohol-related causes or be institutionalized (prison, hospital or asylum).
* '''The first drink does the damage.''' Once an alcoholic takes a drink, a powerful craving for more alcohol sets in. This makes moderation or controlled drinking nearly impossible. Thus the A.A. approach of abstinence. Without the first drink, the craving cannot occur. Much of the A.A. program is intended to help the alcoholic stay stopped, thereby preventing the compulsive drinking cycle from starting.
* '''The desire to stop drinking needs to come from the alcoholic.''' This often happens as a result of the alcoholic realizing that his or her life has become unmanageable and that excessive drinking is the cause. A.A. members call this "hitting bottom" - a potentially life-changing moment when the alcoholic perceives an urgent need for major personal change.
* '''An Alcoholic cannot recover on his or her own.''' An alcoholic needs (or will benefit from) the fellowship of the AA program. Contact with other alcoholics provides an essential ingredient to the process of recovery. AA meetings may be important, along with reading AA materials and working the steps -- but it is working with other alcoholics, helping and being helped, talking and interacting, that allow an alcoholic to do what he or she cannot do alone -- stay sober.
==Structure==
The affairs of A.A. are governed broadly by A.A.'s [[Twelve Traditions]]. A.A. has a minimal amount of organized structure. There is no hierarchy of leaders and no formal control structure. People who accept service positions within the Fellowship are known only as "trusted servants." Individual A.A. members and groups cannot be compelled to do anything by "higher" A.A. authorities. Each A.A. group, small or large, is considered a self-supporting and self-governing entity. A.A. does maintain offices and service centres which have the task of co-ordinating activities like printing literature, responding to public enquiries and organizing state or national conferences. These offices are funded by local A.A. members and are directly responsible to the A.A. groups in the region or country they represent. (For more information, see A.A.'s [[Twelve Traditions]] as set out in the A.A. "Big Book" [http://www.aa.org/bigbookonline/ Alcoholics Anonymous] and discussed in detail in the A.A. book ''Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions''.)
==A.A., religion and the law==
U.S. judges continue to require attendance at AA meetings as a condition of probation or parole or as an element of a sentence for defendents convicted of a crime. A federal appeals court ruled in 1999 that doing so compromises the First Amendment right not to have religion dictated to them by government - because A.A. practices and doctrine are (in the words of the district court judge who wrote Griffin v. Coughlin) "unequivocally religious". The United States Supreme Court denied certiori and let this decision stand.
While A.A. World Services Inc. [the legal entity of the program as a whole] and A.A.'s General Service Office [the legal entity of A.A. in the U.S. and Canada] do not favor coercion regarding meeting attendance, their failure to unequivocally condemn the practice (and promulgate their condemnation at the cell level) is interpreted by some as tacit approval. A.A. experience long suggests that the program works best for people who seek sobriety of their own free will. The Third Tradition of A.A. states "The only requirement for A.A. membership is a desire to stop drinking." Those forced to attend meetings may not have any desire to stop drinking. Nevertheless, it is true that some members claim to owe their recovery to the fact they were ordered to go to A.A. by a judge or doctor. A.A. welcomes everyone at its meetings, including those who are there only because a court or other external authority compelled them.
The A.A. program contains spiritual ideas, but it does not promote any particular [[religion]] over others, and it has worked for adherents of many faiths, including Christians, Buddhists, Jews and Muslims as well as for many who identify with no religion. Nevertheless, since it suggests that the recovering alcoholic seeks help from a "Higher Power," some [[atheism|atheists]] and those not looking for a "spiritual" solution find themselves unable to accept A.A.'s Twelve Steps and instead seek out secular alternatives. Many others have been able to adapt the concept of a "Higher Power" in a manner that works for them, and there is a chapter of the book ''Alcoholics Anonymous'' called "We Agnostics" that speaks directly to agnostics and agnosticism. It counsels that even those members who "thought we were atheists or agnostics" were able to "lay aside prejudice and express even a willingness to believe in a Power greater than ourselves ... even though it was impossible for any of us to fully define or comprehend that Power, which is god" and "had to stop doubting the power of god" because "deep down in every man, woman, and child, is the fundamental idea of god." (quotes from ''Alcoholics Anonymous'', 4th Edition, p. 44, 46, 52, 55) Many alcoholics arrive at A.A. with a strong disbelief towards spiritual ideas. A.A. members usually counsel attendees with such beliefs to keep attending despite their perceived conflicting beliefs. The attitude towards these cases is usually the same as in the ''Alcoholics Anonymous'' book, they believe that eventually atheists and agnostics will "come around" to believing in a "higher power." Many agnostics and atheists find this attitude offensive and condescending, because they interpret such statments as being tantamount to saying that atheist and agnostics have simply not thought about the implications enough to come to see what A.A. adherents see as a basic "truth." It should also be noted that many believers reject AA's spiritualism as well.
Many alcoholics who arrive at A.A. without belief in a god use the group itself as their "Higher Power." One such alcoholic defined "GOD" as "Group Of Drunks" until he was able to discover a spiritual concept of god which worked for him. Other A.A. members point out that there are many powers greater than one's self to choose from. The idea that this power must be God is not necessarily true for everyone. Some A.A. members choose some principle, such as the truth, or compassion, or the law of impermanence and constant change and surrender to that principle as their "higher power". Others may focus on the program itself, defining "GOD" as "Good Orderly Direction." On the other hand, newcomers are cautioned that it is unwise to use any one person, such as a sponsor, as their higher power in that all individual human beings are fallible and, in the case of another recovering alcoholic, no matter how long his or her sobriety, capable of relapse. The basic idea is that, in order to recover, the alcoholic must "surrender," meaning that he or she must admit his or her powerlessness over alcohol and unmanageability of life and must stop depending only on self, while beginning to rely on help from a "power greater than [one's self]," whatever the precise nature of that power. Many recovering alcoholics would agree with the statement: "I had done things my way long enough, and all it got me was drunk. I decided it was time to start following directions."
Ironically, it has been the experience of some A.A. "old timers" (recovering alcoholics with many years of uninterrupted sobriety) that active alcoholics who seek recovery in A.A. without having a prior religious concept of god may have a better chance of lasting recovery than their more religious counterparts. This seems to be true because the former may find it easier to focus on working the program itself, instead of using previously-held religious beliefs as a rationalization for seeking an "easier softer way." However, as stated elsewher |
of the Mermnadae.
He was succeeded by his son [[Croesus]]. His daughter [[Aryenis of Lydia]] was [[Queen consort]] of [[Astyages]], King of Media.
His tomb still exists on the plateau between Lake Gygaea and the river Hermus to the north of [[Sardis]] -- a large mound of earth with a substructure of huge stones. It was excavated by [[Spiegelthal]] in [[1854]], who found that it covered a large vault of finely-cut marble blocks approached by a flat-roofed passage of the same stone from the south. The [[sarcophagus]] and its contents had been removed by early plunderers of the tomb, all that was left being some broken alabaster vases, pottery and charcoal. On the summit of the mound were large [[phallus|phalli]] of stone.
==References==
*{{1911}}
==External links==
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/men-mh/mermnads/alyattes.html Alyattes of Lydia] by Jona Lendering
[[Category:560 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Kings of Lydia]]
[[de:Alyattes]]
[[nl:Alyattes II]]
[[nb:Alyattes]]
[[sl:Aliat II.]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Age of consent</title>
<id>1653</id>
<revision>
<id>42146388</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:08:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.132.136.211</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ages of consent in various countries */ previous wording implied no male heterosexual AoC in England and Wales! It's 16 for all, except with "relationship of trust"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the legal concept}}
{{citation style}}
In [[criminal law]], the '''age of consent''' (AOC) is the age at which a person is considered to be capable of legally giving [[informed consent]] to any legal contract or behavior regulated by law, including [[sexual acts]] with another person. In most jurisdictions, the Age of Consent is violated when an adult has intercourse with an individual who has not reached that jurisdiction's AOC. In other jurisdictions, the AOC is a minimum age for any type of sexual conduct, and two minor participants can violate a jurisdiction's AOC. The crime and penalties for an AOC violation varies based on jurisdiction, the age of the older actor and the difference between the two actors. Charges may range from a relatively low level misdemeanor such as "corruption of a minor" to [[statutory rape]] (which is considered equivalent to rape, both in severity and sentencing.) Some jurisdictions have a second age of consent that is relevant in situations when the adult actor is in a position of authority over the minor (affecting teachers, coaches, principals, health professionals, police officers, family members.) Though some areas allow certain ages that can have sexual intercourse with someone over or under the age of consent but by only a few years (usually 3-4 years).
The age of consent should not be confused with the [[age of majority]] or [[age of criminal responsibility]], and in some jurisdictions, the [[marriageable age]] differs from the age of consent.
The age of consent varies widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, though most jurisdictions in the world today have an age of consent between 14 to 18 years, but ages as young as 12 and as old as 21 also occur. The relevant age may also vary by the type of sexual act or the gender of the people concerned.
==Social and legal attitudes==
Social and legal attitudes towards the appropriate age of consent have drifted upwards in modern times; while ages from ten through to thirteen were typically acceptable in the mid 19th century, fifteen through eighteen had become the norm in many countries by the end of the 20th century. Calls for the age of consent for heterosexual sex to be lowered are largely unheard of outside of US, with a typical age of 14 to 18.
Sexual relations with a person under the age of consent is in general a criminal offense, with punishments ranging from token fines to life imprisonment. In the [[United States]] this offense is frequently (but often inaccurately) called [[Statutory rape#Statutory rape|statutory rape]], though outside the United States other names are more commonly used (e.g. "carnal knowledge of a person under sixteen years").
The enforcement practices of age of consent laws tend to vary depending on the social sensibilities of the particular culture. Often enforcement is not exercised to the letter of the law, with legal action being taken only when a sufficiently socially-unacceptable age gap exists between the two individuals, or if the perpetrator is in a position of authority over the minor (e.g. a teacher, priest or doctor). The [[sex]] of each participant also influences perceptions of an individual's guilt and therefore enforcement. "The Supreme Court has held that stricter rules for males do not violate the equal protection clause of the Constitution, on the theory that men lack the disincentives associated with pregnancy that women have to engage in sexual activity, and the law may thus provide men with those disincentives in the form of criminal sanctions." {{ref|posner}} Not only is enforcement more likely in the case of a larger age gap, but in the US at least, laws are becoming more explicit about prohibiting sex between youngsters and authority figures, even when sex would otherwise be legal.
That the relationship was consensual is not in general a defense to having sexual relations with a person under the age of consent; however, there are some defenses: common examples include a ''limited mistake of age defence'' and a ''defense of similarity of age''. A mistake of age defense is that the accused mistakenly believed the victim was not under the age of consent; however, where such a defense is provided, it is normally limited to apply only when the victim is above a certain age. Such a defense becomes stronger if the accused can show [[due diligence]] in determining the age of the victim.
A defense of similarity of age is that the difference in age between the accused and the victim was fewer than a certain number of years.
Another defense is often marriage, for those jurisdictions where the [[marriageable age]] is less than the age of consent.
===Extraterrioriality===
Increasingly the age of consent laws of a state apply not only to acts committed on its own territory, but also acts committed by its nationals and/or inhabitants on foreign territory. Such provisions have been frequently adopted to help reduce the incidence of child [[sex tourism]].
* In the [[United States]] the [[PROTECT Act of 2003]] (signed into law on April 30, 2003) authorizes fines and/or imprisonment for up to 30 years for US citizens or residents who engage in illicit sexual conduct abroad. For the purposes of this law illicit sexual conduct includes commercial sex with anyone under 18, and all sex with anyone under 16. Previous US law was less strict, only punishing those having sex either in contravention of local laws OR in commerce (prostitution); but did not prohibit non-commercial sex with, say, a 14 year-old if such sex is legal in the foreign territory.
* [[France]] allows the prosecution of its own citizens on rape charges for sex with minors under 15 abroad even if it was legal with respect to the local jurisdiction. The same applies to [[Germany]] if the minor is under 14.
* For inhabitants of the [[Netherlands]] it is a severe crime to have sex with a prostitute under the age of 18, or any person below 16, anywhere in the world. If a foreigner has had sex with someone under the age of 16 or a prostitute below 18—even if this was legal—and if this was done at a time that it was already illegal in the Netherlands, he or she becomes a criminal when immigrating to the Netherlands.
(See also [[Universal jurisdiction]]; the effective age of consent may be the highest of those corresponding to the list in [[Universal jurisdiction#Applicable jurisdictions|Applicable jurisdictions]].)
==Age of consent for homosexual and heterosexual sex==
Frequently, jurisdictions provide differing ages of consent for [[heterosexual]] and [[homosexuality|homosexual]] intercourse. Most often, the age of consent for heterosexual and female homosexual intercourse is lower than the age of consent for male homosexual intercourse. The [[gay rights movement]] has been attempting in many places to establish an equal age of consent regardless of the sex of the partners; this has resulted in many jurisdictions adopting a common age of consent, though conservatives have frequently and successfully opposed this (see [[Sodomy law]]). However, the [[United States Supreme Court]] decision in [[Lawrence v. Texas]] in 2003 effectively invalidated the disparity between heterosexual and homosexual ages of consent within the US.
==Ages of consent in various countries==
<!-- Attention editors: if you alter any information in this section please provide a link to an authority or cite the appropriate law. See talk page heading "The Age of Consent Challenge" -->
This table is for relative comparison of the "norm" between countries only and should not be considered authoritative. Most of the information provided is unreferenced, and much is likely to be incorrect. See detailed information for each jurisdiction below.
{|class="wikitable"
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|----
|<!-- 12 -->
Mexico<br>
Philippines<br>
|<!-- 13 -->
Guyana<br>
Japan<br>
South&nbsp;Korea<br>
Spain<br>
Swaziland<br>
|<!-- 14 -->
Albania<br>
Austria<br>
Bulgaria<br>
Canada<br>
Chile<br>
China<br>
Colombia<br>
Ecuador<br>
Estonia<br>
Germany<br>
Hungary<br>
Iceland<br>
Italy<br>
Montenegro<br>
Paraguay<br>
Peru<br>
Portugal<br>
Serbia<br>
|<!-- 15 -->
Czech&nbsp;Republic<br>
Denmark<br> |
e several paths.
When general health is good, the symptoms are not severe, and the person can fast normally through the night, experimentation with diet (extra snacks with fat or protein, reduced sugar) may be enough to solve the problem. If it is uncertain whether "spells" are indeed due to hypoglycemia, some physicians will recommend use of a home [[glucose meter]] to test at the time of the spells to confirm that glucoses are low. This approach may be most useful when spells are fairly frequent or the patient is confident that he or she can provoke a spell. The principal drawback of this approach is the high rate of false positive or equivocal levels due to the imprecision of the currently available meters: both physician and patient need an accurate understanding of what a meter can and cannot do to avoid frustrating and inconclusive results.
In cases of recurrent hypoglycemia with severe symptoms, the best method of excluding dangerous conditions is often a ''diagnostic fast''. This is usually conducted in the hospital, and the duration depends on the age of the patient and response to the fast. A healthy adult can usually maintain a glucose level above 50 mg/dl (2.8 mM) for 72 hours, a child for 36 hours, and an infant for 24 hours. The purpose of the fast is to determine whether the person can maintain his or her blood glucose as long as normal, and can respond to fasting with the appropriate metabolic changes. At the end of the fast the insulin should be nearly undetectable and ketosis should be fully established. The patient's blood glucose levels are monitored and a critical specimen is obtained if the glucose falls. Despite its unpleasantness and expense, a diagnostic fast may be the only effective way to confirm or refute a number of serious forms of hypoglycemia, especially those involving [[hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia|excessive insulin]].
A traditional method for investigating suspected hypoglycemia is the oral [[glucose tolerance test]], especially when prolonged to 3, 4, or 5 hours. Although quite popular in the United States in the 1960s, repeated research studies have demonstrated that many healthy people will have glucose levels below 70 or 60 during a prolonged test, and that many types of significant hypoglycemia may go undetected with it. This combination of poor [[sensitivity]] and [[specificity]] has resulted in its abandonment for this purpose by physicians experienced in disorders of glucose metabolism.
== Causes of hypoglycemia ==
There are several ways to classify hypoglycemia. The following is a list of the more common causes and factors which may contribute to hypoglycemia grouped by age, followed by some causes that are relatively age-independent. See [[causes of hypoglycemia]] for a more complete list grouped by etiology.
=== Hypoglycemia in newborn infants ===
Hypoglycemia is a common problem in critically ill or extremely low birthweight infants. If not due to maternal hyperglycemia, in most cases it is multifactorial, transient and easily supported. In a minority of cases hypoglycemia turns out to be due to significant hyperinsulinism, hypopituitarism or an inborn error of metabolism and presents more of a management challenge.
*Transient neonatal hypoglycemia
**[[Prematurity]], [[intrauterine growth retardation]], [[perinatal asphyxia]]
**Maternal hyperglycemia due to [[diabetes]] or iatrogenic glucose administration
**[[Sepsis]]
**Prolonged fasting (e.g., due to inadequate breast milk or condition interfering with feeding)
*Congenital [[hypopituitarism]]
*[[Congenital hyperinsulinism]], several types, both transient and persistent
*[[Inborn error of metabolism|Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism]] such as [[glycogen storage disease]]
===Hypoglycemia in young children===
Single episodes of hypoglycemia due to gastroenteritis or fasting, but recurrent episodes nearly always indicate either an [[inborn error of metabolism]], congenital hypopituitarism, or congenital hyperinsulinism
*Prolonged fasting
**[[Diarrhea]]l illness in young children, especially [[rotavirus]] [[gastroenteritis]]
*Idiopathic [[ketotic hypoglycemia]]
*Isolated [[growth hormone deficiency]], [[hypopituitarism]]
*[[Hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia|Insulin excess]]
**Hyperinsulinism due to several [[congenital hyperinsulinism|congenital disorders of insulin secretion]]
**Insulin injected for type 1 diabetes
*[[Gastric dumping syndrome]] (after gastrointestinal surgery)
*Other congenital metabolic diseases; some of the common include
**[[Maple syrup urine disease]] and other [[organic aciduria]]s
**[[Glycogen storage disease|Type 1 glycogen storage disease]]
**[[Disorders of fatty acid oxidation]]
**[[Medium chain acylCoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCAD)]]
*Accidental ingestions
**[[Sulfonylurea]]s, [[propranolol]] and others
**[[Ethanol]] (mouthwash, "leftover morning-after-the-party drinks")
===Hypoglycemia in older children and young adults===
By far the most common cause of severe hypoglycemia in this age range is insulin injected for [[type 1 diabetes]]. Circumstances should provide clues fairly quickly for the new diseases causing severe hypoglycemia. All of the congenital metabolic defects, congenital forms of hyperinsulinism, and congenital hypopituitarism are likely to have already been diagnosed or are unlikely to start causing new hypoglycemia at this age. Body mass is large enough to make starvation hypoglycemia and idiopathic [[ketotic hypoglycemia]] quite uncommon. Recurrent mild hypoglycemia may fit a [[reactive hypoglycemia]] pattern, but this is also the peak age for [[idiopathic postprandial syndrome]], and recurrent "spells" in this age group can be traced to [[orthostatic hypotension]] or [[hyperventilation]] as often as demonstrable hypoglycemia.
*Insulin-induced hypoglycemia
**Insulin injected for type 1 diabetes
**Factitious insulin injection ([[Munchausen syndrome]])
**Insulin-secreting pancreatic tumor
**[[Reactive hypoglycemia]] and [[idiopathic postprandial syndrome]]
*[[Addison's disease]]
*[[Sepsis]]
===Hypoglycemia in older adults===
The incidence of hypoglycemia due to complex drug interactions, especially involving [[oral hypoglycemic agent]]s and insulin for diabetes rises with age. Though much rarer, the incidence of insulin-producing tumors also rises with advancing age. Most tumors causing hypoglycemia by mechanisms other than insulin excesss occur in adults.
*Insulin-induced hypoglycemia
**Insulin injected for diabetes
**Factitious insulin injection ([[Munchausen syndrome]])
**Excessive effects of oral diabetes drugs, beta-blockers, or drug interactions
**Insulin-secreting pancreatic tumor
**Alimentary (rapid jejunal emptying with exaggerated insulin response)
***After gastrectomy [[dumping syndrome]] or bowel bypass surgery or resection
**[[Reactive hypoglycemia]] and [[idiopathic postprandial syndrome]]
*[[Tumor hypoglycemia]]
*Acquired [[adrenal insufficiency]]
*Acquired [[hypopituitarism]]
== Treatment and prevention ==
Management of hypoglycemia involves immediately raising the blood sugar to normal, determining the cause, and taking measures to prevent future episodes.
===Reversing acute hypoglycemia===
The blood glucose can be raised to normal within minutes by taking (or receiving) 10-20 grams of [[carbohydrate]]. It can be taken as food or drink if the person is conscious and able to swallow. This amount of carbohydrate is contained in about 3-4 ounces (100-120 ml) of orange, apple, or grape juice, about 4-5 ounces (120-150 ml) of regular (non-diet) soda), about one slice of bread, about 4 crackers, or about 1 serving of most starchy foods. [[Starch]] is quickly digested to glucose, but adding fat or protein retards digestion. Symptoms should begin to improve within 5 minutes, though full recovery may take 10-20 minutes. Overfeeding does not speed recovery and if the person has diabetes will simply produce hyperglycemia afterwards.
If a person is suffering such severe effects of hypoglycemia that they cannot (due to combativeness) or should not (due to seizures or unconsciousness) be given anything by mouth, glucose can be given by intravenous infusion or the glucose can be rapidly raised by an injection of glucagon. Further details of glucagon use are provided in the article on [[diabetic hypoglycemia]].
===Preventing further episodes===
The most effective means of preventing further episodes of hypoglycemia depends on the cause.
The risk of further episodes of [[diabetic hypoglycemia]] can often be reduced by lowering the dose of insulin or other medications, or by more meticulous attention to blood sugar balance during unusual hours, higher levels of exercise, or alcohol intake.
Many of the [[inborn error of metabolism|inborn errors of metabolism]] require avoidance or shortening of fasting intervals, or extra carbohydrates. For the more severe disorders, such as [[glycogen storage disease|type 1 glycogen storage disease]], this may be supplied in the form of [[cornstarch]] every few hours or by continuous gastric infusion.
Several treatments are used for [[hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia]], depending on the exact form and severity. Some forms of [[congenital hyperinsulinism]] respond to [[diazoxide]] or [[octreotide]]. Surgical removal of the overactive part of the pancreas is curative with minimal risk when hyperinsulinism is focal or due to a benign insulin-producing tumor of the pancreas. When congenital hyperinsulinism is diffuse and refractory to medications, near-total pancreatectomy may be the treatment of last resort, but in this condition is less consistently effective and fraught with more complications.
Hypoglycemia due to hormone deficiencies such as [[hypopituitarism]] or [[adrenal insufficiency]] usually ceases when the appropriate hormone is replaced.
Hypoglycemia due to [[dumping syndrome]] and other post-surgical conditions is best dealt with by altering diet. Including fat and protein with c |
e husband of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], who then went on to die in 1901. Thus, central to Albert Square is [[The Queen Vic|The Queen Victoria Public House]].
But as the set was built in the early eighties, it had to be made to look as if it had been standing for years and years. This was done by a number of means, including chipping at the buildings with [[pickaxe|pickaxes]].
The ''EastEnders'' lot was built and designed by Keith Harris, who was a senior designer within the production team. Then in 1986 he added an extension to the set, building the fourth side of Albert Square and in 1987 Turpin Road was added which included buildings such as [[The Dagmar]].
In 1993, George Street was added, and soon after, Walford East tube station was built.
In the past, fans have tried to establish the actual location of Walford within London. [[Walford East]], is a fictional tube station for Walford, with the aid of a map that was first seen on air in 1996, it has been established that Walford East is located between Bow Road and [[West Ham]], which realistically would replace [[Bromley-by-Bow]].
Walford has the fictional postal district of [[London E20|E20]], thus fans have also tried to pinpoint the location using this, however, realistically London East postal districts stop at E18, the show's creators opted for E20 instead of E19 as it was thought to sound better.
The strongest claim to being the 'real' Albert Square is held by [[Broadway Market]] in [[Hackney]], a short pedestrianised road that features a weekly market and established street vendors. The postcode for the area "E8" was one of the working titles for the series.
In reality, an Albert Square does exist in the East End, in [[Stratford, London|Stratford]]. However, the show's producers actually based the square's design on the real life 'Fassett Square' in the East End. It is rumoured that the fictional borough of Walford was named after the areas of London that the creators hailed from - [[Walthamstow]] and Stratford.
===Characters===
''EastEnders'' was built around the ideas of "clans" of strong families and each character having a place in the community. Co-creator [[Tony Holland]] was himself from a large East End family and such families have typified ''EastEnders''. The first central family was the Fowlers, consisting of [[Pauline Fowler|Pauline]], [[Arthur Fowler|Arthur]], [[Mark Fowler|Mark]], Michelle and also the closely related Beale family - [[Pete Beale|Pete]], Lou and [[Ian Beale|Ian]]. Tony Holland drew on the names of his own family for his characters.
The Watts and Mitchell families have been central to most of the notable ''EastEnders'' storylines and [[Peggy Mitchell]] in particular is notorious for her ceaseless repetition of such statements as "You're a Mitchell". The 2000s saw a new focus on the largely female Slater clan before the return of emphasis to the Watts and Mitchell families. Key people involved in the production of ''EastEnders'' have stressed how important this idea of strong families is to ''EastEnders''.
Some families feature an stereotypical East End [[matriarch]] such as Lou Beale, Pauline Fowler, [[Mo Harris]] and [[Peggy Mitchell]]. These characters are seen as being loud and interfering but most importantly, responsible for the well-being of the family and usually stressing the importance of family, reflecting on the past.
Another recurring character type is the smartly dressed businessman, often involved in crime, who is seen as a local authority figure. Examples include [[Den Watts]], [[James Wilmott-Brown]], [[Steve Owen]], [[Andy Hunter]] and [[Johnny Allen (EastEnders)|Johnny Allen]].
{{seealso|List of characters from EastEnders}}
==Social realism==
In the [[eighties]], ''EastEnders'' featured gritty storylines involving drugs and crime, representing the issues faced by working-class Britain much as ''Coronation Street'' did in the 1960s.
However ''EastEnders'' has for the most part remained a populist series and has generally avoided the arguably tougher stories of ''[[Brookside]]''. ''Brookside'' had also launched as a social realist drama, leading the way for more conservative soaps like ''EastEnders'' to follow. Arguably the difference between them was whilst ''Brookside'' confronted issues it was more [[sensationalist]] and ''EastEnders'' tried to maintain [[realism (arts)|realism]].
The programme makers emphasised that it was to be about 'everyday life' in the inner city 'today' and regard it as a 'slice of life'. Creator/ producer Julia Smith declared that 'we don't make life, we reflect it'. She also said: ‘We decided to go for a realistic, fairly outspoken type of drama which could encompass stories about homosexuality, rape, unemployment, racial prejudice, etc., in a believable context. Above all, we wanted realism’.
Such storylines include Sue and Ali’s baby's [[cot death]], Nick Cotton's [[homophobia]], the rape of Kathy Beale in 1988, Michelle Fowler's [[teenage pregnancy]], [[drug dealing]], [[prostitution]], mixed-race relationships, [[shoplifting]], [[sexism]], [[racism]], divorce and muggings.
As the show progressed into the [[nineties]] ''EastEnders'' still featured hard-hitting issues such as [[Mark Fowler]] discovering he was [[HIV positive]] in 1991 and the death of Gill, murder, adoption, [[alcoholism]] and [[domestic violence]].
In the early 2000s, ''EastEnders'' covered the issue of [[euthanasia]] with long-established characters [[Ethel Skinner]] and [[Dot Cotton]], [[Kat Moon|Kat Slater's]] abuse by her uncle Harry as a child, the domestic abuse of [[Little Mo|Little Mo Slater]] by husband Trevor, Sonia giving birth at the age of fifteen and then putting the baby up for adoption, prostitution, [[agoraphobia]] and drugs.
Aside from this soap opera staples of youthful romance, jealousies, domestic rivalries, kitchen disasters, gossip, community fund-raising events and extra-marital affairs are regularly featured.
==History and popularity==
===Background===
''EastEnders'' was launched at a critical moment in the BBC’s history and was intended to demonstrate the BBC’s ability to produce popular programming. It started airing on the night after a major ident change for the channel, with the show representing the "new face" of the BBC. Critics first derided the new offering, as it was clear that BBC wished to bridge the gap between the network and its competitor, [[ITV]]. One news source went as far as to accuse the channel of only having the guts to air the soap after [[Patricia Phoenix]], arguably Britain's premier soap diva, left ''[[Coronation Street]]''.
It was the brass at BBC who had the last laugh, however, as ''EastEnders'' became wildly popular and displaced ''Coronation Street'' from the top of the ratings for the rest of the 1980s and 1990s and partly the 2000s.
===History===
In February 1983, two years before ''EastEnders'' hit the screen, the show was nothing more than a vague idea in the mind of a handful of BBC executives, who decided that what [[BBC One]] needed was a popular bi-weekly drama series that would attract the kind of mass audiences ITV was getting with ''Coronation Street''.
The first people to whom David Reid, then head of series and serials, turned were [[Julia Smith]] and Tony Holland, a well established producer/[[script editor]] team who had first worked together on ''[[Z-Cars]]''. The outline that Reid presented was vague: two episodes a week, 52 weeks a year. Smith and Holland then went about putting ideas down on paper, they decided it would be set in the East End of London.
There was anxiety at first that the viewing public would not accept a new soap set in the south of England, though research commissioned by lead figures in the BBC had revealed southerners would accept a northern soap, northerners would accept a southern soap and those from the [[Midlands]], as Julia Smith herself pointed out, didn’t mind where it was set as long as it was somewhere else. This was the beginning of a close and continuing association between ''EastEnders'' and audience research, which though commonplace today was something of a revolution in practice.
When developing ''EastEnders'', both Julia Smith and Tony Holland looked at influential models like ''Coronation Street'', but they found that it offered a rather outdated and nostalgic view of working-class life. Only after ''EastEnders'' begun did ''Coronation Street'' start to feature black people for example. They also identified that it has had difficulty in replacing 'big' characters such as Len Fairclough and Elsie Tanner, something which is arguably still present to this day, with the exit of Karen McDonald.
They came to the conclusion that ''Coronation Street'' had grown old with its audience, and that ''EastEnders'' would have to attract a younger, more socially extensive audience ensuring that it had the longevity to retain it for many years thereafter.
They also looked at ''Brookside'' but found there was a lack of central meeting points for the characters, making it difficult for the writers to intertwine different storylines.
The target launch date was originally September 1984 but this was postponed due to [[Michael Grade]] - the new controller of BBC One - preferring a January start. Julia Smith and Tony Holland had just 11 months in which to write, cast and shoot the whole thing. However, in February 1984 they didn't even have a title or a place to film. The project had a number of working titles &mdash; ''Square Dance'', ''Round the Square'', ''Round the Houses'', ''London Pride'', ''East 8.'' It was the latter that stuck (E8 is the [[UK postcodes|postcode]] for [[Hackney]]) in the early months of creative process.
After they decided on the filming location (BBC Elstree Studios in [[Hertfordshire]]), Smith and Holland set about creating the 24 characters needed in just 14 days. Once they decided on these t |
iction)|Alternate history]] work set at the end of [[World War II]] in which [[Winston Churchill]] plots the [[assassination]] of [[Joseph Stalin]], and in which [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] lives past 1945. ISBN 0312853599
* ''Sam Gunn, Unlimited'' (1993)
* ''To Fear the Light'' (with A.J. Austin) (1994)
* ''Death Dream'' (1994)
* ''Brothers'' (1996)
* ''Sam Gunn Forever'' (1998)
===Nonfiction===
*''Man Changes the Weather'' (1973)
*''The Craft of Writing Science Fiction That Sells'' Writers Digest Books, 1994 ISBN 0898796008 (a guide to writing fiction of any genre)
* ''Are We Alone in the Cosmos?'' (1999)
* ''Faint Echoes, Distant Stars: The Science and Politics of Finding Life Beyond Earth'' (2004)
==See also==
* [[Science fiction]]:
**[[List of science fiction authors|authors]]
**[[List of science fiction novels|novels]]
**[[List of science fiction short stories|short stories]]
**[[List of science fiction television|television shows]]
==External links==
*[http://www.benbova.net/ Ben Bova official site, sponsored by author]
*{{isfdb name|id=Ben_Bova|name=Ben Bova}}
*{{Hour25|Ben Bova|http://www.hour25online.com/Hour25_Previous_Shows_2001-11.html#ben-bova_2001-11-09}}
[[Category:1932 births|Bova, Ben]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Bova, Ben]]
[[Category:Living people|Bova, Ben]]
[[Category:Science fiction editors|Bova, Ben]]
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<page>
<title>Battle of Ardrianople</title>
<id>4984</id>
<revision>
<id>15903231</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
<id>135</id>
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<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of Adrianople]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Battle of Ardennes</title>
<id>4985</id>
<revision>
<id>15903232</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-28T00:47:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>N328KF</username>
<id>77722</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Ardennes Offensive]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Battle of Okinawa</title>
<id>4986</id>
<revision>
<id>41799503</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:57:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.188.199.227</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Okinawa
|partof=[[World War II]], the [[Pacific War]]
|image=[[Image:Ww2 158.jpg|300px|]]
|caption=A Marine of the 1st Marine Division draws a bead on a Japanese sniper with his tommy-gun as his companion ducks for cover.
|date=[[April 1]], [[1945]] &ndash; [[June 21]], [[1945]]
|place=[[Okinawa]], [[Japan]]
|result=Allied victory
|combatant1=[[United States]]<br>[[United Kingdom]]<br>(naval involvement only)
|combatant2=[[Japan]]
|commander1=[[Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr.|Simon Bolivar Buckner]]<br>[[Joseph Stillwell]]
|commander2=[[Mitsuru Ushijima]]
|strength1=548,000
|strength2=107,000 regulars<br>24,000 militia
|casualties1=18,900+ killed<br>38,000 wounded<br>33,096 non-combat wounded<br>38 ships lost<br>763 aircraft lost
|casualties2=110,000+ killed<br>7,455 captured (2,300 Japanese)<br>16 ships lost<br>7,800 aircraft lost
}}
{{Campaignbox Ryukyus}}
The '''Battle of Okinawa''', fought on the island of [[Okinawa]] in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] (south of the four big islands of [[Japan]]), was the largest [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious assault]] during the [[Pacific War|Pacific campaign]] of [[World War II]]. It was also the largest sea-land-air battle in history, running from April through June, [[1945]].
Neither side expected it to be the last major battle of the war, which it was. The Americans were planning [[Operation Downfall]], the invasion of the main islands of Japan, which never happened, due to the Japanese surrender after the American use of the atomic bomb in August 1945 (first in [[Hiroshima]], and a second time in [[Nagasaki]]) and the [[Soviet Union]] declaring war on Japan.
The battle has been referred to as "Typhoon of Steel" in English, and "tetsu no ame," "tetsu no bōfū" by Okinawans, which mean "rain of steel" and "violent wind of steel" respectively, referring to the intensity of gunfire that characterized this battle.
At some battles, such as [[Battle of Iwo Jima|Iwo Jima]], there had been no civilians, but Okinawa had a large indigenous civilian population, and the civilian losses in the battle were at least 150,000. American losses were over 72,000 casualties, of whom 18,900 were killed or missing, over twice the number killed at Iwo Jima and [[Battle of Guadalcanal|Guadalcanal]] combined. Several thousand soldiers who died indirectly (from wounds and other causes), at a later date, are not included. About a third of the civilian population of the island in spring, 1945 were killed. There were about 100,000 Japanese soldiers killed and 7,000 captured. Some of the soldiers committed [[seppuku]] or simply blew themselves up with grenades. Some of the civilians, having been convinced by Japanese [[propaganda]] that the Americans were barbarians who committed horrible atrocities, killed their families and themselves to avoid capture.
==Generals==
The American land campaign was controlled by the [[US Tenth Army|Tenth Army]], commanded by Lieutenant General [[Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr.]] The army had two [[corps]] under its command, [[US III Amphibious Corps|III Amphibious Corps]], consisting of [[U.S. 1st Marine Division|1st]] and [[U.S. 6th Marine Division|6th]] Marine Divisions, with [[U.S. 2nd Marine Division|2nd Marine Division]] as an afloat reserve, and [[US XXIV Corps|XXIV Corps]], consisting of the [[U.S. 7th Infantry Division|7th]], [[US 27th Infantry Division|27th]], [[U.S. 77th Infantry Division|77th]] and [[U.S. 96th Infantry Division|96th]] Infantry Divisions. At the very end of the campaign, Buckner was killed by ricocheting shell fragments, becoming the most senior US casualty in the entire war.
The Japanese land campaign (mainly defensive) was conducted by the 100,000 strong [[Japanese Thirty-Second Army|32nd Army]]. It consisted of the 9th, 24th, and 62d Divisions, and the 44th Independent Brigade. Primary resistance was led in the south by General [[Mitsuru Ushijima]]. He committed suicide at the end. In the less-talked-about north of Okinawa, General [[Takehido Udo]] commanded.
[[Image:Ww2 157.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A [[F4U Corsair|Corsair]] fighter fires rocket projectiles on a run against a Japanese stronghold on Okinawa]]
==Before [[April 1]], [[1945]]==
United States submarines had, by late 1944, wreaked havoc upon Japanese shipping. The troop ship ''[[Toyama Maru]]'' was sunk, on its way to Okinawa, by the [[USS Sturgeon (SS-187)|USS ''Sturgeon'']] (SS-187). This caused a loss of about 5,600 men. Since this sinking occurred nine months before the land campaign, these Japanese deaths are usually not figured in accounts of the battle losses. The ''Sturgeon'' escaped, despite being pummeled by [[depth charge]]s.
Additionally, before the battle, the evacuation ship ''[[Tsushima Maru]]'' was sunk by the [[USS Bowfin (SS-287)|USS ''Bowfin'']] (SS-287) and 1,484 women and children died.
On [[October 10]] [[1944]], Okinawa gained a dubious shorthand for ''disaster''&mdash;the numerals ''10-10''. Waves of bombers pummeled the nearly-defenseless island, causing untold wreckage on land; over 80% of [[Naha]] was destroyed, and more than 65 boats were sunk. Japanese anti-aircraft technology was not up to combating the nimble American planes.
Shortly before the battle, the Japanese [[battleship]] [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']] was sunk, by American aircraft, on her trip to Okinawa in the disastrous [[Operation Ten-Go]]. The Japanese had a plan to beach ''Yamato'' on Okinawa's shore, and to use her as a land battery. Widespread rumors that the ship was only given enough fuel for a one-way trip are false; Feifer debunks this (references).
==The land battle==
The land battle took place over about 82 days after [[April 1]], [[1945]].
===The north===
The Americans swept across the thin part of the south-central part of the island, with relative ease by World War II standards, soon taking the lightly-held north, though there was fierce fighting at ''[[Yae-dake Mountain]]'', and took the [[Kadena Air Base]] and the [[Yomitan Air Base]]s &mdash; [[as of 2005]], Kadena remains the largest American air base in [[Asia]], and its runways can handle big planes.
The Japanese were to dearly regret losing the Kadena and Yomitan air bases, and gave them up with little fight. The entire north fell on [[April 20]].
Few Americans encountered the feared [[Habu snake]], soon discarding their cumbersome leggings. Far worse awaited them in the south, the north was only a "warm-up".
===The south===
Fighting in the south was hardest: the Japanese soldiers hid in caves; but the American advance was inexorable. The island fell on about [[June 21]], though some Japanese continued fighting, including the future governor of [[Okinawa prefecture]], [[Masahide Ota]].
==Combat fatigue==
U.S forces suffered their highest ever casualty rate for [[combat stress reaction]] during the entire battle, at 48% above other casualties compared to 30% in the Korean War.
==Quotes==
"7,613 were killed and missing in action, and the remaining sixty-four-odd thousand were almost equally divided between those wounded seriously enough to be out of action more than a week and non-battle casualties, chiefly victims of battle fatigue." ( |
ooming economy, much like other cities pursuing similar policies such as [[Charlotte, North Carolina]] and [[San Antonio, Texas]], both of which are similarly lacking in surrounding incorporated suburbs.
The confluence of the [[Scioto River|Scioto]] and [[Olentangy River|Olentangy]] rivers occurs just west of downtown Columbus. Several smaller tributaries course through the Columbus metro area, including Alum Creek, Big Walnut Creek, and Darby Creek. By and large, Columbus has relatively flat [[topography]] thanks to a large [[glacier]] that covered most of Ohio during the [[Wisconsin glaciation|Wisconsian Ice Age]], but numerous ravine areas near the rivers and creeks help give some variety to the landscape. The region is dominated by a [[humid continental]] climate, characterized by hot, muggy summers and cold, dry winters. The highest temperature ever recorded in Columbus was 106°F (41°C), which occured twice during the "[[Dust Bowl]] [[drought]] of the 1930's - once on July 21, 1934, and again two years later, on July 14, 1936. The coldest was -22°F (-30°C), occurring January 19, 1994. As far as trees, [[deciduous]] trees are common, including [[maple]], [[oak]], [[hickory]], [[walnut]], [[poplar]], [[cottonwood]], and of course, [[Ohio buckeye|buckeye]].
===Cityscape===
''See also: [[List of Central Ohio Suburbs]]''
Columbus also has a number of distinctive neighborhoods within the metro area. The [[Short North]], situated just north of downtown, is rich with [[art gallery|art galleries]], fine dining, pubs, and specialty shops. A number of large, ornate [[Queen Anne style|Victorian]] homes are located nearby, and together they comprise [[Victorian Village]]. To the south, [[German Village]] is known for its quaint 19th century brick cottages, and it holds the distinction as the largest privately funded historic district on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]. Franklinton, sometimes known as "the Bottoms", is the neighborhood immediately west of downtown. It gets its colorful nickname due to the fact that much of the land lies below the level of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers, and a floodwall is required to contain the rivers and protect the area from devastating floods. Just to the west of Franklinton is a group of smaller neighborhoods commonly referred to as "[[The Hilltop]]."
The [[Ohio State University|OSU Campus]] area is populated by a high concentration of students during the school year (perhaps as many as 50,000) and features many old homes which have been converted to apartments for student use. The stretch of High Street that runs through the campus area caters to the student body with its abundance of dive bars, sandwich shops, and bookstores. Located between OSU and Worthington is [[Clintonville]], where a mix of middle class [[Levittown]]-type homes can be found alongside beautiful old stone and brick-faced houses nestled among rolling hills. Further west of downtown, [[San Margherita, Ohio|San Margherita]] is a community formed by Italian immigrants who arrived at the turn of the 20th century.
Other neighborhoods and crossroads around the area include: [[Berwick, Ohio|Berwick]], [[Hungarian Village, Ohio|Hungarian Village]], [[Merion Village, Ohio|Merion Village]], [[Steelton, Ohio|Steelton]], [[Milo Grogan, Ohio|Milo Grogan]], [[Linden, Ohio|Linden]], [[Flytown, Ohio|Flytown]], [[Italian Village, Ohio|Italian Village]], [[Weinland Park, Ohio|Weinland Park]], [[Driving Park, Ohio|Driving Park]], [[Olde Town East, Ohio|Olde Town East]], [[Marble Cliff, Ohio|Marble Cliff]], [[Seagrave, Ohio|Seagrave]], [[University View, Ohio|University View]], [[Valleyview, Ohio|Valleyview]], [[New Rome, Ohio|New Rome]], [[Briggsdale, Ohio|Briggsdale]], [[Urbancrest, Ohio|Urbancrest]], [[Eastmoor, Ohio|Eastmoor]], [[Minerva Park, Ohio|Minerva Park]], [[Huber Ridge, Ohio|Huber Ridge]], [[Mifflinville, Ohio|Mifflinville]], [[Linworth, Ohio|Linworth]], [[Riverlea, Ohio|Riverlea]], [[Northland, Ohio|Northland]], [[Olentangy, Ohio|Olentangy]], [[Amlin, Ohio|Amlin]], [[Lincoln Village, Ohio|Lincoln Village]], and [[Alton, Ohio|Alton]].
==People and Culture==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right"
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Columbus <br>Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|[[1840]] || 6,048
|-
|[[1850]] || 17,882
|-
|[[1860]] || 18,554
|-
|[[1870]] || 31,274
|-
|[[1880]] || 51,647
|-
|[[1890]] || 88,150
|-
|[[1900]] || 125,560
|-
|[[1910]] || 181,511
|-
|[[1920]] || 237,031
|-
|[[1930]] || 290,564
|-
|[[1940]] || 306,087
|-
|[[1950]] || 375,901
|-
|[[1960]] || 471,316
|-
|[[1970]] || 539,677
|-
|[[1980]] || 564,871
|-
|[[1990]] || 632,910
|-
|[[2000]] || 711,470
|}
===Demographics===
''See also: [[List of Famous People from Columbus, Ohio]]''
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 711,470 people, 301,534 households, and 165,240 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 1,306.4/km² (3,383.6/mi²). There are 327,175 housing units at an average density of 600.8/km² (1,556.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 67.93% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 24.47% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.29% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 3.44% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.05% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.17% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.65% from two or more races. 2.46% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 301,534 households out of which 28.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.1% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 14.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 45.2% are non-families. 34.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 7.0% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 3.01.
The age distribution is 24.2% under the age of 18, 14.0% from 18 to 24, 35.1% from 25 to 44, 17.9% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 31 years. For every 100 females there are 94.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $37,897, and the median income for a family is $47,391. Males have a median income of $35,138 versus $28,705 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $20,450. 14.8% of the population and 10.8% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 18.7% of those under the age of 18 and 10.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
===Landmarks and Museums===
[[Image:Ohio Statehouse.jpg|thumb|right|280px|The Ohio Statehouse]]
Columbus is home to several world class buildings, including the Greek-Revival State Capitol, and the [[Peter Eisenman]]-designed [[Wexner Center]] and Columbus Convention Center.
The [[Ohio Statehouse]], built of Columbus [[limestone]] from the [[Marble Cliff Quarry Co.]], began construction in 1839 on a 10 acre (40,000 m²) plot of land donated by four prominent Columbus landowners to form '''Capitol Square''', not part of the original layout of the city. The Statehouse stands upon foundations 18 feet (5 m) deep, which were laid by [[prison labor]] gangs, rumored to have been swelled by [[mason]]s jailed for minor infractions [http://www.statehouse.state.oh.us/statehouse/index.cfm]. The Statehouse features a central recessed [[porch]] with a [[colonnade]] of a forthright and primitive [[Doric order|Greek Doric mode]]. A broad and low central pediment supports the windowed [[astylar]] drum, under an invisibly low [[dome|saucer dome]], that lights the interior [[rotunda]]. Unlike many US state capitol buildings, the Ohio State Capitol owes little to the architecture of the [[United States Capitol|national Capitol]]. During the long course of the Statehouse's 22 years of construction, seven architects were employed. Relations between the legislature and the architects were not always cordial: Nathan B. Kelly, who introduced heating and an ingenious system of natural forced ventilation, was dismissed because the commissioners found his designs were too lavish for the original intentions of the committee. The Statehouse was opened to the legislature and the public in 1857, and finally complete in 1861.
[[Image:Columbus Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Columbus Museum of Art]]
The [[Columbus Museum of Art]] opened in 1931, with a collection focusing on European and American art up to early [[modernism]]. Columbus also boasts the [[Franklin Park Conservatory]], which was also home to [[AmeriFlora '92]], and a to-scale replica of the [[Santa Maria]] on the [[Scioto River]]front that was installed to commemorate the 500-year anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus' [[Christopher Columbus|namesake]]. Columbus is the home of [[COSI|COSI-Columbus]], a notable science museum, as well as the museum of the Ohio Historical Society.
To some extent, the [[Ohio State University]] is a museum unto itself with its rich history and roots in the Columbus psyche, but it does host a number of museums and museum-like exhibits. Notable among these are the [[Wexner Center for the Arts]], a contemporary art gallery and research facility located on the OSU campus, the Ohio State University Athletics Hall of Fame located in the [[Value City Arena|Jerome Schottenstein Center]] (home of the OSU basketball and men's ice hockey teams). The [[Chadwick Arboretum]] is nearby.
[[Image:Columbus-ohio-rhodes-state-office-tower.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Rhodes State Office Tower]], tallest in Columbus.]]
* The [[Ohio Historical Society]] is headquartered in Columbus, with its flagship museum, the 250,000 square foot |
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This is particularly serious because on most systems, the stack also holds the [[return address]], that is, the location of the part of the program that was executing before the current function was called. When the function ends, the temporary storage is removed from the stack, and execution is transferred back to the return address. If, however, the return address has been overwritten by a buffer overflow, it will now point to some other location. In the case of an accidental buffer overflow as in the first example, this will almost certainly be an invalid location, not containing any program instructions, and the process will crash.
===Example source code===
The following is [[C programming language|C]] [[source code]] exhibiting a common programming mistake. Once compiled, the program will generate a buffer overflow error if run with a command-line argument string that is too long, because this argument is used to fill a buffer without checking its length.
<pre><nowiki>
/* overflow.c - demonstrates a buffer overflow */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
char buffer[10];
if(argc < 2)
{
fprintf(stderr, "USAGE: %s string\n", argv[0]);
return 1;
}
strcpy(buffer, argv[1]);
return 0;
}
</nowiki></pre>
Strings of 9 or fewer characters will not cause a buffer overflow. Strings of 10 or more characters will cause an overflow; however, they may not always result in a segmentation fault.
This program could be safely rewritten using [[strncpy]] as follows:
<pre><nowiki>
/* better.c - demonstrates how to fix the problem */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
char buffer[10];
if(argc < 2)
{
fprintf(stderr, "USAGE: %s string\n", argv[0]);
return 1;
}
strncpy(buffer, argv[1], sizeof(buffer));
buffer[sizeof(buffer) - 1] = '\0';
return 0;
}
</nowiki></pre>
===Exploits===
A technically inclined and malicious user who is familiar with a program's structure may use buffer overflows to manipulate the program in one of two basic ways.
# By overwriting a variable that is near the buffer in memory, as in the first example above. This might change the value of a numeric variable, or might change text in some other buffer. This can change the behaviour of the program which may benefit the attacker.
# By overwriting any special variables (such as a function's return address on the stack) that directly or indirectly control the flow of execution, usually to execute attacker-supplied code
Executing attacker-supplied code is usually the goal of any malicious user. The techniques to accomplish this vary per [[Computer architecture|architecture]], [[operating system]] and memory region. For example, exploitation on the [[heap (data structure)|heap]] (used for dynamically allocated variables) is very different from stack-based variables.
The following example illustrates a stack-based buffer overflow exploit that executes attacker-supplied code (the second basic type). A malicious user knows that a program will take whatever character string it is given, and pass it to function X, which will copy it into a 100-byte buffer. However, the user submits a 104-byte string; the first 100 bytes contain program code for some illicit task, and the last 4 bytes&mdash;which will overwrite function X's return address&mdash;are a number which, under normal operating conditions, will be the address of the top of the stack at that point: the location to which function X will have copied the string.
Constructing functional buffer overflow exploits in [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] typically requires knowledge of the precise location of various machine language [[opcode]]s in the compromised software or included [[dynamic-link library|DLLs]], because the location of the stack cannot be reliably predicted. The [[Metasploit Project]] has compiled a comprehensive Opcode database for this purpose.
==Protection against buffer overflows==
Various techniques have been used to detect or prevent buffer overflows, with various tradeoffs. The most reliable way to avoid or prevent buffer overflows is to use automatic protection at the language level. This sort of protection, however, cannot be applied to [[legacy code]], and often technical, business, or cultural constraints call for a vulnerable language. The following sections describe the choices and implementations available.
===Choice of programming language===
The choice of programming language can have a profound effect on the occurrence of buffer overflows. [[As of 2006]], among the most popular languages are [[C programming language|C]] and its derivative, [[C++]], with an enormous body of software having been written in these languages. C and C++ provide no protection against accessing or overwriting data in any part of memory through invalid [[pointer]]s; more specifically, they do not check that data written to an array (the implementation of a buffer) is within the assumed boundaries of that array.
Variations on C, such as [[Cyclone programming language|Cyclone]] help to prevent more buffer overflows by, for example, attaching size information to arrays. The [[D programming language]] uses a variety of techniques to avoid most uses of pointers and user-specified bounds checking.
Many other programming languages provide runtime checking which might send a warning or raise an [[exception handling|exception]] when C or C++ would overwrite data. Examples of such languages range broadly from [[Python programming language|Python]] to [[Ada programming language|Ada]], from [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] to [[Modula-2]], and from [[Smalltalk]] to [[OCaml]]. The [[Java programming language]], in many ways similar to C and C++, raises exceptions on buffer overflows. Nearly every [[typesafe|type safe]] or [[interpreted programming language]] will protect against buffer overflows, signalling a well-defined error condition. [[Static analysis]] can remove many dynamic bound and type checks, but poor implementations and awkward cases can significantly decrease performance. Software engineers must carefully consider the tradeoffs of safety vs. perceived performance costs when deciding which language to use.
===Use of safe libraries===
The problem of buffer overflows is common in the C and C++ languages because they expose low level representational details of buffers as containers for data types. Buffer overflows are thus avoided by maintaining a high degree of correctness in code which performs buffer management. Well-written and tested abstract data type libraries which centralize and automatically perform buffer management and include bounds checking can reduce the occurrence of buffer overflows. The two main building block data types in these languages in which buffer overflows commonly manifest are strings and arrays; libraries preventing buffer overflows in these data types provide the vast majority of the necessary coverage. Still, failure to use these safe libraries correctly can result in buffer overflows and other vulnerabilities; naturally, any bug in a library itself is a potential vulnerability. Safe library impementations include [http://bstring.sf.net/ The Better String Library], [http://arri.berlios.de/ Arri Buffer API] and [http://www.and.org/vstr/ Vstr]. The [[OpenBSD]] [[operating system]]'s [[C library]] provides some API changes, the [[strlcpy]] and strlcat functions, but these are much more limited than full safe library implementations.
===Stack-smashing protection===
{{Main|Stack-smashing protection}}
Stack-smashing protection is used to detect the most common buffer overflows by checking that the [[stack (computing)|stack]] has not been altered when a function returns. If it has been altered, the program exits with a [[segmentation fault]]. Three such systems are [http://research.avayalabs.com/project/libsafe/ Libsafe], and the ''[[StackGuard]]'' and ''[[ProPolice]]'' [[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]] patches.
Stronger stack protection is possible by splitting the stack in two: one for data and one for function returns. This split is present in the [[Forth programming language]], though it was not a security-based design decisio |
solar radiation would not have this upper cooling effect. However, similar cooling is caused by ozone depletion.
* Ozone depleting chemicals are also greenhouse gases, representing 0.34 ± 0.03 W/m<sup>2</sup>, or about 14% of the total radiative forcing from well-mixed greenhouse gases [http://www.ipcc.ch/press/SPM.pdf].
===Relation to global dimming===
{{main|Global dimming}}
Some scientists now consider that the effects of the recently recognized phenomenon of [[global dimming]] (the reduction in sunlight reaching the surface of the planet, possibly due to aerosols) may have masked some of the effect of global warming. If this is so, the indirect aerosol effect is stronger than previously believed, which would imply that the climate sensitivity to greenhouse gases is also stronger. Concerns about the effect of aerosol on the global climate were first researched as part of concerns over [[global cooling]] in the 1970s.
===Pre-human global warming===
It is thought by some geologists that the Earth experienced global warming in the early [[Jurassic]] period, with average temperatures rising by 5&nbsp;°C. Research by the [[Open University]] published in ''Geology'' (32: 157&ndash;160, 2004 [http://www3.open.ac.uk/earth-sciences/downloads/Press%20Release.pdf]) indicates that this caused the rate of rock weathering to increase by 400%. Rock weathering locks away carbon in [[calcite]] and [[dolomite]], which are minerals with various degrees of carbon oxides. As a result of this, carbon dioxide levels dropped back to normal over roughly the next 150,000 years.
Sudden release of methane from its ice complex, [[clathrate]], has been hypothesized as a cause of past global warming. Two events possibly linked in this way are the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] and the [[Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum]]. However, warming at the end of the last ice age is thought not to be due to methane release [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/inqu/finalprogram/abstract_55405.htm].
The greenhouse effect has also been invoked to explain how the Earth made it out of the [[Snowball Earth]] period. During this period all silicate rocks were covered by ice, thereby preventing them from combining with atmospheric carbon dioxide. The atmospheric carbon dioxide level gradually increased until it reached about 350 times current levels. At this point temperatures were raised to an average of 50&nbsp;°C, hot enough to melt the ice. Increased amounts of rainfall would quickly wash the carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. Thick layers of [[abiotic]] carbonate sediment which can be found on top of the glacial rocks from this period are believed to have been formed by this rapid carbon dioxide removal process.
Using [[paleoclimatology|paleoclimate]] data for the last 500 million years (Veizer et al. 2000, Nature 408, pp. 698-701) concluded that long-term temperature variations are only weakly coupled to carbon dioxide variations. Shaviv and Veizer (2003, [http://www.envirotruth.org/docs/Veizer-Shaviv.pdf]) extended this by arguing that the biggest long-term influence on temperature is actually the [[solar system]]'s motion around the [[Milky Way Galaxy|galaxy]]. Afterwards, they argued that over geologic time a change in carbon dioxide concentrations comparable to doubling preindustrial levels, only results in about 0.75&nbsp;°C warming rather than the usual 1.5-4.5&nbsp;°C reported by climate models [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/122.htm]. In turn Veizer's recent work has been discussed and criticised on RealClimate.org [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=153].
Leading palaeoclimatologist William Ruddiman has argued (e.g. [http://scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=000ED75C-D366-1212-8F3983414B7F0000 Scientific American, March 2005]) that human influence on the global climate began around 8000 years ago with the development of agriculture. This prevented carbon dioxide (and later methane) levels falling as rapidly as they would have done otherwise. Ruddiman argues that without this effect, the Earth would be entering, or already have entered, a new ice age. However other work in this area ([http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v429/n6992/abs/nature02599_fs.html Nature 2004]) argues that the present interglacial is most analogous to the interglacial 400,000 years ago that lasted approximately 28,000 years, in which case there is no need to invoke the spread of agriculture for having delayed the next ice age.
== Public controversy ==
[[Image:IPCC_Radiative_Forcings.gif|thumb|right|250px|[[Radiative forcing]] from various [[greenhouse gas]]es and other sources]]
{{main|Global warming controversy}}
There is an ongoing dispute about what effect humans have on the global climate and what policies should be followed to mitigate any current detrimental effects, and prevent future detrimental effects. Although not fully settled, the current [[scientific opinion on climate change|consensus from the official scientific communities on climate change]] is that recent warming is largely human-caused. There is near consensus among scientists that global warming is already occuring due to greenhouse gases.
==Effects==
{{main|Effects of global warming}}
The predicted effects of global warming are many and various, both for the [[natural environment|environment]] and for [[civilization|human life]]. The primary cause of global warming is increasing [[carbon dioxide]], leading to [[radiative forcing]], continued increases in global average surface temperature, global average wind speeds, sea level, rainfall, the strength of storms, and other phenomena related to atmospheric energy.
These effects, including [[sea level rise]], [[Global warming and agriculture|impacts on agriculture]], reductions in the ozone layer (see above), increased intensity and frequency of extreme weather events, also includes risks related to the spread of disease. The effects are already be being experienced and are responsible for hundreds if not thousands of deaths. It is impossible to attribute any particular natural phenomena to long-term global warming, but the statistical causes of dangerous phenomena are understood. The relationship between global warming and hurricanes is still being debated [http://hurricane.atmos.colostate.edu/forecasts/2005/dec2005/] [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=181] by hold-outs in major governments and industries who have paid people to argue against the scientific evidence. [http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/StateOfTheUnion/story?id=1565837] [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0616-01.htm] Three recent papers correlating climate change with increased hurricane intensity make the case that the two phenomena are linked. [http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2005/oct/policy/pt_curry.html] Governments have acknowledged the controversy [http://www.bom.gov.au/info/CAS-statement.pdf].
The extent and likelihood of these consequences is a matter of considerable [[global warming controversy|controversy]]. A summary of possible effects and recent understanding can be found in the report of the [[IPCC]] Working Group II [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm]. Global warming is already causing death and disease across the world through flooding, environmental destruction, heatwaves and other extreme weather events, according to a Lancet study (Reuters, February 9, 2006; [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0209-05.htm archived]).
=== Effects on ecosystems ===
Secondary evidence of global warming &mdash; lessened snow cover, rising sea levels, weather changes &mdash; provides examples of consequences of global warming that may influence not only human activities but also the [[ecosystem]]s. Increasing global temperature means that ecosystems may change; some [[species]] may be forced out of their habitats (possibly to extinction) because of changing conditions, while others may flourish. Few of the [[terrestrial ecoregions]] on Earth could expect to be unaffected.
=== Impact on Glaciers===
Global warming has led to [[glacier retreat]] around the world. Oerlemans (2005) showed a net decline in 142 of the 144 mountain glaciers with records from 1900 to 1980. Since 1980 global glacier retreat has increased significantly. Similarly, Dyurgerov and Meier (2005) averaged glacier data across large scale regions (e.g. Europe) and found that every region had a net decline from 1960 to 2002, though a few local regions (e.g. Scandinavia) have shown increases. A number of glaciers have already disappeared [http://www.nichols.edu/departments/Glacier/Bill.htm] and increasing temperatures are expected to cause continued retreat in the majority of alpine glaciers around the world. Upwards of 90% of glaciers reported to the World Glacier Monitoring Service have retreated since 1995 [http://www.geo.unizh.ch/wgms/].
=== Destabilisation of ocean currents ===
{{main|Effects of global warming#Shutdown of thermohaline circulation?}}
<!-- take summary from ref above which has had the removed "cooling trigger" section merged into it-->
There is some speculation that global warming could, via a shutdown or slowdown of the thermohaline circulation, trigger localised cooling in the North Atlantic and lead to cooling, or lesser warming, in that region. This would affect in particular areas like [[Scandinavia]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] that are warmed by the [[North Atlantic drift]]. The chances of this occurring are unclear.
=== Environmental refugees ===
[[Image:Glacial lakes, Bhutan.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The termini of the glaciers in the [[Bhutan]]-[[Himalaya]]. Glacial lakes have been rapidly forming on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in this region during the last few decades. According to [[USGS]] researchers, glaciers in the Himalaya are wasting at alarming and accelerating |
]])
*[[1908]] - [[Al Lopez]], baseball player and manager (d. [[2005]])
*[[1910]] - [[Eero Saarinen]], Finnish architect (d. [[1961]])
*[[1913]] - [[Roger Wolcott Sperry]], American neurobiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1918]] - [[Jacqueline Susann]], American novelist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1923]] - [[Jim Reeves]], American singer (d. [[1964]])
*[[1931]] - [[Don King]], American boxing promoter
*[[1932]] - [[Anthony Ainley]], British actor (d. [[2004]])
*1932 - [[Vasily Aksyonov]], Russian novelist
*[[1935]] - [[Ron Paul]], American politician
*[[1936]] - [[Hideki Shirakawa]], Japanese chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1937]] - [[Andrei Konchalovsky]], Russian film director
*[[1939]] - [[Fernando Poe Jr.]], Filipino actor and [[2004 Philippine general election|presidential candidate]]
*[[1940]] - [[Rubén Hinojosa]], American politician
*[[1941]] - [[Slobodan Milošević]], [[President of Serbia]]
*1941 - [[Robin Oakley]], British journalist
*[[1942]] - [[Isaac Hayes]], American singer, songwriter, and actor
*[[1943]] - [[Sylvester McCoy]], Scottish actor
*[[1944]] - [[Rajiv Gandhi]], [[Prime Minister of India]] (d. [[1991]])
*[[1946]] - [[Connie Chung]], American journalist
*1946 - [[N.R. Narayana Murthy]], Indian businessman
*[[1948]] - [[Robert Plant]] English singer ([[Led Zeppelin]])
*[[1949]] - [[Phil Lynott]], Irish musician (d. [[1986]])
*[[1951]] - [[Greg Bear]], American author
*[[1952]] - [[John Hiatt]], American musician
*[[1954]] - [[Al Roker]], American television broadcaster
*[[1955]] - [[Agnes Chan]], Hong Kong singer and writer
*[[1956]] - [[Joan Allen]], American actress
*[[1961]] - [[Greg Egan]], Australian author
*[[1962]] - [[Sophie Aldred]], English actress
*1962 - [[James Marsters]], American actor
*[[1965]] - [[KRS-One]], American rapper
*[[1966]] - [[Dimebag Darrell]], American guitarist ([[Pantera]] and [[Damageplan]]) (d. 2004)
*[[1967]] - [[Fabio Verdoglia]], italian playboy
*[[1968]] - [[Yuri Shiratori]], Japanese voice actress and singer
*[[1970]] - [[John Carmack]], American computer game programmer
*[[1970]] - [[Fred Durst]], American singer ([[Limp Bizkit]])
*[[1973]] - [[Todd Helton]], baseball player
*[[1974]] - [[Maxim Vengerov]], Russian violinist
*[[1984]] - [[Mirai Moriyama]], Japanese actor
*[[1986]] - [[Robert Clark (actor)|Robert Clark]], Canadian actor
==Deaths==
*[[984]] - [[Pope John XIV]]
*[[1384]] - [[Geert Groote]], Dutch founder of the Brethren of the Common Life (b. [[1340]])
*[[1572]] - [[Miguel López de Legazpi]], Spanish conquistador (b.[[1502]])
*[[1580]] - [[Jeronymo Osorio]], Portuguese historian (b. [[1506]])
*[[1611]] - [[Tomás Luis de Victoria]], Spanish composer
*[[1639]] - [[Martin Opitz von Boberfeld]], German poet (b. [[1597]])
*[[1643]] - [[Anne Hutchinson]], English Puritan preacher (b. [[1591]])
*[[1648]] - [[Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury]], English diplomat, poet, and philosopher (b. [[1583]])
*[[1672]] - [[Johan de Witt]], Dutch politican (b. [[1625]])
*[[1672]] - [[Cornelis de Witt]], Dutch politician (b. [[1623]])
*[[1680]] - [[William Bedloe]], English informer (b. [[1650]])
*[[1701]] - [[Charles Sedley]], English playwright
*[[1707]] - [[Nicolas Gigault]], French organist and composer (b. [[1627]])
*[[1773]] - [[Enrique Florez]], Spanish historian (b. [[1701]])
*[[1811]] - [[Louis Antoine de Bougainville]], French explorer (b. [[1729]])
*[[1823]] - [[Pope Pius VII]] (b. [[1740]])
*[[1825]] - [[William Waldegrave, 1st Baron Radstock]], Governor of Newfoundland (b. [[1753]])
*[[1887]] - [[Jules Laforgue]], French poet (b. [[1860]])
*[[1904]] - [[René Waldeck-Rousseau]], French statesman (b. [[1846]])
*[[1912]] - [[William Booth]], English founder of the Salvation Army (b. [[1829]])
*[[1914]] - [[Pope Pius X]] (b. [[1835]])
*[[1915]] - [[Paul Ehrlich]], German scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1854]])
*[[1917]] - [[Adolf von Baeyer]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1835]])
*[[1961]] - [[Percy Williams Bridgman]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1882]])
*[[1971]] - [[Rashid Minhas]], Pakistani Air Force pilot (b. [[1951]])
*[[1986]] - [[Milton Acorn]], Canadian poet (b. [[1923]])
*[[1998]] - [[Raquel Rastenni]], Danish singer (b. [[1915]])
*[[2001]] - Sir [[Fred Hoyle]], English astronomer and science fiction writer (b. [[1915]])
*[[2005]] - [[Thomas Herrion]], American football player (b. [[1981]])
*2005 - [[Krzysztof Raczkowski]], Polish heavy metal drummer (b. [[1970]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[List of saints|RC saints]] - Saint [[Bernard of Clairvaux]]
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Asmá (Names) - First day of the ninth month of the Bahá'í Calendar
*[[Estonia]] - Restoration Day
*[[Hungary]] - [[Stephen I of Hungary|St. Stephen]]'s day, the main national holiday in Hungary
*[[Morocco]] - Revolution of the King and the People Day
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/20 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 19]] - [[August 21]] - [[July 20]] - [[September 20]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:20 Augustus]]
[[ar:20 أغسطس]]
[[an:20 d'agosto]]
[[ast:20 d'agostu]]
[[bg:20 август]]
[[be:20 жніўня]]
[[bs:20. august]]
[[ca:20 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 20]]
[[cv:Çурла, 20]]
[[co:20 d'aostu]]
[[cs:20. srpen]]
[[cy:20 Awst]]
[[da:20. august]]
[[de:20. August]]
[[et:20. august]]
[[el:20 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:20 de agosto]]
[[eo:20-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 20]]
[[fo:20. august]]
[[fr:20 août]]
[[fy:20 augustus]]
[[ga:20 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:20 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 20일]]
[[hr:20. kolovoza]]
[[io:20 di agosto]]
[[id:20 Agustus]]
[[ia:20 de augusto]]
[[ie:20 august]]
[[is:20. ágúst]]
[[it:20 agosto]]
[[he:20 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:20 Agustus]]
[[ka:20 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:20 zélnika]]
[[ku:20'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 20]]
[[lb:20. August]]
[[li:20 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 20]]
[[mk:20 август]]
[[ms:20 Ogos]]
[[nap:20 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:20 augustus]]
[[ja:8月20日]]
[[no:20. august]]
[[nn:20. august]]
[[oc:20 d'agost]]
[[pl:20 sierpnia]]
[[pt:20 de Agosto]]
[[ro:20 august]]
[[ru:20 августа]]
[[sco:20 August]]
[[sq:20 Gusht]]
[[scn:20 di austu]]
[[simple:August 20]]
[[sk:20. august]]
[[sl:20. avgust]]
[[sr:20. август]]
[[fi:20. elokuuta]]
[[sv:20 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 20]]
[[tt:20. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 20]]
[[th:20 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:20 tháng 8]]
[[tr:20 Ağustos]]
[[uk:20 серпня]]
[[wa:20 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 20]]
[[zh:8月20日]]
[[pam:Agostu 20]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 21</title>
<id>1499</id>
<revision>
<id>41688273</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:50:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dcandeto</username>
<id>70441</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 40432990 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=21}}
|}
'''[[August 21]]''' is the 233rd day of the year (234th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 132 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1192]] - [[Minamoto Yoritomo]] becomes [[Shogun|Seii Tai Shōgun]] and the ''de facto'' ruler of [[Japan]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 12, 1192)
*[[1680]] - [[Pueblo people|Pueblo Indians]] capture [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] from Spanish during the [[Pueblo Revolt]]
*[[1770]] - [[James Cook]] formally claims eastern [[Australia]] for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]], naming it [[New South Wales]].
*[[1772]] - King [[Gustav III of Sweden|Gustav III]] completes his coup d'etat by adopting a new [[Instrument of Government (1772)|Constitution]], ending [[Age of Liberty in Sweden|half a century of parliamentary rule]] in [[Sweden]] and installing him as an [[Enlightened absolutism|enlightened despot]].
*[[1831]] - [[Nat Turner]] leads slave revolt in [[Southampton County, Virginia]]
*[[1841]] - The [[venetian blind]] is first patented in the [[United States]] by [[John Hampson]].
*[[1842]] - The city of [[Hobart]], [[Tasmania]], is founded.
*[[1852]] - [[Tlingit]] Indians destroy [[Fort Selkirk]], [[Yukon]] Territory
*[[1856]] - [[United States|America's]] first [[consul]] to [[Japan]], [[Townsend Harris]], arrives in [[Shimoda, Shizuoka|Shimoda]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 21, 1856)
*[[1858]] - The [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]-[[Stephen A. Douglas|Douglas]] debates begin
*[[1862]] - The [[Vienna]] [[Wiener Stadtpark|Stadtpark]] opens its gates.
*[[1863]] - [[Lawrence, Kansas]] is destroyed by [[Confederate]] guerillas [[Quantrill's Raiders]] in the [[Lawrence Massacre]].
*[[1878]] - The [[American Bar Association]] is founded
*[[1879]] - The [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]], along with [[St. Joseph]] and [[St. John the Evangelist]] reportedly appear to the people of [[Knock]], [[County Mayo]], [[Ireland]].
*[[1888]] - The first successful [[adding machine]] in the [[United States]] was patented by [[William Seward Burroughs]].
* [[1911]] - The ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' was [[art theft|stolen]] by a [[Louvre]] employee.
*[[1944]] - [[Dumbarton Oaks Conference]], prelude to the [[United Nations]], begins.
*[[1959]] - President [[Eisenhower]] signs an executive order proclaiming [[Hawaii]] the 50th state of the union.
*[[1968]] - [[Soviet Union]]-dominated [[Warsaw Pact]] troops invade [[Czechoslovakia]], crushing the [[Prague Spring]]; on the same day, [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]], leader of [[Communist Romania]], publicly condemns the Soviet maneuver, encouraging the Romanian population to arm itself against possible Soviet reprisals.
*[[1971]] - [[Black Panther Party|Black Panther]] [[George Jackson (Black Panther)|George Jackson]] is shot and killed in the prison yard at [[California]]'s San Quentin prison.
*197 |
Regency Books, Ellison published novels and anthologies by such writers as [[B. Traven]], [[Kurt Vonnegut]], [[Robert Bloch]] and [[Philip José Farmer]].
Also, early in his career, in the late '50s, he wrote a number of soft porn stories, such as "God Bless the Ugly Virgin": and "Tramp", later reprinted in Los Angeles based girlie journals. This was the beginning of his use of the Cordwainer Bird pseudonym. This name was later used in July and August of 1957, in two journals each of which had accepted two of his stories. In each journal, one story was published with author Harlan Ellison, the other with author Cordwainer Bird. Later, as discussed in the [[#Controversy|Controversy]] section below, the pseudonym was used on material by him with which the editing of or use of he disagreed.
He moved to [[California]] in [[1962]], and subsequently began to sell scripts to such television shows as ''[[Burke's Law]]'', ''[[Route 66 (TV series)|Route 66]]'', ''[[The Outer Limits]]'', ''[[Star Trek]]'' and ''[[Cimarron Strip]]''. His ''Memos from Purgatory'' was adapted into an episode of ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]''. Ellison's scripts "[[Demon with a Glass Hand]]" (for ''The Outer Limits'') and "[[The City on the Edge of Forever]]" (for ''Star Trek'') won Best Original Teleplay awards from the [[Writers Guild of America]]; both are often cited as one of the best of their respective series.
During the late [[1960s]], Ellison wrote a column about television for the ''[[Los Angeles Free Press]]''. Titled "The Glass Teat", the column addressed political and social issues and their portrayal on television at the time. The columns have been reprinted in two collections, ''[[The Glass Teat]]'' and ''The Other Glass Teat''.
He continued to publish short pieces, fiction and nonfiction, in various publications, and some of his most famous stories were written in this period. "'Repent, Harlequin!' said the Ticktockman" is a celebration of [[civil disobedience]] against repressive authority. "[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]" is an allegory of [[Hell]], where five humans are tormented by an all-knowing computer throughout eternity. "A Boy and his Dog" examines the nature of friendship and love in a violent, [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic science fiction|post-Apocalypse]] world. It was made into the film ''[[A Boy and His Dog]]'' in 1975 starring [[Don Johnson]].
He has won the [[Hugo Award]] eight and a half times; the [[Nebula Award]] three times; the [[Bram Stoker Award]], presented by the Horror Writers Association, five times (including the Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996); the [[Edgar Award]] of the [[Mystery Writers of America]] twice; the [[Georges Méliès]] fantasy film award twice; and was awarded the Silver Pen for Journalism by [[International PEN]], the international writers' union. He was presented with the first Living Legend Award by the International Horror Guild at the 1995 World Horror Convention. He is also the only author in Hollywood ever to win the Writers' Guild of America Award for Most Outstanding Teleplay (solo work) four times, most recently for "Paladin of the Lost Hour" in 1987. In March 1998, the National Women's Committee of [[Brandeis University]] honored him with their 1998 Words, Wit, Wisdom award. In 1990, Ellison was honored by International PEN for continuing commitment to artistic freedom and the battle against censorship.
A rather famous and popular film can also be credited to Ellison, though he had to go to court to get the credit. Some aspects of the story for ''[[The Terminator]]'' were sufficiently similar to two episodes of the TV series ''The Outer Limits'' — both written by Ellison — that Ellison sued [[James Cameron]]. Ellison settled for several hundred thousand dollars, and the film's end credits now include the simple statement: "Acknowledgement to the works of Harlan Ellison." The episodes in question were called "Soldier" and "[[Demon with a Glass Hand]]".
"I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream" was turned into a computer game with the [[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream (computer game)|same title]], with Ellison providing the voice of the god-computer AM.
He also edited the influential science fiction anthology ''[[Dangerous Visions]]'' (1967), which collected stories commissioned by Ellison, accompanied by his commentary-laden biographical sketches of the authors. He challenged the authors to write stories at the edge of the genre, and ''Dangerous Visions'' is widely considered the greatest and most influential SF anthology of all time. Many of the stories went beyond the traditional boundaries of science fiction pioneered by respected old school editors such as [[John W. Campbell]], Jr. As an editor, Ellison was influenced and inspired by experimentation in the popular literature of the time, such as the [[Beat generation|beats]]. A sequel, ''Again Dangerous Visions'', was published in 1972. A third volume, ''The Last Dangerous Visions'', controversially will probably never see print.
The screenplay for his projected television series ''[[The Starlost]]'' was also given a Writers Guild Award, though the actual series was so altered by the producers that Ellison had his name removed from the credits. Ellison was the first writer to win this award three times.
Ellison served as creative consultant to the science fiction TV series ''[[The Twilight Zone]]'' ([[1980s]] version) and ''[[Babylon 5]]''. As a member of the [[Screen Actors Guild]] (SAG), he has voiceover credits for shows including ''[[The Pirates of Dark Water]]'', ''Mother Goose and Grimm'', ''[[Space Cases]]'', ''[[Phantom 2040]]'', and ''Babylon 5'', as well as making an onscreen appearance in the ''Babylon 5'' episode "[[The Face of the Enemy|The Face of the Enemy]]".
For two years beginning in 1986, Ellison took over as host of the radio program ''[[Hour 25]]'' on [[KPFK]] after the death of Mike Hodel, the show's founder and original host. It has been reported that his inadverdant use of an expletive on air caused his departure from the show.
Ellison's 1992 [[novelette]] "The Man Who Rowed Christopher Columbus Ashore" was selected for inclusion in the 1993 edition of ''The Best American Short Stories''.
Ellison was hired as a writer for [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Studios]], but was fired on his first day after being overheard by [[Roy O. Disney]] in the studio commissary joking about making a [[pornography|pornographic]] animated film featuring Disney characters. He recounted this incident in his book ''Stalking the Nightmare'', as part 3 of a section entitled "The 3 Most Important Things in Life".
He does all his writing on a manual Olympia [[typewriter]].
Ellison is currently married to Susan, his fifth wife, and they live in [[Los Angeles, California]]. In 1994 he suffered a heart attack and was hospitalized for quadruple [[coronary artery bypass surgery]].
In 2006, Harlan Ellison will receive the title of Grand Master given annually by the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America]].
== Controversy ==
Ellison has a reputation for being abrasive and rude (a dust jacket from one of his books described him as "possibly the most contentious person on Earth") and he is fiercely litigious. These traits have attracted a degree of controversy, especially among science fiction and fantasy fans. His friend [[Isaac Asimov]] remarked of Ellison that "Harlan uses his gifts for colorful and variegated invective on those who irritate him&mdash;intrusive fans, obdurate editors, callous publishers, offensive strangers." His outspoken reputation earned him a spot on the fledgling [[Sci-Fi Channel]] where he was given an opportunity to express his views on whatever he chose to talk about. Ellison's segments, of which some transcripts are available, were broadcast from 1994 to 1997. Some found this ironic, as Ellison has derided the term "sci-fi" as a "hideous neologism" that "sounds like crickets fucking," a comment to which [[Forrest J. Ackerman]], who coined the term, responded by producing buttons bearing the slogan, "I love the sound of crickets making love."
As Guest of Honor at the 1978 [[WorldCon]] (Iguanacon) in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], [[Arizona]], Ellison vowed that he would not spend a penny in a state which had not ratified the [[Equal Rights Amendment]]. During the convention, he used a recreational vehicle instead of staying in a convention hotel. He was also a participant in the 1965 [[Selma to Montgomery marches|March]] from [[Selma]] to [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], led by [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]].
''The Last Dangerous Visions'', the third volume of the anthology series, has become something of a legend in science fiction as the genre's most famous unpublished book. Originally announced for publication in 1973, other work demanded Ellison's attention and the anthology has not seen print to date. He has come under criticism for his treatment of some writers who submitted their stories to him, of which some estimate to be nearly 150 (many of the authors have died in the subsequent three decades since the anthology was first announced). In 1993 Ellison threatened to sue [[New England Science Fiction Association]] (NESFA) for publishing ''Himself in Anachron'', a short story written by [[Cordwainer Smith]] and sold to Ellison for the book by his widow, [http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/Ansible/a76.html#harlan] but later reached an amicable settlement. [http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/Ansible/a77.html] Noted British SF author [[Christopher Priest (science fiction writer)|Christopher Priest]] has critiqued Ellison's editorial practices in a widely-disseminated article titled ''[[The Book on the Edge of Forever]]''. [http://sf.www.lysat |
ly gallantry were more noticeable (and better recorded in the chronicles) than any attempt at combined action. The serious fighting was between the two centers; the infantry of the Low Countries, who were at this time almost the best in existence, drove back the French. Philip led the cavalry reserve of nobles and knights to retrieve the day, and after a long and doubtful fight, in which he himself was unhorsed and narrowly escaped death, began to drive back the Flemings. In the meanwhile the French feudatories on the left wing had thoroughly defeated the imperial forces opposed to them, and [[William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury|William Longsword, Earl of Salisbury]], the leader of this corps, was unhorsed and taken prisoner by the fighting [[bishop of Beauvais]]. On the other wing the French at last routed the Flemish cavalry and captured Ferdinand Count of Flanders, one of the leaders of the coalition. In the center the battle was now a melée between the two mounted reserves led by the king and the emperor in person. Here too the imperial forces suffered defeat, Otto himself being saved only by the devotion of a handful of Saxon knights. The Imperial Eagle Standard was captured by the French. The day was already decided in favor of the French when their wings began to close inwards to cut off the retreat of the imperial center. The battle closed with the celebrated stand of Reginald of Boulogne, a former vassal of King Philip, who formed a ring of seven hundred [[Brabant|Brabancon]] pikemen, and not only defied every attack of the French cavalry, but himself made repeated charges or sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually, and long after the imperial army had begun its retreat, the gallant schiltron was ridden down and annihilated by a charge of three thousand men-at-arms. Reginald was taken prisoner in the mele; and the prisoners also included two other counts, Ferdinand and William Longsword, twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights. The killed amounted to about 170 knights of the defeated party, and many thousands of foot on either side.
John returned to England to face the barons whose possessions in Normandy he had lost. After Bouvines there were no important wars in Western Europe until the 1290s.
==See also==
*[[British military history]]
*[[Military history of France|French military history]]
==References==
*[[Georges Duby]], ''The Legend of Bouvines'' (1990). A careful study of the historiography of a single event, Duby examines how the Battle of Bouvines has been used and abused in French history.
==External links==
*[http://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/bouvines.htm Historical accounts]
*[http://10.1911encyclopedia.org/B/BO/BOUVINES.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'']: Bouvines
*[http://xenophongroup.com/montjoie/bouvines.htm Bouvines]: the battle in the context of the campaign in the war of 1202 - 1214
[[Category:1214]]
[[Category:Battles of France|Bouvines 1214]]
[[Category:Battles of the Holy Roman Empire|Bouvines 1214]]
[[Category:Battles of Flanders|Bouvines 1214]]
[[Category:Nord]]
[[de:Schlacht bei Bouvines]]
[[eo:Batalo de Bouvines]]
[[fr:Bataille de Bouvines]]
[[nl:Slag bij Bouvines]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Battle of Adua</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of Adowa]]
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<page>
<title>Battle of Actium</title>
<id>5008</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:09:44Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Fixed the text next to "Military Heritage" link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Actium
|partof=[[Antony's civil war]]
|image=[[Image:Castro, Battle of Actium.jpg|300px|''The Battle of Actium'', by Lorenzo A. Castro, painted 1672.]]
|caption=''The battle of Actium'', by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672.
|date=[[2 September]], [[31 BC]]
|place=[[Ionian sea]], near the Roman colony of Actium, [[Greece]]
|result=Decisive Octavian victory
|combatant1=[[Caesar Augustus|Octavian]]
|combatant2=[[Mark Antony]], [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt]]
|commander1=[[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]]
|commander2=[[Mark Antony]]
|strength1=260 warships, mostly [[liburnian]] vessels
|strength2=220 warships, mostly [[quinquereme]]s and 60 egyptian warships
|casualties1=Unknown
|casualties2=Almost all of Antony's fleet
}}
The '''Battle of Actium''' was a [[naval battle]] of the [[Roman Civil War]] between [[Mark Antony]] and [[Caesar Augustus|Octavian]] (Caesar Augustus). It was fought on [[September 2]], [[31 BC]], near the Roman colony of [[Actium]] in [[Greece]] (near the modern-day city of [[Preveza]]), on the [[Ionian Sea]]. Octavian's fleet was commanded by [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]], Antony's fleet was supported by the fleet of his lover, [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], queen of [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Egypt]]. The battle was won by the forces of Octavian, whose victory led him to become the [[Princeps]] [[Augustus]], later considered to be the first [[Roman Emperor]]: for this reason the date of the battle is often used to mark the end of the [[Roman Republic]] and the beginning of the [[Roman Empire]].
==Prelude==
The second [[triumvirate]] broke up due to the serious threat that Octavian felt of [[Caesarion]], the son of Cleopatra and Caesar. Octavian's base of power was his link with Caesar through adoption, which granted him much-needed popularity and loyalty of the legions. To see this convenient situation threatened after Antony declared that Caesarion was the legimate heir to Julius Caesar, a propaganda war between the allies began ending the second triumvirate on the last day of 33 BC. Finally the Senate deprived Antony of his power and declared war against Cleopatra. A third of the Senate and two consuls joined Antony's side and in 31 BC, the war started when Octavian's talented general Agrippa captured the Greek city and naval port of Methone which was loyal to Antony. Mark Antony was an excellent soldier, but his lack of experience in naval matters at sea was his downfall.
==The battle==
[[Image:Battle_of_actium.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Battle plan]]The two fleets met outside the [[gulf of Actium]], on the morning of September 2, 31 BC, with Mark Antony leading 220 warships through the straits toward the open sea. There he met the fleet of Octavian, led by Admiral Agrippa, arranged to block his exit in an arc from the south. Mark Antony's warships were mostly massive [[quinquereme]]s, huge galleys with massive rams that could weigh up to three tons. The bows of the galleys were armored with bronze plates and square-cut timbers making it difficult to successfully ram them with similar equipment. Unfortunately for Antony, many of his ships were undermanned because of a severe malaria that had struck his forces while he was waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive. Many oarsmen had died even before the battle began thus making them unable to execute the tactics for which they were designed--powerful, head-on collisions. Also the morale of his troops had weakened due to the cutting of supply lines. Antony had burned those ships he could no longer man and clustered the rest tightly together.
Octavian's fleet was mostly smaller fully manned Liburnian vessels, armed with better trained and fresher crews. His ships were also lighter and could protect themselves by outmanuvering the quinqueremes in Roman naval battle, where one objective was to ram the enemy ship and at the same time kill the above deck crew with a shower of arrows and catapult-launched stones large enough to decapitate a man. Before the naval battle Mark Antony's general known as Delius defected to Octavian and brought with him Mark Antony’s battle plans. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet stayed carefully out of range. Shortly after mid-day, Antony was forced to extend his line out from the protection of the shore, and then finally engage the enemy.
Seeing that the battle was going against Antony, Cleopatra's fleet retreated to open sea without firing a shot. Mark Antony retreated to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape the battle, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those that he left behind, however, were not so fortunate: Octavian's fleet captured or sank all of them.
==Aftermath==
[[Image:Ballistae on roman ship.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Ballista|Ballistae]] on a Roman ship.]]
The political consequences of this seemingly simple sea battle were tremendous. The proper perspective is that Mark Antony's army was just as large as Octavian's, and the accomplished general Mark Antony could seriously challenge Octavian. As a result of losing the sea battle, Mark Antony's army deserted in large numbers without engaging Octavian's army in battle. Antony lost some 19 infantry legions and 12,000 cavalry, deserting under cover of darkness, debilitating Mark Antony's ability to challenge Octavian. Despite a brief victory at Alexandria, on July 31, 30 BC, Mark Antony's armies decided to desert, leaving him without a competent army to fight Octavian.
After losing his army to desertion, Mark Antony committed suicide, and, as a result, Cleopatra attempted to negotiate surrender terms with Octavian. Upon failure to have favorable surrender terms Cleopatra committed suicide on August 12, 30 BC, by allowing herself to be bitten by a poisonous [[asp]] that was reportedly hidden in a basket of dates. In summary, the |
s a part of mainstream science in the [[18th century]]. Modern medicine sees [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[virus]]es as [[Koch's postulates|the causes of many diseases]], but some modern homeopaths regard them as effects, not causes, of disease. Others have adapted to the views of modern medicine by referring to disturbances in, and stimulation of, the immune system, rather than the vital force.
In the twentieth century, medicine discarded vitalism in favour of the germ theory of disease, based on the work of [[Louis Pasteur]], [[Alexander Fleming]], [[Joseph Lister]] and many others. It also rejected the possibility of highly diluted preparations having any medicinal action, but attributes claimed effects to the [[Placebo effect|Placebo Effect]].
=== The "Law of Similars" ===
Homeopathy is founded on the "Law of Similars". This is not a "scientific" law in the sense that it is not built on a hypothesis that can be [[falsifiability|falsified]] scientifically; a failure to cure homeopathically can always be attributed to incorrect selection of a remedy.
The "Law of Similars" derives its justification from the clinical results that homeopaths claim. However, there are many methods for determining the most-similar remedy (the ''simillimum''), and homeopaths also often disagree about the diagnosis. This is due in part to the complexity of the idea of 'totality of symptoms'; homeopaths do not use ''all'' symptoms, but decide which are the most ''characteristic''; this evaluation is the aspect of diagnosis requiring the most knowledge and experience. Finally, the remedy picture in the Materia Medica is always more comprehensive than the symptomatology that one individual ever exhibits. These factors mean that a homeopathic diagnosis remains presumptive until it is verified by testing the effect of the remedy on the patient.
Hahnemann first expressed the exhortation ''similia similibus curentur'' or "let likes cure likes." The relation of similarity is determined by ''provings'', in which healthy volunteers given a substance in homeopathic form record changes in their physical, mental, and spiritual symptoms. This information is compiled in a ''Materia Medica''. Subsequent versions of the Materia Medica incorporate symptoms observed to have been cured by the remedy. A [[homeopathic repertory]] is an index of the Materia Medica (a list of symptoms0, followed by claimed remedies.
At first, Hahnemann proved substances known as poisons or as remedies. and recorded his findings in his ''[[Materia Medica Pura]]''. [[James Tyler Kent|Kent's]] ''Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica'' ([[1905]]) lists 217 remedies, and new chemicals are being added continually to contemporary versions. Homeopathy uses many animal, plant, mineral, and chemical substances of natural or synthetic origin. Examples include ''Natrum muriaticum'' ([[sodium chloride]] or table salt), ''[[lachesis muta]]'' (the venom of the [[bushmaster (snake)|bushmaster]] [[snake]]), ''[[Opium]]'', and ''Thyroidinum'' ([[thyroid hormone]]). Other homeopaths, dilutions of the agent or the product of the disease. [[Rabies]] nosode, for example, is made by potentizing the saliva of a rabid dog. Some homeopaths use more esoteric substances, known as ''imponderables'' because they do not originate from a material substance but from electromagnetic or electrical energy presumed to have been captured by direct exposure (''[[X-ray]]'', ''Sol'' (sunlight), [http://www.hominf.org/posi/posiintr.htm ''Positronium''], and [http://homeoint.org/clarke/e/elect.htm ''Electricitas''] (electricity)) or through the use of a telescope (''[[Polaris]]''). Recent ventures by homeopaths into esoteric substances include [http://uk.geocities.com/veryscarymary/stormremedy1.html ''Tempesta''] (thunderstorm), and [http://www.biolumanetics.net/tantalus/Cases/BerlinWall.htm ''Berlin wall''].
Today, about 3000 remedies are used in homeopathy; about 300 are based on comprehensive Materia Medica information, about 1500 on relatively fragmentary knowledge, and the rest are used experimentally in difficult clinical situations based on the law of similars, either without knowledge of their homeopathic properties or through knowledge independent of the law of similars. Examples include: the use of an isopathic (disease causing) agent as a first prescription in a 'stuck' case, when the beginning of disease coincides with a specific event such as vaccination; the use of a chemically related substance when a remedy fails yet seems well-indicated; and more recently, the use of substances based on their natural classification (the [[periodic table]] or biological [[taxonomy]]). This last approach is considered to be promising by some in the homeopathic community, because it allows for grouping remedies and classifying the ever-burgeoning Materia Medica, but is rejected by many purists because it involves speculation about remedy action without proper provings.
''See also'': [[List of common homeopathic remedies]]
=== The "Theory of Infinitesimals" ===
The most characteristic&mdash;and controversial&mdash;principle of homeopathy is that the potency of a remedy can be enhanced (and the side-effects diminished) by dilution, in a procedure known as ''dynamization'' or ''potentization''. Liquids are successively diluted (with water, or alcohol for water-insoluble materials) and shaken by ten hard strikes against an elastic body (''succussion''). Insoluble solids are diluted by grinding them with [[lactose]] (''[[trituration]]''). Higher dilutions are considered to be stronger 'deep-acting' remedies.
The dilution factor at each stage is traditionally 1:10 ("D" or "X" potencies) or 1:100 ("C" potencies). Hahnemann advocated 30C dilutions for most purposes, i.e. dilution by a factor of 100<sup>30</sup> = 10<sup>60</sup>. As [[Avogadro's number]] is only 6.022 × 10<sup>23</sup> particles/mole, the chance of even one molecule of the original substance being present in a 15C solution is small, and it is extremely unlikely that one molecule would be present in a 30C solution. Thus homeopathic remedies that have a high "potency" essentially contain just water, but this water is believed by practitioners of homeopathy to retain some "essential property" of the substance once present.
A key criticism is that any water will, at some time in its history, have been in contact with many different substances. Thus, any drink may be considered to be an extreme dilution of almost any agent you care to mention. Thus, critics argue that almost everyone is almost always receiving homeopathic treatment for almost every condition. Proponents of homeopathy respond that the methodical dilution of a particular substance, beginning with a 10% solution and working downward, is different; exactly why this is different is not clear.
Later homeopaths advocated very high potencies, which could not be made by traditional methods, but required succussion without dilution (Jenichen), higher dilution factors (LM potencies are diluted by a factor of 50,000), or machines which integrate dilution and succussion into a continuous process (Korsakoff). The practitioner's choice of what potency is appropriate is subjective; it involves his or her opinion of how "deep-seated" the disease is; whether it is primarily physical or more mental/emotional; the patient's sensitivity based on the practitioner's intuitive assessment or previous reactions to remedies; and the desired dosing regimen (e.g. low potency repeated often, vs high potency repeated seldom). Generally, French and German homeopaths use lower potencies than their American counterparts. Most homeopaths believe that the choice of potency is secondary to the choice of remedy: i.e. that a well-chosen remedy will act in a variety of potencies, but an approximately matched remedy might act only in certain potencies.
== History ==
Hahnemann developed homeopathy after coming upon the idea that "like cures like" while translating a work on malaria. On reading that [[quinine]] was effective because it was bitter, Hahnemann felt this implausible because other substances were as bitter but had no therapeutic value. To understand the effects of quinine, he decided to take it himself, and saw that his reactions were similar to the symptoms of the disease it was used to treat.
For Hahnemann, the whole body and spirit was the focus of therapy, not just the localised disease. Hahnemann spent a lot of time with his patients, asking them not only about their symptoms or illness, but also about their daily lives. This gentle approach contrasted with the violent forms of [[heroic medicine]] common at the time, which included techniques such as bleeding as a matter of course.
Homeopathy came to the USA in 1825 and rapidly gained popularity, partly because the excesses of conventional medicine were extreme there, and partly due to the efforts of Constantine Hering. Homeopathy reached a peak of popularity in 1865&ndash;1885 and thereafter declined due to a combination of the recognition by the establishment of the dangers of large doses of drugs and bleeding, and dissent between different schools of homeopathy.
Nearly as important as Hahnemann to the development of homeopathy was [[James Tyler Kent]] ([[1849]] &ndash; [[1921]]). Kent's influence in the USA was limited, but in the UK, his ideas became the homeopathic orthodoxy by the end of the [[First World War]].<ref>A. Campbell, [http://www.accampbell.uklinux.net/homeopathy/homeopathy-html/chapter08.html ''Kentian Homeopathy''], Chapter 8 of ''Homeopathy in Perspective''</ref> His most important contribution may be his repertory, which is still used today. Kent's approach was authoritarian, emphasizing the metaphysical and clinical aspects of Hahnema |
[elementary charge|e]]''
| ≈ 96,485.3383 C
|}
===Electromotive force===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Voltage]], Electromotive force, U
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[volt]] (SI unit) || V
|
| ≡ kg·m²/A·s³
|-----
| [[abvolt]] ([[cgs unit]]) || abV
|
| ≡ 1×10<sup>-8</sup> V
|-----
| [[statvolt]] ([[cgs unit]]) || statV
| ≡ ''[[speed of light|c]]''· (1 μJ/A·m)
| = 299.792 458 V
|}
===Electrical resistance===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Electrical resistance]], R
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[ohm]] (SI unit) || Ω
| ≡ V/A
| = kg·m²/A²s³
|}
===Dynamic viscosity===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dynamic [[viscosity]], η
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[pascal second]] (SI unit) || Pa·s
| ≡ N·s/m²
| = kg/m·s
|-----
| [[poise]] ([[cgs unit]]) || P
|
| ≡ 10<sup>-1</sup> Pa·s
|}
===Kinematic viscosity===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Kinematic [[viscosity]], ν
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI|SI units]]
|-----
| SI unit || m²/s
|
| ≡ m²/s
|-----
| [[stokes]] ([[cgs unit]]) || St
|
| ≡ 10<sup>-4</sup> m²/s
|}
===Temperature===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Temperature]], T
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Relation to [[SI]] units
!Relation to °C
|-----
| [[kelvin]] || K
| [[SI base unit]]
| ''T''[K] = ''T''[°C] + 273.15
|-----
| degree [[Celsius]] || °C
| ''T''[°C] = ''T''[K] − 273.15
|
|-----
| degree [[Rankine]] || °R; °Ra
| ''T''[°Ra] = 1.8 × ''T''[K]
|
|-----
| degree [[Fahrenheit]] || °F
| ''T''[°F] = ''T''[K] × 1.8 − 459.67
| ''T''[°F] = 1.8 × ''T''[°C] + 32
|}
== See also ==
{{Wikibookspar||FHSST_Physics_Units:How_to_Change_Units}}
* The [[Unix]] program [[Units (computer program)|units]], a useful tool for unit conversion.
* [[Approximate conversion between English and SI units]].
* [[Temperature conversion formulas]] for conversions involving additional temperature scales.
* [[SI]]
* [[English unit]]
* [[Imperial unit]]
* [[U.S. customary unit]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.unitconversion.org/ Online unit conversion of 99.9% known units]
*[http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/index.html ''A dictionary of units of measurement'']
*[http://www.onlineconversion.com/ Online conversion of over 5000 units.]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/ Online weights and measurements conversion, metric conversion]
*[http://www.google.com/help/features.html#calculator Google calculator with unit converter, type in the box e.g. 3 mile to km]
*[http://www.technotip.com/index.php?id=108 Measurement Units and Conversion Factors]
*[http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Document/nonsi_in_1998.pdf Fundamental physical constants - Non-SI units]
*[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm British law: Units of measurement regulations 1995]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-speed Online Speed Conversion]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-temperature Online Temperature Conversion]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-length Online Distance and Length Conversion]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-area Online Area Conversion]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-volume Online Capacity and Volume Conversion]
*[http://easycalculation.com/unit-conversion/area-tables.php Area Conversion Factors]
*[http://www.techzoom.net/convert/speed.asp Online Velocity Conversion]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-pressure Online Pressure Conversion]
*[http://aurora.rg.iupui.edu/~schadow/units/UCUM/ucum.html The Unified Code for Units of Measure]
*[http://www.metricconversions.net Unit / Metric Conversion Tools]
*[http://www.posc.org/refs/poscUnits20.xml Units, Symbols, and Conversions XML Dictionary]
[[Category:Units of measure]]
[[Category:Metrication]]
[[de:Physikalische Größen und ihre Einheiten]]
[[es:Conversión de unidades]]
[[fr:Conversion des unités]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>City</title>
<id>5391</id>
<revision>
<id>42121395</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:33:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.158.240.249</ip>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For alternate meanings see [[city (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Sydney_Harbour_Bridge_night.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Sydney, Australia at Night. Note the broad and illuminated CBD to the left and the mass transit Harbour Bridge to the right.]]
[[Image:Chicago Night.JPG|right|thumb|400px|Chicago Nighttime Skyline.]]
[[Image:Montreal Twilight Panorama 2006.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Twilight panorama of Montreal]]
A '''city''' is an [[urban area]] that is differentiated from a [[town]], [[village]], or [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]] by [[size]], [[population density]], importance, or [[de jure|legal status]].
==Introduction==
In most parts of the world, cities are generally substantial and nearly always have an urban [[core]], but in the [[United States]] many incorporated areas which have a very modest population, or a [[suburb]]an or even mostly [[rural]] character, are designated as cities. ''City'' can also be a synonym for "[[Central business district|downtown]]" or a "[[city centre]]".
A city usually consists of [[residential]], [[industry|industrial]] and [[business]] [[area]]s together with [[administration#Administrative functions|administrative functions]] which may relate to a wider [[geography|geographical]] area. A large share of a city's area is primarily taken up by [[housing]], which is then supported by [[infrastructure]] such as [[road]]s, [[street]]s and often [[public transport]] routes such as a [[subway]] or a [[metro rail system]]. [[Lake]]s and [[river]]s may be the only undeveloped areas within the city. The study of cities is covered extensively in [[human geography]].
"The city is a human habitat that allows people to form relations with others at various levels of intimacy while remaining entirely anonymous." (This definition was the subject of an exhibition at the Israeli pavilion at the 2000 [[Venice Biennale of architecture]])
== The difference between ''towns'' and ''cities'' ==
The difference between ''towns'' and ''cities'' is differently understood in different parts of the [[English language|English speaking world]]. There is no one standard international definition of a city: the term may be used either for a town possessing city status; for an urban locality exceeding an arbitrary population size; for a town dominating other towns with particular regional economic or administrative significance. Although ''city'' can refer to an [[agglomeration]] including [[suburb]]an and satellite areas, the term is not appropriate for a [[conurbation]] (cluster) of ''distinct'' urban places, nor for a wider [[metropolitan area]] including more than one city, each acting as a focus for parts of the area.
In the [[United Kingdom]], a ''city'' is a town which has been known as a city since [[time immemorial]], or which has received city status by [[letters patent]] &mdash; which is normally granted on the basis of size, importance or royal connection (traditional pointers have been whether the town has a [[cathedral]] or a [[university]]). Some cathedral cities, for example [[St. David's]] in [[Wales]], are quite small, and may not be known as cities in common parlance. (See the [[City status in the United Kingdom]].) [[Preston]] became England's newest city in the year 2002 to mark the Queen's jubilee.
A similar system existed in the medieval [[Low Countries]] where a landlord would grant settlements [[City rights in the Netherlands | certain privileges]] ([[city rights]]) that settlements without city rights didn't have. This include the privilege to put up city walls, hold markets or set up a judicial [[court]].
In [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], ''city'' is used to refer both to units of local government, and as a synonym for urban area. For instance the [http://www.southperth.wa.gov.au City of South Perth] is part of the urban area known as [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], commonly described as a city. On the other hand, [[Gisborne]] in New Zealand is known as the first city to see the sun, despite being administered by a district council, not a city council.
An interesting phenomenon in [[American English]] is the generalisation of the term ''city'' to all [[settlement]]s. Britons may be bemused by forms with fields headed, not ''Town'' and ''[[Postal code]]'', but ''City'' and ''[[zip code|ZIP]]'', even though the person needing to fill it in could be living in a city, a town without city status, or even a village or hamlet.
In turn, many Americans often talk of "City Halls" when referring to [[town hall]]s in quite small [[Europe]]an towns and villages.
Strangely, even though Americans are well aware that "village" means something smaller than a town, the word has often been co-opted by enterprising developers to make their projects sound welcoming and friendly. The result are so-called villages with 20 and 30-story high-rises, like [[Westwood, Los Angeles, California|Westwood Village]] in Los Angeles.
==Geography==
[[Image:Haarlem-City-Map-1550.jpg||thumb|225px|Map of [[Haarlem]], the [[Netherlands]], of around 1550. The city is completely surrounded by a city wall and defensive canal. The square shape is inspired by Jerusalem.]]
The geographies of cities, both [[physical geography|physical]] and human, are diverse. Often cities will either be [[coast|coastal]] and have a [[harbour]] or be situated near a [[river]] giving [[economics|economic]] advantage. [[Ship transport|Water transports]] on [[river]]s and [[oceans]] were (and in most cases still are) cheaper and more efficient than [[road transport]] over long distances.
Older [[E |
he time. He did not. He did, however, powder his hair[http://www.mountvernon.org/visit/plan/index.cfm/pid/446/], as represented in several portraits, including the well-known unfinished [[Gilbert Stuart]] [http://www.npg.si.edu/cexh/stuart/athen1.htm depiction].
*It has been suggested in the journal "Fertility and Sterility" [http://www.asrm.org/Professionals/Fertility&Sterility/georgewashington.pdf] that Washington had no children because he was sterile, most probably resulting from a case of [[tuberculosis]]; he seemingly contracted it from his brother who later died from tuberculosis when he went to Barbados at age 19. His wife Martha had four children from a previous marriage (two died before they were four, the others died at age 16 and 28, respectively. Due to Mrs. Washington having four children of her own, it is generally assumed that she was capable of having more children. However, childbirth was extremely difficult in the Washington's day and any labor could cause irrevocable damage to a mother's ability to have more offspring. Mrs. Washington also suffered a case of the german measles shortly after her marriage to George Washington. Either the difficult birth of her last child, Patsy, and or the german measles could have comprised Mrs. Washington's fertility. The Washington's however were surrounded by children. In addition to Mrs. Washington's son and daughter, two of her four grandchildren where raised by George and Martha Washington and many nieces, nephews, and custodial wards came under the care of the Washington couple. The children of Mount Vernon include: John Parke Custis (son), Martha Parke Custis (daughter), Amelia Posey (ward), Frances Bassett (niece), George Augustine Washington (nephew), Harriot Washington (niece), Eleanor Parke Custis, (granddaughter), George Washington Parke Custis (grandson), and George Washington Lafayette (ward/son of the Marquis who lived with the Washington's during the French Reign of Terror).
*A number of younger men were essentially surrogate sons to the childless Washington, including [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette|Lafayette]], [[Nathanael Greene]], and [[George Washington Parke Custis|George W. P. Custis]], Washington's step-grandson. George Washington Parke Custis' daughter Mary would eventually become the wife of [[Robert Edward Lee|General Robert E. Lee]].
*Washington was a [[cricket]] enthusiast and was known to have played the sport, which was popular at that time in the British colonies.
*Through his father's family, Washington was a direct descendant of [[Edward III of England|King Edward III]] and [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] of [[England]]. [http://www.ancestryuk.com/WashingtonAncestry.htm George Washington's Royal descent {for reference only}]
*One story about Washington has him throwing a silver dollar across the Potomac River. He may have thrown an object across the [[Rappahannock River]], the river on which his childhood home, Ferry Farm, stood. However, the Potomac is over a mile wide at Mount Vernon. Also silver dollars did not exist then.
*Grew [[hemp]], a common crop at the time used for fiber production, specifically to make [[rope]]. [http://www.stanford.edu/~johnbrks/theCafe/substance/marijuana.html]
*Washington's [[teeth]] were not made out of wood, as usually said. They were made out of teeth from different kinds of animals, specifically [[elk]], [[hippopotamus]], and [[human]][http://www.americanrevolution.org/dental.html]. One set of false teeth that he had weighed almost three pounds and were made out of [[lead]].
*In the first Presidential inauguration, Washington took the oath as prescribed by the Constitution but added several religious components to that official ceremony. Before taking his oath of office, a local [[Washington Inaugural Bible|Masonic Bible]] was hurriedly borrowed on which to take the oath; Washington added the words “So help me God!” to the end of the oath, and then leaned over and kissed the Bible.
*While Washington did not accept pay while the Commander of the Continential Army, he did claim expenses. He provided Congress with a complete expense account which, after some grumbling, Congress paid in full.
*An attempt was made to kidnap George Washington while he was commander-in-chief of the army during the [[American Revolution]]. The [[governor]] of [[New York]], [[William Tryon]], and the [[mayor]] of [[New York City]], [[David Matthews (mayor)|David Matthews]], both [[Tories]], were involved in the plot, as was one of Washington's bodyguards, [[Thomas Hickey (18th century)|Thomas Hickey]], Hickey was court-martialed and hanged for [[mutiny]], [[sedition]], and [[treachery]], on June 28, 1776.
*Washington was a Freemason. He participated in the laying of the cornerstone of the Capitol Building as a Mason, was Master of Alexandria Masonic Lodge and was buried with Masonic honors. He was even suggested for the position of General Grand Master of Masons in America (which he did not pursue). It is generally accepted that if he would have taken the position that the individual state grand lodges would have united into one Grand Lodge of the United States.
*Washington was considered to be the finest horseman of his day. His favorite horse was named Nelson.
*The most famous man of his day, George Washington received hundreds of guest to his home every year. In 1798, 677 visitors passed through Mount Vernon. Washington commented that his home had become a "well-resorted tavern".
*George Washington was referred to as General Washington and not President Washington once he retired from the executive office. General was the title he preferred and protocol dictates that there is only one President. All former Presidents return to their previous highest ranking title.
*George Washinton's nickname for his wife was "Patsy".
*Mrs. Washington burned the correspondance between her husband and herself following his death. Only two letters survive.
==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1789]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1792]]
* [[Famous military commanders]]
* [[George Washington's farewell address]]
* [[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]]
* [[Newburgh conspiracy]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
* [[American Whiskey Trail]]
==Notes==
#{{note|father}}The earliest known image in which Washington is identified as such is on the cover of the circa 1778 [[Pennsylvania German]] almanac (Lancaster: Gedruckt bey Francis Bailey). This identifies Washington as "Landes Vater" or ''Father of the Land''.
==References==
The literature on George Washington is immense. The [[Library of Congress]] has a comprehensive bibliography [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/gwbib.html online].
*Comora, Madeleine & Deborah Chandra. ''George Washington's Teeth.'' Illustrated by Brock Cole. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003; ISBN 0374325340. A lighthearted chronicle of his dental struggles, aimed at children and adults.
*Deconde, Alexander. ''Entangling Alliance: Politics & Diplomacy under George Washington'' (1958)
*[[Joseph J. Ellis|Ellis, Joseph J.]] ''His Excellency: George Washington''. New York: Knopf, 2004. ISBN 1400040310. Powerful interpretation of Washington's career.
*Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, ''The Age of Federalism.'' (1994) the leading scholarly history of the 1790s.
* Ferling, John E. ''The First of Men: A Life of George Washington'' (1989), solid and scholarly.
*Fischer, David Hackett. ''Washington's Crossing.'' (2004), prize-winning military history focused on 1775-1776.
*Flexner, James Thomas. ''Washington: The Indispensable Man.'' Boston: Little, Brown, 1974. ISBN 0316286168 (1994 reissue). Single-volume condensation of Flexner's popular four-volume biography.
**''George Washington: the Forge of Experience, 1732-1775'' (1965)
*Freeman, Douglas. S. ''Washington: An abridgement in one volume by Richard Harwell of the seven-volume George Washington by Douglas Southall Freeman'' (1968), the standard scholarly biography.
**Freeman, Douglas. S. ''George Washington'' vol 1 (1948)
*Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. ''George! A Guide to All Things Washington.'' Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-0-2. Grizzard is a leading scholar of Washington.
*Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. ''The Ways of Providence: Religion and George Washington.'' Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-1-0.
*Higginbotham, Don, ed. ''George Washington Reconsidered'' (2001).
*Lengel, Edward G. ''General George Washington: A Military Life.'' New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1400060818.
*[Lodge, Henry Cabot]. ''George Washington'' (vol 2, 1899 covers 1783-99) [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12653 online at Project Gutenberg] old but generally accurate. Freeman and Flexner are much better.
* McDonald, Forrest . ''The Presidency of George Washington''. (1988), Intellectual history showing Washington as exemplar of republicanism.
*Wiencek, Henry. ''An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America''. (2003).
*Nash, Gary B. ''The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America''. Viking, 2005. ISBN 0670034207. A left-wing interpretation of the era, with little on Washington.
*Burton I. Kaufman, ed., Washington's Farewell Address: The View from the 20th Century (1969); Paul A. Varg, Foreign Policies of the Founding Fathers (1963); Alexander De Conde, Entangling Alliances (1958).
*Washington, George and Kitman, Marvin, ''George Washington's Expense Account''. Grove Press. (2001) ISBN 0-8021-3773-3 Account pages, with added humor.
* Barbara Bennett Peterson, "George Washington: America's Moral Exemplar", (2005).
==External links==
{{commons|George Washington}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*[http://www.pocanticohills.org/washington/washing |
ommunity took their understanding of Mary Sue, which was filtered through several layers of various [[fen]], and came to a new understanding. This understanding began to define almost every original character in fiction as a Mary Sue as they all could be said to have traits of Mary Sue. In communities where there was a distinct absence of canonical female characters and people, in communities like Mest and Good Charlotte, Mary Sue began to be defined as any original female character in fan fiction.
* [[2002]]: The “[[Lord of the Rings]] Mary Sue Litmus Test” was written.
* [[2002]] to [[2003]]: [[SugarQuill]] held a discussion regarding Mary Sue which started the trend of defining almost every original character in [[Harry Potter]] fan fiction as a Mary Sue.
* [[2003]]: Rhiannon Shaw posts [http://rhi.moonlit-eyrie.com/stories/originalcharacters.html How 'Mary Sue' is killing original fic on the Net] in March of this year.
* [[2003]]: The “Inuyasha Mary Sue Litmus Test” was created by Mette Krangnes on April 23 of this year.
* [[2003]]: In this year, various articles were written in the [[Les Misérables]] community about Mary Sue and some of the problems regarding her that were happening in the community.
==See also==
* [[Collaborative fiction]]
* [[Fanon (fiction)|Fanon]]
* [[Fandom]]
* [[Fanposter]]
* [[FanFiction.Net]]
* [[Shared universe]]
* [[Webserial]]
==External links==
* [http://www.subreality.com/glossary/terms.htm The Fan Fiction Glossary]
* [http://www.trickster.org/symposium/symp173.htm Fanfic Symposium: History of Fan Fiction]
* [http://www.chillingeffects.org/fanfic/faq.cgi Fan Fiction FAQ] at chillingeffects.org
[[Category:Fan fiction|*]]
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<page>
<title>Frontline (Australian TV series)</title>
<id>11281</id>
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<id>41646850</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:48:19Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Setting */ reword the bit on Moore</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:728252.jpg|thumb|right|130px|DVD cover for Series 1 of Frontline (from left to right: Rob Sitch, Bruno Lawrence, Jane Kennedy, and Tiriel Mora)]]
'''Frontline''' is an [[Australian]] [[comedy]] [[television]] series which satirised Australian television current affairs programs and reporting. It ran for three series of 13 half-hour episodes and was broadcast on the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] in [[1994]], [[1995]] and [[1997]].
==Production==
The series was written, directed, and produced by the tight-knit team of [[Jane Kennedy (actor)|Jane Kennedy]], [[Tom Gleisner]], [[Rob Sitch]], and [[Santo Cilauro]]. They had met at the [[University of Melbourne]] and after creating and performing in the popular ABC comedy series ''[[The D-Generation]]'' and ''[[The Late Show]]'' and a stint on radio they created ''Frontline''. After ''Frontline'' they moved into feature films, making several popular Australian movies including ''[[The Castle (film)|The Castle]]'' and ''[[The Dish]]'', and for several years they have hosted the popular panel discussion show ''[[The Panel]]''.
Kennedy, Sitch, Cilauro also acted on the show, as well as [[Tiriel Mora]], [[Alison Whyte]], and numerous other notable Australian actors appeared in guest roles. Gleisner also appeared in a regular cameo role as a photocopier repair man.
The series was partly inspired by a ''[[60 Minutes (Australia)|60 Minutes]]'' special 'Has the media gone too far', not ''[[Drop the Dead Donkey]]'' as some have suggested.
==Setting==
The series followed the fortunes of a fictional current affairs show, ''Frontline'', and satirised the machinations of the ruthless producers, the self-obsessed airhead host, and the ambitious, cynical journalists, all of whom resort to any sort of underhanded trick to get ratings and maintain their status -- including the use of hidden cameras, foot-in-the-door, bullying interview techniques and cheque-book journalism -- not to mention ingratiating themselves with the all-powerful network bosses -- while all the real work is in fact done by their long-suffering production staff.
What gave the show its special edge was that the stories and the actions of the characters were often thinly-disguised parodies of recent real events and real people. In particular it parodied the [[Nine Network]]'s ''[[A Current Affair (Australia)|A Current Affair]]'' and the [[Seven Network]]'s ''[[Real Life (TV series)|Real Life]]'' (up to 1994) and ''[[Today Tonight]]'' (1995 onwards).
The dim witted, egotistical host of the fictional show, Mike Moore (played by Sitch), parodied current television hosts and journalists. Sitch has claimed that none of the characters were directly based on a single person, and indeed the character of Moore was a combination of well-known characteristics of several high-profile television figures. Moore's personality and his antics embodied similarities with ''A Current Affair'' host [[Ray Martin (television presenter)|Ray Martin]], Martin's predecessor [[Mike Willesee]], and ''Real Life'' host [[Stan Grant (junior)|Stan Grant]].
Parallels might also be drawn between ''Frontline'' and ABC's ''[[Media Watch (Australian TV series) | Media Watch]]''. Much of the real life journalistic misconduct reported on ''Media Watch'' later appeared on ''Frontline'' in fictionalised form, and one episode of ''Frontline'' involves a ''Media Watch'' episode critical of the show.
==Series==
One memorable episode of Series 1 ("The Siege") featured an incident in which the hapless Moore causes havoc when he finds himself negotiating by telephone, live to air, with a gunman who is holding some children hostage &ndash; this was a thinly veiled parody of a very similar and highly controversial real-life incident involving Mike Willesee.
A scene in another episode, in which Moore performs an embarrassingly bad version of [[Eric Clapton]]'s ''Tears In Heaven'' while accompanying himself on guitar, is considered a clear dig at Grant, who is an amateur musician. It was claimed in the media at the time that Grant hated the show, was convinced that Mike Moore was a [[caricature]] of him and supposedly forbade any mention of the series in the ''Real Life'' offices.
The series also contained a number of running gags which continued from program to program, including the fact that young sound man Jason Cotter (Torquil Neilson) never spoke.
The first series of ''Frontline'' was, unfortunately, the final screen role for renowned musician and actor [[Bruno Lawrence]], who played the fictional series' devious, golf-loving producer, Brian Thompson. Lawrence was diagnosed with inoperable cancer shortly after the end of the first series, while he was working on the Australian film ''[[Cosi]]'' and he died on [[10 June]] [[1995]]. For the second series he was replaced by Australian actor Kevin J. Wilson and in the third series the producer was played by [[Steve Bisley]].
==Other information==
''Frontline'' also broke new ground for Australian situation comedy, by adopting some innovative production strategies. Its rapid production schedule was inspired by ''[[Drop The Dead Donkey]]'', where each episode was written and taped in a single week and scripts were closely based on the real news stories of the preceding seven days.
The ''Frontline'' scripts were likewise written and the series filmed with a short period, often within a single week. It was a fully collaborative effort, with Cilauro, Kennedy, Gleisner and Sitch all sharing writing and directing duties, and the cast all contributing ideas during all stages of production. While the show appeared in several instances to be commenting on recent events, these are all merely co-incidences, as episodes were delayed by several months; however, the target of the show's satire, Australian current affairs, regularly recycles story formats, and in some cases the particular story format addressed in an episode had appeared as a current affairs story within the last week, sometimes even on the same day as the episode went to air.
To create a heightened illusion of grainy documentary realism, footage was taped on hand-held [[Hi-8]] [[camcorder|video camera]]s (usually operated by Gleisner and Cilauro) then transferred onto film and finally transferred back to videotape{{ref|book}} (see: [[Kinescope]]).
The series was extremely popular throughout its run, winning a [[Logie]] award for Most Outstanding Achievement in Comedy, and a ''[[Sydney Morning Herald]]'' industry poll rated it #2 in the 25 all-time greatest Australian TV shows.
Six episodes from series one are now a core text on the English Advanced syllabus in [[New South Wales]] for Module C: Representation and Text: Elective 1: Telling the Truth. The episodes are ''Playing The Ego Card, Add Sex and Stir, The Siege, Smaller Fish To Fry, We Ain't Got Dames'' and ''This Night of Nights''.
In 1997, Channel Seven bought the rights to the series[http://groups.google.com.au/group/aus.tv/browse_thread/thread/c0f9e69d4e0ea3cd/], however they only aired a handful of episodes. [[The Comedy Channel]] has shown the series as late as [[2005]].
In America, Frontline was shown as either ''Behind the Frontline'' on cable or as ''Breaking News'' on PBS (which already has a serious show entitled ''Frontline'').
==Reference==
# {{note|book}} ''Frontline: the story behind the story ... behind the stories'' (1995). [[Melbourne]]: Penguin. ISBN 0-670-86768-3
== External links ==
*[http://www.workingdog.com/frontline/ Frontline website] (Extremely Out of date circa 1997)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/wa/stories/s1104477.htm Interview with Rob Sitch on the Tenth Anniversary of Frontline]
[[Category:Australian televi |
the number of years a college student can represent any school in competitions. The limit is four years, but could be less under certain circumstances.
===Master Diving===
In the United States divers who continue diving past their college years can compete in Master Diving programs. Master diving programs are frequently offered by college or club programs.
==Famous Divers==
===Olympic and World Cup Divers===
In the [[United States]], [[Hobie Billingsley]], [[Bruce Kimball]], [[Beatrice Kyle]], [[Mark Lenzi]], [[Greg Louganis]], [http://gomason.collegesports.com/sports/w-swim/mtt/mcdonald_roland00.html Roland McDonald], [[Aileen Riggin]], and [[Laura Wilkinson]] have achieved greatness. In [[Australia]] is has been [[Rebecca Gilmore]], [[Mathew Helm]], [[Chantelle Michelle]], [[Chantelle Newbery]], [[Robert Newbery]], [[Dean Pullar]], [[Loudy Tourky]]. [[United kingdom|British]] divers include [[Leon Taylor]] and [[Peter Waterfield]]. In [[Canada]] it has been Annie Pelletier, [[Myriam Boileau]], [[Philippe Comtois]], [[Alexandre Despatie]], [[Blythe Hartley]], [[Émilie Heymans]], and [[Anne Montminy]]. In [[China]] it has been [[Fu Mingxia]], [[Gao Min]], [[Guo Jingjing]], [[Hu Jia]], [[Lao Lishi]], [[Na Li (diver)|Na Li]], [[Li Ting (diver)|Li Ting]], [[Wu Minxia]], [[Peng Bo]], [[Xue Sang]], [[Tian Liang]], [[Hailiang Xiao]], and [[Ni Xiong]]. In [[Mexico]] is it [[Rommel Pacheco]] and [[Fernando Platas]]. In [[Russia]] it has been [[Alexander Dobroskok]], [[Vera Ilina]], [[Igor Lukashin]], [[Ioulia Pakhalina]], and [[Dmitri Sautin]].
===All American College Divers===
Bill Ferry ([[University of Tennessee]]) - first [[All American]] diver for the [[University of Tennessee|Volunteers]], also four time [[Southeastern Conference|SEC]] Champion ([[1968]]-[[1972]]).
==Non-competitive Diving==
Diving is also popular as a non-competitive activity, which is often simply done for thrills. Such diving usually emphasizes the airborne experience, and the height of the dive, but does not emphasize what goes on once the diver enters the water. The ability to dive underwater can be a useful emergency skill, and is an important part of watersport and navy safety training. More generally, entering water from a height is an enjoyable leisure activity, as is [[underwater swimming]].
==See also==
[[Synchronized diving]]
[[Swimming]]
==Diving Links==
*[http://www.FINA.org/ FINA is the international governing body for competitive diving ].
*[http://www.NCAA.org/ NCAA is a national governing body for college diving in the United States ].
**[http://www.ncaa.org/wps/portal/!ut/p/kcxml/04_Sj9SPykssy0xPLMnMz0vM0Y_QjzKLN4j3CQXJgFjGpvqRqCKO6AI-YRARXwN9X4_83FR9b_0A_YLc0NCIckdFALOxkFY!/delta/base64xml/L3dJdyEvUUd3QndNQSEvNElVRS82XzBfTFU!?CONTENT_URL=http://www2.ncaa.org/portal/sports/winter/swimming_and_diving/womens/ NCAA Woman's Swimming and Diving ].
**[http://www.ncaa.org/wps/portal/!ut/p/kcxml/04_Sj9SPykssy0xPLMnMz0vM0Y_QjzKLN4j3CQXJgFjGpvqRqCKO6AI-YRARXwN9X4_83FR9b_0A_YLc0NCIckdFALOxkFY!/delta/base64xml/L3dJdyEvUUd3QndNQSEvNElVRS82XzBfTFU!?CONTENT_URL=http://www2.ncaa.org/portal/sports/winter/swimming_and_diving/mens/ NCAA Men's Swimming and Diving ].
*[http://www.aaudiving.org/ AAU Diving - a national governing body of age-group diving in the United States ].
*[http://www.usadiving.org/ USA Diving is also a national governing body of age-group diving in the United States ].
*[http://diving.on-topic.net/ Diving Topics]
*[http://www.flipnrip.com/ Flip and Rip is a communitity resource for competitive divers worldwide ].
*[http://nvsldive.nvpools.com/core/core/domain/nvsldive/ NVSL Diving - Washington DC area summer diving league - one of the largest and oldest in the nation ].
*[http://www.usadiver.com/ Diving resource - USA Diver.com]
*[[Diving at the 2004 Summer Olympics]]
*[http://www.diving.ca/ Diving.ca is the home of the Canadian Amateur Diving Association].
[[Category:Competitive diving]]
[[Category:Divers]]
[[Category:Diving at the Olympics]]
[[Category:American divers]]
[[Category:Diving competitions]]
[[Category:Diving]]
[[fi:Uimahypyt]]
[[pl:Skoki do wody]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dative</title>
<id>8405</id>
<revision>
<id>15906406</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dative case]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dative case</title>
<id>8406</id>
<revision>
<id>40587219</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:24:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephan Schneider</username>
<id>434159</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Cases}}
The '''dative case''' is a [[declension|grammatical case]] generally used to indicate the [[noun]] to whom something is given. The name is derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''dativus'', meaning "appropriate to giving". The thing being given may be a tangible object&mdash;such as "a book" or "a pen"&mdash;or it may be an intangible abstraction, such as "an answer" or "help". The dative generally marks the [[indirect object]] of a [[verb]], although in some instances, the dative is used for the [[direct object]] of a verb pertaining directly to an act of giving something.
In certain languages, the dative case has assimilated the functions of other now-extinct cases. Dative also marks [[possession]] in [[Greek language|Classical Greek]], which has lost the [[locative case|locative]] and [[instrumental case]]s. The dative assumed their functions. In [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], the dative case is used by nouns following simple [[preposition]]s and the definite article. In [[Georgian language|Georgian]], the dative case also marks the subject of the sentence in some verbs and some tenses. This is also called the [[Dative construction|dative construction]].
The dative was common among early [[Indo-European languages]] and has survived to the present in the [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] branch and the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] branch, among others. It also exists in similar forms in several non&#8211;Indo-European languagues, such as the [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] family of languages and [[Japanese language|Japanese]].
Languages that use or used the dative case include:
*[[Albanian language|Albanian]]
*[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]
*[[Croatian language|Croatian]]
*[[Czech language|Czech]]
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]]
*[[Old English language|Old English]] (Anglo-Saxon)
*[[Faroese language|Faroese]]
*[[French language|French]] (extremely limited)
*[[Georgian language|Georgian]]
*[[German language|German]]
*[[Greek language|Ancient Greek]] (and occasionally Modern Greek)
*[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
*[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
*[[Irish language|Irish]]
*[[Latin language|Latin]]
*[[Latvian language|Latvian]]
*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
*[[Livonian language|Livonian]]
*[[Polish language|Polish]]
*[[Romanian language|Romanian]]
*[[Russian language|Russian]]
*[[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]
*[[Serbian language|Serbian]]
*[[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]
*[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*[[Slovak language|Slovak]]
*[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]
*[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
*[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]
==The dative case in English==
The [[Old English language|Old English]] language, current until approximately the time of the [[Norman Conquest]] in [[1066]], had a dative case; however, the English case system gradually fell into disuse during the [[Middle English]] period, when the accusative and dative pronouns merged into a single [[objective (grammar)|objective]] pronoun used in both roles. This merging of accusative and dative functionality in Middle and Modern English has led most modern grammarians to discard the "accusative" and "dative" labels in English as obsolete, in favor of the term "objective".
While the dative case is no longer a part of modern English usage, it survives in a few set expressions. One good example is the word "methinks", with the meaning "it seems to me". It survives in this fixed form from the days of Old English (having undergone, however, phonetic changes with the rest of the language), in which it was constructed as "me" (the dative case of the personal pronoun) + "thinks" ("to seem", a verb closely related to the verb "to think", but distinct from it in Old English; later it merged with "to think" and lost this meaning).
The pronoun [[whom]] is also a remnant of the dative case in English, descending from the Old English dative pronoun "hw&#257;m" (as opposed to the nominative "who", which descends from Old English "hw&#257;") &mdash; though "whom" ''also'' absorbed the functions of the Old English [[accusative case|accusative]] pronoun "hwone". Likewise, "him" is a remnant of both the Old English dative "him" and accusative "hine", "her" serves for both Old English dative "hire" and accusative "h&#299;e", etc.
In current English usage, the indirect object of an action is sometimes expressed with a [[prepositional phrase]] of "to" or "for", though an [[objective pronoun]] can also be placed directly after the main verb and used in a dative manner, provided that the verb has a direct object as well; for example, "He gave that to me" can also be phrased as "He gave me that", and "He built a snowman for me" can also be rendered as "He built [for] |
eeply cares for Ophelia, his sister, and spends much of the play in France. In the end, appalled by Hamlet's role in his sister's death, he works with Claudius to rig a dueling contest. In this contest, he kills Hamlet with a poisoned [[rapier]] to avenge the deaths of Polonius and Ophelia. Hamlet kills him with the same rapier, although at the time Hamlet did not realise it was poisoned.
'''[[Ophelia (character)|Ophelia]]''' is Polonius's daughter. She and Hamlet have had romantic feelings for each other, although they (at least implicitly) have been warned that it would be politically inexpedient for them to marry. Jilted by Hamlet as part of his insanity ruse, her father's death causes her to go insane, and she drowns in a brook.
'''[[Horatio (character)|Horatio]]''' is a friend of Hamlet's from university. Apparently a commoner, or in any event not a close relative of the royal family, he is not directly involved in the intrigue at the Danish court, which enables the author to use him as a foil or sounding board for Hamlet. Hamlet commissions him to name Fortinbras King of Denmark after the deaths of the royal household. He is the most important character alive at the end of the play, as his move to commit [[suicide]] is stopped by Hamlet before he dies so that he can tell Hamlet's story and that of the court to posterity after his death.
'''[[Rosencrantz]]''' and '''[[Guildenstern]]''' are old school-fellows of Hamlet, who were summoned to the castle by Claudius to keep a watch on Hamlet. Hamlet soon suspects that they are spies. They die off-stage in England, executed by the King's warrant for Hamlet's death which was altered by Hamlet to name them.
'''[[Fortinbras]]''' is the Norwegian crown prince. He is the son of King Fortinbras, who was killed in battle by Hamlet's father, and thus has vengeance on his mind.
'''Osric''' is a courtier who referees the sword fight between Hamlet and Laertes, in which both are mortally wounded by a poisoned Rapier.
==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
The play is about the revenge of Prince Hamlet, whose father, the late King of [[Denmark]], victor over the sled-riding Polish army, died suddenly while Hamlet was away from home at [[Wittenberg]] [[University]]. Prior to the opening of the play, the King's brother Claudius had himself proclaimed king, and cemented his claim to the throne by marrying Hamlet's mother Gertrude, the widowed Queen.
The play opens on the battlements of [[Elsinore]] Castle, seat of the Danish monarchy, where a group of sentries is terrified by the sight of the ghost of the recently deceased King Hamlet. Hamlet's friend Horatio joins the soldiers on their watch and when the ghost appears, bids it to speak. They are aware it has some message to deliver, but it vanishes without saying anything to them.
The next day, the Danish court meets to celebrate the wedding of Claudius and Gertrude. The new King urges Hamlet not to persist in his grief. When he is alone again, Hamlet expresses his anger at the accession of his uncle Claudius to the throne and his mother's hasty remarriage. Horatio and the guards come to the scene and tell him of the appearance of the ghost of his father. Hamlet is determined to investigate this.
Joining Horatio on the watch on the battlements that night, just when Hamlet is delivering a speech censuring the Danes for their drunkenness on certain occasions, the ghost appears again. It beckons him to come along with him so they can enjoy a bit of privacy and reveals to him a fearful secret: his father was indeed murdered. He was poisoned through the ear by Claudius, and the Ghost commands Hamlet to avenge him. Shocked by this discovery, Hamlet returns to Horatio and the sentries, and made them swear an oath not to reveal details of the night's events to anyone.
Hamlet is unsure whether the ghost he has seen is really his father, and suspects that it might be [[the Devil]] taking his father's appearance in order to take his soul to [[hell]]. He therefore sets out to test the king's conscience through putting on an "antic disposition" (acting insane), in the hope that his behavior might tell the truth, or otherwise acquire the opportunity to put an end to Claudius.
Hamlet now feigns insanity to be able to convict Claudius of murder and treason, and takes special delight in making a fool of Polonius, the king's chief councilor. Polonius, convinced of Hamlet's act, is certain that Hamlet's madness stems from his unrequited love for his daughter Ophelia. He forbade his daughter any kind of relationship with Hamlet. So he now fears for his status at court and offers his services to the King in this matter in an attempt to redeem himself before the King of any guilt. Namely, he wants to find out the reason of Hamlet's mad behavior for the King by staging a meeting between Hamlet and Ophelia on which Polonius and Claudius will spy upon. Claudius, perhaps suspecting Hamlet's ruse, also asks Hamlet's schoolmates Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to monitor him, but Hamlet does not let his guard down and sees the intention behind his schoolmates' sudden visit. He enlists a company of traveling performers to stage an existing play which he has modified to re-enact the circumstances of his father's murder.
:"The play's the thing
:Wherein I'll catch the conscience of the King."
: [Act II, scene II]
Shortly after the play begins, Claudius cannot bear to watch, rises and asks for lights. The king's anguished reaction to the performance (which Horatio also notices) convinces Hamlet of his guilt. Shortly afterwards, Claudius arranges for Hamlet to be deported to the Danish territories of [[England]] along with Rosencratz and Guildenstern, where he is to be killed upon arrival. Alone, Claudius privately expresses his disgust at what he has done, and offers a prayer of repentance. Hamlet discovers Claudius at prayer and prepares to kill him, but then stops, reasoning that he does not want his revenge to have the result of sending the repentant Claudius to [[Heaven]]. Ironically, after Hamlet slips away, Claudius concludes that he is unable to repent in his current state of mind; thus, if Hamlet had not attempted to arrogate to himself the destiny of Claudius's soul, rather than just his life, he would have gotten the ultimate justice he sought. By trying to go beyond the ghost's orders, he has doomed his efforts to failure.
Hamlet confronts his mother about the murder of his father and her sexual relations with her new husband, and during their conversation, he stabs Polonius, who has been hiding behind a tapestry eavesdropping on their conversation, thinking it may have been Claudius. Unrepentant of his crime, he continues to admonish his mother. King Hamlet's ghost makes a reappearance to rebuke Hamlet. Hamlet's mother cannot see the ghost, and sees him conversing with it, she is convinced that her son has really gone mad.
Claudius, who has figured out Hamlet's real motivation, sends Hamlet to England, supposedly for his safety, but accompanied by a sealed letter to the English ordering his death. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are sent along to ensure the orders are carried out. On the way to England, Hamlet's ship is attacked by pirates, who take Hamlet prisoner but then return him to Denmark.
Meanwhile, Ophelia loses her sanity, being gravely disturbed by Hamlet's rejection and the death of Polonius. She sings a number of rustic melodies that Shakespeare may have pilfered from the English folk tradition. In what may have been a [[suicide]] attempt, she falls into a brook and drowns. Laertes, her brother, returns from overseas, and is hungry to avenge his father's and sister's death.
Hamlet, returning from his voyage, meets Horatio at a graveyard outside [[Elsinore]] castle just as Ophelia's funeral cortege arrives there, where a gravedigger (jester/clown) is digging. Hamlet finds the skull of [[Yorick]] (see [[skull_(symbolism)|skull as a symbol]]), an old jester to the court who has carried him on his back during his childhood days, and proclaims, "Here hung those lips that I have kissed I know not how oft." As Hamlet broods on mortality, the cortege arrives with the King, Queen and Laertes. Hamlet is so distraught to learn of Ophelia's death that he leaps into the open grave and grapples with Laertes.
When Laertes and Claudius learn of Hamlet's return to Denmark, they scheme to kill Hamlet with the intention of making the death look like an accident. To this end, Claudius instructs Laertes to challenge Hamlet to a fencing match. In order to encourage Hamlet to accept, Claudius lays stakes on the match which are very disfavorable to himself. Unknownst to Hamlet, Laertes will be fighting with a sharpened and poisoned foil, instead of the customary bated blade. In addition, Claudius prepares some poisoned wine for Hamlet to drink as a toast, just in case Laertes is unable to hit him.
While waiting for the match to begin, Hamlet and Horatio jest with the diffirent fop Osric. At the match Hamlet wins the first two rounds, and Gertrude drinks some of the wine to have a toast on him, unaware that it is poisoned. Hamlet is hit with the sword and fatally poisoned, but in the ensuing brawl, he swaps blades with Laertes, and deals a deep wound to Laertes with the poisoned sword as well. The Queen dies from the wine, and warns Hamlet that the drink is poisoned. With his dying breath, Leartes also confesses the whole plot to Hamlet. Enraged, Hamlet kills Claudius with the poisoned weapon, forcing him also to drink the poisoned wine, at last avenging his father's death.
Horatio, horrified at the turn of events, seizes the poisoned wine and proposes to join his friend in death, but Hamlet wrests the cup away from him. He orders him to tell his story to the world to restore Hamlet's good name. Hamlet also recommends that the Norwegian prince, Fortinbras, be chosen as the successor to the Danish thr |
ssambani]]
*[[Foreign relations of Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[List of Equatorial Guinea nationals|Notable Equatorial Guinea nationals]]
*[[Military of Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[Transportation in Equatorial Guinea]]
==References==
*[[Max Liniger-Goumaz]], ''Small is not Always Beautiful: The Story of Equatorial Guinea'' (French 1986, translated 1989) ISBN 0-389-20861-2
*[[Ibrahim K. Sundiata]], ''Equatorial Guinea: Colonialism, State Terror, and the Search for Stability'' (1990, Boulder: Westview Press) ISBN 0-8133-0429-6
{{factbook}}
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Equatorial Guinea}}
===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/equatorialguinea/ allAfrica - ''Equatorial Guinea''] news headline links
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023151.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Equatorial Guinea'']
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ek.html CIA World Factbook - ''Equatorial Guinea'']
===Directories===
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559921/ LookSmart - ''Equatorial Guinea''] directory category
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Equatorial_Guinea/ Open Directory Project - ''Equatorial Guinea''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/eqg.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Equatorial Guinea''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Equatorial_Guinea/ The Index on Africa - ''Equatorial Guinea'']
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Eq_Guinea.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Equatorial Guinea''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Equatorial_Guinea/ Yahoo! - ''Equatorial Guinea''] directory category
===Ethnic Groups===
* [http://www.pygmies.info/ African Pygmies] Culture and music of the first inhabitants of Equatorial Guinea, with photos and ethnographic notes
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.ceiba-guinea-ecuatorial.org/ Institutional web site of the Equatorial Guinea] (sic)
===Other===
*[http://www.fairfinancewatch.org/africa.html#obiang Equatorial Guinea Banking Issues, from the Fair Finance Watch]
{{Africa}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Equatorial Guinea|*]]
[[af:Ekwatoriaal-Guinee]]
[[an:Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[ar:غينيا الاستوائية]]
[[bg:Екваториална Гвинея]]
[[bs:Ekvatorijalna Gvineja]]
[[ca:Guinea Equatorial]]
[[cs:Rovníková Guinea]]
[[da:Ækvatorialguinea]]
[[de:Äquatorialguinea]]
[[eo:Ekvatora Gvineo]]
[[es:Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[et:Ekvatoriaal-Guinea]]
[[fi:Päiväntasaajan Guinea]]
[[fr:Guinée équatoriale]]
[[gl:Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[he:גינאה המשוונית]]
[[hr:Ekvatorska Gvineja]]
[[hu:Egyenlítői-Guinea]]
[[id:Guinea Khatulistiwa]]
[[io:Equatorala Guinea]]
[[is:Miðbaugs-Gínea]]
[[it:Guinea Equatoriale]]
[[ja:赤道ギニア]]
[[ko:적도 기니]]
[[li:Equatoriaal Guinee]]
[[lt:Pusiaujo Gvinėja]]
[[lv:Ekvatoriālā Gvineja]]
[[ms:Guinea Khatulistiwa]]
[[nds:Äquatoriaal-Guinea]]
[[nl:Equatoriaal-Guinea]]
[[nn:Ekvatorial-Guinea]]
[[no:Ekvatorial-Guinea]]
[[pl:Gwinea Równikowa]]
[[pt:Guiné Equatorial]]
[[ro:Guineea Ecuatorială]]
[[ru:Экваториальная Гвинея]]
[[sk:Rovníková Guinea]]
[[sl:Ekvatorialna Gvineja]]
[[sq:Guineja Ekuatoriale]]
[[sr:Екваторијална Гвинеја]]
[[sv:Ekvatorialguinea]]
[[tl:Equatorial Guinea]]
[[tr:Ekvator Ginesi]]
[[uk:Екваторіальна Гвінея]]
[[zh:赤道几内亚]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chhiah-tō Guinea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Equatorial Guinea</title>
<id>9367</id>
<revision>
<id>41099983</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T01:15:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.54.94.115</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The first inhabitants of the region that is now '''[[Equatorial Guinea]]''' are believed to have been Pygmies, of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern [[Rio Muni]]. [[Bantu]] migrations between the 17th and 19th centuries brought the coastal tribes and later the Fang. Elements of the latter may have generated the Bubi, who emigrated to [[Bioko]] from [[Cameroon]] and [[Río Muni]] in several waves and succeeded former neolithic populations.It is said the [[Igbo]] of [[Nigeria]] (mostly Aro) slave traders arrived and founded very few tiny settlements in Bioko and Rio Muni which expanded the [[Aro confederacy]] in the 18nth and 19nth centuries. The Annobon population, native to [[Angola]], was introduced by the Portuguese via São Tomé.
The Portuguese explorer, [[Fernando Po (person)|Fernão do Po]], seeking a route to India, is credited with having discovered the island of [[Bioko]] in 1471. He called it Formosa ("beautiful [isle]", a name later applied to [[Taiwan]]), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer. The islands of [[Fernando Póo (island)|Fernando Póo]] and [[Annobón]] were colonized by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in 1474, and passed to [[Spain]] in 1778. The Portuguese retained control until 1778, when the island, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between the Niger and Ogooué Rivers were ceded to Spain in exchange for territory in South America (Treaty of Pardo). From 1827 to 1843, Britain established a base on the island to combat the slave trade.
The mainland portion, [[Río Muni]], became a protectorate in 1885 and a colony in 1900. Conflicting claims to the mainland were settled in 1900 by the Treaty of Paris, and periodically, the mainland territories were united administratively under Spanish rule. Between 1926 and 1959 they were united as the colony of [[Spanish Guinea]].
Spain lacked the wealth and the interest to develop an extensive economic infrastructure in what was commonly known as Spanish Guinea during the first half of the twentieth century. However, through a paternalistic system, particularly on Bioko Island, Spain developed large cacao plantations for which thousands of Nigerian workers were imported as laborers. At independence in 1968, largely as a result of this system, Equatorial Guinea had one of the highest per capita incomes in Africa. The Spanish also helped Equatorial Guinea achieve one of the continent's highest literacy rates and developed a good network of health care facilities.
In 1959, the Spanish territory of the Gulf of Guinea was established with status similar to the provinces of metropolitan Spain. As the Spanish Equatorial Region, it was ruled by a governor general exercising military and civilian powers. The first local elections were held in 1959, and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in the Spanish parliament. Under the Basic Law of December 1963, limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory's two provinces. The name of the country was changed to Equatorial Guinea. Although Spain's commissioner general had extensive powers, the Equatorial Guinean General Assembly had considerable initiative in formulating laws and regulations.
In March 1968, under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the [[United Nations]], Spain announced that it would grant independence to Equatorial Guinea. A constitutional convention produced an electoral law and draft constitution. In the presence of a UN observer team, a referendum was held on August 11, 1968, and 63% of the electorate voted in favor of the constitution, which provided for a government with a General Assembly and a Supreme Court with judges appointed by the president.
In September 1968, [[Francisco Macías Nguema]] was elected first president of Equatorial Guinea, and independence was granted in October. In July 1970, Macias created a single-party state and by May 1971, key portions of the constitution were abrogated. In 1972 Macias took complete control of the government and assumed the title of [[President for Life]]. The Macias regime was characterized by abandonment of all government functions except internal security, which was accomplished by terror; this led to the death or exile of up to one-third of the country's population. Due to pilferage, ignorance, and neglect, the country's infrastructure--electrical, water, road, transportation, and health--fell into ruin. Religion was repressed, and education ceased. The private and public sectors of the economy were devastated. Nigerian contract laborers on Bioko, estimated to have been 60,000, left en masse in early 1976. The economy collapsed, and skilled citizens and foreigners left.
All schools were ordered closed in 1975, and the country's churches were closed in 1978. Nguema introduced a campaign of 'authenticity,' replacing colonial names with native ones: the capital Santa Isabel became [[Malabo]], the main island of [[Fernando Póo (island)|Fernando Póo]] was renamed Masie Nguema Biyogo after himself, and [[Annobón]] became [[Pagalu]].. As part of the same process, Nguema also ordered the entire population to drop their European names and adopt African ones. His own name underwent several transformations, so that by the end of his rule he was known as Masie Nguema Biyogo Ñegue Ndong.
In August 1979, Macias' nephew from Mongomo and former director of the infamous Black Beach prison, [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]], led a successful coup d'etat; Macias was arrested, tried, and executed. Obiang assumed the Presidency in October 1979. The islands were renamed [[Bioko]] and Annobón. The new ruler faced the challenge of restoring order in a country that was in shambles--by the end of Masie Nguema's dictatorship, the state coffers were empty and the population had dropped to only one-third of what it was at independence.
Obiang initially ruled Equatorial Guinea with the assistance of a Supreme Military Council. A new constitution, drafted in 1982 with the help of the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]], came into effect after a popular vote on August 15, 1982; the Council was abolished, and Obiang remained in the presidency for a 7-year term. He was reelected in 1989. In F |
l\,\!</math>.
==Properties==
Conic sections are always "smooth". More precisely, they never contain any [[inflection point]]s. This is important for many applications, such as aerodynamics, where a smooth surface is required to ensure [[laminar flow]] and to prevent [[turbulence]].
==Applications==
Conic sections are important in [[astronomy]]: the [[orbit]]s of two massive objects that interact according to [[gravity|Newton's law of universal gravitation]] are conic sections if their common [[center of mass]] is considered to be at rest. If they are bound together, they will both trace out ellipses; if they are moving apart, they will both follow parabolas or hyperbolas. See [[N-body_problem#Two-body_problem|two-body problem]].
In [[projective geometry]], the conic sections in the projective plane are equivalent to each other [[up to]] [[projective transformation|projective transformations]].
For specific applications of each type of conic section, see the articles [[circle]], [[ellipse]], [[parabola]], and [[hyperbola]].
==Dandelin spheres==
See [[Dandelin spheres]] for a short elementary argument showing that the characterization of these curves as intersections of a plane with a cone is equivalent to the characterization in terms of foci, or of a focus and a directrix.
== Derivation ==
Let there be a cone whose axis is the ''z''-axis. Let its vertex be the origin. The equation for the cone is
:<math> x^2 + y^2 - a^2 z^2 = 0 \qquad \qquad (1) </math>
where
:<math> a = \tan \theta > 0 \;</math>
and <math>\theta </math> is the angle which the generators of the cone make with respect to the axis. Notice that this cone is actually a pair of cones: one cone standing upside down on the vertex of the other cone&mdash;or, as mathematicians say, this cone consists of two "nappes."
Let there be a plane with a slope running along the ''x'' direction but which is level along the ''y'' direction. Its equation is
:<math> z = mx + b \qquad \qquad (2) </math>
where
:<math> m = \tan \phi > 0 \;</math>
and <math>\phi</math> is the angle of the plane with respect to the ''x-y'' plane.
We are interested in finding the intersection of the cone and the plane, which means that equations (1) and (2) shall be combined. Both equations can be solved for ''z'' and then equate the two values of ''z''. Solving equation (1) for ''z'' yields
:<math> z = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2 \over a^2} </math>
therefore
:<math> \sqrt{x^2 + y^2 \over a^2} = m x + b. </math>
Square both sides and expand the squared [[binomial]] on the right side,
:<math> {x^2 + y^2 \over a^2} = m^2 x^2 + 2 m b x + b^2. \;</math>
Grouping by variables yields
:<math> x^2 \left( {1 \over a^2} - m^2 \right) + {y^2 \over a^2} - 2 m b x - b^2 = 0. \qquad \qquad (3) </math>
Note that this is the equation of the projection of the conic section on the ''xy''-plane, hence contracted in the x-direction compared with the shape of the conic section itself.
===Derivation of the parabola===
The parabola is obtained when the slope of the plane is equal to the slope of the generators of the cone. When these two slopes are equal, then the angles <math>\theta </math> and <math>\phi</math> become [[complementary angles|complementary]]. This implies that
:<math> \tan \theta = \cot \phi \;</math>
therefore
:<math> m = {1 \over a}. \qquad \qquad (4) </math>
Substituting equation (4) into equation (3) makes the first term in equation (3) vanish, and the remaining equation is
:<math> {y^2 \over a^2} - {2 \over a} b x - b^2 = 0. </math>
Multiply both sides by ''a<sup>2</sup>'',
:<math> y^2 - 2 a b x - a^2 b^2 = 0 \;</math>
then solve for ''x'',
:<math> x = {1 \over 2 a b} y^2 - {a b \over 2}. \qquad \qquad (5) </math>
Equation (5) describes a [[parabola]] whose axis is parallel to the ''x''-axis. Other versions of equation (5) can be obtained by rotating the plane around the ''z''-axis.
===Derivation of the ellipse===
An ellipse happens when the angles <math>\theta</math> and <math>\phi</math>, when added together, do not measure up to a right angle:
:<math> \theta + \phi < {\pi \over 2} \qquad \qquad \mbox{(ellipse)} </math>
which implies that the tangent of the sum of these two angles is positive.
:<math> \tan (\theta + \phi) > 0. \;</math>
But a [[trigonometric identity]] states that
:<math> \tan (\theta + \phi) = {\tan \theta + \tan \phi \over 1 - \tan \theta \tan \phi} </math>
therefore
:<math> \tan (\theta + \phi) = {m + a \over 1 - m a} > 0 \qquad \qquad (6)</math>
but ''m + a'' is positive, since the summands are given to be positive, so inequality (6) is positive if the denominator is also positive:
:<math> 1 - m a > 0. \qquad \qquad (7) </math>
From inequality (7) we can deduce
:<math> m a < 1, \;</math>
:<math> m^2 a^2 < 1, \;</math>
:<math> 1 - m^2 a^2 > 0, \;</math>
:<math> {1 \over m^2 a^2} > 1, </math>
:<math> {1 \over m^2 a^2} - 1 > 0, </math>
:<math> {1 \over a^2} - m^2 > 0 \qquad \qquad \mbox{(ellipse)}. </math>
Let us start out again from equation (3),
:<math> x^2 \left( {1 \over a^2} - m^2 \right) + {y^2 \over a^2} - 2 m b x - b^2 = 0, \qquad \qquad (3) </math>
but this time the coefficient of the ''x<sup>2</sup>'' term does not vanish but is instead positive. Solve for ''y'',
:<math> y = a \sqrt{ b^2 + 2 m b x - x^2 \left( {1 \over a^2} - m^2 \right)}. \qquad \qquad (8) </math>
This would clearly describe an ellipse were it not for the second term under the radical, the ''2&nbsp;m&nbsp;b&nbsp;x'': it would be the equation of a circle which has been stretched proportionally along the directions of the ''x''-axis and the ''y''-axis. Equation (8) is an ellipse but it is not obvious, so it will be rearranged further until it is obvious. Complete the square under the radical,
:<math> y = a \sqrt{ b^2 - \left[ x \sqrt{ {1 \over a^2} - m^2} - {b \over \sqrt{ {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1}} \right]^2 + \left( {b^2 \over {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1} \right)}. </math>
Group together the ''b<sup>2</sup>'' terms,
:<math> y = a \sqrt{ b^2 \left( 1 + {1 \over {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1} \right) - \left[x \sqrt{ {1 \over a^2} - m^2} - {b \over \sqrt{{1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1}} \right]^2 }. </math>
Divide by ''a'' then square both sides,
:<math> {y^2 \over a^2} + \left( x \sqrt{{1 \over a^2} - m^2} - {b \over \sqrt{{1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1}} \right)^2 = b^2 \left( 1 + {1 \over {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1} \right). </math>
The ''x'' has a coefficient. It is desired to pull this coefficient out by factoring it out of the second term which is a square,
:<math> {y^2 \over a^2} + \left( {1 \over a^2} - m^2 \right) \left( x - {b \over \sqrt{ \left( {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1 \right) \left( {1 \over a^2} - m^2 \right)}} \right)^2 = b^2 \left( 1 + { 1 \over {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1} \right). </math>
Further rearrangements of constants finally leads to
:<math> {y^2 \over 1 - a^2 m^2} + \left( x - {m b \over {1 \over a^2} - m^2} \right)^2 = { a^2 b^2 \over (1 - a^2 m^2)^2}. </math>
The coefficient of the ''y'' term is positive (for an ellipse). Renaming of coefficients and constants leads to
:<math> {y^2 \over A} + (x - C)^2 = R^2 \qquad \qquad (9) </math>
which is clearly the equation of an ellipse. That is, equation (9) describes a circle of radius ''R'' and center ''(C,0)'' which is then stretched vertically by a factor of <math> \sqrt{A} </math>. The second term on the left side (the ''x'' term) has no coefficient but is a square, so that it must be positive. The radius is a product of squares, so it must also be positive. The first term on the left side(the ''y'' term) has a coefficient which is positive (one of the inequalities derived earlier), so the equation describes an [[ellipse]].
===Derivation of the hyperbola===
The hyperbola happens when the angles <math> \theta </math> and <math> \phi</math> add up to an obtuse angle, which is greater than a right angle. The tangent of an obtuse angle is negative. All the inequalities which were valid for the ellipse become reversed. Therefore
:<math> 1 - a^2 m^2 < 0 \qquad \qquad \mbox{(hyperbola)}. </math>
Otherwise the equation for the hyperbola is the same as equation (9) for the ellipse, except that the coefficient ''A'' of the ''y'' term is negative. The sign change is enough to convert an ellipse into a [[hyperbola]]. This is because the equation of a real ellipse contains an imaginary hyperbola, and the equation of a real hyperbola contains an imaginary ellipse (see [[imaginary number]]). The sign change of coefficient ''A'' causes real and imaginary values of the function ''y=f(x)'' equivalent to equation (9) to swap.
== See also ==
*[[Focus (geometry)]], an overview of properties of conic sections related to the foci.
*[[Quadric]]s are the higher-dimensional analogs of conics.
*[[Matrix representation of conic sections]].
*[[Quadratic function]].
== External links ==
* [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html Special plane curves: Conic sections]
* http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Focus.html
* [http://ccins.camosun.bc.ca/~jbritton/jbconics.htm Occurrence of the conics] in nature and elsewhere
[[Category:Conic sections|*]]
[[Category:Euclidean solid geometry]]
[[cs:Kuželosečka]]
[[da:Keglesnit]]
[[de:Kegelschnitt]]
[[es:Sección cónica]]
[[eo:Koniko]]
[[fr:Conique]]
[[id:Irisan kerucut]]
[[it:Sezione conica]]
[[he:חתכי חרוט]]
[[lt:Kūgio pjūvis]]
[[nl:Kegelsnede]]
[[ja:円錐曲線]]
[[pl:Krzywa stożkowa |
pomorphism can include the giving of human qualities to a deity or deities, the opposite is [[Theomorphism]], the giving of divine qualities to humans.
==Slang use==
The [[Furry fandom]]'s growing popularity has increased recognition of the word "anthropomorphism." However, as use of the word increased, the syllable "po" gradually began to fall out of use by some, hence why many furry websites and comics may use the terms "anthromorphism" or "anthromorphic." Though technically incorrect and unrecognized by dictionaries, this spelling of the word is rarely corrected in Internet culture.
==See also==
*[[Anthropomorphobia]]
*[[Anthropopathy]]
*[[Figure of speech]]
*[[List of Anthropomorphic Personifications]]
*[[Rhetoric]]
*[[Uncanny Valley]]
*[[Furry fandom]]
*[[Funny animal]]
==Further Reading==
* Lorraine Daston & Gregg Mitman, editors, ''Thinking with Animals: New Perspectives on Anthropomorphism'', Columbia University Press, 2005, hardcover, ISBN 0231130384
== References ==
#{{1911}}
#{{note label|1728|2|1}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&entity=HistSciTech000900240147&isize=L Anthropomorphite].
#Shipley, Orby. ed. ''A glossary of ecclesiastical terms''. 1872.
[[Category:Anthropomorphism| ]]
[[bg:Антропоморфия]]
[[da:Antropomorfisme]]
[[de:Anthropomorphismus]]
[[es:Antropomorfismo]]
[[eo:Antropomorfismo]]
[[fr:Anthropomorphisme]]
[[ia:Anthropomorphismo]]
[[hu:Megszemélyesítés]]
[[nl:Antropomorfisme]]
[[ja:擬人観]]
[[pl:Antropomorfizm]]
[[pt:Antropomorfismo]]
[[ru:Антропоморфизм]]
[[sv:Antropomorfism]]
[[tr:İnsan biçimcilik]]
[[zh:擬人化美少女]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Aramaic</title>
<id>2302</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2002-04-17T22:48:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aramaic language]]
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<page>
<title>Aramaic language</title>
<id>2303</id>
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<revision>
<id>41328848</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T16:55:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Garzo</username>
<id>140345</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Modern Aramaic */ linked to main articles</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Aramaic
|nativename=ארמית ''Arāmît'', ܐܪܡܝܐ ''Ārāmāyâ''
|pronunciation=/arɑmiθ/, /arɑmit/, /ɑrɑmɑjɑ/, /ɔrɔmɔjɔ/
|states=[[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Israel]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Russia]], [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]]
|region=Throughout the [[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]], [[Europe]], [[North America]] and [[Australia]]
|speakers=445,000
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=[[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
|fam4=[[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
|fam5=[[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]
|script=[[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic abjad]], [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac abjad]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew abjad]], [[Mandaic alphabet]]
|iso2=arc
|lc1=arc|ld1=Aramaic (ancient)|ll1=none
|lc2=aii|ld2=Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
|lc3=aij|ld3=Lishanid Noshan
|lc4=amw|ld4=Western Neo-Aramaic
|lc5=bhn|ld5=Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
|lc6=bjf|ld6=Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic
|lc7=cld|ld7=Chaldean Neo-Aramaic
|lc8=hrt|ld8=Hértevin|ll8=Hertevin language
|lc9=huy|ld9=Hulaulá|ll9=Hulaula language
|lc10=kqd|ld10=Koy Sanjaq Surat
|lc11=lhs|ld11=Mlahsô|ll11=Mlahso language
|lc12=lsd|ld12=Lishana Deni
|lc13=mid|ld13=Modern Mandaic|ll13=Mandaic language
|lc14=myz|ld14=Classical Mandaic|ll14=Mandaic language
|lc15=sam|ld15=Samaritan Aramaic
|lc16=syc|ld16=Syriac (classical)|ll16=Syriac language
|lc17=syn|ld17=Senaya|ll17=Senaya language
|lc18=tmr|ld18=Jewish Babylonian Aramaic|ll18=Talmud
|lc19=trg|ld19=Lishán Didán|ll19=Lishan Didan
|lc20=tru|ld20=Turoyo|ll20=Turoyo language}}
<!-- Linguasphere code: 12-AAA -->
<!-- The Linguasphere code is for future reference, if Linguasphere codes are put into the infobox. -->
'''Aramaic''' is a [[Semitic language]] with a 3,000-year history. It has been the language of administration of empires and the language of divine worship. It is the original language of large sections of the biblical books of [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], and is the main language of the [[Talmud]]. Aramaic is believed to have been the language spoken by [[Aramaic of Jesus|Jesus]], and it is still spoken today as a first language by numerous small communities.
Aramaic belongs to the [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] [[Language families and languages|language family]]. Within that diverse family, it belongs to the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] subfamily. Aramaic is a part of the Northwest Semitic group of languages, which also includes the [[Canaanite languages]] (including [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]).
==Geographic distribution==
During the [[12th century BC|twelfth century BCE]], [[Aramaeans]], the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in great numbers in modern-day [[Syria]], [[Iraq]] and eastern [[Turkey]]. As the language grew in importance, it came to be spoken throughout the [[Mediterranean]] coastal area of the [[Levant]], and spread east of the [[Tigris]]. [[Jew]]ish settlers took the language with them into [[north Africa]] and [[Europe]], and Christian missionaries brought Aramaic into [[Iran|Persia]], [[India]] and even [[China]]. From the [[7th century|seventh century CE]] onwards, Aramaic was replaced as the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Middle East]] by [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. However, Aramaic remains a literary and liturgical language among Jews, [[Mandaeans]] and some Christians, and is still spoken by small isolated communities throughout its original area of influence. The turbulence of the last two centuries has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world.
===Aramaic languages and dialects===
Aramaic is really a group of related languages, rather than a single monolithic language. The long history of Aramaic, its extensive literature and its use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not. Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, ''[[Syriac language|Syriac]]'' is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic of Christian communities. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern"' or "Western," the dividing line being roughly the [[Euphrates]], or slightly west of it. It is also helpful to draw a distinction between those Aramaic languages that are modern living languages (often called ''Neo-Aramaic''), those that are still in use as literary languages, and those that are extinct and are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Modern," "Middle" and "Old" periods, alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas, to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic.
==Writing system==
[[Image:Serto.jpg|left|thumb|320px|11th century book in [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac Serto]].]]
The earliest [[Aramaic alphabet]] was based on the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician script]]. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive 'square' style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of [[Canaan]] adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the [[Hebrew alphabet]] today. This is the writing system used in [[Biblical Aramaic]] and other Jewish writing in Aramaic.
The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the [[Syriac alphabet]] (one of the varieties of the Syriac alphabet, Serto, is shown to the left).
A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the [[Mandaic alphabet]], is used by the [[Mandaean]]s.
In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean]] in [[Petra]], for instance, or [[Palmyrenean alphabet|Palmyrenean]] in [[Palmyra]]. In modern times, [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]] (see [[#Modern East Aramaic|below]]) has sometimes been written in an adapted [[Latin alphabet]].
==History==
{|border="0" align="right" margin="1" cellpadding="5" bgcolor="#ffffd9" style="margin-left:10px"
|bgcolor="#ffffd9"|<timeline>
ImageSize = width:320 height:700
PlotArea = right:40 top:10 left:40 bottom:10
DateFormat = yyyy
TimeAxis = orientation:vertical order:reverse
Period = from:-1200 till:2005
AlignBars = early
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:200 start:-1200
Colors =
id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,0.85)
BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas
PlotData =
width:15 color:red
bar:test from:-1200 till:200 # Old Aramaic
PlotData =
width:15 color:orange
bar:test from:200 till:1200 # Middle Aramaic
PlotData =
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bar:test from:1200 till:2005 # Modern Aramaic
PlotData =
bar:test at:-1200 mark:(line,white)
at:-1200 shift:(10,0) text:12th c. BCE Aramaeans settle in Aram
bar:test at:-1000 mark:(line,white)
at:-1000 shift:(10,0) text:10th c. BCE early written Aramaic
bar:test at:-740 mark:(line,white)
at:-740 shift:(10,0) text:740s BCE Aramaic official in Assyria
bar:test at:-500 mark:(line,white)
at:-500 shift:(10,0) text:c.500 BCE Darius I decrees Aramaic official
bar:test at:-425 mark:(line,white)
at:-425 shift:(10,0) text:5th c. BCE Elephantine papyri composed
bar:test at:-330 mark:(line, |
ritish took control of the entire region in [[1763]], at the conclusion of the [[French and Indian War]].
The first permanent settlers in present day Buffalo were Cornelius Winney and "Black Joe" Hodges, who set up a [[log cabin]] store there in [[1789]] for trading with the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] community. [[Netherlands|Dutch]] investors purchased the area as part of the [[History of New York |Holland Land Purchase]], and parcels were sold through the Holland Land Company's office in [[Batavia, New York]], starting in [[1801]]. The village was initially called Lake Erie, then later Buffalo Creek, soon shortened to Buffalo. An attempt by Joseph Ellicott to rename it New Amsterdam failed. In [[1808]], the new [[Niagara County, New York]] was formed (including what is now Erie County), and Buffalo became its county seat. By [[1811]], the predominantly Anglo-American [[village]] had grown to 500 people.
[[Image:Electric_Building_-_Buffalo.jpg|thumb|left|The Electric Building - Buffalo, New York]]
=== The 19th century ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right"
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Buffalo <br>Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|1830 || 8,668
|-
|1840 || 18,213
|-
|1850 || 42,261
|-
|1860 || 81,129
|-
|1870 || 117,714
|-
|1880 || 155,134
|-
|1890 || 255,664
|-
|1900 || 352,387
|-
|1910 || 423,715
|-
|1920 || 506,775
|-
|1930 || 573,076
|-
|1940 || 575,901
|-
|1950 || 580,132
|-
|1960 || 532,759
|-
|1970 || 462,768
|-
|1980 || 357,870
|-
|1990 || 328,123
|-
|2000 || 292,648
|}
Around 1804 the future city was planned by [[Joseph Ellicott]], a principal agent of the Holland Land Company. His plan for the city included a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown and is one of only three completed radial street patterns in the U.S.A. In [[1810]] the Town of Buffalo was formed from the western part of the [[Clarence, New York |Town of Clarence]] while still part of [[Niagara County, New York |Niagara County]]. On [[December 30]], [[1813]], during the [[War of 1812]], British troops and their Native American allies captured the village of Buffalo and burned much of it to the ground. Buffalo was rebuilt and re-established and incorporated as a [[town]] in [[1816]]. In 1818 the eastern part of the town was lost to form the [[Amherst, New York |Town of Amherst]], and in 1839, the northern part of the Town of Buffalo became the [[Black Rock, New York |Town of Black Rock]].
Upon the completion of the [[Erie Canal]] in [[1825]], Buffalo became the western end of the 524-mile waterway starting at [[New York City]]. At the time Buffalo had a population of about 2,400 people; with the increased commerce of the canal, the population boomed and Buffalo became a village in 1832. Buffalo was re-incorporated as a city in [[1853]], at which time it had some 10,000 people. The re-incorporation included the Village and Town of Black Rock, which had been Buffalo's early rival for the canal terminus. After the canal's completion, thousands of pioneers to western United States debarked from Erie Canalboats to begin their western adventure from Buffalo. During their hiatus in Buffalo, many partook of the pleasures of Buffalo's infamous ''Canal Street'' district.
Buffalo was a terminus of the [[Underground Railroad]], an informal series of safe houses for runaway slaves who had escaped from the U. S. South in the mid-19th century. After hiding at the Michigan Street Baptist Church, the slaves could take a ferry to [[Fort Erie, Ontario]], [[Canada]] and freedom.
The century included several [[President of the United States |U.S. presidents]] have connections with Buffalo. [[Millard Fillmore]] took up permanent residence in Buffalo in [[1822]] before he became America's 13th president; he was also the first chancellor of the University of Buffalo (later [[University at Buffalo]]). [[Grover Cleveland]], the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, lived in Buffalo from [[1854]] until [[1882]], and served as Buffalo's mayor from 1882–1883. [[William McKinley]] was shot by [[Leon Czolgosz]] on [[September 6]], [[1901]] at the [[Pan-American Exposition]] in Buffalo, and died in Buffalo on the 14th. [[Theodore Roosevelt]] was then sworn in on [[September 14th]], [[1901]] at the Wilcox Mansion (now the [[Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site]]), becoming one of the few presidents to be sworn in outside of [[Washington, D.C.]].
The Pan-American Exposition was not the only event that placed Buffalo in the national spotlight in the latter part of the century. Drawing on its proximity to the power generators at [[Niagara Falls]], Buffalo became the first large city in North America to have widespread electric lighting, yielding it yet another nickname, the "City of Lights."
[[Image:Buffalo_City_Hall_-_001.jpg|thumb|220px|left|The city hall of Buffalo, NY - an art deco masterpiece]]
=== The 20th century ===
At the turn of the century, Buffalo was a growing city with a burgeoning economy. Immigrants came from Ireland, Italy, Germany, and Poland to work in the steel and grain mills which had taken advantage of the city's critical location at the junction of the [[Great Lakes]] and the Erie Canal. Hydroelectric power harnessed from nearby [[Niagara Falls]] made Buffalo the first American city to enjoy widespread electric power.
The opening of the [[Peace Bridge]] linking Buffalo with [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] on [[7 August]], [[1927]] was an occasion for significant celebrations. Those in attendance included Edward, Prince of Wales (later to become Edward VIII of the United Kingdom), his brother Prince Albert George (later George VI), [[United Kingdom|British]] Prime Minister [[Stanley Baldwin]], Canada's Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], US Vice President Charles G. Dawes, and New York governor [[Alfred E. Smith]].
[[Image:BuffaloNY1922.jpg|thumb|Main Street and Lafayette Square, Buffalo, from a 1922 postcard]]
Buffalo's new City Hall was dedicated on [[July 1]], [[1932]]. It was the city's tallest building until [[1970]].
The city's importance declined in the later [[20th Century]] for several reasons, perhaps the most devastating being the opening of the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]] in [[1957]]. Goods which had previously passed through Buffalo could now bypass it using a series of canals and locks, reaching the ocean via the [[St. Lawrence River]]. Another major toll on the city was the suburban migration trend, which occurred in many American cities at the time. The city, which boasted over half a million people at its peak, has seen its population decline by some 50 percent, as industries shut down and people left the [[Rust Belt]] for the more moderate winters and air-conditioned summers of the South and Southwest. The metropolitan area as a whole has not shrunk by nearly as much, but it is still one of the few metropolitan areas of over 1 million population that has been losing population.
There is a myth(once propagated by a local newspaper article following one of the Buffalo Bills four straight Super Bowl losses in the early 90s) that Buffalo suffers from the "Curse of McKinley" - that is the city has been cursed by bad luck since President McKinley's 1901 assassination and this explains why neither the Buffalo Bills or Sabres have been able to win a league championship. This myth doesn't explain the city's booming economy in the earlier part of the 20th century and why teams in America's two other assassination-hosting cities, Washington, DC and Dallas, TX have both enjoyed major league championships.
=== The 21st Century ===
In November of 2005, [[Byron Brown]] was elected Mayor of Buffalo. He is the first African-American to hold this office.
See also: [[List of mayors of Buffalo, New York]]
==Geography==
Buffalo is located on the eastern end of [[Lake Erie]], at the beginning of the Niagara River, which flows northward over [[Niagara Falls]] and into [[Lake Ontario]]. It is located at 42&deg;54'17" North, 78&deg;50'58" West (42.904657, -78.849405){{GR|1}}. The city is geographically closer to [[Toronto]], [[Canada]] than it is to any major US city. The city is opposite [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] in Canada.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 136.0 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (52.5 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 105.2 km&sup2; (40.6 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 30.8 km&sup2; (11.9 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 22.66% water.
==Climate==
Buffalo has a perhaps undeserved publicity for [[severe weather]]. In fact, Buffalo is the sunniest and driest of any major city in the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]] in the summer, but still receives enough rain to keep vegetation green and lush. Of course, this causes the area to be quite humid in late summer, which is why many residents have backyard pools and air conditioners, a fact that surprises many visitors, who expect Buffalo is all about snow and cold.
Winters are a bit longer than in other areas, and due to the [[lake effect snow|lake effect]], Buffalo averages more snowfall than most northern cities, but they are not extremely cold and include frequent thaws and rain as well. Ski country south of Buffalo receives about twice the amount of snow as the metro area each winter, making it one of the best winter recreation centers in the northeastern USA.
The occasionally heavy snowfall in the region is caused by below-freezing winds blowing over the warmer water of Lake Erie. Often the resulting meandering "[[snowbelt]]s" are only ten or fifteen miles wide, with sun shining in one spot and raging lake-effect snow falling only a mile or two away. Lake Erie is much shallower than the other |
her than to part of a biopolymer chain.
{{chem-stub}}
[[de:Heteroatom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Half-life</title>
<id>13606</id>
<revision>
<id>42012870</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:26:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Robot Chicken|Robot Chicken]] ([[User talk:Robot Chicken|talk]]) to last version by 218.103.137.59</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{mergeto|Exponential decay}}
{{main|Exponential decay}}
The '''half-life''' of a quantity subject to [[exponential decay]] is the time required for the quantity to fall to half of its initial value. The concept originated in the study of [[radioactive decay]], but it now also occurs in many other fields.
{| class="wikitable" align=right
! After # of<br>Half-lives !! Percent of quantity<br>remaining
|-
| 0 || 100%
|-
| 1 || 50%
|-
| 2 || 25%
|-
| 3 || 12.5%
|-
| 4 || 6.25%
|-
| 5 || 3.125%
|-
| 6 || 1.5625%
|-
| 7 || 0.78125%
|-
| '''...'''|| '''...'''
|-
| N || <math>\frac{100\%}{2^N}</math>
|-
| '''...'''|| '''...'''
|}
The table at right shows the reduction of the quantity in terms of the number of half-lives elapsed.
== Derivation ==
Quantities that are subject to exponential decay are commonly denoted by the symbol ''N''. (This convention suggests a decaying ''number'' of discrete items. This interpretation is valid in many, but not all, cases of exponential decay.) If the quantity is denoted by the symbol ''N'', the value of ''N'' at a time ''t'' is given by the formula:
:<math>N(t) = N_0 e^{-\lambda t} \,</math>
where
*'''<math>N_0</math>''' is the initial value of ''N'' (at ''t=0'')
*'''&lambda;''' is a [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] constant (the ''[[decay constant]]'').
When ''t=0'', the exponential is equal to 1, and ''N(t)'' is equal to <math>N_0</math>. As ''t'' approaches [[infinity]], the exponential approaches zero.
In particular, there is a time <math>t_{1/2} \,</math> such that:
:<math>N(t_{1/2}) = N_0\cdot\frac{1}{2} </math>
Substituting into the formula above, we have:
:<math>N_0\cdot\frac{1}{2} = N_0 e^{-\lambda t_{1/2}} \,</math>
:<math>e^{-\lambda t_{1/2}} = \frac{1}{2} \,</math>
:<math>- \lambda t_{1/2} = \ln \frac{1}{2} = - \ln{2} \,</math>
:<math>t_{1/2} = \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda} \,</math>
Thus the half-life is 69.3% of the [[mean lifetime]].
== Examples ==
The generalized constant &lambda; can represent many different specific physical quantities, depending on what process is being described. For a comprehensive list of processes described by half-lives, see [[Exponential decay]].
* In an [[RC circuit]] or [[RL circuit]], &lambda; is the reciprocal of the circuit's [[time constant]] &tau;. For simple RC and RL circuits, &lambda; equals <math>RC</math> or <math>L/R</math>, respectively.
* In first-order [[chemical reaction]]s, &lambda; is the [[reaction rate constant]].
== Decay by two or more processes ==
Some quantities decay by two processes at once (see [[Exponential decay#Decay by two or more processes]]). In a fashion similar to the previous section, we can calculate the new total half-life <math>T_{1/2}</math> and we'll find it to be:
:<math>T_{1/2} = \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda _1 + \lambda _2} \,</math>
or, in terms of the two half-lives
:<math>T_{1/2} = \frac{t _1 t _2}{t _1 + t_2} \,</math>
where <math>t _1</math> is the half-life of the first process, and <math>t _2</math> is the half life of the second process.
== Pharmacology ==
In pharmacology, there are several measures of a drug's half life. Two more common half lives are the alpha half life and beta half life.
The alpha half life measures the rate of a drug's distribution within the test subject. Also related to the volume of distribution.
Beta half life measures the rate of a drug's elimination from the test subject, which is very similar to the rate of clearance.
== See also ==
* [[Exponential decay]]
* [[Mean lifetime]]
* [[Elements]]
[[Category:Radioactivity]]
[[Category:Exponentials]]
[[Category:chemical kinetics]]
[[af:Halfleeftyd]]
[[ar:عمر النصف]]
[[ca:Període de semidesintegració]]
[[cs:Poločas rozpadu]]
[[da:Halveringstid]]
[[de:Halbwertszeit]]
[[et:Poolestusaeg]]
[[es:Periodo de semidesintegración]]
[[eo:Duoniĝtempo]]
[[fr:Demi-vie]]
[[ko:반감기]]
[[id:Waktu paruh]]
[[is:Helmingunartími]]
[[it:Emivita]]
[[he:מחצית חיים]]
[[hu:Felezési idő]]
[[nl:Halfwaardetijd]]
[[ja:半減期]]
[[pl:Czas połowicznego rozpadu]]
[[pt:Meia-vida]]
[[ru:Период полураспада]]
[[sr:Време полураспада]]
[[fi:Puoliintumisaika]]
[[sv:Halveringstid]]
[[th:ครึ่งชีวิต]]
[[tr:Yarılanma süresi]]
[[zh:半衰期]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Humus</title>
<id>13607</id>
<revision>
<id>40076241</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T23:27:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DavidHallett</username>
<id>738935</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Structured formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the food, see [[Hummus]].''
:''For the band, see [[Humus (band)]].''
'''Humus''' is a complex [[organic substance]] resulting from the breakdown of plant material in a process called [[humification]]. This process can occur naturally in soil, or in the production of [[compost]]. Humus is extremely important to the fertility of soils in both a physical and chemical sense (see below). Physically, it helps the soil retain moisture, and encourages the formation of good soil structure. Chemically, it has many active sites which bind to ions of plant nutrients, making them more available. Humus is often described as the 'life-force' of the [[soil]]. Yet it is difficult to define humus in precise terms; it is a highly complex substance, the full nature of which is still not fully understood. Physically, humus can be differentiated from organic matter in that the latter is rough looking material, with coarse plant remains still visible, while once fully humified it become more uniform in appearance (a dark, spongy, jelly-like substance) and amorphous in structure. That is, it has no determinate shape, structure or character.
[[Plant]] remains (including those that have passed through an animal and are excreted as [[manure]]) contain organic compounds: sugars, starches, proteins, [[carbohydrate]]s, [[lignin]]s, waxes, resins and [[organic acid]]s. The process of organic matter decay in the soil begins with the decomposition of sugars and starches from carbohydrates which break down easily as [[saprophyte]]s initially invade the dead plant, while the remaining [[cellulose]] breaks down more slowly. Proteins decompose into [[amino acid]]s at a rate depending on [[carbon to nitrogen ratio]]s. Organic acids break down rapidly, while fats, waxes, resins and lignins remain relatively unchanged for longer periods of time. The humus that is the end product of this process is thus a mixture of compounds and complex life chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin, which has many functions and benefits in the soil.
===Benefits of Humus===
*The mineralisation process that converts raw organic matter to the relatively stable substance that is humus feeds the soil population of micro-organisms and other creatures, thus maintaining high and healthy levels of [[soil life]].
*Effective and stable humus (see below) are further sources of nutrients to [[microbe]]s, the former providing a readily available supply while the latter acts as a more long-term storage reservoir.
*Humification of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to break down into simpler forms which are then made available to growing plants for uptake through their root systems.
*Humus is a [[colloid]]al substance, and increases the soil's [[cation exchange capacity]], hence its ability to store nutrients on [[clay]] particles; thus while these nutrient [[cation]]s are accessible to plants, they are held in the soil safe from leaching away by [[rain]] or [[irrigation]].
*Humus can hold the equivalent of 80-90% of its weight in moisture, and therefore increases the soil's capacity to withstand drought conditions.
*The biochemical structure of humus enables it to moderate &ndash; or buffer &ndash; excessive [[acid]] or [[alkaline]] soil conditions.
*During the Humification process, microbes secrete sticky gums; these contribute to the crumb structure of the soil by holding particles together, allowing greater [[aeration]] of the soil. Toxic substances such as [[heavy metals]], as well as excess nutrients, can be [[chelation|chelated]] (that is, bound to the complex organic molecules of humus) and prevented from entering the wider [[ecosystem]].
*The dark colour of humus (usually black or dark brown) helps to warm up cold soils in the [[spring (season)|spring]].
===Humification of leaf litter and formation of clay-humus complexes===
Humus which is readily capable of further [[decomposition]] is referred to as effective or active humus. It is principally derived from sugars, starches, and proteins, and consists of simple organic (fulvic) acids. It is an excellent source of plant nutrients, but of little value regarding long-term soil structure and tilth. Stable (or passive) humus consisting of [[humic acid]]s, or humins, on the other hand, are so highly [[insoluble]] (or tightly bound
to clay particles that they cannot be penetrated by microbes) that they are greatly resistant to further decomposition. Thus they add few readily available nutrients to the soil, but play an essential part in providing its physical structure. Some very stable humus co |
r 1800 MHz. The exception to the rule are networks in parts of the Americas (including the USA and Canada) that operate at 850 MHz or 1900 MHz.
In the 900 MHz band the uplink frequency band is 890-915 MHz, and the downlink frequency band is 935-960 MHz. This 25 MHz bandwidth is subdivided into 124 carrier frequencies, each spaced 200 kHz apart. [[Time division multiplexing]] is used to allow eight speech channels per [[Radio frequency]] channel. There are eight burst periods grouped into what is called a [[TDMA]] frame. The channel data rate is 270.833 kb/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.
The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.
There are four different cell sizes in a GSM network - macro, micro, pico and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell is different in different environments. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the [[base station]] [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]] is installed in a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors. On the other hand, umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.
Cell radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers. The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is 35 [[kilometer|km]]. There is also a concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or even more.
Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and is achieved by using power splitters to deliver the radio signal from the antenna outdoors to a separate indoor antenna distribution system. This is typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors, for example in shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a pre-requisite, since indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of the radio signal.
The [[modulation]] used in GSM is [[Gaussian minimum shift keying]] (GMSK), a kind of continuous-phase [[frequency shift keying]]. In GMSK, the signal being modulated is smoothened with a [[gaussian function|Gaussian]] [[low-pass filter]] prior to being fed to a [[frequency modulation|frequency modulator]], which greatly reduces the [[interference]] to neighboring channels.
==Network structure==
[[Image:Gsm network.png|thumbnail|405px|The structure of a GSM network]]
The network behind the '''GSM''' system seen by the customer is large and complicated in order to provide all of the services which are required. It is divided into a number of sections and these are each covered in separate articles.
* the [[Base Station Subsystem]] (the [[base station]]s and their controllers).
* the [[Network and Switching Subsystem]] (the part of the network most similar to a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.
* the [[GPRS Core Network]] (the optional part which allows packet based Internet connections).
* all of the elements in the system combine to produce many [[GSM services]] such as voice calls and SMS.
=== Subscriber Identity Module ===
One of the key features of GSM is the [[Subscriber Identity Module]] (SIM), commonly known as a '''''SIM card'''''. The SIM is a detachable [[smartcard]] containing the user's subscription information and phonebook. This allows the user to retain his information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as [[SIM lock|SIM locking]], and is illegal in some countries.
In the [[USA]], Europe and Australia, most operators lock the mobiles they sell. This is done because the price of the mobile phone is usually [[subsidised]] with revenue from subscriptions and operators want to try to avoid subsidising competitor's mobiles. A subscriber can usually contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee (which operators sometimes try to claim to be ignorant of), utilize private services to remove the lock, or make use of ample software and websites available on the Internet to unlock the handset themselves. Some providers in the USA and Europe, such as [[T-Mobile]], [[Cingular]] and the three French Operators, will unlock the phone for free if the customer has held an account for a certain period. Third party unlocking services exist that are often quicker and lower cost than that of the operator. In most countries removing the lock is legal.
===GSM security===
GSM was designed with a moderate level of security. The system was designed to authenticate the subscriber using shared-secret cryptography. Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The development of [[UMTS]] introduces an optional [[USIM]], that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user - whereas GSM only authenticated the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation.
GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The [[A5/1]] and [[A5/2]] [[stream cipher]]s are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in countries that may not be able to support the infrastructure necessary for A5/1. A large security advantage of GSM is that the Ki, the crypto variable stored on the [[SIM]] card that is the key to any GSM ciphering algorithm, is never sent over the air interface. Serious weaknesses have been found in both algorithms, and it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time in a [[ciphertext-only attack]]. The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one.
===Patent issues===
In 2005, a number of companies (including [[Cisco Systems]] and [[Ericsson]]) were sued for infringement of U.S. Patent No. 5,561,706 for offering products alleged to be compliant with the GSM 3.60 standard.
===Satellite issues ===
GSM also uses various satellites to redirect the voice and data packets to users across different countries, because it would be virtually impossible to connect instantly to a GSM phone located in parts of the world where they don't have a high speed wired network.
== See also ==
* Core technology:
** [[2G]]
** [[2.5G]]
** [[3G]]
* Architectural elements:
** [[Base Station Controller]] (BSC)
** [[Base Station Subsystem]] (BSS)
** [[Home Location Register]] (HLR)
** [[Mobile Switching Center]] (MSC)
** [[Subscriber Identity Module]] (SIM)
** [[Visitors Location Register]] (VLR)
* Radio:
** [[GSM frequency ranges]]
* [[Cellular traffic]]
* Services:
** [[GSM localization]]
** [[GSM services]]
*** [[GSM codes for supplementary services]]
** [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]]
** [[Short message service|SMS]]
** [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]]
* Standards:
** [[ETSI]] (European Telecommunications Standards Institute)
** [[Intelligent network|Intelligent network (IN)]]
** [[Parlay]]
* Common terms:
** [[IMEI]]
** [[IMSI]]
** [[MSISDN]]
** [[Handoff]]
* Related technologies:
** [[Gsm-r|GSM-R]] (GSM-Railroads)
== External links ==
* [http://www.3gpp.org 3GPP The current standardisation body for GSM with free standards available].
* [http://www.gsmworld.com/ GSM Association - the group representing GSM operators (official site)] - includes coverage maps for all members
* [http://ccnga.uwaterloo.ca/~jscouria/GSM/gsmreport.html Overview of GSM] by John Scourias
* [http://www.visualgsm.com/gsm_index.htm Visualtron's tutorial on GSM]
* [http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/gsm_technical/gsm_introduction.php GSM technical overview and tutorial] from Radio-Electronics.Com
* [http://www.gsmworld.com/news/statistics/substats.shtml Number of GSM Subscribers]
* [http://www.gsm-security.net/gsm-security-faq.shtml GSM-security.net FAQ]
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Telecom/ GSM Call Flow Diagrams]
* [http://www.tele-servizi.com/janus/engfield1.html List of acronyms of GSM network parameters]
* [http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/index.php?page=seksjon&id1=26&id2=38&select=00-04 GSM - ideas, origin and milestones - a Norwegian perspective] from Telenor's journal of technology [http://www.telektronikk.com Telektronikk]
* [http://hellomobile.com/cell-phone-safety.htm Cell Phone Safety and Wireless Facts]
* [http://hellomobile.com/gsm-triband-phones-sim-faqs.htm GSM Service and TriBand International Roaming FAQs]
* [http://wiki.ehow.com/Make-a-Smart-Car-Surveillance-System-Using-a-Mobile-Phone Smart Car Surveillance System] How to trace your missing car using a GSM cell phone ([http://wiki.ehow.com Wiki eHow])
[[Category:Audio codecs]]
[[Category:GSM Standard]]
[[Category:Mobile telephony standards]]
[[cs:Global System for Mobile Communications]]
[[da:GSM]]
[[de:Global System for Mobile Communications]]
[[es:Sistema Global para las Comunicaciones Móviles]]
[[fr:Global System for Mobile Communications]]
[[ko:GSM]]
[[id:GSM]]
[[it:Global System for Mobile Communications]]
[[he:GSM]]
[[lt:GSM]]
[[nl:Gsm]]
[[ja:GSM]]
[[no:GSM]]
[[pl:GSM]]
[[pt:GSM]]
[[ru:GSM]]
[[sk:Global System for Mobile Communications]]
[[sr:ГСМ мрежа]]
[[fi:GSM]]
[[sv:Globalt system för mobil kommunikation]]
[[th:GSM]]
[[tr:GSM]]
[[zh:全球移动通信系统]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GSM</title>
<id>12809</id>
<revision>
<id>40170876</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T18:34:56Z</timestamp>
|
rejected by Ethiopia. [[As of 2006]], the border question remains in dispute, while a tentative peace remains in place.
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
[[Category:History by country|Eritrea]]
[[Category:History of Eritrea| ]]
[[de:Geschichte Eritreas]]
[[es:Historia de Eritrea]]
[[fi:Eritrean historia]]
[[pt:História da Eritreia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Eritrea</title>
<id>9378</id>
<revision>
<id>40698880</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T11:20:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Shaded relief map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eritrea Map.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Map of Eritrea]]
Eritrea is located in the [[Horn of Africa]] and is bordered on the northeast and east by the [[Red Sea]], on the west and northwest by [[Sudan]], on the south by [[Ethiopia]], and on the southeast by [[Djibouti]]. The country has a high central plateau that varies from 1,800 to 3,000 meters (6,000 to 10,000 feet) above sea level. A coastal plain, western lowlands, and some 300 islands comprise the remainder of Eritrea's land mass. Eritrea has no year-round rivers.
The climate is temperate in the mountains and hot in the lowlands. [[Asmara]], the capital, is about 3,000 meters (10,000 ft) above sea level. Maximum temperature is 26 °C (80 °F). The weather is usually sunny and dry, with the short or belg rains occurring February-April and the big or meher rains beginning in late June and ending in mid-September.
'''Location:'''
Eastern [[Africa]], bordering the [[Red Sea]], between [[Djibouti]] and [[Sudan]], also bordering on [[Ethiopia]].
'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|15|00|N|39|00|E|type:country}})
'''Map references:'''
Africa
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
124,320 km&sup2;
<br>''land:''
121,320 km&sup2;
<br>''water:''
3,000 km&sup2;
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than Pennsylvania
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''total:''
1,630 km
<br>''border countries:''
[[Djibouti]] 113 km, [[Ethiopia]] 912 km, [[Sudan]] 605 km
Note that the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia is disputed.
'''Coastline:'''
2,234 km total; mainland on Red Sea 1,151 km, islands in Red Sea 1,083 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
NA
'''Climate:'''
hot, dry desert strip along Red Sea coast; cooler and wetter in the central highlands (up to 610 mm of rainfall annually); semiarid in western hills and lowlands; rainfall heaviest during June-September except in coastal desert
'''Terrain:'''
dominated by extension of Ethiopian north-south trending highlands, descending on the east to a coastal desert plain, on the northwest to hilly terrain and on the southwest to flat-to-rolling plains
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
near [[Lake Kulul]] within the [[Afar Depression]] &minus;75 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Soira]] 3,018 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[gold]], [[potash]], [[zinc]], [[copper]], [[salt]], possibly [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]], [[fish]]
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
12%
<br>''permanent crops:''
1%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
49%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
6%
<br>''other:''
32% (1998 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
280 km&sup2; (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
frequent droughts and [[locust]] storms
'''Environment - current issues:'''
deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements
'''Geography - note:'''
strategic geopolitical position along world's busiest shipping lanes; Eritrea retained the entire coastline of Ethiopia along the Red Sea upon ''de jure'' independence from Ethiopia on [[24 May]] [[1993]]
==See also==
*[[Eritrea]]
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography by country|Eritrea]]
[[Category:Geography of Eritrea| ]]
[[es:Geografía de Eritrea]]
[[pt:Geografia da Eritreia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Eritrea</title>
<id>9379</id>
<revision>
<id>36884712</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T02:28:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yom</username>
<id>713855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Updated info from CIA factbook since no census data exists</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Eritrea]]'s population is comprised nine [[ethnic group]]s, most of which speak [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] or [[Cushitic languages]]. The [[Tigrinya]] and [[Tigre]] make up four-fifths of the population and speak different, but related and somewhat mutually intelligible, Semitic languages. In general, most of the [[Christianity|Christian]]s live in the highlands, while [[Muslim]]s and adherents of traditional beliefs live in the lowland regions. [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] are the most frequently used languages for commercial and official transactions, but [[English language|English]] is widely spoken and is the language used for secondary and [[university]] [[education]].
'''Population:'''
4,561,599 (July 2005 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
44.8% (male 1,023,898; female 1,019,389)
<br>''15-64 years:''
51.9% (male 1,170,823; female 1,194,741)
<br>''65 years and over:''
3.3% (male 74,312; female 78,436) (2005 est.)
'''[[Population growth rate]]:'''
2.51% (2005 est.)
'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
38.62 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''[[Death]] rate:'''
13.53 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
<br>''note:''
according to the [[UNHCR]], about 150,000 Eritrean refugees in [[Sudan]] have registered for voluntary repatriation, following the restoration of diplomatic relations between Eritrea and Sudan in January 2000
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
0.98 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.95 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
76.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
58.47 years
<br>''male:''
56.96 years
<br>''female:''
60.02 years (2005 est.)
'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
5.93 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''[[Nationality]]:'''
<br>''noun:''
Eritrean(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Eritrean
'''Ethnic groups:'''
ethnic [[Tigrinya]] 50%, [[Tigre]] and [[Kunama]] 40%, [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]] 4%, [[Saho]] ([[Red Sea]] coast dwellers) 3%
'''Religions:'''
[[Muslim]], [[Coptic Christian]], [[Roman Catholic]], [[Protestant]]
'''Languages:'''
[[Afar language|Afar]], [[Amharic language|Amharic]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Tigre language|Tigre]] and [[Kunama language|Kunama]], [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], other [[Cushitic languages]]
'''[[Literacy]]:'''
<br>''definition:''
NA
<br>''total population:''
25%
<br>''male:''
NA%
<br>''female:''
NA%
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Demographics by country|Eritrea]]
[[Category:Eritrea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Eritrea</title>
<id>9380</id>
<revision>
<id>39378007</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:48:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Eritrea}}
The new government faces formidable challenges. Beginning with no constitution, no judicial system, and an education system in shambles, it has been forced to build the institutions of government from scratch. The present government includes [[legislature|legislative]], [[executive (government)|executive]], and judicial bodies.
The legislature, the National Assembly, includes 75 members of the [[People's Front for Democracy and Justice]] (PFDJ) and 75 additional popularly elected members. The National Assembly is the highest legal power in the government until the establishment of a democratic, constitutional government. The legislature sets the internal and external policies of the government, regulates implementation of those policies, approves the budget, and elects the president of the country.
The president nominates individuals to head the various ministries, authorities, commissions, and offices, and the National Assembly ratifies those nominations. The cabinet is the country's executive branch. It is composed of 16 ministers and chaired by the president. It implements policies, regulations, and laws and is accountable to the National Assembly. The ministries are agriculture; construction; defense; education; energy, mining, and water; finance and development; foreign; health; information and culture; internal affairs; justice; local government; marine resources; transport; trade and industry; and tourism.
The judiciary operates independently of both the legislative and executive bodies, with a court system that extends from the village through to the district, provincial, and national levels. On [[19 May]], [[1993]], the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) issued a proclamation regarding the reorganization of the government. It declared that during a four-year transition period, and sooner if possible, it would draft and ratify a constitution, prepare a law on political parties, prepare a press law, and carry out elections for a constitutional government. In March [[1994]], the PGE created a constitutional commission charged with drafting a constitution flexible enough to meet the current needs of a population suffering from 30 years of civil war |
, Gates founded the [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], a charitable organization, with his wife. The foundation's grants have provided funds for college [[scholarship|scholarships]] for under-represented minorities, [[AIDS]] prevention, [[disease|diseases]] prevalent in [[Third World|third world]] countries, and other causes. In 2000, the Gates Foundation endowed the [[University of Cambridge]] with $210 million for the [[Gates Cambridge Scholarships]]. The Foundation has also pledged over $7 billion to its various causes, including $1 billion to the [[United Negro College Fund]]; and [[as of 2005]], had an estimated endowment of $29.0 billion. He has spent about a third of his lifetime income on charity, although some question his intentions. Journalist [[Greg Palast]] suggests that the Gates Foundation is used to make tactical donations to hide media sensitive humanitarian side effects of treaties, such as the [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPS), which Gates has supported. TRIPS requires countries to agree to respect drug and other patents, therefore preventing the local manufacture of existing pharmaceuticals still under patent such as [[AIDS]] drugs in [[Africa]].
Gates has received two [[honorary doctorate]]s, from the [[Royal Institute of Technology]], [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] in 2002 and [[Waseda University]] in 2005. Gates was also given an [[British honours system#Honorary Awards|honorary KBE]] ([[Knighthood]]) from [[Queen Elizabeth II]] of the [[United Kingdom]] in 2005 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3428673.stm], in addition to having [[entomology|entomologists]] name the Bill Gates flower fly, ''[[Bill Gates' flower fly|Eristalis gatesi]]'', in his honor. [http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/Diptera/syrphid/gates.htm]
Microsoft's CEO [[Steve Ballmer]] has stated that Gates is probably the most "spammed" person in the world, receiving as many as 4,000,000 [[e-mail]]s per day in 2004, most of which were junk. Gates has almost an entire department devoted to filtering out junk emails. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4023667.stm] In an article, Gates himself has said that most of this junkmail "offers to help [him] get out of debt or get rich quick", which "would be funny [given his financial state] if it weren't so irritating". [http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/ofnote/06-23wsjspam.mspx]
==Influence and wealth==
[[Image:Bill Gates in Poland.jpg|thumb|Gates in [[Poland]], [[2006]]]]
Gates is widely considered one of the world's most influential people. He was listed in the ''[[The Sunday Times (UK)|Sunday Times]]'' power list in 1999, named [[CEO]] of the year by ''[[Chief Executive Officers magazine]]'' in 1994, ranked number one in the "Top 50 Cyber Elite" by ''[[TIME|Time]]'' in 1998, ranked number two in the ''[[Upside]]'' Elite 100 in 1999 and was included in ''[[The Guardian]]'' as one of the "Top 100 influential people in media" in 2001. Gates has been number one on the "[[Forbes 400]]" list through 1993-2005 and number one on ''[[Forbes]]'' list of "[[The World's Richest People]]" in 1996-2005, except for 1997 when the [[Hassanal Bolkiah|Sultan of Brunei]] was included despite Forbes' usual policy of excluding heads of state. In 2004, he became a [[Board of directors|director]] of [[Berkshire Hathaway]], the investment company headed by [[Warren Buffett]], the second wealthiest person in the world according to Forbes and a longtime friend of Gates.<ref>Ina Fried. [http://news.com.com/Gates+joins+board+of+Buffetts+Berkshire+Hathaway/2100-1014_3-5491312.html Gates joins board of Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway]. CNET News.com. December 14, 2004.</ref>
Since 2000, Gates's wealth has declined due to a fall in [[Dot-com#Thinning the herd|Microsoft's share price]] and the multi-billion dollar donations he has made to his charitable foundations. According to a 2004 ''[[Forbes]]'' magazine article, Gates gave away over $28.4 billion to charities from 2000 onwards. Additionally, Gates has not engaged in conspicuous consumption beyond his lavish home, with its gardens and art collection. In contrast, his former associate [[Paul Allen]] has used his wealth in perhaps a more typical manner&mdash;owning sports teams, vintage airplanes, and multiple residences. Gates also claimed, in 2005, that he has gone to work every day since 1975, which in recent years includes both his role at Microsoft, and his leadership position at the Gates Foundation.
Gates' large well-publicized charitable donations are usually cited as sparking a substantial change in attitudes towards philanthropy among the very rich. Philanthropy has become the norm for the very rich. And a survey of philanthropy by ''The Economist'' [25 February 2006] noted, "The media, which used to take little notice of charitable donations, now eagerly rank the super-rich by their munificence...."
==Popular culture==
{{main|List of portrayals and references of Bill Gates}}
Bill Gates has been the subject of numerous parodies in film, television, and video games, often serving as an archetype for fictional megalomaniacal leaders of powerful corporations. Examples include
''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode "[[Das Bus]]", ''[[Family Guy]]'' episode "[[Screwed the Pooch]]", and the film ''[[Antitrust (film)|Antitrust]]''. Alternatively, but less frequently, these references portray a hacker genius. Gates is often characterized as the quintessential example of a super-intelligent "[[nerd]]" with immense power. This has in turn led to [[Popular culture|pop culture]] [[stereotype]]s of Gates as a [[tyrant]] or [[evil genius]], often resorting to ruthless business techniques. Gates has been caricatured several times on [[Saturday Night Live]] by [[Chris Kattan]] and [[Mark McKinney]]. He was also shown on ''[[South Park: Bigger, Longer &amp; Uncut]]'', and was shot in the forehead in the movie. In an episode of [[Pinky and the Brain]], Gates was apparently a robotic body controlled by the Brain's rival Snowball, who used the profits of Microsoft to take over the world. He returned later in the ''[[South Park]]'' episode "[[The Entity (South Park)|The Entity]]", complete with a bullet hole in his forehead. Several films and television shows have portrayed either the real Bill Gates or a fictionalized version of him, often according to these [[cliché|clichés]], including an episode in the first season of the [[X-Files]] involving a man who lived inside a house that was operated by a computer (which, as it turned out, had a mind of its own).
At [[Live 8]], Gates appeared and made a speech before introducing [[Dido (singer)|Dido]].
== Works ==
Gates has published several essays throughout the years based on his theories, predictions and visions of the computing industry. In these publications he often expresses his personal views on current topics, and discusses Microsoft's plans. His writings have been published by ''[[BusinessWeek]]'', [[Newsweek]], ''[[USA Today]]'' and ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. His publications since 1997 include:
* ''Person of the Year'', Time, [[December 2]], [[2005]]
* ''The New World of Work'', Executive E-mail, [[May 19]], [[2005]]
*''The PC Era Is Just Beginning'', Business Week, [[March 22]], [[2005]]
*''Building Software That Is Interoperable by Design'', Executive E-Mail, [[February 3]], [[2005]]
*''The Enduring Magic of Software'', InformationWeek, October 18, 2004
*''Preserving and Enhancing the Benefits of E-mail: A Progress Report'', Executive E-mail, [[June 28]], [[2004]]
*''Microsoft Progress Report: Security'', Executive E-mail, [[March 31]], [[2004]]
*''Losing Ground in the Innovation Race?'', CNET News.com, [[February 25]], [[2004]]
*''A Spam-Free Future'', The Washington Post, [[November 24]], [[2003]]
*''Why I Hate Spam[http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/ofnote/06-23wsjspam.asp]'', The Wall Street Journal, [[June 23]], [[2003]]
*''Building Trust in Technology'', Global Agenda 2003 (World Economic Forum), [[January 23]], [[2003]]
*''Security in a Connected World'', Executive E-Mail, [[January 23]], [[2003]]
*''The Disappearing Computer'', The World in 2003 (The Economist), December 2002
*''Slowing the Spread of AIDS in India'', The New York Times, [[November 9]], [[2002]]
*''Trustworthy Computing'', Executive E-Mail, [[July 18]], [[2002]]
*''Computing You Can Count on'', April 2002
*''Tech in a Time of Trouble'', The World in 2002 (The Economist), December 2001
*''Moving into the Digital Decade'', [[October 29]], [[2001]]
*''The PC: 20 Years Young'', [[August 12]], [[2001]]
*''Why We’re Building .NET Technology'', [[June 18]], [[2001]]
*''Shaping the Internet Age'', Internet Policy Institute, December 2000
*''Now for an Intelligent Internet'', The World in 2001 (The Economist), November 2000
*''Will Frankenfood Feed the World?'', Time, [[June 19]], [[2000]]
*''Yes, More Trade with China'', Washington Post, [[May 23]], [[2000]]
*''The Case for Microsoft'', Time, [[May 7]], [[2000]]
*''Enter "Generation i"'', Instructor, March 2000
*''Product Distribution Goes Digital'', IEEE Internet Computing, January 2000
*''Beyond Gutenberg'', The World in 2000 (The Economist), November 1999
*''Everyone, Anytime, Anywhere'', Forbes ASAP, [[October 4]], [[1999]]
*''The Second Wave'', IEEE Internet Computing Magazine, [[August 18]], [[1999]]
*''Microprocessors Upgraded the Way We Live'', USA Today, [[June 22]], [[1999]]
*''Why the PC Will Not Die'', Newsweek, [[May 31]], [[1999]]
*''The Wright Brothers: The 100 Most Important People of the Century'', Time, [[March 29]], [[1999]]
*''Compete, Don't Delete'', The Economist, [[June 13]], [[1998]]
*''Who Decides What Innovations Go into Your PC?'', 1997
==See also==
*[[Gates family]]
*[[History of Microsoft Windows]]
*[[Microsoft]]
*[[Pirates of Silicon Valley]] - A movie based on the |
, the powder beate small:<br>
:With vinegar, or water make Inke withall.
As the recipe shows, no [[binder material]] is necessary: the carbon molecules are in [[colloid|colloidal]] suspension and form a waterproof layer after drying; often waterproof [[shellac]] is added though.
Indian ink replaced the previously widespread [[Iron-gall nut ink]] in the opening years of the [[20th century]].
Caution: Indian ink is usually not suitable for [[fountain pen]]s: it will readily clog the pen. An exception to this is [[Pelikan]] Fount India, which does not contain shellac.
See also: [[pen and ink]].
Indian ink can also be used for home made tattoos, by drawing on the preferred design and then stabbing over the ink with a sharp sewing pin.
== See also ==
[[Sumi]]
[[Category:Inks]]
[[es:Tinta china]]
[[fr:Encre de Chine]]
[[it:Inchiostro cinese]]
[[nl:Oost-indische inkt]]
[[vi:Mực tầu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>I think, therefore I am</title>
<id>15301</id>
<revision>
<id>15912779</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-26T12:17:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Uriyan</username>
<id>64</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Cogito ergo sum]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Integrin</title>
<id>15302</id>
<revision>
<id>40190441</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T21:22:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.75.253.147</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Attachment of cell to the ECM */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''integrin''', or '''integrin receptor''', is an [[integral membrane protein]] in the [[plasma membrane]] of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. It plays a role in the attachment of a cell to the [[extracellular matrix]] (ECM) (especially in [[growth cone]] [[axon guidance]]) and in [[signal transduction]] from the ECM to the cell. There are many different types of integrin and many cells have multiple types on their surface. Integrins are of vital importance to most multicellular organisms from humans to sponges.
[[Mutations]] in the [[gene]]s encoding for integrin can be found in certain types of [[cancer]], for instance [[breast cancer]]. A failure of integrin to anchor a cell to the ECM can play a role in the [[metastasis]] of certain cancer cells.
Other types of [[protein]] that play a role in cell-cell/cell-matrix interaction and communication are [[cadherin]]s, [[NCAM]]s and [[selectin]]s.
==Structure==
Integrins are obligate [[heterodimer]]s containing two distinct chains, termed the &#945; (alpha) and &#946; (beta) subunits. About 18 &#945; and 8 &#946; subunits have been found.. In addition, variants of many of the subunits are formed by differential splicing, for example 4 variants of the beta-1 subunit exist. Through different combinations of these alpha and beta subunits, some 24 unique integrins are generated. The subunits each penetrate the plasma membrance, and in general have very short cytoplasmic domains within the cell (40-70 amino acids), the exception being the beta-4 subunit which has one of the largest known cytoplasmic domains of any membrane protein, 1088 amino acids. Outside the cell plasma membrane, the chains lie close together along a length of about 23 [[Nanometre|nm]], the final 5 [[Nanometre|nm]] of each chain form a ligand-binding region for the ECM. The [[molecular mass]] of the subunits varies from about 100,000 to 140,000 in different integrins. &#946; subunits have four [[cysteine]]-rich repeated sequences. &#945; subunits bind several [[divalent]] [[cation]]s. X-ray crystal structure has been obtained for the complete extracellular regions of one integrin, and this shows the molecule to be folded into an inverted V-shape which brings the ligand-binding sites close to the cell membrane. The current hypothesis, is that integrin function involves changes in shape to move the ligand binding site into a more accessible position away from the cell surface, and this shape change also triggers intracellular signalling.
==Function==
Two main functions of integrins are:
*Attachment of the cell to the ECM.
*Signal transduction from the ECM to the cell.
However, they are also involved in a wide range of other biological activities. These include: binding of viruses, including adenovirus, Echo viruses, Hanta viruses, foot and mouth disease viruses, to cells; immune patrolling. Cell migration.
=== Attachment of cell to the ECM===
Integrins couple the ECM outside a cell to the [[cytoskeleton]] (in particular the [[microfilaments]]) inside the cell. Which ligand in the ECM the integrin can bind to is mainly decided by which &#945; and &#946; subunits the integrin is made of. Among the [[ligand]]s of integrins are [[fibronectin]], [[collagen]], and [[laminin]]. The connection between the cell and the ECM enables the cell to endure pulling forces without being ripped out of the ECM. The ability of a cell to create this kind of bond is also of vital importance in [[ontogeny]].
The connections between integrin and the ligands in the ECM and the microfilaments inside the cell are indirect: they are linked via scaffolding proteins like talin, paxillin and alpha-actinin. These act by regulating [[kinase]]s like FAK ([[focal adhesion kinase]])and Src kinase family members to phosphorylate substrates such as p130CAS thereby recruiting signaling adaptors such as Crk.
Cell attachment to the ECM is a basic requirement to built a multicellular organism. Integrins are not simply hooks, but give the cell critical signals about the nature of its surroundings. Together with signals arising from receptors for soluble growth factors like [[VEGF]], [[EGF]] and many others, they enforce a cellular decision on what biological action to take, be it attachment, movement, death or differentiation. Thus integrins lie at the heart, both literally and figuratively, of cellular biological processes.
===Signal transduction===
Integrins play an important role in cell signaling. Connection with ECM molecules can cause a signal to be relayed into the cell through protein [[kinase]]s that are connected with the intracellular end of the integrin molecule.
The signals the cell receives through the integrin can have relation to:
*[[cell growth]]
*[[cell division]]
*cell survival
*[[cellular differentiation]]
*[[apoptosis|apoptosis (programmed cell death)]] .
[[Category:Membrane biology]]
[[Category:Integral membrane proteins]]
[[Category:Cell adhesion proteins]]
[[de:Integrin]]
[[fr:Intégrine]]
[[ja:インテグリン]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ion channel</title>
<id>15303</id>
<revision>
<id>40868527</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T15:22:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sayeth</username>
<id>65782</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */ link to patch clamp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''Another, unrelated ion channeling process is part of [[ion implantation]].''
'''Ion channels''' are [[pore]]-forming [[protein]]s that help establish the small [[voltage]] [[gradient]] that exists across the [[membrane]] of all living [[cell (biology)|cell]]s (see [[cell potential]]), by allowing the flow of [[ion]]s down their electrochemical gradient. They are present in the [[cell membrane|membrane]]s that surround all [[cell (biology)|biological cell]]s.
== Basic features ==
An ion channel is an [[integral membrane protein]] or more typically an assembly of several proteins. Such "multi-[[protein subunit|subunit]]" assemblies usually involve a circular arrangement of identical or [[homologous|related]] proteins closely packed around a water-filled pore through the plane of the membrane or [[lipid bilayer]]{{ref|general}}. While large-pore channels permit the passage of ions more or less indiscriminately, the archetypal channel pore is just one or two atoms wide at its narrowest point. It conducts a specific species of ion, such as [[sodium]] or [[potassium]], and conveys them through the membrane single file--nearly as quickly as the ions move through free fluid. In some ion channels, access to the pore is governed by a "gate," which may be opened or closed by chemical or electrical signals, temperature, or mechanical force, depending on the variety of channel.
== Biological role ==
Because "voltage-gated" channels underlie the [[nerve impulse]] and because "transmitter-gated" channels mediate conduction across the [[synapse]]s, channels are especially prominent components of the [[nervous system]]. Indeed, most of the offensive and defensive toxins that organisms have evolved for shutting down the nervous systems of predators and prey (e.g., the venoms produced by spiders, scorpions, snakes, fish, bees, sea snails and others) work by plugging ion channel pores. But ion channels figure in a wide variety of biological processes that involve rapid changes in cells. In the search for new drugs, ion channels are a favorite target.
=== Diversity and activation ===
*[[Voltage-gated ion channel|''Voltage-gated'' channels]] open or close, depending on the [[transmembrane potential]]. Examples include the [[sodium ion channel|sodium]] and [[potassium channel|potassium]] voltage-gated channels of nerve and muscle, that are involved in the propagation of the [[action potential]], and the voltage-gated calcium channels that control [[neurotransmitter]] release in [[synapse|pre-synaptic endings]].
*[[Ligand-gated ion channel|''Ligand-gated'' channels]] open in response to a specific ligand molecule on the external face of the membrane in which the channel resides. Examples include the [[Acetylcholine receptor|"nicotinic" Acetylcholine receptor]], [[AMPA receptor]] and other [[neurotransmitter]]-gated channels.
*[[Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion |
abbage's idea soon developed into a general-purpose programmable computer, his analytical engine.
While his design was sound and the plans were probably correct, or at least [[Debug| debuggable]], the project was slowed by various problems. Babbage was a difficult man to work with and argued with anyone who didn´t respect his ideas. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand and small errors in each item were summed up as huge discrepancies in a machine with thousands of parts. The project dissolved over disputes with the artisan who built parts and was ended with the depletion of government funding.
[[Ada Lovelace]], [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]]'s daughter, translated and added notes to the "[[Sketch of the Analytical Engine]]" by [[Federico Luigi, Conte Menabrea]]. She has become closely associated with Babbage. Some claim she is the world's first computer programmer, however this claim and the value of her other contributions are disputed by many.
A reconstruction of the [[Difference Engine]] II, an earlier, more limited design, has been operational since [[1991]] at the [[London Science Museum]]. With a few trivial changes, it works as Babbage designed it and shows that Babbage was right in theory.
The museum used computer-operated machine tools to construct the necessary parts, following tolerances which a machinist of the period would have been able to achieve. Some feel that the technology of the time was unable to produce parts of sufficient precision, though this appears to be false. The failure of Babbage to complete the engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only related to politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer. Today, many in the computer field term this sort of obsession ''[[creeping featuritis]]''.
Following in the footsteps of Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, was [[Percy Ludgate]], an accountant from Dublin, Ireland. He independently designed a programmable mechanical computer, which he described in a work that was published in [[1909]].
== 1800s&ndash;1900s: limited mechanical computing==
By the [[1900s]] earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable. Companies like [[Frieden]], [[Marchant]] and [[Monroe Calculator Company|Monroe]] made desktop mechanical [http://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/fridenstw.html calculators] that could add, subtract, multiply and divide. The word "computer" was a job title assigned to people who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations. During the [[Manhattan project]], future Nobel laureate [[Richard Feynman]] was the supervisor of the roomful of human computers, many of them women mathematicians, who understood the [[differential equations]] which were being solved for the war effort. Even the renowned [[Stanislaw Marcin Ulam]] was pressed into service to translate the mathematics into computable approximations for the [[hydrogen bomb]], after the war.
In [[1948]], the [[Curta calculator|Curta]] was introduced. This was a small, portable, mechanical calculator that was about the size of a pepper grinder. Over time, during the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] a variety of different brands of mechanical calculator appeared on the market. In [[1965]], [[Wang Laboratories]] introduced the first desktop electronic calculator, using discrete transistors. With development of the [[integrated circuit]]s and [[microprocessors]], the expensive, large calculators were soon replaced with smaller electronic devices. To this day, there is an active calculator collector community that can be found on the Internet.
==Pre-1940 analog computers==
[[Image:Smithdiagramm0.PNG|right|thumb|150px|[[Nomogram]]s, like this [[Smith chart]] serve as analog computers for specific classes of problems.]]
Before [[World War II]], mechanical and electrical [[analog computer]]s were considered the 'state of the art', and many thought they were the future of computing. Analog computers use continuously varying amounts of physical quantities, such as voltages or currents, or the rotational speed of shafts, to represent the quantities being processed. An ingenious example of such a machine was the [[Water integrator]] built in [[1936]]. Unlike modern digital computers, analog computers are not very flexible, and need to be reconfigured (i.e., reprogrammed) manually to switch them from working on one problem to another. Analog computers had an advantage over early digital computers in that they could be used to solve complex problems while the earliest attempts at digital computers were quite limited. But as digital computers have become faster and used larger memory (e.g., [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] or internal store), they have almost entirely displaced analog computers, and [[computer programming]], or [[coding]] has arisen as another human profession.
Since computers were rare in this era, the solutions were often ''hard-coded'' into paper forms such as [[graphs]] and [[nomogram]]s, which could then allow analog solutions to problems, such as the distribution of pressures and temperatures in a heating system.
Some of the most widely deployed analog computers included devices for aiming weapons, such as the [[Norden bombsight]] and artillery aiming computers for battleships. Some of these stayed in use for decades after WWII.
Hybrid analog computers, controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into the 1950's and 1960's, and later in some specialised applications.
== 1940s: first electrical digital computers ==
The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during [[World War II]], as [[electronics|electronic]] [[electrical network|circuit]]s, [[relay]]s, [[capacitor]]s and [[vacuum tube]]s replaced mechanical equivalents and digital calculations replaced analog calculations. The computers designed and constructed then have sometimes been called 'first generation' computers. First generation computers such as the [[Atanasoff_Berry_Computer]], [[Z3]] and [[Colossus_computer|Colossus]] were built by hand using circuits containing relays or vacuum valves (tubes), and often used [[punch card|punched card]]s or [[punched tape|punched paper tape]] for input and as the main (non-volatile) storage medium. Temporary, or working storage, was provided by [[acoustic delay line]]s (which use the propagation time of sound in a medium such as wire to store data) or by [[Williams tube]]s (which use the ability of a television picture tube to store and retrieve data). By 1954, [[magnetic core memory]] was rapidly displacing most other forms of temporary storage, and dominated the field through the mid-[[1970s]].
In this era, a number of different machines were produced with steadily advancing capabilities. At the beginning of this period, nothing remotely resembling a modern computer existed, except in the long-lost plans of Charles Babbage and the mathematical musings of [[Alan Turing]] and others. At the end of the era, devices like the [[EDSAC]] had been built, and are universally agreed to be the first digital computers. Defining a single point in the series as the "first computer" misses many subtleties.
[[Alan Turing]]'s [[1936]] paper has proved enormously influential in computing and [[computer science]] in two ways. Its main purpose was an elegant proof that there were problems (namely the [[halting problem]]) that could not be solved by a mechanical process (a computer). In doing so, however, Turing provided a definition of what a universal computer is: a construct called the [[Turing machine]], a purely theoretical device invented to formalize the notion of [[algorithm]] execution, replacing [[Kurt Gödel]]'s more cumbersome universal language based on arithmetics. Modern computers are [[Turing-complete]] (i.e., equivalent algorithm execution capability to a universal Turing machine), except for their finite memory. This limited type of Turing completeness is sometimes viewed as a threshold capability separating general-purpose computers from their special-purpose predecessors.
However, as will be seen, ''theoretical'' Turing-completeness is a long way from a practical universal computing device. To be a practical general-purpose computer, there must be some convenient way to input new programs into the computer, such as punched tape. For full versatility, the [[Von Neumann architecture]] uses the same memory both to store programs and data; virtually all contemporary computers use this architecture (or some variant). Finally, while it is theoretically possible to implement a full computer entirely mechanically (as Babbage's design showed), electronics made possible the speed and later the miniaturization that characterises modern computers.
There were three parallel streams of computer development in the World War II era, and two were either largely ignored or were deliberately kept secret. The first was the German work of [[Konrad Zuse]]. The second was the secret development of the [[Colossus computer]] in the UK. Neither of these had much influence on the various computing projects in the United States. After the war, British and American computing researchers cooperated on some of the most important steps towards a practical computing device.
===American developments===
In [[1937]], [[Claude Shannon]] produced his master's thesis at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] that implemented [[Boolean algebra]] using electronic relays and switches for the first time in history. Entitled ''[[A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits]]'', Shannon's thesis essentially founded practical [[digital circuit]] design.
In November of [[1937]], [[George Stibitz]], then working at [[Bell Labs]], co |
Giroux]], [[2001]]) ISBN 0-374-29991-9
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Clark Kerr]] |
title=[[University_of_California%2C_Berkeley#Chancellors|Chancellor]] of [[University_of_California%2C_Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] |
years=1958&ndash;1961 |
after=[[Edward W. Strong]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1912 births|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:1999 deaths|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:American scientists|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:Chancellors of the University of California, Berkeley|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:Manhattan Project|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:Swedish-Americans|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley faculty|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Seaborg]]
[[de:Glenn Theodore Seaborg]]
[[fr:Glenn Theodore Seaborg]]
[[he:גלן תיאודור סיבורג]]
[[nl:Glenn Seaborg]]
[[ja:グレン・シーボーグ]]
[[pl:Glenn Theodore Seaborg]]
[[pt:Glenn Theodore Seaborg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Province of Grosseto</title>
<id>13122</id>
<revision>
<id>40364213</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_ProvinceIT |
fullname = Province of Grosseto|
name = Grosseto|
region = [[Tuscany]] |
capital = [[Grosseto]] |
commune = 28 |
area = 1,504 |
population_as_of = (2001) |
population = 210,876 |
populationdensity = 47 |
vehicle = GR |
postal_code = 58010-58012, 58014-58015, 58017, 58019-58020, 58022-58026, 58031, 58033-58034, 58036-58038, 58042-58045, 58051, 58053-58055 |
telephone_prefix = 0564, 0566 |
ISTAT = 053 |
president = Lio Scheggi |
map = [[Image:Grosseto posizione.png|150px|]]|
coatofarms = [[Image:Provincia di Grosseto-Stemma.png|120px]]|
}}
'''Grosseto''' (It. ''Provincia di Grosseto'') is a [[Provinces of Italy|province]] in the [[Tuscany]] region of [[Italy]]. Its capital is the city of [[Grosseto]].
In the grid of the modern town you can find the old town centre surrounded by the green "Hexagon" of the ramparts which Francesco I renewed (1574). After the ravage of the Saracen in 935 the survivors from Roselle, an etruscan town, took shelter here, on the plain of Ombrone river a dozen of kilometres away from the sea. The fortune of the place followed the frequent alternation between land drainage and malaria which has been defeated in our century. Since 1336 Siena owned the town which surrendered to the Medicis only in 1559, after Montalcino. Grosseto is the chief town and market of "Tuscan Maremma", it is essentially based on agricolture. You can visit The Cathedral built at the end of 1200, the "Art and Archeological Museum", the Walls and the church of St.Francis, in the surroundings there is the Natural Park of Maremma and the Etruscan ruins of Roselle.see [http://www.italiantravelteam.com/tuscany.html this link])
It has an area of 4,504 sq km, and a total population of 211,086 (2001). There are 28 ''communes'' in the province (source: Italian institute of statistics ''Istat'', see [http://www.upinet.it/indicatore.asp?id_statistiche=6 this link]).
Other ''comunes'' of the province include [[Follonica]], [[Orbetello]] and [[Massa Marittima]].
The Natural Park of [[Maremma]] lies in the province.
In [[Monte Argentario]] all the [[European classical music|classical music]] lovers have appointment in the prestigious [[CIMA Festival]]
==External links==
* [http://www.provincia.grosseto.it Province homepage (in Italian)]
[[Category:Provinces of Italy|Grosseto]]
[[Category:Tuscany]]
{{italy-geo-stub}}
{{Tuscany}}
[[cs:Provincie Grosseto]]
[[de:Provinz Grosseto]]
[[fr:Province de Grosseto]]
[[id:Provinsi Grosseto]]
[[it:Provincia di Grosseto]]
[[nl:Grosseto (provincie)]]
[[ja:グロッセート県]]
[[pl:Prowincja Grosseto]]
[[pt:Província de Grosseto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>General Cornwallis</title>
<id>13123</id>
<revision>
<id>15910755</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:29:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gama'at Islamiya</title>
<id>13124</id>
<revision>
<id>15910756</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-16T13:49:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hajor</username>
<id>23076</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge and redirect [[Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gaussian distribution</title>
<id>13125</id>
<revision>
<id>15910757</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-19T20:57:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[normal distribution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis</title>
<id>13126</id>
<revision>
<id>40364237</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis''' or '''Gustave Coriolis''' ([[May 21]] [[1792]]&ndash;[[September 19]] [[1843]]), [[mathematician]], [[mechanical engineer]] and [[scientist]] born in [[Paris]], [[France]]. He is best known for his work on the [[Coriolis Effect]].
In [[1816]] Coriolis became a tutor at the [[École Polytechnique]]. Here he carried out experiments on [[friction]] and [[hydraulics]].
In 1829 Coriolis published a textbook, ''Calcul de l'Effet des Machines'' (Calculation of the Effect of Machines), which presented mechanics in a way that could be readily be applied by industry. In this period the correct expression for [[kinetic energy]], <math>\frac{1}{2}mv^2</math>, and its relation to [[mechanical work]] became established.
During the following years Coriolis worked to extend the notion of kinetic energy and work to rotating systems. The first of his papers, ''Sur le principe des forces vives dans les mouvements relatifs des machines'' (On the principle of kinetic energy in the relative motion in machines), was read to the Académie des Sciences (Coriolis 1832). Three years later came the paper that would make his name famous, ''Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps'' (On the equations of relative motion of a system of bodies (Coriolis 1835). Coriolis's papers do not deal with the atmosphere or even the rotation of the earth, but with the transfer of energy in rotating systems like waterwheels.
Coriolis's name began to appear in the meteorological literature at the end of the nineteenth century, although the term "[[Coriolis force]]" was not used until the beginning of the twentieth century. Today, the name Coriolis has become strongly associated with meteorology, but all major discoveries about the general circulation and the relation between the pressure and wind fields were made without knowledge about Gaspard Gustave Coriolis.
Coriolis died at the age of 51 in [[Paris]].
==Reference==
* Persson, A., 1998 ''How do we Understand the Coriolis Force?'' Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 79, 1373-1385. <BR>[http://www.ap.cityu.edu.hk/Ap8813/References/Coriolis/Coriolis.pdf 374 KB PDF-file of the above article]
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Coriolis}}
{{france-bio-stub}}
{{mathbiostub}}
[[Category:1792 births|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:1843 deaths|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Polytechnique|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:French mathematicians|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:French physicists|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:French engineers|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:Mechanical engineers|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[da:Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis]]
[[de:Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis]]
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[[ja:ガスパール＝ギュスターヴ・コリオリ]]
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[[pt:Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis]]
[[ru:Кориолис, Гюстав Гаспар]]
[[sl:Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis]]
[[vi:Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guppy</title>
<id>13127</id>
<revision>
<id>40761963</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:25:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>4.179.38.2</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of this word, see [[Guppy (disambiguation)]]''.
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Guppy
| status = {{StatusSecure}}
| image = guppy-male.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Cyprinodontiformes]]
| familia = [[Poeciliidae]]
| genus = '''''[[Poecilia]]'''''
| species = '''''P. reticulata'''''
| binomial = ''Poecilia reticulata''
| binomial_authority = [[Wilhelm Peters|Peters]], 1859
}}
The '''guppy''', alternatively '''guppie''' ('''''Poecili |
atalized) ''d'' as {{IPA|/ð<sup>j</sup>/}}.
* The distinction between {{IPA|/ɔːɹ/}} and {{IPA|/oʊɹ/}} in ''horse'' and ''hoarse'' is preserved.
* The distinction between {{IPA|[&#603;&#633;]}}-{{IPA|[&#618;&#633;]}}-{{IPA|[&#652;&#633;]}} in ''herd-bird-curd'' is preserved.
* "l" is clear wherever it occurs in a word, as in French
* 'Pure' vowels: "boat", in a traditional accent, is pronounced {{IPA|/boːt/}}, and cane is pronounced {{IPA|/keːn/}}
* The "i" in "night" may be pronounced {{IPA|/ɔɪ/}}.
* The "u" in Dublin may be pronounced {{IPA|/ʊ/}}.
* In [[County Cork]], some vowel sounds are often altered. An "e" sound becomes an "i" ("well" becomes "will"). Also "Cork" is locally pronounced as {{IPA|/kɑːɹk/}}.
* An accent unique to Dublin known as the [[Dublin 4]] intonation (referring to the local [[Dublin postal districts|postal district]]) is an urban/suburban middle class feature. This is an oft derided [[posh]] [[dialect]] that renders words such as 'car' as 'core' and 'far' as 'fore'. [[Dublin 4]] speakers often end a sentence with the [[high rising terminal|rising question]] 'Do you know what I mean?' contracted and pronounced rapidly as 'Dja kneww whad I min?'
* Similarly the [[working-class]] Dublin accent is a unique urban feature resembling the [[blue-collar]] accents of [[Manchester]] and [[Liverpool]] in [[England]]. This dialect includes phrases such as 'What's the story, Bud?' meaning 'How are you, friend?' pronounced 'Wats de stary bud?' and 'Mad out of it!' pronounced 'Mad ou vih!' meaning [[drunk]] or intoxicated by [[Psychoactive drug|drugs]]. 'Giddup de yaard' or 'gerrup de yaard' means 'Get lost!' or 'I disagree.'
* In some old-fashioned varieties, words spelled with ''ea'' and pronounced with {{IPA|[i&#720;]}} in RP are pronounced with {{IPA|[e&#720;]}}, for example ''meat'', ''beat''.
* In words where "oo" usually forms an {{IPA|/ʌ/}} sound, it may be changed to an {{IPA|/uː/}} sound, e.g. ''book'' is pronounced "buke".
== Grammar derived from Irish ==
The Irish language has no words which directly translate as "yes" or "no", instead the verb in a question is repeated in an answer. People in Ireland have a tendency to repeat the verb, positively or negatively, instead of using "yes" or "no."
* "Are you coming home soon?" "I am."
* "Is your mobile charged?" "It isn't."
(However, quite a number of people in Ireland, especially younger people, exclusively use the words '''yes''' and '''no''', as elsewhere in the English-speaking world.)
Alternatively, it is common for Irish English-speakers to use the word "aye" as a weak form of "yes" (somewhat akin to "sure" or "yeah").
* "It's getting late, is it?" "Aye, it is." or " It is, aye. " in [[County Donegal|Donegal]].
* "Is that okay with you?" "Aye."
Irish verbs have two present tenses, one indicating what is occurring at this instant and another used for continuous actions. For example, 'you are now' is ''tá tú anois'' (literally 'are you now'), but 'you are every day' is ''bíonn tú gach lá'' (literally 'be you each day'; or, 'you do be every day').
Irish speakers of English, especially in rural areas, especially north Mayo/Sligo, use the verb "to be" in English similarly to how they would in Irish, using a "does be/do be" (or "bes", although less frequently) construction to indicate this latter continuous present:
* "He does be working every day."
* "They do be talking on their mobiles a lot."
* "They bes doing a lot of work at school." (rare)
* "It's him I do be thinking of."
Irish has no pluperfect tense: instead, "after" is added to the present continuous (a verb ending in "-ing"). The idiom for "I had done X when I did Y" is "I was after doing X when I did Y", modelled on the Irish usage of the compound prepositions ''i ndiaidh'', ''tar éis'', and ''in éis'': ''bhí mé tar éis/i ndiaidh/in éis X a dhéanamh, nuair a rinne mé Y''. This can most commonly be heard used by Dubliners.
* "Why did you hit him?" "He was after insulting me."
A similar construction is seen with the 'hot news perfect', used to express extreme excitement at something which has happened recently:
* "Jaysus, I'm after hitting him with de car!"
* "Would ya look at yer one &mdash; she's after losing five stone in five weeks!"
Less explosively, using what might be termed the 'warm news perfect', the Irish perfect can indicate a recent action of less stellar importance, strongly resembling the [[German language|German]] spoken perfect in structure:
* "I have the car fixed." ''Tá an glúisteán atosaithe agam.''
* "I have me breakfast eaten." ''Tá an bricfeasta ite agam.''
Mirroring the Irish language and almost every other European language, the plural 'you' is distinguished from the singular, normally by use of the otherwise archaic English word 'ye' (the word 'yous' (sometimes written as 'youse') also occurs, but primarily only in Dublin and north Ulster, from [[Donegal|Co. Donegal]] across to [[County Antrim|Co. Antrim]]):
* "Did ye/youse all go to see it?"
Also, in some areas in Leinster, and also north Mayo/Sligo, the hybrid word 'ye-s', pronounced 'yis', may be used.
* "Are yis not finished yet?"
In rural areas the reflexive version of pronouns is often used for emphasis or to refer indirectly to a particular person, etc., according to context:
* "Was it all of ye or just yourself?"
* "'Tis herself that's coming now." ''Is sí féin atá ag teacht anois.''
- where 'herself' might, for example, be the boss or the woman of the house. Use of 'herself' or 'himself' in this way often indicates that the speaker attributes some degree of arrogance or selfishness to the person in question. Note also the indirectness of this construction relative to, for example, 'She's coming now' and the use of "'Tis" rather than the more standard contraction "It's".
It is also common to end sentences with 'no?' or 'yeah?'
* "He's not coming today, no?" ''Níl sé ag teacht inniú, nach bhfuil?''
* "The bank's closed now, yeah?" ''Tá an banc dúnta anois, an bhfuil?''
Though because of the particularly insubstantive yes and no in Irish, (the
''nach bhfuil?'' and ''an bhfuil?'' being the interrogative positive and negative of the verb 'to be') the above may also find expression as
* "He's not coming today, sure he isn't?" ''Níl sé ag teacht inniú, nach bhfuil?''
* "The bank's closed now, isn't it?" ''Tá an banc dúnta anois, nach bhfuil?''
Irish English also always uses the "light l" sound, and the naming of the letter 'h' as 'haitch' is standard. A is often pronounce "Ah" and Z as "Ezed"
When describing something, rural Hiberno-English speakers may use the term 'in it' where 'there' would usually be used. This is due to the Irish word ''ann'' (pronounced "oun") fulfilling both meanings.
* Is it yourself that's in it? ''An é tusa a bhfuil ann?''
This isn't limited only to the verb 'to be': it's also used with 'to have' when used as an auxiliary; and, with other verbs, the verb 'to do' is used. This is most commonly used for intensification.
* This is strong stuff, so it is.
* We won the game, so we did.
* She's a right lash, so she is.
There are some language forms that stem from the fact that there is no verb 'to have' in Irish. Instead, possession is indicated in Irish by using the preposition 'at,' (in Irish, ''ag.''). To be more precise, Irish uses a prepositional pronoun that combines ''ag'' "at" and ''me'' "me" to create ''agam''.
In English, the verb "to have" is used, along with a "with me" or "on me" that derives from ''Tá ....agam.''
This gives rise to the frequent
* The book, I have it with me.
* Do you have the book? I have it with me.
* Have you change for the bus on you?
* I have my phone on me, if you want to use it.
Somebody who can speak a language 'has' a language, in which Hiberno-English has borrowed the grammatical form used in Irish.
* She doesn't have Irish. ''Níl Gaeilge aici.'' literally 'There is no Irish at her'.
Another idiom is this thing or that thing described as 'this man here' or 'that man there', which also features in [[Newfoundland English]] in [[Canada]].
*This man here. ''An fear seo.''
*That man there. ''An fear sin.''
The reported clause is also often preserved in its direct form, for example 'John asked me to buy a loaf of bread' becomes 'John asked me would I buy a loaf of bread'.
'''Bring''' and '''take''': Irish use of these words differs from that of English, because it follows the Gaelic grammar for ''beir'' and ''tóg''. English usage is determined by direction; Irish usage is determined by person. So, in English, one <big>takes</big> "''from'' here ''to'' there", and <big>brings</big> it "''to'' here ''from'' there". But, in Irish, a person <big>takes</big> only when accepting a transfer of possession of the object from someone else &mdash; and a person <big>brings</big> at all other times, irrespective of direction (to or from). Thus someone might say "Don't forget to bring your umbrella with you when you go" or, to a child, "Hold my hand: I don't want someone to take you."
== Preservation of older English and Norman French usage ==
In old-fashioned usage, "it is" can be freely abbreviated "'tis", even |
n some animistic worldviews found in [[hunter-gatherer]] cultures, the human being is often regarded as on a roughly equal footing with animals, plants, and natural forces. Therefore, it is morally imperative to treat these agents with respect. In this worldview, humans are considered a denizen, or part, of nature, rather than superior to or separate from it. In such societies, ritual is considered essential for survival as it wins the favor of the spirits of one's source of food, shelter, and fertility and wards off malevolent spirits. In more elaborate animistic religions, such as [[Shinto]], there is a greater sense of a special character to humans that sets them apart from the general run of animals and objects, while retaining the necessity of ritual to ensure good luck, favorable harvests, and so on.
Most animistic belief systems hold that the spirit survives physical death. In some systems, the spirit is believed to pass to an easier world of abundant game or ever-ripe crops, while in other systems (''e.g.'', the [[Navajo Nation|Navajo]] religion), the spirit remains on earth as a [[ghost]], often malignant. Still other systems combine these two beliefs, holding that the soul must journey to the spirit world without becoming lost and thus wandering as a ghost. [[Funeral]], [[mourning]] rituals, and [[ancestor worship]] performed by those surviving the deceased are often considered necessary for the successful completion of this journey.
Rituals in animistic cultures are often performed by [[shaman|shamans]] or [[priest|priests]], who are usually seen as possessing spiritual powers greater than or external to the normal human experience.
The practice of [[shrunken head|head shrinking]] as found among [[headhunter]]s derives from an animistic belief that one's war enemies, if the spirit is not trapped within the head, can escape the body. After the spirit [[transmigrates]] to another body, they take the form of a [[predator]]y animal and exact revenge.
Animism is the belief that objects and ideas including animals, tools, and natural phenomena have or are expressions of living [[spirit]]s.
==Origins==
Early ideas on the subject of the soul, and at the same time the origin of them, can be illustrated by analysis of the terms applied to them. Readers of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] know the idea that the dead have no shadows. This was no invention of the poet's but a piece of traditional lore.
Among the [[Basutoland|Basutus]] it is held that a man walking by the brink of a river may lose his life if his shadow falls on the water, for a [[crocodile]] may seize it and draw him in.
In [[Tasmania]], [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] and classical Europe is found the conception that the soul &#8212; &#963;&#954;&#953;&#8049;, ''umbra'' &#8212; is identical with the shadow of a person. More familiar to Europeans is the connection between the soul and the breath. This identification is found both in [[Indo-European languages | Indo-European]] and [[Semitic languages]]. In Latin we have ''spiritus'', in Greek ''pneuma'', in Hebrew ''ruach''. The idea is found extending other planes of culture in Australia, America and Asia.
For some of the [[Native Americans (U.S.)|Native Americans]] and [[First Nations]] the [[Roman religion|Roman]] custom of receiving the breath of a dying man was no mere pious duty but a means of ensuring that his soul was transferred to a new body. Other familiar conceptions identify the [[soul]] with the [[liver]] (see [[omen]]) or the [[heart]], with the reflected figure seen in the [[pupil]] of the [[eye]], and with the [[blood]].
Although the soul is often distinguished from the vital principle, there are many cases in which a state of unconsciousness is explained as due to the absence of the soul. In [[South Australia]] ''wilyamarraba'' (without soul) is the word used for insensible. So too the [[autohypnosis|autohypnotic]] [[trance]] of the [[magician]] or ''[[shaman]]'' is regarded as due to their visit to distant regions or the [[netherworld]], of which they bring back an account. [[Telepathy]] or [[clairvoyance]], with or without [[trance]], may have operated to produce a conviction of the dual nature of man, for it seems possible that facts unknown to the [[automatism|automatist]] are sometimes discovered by means of [[crystal gazing]].
Sickness is often explained as due to the absence of the soul and means are sometimes taken to lure back the [[wandering soul]]. In [[China|Chinese]] tradition, when a person is at the point of death and their soul believed to have left their body, the patient's coat is held up on a long bamboo pole while a priest endeavours to bring the departed spirit back into the coat by means of [[incantation]]s. If the bamboo begins to turn round in the hands of the relative who is deputed to hold it, it is regarded as a sign that the soul of the [[moribund]] has returned (see [[automatism]]).
More important perhaps than all these phenomena, because more regular and normal, was the daily period of [[sleep]] with its frequent fitful and incoherent ideas and images. The mere immobility of the body was sufficient to show that its state was not identical with that of waking. When, in addition, the sleeper awoke to give an account of visits to distant lands, from which, as modern [[psychic]]al investigations suggest, they may even have brought back veridical details, the conclusion must have been irresistible that in sleep something journeyed forth, which was not the body (see [[astral travel]]). In a minor degree, revival of [[memory]] during sleep and similar phenomena of the sub-conscious life may have contributed to the same result. [[Dreams]] are sometimes explained in animist cultures as journeys performed by the sleeper, sometimes as visits paid by other persons, by animals or objects to the sleeper. [[Hallucinations]], possibly more frequent in the lower stages of culture, must have contributed to fortify this interpretation, and the animistic theory in general. Seeing the [[phantasm]]ic figures of friends at the moment when they were, whether at the point of death or in good health, many miles distant, must have led people irresistibly to the [[dualistic theory]]. But hallucinatory figures, both in dreams and waking life, are not necessarily those of the living. From the reappearance of dead friends or enemies, primitive man was inevitably led to the belief that there existed an incorporeal part of man, which survived the dissolution of the body. The soul was conceived to be a facsimile of the body, sometimes no less material, sometimes more subtle but yet material, sometimes altogether impalpable and intangible.
If the phenomena of dreams were, as suggested above, of great importance for the development of animism, the belief, which must originally have been a doctrine of human [[psychology]], cannot have failed to expand speedily into a general [[philosophy]] of [[nature]]. Not only human beings but animals and objects are seen in dreams and the conclusion would be that they too have souls. The same conclusion may have been reached by another line of argument.
[[Folk psychology]] posited a spirit in a person to account, amongst other things, for their actions. A natural explanation of the changes in the external world would be that they are due to the operations and volitions of spirits.
But apart from considerations of this sort, it is probable that animals must have been regarded as possessing souls, early in the history of animistic beliefs. We may assume that man attributed a soul to the beasts of the field almost as soon as he claimed one for himself.
The animist may attribute to animals the same sorts of ideas, the same soul, the same mental processes as himself, which may also be associated with greater power, cunning, or magical abilities. Dead animals are sometimes credited with a knowledge of how their remains are treated, potentially with the power to take vengeance on the hunter if he is disrespectful.
It is not surprising to find that many peoples respect and even worship animals (see ''[[totem]]'' or ''[[animal worship]]''), often regarding them as relatives. It is clear that widespread respect was paid to animals as the abode of dead ancestors, and much of the [[cult]]s to dangerous animals is traceable to this principle; though we need not attribute an animistic origin to it.
With the rise of [[species]], [[deities]] and the cult of individual animals, the path towards [[anthropomorphization]] and [[polytheism]] is opened and the respect paid to animals tended to be reduced or lost entirely, especially in its strict animistic character.
==Plant souls==
Just as human souls are assigned to animals, so too are [[tree]]s and [[plant]]s often credited with souls, both human and animal in form. All over the world [[agricultural]] peoples practise elaborate ceremonies explicable, as [[Wilhelm Mannhardt]] has shown, on animistic principles.
In Europe the [[John Barleycorn | corn spirit]] sometimes [[immanent]] in the crop, sometimes a presiding [[deity]] whose life does not depend on that of the growing corn, is conceived in some districts in the form of an [[ox]], [[hare]] or [[cock]], in others as an old man or woman. In the [[East Indies]] and Americas the [[rice]] or [[maize mother]] is a corresponding figure; in [[classical Europe]] and the [[Eastern world |East]] we have in [[Ceres]] and [[Demeter]], [[Adonis]] and [[Dionysus]], and other deities, vegetation gods whose origin we can readily trace back to the rustic corn spirit.
[[Forest]] [[tree]]s, no less than [[cereal]]s, may have their indwelling spirits. The [[faun]]s and [[satyr]]s of classical literature were [[goat]]-footed; in [[Russia]], the [[tree spirit]] of the Russian peasantry takes the form of a [[goat]]. In [[Bengal]] and the [[East Indies]] woodcutters endeavour to propitiate the spirit of the tree which they |
]]
[[pt:Cónica]]
[[ru:Коническое сечение]]
[[sl:Stožnica]]
[[fi:Kartioleikkaus]]
[[sv:Kägelsnitt]]
[[th:ภาคตัดกรวย]]
[[tr:Konikler]]
[[zh:圆锥曲线]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Chemical equilibrium</title>
<id>5306</id>
<revision>
<id>38279031</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T07:29:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>220.255.32.230</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemical equilibrium''' is the state in which a [[chemical reaction]] proceeds at the same rate as its [[Reversible reaction|reverse reaction]]; the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, and the [[concentration]] of the reactants and products stop changing. When this condition is met, there is no change in the [[proportion]]; i.e., concentrations of the various compounds involved, and it appears that the reaction ceases to progress. However the forward and the reverse reactions continue to occur at the same rates. A common example given is the [[Haber process|Haber-Bosch process]], in which [[hydrogen]] and [[nitrogen]] combine to form [[ammonia]]. [[Equilibrium]] is reached when the rate of production of ammonia equals its rate of decomposition. '''[[Le Chatelier's principle]]''' describes qualitative predictions that can be made about chemical equilibrium.
The equilibrium position of a [[reaction]] is said to lie ''far to the right'' if nearly all the reactants are used up and ''far to the left'' if hardly any product is formed from the reactants. Changing the conditions of a reaction can result in a shift to the right or to the left of the equilibrium position.
Without energy input chemical reactions always proceed towards equilibrium. For a reaction at equilibrium:
:<math>kA + mB</math> {{unicode|&#8652;}} <math>nC + pD</math>
The concentrations of reactants and products are related by the following equation:
:<math>K = \frac{\left[C\right]^n \left[D\right]^p} {\left[A\right]^k \left[B\right]^m}</math>
where K is a constant called the [[equilibrium constant]]. This equation was discovered by [[Cato Guldberg]] and [[Peter Waage]]. The brackets in an equilibrium constant expression denote [[molarity]] of the involved substances. The right side of the equation is called the mass action expression and is denoted ''Q'' for a generic state (not necessarily in equilibrium). In this form it is called a [[reaction quotient]]. Since chemical reactions tend to reach equilibrium, if one or several reactants are added to a system at equilibrium (thus changing the value of ''Q''), the formation of products will be favoured for an interval of time, until ''Q'' equals ''K''; and vice versa. It is important to notice that pure [[liquid|liquids]], [[solvents|solvents]] and [[solids|solids]] are not included in the equilibrium constant equation, because their concentrations remain constant.
The value of the equilibrium constant for a given system depends only on [[temperature|temperature]]. One important implication of that is the possibility of shifting an equilibrium in order to favour the formation of either reactants or products through temperature changes.
For a single-step reaction, the equilibrium can easily be derived just by considering the [[chemical kinetics|kinetics]] involved. Unlike rate equations, though, it still holds for multi-step reactions since the expressions for each step just multiply together in order to compose the global process equation.
In a more rigorous approach, the behaviour of a system at chemical equilibrium can be analysed by [[thermodynamics|thermodynamics]]. Chemical systems tend to reach equilibrium because it is the state in which global [[thermodynamic entropy|entropy]] is the highest ("global" refers to the sum of the entropy of the system and of its surroundings). As a consequence, the value of equilibrium constants depends on [[thermodynamic potentials|thermodynamic potentials]] of the system. The dependence of thermodynamic potentials explains why equilibrium constants are related to it. The value of K is related to temperature according to the following expression:
:<math>K_T = K_\infty e^{-\frac{\Delta E}{RT}}</math>
where &Delta;''E'' is the difference in [[energy]] per mole between reactants and products, ''e'' is the [[e (mathematical constant)|base of the natural logarithm]], and ''R'' is the [[gas constant]]. The constant is mainly influenced by [[thermodynamic entropy|entropy]] change; however, analysing it using entropy is more difficult&mdash;whereas energy is roughly constant against concentration, entropy varies logarithmically so it is required to refer back to a particular state. The relationship makes the most sense in terms of the free energy difference, &Delta;''F''* = &Delta;''E'' - ''T''&Delta;''S''*, which represents the total work that can be done by the system as it develops. At equilibrium &Delta;''F'' = 0, which gives us
:<math>\Delta F^* = RT \ln {\left(\frac{Q^*}{K}\right)}</math>
Very often the system is considered to be at [[standard state]], where ''Q'' = 1 in appropriate units, which can then be neglected. Note that all this applies to a reaction at constant temperature only. For a reaction at constant pressure (which is actually somewhat more typical) the thermodynamic potential to be used would be the [[Gibbs free energy]], &Delta;''G''* = &Delta;''H'' - ''T''&Delta;''S''*, where &Delta;''H'' is the change in [[enthalpy]]. Using Gibbs free energy makes it possible to write an alternative equation:
:<math>\Delta G^* = -RT \ln {K}</math>
It is possible to derive from those thermodynamical relations that the equilibrium constant is equal to the mass action expression at equilibrium; however, this relationship is not always strictly true. In a [[solution]], for instance, interactions between the involved substances (both solutes and solvents) could affect the equilibrium constant. Therefore, the equilibrium constant is more rigorously defined by the substances [[activity coefficients|activity coefficients]], which are usually assumed to be equal to the molarities of solutes or equal to one for solids and solvents.
==References==
Atkins, Peter; Jones, Loretta. ''Princípios de química : Questionando a vida moderna e o meio ambiente.'' Tradução por Ignez Caracelli et alii. Porto Alegre : Bookman, 2001. (Translated from Atkins, Peter; Jones, Loretta. ''Chemistry: the quest for insight''). Vaibhav Patel 2005
==See also==
*[[Equilibrium constant]]
*[[Acidity constant]]
*[[Solubility equilibrium]]
*[[Mass balance]]
*[[Free energy]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[bg:Химично равновесие]]
[[de:Chemisches Gleichgewicht]]
[[es:Equilibrio de solubilidad]]
[[he:שיווי משקל כימי]]
[[hu:Dinamikus egyensúly]]
[[it:Equilibrio chimico]]
[[nl:Evenwichtsreactie]]
[[pl:Równowaga reakcji chemicznych]]
[[sv:Le Châteliers princip]]
[[tr:Kimyasal denge]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cattle</title>
<id>5307</id>
<revision>
<id>42110793</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:13:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thomas Connor</username>
<id>651611</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Cattle in popular culture */ Disambiguate Fallout to Fallout (computer game)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- ATTENTION! PLEASE READ BEFORE EDITING!
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:{{Redirect|Cow}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cattle
| status = {{StatusDomesticated}}
| image = Cow.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Friesian/Holstein cow
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Bovinae]]
| genus = ''[[Bos]]''
| species = '''''B. taurus'''''
| binomial = ''Bos taurus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
}}
'''Cattle''' (called '''cows''' in vernacular usage, or '''kine''' [archaic]) are [[domestication|domesticated]] [[ungulate]]s, a member of the [[subfamily]] [[Bovinae]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Bovidae]]. They are raised as [[livestock]] for meat (called [[beef]] and [[veal]]), [[dairy product]]s ([[milk]]), [[leather]] and as [[draught animal]]s (pulling [[cart]]s, [[plow]]s and the like). In some countries, such as [[India]], they are subject to religious ceremonies and respect. It is estimated that there are 1.3 billion head of cattle in the world today [http://cattle-today.com/].
Cattle were originally identified by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] as three separate species. These were ''Bos taurus'', the European cattle, including similar types from Africa and Asia; ''Bos indicus'', the [[zebu]]; and the extinct ''Bos primigenius'', the [[aurochs]]. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and European cattle. More recently these three have increasingly been grouped as one species, sometimes using the names ''Bos primigenius taurus'', ''Bos primigenius indicus'' and ''Bos primigenius primigenius''. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between European cattle and zebu but also with [[yak]]s, [[banteng]], [[gaur]], and [[bison]], a cross-genera hybrid. For example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only hum |
he American war room how the device is a natural extension to the Cold War stratagem of [[mutually assured destruction]] as a deterrent to an actual nuclear exchange. Moreover, the machine cannot be turned off as this would mitigate its value as a deterrent.
[[Image:warroom.jpg|250px|right|thumb|The iconic Pentagon War Room set.]][[Image:strangelove123.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Dr. Strangelove delivering his "deterrence" oration.]]
[[Image:Slim-pickens riding-the-bomb.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Major Kong, the captain of the "Leper Colony," riding the bomb to nuclear oblivion.]]
As a result, the American government cooperates with the Soviets to shoot the General's planes down until they can be recalled. As American troops attack Ripper's base, Ripper commits suicide. The clueless commander of the unit attacking the base, Colonel "Bat Guano" believes that British [[Group Captain]] Lionel Mandrake, an officer participating in an "exchange program" with the USAF, is leading a mutiny of "deviated preverts" against General Ripper (He fails to recognise the RAF uniform as that of an allied nation), but he ultimately relents and helps Mandrake call the President and inform him of the recall code, which he deduces from Ripper's [[doodle]]s.
Unfortunately, one [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]] ("The Leper Colony") was damaged, but not destroyed, by a Soviet [[anti-aircraft missile]]. The missile hit triggers the self-destruct system of the aeroplane's radio (presumably designed to prevent the CRM114 code machine from being reverse-engineered should it be captured), and with no radio the aircraft cannot be called back; and with a fuel leak, it also cannot reach its intended target, the [[Laputa]] Missile Complex, where the remaining Soviet defenses have been concentrated. So the plane continues its mission, evading the combined efforts of both the US and the USSR to stop it, to drop its [[nuclear bomb|nuclear payload]] on a new Soviet target (now selecting the Kodlosk ICBM complex, not the plane's secondary target but still within the plane's range), which will in turn set off the doomsday machine. The bay doors jam closed, and in trying to open them, the pilot of the B-52, Major "King" Kong (in one of [[Hollywood]]'s most memorable film moments) inadvertently ends up riding one of the bombs down to global destruction — with Kong cheering all the way. Kong straddles the bomb, gripping it with one hand and waving his [[cowboy hat]] in the air with his other in an homage to [[rodeo]] [[bullriding]] technique.
The doomsday device is apparently activated. According to the Soviet ambassador, life on Earth's surface will be extinct within ten months; Dr. Strangelove recommends to the President that a group of about 100,000 humans be relocated to deep in a mine shaft, where the nuclear fallout cannot reach, so the Earth can be repopulated. Because of obvious limits to space in the mines, Strangelove suggests that a ratio of "ten females to each male". The chosen women would be selected based on their youth and beauty (to ensure the males would want to impregnate them), while the chosen males would be selected based on their intellectual and physical strength. Turgidson rants that they "cannot allow a mine shaft gap" (spoofing the [[missile gap]] fears) and begins planning a war for when they emerge in a hundred years. In the concluding scenes, a visibly excited Strangelove bolts out of his wheelchair shouting "Mein Führer, I can walk!" a mere second before the doomsday bombs begin exploding.
{{endspoiler}}
==Themes==
Although it is a [[comedy]], ''Dr. Strangelove'' is also suspenseful and engrossing and not the least "madcap". Two major scenes of action are the immense War Room dominated by the Big Board showing the location of every American bomber in the world, and the meticulous B-52 interior. The remainder is set in General Ripper's headquarters at Burpleson Air Force Base.
[[The Pentagon]] did not cooperate in making the film, as it did in making ''[[Strategic Air Command (film)|Strategic Air Command]]'' ([[1955]]). Because the B-52 was state of the art in the 1960s, its cockpit was off limits to the film crew; the cockpit was reconstructed by educated guesses made in comparing the interior of a [[B-29 Superfortress]]'s cockpit and a single photo of a [[B-52 Stratofortress]]'s cockpit to the geometry of the B-52's fuselage; it was so accurate that the [[Department of Defense]] suspected the film crew of sneaking into a B-52 and taking pictures.
''Dr. Strangelove'' takes passing shots at all sorts of [[Cold War]] attitudes, but focuses its satire on the theory of [[mutual assured destruction]] (MAD), in which each side is supposed to take comfort in the fact that a nuclear war would be a cataclysmic disaster. [[Herman Kahn]] in his 1960 ''On Thermonuclear War'' used the concept of a doomsday machine in order to mock mutually assured destruction &mdash; in effect, Kahn argued, both sides already had a sort of doomsday machine. Kahn was a leading critic of American strategy during the 1950s and urged Americans to plan for a limited nuclear war. Kahn became one of the architects of the MAD doctrine in the 1960s. The prevailing thinking that a nuclear war was inherently unwinnable and suicidal was illogical to the physicist turned strategist. Kahn came off as cold and calculating; for instance, in his works, he estimated how many human lives the United States could lose and still rebuild economically. This attitude is reflected in Turgidson's remark to the president about the outcome of a pre-emptive nuclear war: "Now I'm not saying we wouldn't get our hair mussed, but I am saying no more than 10 to 20 million killed. Tops!" In the War Room, Turgidson also has a binder which is labeled “World Targets in [[Megadeath|Megadeaths]]”.
It satirizes the conventions of Hollywood war movies, as well as the curious "[[red telephone]]" relationship between heads of state, in which a first-name intimacy competes with a culturally conditioned dislike for the other and for the entire political system which he heads:
:"I'm sorry, too, Dimitri. ... I'm very sorry. ... ''All right'', you're sorrier than I am, but I am as sorry as well. ... I am as sorry as you are, Dimitri! Don't say that you're more sorry than I am, because I'm capable of being just as sorry as you are. ... So we're both sorry, all right?! ... All right." (Dialog improvised by Sellers)
The title character, Dr. Strangelove, is a comment on the US government's morally questionable use of Nazi scientists in programs such as nuclear weapons research. Dr. Strangelove, played by Peter Sellers, retains a thick German accent, and mistakenly calls the President "Mein Führer" on more than one occasion. His appearance echoes the villains of the [[Fritz Lang]] era in 1920s Germany whose sinister and evil characters were usually offset by some disability. Sellers improvised Dr. Strangelove's lapse into the Nazi salute, borrowing one of Kubrick's black gloves for the uncontrollable hand that makes the [[Sieg heil]] gesture. Sellers found the director's gloves that Kubrick perpetually wore to avoid direct contact with hot lights to be especially menacing. The thought of the new, post-war centrally controlled, underground, male-dominated society with its members specially selected from the population is evocative of Nazi visions and animates Dr. Strangelove at the end.
Also, the film is sprinkled with many sly sex jokes. For example: the long opening scene of a bomber being fueled mid-flight from a long pipe, accompanied by romantic music; the classic image of Slim Pickens straddling the nuclear bomb in ecstasy; Ripper's obsession with "precious bodily fluids" resulting from an incident of [[impotence]]; and the final montage of multiple nuclear explosions. Foreshadowing the idea of "missile envy" in later decades, it suggests that the Cold War's obsession with nuclear weapons might at least partially be a silly and immature contest of perceived sexual prowess and [[Phallus|phallic]] fixations.
The movie is based upon the [[Cold War]] thriller novel ''[[Red Alert (book)|Red Alert]]''. Stanley Kubrick had originally wanted to film the story as a serious drama. However, he explained during interviews that the comedy inherent in the idea of MAD became apparent as he was writing the first draft of the film's script. Kubrick stated:
:"My idea of doing it as a nightmare comedy came in the early weeks of working on the screenplay. I found that in trying to put meat on the bones and to imagine the scenes fully, one had to keep leaving out of it things which were either absurd or paradoxical, in order to keep it from being funny; and these things seemed to be close to the heart of the scenes in question." &mdash; ''Macmillan International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers'', vol. 1, p. 126
==Ending==
{{spoiler}}
The planned original ending to the film was a chaotic pie-fight scene with the Soviet ambassador in the war room. It was cut from the final print and the film ends with Strangelove stepping out of his wheelchair (saying, "Mein Führer, I can walk!") right before a montage of nuclear explosions, accompanied by [[Vera Lynn]]'s singing of the WWII standard "[[We'll Meet Again (song)|We'll Meet Again]]". Reportedly, [[Spike Milligan]] was responsible for suggesting the montage ending.
{{endspoiler}}
==Critical views==
''Dr. Strangelove'' is currently #18 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]'s list of top 250 films, and was also listed as #26 on the [[American Film Institute]]'s 100 Years, 100 Movies and #3 on its 100 Years, 100 Laughs. Sellers' line "Gentlemen, you can't fight in here! This is the war room!" made #64 on AFI's 100 Years, 100 Quotes. The film has also |
nly legitimate way to purchase the soundtrack is through Amazon Japan [http://www.amazon.co.jp/exec/obidos/ASIN/B0009J8HB6/procyonstudio-22]. Amazon Japan will gladly ship overseas and does feature English support for its pages.
==Awards/Ratings==
This is a list of various awards and overall ratings that the game has so far received.
* [[Electronic Gaming Monthly]] - Gold Award
Also, [[GameSpot]] has reviewed over 1100+ games and has only given 4 of them a perfect 10/10.
''Chrono Cross'' is one of them.
* [http://www.gamespot.com/ps/rpg/chronocross/index.html?q=chrono+cross GameSpot considers ''Chrono Cross'' to be perfect in every manner.]
As of January 2006, [http://www.rottentomatoes.com/g/playstation/chrono_cross/ Rottentomatoes.com] gives a rating of 92% for ''Chrono Cross'', [http://www.gamerankings.com/htmlpages2/196917.asp Gamerankings.com] provides a rating of 93%, and the fan ratings on GameSpot averages to 9.3/10.
=="Chrono Break"==
Square applied for a trademark for the name ''[[Chrono Break]]'' in the U.S., late 2001, resulting in speculation by fans of the possibility of a sequel. However, the trademark was dropped in the [[United States]] on [[November 13]], [[2003]], confirmed by the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]]. The trademark still stands in Japan, where it was registered as ''Chrono Brake''. It is suspected that the project had been planned at one point (with one of the original ''Chrono Trigger'' project leads at the helm, and not the ''Chrono Cross''/''[[Xenogears]]''/''[[Final Fantasy XI]]'' staff), but cancelled before production could begin. Focus on other games such as the Final Fantasy series may have also contributed to Square's abandonment of this title.
==Packaging artwork==
<center>
<gallery>
Image:Chrono Cross Japanese box art.jpg|''Chrono Cross''<br>Sony PlayStation<br>Japan, 1999
Image:chronocrossbox.jpg|''Chrono Cross''<br>Sony PlayStation<br>North America, 2000
Image:Chrono Cross Square Millennial Collection box art.gif|''Chrono Cross: Square Millennium Collection''<br>Sony PlayStation<br>Japan, 2000
</gallery>
</center>
==See also==
* [[Chrono Cross Timeline]]
* [[List of Chrono Cross characters]]
==External links==
{{wikibooks}}
* [http://www.square-enix-usa.com/games/CC/ Official US Site]
* {{dmoz|Games/Video_Games/Roleplaying/C/Chrono_Series/Chrono_Cross/|''Chrono Cross''}}
* [http://www.chronocompendium.com/Term/Chronology Timelines at the Chrono Compendium Encyclopedia]
* {{musicbrainz album 3|name=Chrono Cross Original Soundtrack|id1=b25cf44d-4195-4f7c-bec6-bb7cc6fb6fb9|id2=9ae16ba9-3d1f-4bb3-9436-6450efd1f3c6|id3=ad3e94f0-975b-4da7-af8f-4194c92e66d0}}
{{-}}{{Chrono Cross}}
[[Category:1999 computer and video games]]
[[Category:2000 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Chrono games]]
[[Category:PlayStation games]]
[[es:Chrono Cross]]
[[fr:Chrono Cross]]
[[ja:クロノ・クロス]]
[[pt:Chrono Cross]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Curl Contents Language</title>
<id>7841</id>
<revision>
<id>15905889</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-11T08:52:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.253.40.212</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Curl programming language]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Planned economy</title>
<id>7843</id>
<revision>
<id>41667177</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:09:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Natalinasmpf</username>
<id>107009</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.63.27.36|207.63.27.36]] ([[User talk:207.63.27.36|talk]]) to last version by Christiaan</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''planned economy''' is an [[economic system]] in which decisions about the production, allocation and consumption of goods and services is planned ahead of time, in either a centralized or decentralized fashion. Since most known planned economies rely on plans implemented by the way of command, they have become widely known as '''command economies'''. Any economic system that is centrally-planned by a government is commonly referred to as economic [[statism]]. To stress the usual centralized character of planned economies and to contrast the term with decentralized planning such as in a [[participatory economy]], the more specific term, '''centrally planned economy''', is often used. This article primarily deals with centrally planned economies.
== Support for centrally planned economies ==
Supporters of planned economies cast them as a practical measure to ensure the production of necessary goods&#8212;one which does not rely on the vagaries of [[free market|free markets]].
*The government can harness land, labor, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state (which, in turn, may be decided by the people through a [[democracy|democratic]] process). Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. The state can begin building a heavy industry at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry, and without reliance on external financing.
*A planned economy can maximize the continuous utilization of all available resources. This means that planned economies do not suffer from a [[business cycle]]. Under a planned economy, neither unemployment nor idle production facilities should exist beyond minimal levels, and the economy should develop in a stable manner, unimpeded by inflation or recession.
*A planned economy can serve social rather than individual ends: under such a system, rewards, whether wages or perquisites, are to be distributed according to the social value of the service performed. A planned economy eliminates the dependence of production on individual profit motives, which may not in themselves provide for all society's needs.
Taken as a whole, a centrally planned economy would attempt to substitute a number of firms with a single firm for an entire economy. As such, the stability of a planned economy has implications with the [[Theory of the firm]]. After all, most corporations are essentially 'centrally planned economies', aside from some token intra-corporate pricing (not to mention that the politics in some corporations resemble that of the Soviet Politburo). That is, corporations are essentially miniature centrally planned economies and seem to do just fine in a free market. As pointed out by Kenneth Arrow and others, the existence of firms in free markets shows that there is a need for firms in free markets; opponents of planned economies would simply argue that there is no need for a sole firm for the entire economy.
==Objections to centrally planned economies ==
Critics of command economy argue that planners cannot detect demand with sufficient accuracy (in a market economy, price signals serve this purpose). For example, during certain periods in the history of the [[Soviet Union]], shortages were so common that one could wait hours in a queue to buy basic consumer products such as shoes or bread. These shortages were due in part to the central planners deciding, for example, that making tractors was more important than making shoes at that time, or because the commands were not given to supply the shoe factory with the right amount of leather, or because the central planners had not given the shoe factories the incentive to produce the required quantity of shoes of the required quality. This difficulty was first noted by economist [[Ludwig von Mises]], who called it the "[[economic calculation problem]]". Economist [[János Kornai]] developed this into a [[shortage economy]] theory.
Critics also argue that the claimed advantages of the latter are in fact achievable by state intervention within the framework of market economy as well. In particular, it is possible to create unprofitable but socially useful goods within the context of a market economy. For example, one could produce a new drug by having the government collect taxes and then spend the money for the social good. It is also claimed that market economies allow societies to evaluate the cost of social goods and choose rationally between different alternatives.
Critics also point out that certain types of command economies may require a state which intervenes highly in people's personal lives. For example, if the state directs all employment then one's career options may be more limited. If goods are allocated by the state rather than by a market economy, citizens cannot, for example, move to another location without state permission because they would not be able to acquire food or housing in the new location, since those were not preplanned for (however, advocates of planned economy may point out that a market economy does not guarantee the existence of food and housing at the new location either).
==Planned economies and socialism ==
''Main article: [[Socialist economics]]''
In the 20th century, most planned economies were implemented by states that called themselves [[socialism|socialist]]. Also, the greatest support for planned economics comes from socialist authors. For these reasons, the notion of a planned economy is often directly associated with socialism. However, they do not entirely overlap. There are branches of socialism such as [[libertarian socialism]], that reject a centralized state, and some of these tendencies reject economic planning as well.
Furthermore, planned economies are not unique to socialist states. Socialism is concerned above all with achieving some degree of equality of wealth between members of society, but a planned economy, as such, does not necessarily imply an egalitarian distribution of wealth. Some authors have argued that eleme |
eat of the [[university]])
* [[Christuskirche]] (Christ Church, built 1859-1864 by Conrad Wilhelm Hase in [[neo-Gothic]] style)
* [[Neues Rathaus]] (new town hall, built 1901-1913 based on plan by Eggert and Halmhuber)
* [[Maschsee]] (artificial lake, affectionately called the "blue eye" of Hanover)
* [[Eilenriede]] (big inner-city forest, affectionately called the "green lung" of Hanover)
* [[Skulpturenmeile]] (street art project started in the [[1970s]] with sculptures from John Henry, Niki de Saint Phalle, Kenneth Snelson and many others)
* [[Gehry Tower]] (post-modern building in the inner city near the Steintor Square)
* [[Hermes Tower]] (steel skeleton tower at the exhibition grounds in Laatzen)
* [[VW Tower]] (old broadcast tower near the central bus station)
* [[Telemax]] (new broadcast tower in Hannover-Buchholz, highest building in Hanover)
Recommended Day Trips:
* [[Hildesheim]]: beautiful medieval town famous for its [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO-cultural heritage]] [[Cathedral]]s, marketplace and old [[half-timbering|half-timbered]] houses; also for its Pelizäus Museum with an important section on ancient Egypt
* [[Hamelin]] (Hameln): the beautiful town is famous for the [[folktale]] of [[The Pied Piper of Hamelin]]
==Towns named after Hanover==
* [[Hanover, Ontario|Hanover]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
* [[Hanover, South Africa|Hanover]], [[Northern Cape]], [[South Africa]]
* [[Hanover, Minnesota|Hanover]], [[Minnesota]], [[USA]]
* [[Hanover, New Hampshire|Hanover]], [[New Hampshire]], [[USA]]
* [[Hanover, Pennsylvania|Hanover]], [[York County, Pennsylvania|York County]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[USA]]
* [[Hanover, Massachusetts|Hanover]], [[Massachusetts]], [[USA]]
* [[Hanover, Maine|Hanover]], [[Maine]], [[USA]]
==Twinning==
{|
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|UK}} - [[Bristol]], [[United Kingdom]]
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Perpignan]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Rouen]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|Malawi}} - [[Blantyre]], [[Malawi]]
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Poland}} - [[Poznan]], [[Poland]]
* {{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Hiroshima]], [[Japan]]
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Leipzig]], [[Germany]]
|}
==Airports==
Hanover and its area is served by [[Hanover/Langenhagen International Airport|Hanover/Langenhagen International Airport (HAJ)]]
==Miscellaneous==
'''Note:''' Hanover is the correct English spelling, even though the German spelling is with a double n. It should always be used when referring to the British [[House of Hanover]] (even if you choose to write the city the German way).
[[Image:Hannover Opernhaus.jpg|thumb|right|The Opernhaus ("state opera") is housed in its classical [[19th century]] theatre-building.]]
There are several universities in Hanover:
* [[University of Hanover]]
* Hanover Conservatory [http://www.hmt-hannover.de]
* Hanover Medical School [http://www.mh-hannover.de]
* [[School of Veterinary Medicine Hanover]]
There is one University of Applied Science and Arts in Hanover:
* [[Fachhochschule Hannover]] [http://www.fh-hannover.de]
Famous quarters of Hanover:
*[[Herrenhausen]]
*[[Hannover-Zoo]]
*[[Hannover-Nordstadt]]
*[[Hannover-Linden]]
The [[rock band]]s [[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]] and [[Fury in the Slaughterhouse]] are originally from Hanover.
== See also==
* [[Hanover Fair]] (Hannover Messe)
* [[CeBIT]] (CeBIT Computer Messe)
* [[Oktoberfest Hannover]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hannover.de/ City's own website]`
*[http://www.gvh.de Local Public Transport]
*[http://www.panorama-cities.net/hannover/hannover.html City Panoramas] - Panoramic Views of Hannover's Highlights
*[http://www.fembio.org/women-from/women-from-hannover.shtml FemBio] - Special: Notable Women of Hanover
*[http://www.hannovermesse.de/homepage_e?x=1 Hannover Messe] - Hanover Fair
*[http://www.cebit.de/7380?x=1 CeBIT] - Computer Fair
*[http://www.exposeeum.de/ EXPOseeum] - see what is left from [[Expo 2000]]
'''Hanover Nightlife'''
*[http://HannoverNet.org/ Nightlife, events, chat, and photos (original german)]
*[http://translate.google.com/translate?u=http%3A%2F%2Fhannovernet.ath.cx&langpair=de%7Cen&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&prev=%2Flanguage_tools Nightlife, events, chat, and photos (english)]
{{commons|Category:Hannover, Germany}}
[[Category:Cities in Lower Saxony]]
[[Category:Hanover|*]]
[[Category:German state capitals]]
[[als:Hannover]]
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[[bg:Хановер]]
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[[es:Hanóver]]
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[[fa:هانوور]]
[[fr:Hanovre]]
[[gl:Hannóver - Hannover]]
[[ko:하노버]]
[[is:Hannover]]
[[it:Hannover]]
[[he:הנובר]]
[[hu:Hannover]]
[[ka:ჰანოვერი]]
[[ku:Hannover]]
[[la:Hannoveria]]
[[lv:Hannovere]]
[[lt:Hanoveris]]
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[[ja:ハノーファー]]
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[[zh:漢諾威]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Handheld game console</title>
<id>14199</id>
<revision>
<id>41972041</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:39:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.137.173.201</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>copyedit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''handheld game console''' is a lightweight, portable electronic device for playing [[Computer and video games|video game]]s. Unlike [[video game console]]s, however, the controls, screen and speakers are all part of a single unit. Throughout the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], several companies – including [[Coleco]] and [[Milton-Bradley]] – made lightweight table-top or [[handheld electronic game]] devices. Today, these machines aren't considered strictly consoles, since they often would only play a single game. The first true handheld game console with interchangeable [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]] was the Milton Bradley [[Microvision]] in [[1979]]. [[Nintendo]] has dominated the handheld market since the release of the [[Game Boy]] in [[1989]], and is often credited as popularizing the handheld console concept.
== History ==
=== Origins ===
The first handheld game console to use interchangeable [[cartridge (electronics)|game cartridges]] was the [[Microvision]], designed by [[Smith Engineering]], and distributed and sold by [[Milton-Bradley]] in [[1979]]. A small screen, a small selection of games (only thirteen) led to its demise only two years later. Today, working Microvisions are quite rare. The keypad could be easily damaged and the [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] technology of the late [[1970s]] was poor, leading to liquid crystal leaking and darkening. In [[1984]], Japanese company [[Epoch Game Pocket Computer|Epoch]] released their [[Epoch Game Pocket Computer|Game Pocket Computer]]. Despite decent reviews, the system failed.
===Early 1990s===
The early 1990s was the re-launch of the handheld game console pillar of the video game market after the demise of the Microvision. As backlit LCD game consoles with color graphics consume a lot of power, they weren't battery friendly like the non-backlit original Game Boy with monochrome graphics which allowed more battery life. During this timeframe, [[rechargeable battery]] technology was not yet mature thereby rendering the advanced game consoles of the time such as the [[Game Gear]] and [[Atari Lynx]] [[list of major commercial failures in computer and video gaming|marketing flops in the handheld video game market]]. Now since game systems of today have proprietary rechargeable batteries such as the [[Game Boy Advance SP]] and [[Sony PSP]], handheld video game consoles of today are doing better than the ones from the past. Unlike the aforementioned current-generation consoles, the [[GP2X]] uses rechargeable [[alkaline battery|alkaline batteries]].
====Nintendo Game Boy====
{{main|Game Boy}}
[[Image:Gameboy.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The original Game Boy's design set the standard for handheld gaming consoles.]]It wasn't until five years later that [[Nintendo]] released the Game Boy. The design team headed by [[Gumpei Yokoi]] had also been responsible for the [[Game & Watch]] system, as well as the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] games ''[[Metroid]]'' and ''[[Kid Icarus]]''. The Game Boy came under scrutiny by some industry critics, saying that the monochrome screen was too small, and the processing power was inadequate. The design team had felt that low initial cost and battery economy were more important concerns, and when compared to the Microvision, the Game Boy was a huge leap forward.
Yokoi recognized that the Game Boy needed a [[killer app]] – at least one game that would define the console, and persuade customers to buy it. In June [[1988]], [[Minoru Arakawa]], CEO of Nintendo of America saw a demonstration of the game ''[[Tetris]]'' at a trade show. Nintendo purchased the rights for the game, and packaged it with the Game Boy system. It was almost an immediate hit. By the end of the year more than a million units were sold, and 25 million were sold by [[1992]]. The original Game Boy (along with the [[Game Boy Pocket]], [[Game Boy Color]], and [[Game Boy Advance]]) is the best selling game console ever, having sold more than 190 million units {{ref|gbsales}}. Some say that the [[Game Boy]] line had already reached more than 220 million units sold.
Although the Game Boy is by far the most successful handheld game system, there were a number of other systems made throughout the 1990s.
====Atari Lynx====
{{main|Atari Lynx}}
[[Image:Atari-lynx-1-1000.jpeg|right|thumbnail|Atari Lynx]]In 1987, [[Epyx]] created the Handy; a device that would turn into the Atari Lynx in 1989. It was the first color portable ever made, as well as the first with a backlit screen. It featured a color LCD screen with backlight, networking support with up to 17 other players, and advanced hardware that allowed the zooming and scaling of sprites. The Lynx could also be turned upside down to accommodat |
[Risch algorithm]]
* integrals can also be looked up in a [[table of integrals]]
* when integrating multiple times, we can use certain additional techniques, see for instance [[double integral]]s and [[coordinates (mathematics)#Polar coordinates|polar coordinates]], the [[Jacobian]] and the [[Stokes theorem]]
* [[computer algebra system]]s can be used to automate some or all of the work involved in the symbolic techniques above, which is particularly useful when the algebraic manipulations involved are very complex or lengthy
* if a function has no elementary antiderivative (for instance, exp(''x''<sup>2</sup>)), its integral can be approximated using [[numerical integration]]
== Antiderivatives of non-continuous functions ==
To illustrate some of the subtleties of the [[Fundamental Theorem of Calculus|fundamental theorem of calculus]], it is instructive to consider what kinds of non-continuous functions might have antiderivatives. While there are still open questions in this area, it is known that:
* Some highly pathological functions with large sets of discontinuities may nevertheless have antiderivatives.</li>
* In some cases, the antiderivatives of such pathological functions may be found by [[Riemann integral|Riemann integration]], while in other cases these functions are not Riemann integrable.
We first state some general facts and then provide some illustrative examples. Throughout, we assume that the domains of our functions are open intervals.
<ul>
<li>A necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a function ''f'' to have an antiderivative is that ''f'' have the [[intermediate value theorem|intermediate value property]]. That is, if [''a'',''b''] is a subinterval of the domain of ''f'' and ''d'' is any real number between ''f''(''a'') and ''f''(''b''), then ''f''(''c'')=''d'' for some ''c'' between ''a'' and ''b''. To see this, let ''F'' be an antiderivative of ''f'' and consider the continuous function ''g''(''x'')=''F''(''x'')-''dx'' on the closed interval [''a'', ''b'']. Then ''g'' must have either a maximum or minimum ''c'' in the open interval (''a'',''b'') and so 0=''g''&prime;(''c'')=''f''(''c'')-''d''.<li>
<li>The set of discontinuities of ''f'' must be a [[Baire space#Historical definition|meagre set]]. This set must also be an [[F-sigma]] set (since the set of discontinuities of any function must be of this type). Moreover for any meagre F-sigma set, one can construct some function ''f'' having an antiderivative, which has the given set as its set of discontinuities.</li>
<li>If ''f'' has an antiderivative, is [[boundedness|bounded]] on closed finite subintervals of the domain and has a set of discontinuities of [[Lebesgue measure]] 0, then an antiderivative may be found by integration.</li>
<li>If ''f'' has an antiderivative ''F'' on a closed interval [''a'',''b''], then for any choice of partition <math>a=x_0<x_1<x_2<\dots<x_n=b</math>, if one chooses sample points <math>x_i^*\in[x_{i-1},x_i]</math> as specified by the [[mean value theorem]], then the corresponding Riemann sum [[telescoping series|telescopes]] to the value ''F''(''b'')-''F''(''a'').
:<math>\sum_{i=1}^n f(x_i^*)(x_i-x_{i-1}) = \sum_{i=1}^n [F(x_i)-F(x_{i-1})] = F(x_n)-F(x_0) = F(b)-F(a)</math>
However if the set of discontinuities of ''f'' has positive Lebesgue measure, a different choice of sample points <math>x_i^*</math> will give a significantly different value for the Riemann sum, no matter how fine the partition. See Example 4 below.</li>
</ul>
=== Some examples ===
<ol>
<li>The function
:''f''(''x'') = 2''x'' sin (1/''x'') - cos(1/''x'')
with ''f''(0) = 0 is not continuous at ''x'' = 0 but has the antiderivative ''F''(''x'') = ''x''<sup>2</sup> sin(1/''x'') with ''F''(0) = 0. Since ''f'' is bounded on closed finite intervals and is only discontinuous at 0, the antiderivative ''F'' may be obtained by integration: <math>F(x)=\int_0^x f(t)\,dt</math>.
</li>
<li>The function
:<math>f(x)=2x\sin\left(\frac{1}{x^2}\right)-\frac{2}{x}\cos\left(\frac{1}{x^2}\right)</math>
with ''f''(0) = 0 is not continuous at ''x'' = 0 but has the antiderivative
:<math>F(x)=x^2\sin\left(\frac{1}{x^2}\right)</math>
with ''F''(0) = 0. Unlike Example 1, ''f''(''x'') is unbounded in any interval containing 0, so the Riemann integral is undefined.
</li><li> If ''f''(''x'') is the function in Example 1 and ''F'' is its antiderivative, and <math>\{x_n\}_{n\ge1}</math> is a [[dense set|dense]] [[countable]] subset of the open interval (-1,1), then the function
:<math>g(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{f(x-x_n)}{2^n}</math>
has as antiderivative
:<math>G(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{F(x-x_n)}{2^n}.</math>
The set of discontinuities of ''g'' is precisely the set <math>\{x_n\}_{n\ge1}</math>. Since ''g'' is bounded on closed finite intervals and the set of discontinuities has measure 0, the antiderivative ''G'' may be found by integration.
</li><li>Let <math>\{x_n\}_{n\ge1}</math> be a [[dense]] [[countable]] subset of the open interval (-1,1). Consider the everywhere continuous strictly increasing function
:<math>F(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{2^n}(x-x_n)^{1/3}.</math>
It can be shown that
:<math>F'(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{3\cdot2^n}(x-x_n)^{-2/3}</math>
[[image:antideriv1.gif|125px|right|thumb|Figure 1.]]
[[image:antideriv2.gif|thumb|right|125px|Figure 2.]]
for all values ''x'' where the series converges, and that the graph of ''F''(''x'') has vertical tangent lines at all other values of ''x''. In particular the graph has vertical tangent lines at all points in the set <math>\{x_n\}_{n\ge1}</math>. Moreover ''F''&prime;(''x'')&gt;0 for all ''x'' where the derivative is defined. It follows that the inverse function <math>G=F^{-1}</math> is differentiable everywhere and that <math>g(x)=G'(x)=0</math> for all ''x'' in the set <math>\{F(x_n)\}_{n\ge1}</math> which is dense in the interval [''F''(-1),''F''(1)]. Thus ''g'' has an antiderivative ''G''. On the other hand, it can not be true that
:<math>\int_{F(-1)}^{F(1)}g(x)\,dx=GF(1)-GF(-1)=2,</math>
since for any partition of [''F''(-1),''F''(1)], one can choose sample points for the Riemann sum from the set <math>\{F(x_n)\}_{n\ge1}</math>, giving a value of 0 for the sum. It follows that ''g'' has a set of discontinuities of positive Lebesgue measure. Figure 1 on the right shows an approximation to the graph of ''g''(''x'') where <math>\{x_n=\cos(n)\}_{n\ge1}</math> and the series is truncated to 8 terms. Figure 2 shows the graph of an approximation to the antiderivative ''G''(''x''), also truncated to 8 terms. On the other hand if the Riemann integral is replaced by the [[Lebesgue integral]], then [[Fatou's lemma]] or the [[dominated convergence theorem]] shows that ''g'' does satisfy the fundamental theorem of calculus in that context.
</li>
<li>In Examples 3 and 4, the sets of discontinuities of the functions ''g'' are dense only in a finite open interval (''a'',''b''). However these examples can be easily modified so as to have sets of discontinuities which are dense on the entire real line <math>(-\infty,\infty)</math>. Let
:<math>\lambda(x) = \frac{a+b}{2} + \frac{b-a}{\pi}\tan^{-1}(x)</math>
Then <math>g\left(\lambda(x)\right)\lambda'(x)</math> has a dense set of discontinuities on <math>(-\infty,\infty)</math> and has antiderivative <math>G\cdot\lambda.</math></li>
<li>Using a similar method as in Example 5, one can modify ''g'' in Example 4 so as to vanish at all [[rational numbers]]. If one uses a naive version of the [[Riemann integral]] defined as the limit of left-hand or right-hand Riemann sums over regular partitions, one will obtain that the integral of such a function ''g'' over an interval [''a'',''b''] is 0 whenever ''a'' and ''b'' are both rational, instead of ''G''(''b'')-''G''(''a''). Thus the fundamental theorem of calculus will fail spectacularly.</li>
</ol>
== References ==
* ''Introduction to Classical Real Analysis'', by Karl R. Stromberg; Wadsworth, 1981 (see [http://groups.google.com/group/sci.math/browse_frm/thread/8d900a2d79429d43/0ba4ff0d46efe076?lnk=st&q=&rnum=19&hl=en#0ba4ff0d46efe076 also])
* ''Historical Essay On Continuity Of Derivatives'', by Dave L. Renfro; http://groups.google.com/group/sci.math/msg/814be41b1ea8c024
[[Category:Integral calculus]]
[[ar:اشتقاق عكسي]]
[[de:Stammfunktion]]
[[es:Integral y función primitiva]]
[[fr:Primitive (mathématiques)]]
[[lt:Pirmykštė funkcija]]
[[nl:Primitieve (functie)]]
[[ja:不定積分]]
[[pl:Funkcja pierwotna]]
[[ru:Первообразная]]
[[su:Antiderivative]]
[[sv:Primitiv funktion]]
[[tr:İlkel fonksiyon]]
[[zh:原函数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphabet song</title>
<id>2824</id>
<revision>
<id>41324281</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T16:09:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>HJMG</username>
<id>948623</id>
</contributor>
<comment>verifying historical info</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-verify}}
The '''alphabet song''' is a popular tool used to help teach children the [[Latin alphabet]], commonly known by children as "the A-B-C's." It is used in [[kindergarten]]s, [[pre-school]]s and homes around the world. It is sung to the widely-known French folk tune "Ah! Vous Dirais-je, Maman", perhaps best-known as the melody of "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star", and also well-known as a set of Mozart piano variations on a theme.
The song was first copyrighted by Ch |
stor worship]] was also present, as was human and animal sacrifice.
When the Shang were overthrown by the [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]], a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the "[[Mandate of Heaven]]". This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position, and provided a shrewd justification for Zhou rule. During this period, archaeological evidence points to an increase in literacy and a partial shift away from the faith placed in Shang Di, with ancestor worship becoming commonplace and a more worldly orientation coming to the fore.
In around [[500 BC]], after the Zhou state weakened and China moved in to the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], the classic period of Chinese philosophy began (it is an interesting fact that this date nearly coincides with the emergence of the first [[Greek philosophers]]). This is known as the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] (&#30334;&#23478;, b&#462;iji&#257;). Of the many schools founded at this time and during the subsequent [[Warring States Period]], the four most influential ones were [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism|Daoism]] (often spelled "Taoism"), [[Mohism]] and [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]]. The short founder [[Qin Dynasty]], where Legalism was the official philosophy, [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars|quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools]]. Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the [[Han Dynasty]] adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the 20th century, with the introduction [[Buddhist philosophy]] (mostly during [[Tang Dynasty]]) negotiated largely through perceived similarities with Daoism.
The respective influences of Daoism and Confucianism are often described this way: "Chinese are Confucianist during the day, while they are Daoists at night". Moreover, many Chinese [[mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarins]] were government officials in the daily life ''and'' poets (or painters) in their spare time.
When the [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]] took over power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably Legalism, were denounced as backward, but their influence on Chinese thought remains.
== Great philosophical figures ==
* [[Confucius]], seen as the Great Master but sometimes ridiculed by Taoists.
** [[Mencius]], Confucius' follower having idealist inspiration.
** [[Xun Zi]], another Confucius' follower, closer to realism.
** [[Zhu Xi]], founder of [[Neo-Confucianism]]
** [[Wang Yangming]], most influential proponent of ''xinxue'' or "school of mind."
* [[Lao Zi]], the chief of Taoist school.
** [[Zhuang Zi]], said to be the author of the ''Zhuangzi''.
** [[Lie Zi]], said to be the author of the [[True Classic of Perfect Emptiness]].
* [[Mozi]], the founder of Mohist school.
* [[Han Fei]], one of the theoreticians of Legalism
* [[Lin-chi]], a great Buddhist [[Ch'an]] thinker and teacher, essentially shaped what would become one of the largest schools of [[Buddhism]] ([[Rinzai school]] of [[Zen]])
== Concepts within Chinese philosophy ==
Although the individual philosophical schools differ considerably, they nevertheless share a common vocabulary and set of concerns.
Among the terms commonly found in Chinese philosophy are:
*[[Tao]] (the Way, or one's doctrine)
*De (virtue, power)
*Li (principle)
*[[Qi]] (vital energy or material force)
*The ''[[Tai Ji]]'' (''Great Heavenly Axis'') forms a unity, from which two antagonistic concepts, ''[[Yin]]'' and ''[[Yang]]'' originate. The word ''Yin'' originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun. Philosophically, it stands the gloomy, passive, female concept, whereas ''Yang'' (the hillside facing the sun) stands for the bright, active, male concept. Both concepts, though antagonistic, are also complementary and the present domination of one implies the future rise of the other, as moon's phases (this is one of the meanings of the well-known Yin-Yang figures).
Among the great controversies of Chinese philosophies are:
* The relation between matter and principle
* The method of discovering truth
* Human nature
Among the commonalties of Chinese philosophies are:
* Epistemological optimism. The belief that the big questions can be answered even if the answers are not currently known.
* The tendency not to view man as separate from nature.
* The tendency not to invoke a unified and personified supernatural power. Questions about the nature and existence of [[God]] which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy have not been important in Chinese philosophies.
* The belief that the purpose of philosophy is primarily to serve as an ethical and practical guide.
* The political focus: most scholars of the Hundred Schools were trying to convince the ruler to behave in the way they defended.
== Further reading ==
* ''A History of Chinese Philosophy'' (Princeton Paperbacks), [[Fung You-lan]], tr. [[Derk Bodde]], 1983.
* ''Disputers of the Tao; Philosophical Argument in Ancient China'', [[A. C. Graham]], 1989.
* ''Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China'', [[Arthur Waley]], 1983.
* ''Chinese Thought, from Confucius to Mao Zedong'', [[Herrlee Glessner Creel]], 1971.
* ''The Importance of Living'', [[Lin Yutang]], 1996.
== See also ==
*[[Qi]]
*[[Qigong]]
*[[Tao]]
*[[Taoism]]
*[[Yin]]
*[[Yang]]
*[[Five Elements]]
*[[Chinese classic texts]]
*[[Eastern philosophy]]
*[[philosopher]]
*[[Chinese history]]
*[[:Category:Chinese philosophers|Chinese philosophers]]
*[[Religion in China]]
*[[List of publications in philosophy#Chinese philosophy|Notable publications in Chinese philosophy]]
*[[Chuang Chou]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou-literature.html The Hundred Schools of Thought] in http://www.chinaknowledge.de
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/Eastern_Philosophy/ dmoz' Eastern Philosophy directory]
* [http://main.chinesephilosophy.net/ Chinese Philosophical Etext Archive]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comparphil-chiwes/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Chinese-Western Comparative Philosophy]
[[Category:Chinese thought]]
[[fr:Philosophie chinoise]]
[[he:פילוסופיה סינית]]
[[pl:Filozofia chińska]]
[[ru:Китайская философия]]
[[sv:Kinesisk filosofi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Confucius</title>
<id>5823</id>
<revision>
<id>42140560</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:14:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dr.Gonzo</username>
<id>204836</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Names */ rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{copyedit}}
{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px bgcolor=#f7f8ff style="float:right; border:2px solid; margin-left: 1em"
|colspan=2 align=center style="margin: 10px; border-top:2px solid"|[[Image: Confucius_02.gif|center|Engraving of Confucius]]
|-
!style="background:#ccf; border-bottom:2px solid" align=center colspan=2|Confucius
|-
|align=center style="border-top:1px solid"|[[Chinese family name|Ancestral name]]:<br>(姓)||style="border-top:1px solid"|'''Zi'''&sup1; (子)<br><small>([[Pinyin]]: Zǐ)
|-
|align=center style="border-top:1px solid"|[[Chinese family name|Clan name]]:<br>(&#27663;)||style="border-top:1px solid"|'''Kong''' (&#23380;)<br><small>(Pinyin: K&#466;ng)
|-
|align=center style="border-top:1px solid"|[[Chinese given name|Given name]]:<br>(&#21517;)||style="border-top:1px solid"|'''Qiu''' (&#19992;)<br><small>(Pinyin: Qi&#363;)
|-
|align=center style="border-top:3px solid"|[[Chinese courtesy name|Courtesy name]]:<br>(&#23383;)||style="border-top:3px solid"|'''Zhongni''' (&#20210;&#23612;)<br><small>(Pinyin: Zhòngní)</small>
|-
|align=center style="border-top:1px solid"|[[Posthumous name|Posthumous name]]:<br>(&#35610;)||style="border-top:1px solid"|'''The Ultimate Sage <br>Master of Yore&sup2;'''
|-
|align=right| ||<small>(Ch: </small>&#33267;&#32854;&#20808;&#24107;<small> ;<br>Py: Zhìshèng Xi&#257;nsh&#299;)
|-
|align=center style="border-top:1px solid"|[[Style (manner of address)|Styled]]:||style="border-top:1px solid"|'''Master Kong'''&sup3;
|-
|align=right| ||<small>(Ch: </small>&#23380;&#23376;<small>, <br>less frequently </small>&#23380;&#22827;&#23376;<small>;
|-
|align=right| ||<small>Py: K&#466;ngz&#464;, less fr. <br>K&#466;ngf&#363;z&#464;;
|-
|align=right| ||<small>[[Wade-Giles|WG]]: K'ung-tzu, less fr.<br> K'ung Fu-tzu)</small>
|-
|colspan=2 align=left style="border-top:3px solid"|<small><sup>'''1'''</sup>This Chinese word (子), the ancestral name of<br>Confucius, should not be confused with the word<br>"master" as used in the style of Confucius "Master<br>Kong" (孔子). These are two different words written <br>with the same character in Chinese. Zi was the<br>surname of the ruling family of [[Shang]].
|-
|align=right |
|-
|colspan=2 align=left |<small><sup>'''2'''</sup> Posthumous name since [[1530]]. Between [[1307]]<br>and [[1530]], his posthumous name was: "The Lord<br>of Culture Ultimate Sage and Great<br>Accomplisher" (</small>&#22823;&#25104;&#33267;&#32854;&#25991;&#23459;&#29579;<small>) which is still<br>the name that can be seen on his tomb.
|-
|align=right |
|-
|colspan=2 align=left |<small><sup>'''3'''</sup> [[Romanization|Romanized]] as &q |
ty being supreme in case of conflict. In the [[United States]], parallel systems of law (providing money [[damage]]s) and equity (fashioning a remedy to fit the situation) survived well into the [[20th century]] in most jurisdictions. The United States [[federal court]]s separated law and equity until they were combined by the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in 1937 - the same judges could hear either kind of case, but a given case could only pursue causes in law or in equity, which of course led to all kinds of problems when a given case required both money damages and injunctive relief. [[Delaware]] still has separate courts of law and equity, and in many [[state]]s there are separate divisions for law and equity within one court.
== Common law legal systems ==
The common law constitutes the basis of the legal systems of: [[England and Wales]], the [[Republic of Ireland]], the states of the [[United States]] (except [[Louisiana]]), [[Canada]] (except [[Quebec]] [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]]), [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]], [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], [[Pakistan]], [[Singapore]], [[Hong Kong]], and many other generally English-speaking countries or [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries. Essentially, every country which has been colonised at some time by [[United Kingdom|Britain]] uses common law except those that had been colonised by other nations, such as Quebec (which follows French law to some extent) and South Africa (which follows Roman Dutch law), where the prior civil law system was retained to respect the civil rights of the local colonists. India's system of common law is also a mixture of [[English law]] and the local [[Hindu law]].
The main alternative to the common law system is the [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system, which is used in [[Continental Europe]], and most of the rest of the world. The former Soviet Bloc and other Socialist countries used a [[Socialist law]] system.
The opposition between civil law and common law legal systems has become increasingly blurred, with the growing importance of [[jurisprudence]] (almost like [[case law]] but in name) in civil law countries, and the growing importance of statute law and codes in common law countries (for instance, in matters of criminal and commercial law).
[[Scotland]] is often said to use the civil law system but in fact it has [[Scots law|a unique system]] which combines elements of an uncodified civil law dating back to the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] with an element of common law long predating the [[Act of Union (1707)|Treaty of Union]] with England in [[1707]]. Scots common law differs in that the use of ''precedents'' is subject to the courts seeking to discover the principle which justifies a law rather than to search for an example as a ''precedent'' and that the principles of natural justice and fairness have always formed a source of Scots Law. Comparable pluralistic legal systems operate in [[Quebec]], [[Louisiana]] and [[South Africa]]. These systems are referred to as [[mixed legal system]]s.
The [[U.S. state]] of [[California]] has a system based on common law, but it has [[codification|codified]] the law in the manner of the [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] jurisdictions. The reason for the enactment of the codes in California in the [[nineteenth century]] was to replace a pre-existing system based on [[Spain|Spanish]] civil law with a system based on common law, similar to that in most other states. California and a number of other [[Western United States|Western states]], however, have retained the concept of [[community property]] derived from civil law. The California courts have treated portions of the codes as an extension of the common-law tradition, subject to judicial development in the same manner as judge-made common law. (Most notably, in the case ''[[Li v. Yellow Cab Co.]]'', 13 Cal.3d 804 ([[1975]]), the [[California Supreme Court]] adopted the principle of [[comparative negligence]] in the face of a [[California Civil Code]] provision codifying the traditional common-law doctrine of [[contributory negligence]].)
The state of [[New York]], which also has a civil law history from its [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Dutch colonial]] days, also began a [[codification]] of its laws in the 19th century. The only part of this codification process that was considered complete is known as the [[Field Code]] applying to civil procedure. The original colony of [[New Netherlands]] was settled by the Dutch and the law was also Dutch. When the British captured pre-existing colonies they continued to allow the local settlers to keep their civil law. However, the Dutch settlers revolted against the English and the colony was [[Second Anglo-Dutch War|recaptured]] by the Dutch. When the English finally regained control of New Netherlands -- as a punishment unique in the history of the British Empire -- they forced the English common law upon all the colonists, including the Dutch. This was problematic as the [[patroon system]] of land holding, based on the feudal system and civil law, continued to operate in the colony until it was abolished in the mid-nineteenth century. The influence of [[Roman Dutch law]] continued in the colony well into the late nineteenth century. The codification of a law of general obligations shows how remnants of the civil law tradition in [[New York]] continued on from the Dutch days.
==Basic principles of common law ==
[[Statute]]s which reflect English common law are understood always to be interpreted in light of the common law tradition, and so may leave a number of things unsaid because they are already understood from the point of view of pre-existing [[case law]] and [[custom]]. This can readily be seen in the area of criminal law, which while remaining largely governed by the common law in England, has been entirely codified in many US states. [[Codification]] is the process where a statute is passed with the intention of restating the common law position in a single document rather than creating new offences, so the common law remains relevant to their interpretation. This is why even today American law schools teach the common law of crime as practised in England in [[1750]], since the colonies (and subsequently the states) deviated from the common law as practised in England only after that date.
By contrast to the statutory codifications of common law, some laws are purely statutory, and may create a new [[cause of action]] beyond the common law. An example is the [[tort]] of [[wrongful death]], which allows certain persons, usually a [[spouse]], child or [[estate (law)|estate]], to sue for damages on behalf of the deceased. There is no such tort in English common law; thus, any jurisdiction that lacks a wrongful death statute will not allow a lawsuit for the wrongful death of a loved one. Where a wrongful death statute exists, the damages or compensation available are limited to those outlined in the statute (typically, an upper limit on the amount of damages). Courts generally interpret statutes that create new causes of action narrowly -- that is, limited to their precise terms -- because the courts generally recognise the legislature as being supreme in deciding the reach of judge-made law unless such statute should violate some "second order" [[constitutional law]] provision (compare [[judicial activism]]).
Where a tort is rooted in common law, then all damages traditionally recognised historically for that tort may be sued for, whether or not there is mention of those [[damages]] in the current [[statutory law]]. For instance, a person who sustains bodily injury through the [[negligence]] of another may sue for medical costs, pain, suffering, loss of earnings or earning capacity, mental and/or emotional distress, loss of quality of life, disfigurement, and more. These damages need not be set forth in statute as they already exist in the tradition of common law. However, without a wrongful death statute, most of them are extinguished upon death.
==Works on the common law==
The definitive historical treatise on the common law is ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'', written by Sir [[William Blackstone]] and first published in [[1765]] - [[1769]]. Since [[1979]] a facsimile edition of that first edition has been available in four paper-bound volumes. Today it has been superseded in the English part of the [[United Kingdom]] by [[Halsbury's Laws of England]] that covers both common and statutory English law.
The U.S. Supreme Court Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] also published a short volume called ''[[The Common Law]]'' which remains a classic in the field. In the United States, the [[Corpus Juris Secundum]] is a compendium of the common law and its variations throughout the various state jurisdictions. The [[American Law Institute]] publishes Restatements of the common law which are often cited by American courts and lawyers when they need to invoke uncodified common law doctrines.
Scots ''common law'' covers matters including murder and theft, and has sources in custom, in legal writings and in previous court decisions. The legal writings used are called ''Institutional Texts'' and come mostly from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Examples include Craig, ''Jus Feudale'' (1655) and Stair, ''The Institutions of the Law of Scotland'' (1681).
==See also==
*[[Arraignment]]
*[[Civil law (legal system)]]
*[[Common-law marriage]]
*[[English law]]
*[[Grand jury]]
*[[Jury trial]]
*[[List of legal topics]]
*[[Scots law]]
==External links==
*[http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/Books/Holmes/claw_c.htm ''The Common Law''] by Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
*{{gutenberg|no=2449|name=The Common Law ''by Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.'}}
*[http://www.great-legal-advice.com/criminal-law/civil-and-common-law.htm Common law]
*[http://ausicl.com The Australian Institute of Compa |
ease the odds when forced to guess.
On the other hand, the same lists can be used by the hangman (the non-guessing player) to stump his/her opponent.
==Example game==
The following example game illustrates a player trying to guess the word ''hangman'' using a strategy based solely on letter frequency.
{|
|-
|1
|{{Hangman|word=.......|guess=E|misses=|misscount=0}}
|-
|2
|{{Hangman|word=.......|guess=T|misses=e|misscount=1}}
|-
|3
|{{Hangman|word=.......|guess=A|misses=e,t|misscount=2}}
|-
|4
|{{Hangman|word=.A...A.|guess=O|misses=e,t|misscount=2}}
|-
|5
|{{Hangman|word=.A...A.|guess=I|misses=e,o,t|misscount=3}}
|-
|6
|{{Hangman|word=.A...A.|guess=N|misses=e,i,o,t|misscount=4}}
|-
|7
|{{Hangman|word=.AN..AN|guess=S|misses=e,i,o,t|misscount=4}}
|-
|8
|{{Hangman|word=.AN..AN|guess=H|misses=e,i,o,s,t|misscount=5}}
|-
|9
|{{Hangman|word=HAN..AN|guess=R|misses=e,i,o,s,t|misscount=5}}
|-
|10
|{{Hangman|word=HAN..AN|guess=N/A|misses=e,i,o,r,s,t|misscount=6}}
|-
| colspan="3"|Guesser loses
|}
==See also==
* [[Tic-Tac-Toe Hangman]]
==External links==
*{{moby game|id=/hangman|name=''Hangman''}}
* [http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/games/games_eng.php Multilingual Hangman] - Online hangman game in many languages
* [http://goobix.com/games/hangman/ Goobix Hangman] - interactive, browser-playable, with English words
* [http://www.braingle.com/games/hangglider/index.php Braingle's Hang Glider] - Flash version of the game with high scores
* [http://www.friendlydragon.com/hangman/hangman.html Friendly Dragon Hangman] Online hangman game with alternate pictures and multiple word lists
[[Category:Guessing games]]
[[Category:Paper and pencil games]]
[[Category:Word games]]
[[de:Galgenmännchen]]
[[es:Ahorcado (juego)]]
[[fi:Hirsipuu]]
[[no:Hangman]]
[[sv:Hänga gubbe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harmonic mean</title>
<id>14463</id>
<revision>
<id>41225232</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T22:27:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ruakh</username>
<id>34628</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Harmonic mean of two numbers */ We don't need quite so much emphasis here.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''harmonic mean''' is one of several methods of calculating an [[average]]. Typically, it is appropriate for situations when the average of [[rate]]s is desired.
The harmonic mean (<math>H</math>) of the positive [[real number]]s ''a''<sub>1</sub>,...,''a''<sub>''n''</sub> is defined to be
:<math>H = \frac{n}{\frac{1}{a_1} + \frac{1}{a_2} + ... + \frac{1}{a_n}}.</math>
==Examples==
In certain situations, the harmonic mean provides the correct notion of "[[average]]". For instance, if for half the ''distance'' of a trip you travel at 40 miles per hour and for the other half of the ''distance'' you travel at 60 miles per hour, then your average speed for the trip is given by the harmonic mean of 40 and 60, which is 48; that is, the total amount of time for the trip is the same as if you traveled the entire trip at 48 miles per hour. (Note however that if you had traveled for half the ''time'' at one speed and the other half at another the [[arithmetic mean]], 50 miles per hour, would provide the correct notion of "average".)
Similarly, if in an electrical circuit you have two [[resistor]]s connected ''in parallel'', one with 40 [[ohm]]s and the other with 60 ohms, then the average resistance of the two resistors is 48 ohms; that is, the total resistance of the circuit is the same as it would be if each of the two resistors were replaced by a 48-ohm resistor. (This is not to be confused with their ''[[Series and parallel circuits|equivalent resistance]]'', 24 ohm, which is the resistance needed for a single resistor to replace the two resistors at once.)
==Harmonic mean of two numbers==
When dealing with just two numbers, an equivalent, sometimes more convenient, formula of their harmonic mean is given by:
:<math>H = \frac {{2} {a_1} {a_2}} {{a_1} + {a_2}}.</math>
In this case, their harmonic mean is related to their [[arithmetic mean]],
:<math>A = \frac {{a_1} + {a_2}} {2},</math>
and their [[geometric mean]],
:<math>G = \sqrt[2] {{a_1} \cdot {a_2}},</math>
by
:<math>H = \frac {G^2} {A}.</math>
Note that this result holds only in the case of just two numbers.
==Relationship with other means==
The harmonic mean is one of the [[Pythagorean means]] and is never larger than the [[geometric mean]] or the [[arithmetic mean]] (the other two [[Pythagorean means]]).
It is the special case <math>M_{-1}</math> of the [[power mean]].
It is equivalent to a [[weighted arithmetic mean]] with each value's weight being the reciprocal of the value.
==Other names==
In older literature, it is sometimes called the subcontrary mean.
==See also==
* [[Pythagorean means]]
* [[Geometric mean]]
* [[Arithmetic mean]]
* [[Weighted harmonic mean]]
* [[Rates]]
* [[Generalized mean]]
* [[Diatessaron (harmony)]]
* [[Tertius minor]]
==External links==
[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HarmonicMean.html Harmonic Mean at MathWorld]
[[Category:Means]]
[[bg:Средно хармонично]]
[[es:Media armónica]]
[[gl:Media harmónica]]
[[pl:Średnia harmoniczna]]
[[pt:Média harmônica]]
[[fi:Harmoninen keskiarvo]]
[[su:Harmonic mean]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hellbender</title>
<id>14465</id>
<revision>
<id>40429234</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T14:02:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.127.66.208</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Hellbender
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Lissamphibia]]
| ordo = [[Caudata]]
| familia = [[Cryptobranchidae]]
| genus = '''''Cryptobranchus'''''
| species = '''''C. alleganiensis'''''
| binomial = ''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis''
| binomial_authority = [[Francois Marie Daudin|Daudin]], [[1803]]
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision =
''C. a. alleganiensis'' (Eastern Hellbender)<br />
''C. a. bishopi'' (Ozark Hellbender)
}}
The '''Hellbender''' (''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis'') is a large aquatic [[salamander]] native to [[North America]] whose habitat includes large, swiftly flowing streams with rocky bottoms.
==Range==
The range of the '''Eastern Hellbender''' (''C. a. alleganiensis'') in North America extends from southwestern and south central [[New York]], west to southern [[Illinois]], and south to extreme northeastern [[Mississippi]] and the northern parts of [[Alabama]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. A disjunct population occurs in east-central Missouri. The '''Ozark Hellbender''' (''C. a. bishopi'') subspecies exists as a disjunct population in southeastern [[Missouri]] and adjacent [[Arkansas]].
==Anatomy & Physiology==
Hellbenders have a flat body and head, with small eyes. Like all [[salamanders]], they have short legs and thin bodies. Their tails, however, are especially keeled to help propel them through water. They have four toes on their front legs and five on their back ones. Although the Hellbender has working lungs, there is a single [[gill]] slit along each side of its neck, resembling fleshy folds. They reach lengths of eighteen to twenty-nine inches (forty-six to seventy-four centimeters), and weigh in at about three to five pounds. Their primary sources of food are crayfish, snails and worms.
They have powerful jaws and can inflict a painful bite. Male Hellbenders are territorial and physically compete for nesting areas. Hellbenders may live up to twenty-nine years in captivity, and follow a normal amphibious life cycle.
==Reproduction==
Females lay between 200 and 500 eggs after their breeding period in late August through September. Eggs are deposited in a nest made by the male under a large rock and will be guarded by the male until the eggs hatch after 2-3 months of gestation.
==External links and references==
* [http://www.dgif.state.va.us/wildlife/species/display.asp?id=020020 Commonwealth of Virginia Hellbender Information]
* [http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/endspec/hellfs.html State of New York Hellbender Information]
* [http://ecos.fws.gov/species_profile/SpeciesProfile?spcode=D032 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Endangered Species Program]
* [http://hellbenders.sanwalddesigns.com/ The Hellbender Homepage]
[[Category:Salamanders]]
[[es:Cryptobranchus alleganiensis]]
[[nl:Noord-Amerikaanse modderduivel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harold Eugene Edgerton</title>
<id>14466</id>
<revision>
<id>41663892</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:44:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BenFrantzDale</username>
<id>41799</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm "UNL" completely. This reads better.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Shockwave.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Schlieren photography|Shadowgraph]] of a .22-caliber bullet in flight<br>Taken by an MIT freshman in 1962, in Edgerton's lab. The flash was triggered by the shock wave (shown) hitting a microphone (out of frame). The picture shows no solid object except the bullet.]]
'''Harold Eugene "Doc" Edgerton''' ([[April 6]], [[1903]]&ndash;[[January 4]], [[1990]]) was a professor of [[electrical engineering]] at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. He is largely credited with transforming [[stroboscope]]s from an obscure laboratory instrument into a pedestrian device in every camera.
He grew up in Aurora, [[Nebraska]] and attended the [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln]]. After graduating, he married Esther Garret in [[1928]]. During their marriage they had three children: William, Robert |
text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bunsen burner</title>
<id>4924</id>
<revision>
<id>41559877</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T03:46:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.251.129.87</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bunsen_burner.jpg|thumb|right|140px|A bunsen burner with [[needle valve]]. The hose barb for the gas tube is facing left and the needle valve for gas flow adjustment is on the opposite side. Air inlet on this particular model is adjusted by rotating the barrel, thus opening or closing the vertical baffles at the base.]]
[[Image:Bunsen burner flame types .jpg|thumb|300px|right|Different flame types of Bunsen Burner depending on flow through the throat holes (holes on the side of the bunsen burner -- not to be confused with the needle valve for gas flow adjustment).<br/>1, air baffle closed (Safety flame)<br/>2, air baffle half open<br/>3, air baffle nearly fully open<br/>4, air baffle fully open]]
A '''Bunsen burner''' is a device used in scientific laboratories for heating, sterilization, and many other uses.
A common misconception is that the Bunsen burner was invented by [[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] but although it is named after him, it is actually an improvement made in [[1855]] by his laboratory assistant, [[Peter Desdega]], of an earlier design by [[Michael Faraday]].
The device safely burns a continuous stream of a flammable [[gas]]. It is most common for the burner today to run on [[natural gas]], or alternatively [[Liquified petroleum gas]] such as [[propane]] or [[butane]] or a mixture of both. Natural gas is principally composed of [[methane]] and small amounts of [[ethane]], propane and butane. At the time of its invention it would have mostly burnt [[coal gas]].
The burner has a weighted base - where the gas supply attaches - and a vertical tube rising from it. The gas flows from the gas supply connection to the base. The stream of gas then passes through a small hole at the bottom of the tube and is directed upward through the tube. There are open slots in the side of the tube at the bottom to admit air into the stream, via the [[Venturi effect]] and the gas burns at the top of the tube, once it is ignited.
The amount of inflow of air affects the heat of the flame, and the inflow can be controlled by adjusting the slot openings at the base of the tube by rotating the collar. If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter (appearing blue) as a result. If the holes are closed, the gas will only mix with ambient air at the point of combustion, that is, only after it has exited the tube at the top, and so it will burn less efficiently, producing a cooler but brighter flame (appearing yellow) which is often called the Safety flame. The yellow flame is [[luminosity|luminous]] due to small soot particles in the flame which are heated to [[incandescence]]. When the burner is regulated to produce a hot, blue flame it can be nearly invisible against some backgrounds.
Increasing the amount of fuel gas flow through the tube by opening the needle valve will of course increase the size of the flame, but unless the airflow is adjusted as well, the flame temperature will be lowered.
{{Commons|Bunsen burner}}
{{LaboratoryEquipment}}
[[Category:Laboratory equipment]]
[[de:Bunsenbrenner]]
[[es:Mechero Bunsen]]
[[fr:Bec Bunsen]]
[[it:Becco di Bunsen]]
[[nl:Bunsenbrander]]
[[pl:Palnik Bunsena]]
[[pt:Bico de Bunsen]]
[[zh:本生燈]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blue Whale</title>
<id>4925</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41825122</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:05:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Blue Whale
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Bluewhale877.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = The world's largest animal
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Cetacea]]
| subordo = [[Mysticeti]]
| familia = [[Balaenoptiidae]]
| genus = ''[[Balaenoptera]]''
| species = '''''B. musculus '''''
| binomial = ''Balaenoptera musculus ''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linneus]], 1758)
| range_map = cetacea_range_map_Blue_Whale.PNG
| range_map_width = 250px
| range_map_caption = Blue Whale range
}}
The '''Blue Whale''' (''Balaenoptera musculus'') is a [[marine mammal]] belonging to the suborder of [[baleen whale]]s. It is believed to be the [[Largest organism|largest animal]] ever to have lived, at up to 30 [[1 E1 m|metres]] (100 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]) in length and 140 [[tonne]]s (150 [[short ton]]s) or more in weight.
Blue Whales were abundant in most oceans around the world up until the beginning of the 20th century. For the first 40 years of that century they were hunted by [[whaling|whaler]]s almost to extinction. Hunting of the species was outlawed by the international community in 1966. The current world population is about ten thousand, which are located in at least five groups. Before whaling the largest population (202,000 to 311,000) was in the Antarctic but now the largest concentrations are in the North-East [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], the Antarctic, and the Indian Ocean, none of which contain more than a few thousand blue whales. There are two groups in the North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and at least two (possibly more) in the Southern Hemisphere.
==Taxonomy and evolution==
The Blue Whale is one of seven species of whale in the genus ''Balaenoptera''. DNA sequencing analysis, however, shows that Blue Whales are phylogenetically closer to the [[Humpback Whale|Humpback]] and [[Gray Whale]]s than other species in its genus. There have been at least 11 documented cases of Blue/[[Fin Whale]] hybrid adults in the wild. Aranson and Gullberg (1983) describe the genetic distance between a Blue and a Fin as about the same as that between a human and gorilla. The Balaenoptiidae family is believed to have diverged away from the other families of the Mysticetes suborder as long ago as the middle [[Oligocene]]. However, it is not known when the members of these families diverged from each other.
[[Image:Rorqual phylogenetic tree.PNG|left|thumbnail|250px|A [[phylogenetic tree]] of animals related to the Blue Whale]]
Authorities classify the species into three subspecies: ''B. m. musculus'', consisting of the north Atlantic and north Pacific populations, ''B. m. intermedia'', the Southern Ocean population and ''B. m. brevicauda'' (also known as the '''Pygmy Blue Whale''') found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific. Some older authorities also list ''B. m. indica'' as a further separate subspecies in the Indian Ocean, but it is most likely that these blue whales are pygmy blue whales, and this designation does not therefore have a listing in the [[Red List of Threatened Species]]. Both subdivisions are still questioned by some scientists; genetic analysis may yet show there are just two true subspecies.
The specific name ''musculus'' is [[Latin]] and could mean "muscular", but it can also be interpreted as "little mouse". [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], who named the species in his seminal work of 1758, would have known this and, given his sense of humour, may have intended the ironic [[double entendre|double meaning]]. Other common names for the Blue Whale have included the '''Sulphur-bottom''', '''Sibbald's Rorqual''', the '''Great Blue Whale''' and the '''Great Northern Rorqual'''. These names have fallen into disuse in recent decades.
<br style="clear:left;">
==Physical description==
The Blue Whale has a long tapering body that appears stretched in comparison with the much stockier appearance of other whales. The head is flat and U-shaped and has a very prominent ridge running from the blowhole to the top of the upper lips. The front part of the mouth is thick with [[baleen]] plates; around 300 plates (each one metre long) hang from the upper jaw, running half a metre back into the mouth. Between 60 and 90 grooves (called ventral pleats) run along the throat parallel to the body. These pleats assist with evacuating water from the mouth after lunge feeding (see feeding below).
The [[dorsal fin]] is small, visible only briefly during the dive sequence. It varies in shape from one individual to another; some only have a barely perceptible lump, whilst other fins are quite prominent and falcate. It is located around three-quarters of the way along the length of the body. When surfacing to breathe, the Blue Whale raises its shoulder and blow hole region out of the water to a greater extent than other large whales (such as the [[Fin Whale|Fin]] or [[Sei Whale|Sei]]). This can often be a useful clue to identifying a species at sea. Whilst breathing, the whale emits a spectacular vertical single column blow (up to 12 m, typically 9 m) that can be seen from several kilometres on a calm day. Its [[lung]] capacity is 5,000 [[litre]]s.
The flippers are three to four metres long. The upper side is gray with a thin white border. The lower side is white. The head and tail flippers are generally uniformly grey coloured whilst the back, and sometimes the flippers, are usually mottled. The degree of mottling varies substantially from individual to individual. Some may have a uniform gray colour all over, whilst others demonstrate a considerable variation of dark blues, grays and blacks all tightly mottled.
Blue Whales can reach speeds of 50 km/h (30 mph) over short bursts, usually when interacting with other whales, but 20 km/h (12 mph) is a more typical travellin |
]] of [[thermal energy]] due to a temperature difference (or [[gradient]].) The [[International System of Units|SI]] unit for heat is the [[joule]]; an alternative unit still in use in the U.S. and other countries is the [[British thermal unit]].
[[Image:Hot metalwork.jpg|thumb|left|250px|'''"Heat"''' emanating from a red-hot iron rod.]]
The amount of heat exchanged by an object when its temperature varies by one [[degree (temperature)|degree]] is called '''[[heat capacity]]'''. Heat capacity is specific to each and every object. When referred to a [[quantity]] unit (such as [[mass]] or [[moles]]), the heat exchanged per degree is termed '''[[specific heat]]''', and depends primarily on the [[composition]] and [[physical state]] ([[phase]]) of objects. [[Fuel]]s generate predictable amounts of heat when burned; this heat is known as '''[[heating value]]''' and is expressed per unit of quantity. Upon transitioning from one phase to another, pure substances can exchange heat without their temperature suffering any change. The amount of heat exchanged during a phase change is known as '''[[latent heat]]''' and depends primarily on the substance and the initial and final phase.
Heat is a [[process quantity]]&mdash;as opposed to being a [[state quantity]]&mdash;and is to thermal energy as [[mechanical work|work]] is to mechanical energy. Heat flows between regions that are not in thermal equilibrium with each other; it spontaneously flows from areas of high [[temperature]] to areas of low temperature. All objects ([[matter]]) have a certain amount of [[internal energy]], a state quantity that is related to the random motion of their [[atom]]s or [[molecule]]s. When two bodies of different temperature come into thermal contact, they will exchange internal energy until the temperature is equalized; that is, until they reach [[thermal equilibrium]]. The amount of energy transferred is the amount of heat exchanged. It is a common misconception to confuse heat with internal energy: heat is related to the change in internal energy and the work performed by the system. The term heat is used to describe the ''flow'' of energy, while the term internal energy is used to describe the energy itself. Understanding this difference is a necessary part of understanding the [[first law of thermodynamics]].
[[Infrared]] radiation is often linked to heat, since objects at room temperature or above will [[spontaneous emission|emit radiation]] mostly concentrated in the mid-infrared band (see [[black body]]).
== Notation ==
'''Total heat''' is traditionally abbreviated as ''Q'', and is measured in [[joules]] in [[SI]] units. Total heat, heat transfer rate, and heat flux are often abbreviated with different cases of the letter ''Q''. They are often switched in different contexts. Regarding sign convention, when a body releases heat into its surroundings, ''Q''&nbsp;&lt;&nbsp;0 (-). When a body absorbs heat from its surroundings, ''Q''&nbsp;&gt;&nbsp;0 (+). '''Heat transfer rate''', or heat flow per unit time, is labeled:
:<math>\dot{Q} = {dQ\over dt} \,\!</math>
to indicate a change per unit time. It is measured in [[watt]]s. '''Heat flux''' is defined as amount of heat per unit time per unit cross-sectional area, is abbreviated '''''q''''', and is measured in watts per meter squared. It is also sometimes notated as ''Q''&Prime; or ''q''&Prime; or <math>\dot{Q}''</math>.
==Thermodynamics==
The amount of heat energy, <math>\Delta Q</math>, required to change the temperature of a material from an initial temperature, ''T''<sub>0</sub>, to a final temperature, ''T<sub>f</sub>'' depends on the [[heat capacity]] of that material according to the relationship:
:<math>\Delta Q = \int_{T_0}^{T_f}C_p\,dT \,\!</math>
The heat capacity is dependent on both the amount of material that is exchanging heat and its properties. The heat capacity can be broken up in several different ways. First of all, it can be represented as a product of mass and [[specific heat capacity]] (more commonly called specific heat):
:<math>C_p = mc_s \,\!</math>
or the number of [[mole (unit)|mole]]s and the molar heat capacity:
:<math>C_p = nc_n \,\!</math>
Both the molar and specific heat capacities only depend upon the physical properties of the substance being heated, not on any specific properties of the sample. The above definitions of heat capacity only work approximately for [[solid]]s and [[liquid]]s, but for [[gas]]es they don't work at all most of the time. The molar heat capacity can be "patched up" if the changes of temperature occur at either a constant volume or constant [[pressure]].
Heat can be derived from the equation for [[internal energy]] <math> U </math> by rearranging:
:<math>q = U - w \ </math>.
where <math> w </math> is [[work]]. It is important to note that although <math> U </math> is a [[state function]] and therefore constant after each cycle of a [[heat engine]], neither <math>q </math> nor <math> w </math> is conserved.
==Changes of phase==
A boiling pot of [[water]], at [[sea level]] and normal atmospheric pressure, will always be at 100 &deg;C no matter how much heat is added. The extra heat changes the phase of the water from liquid into [[water vapor]]. The heat added to change the phase of a substance in this way is said to be "hidden," and thus it is called '''latent heat''' (from the [[Latin]] ''latere'' meaning "to lie hidden"). Latent heat is the heat per unit mass necessary to change the state of a given substance, or:
:<math>L = \frac{Q}{\Delta m} \,\!</math>
and
:<math>Q = \int_{M_0}^{M} L\,dm \,\!</math>
For example, turning 1 pound of water into one pound of steam at 100 °C and at normal atmospheric pressure would be: 1000 BTU = (1000 BTU/lb)(1 lb). Note that as pressure increases, the ''L'' rises slightly. Here, <math>M_o</math> is the amount of [[mass]] initially in the new phase, and ''M'' is the amount of mass that ends up in the new phase. Also,
''L'' generally doesn't depend on the amount of mass that changes phase, so the equation can normally be written:
:<math>Q = L\Delta m \,\!</math>
Sometimes ''L'' can be time-dependent if pressure and volume are time-varying, so that the integral can be handled:
:<math>Q = \int L\frac{dm}{dt}dt \,\!</math>
==Heat transfer mechanisms==
As mentioned previously, heat tends to move from a high temperature region to a low temperature region. This heat transfer may occur by the mechanisms [[heat conduction|conduction]] and [[Thermal radiation|radiation]]. In [[engineering]], the term ''[[convection|convective heat transfer]]'' is used to describe the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow and is regarded as a third mechanism of heat transfer.
===Conduction===
[[heat conduction|Conduction]] is the most common means of heat transfer in a solid. On a microscopic scale, conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and [[molecule]]s interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring atoms. In [[insulators]] the heat current is carried almost entirely by [[phonon]] vibrations.
The "electron fluid" of a [[conductor (material)|conductive]] metallic solid conducts nearly all of the heat current through the solid. Phonon currents are still there, but carry less than 1% of the energy. Electrons also conduct [[electric current]] through conductive solids, and the [[thermal conductivity|thermal]] and [[electrical conductivity|electrical conductivities]] of most [[metal]]s have about the same ratio. A good electrical conductor, such as [[copper]], usually also conducts heat well. The [[Peltier-Seebeck effect]] exhibits the propensity of electrons to conduct heat through an electrically conductive solid. [[Thermoelectricity]] is caused by the relationship between electrons, heat currents and electrical currents.
===Convection===
[[Convection]] is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. This is a term used to characterize the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow. In convection, [[enthalpy]] transfer occurs by the movement of hot or cold portions of the fluid together with heat transfer by conduction. For example, when water is heated on a stove, hot water from the bottom of the pan rises, heating the water at the top of the pan. Two types of convection are commonly distinguished, ''free convection'', in which gravity and buoyancy forces drive the fluid movement, and ''forced convection'', where a fan, stirrer, or other means is used to move the fluid. [[buoyancy|Buoyant]] convection is due to the effects of gravity, and absent in [[microgravity]] environments.
===Radiation===
[[Thermal radiation|Radiation]] is the only form of heat transfer that can occur in the absence of any form of medium and as such is the only means of heat transfer through a [[vacuum]]. Thermal radiation is a direct result of the movements of atoms and molecules in a material. Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles ([[proton]]s and [[electron]]s), their movements result in the emission of [[electromagnetic radiation]], which carries energy away from the surface. At the same time, the surface is constantly bombarded by radiation from the surroundings, resulting in the transfer of energy to the surface. Since the amount of emitted radiation increases with increasing temperature, a net transfer of energy from higher temperatures to lower temperatures results.
For room temperature objects (~300 K), the majority of photons emitted (and involved in radiative heat transfer) are in the [[infrared]] spectrum, but this is b |
ces like [[Devon]] or [[Cumbria]] cannot be considered English in modern times.
The [[Y-chromosomes]] of populations of the so called Celtic countries have been found in one study to primarily belong to [[haplogroup]] R1B, which makes them descendants partially of the first people to migrate into north-western Europe after the last major [[ice age]]. According to the most recently published studies of European haplogroups, around half of the current male population of that portion of [[Eurasia]] is a descendant of the R1B haplogroup.{{fact}}
== Origins and geographical distribution ==
[[Image:Celts 800-400BC.PNG|right|thumb|264px|The green area suggests a possible extent of (proto-)Celtic influence around [[1000 BC]]. The orange area shows the region of birth of the [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] style. The red area indicates an idea of the possible region of Celtic influence around [[400 BC]].<!--note the date, don't change unless you know what you are doing: not greatest extent: ''Art of the Celts'' shows iron age finds at Culbin Sands and Deskford, Banff, in NE Scotland, and 'Dark Age' Celtic art further north-->]]
The Celtic language family is a branch of the larger [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European family]], which leads some scholars to a hypothesis that the original speakers of the Celtic proto-language may have arisen in the [[Black Sea|Pontic]]-[[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] [[steppes]] (see [[Kurgan]]). However, as the Celts enter history from around [[600 BC]], they are already split into several languages groups, and spread over much of Central Europe, the [[Iberian peninsula]], [[Ireland]] and [[Britain]], and studies now suggest that some of the Celtic peoples - including the ancestors of all the modern Celtic nations - had a largely [[pre-Celtic]] genetic ancestry, shared with the [[Basque people]] and possibly going back to the Palaeolithic<ref>"<cite>In April last year, research for a BBC programme on the Vikings revealed strong genetic links between the Welsh and Irish Celts and the Basques of northern Spain and south France.<br />It suggested a possible link between the Celts and Basques, dating back tens of thousands of years. </cite>" [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/2076470.stm English and Welsh are races apart]</ref>.
Some scholars think that the [[Urnfield|Urnfield culture]] represents an origin for the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo-European family. This culture was preeminent in central [[Europe]] during the late [[Bronze Age]], from ca. [[1200 BC]] until [[700 BC]], itself following the [[Unetice culture|Unetice]] and [[Tumulus cultures|Tumulus]] cultures. The Urnfield period saw a dramatic increase in population in the region, probably due to innovations in technology and agricultural practices. The spread of [[Iron Age|iron-working]] led to the development of the [[Hallstatt culture]] directly from the Urnfield (c. [[700 BC|700]] to [[500 BC]]). [[Proto-Celtic]], the latest common ancestor of all known Celtic languages, is thought to have been spoken at the time of the late Urnfield or early Hallstatt cultures, in the early [[1st millennium BC]].
The spread of the Celtic languages to Britain and to Iberia would have occurred during the first half of the 1st millennium, the earliest [[chariot burial]]s in Britain dating to ca. [[500 BC]]. Over the centuries they developed into the separate [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] and [[Brythonic languages]]. Whether Goidelic and Brythonic are descended from a common Insular-Celtic language, or if they reflect two separate waves of migration is disputed. The La Tène culture, in any case, can be associated with the [[Gaul]]s, but it is entirely too late for a candidate for the Proto-Celtic culture.
The Hallstatt culture was succeeded by the [[La Tène culture]], and during the final stages of the [[Iron Age]] gradually transformed into the explicitly Celtic culture of early historical times. The La Tène culture was distributed around the upper reaches of [[Danube|the Danube]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]], southern and central [[Germany]], eastern France, Bohemia and Moravia, and parts of Hungary.
The technologies, decorative practices and metal-working styles of the La Tène were to be very influential on the continental Celts. The La Tène style was highly derivative from the Greek, Etruscan and Scythian decorative styles with whom the La Tène settlers frequently traded.
Additional forays into [[Greece]] and central [[Italy]] during the historical period did not result in settlement, though the same movement that brought Celtic invaders to Greece pushed on through to Anatolia, where they settled as the [[Galatia]]ns.
As there is no archaeological evidence for large scale invasions in some of the other areas, one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion. However, the Celtic invasions of Italy, Greece, and western Anatolia are well documented in Greek and Latin history. Examine the Map of Celtic Lands<ref>{{cite web | title= Map of Celtic Lands | url=http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>for more information.
[[Stonehenge]] and the other [[megalith|megalithic monuments]] long predate the Iron Age Celtic culture, but Genetic evidence indicates that the Celtic populations of the Atlantic Archipelago have been relatively stable for at least 6,000 years, in which case the modern Celts would be the direct descendants of their builders. There is no evidence that they used these sites as areas of worship from the Iron Age on, however, and indeed most evidence suggest that the [[Druidic]] Celtic religion(s) preferred to use groves of [[Oak]] trees as places of worship. The connection between these monuments and the Celts largely stems from 18th century romantics such as William Stukely.
== Celts in Ireland and Britain ==
The indigenous populations of Britain and Ireland today are primarily descended from the ancient peoples that have always inhabited these lands. As to their culture, little is known but remnants remain primarily in the naming of certain geographical features, such as the rivers [[Clyde]], [[Tamar]], [[Thames]] and [[Tyne]]. By the Roman period most of the inhabitants of the isles of [[Ireland]] and [[Great Britain]] (the ''ancient [[Britons]]'') were speaking [[Goidelic]] or [[Brythonic]] languages, close counterparts to Gallic languages spoken on the European mainland. Historians explained this as the result of successive [[invasion]]s from the European continent by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over the course of several centuries. In [[1946]] the Celtic scholar [[T. F. O'Rahilly]] published his extremely influential model of the [[early history of Ireland]] which postulated four separate waves of Celtic invaders. What languages were spoken by the peoples [[Ireland]] and [[Britain]] before the arrival of the Celts is unknown.
[[Image:Celtic dagger, scabbard and buckle.JPG|thumb|right|Celtic dagger found in Britain.]]
Later research indicated that the language and culture had developed gradually and continuously, and in Ireland no archaeological evidence was found for large intrusive groups of Celtic immigrants, suggesting to historians such as [[Colin Renfrew]] that the native Late Bronze Age inhabitants gradually absorbed influences to create "Celtic" culture. The very few continental [[La Tène culture]] style objects which had been found in Ireland could have been imports, or the possessions of a few rich immigrants. [[Julius Caesar]] had written of people in Britain who came from Belgium (the [[Belgae]]), but archaeological evidence which was interpreted in the [[1930s]] as confirming this was contradicted by later interpretations and it was suggested that there might have been only a handful of élite Belgae in Britain. In the [[1970s]] this model was popularised by [[Colin Burgess]] in his book ''[[The Age of Stonehenge]]'' which theorised that Celtic culture in Great Britain "emerged" rather than resulted from invasion and that the Celts were not invading aliens, but the descendants of the people of Stonehenge.
More recently a number of [[genetics|genetic]] studies have supported this model of culture being absorbed by native populations. The study by Cristian Capelli, David Goldstein and others at [[University College, London]] showed that genes associated with Gaelic names in [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]] are also common in [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]] and most parts [[England]], and are similar to the genes of the [[Basque people]], who speak a non-[[Indo-European]] language. This similarity supported earlier findings in suggesting a largely pre-Celtic genetic ancestry, possibly going back to the [[Paleolithic]]. They suggest that 'Celtic' culture and the Celtic language were imported to Britain by cultural contact not mass invasions, either by Indo-Europeans bringing [[farming]] or by Celts in [[600 BC]]. Some recent studies have suggested that, contrary to long-standing beliefs, the Teuton tribes did not wipe out the Romano-British of England but rather, over the course of six centuries, conquered the native [[Brythonic]] people of what is now England and [[Gododdin|south east Scotland]] and imposed their culture and language upon them, in a manner similar to the Irish spread over the west of Scotland.
==Roman influence ==
At the dawn of history in Europe, the Celts in present-day [[France]] were known as Gauls. Their descendants were described by [[Julius Caesar]] in his ''[[Gallic Wars]]''. There was also an early Celtic presence in northern [[Italy]]. Other Celtic tribes invaded Italy, establishing there a city they called Mediolanum (modern [[Milan]]) and sacking [[Rome]] itself in [[390 BC]] following the [[Battle of the Allia]]. A century lat |
negotiations to effect a reconciliation. This process is largely complete, at least in theory. According to some sources, Mohéli did return to government control in 1998. In 1999, Anjouan started to fall apart internally, on August 1 of that year, the 80-year-old first president [[Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim]] resigned, and gave power to a national coordinator, [[Said Abeid]]. The government was overthrown in a coup by army and navy officers on August 9, 2001. [[Mohamed Bacar]] soon rose to leadership of the junta that took over and by the end of the month he was the leader of the country. Despite two coup attempts in the following three months, including one by Abeid, Charif's government stayed in power, and was apparently more willing to negotiate with Comoros. Presidential elections have been held on Comoros, and presidents have been chosen for all three islands as well, which are now in a confederation. Grand Comore had experienced troubles of its own in the late 1990s, as President Taki died on November 6, 1998. Colonel [[Azali Assoumani]] became president following a military coup in 1999. There have been several coup attempts since, but he is now in firm control of the country after winning a presidential election.
== External links ==
* [http://www.specwarnet.com/miscinfo/azalee.htm More on the 1995 Azalee Operation]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
[[Category:History of Comoros| ]]
[[de:Geschichte der Komoren]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Comoros</title>
<id>6001</id>
<revision>
<id>34544735</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T23:19:36Z</timestamp>
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<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;">[[image:Cn-map.png|Map of all islands]]<br>
[[image:Comoros_in_relation_to_Afrika_map.jpg|Map of Comoros and Southern Africa]]<br>
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[image:Grande Comore (Comoros) map.jpg|Map of Grande Comore]] --><br>
[[Image:Anjouan_(Comoros)_map.jpg|Map of Anjouan]]
[[Image:Moheli_(Comoros)_map.jpg|Map of Moheli]]
</div>
The '''[[Comoros archipelago]]''' consists of four main islands aligned along a northwest-southeast axis at the north end of the [[Mozambique Channel]], between [[Mozambique]] and the island of [[Madagascar]]. Still widely known by their French names, the islands officially have been called by their [[Swahili]] names by the Comorian government. They are [[Njazidja]] ([[Grande Comore]]), [[Mwali]] ([[Mohéli]]), [[Nzwani]] ([[Anjouan]]), and [[Mahoré]] ([[Mayotte]]). The islands' distance from each other--Njazidja is some 200 kilometers from Mahoré, forty kilometers from Mwali, and eighty kilometers from Nzwani--along with a lack of good harbor facilities, make transportation and communication difficult. The islands have a total land area of 2,236 square kilometers (including Mahoré), and claim territorial waters of 320 kilometers. Le [[Karthala]] (2316 m) on Grand Comore is an active volcano. From April 17 to 19, 2005, the volcano began spewing ash and gas, forcing as many as 10,000 people to flee.
'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
{{coor dm|12|10|S|44|15|E|type:country}}
==Njazidja==
Njazidja is the largest island, sixty-seven kilometers long and twenty-seven kilometers wide, with a total area of 1,146 square kilometers. The most recently formed of the four islands in the archipelago, it is also of volcanic origin. Two volcanoes form the island's most prominent topographic features: La Grille in the north, with an elevation of 1,000 meters, is extinct and largely eroded; Kartala in the south, rising to a height of 2,361 meters, last erupted in 1977. A plateau averaging 600 to 700 meters high connects the two mountains. Because Njazidja is geologically a relatively new island, its soil is thin and rocky and cannot hold water. As a result, water from the island's heavy rainfall must be stored in catchment tanks. There are no coral reefs along the coast, and the island lacks a good harbor for ships. One of the largest remnants of Comoros' once-extensive rain forests is on the slopes of Kartala. The national capital has been at Moroni since 1962.
==Nzwani==
Nzwani, triangular shaped and forty kilometers from apex to base, has an area of 424 square kilometers. Three mountain chains--Sima, Nioumakele, and Jimilime--emanate from a central peak, Mtingui (1,575 meters), giving the island its distinctive shape. Older than Njazidja, Nzwani has deeper soil cover, but overcultivation has caused serious erosion. A coral reef lies close to shore; the island's capital of Mutsamudu is also its main port.
==Mwali==
Mwali is thirty kilometers long and twelve kilometers wide, with an area of 290 square kilometers. It is the smallest of the four islands and has a central mountain chain reaching 860 meters at its highest. Like Njazidja, it retains stands of rain forest. Mwali's capital is Fomboni.
==Mahoré==
Mahoré, geologically the oldest of the four islands, is thirty-nine kilometers long and twenty-two kilometers wide, totaling 375 square kilometers, and its highest points are between 500 and 600 meters above sea level. Because of greater weathering of the volcanic rock, the soil is relatively rich in some areas. A well-developed coral reef that encircles much of the island ensures protection for ships and a habitat for fish. Dzaoudzi, capital of Comoros until 1962 and now Mahoré's administrative center, is situated on a rocky outcropping off the east shore of the main island. Dzaoudzi is linked by a causeway to le Pamanzi, which at ten kilometers in area is the largest of several islets adjacent to Mahoré. Islets are also scattered in the coastal waters of Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mwali.
==Flora and Fauna==
Comorian waters are the habitat of the [[coelacanth]], a rare fish with limblike fins and a cartilaginous skeleton, the fossil remains of which date as far back as 400 million years and which was once thought to have become extinct about 70 million years ago. A live specimen was caught in 1938 off southern Africa; other coelacanths have since been found in the vicinity of the Comoro Islands.
Several mammals are unique to the islands themselves. The macao, a lemur found only on Mahoré, is protected by French law and by local tradition. Another, Livingstone's fruit bat, although plentiful when discovered by explorer David Livingstone in 1863, has been reduced to a population of about 120, entirely on Nzwani. The world's largest bat, the jet-black Livingstone fruit bat has a wingspan of nearly two meters. A British preservation group sent an expedition to Comoros in 1992 to bring some of the bats to Britain to establish a breeding population. Humboldt's flycatcher is perhaps the best known of the birds native to Comoros.
Partly in response to international pressures, Comorians in the 1990s have become more concerned about the environment. Steps are being taken not only to preserve the rare fauna, but also to counteract degradation of the environment, especially on densely populated Nzwani. Specifically, to minimize the cutting down of trees for fuel, kerosene is being subsidized, and efforts are being made to replace the loss of the forest cover caused by ylang-ylang distillation for perfume. The Community Development Support Fund, sponsored by the International Development Association (IDA, a World Bank affiliate) and the Comorian government, is working to improve water supply on the islands as well.
==Climate==
The climate is marine tropical, with two seasons: hot and humid from November to April, the result of the northeastern monsoon, and a cooler, drier season the rest of the year. Average monthly temperatures range from 23° C to 28° C along the coasts. Although the average annual precipitation is 2,000 millimeters, water is a scarce commodity in many parts of Comoros. Mwali and Mahoré possess streams and other natural sources of water, but Njazidja and Nzwani, whose mountainous landscapes retain water poorly, are almost devoid of naturally occurring running water. Cyclones, occurring during the hot and wet season, can cause extensive damage, especially in coastal areas. On the average, at least twice each decade houses, farms, and harbor facilities are devastated by these great storms.
==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
2,170 km&sup2;
<br>''land:''
2,170 km&sup2;
<br>''water:''
0 km&sup2;
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly more than 12 times the size of [[Washington, DC]]
'''Land boundaries:'''
0 km
'''Coastline:'''
340 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm
<br>''territorial sea:''
12 nm
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
Indian Ocean 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
Le Kartala 2,360 m
==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
NEGL
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
35%
<br>''permanent crops:''
10%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
7%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
18%
<br>''other:''
30% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
NA km&sup2;
==Environmental concerns==
'''Natural hazards:'''
cyclones possible during rainy season (December to April); Le Kartala on Grand Comore is an active volcano
'''Environment - current issues:'''
soil degradation and erosion results from crop cultivation on slopes without proper terracing; deforestation
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
{{Africa in topic|G |
pretation that could comply with his Relativity without implying "God playing dice", as he condensed his dissatisfaction with QM's intrinsic randomness and (still to be resolved) counter-intuitivity.
The EPR paradox is a [[physical paradox|paradox]] in the following sense: if one takes quantum mechanics and adds some seemingly reasonable conditions (referred to as [[Principle_of_locality| "locality"]], "realism", and "completeness"), then one obtains a [[contradiction]]. However, quantum mechanics by itself does not appear to be internally inconsistent, nor &mdash; as it turns out &mdash; does it contradict relativity. As a result of further theoretical and experimental developments since the original EPR paper, most physicists today regard the EPR paradox as an illustration of how quantum mechanics violates [[classical physics|classical]] intuitions, and not as an indication that quantum mechanics is fundamentally flawed.
== Description of the paradox ==
The EPR paradox draws on a phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics, known as [[quantum entanglement]], to show that measurements performed on spatially separated parts of a quantum system can apparently have an instantaneous influence on one another. This effect is now known as "[[nonlocality|nonlocal behaviour]]" (or colloquially as "quantum weirdness"). In order to illustrate this, let us consider a simplified version of the EPR thought experiment due to Bohm.
=== Measurements on an entangled state ===
We have a source that emits pairs of electrons, with one electron sent to destination ''A'', where there is an observer named [[Alice and Bob|Alice]], and another is sent to destination ''B'', where there is an observer named [[Alice and Bob|Bob]]. According to quantum mechanics, we can arrange our source so that each emitted electron pair occupies a [[quantum state]] called a [[spin singlet]]. This can be viewed as a [[quantum superposition]] of two states, which we call I and II. In state I, electron ''A'' has [[spin (physics)|spin]] pointing upward along the ''z''-axis (''+z'') and electron ''B'' has spin pointing downward along the ''z''-axis (''-z''). In state II, electron ''A'' has spin ''-z'' and electron ''B'' has spin ''+z''. Therefore, it is impossible to associate either electron in the spin singlet with a state of definite spin. The electrons are thus said to be [[quantum entanglement|entangled]].
[[Image:EPR-paradox-illus.png|thumb|500px|center|The EPR thought experiment, performed with electrons. A source (center) sends electrons toward two observers, Alice (left) and Bob (right), who can perform spin measurements.]]
Alice now measures the spin along the ''z''-axis. She can obtain one of two possible outcomes: ''+z'' or ''-z''. Suppose she gets ''+z''. According to quantum mechanics, the quantum state of the system [[wavefunction collapse|collapses]] into state I. (Different [[interpretation of quantum mechanics|interpretations of quantum mechanics]] have different ways of saying this, but the basic result is the same.) The quantum state determines the probable outcomes of any measurement performed on the system. In this case, if Bob subsequently measures spin along the z-axis, he will obtain ''-z'' with 100% probability. Similarly, if Alice gets ''-z'', Bob will get ''+z''.
There is, of course, nothing special about our choice of the ''z'' axis. For instance, suppose that Alice and Bob now decide to measure spin along the ''x''-axis. According to quantum mechanics, the spin singlet state may equally well be expressed as a superposition of spin states pointing in the ''x'' direction. We'll call these states Ia and IIa. In state Ia, Alice's electron has spin ''+x'' and Bob's electron has spin ''-x''. In state IIa, Alice's electron has spin ''-x'' and Bob's electron has spin ''+x''. Therefore, if Alice measures ''+x'', the system collapses into Ia, and Bob will get ''-x''. If Alice measures ''-x'', the system collapses into IIa, and Bob will get ''+x''.
In quantum mechanics, the ''x''-spin and ''z''-spin are "incompatible observables", which means that there is a [[uncertainty principle|Heisenberg uncertainty principle]] operating between them: a quantum state cannot possess a definite value for both variables. Suppose Alice measures the ''z''-spin and obtains ''+z'', so that the quantum state collapses into state I. Now, instead of measuring the ''z''-spin as well, Bob measures the ''x''-spin. According to quantum mechanics, when the system is in state I, Bob's ''x''-spin measurement will have a 50% probability of producing ''+x'' and a 50% probability of ''-x''. Furthermore, it is fundamentally impossible to predict which outcome will appear until Bob actually performs the measurement.
Incidentally, although we have used spin as an example, many types of physical quantities &mdash; what quantum mechanics refers to as "observables" &mdash; can be used to produce quantum entanglement. The original EPR paper used [[momentum]] for the observable. Actual experimental realizations of the EPR scenario often use the [[polarization]] of [[photon]]s, because it is easy to prepare and to measure.
=== Reality and completeness ===
We will now introduce two concepts used by Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen, which are crucial to their attack on quantum mechanics: (i) the ''elements of physical reality'' and (ii) the ''completeness of a physical theory''.
The authors did not directly address the [[philosophy|philosophical]] meaning of an "element of physical reality". Instead, they made the assumption that ''if'' the value of any physical quantity of a system can be predicted with absolute certainty prior to performing a measurement or otherwise disturbing it, then that quantity corresponds to an element of physical reality. Note that the converse is not assumed to be true; there may be other ways for elements of physical reality to exist, but this will not affect the argument.
Next, EPR defined a "complete physical theory" as one in which every element of physical reality is accounted for. The aim of their paper was to show, using these two definitions, that quantum mechanics is not a complete physical theory.
Let us see how these concepts apply to the above thought experiment. Suppose Alice decides to measure the value of spin along the ''z''-axis (we'll call this the ''z''-spin.) After Alice performs her measurement, the ''z''-spin of Bob's electron is definitely known, so it is an element of physical reality. Similarly, if Alice decides to measure spin along the ''x''-axis, the ''x''-spin of Bob's electron is an element of physical reality after her measurement.
We have seen that a quantum state cannot possess a definite value for both ''x''-spin and ''z''-spin. If quantum mechanics is a complete physical theory in the sense given above, ''x''-spin and ''z''-spin cannot be elements of reality at the same time. This means that Alice's decision &mdash; whether to perform her measurement along the ''x''- or ''z''-axis &mdash; has an instantaneous effect on the elements of physical reality at Bob's location. However, this violates another principle, that of ''locality''.
=== Locality in the EPR experiment ===
The principle of locality states that physical processes occurring at one place should have no immediate effect on the elements of reality at another location. At first sight, this appears to be a reasonable assumption to make, as it seems to be a consequence of [[special relativity]], which states that [[information]] can never be transmitted faster than the [[speed of light]] without violating [[causality (physics)|causality]]. It is generally believed that any theory which violates causality would also be internally inconsistent, and thus deeply unsatisfactory.
It turns out that quantum mechanics violates the principle of locality without violating causality. Causality is preserved because there is no way for Alice to transmit messages (i.e. information) to Bob by manipulating her measurement axis. Whichever axis she uses, she has a 50% probability of obtaining "''+''" and 50% of obtaining "''-''", completely at [[randomness|random]]; according to quantum mechanics, it is fundamentally impossible for her to influence what result she gets. Furthermore, Bob is only able to perform his measurement ''once'': there is a fundamental property of quantum mechanics, known as the "[[no cloning theorem]]", which makes it impossible for him to make a million copies of the electron he receives, perform a spin measurement on each, and look at the statistical distribution of the results. Therefore, in the one measurement he is allowed to make, there is a 50% probability of getting "''+''" and 50% of getting "''-''", regardless of whether or not his axis is aligned with Alice's.
However, the principle of locality appeals powerfully to physical intuition, and Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen were unwilling to abandon it. Einstein derided the quantum mechanical predictions as "[[action at a distance (physics)|spooky action at a distance]]". The conclusion they drew was that quantum mechanics is not a complete theory.
It should be noted that the word [[locality]] has several different meanings in physics. For example, in [[quantum field theory]] "locality" means that quantum fields at different points of space do not interact with one another. However, quantum field theories that are "local" in this sense violate the principle of locality as defined by EPR.
== Resolving the paradox ==
=== Hidden variables ===
There are several possible ways to resolve the EPR paradox. The one suggested by EPR is that quantum mechanics, despite its success in a wide variety of experimental scenarios, is actually an incomplete theory. In other words, there is some as-yet |
ow be cured with affordable drugs, he concluded that everyone alive today can potentially live like a "billionaire." Hence he described the human race as "four billion billionaires."
In the original score for the hit musical [[Godspell]] by [[Stephen Schwartz (composer)|Stephen Schwartz]], Fuller is one of the seven philosophers in the show's Prologue and Tower of Babel songs, with the words, "Man is a complex of patterns, of processes."
Besides important comprehensiveness of thought and his philosophical concepts, Fuller's most lasting insights may be geometric. He claimed that the natural [[analytic geometry]] of the universe was based on arrays of [[tetrahedron|tetrahedra]]. He developed this in several ways, from the close-packing of spheres and the number of compressive or tensile members required to stabilize an object in space. Some deep confirming results were that the strongest possible homogeneous [[truss]] is cyclically tetrahedral.
==Major design projects==
Fuller was most famous for his [[geodesic dome]]s, which can be seen as part of military [[radar]] stations, civic buildings, and exhibition attractions. Their construction is based on extending some basic principles to build simple [[tensegrity]] structures ([[tetrahedron]], [[octahedron]], and the closest packing of [[sphere]]s). Built in this way they are extremely lightweight and stable. The patent for geodesic domes was awarded in 1954, part of Fuller's decades-long efforts to explore nature's constructing principles to find design solutions.
Previously, Fuller had designed and built prototypes of what he hoped would be a safer, [[Aerodynamics|aerodynamic]] [[Dymaxion car]] ("[[Dymaxion]]" is contracted from DYnamic MAXimum tensION). To this end he experimented with a radical new approach. He worked with professional colleagues over a period of three years, beginning in 1932. Based on a design idea Fuller had derived from designs of [[aircraft]], the three prototype cars were all quite different from anything on the market. For one thing, each of these vehicles had three, not four, wheels — with two (the drive wheels) in front, and the third, rear wheel being the one that was steered. The engine was located in the rear. Both the chassis and the body were original designs. The aerodynamic, somewhat [[tears|tear]]-shaped body (which in one of the prototypes was about 18 feet long), was large enough to seat 11 people. It somehow resembled a melding of a light aircraft (without wings) and a [[Volkswagen]] van of 1950s vintage. The car was essentially a mini-bus in each of its three trial incarnations, and its concept long predated the [[Volkswagen Type 2]] mini-bus conceived in 1947 by [[Ben Pon]].
Despite its length, and due to its three-wheel design, the Dymaxion Car turned on a small radius and parked in a tight space quite nicely. The prototypes were efficient in fuel consumption for their day. Fuller poured a great deal of his own money (inherited from his mother) into the project, in addition to the funds put in by one of his professional collaborators. An industrial investor was also keenly interested in the unprecedented concept. Fuller anticipated the car could travel on an open highway safely at up to about 100 miles per hour (160 km/h); however, due to some concept oversights, the prototypes proved to be unruly over the speed of 50 mph (80 km/h), and difficult to steer properly. Research came to an end after one of the prototypes was involved in a collision resulting in a fatality.
In 1943, industrialist [[Henry J. Kaiser]] asked Fuller to develop a prototype for a smaller car, and Fuller designed a five-seater; the car never went into the development or production stages.
Another of Fuller's ideas was the alternative-projection [[Dymaxion map]]. This was designed to show the Earth's continents with minimum distortion when projected or printed on a flat surface.
Fuller's energy-efficient and low-cost [[Dymaxion house]]s garnered much interest, but have never gone into production. Here the term "Dymaxion" is used in effect to signify a "radically strong and light [[tensegrity]] structure". One of Fuller's Dymaxion Houses is on display as a permanent exhibit at [[The Henry Ford]] in [[Dearborn, Michigan]]. Designed and developed in the mid 1940s, this prototype is a round structure (''not'' a dome) shaped something like the flattened "bell" of certain [[jellyfish]]. It has several other innovative features, including revolving dresser drawers, and a fine-mist shower that reduces water consumption. According to Fuller biographer Steve Crooks, the house was designed to be delivered in two [[cylinder (geometry)|cylindrical]] packages, with interior color panels available at local dealers' premises. A circular structure at the top of the house was designed to rotate around a central mast to take advantage of natural winds for cooling and air circulation.
[[Image:Mtl-biosphere.jpg|right|thumb|'''The American Pavilion of [[Expo 67]]''', by R. Buckminster Fuller, now the Biosphère, on [[Île Sainte-Hélène]], [[Montreal]]. Fuller developed the geodesic dome in the 1940s in line with his "synergetic" thinking.]]
Conceived nearly two decades before, and developed in [[Wichita, Kansas]], the house was designed to be lightweight and adapted to windy climes. It was to be inexpensive to produce and purchase, and easily assembled. It was to be produced using factories, trained workers, and technologies that had produced [[World War II]] aircraft. "Ultramodern"-looking, it was structured of metal and sheathed in polished aluminum, and the basic model enclosed 1000 square feet (90 m&sup2;) of floor area. Due to high-level publicity, there were very many orders in the early Post-War years; however, the company that Fuller and others had formed to produce the houses failed due to internal management problems.
Buckminster Fuller made a radical commitment to understanding, discovery, and research. He wanted to be a trailblazer, which is a risky role in any field. His life and his work therefore constituted a kind of noble gamble.
==Practical achievements==
Certainly, a number of Fuller's projects did not meet success in terms of commitment from industry or acceptance by a broad public. However, many geodesic domes have been built and are in use. According to the [http://www.bfi.org/ Buckminster Fuller Institute] Web site, the largest geodesic-dome structures (listed in descending order from largest diameter) are:
/
*Fantasy Entertainment Complex: Kyosho Isle, Japan, 710 feet / 216 m
*Multi-Purpose Arena: Nagoya, Japan, 614 feet / 187 m
*Tacoma Dome: Tacoma, WA, USA, 530 feet / 162 m
*[[Superior Dome]]: Northern Michigan Univ. Marquette, MI, USA, 525 feet / 160 m
*Walkup Skydome: Northern Arizona Univ. Flagstaff, AZ, USA, 502 feet / 153 m
*Round Valley High School Stadium: Springerville, AZ USA, 440 feet / 134 m
*Former Spruce Goose Hangar: Long Beach, CA, USA, 415 feet / 126 m
*Formosa Plastics Storage Facility: Mai Liao, Taiwan, 402 feet / 123 m
*Union Tank Car Maintenance Facility: Baton Rouge, LA USA, 384 feet / 117 m
*Lehigh Portland Cement Storage Facility: Union Bridge, MD USA, 374 feet / 114 m
Fuller's development of the dome and his roles as a philosopher and as a gadfly within the design and architectural communities left an important legacy. He introduced a number of concepts, and if every one wasn't entirely new, we can still say that he honed each one well.
Thousands of geodesic domes have been built, but they are not an everyday sight in most places. Contrary to initial hopes, in practice most of the smaller owner-built geodesic structures proved to have drawbacks (discussed in the Wikipedia section on [[geodesic dome]]s); plus, as a home, many people have been put off by the domes' unconventional appearance.
So, while an envisioned widespread and common adoption of geodesic domes is yet to materialize, Fuller's ideas, teachings, and attitude to life and creativity, in combination, have prodded designers and engineers. What Fuller accomplished, in this sense, was to make professionals and students think "outside the box"; to question convention. Fuller was followed (historically) by other designers and architects (for example, [[Norman Foster]] — especially his "Armadillo" project — and [[Steve Baer]]) willing to explore the possibilities of new geometries in the design of buildings, not based on the conventional rectangles. The English writer, playwright, and philosopher [[John Dryden]] wrote something quite relevant to the pioneering forays of Fuller still to be brought to full result: "We must beat the iron while it is hot, but we may polish it at leisure."
==Trivia==
*Fuller was friends with Boston artist [[Pietro Pezzati]].
*He experimented with [[polyphasic sleep]].
*A new [[allotropy|allotrope]] of [[carbon]] ([[fullerene]]) and a particular molecule of that allotrope ([[buckminsterfullerene]] or buckyballs) have been named after him.
*On [[July 12]], [[2004]] the [[United States Post Office]] released a new commemorative stamp honoring Buckminster Fuller on the 50th anniversary of his patent for the geodesic dome and on the occasion of his 109th birthday.
*Fuller documented his life every 15 minutes from 1915 to 1983, leaving behind 270 feet / 80 m worth of journals. He called this the [[Dymaxion Chronofile]]. His is said to be the most documented human life in history.
:''"If somebody kept a very accurate record of a human being, going through the era from the Gay’90’s, from a very different kind of world through the turn of the century — as far into the twentieth century as you might live. I decided to make myself a good case history of such a human being and it meant that I could not be judge of what was valid to put in or not. I must put everything in, |
ecord of the past 1000 years]]).
*the warming of the last 50 years is likely caused by human activity (see [[attribution of recent climate change]]), using analysis based on climate modeling; and that natural variability or [[solar variation]] cannot explain the recent change.
*Carbon dioxide is a first order forcing on climate change - other effects such as water vapour greenhouse effects are either roughly constant over time, act as amplifiers, or do not have a large effect
*humankind is performing a great geophysical experiment and if it turns out badly - however that is defined - we cannot undo it. We cannot even abruptly turn it off. Too many of the things we are doing now have long-term ramifications for centuries into the future [http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/GLOB_CHANGE/trenberth.html].
*[[climate model]]s can reproduce this trend, but only when using [[greenhouse gas]] forcing. [http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/GLOB_CHANGE/ipcc2001_figs/fig3.gif]
*climate models predict more warming, and other climate effects ([[sea level rise]], etc) in the future.
*action should be taken now to prevent or mitigate warming (see [[Precautionary principle]]).
*the [[IPCC]] reports correctly summarise the state of climate science.
*there is a [[scientific consensus]] behind all of the above.
Opponents of GWT maintain some or all of these assertions are not proven or not correct.
Proponents of global warming tend to support the IPCC position and thus represent a broadly unified viewpoint, though with considerable differences over what action should be taken. Optionally, supporters may go on to point out that there is a good chance that the future changes may be undesirable, and that planning to avoid or mitigate them would be a good idea.
Participation in the IPCC process does not imply endorsement of it. However, only 2 of the 120 contributing authors to the IPCC [[TAR (IPCC)|TAR]] are known to have voiced any complaint.
===Supporters of the global warming theory===
Organisations that support the global warming theory (or at least that have issued supportive declarations) include:
*The UN's [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC).
*The national academies of science of the [[G8]] countries and [[Brazil]], [[China]] and [[India]] [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/document.asp?latest=1&id=3222].
*The US [[National Academy of Sciences]], both in its 2002 report to President [[George W. Bush]], and in its latest publications, has strongly endorsed evidence of an average global temperature increase in the 20th century and stated that human activity is heavily implicated in causing this increase.
*The [[American Meteorological Society]] ([http://www.ametsoc.org/policy/climatechangeresearch_2003.html AMS statement]).
*The [[American Geophysical Union]] ([http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/policy/climate_change_position.html AGU statement]). John Christy, who is usually placed in the skeptics camp, has signed the AGU statement on climate change.
*The [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS). [http://www.ourplanet.com/aaas/pages/atmos02.html]
==Points made by opponents of the global warming theory==
There are many reasons given for opposition to the global warming theory:
*IPCC draws firm conclusions unjustified by the science, especially given the acknowledged weakness of cloud physics in the climate models. For example, even those who accept that there is a warming trend point out that there is a big difference between [[correlation]] and [[causality]]. In other words, just because temperatures have generally been rising since the beginning of the [[Industrial Revolution]], that doesn't necessarily mean that the Industrial Revolution has caused the change in temperature (see [[post hoc, ergo propter hoc]] argument). On the other hand, the period since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution has indeed produced ever-growing "urban heat islands" (see below) that could be skewing temperature measurements that indicate the recent warming.
*Using "consensus" as evidence is an [[appeal to the majority]] argument rather than scientific discussion (see [[consensus science]]). Ergo, because the issue has become so politicized, it is suspected that climatologists who disagree with the consensus as it is may be afraid to speak out for fear of losing their positions or funding.
*Consensus is further compromised in this field of study due to students being attracted to the field by their belief that something should be done about global warming. They complete their education and add their voices to the consensus, which gives a perceived bias.
*Earth's climate has been both colder and warmer than today, and these changes are adequately explained by mechanisms that do not involve human greenhouse gas emissions.
*There is no significant global warming relative to the expected natural trends.
*CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere is mainly volcanic in origin, accounting for 97% of the CO<sub>2</sub> found in the atmosphere, most of which travels to the oceans. Estimates at CO<sub>2</sub>'s effectiveness as a greenhouse gas vary, but are generally around 10-100 times lower than water weight for weight, leaving a "net" greenhouse effect of man-made CO<sub>2</sub> emissions at less than 1% [http://www.geocraft.com/WVFossils/greenhouse_data.html]
*Climate science can not make definitive predictions yet, since the computer models used to make these predictions are still evolving and do not yet take into account recently discovered feedback mechanisms.
*Climate models will not be able to predict the future climate until they can predict solar and volcanic activity.
*Some global warming studies have errors or have not been reproduced.
*Global temperatures are directly related to such factors as: [[sunspot]] activity (an 11-year cycle).
Some opponents of global warming theory give more weight to data such as paleoclimatic studies, temperature measurements made from [[weather balloon]]s, and satellites which they claim show less warming than surface land and sea records, though early balloon records have been shown to be possibly erroneous due to mechanical design flaws in the sensors.
Opponents tend to define themselves in terms of opposition to the [[IPCC]] position. They generally believe that climate science is not yet able to provide us with solid answers to all the major questions about the global climate.
Opponents frequently characterise supporters arguments as [[alarmist]] and premature, so as to emphasise what they perceive as the lack of scientific evidence supporting global warming scenarios.
Opponents also say that if global warning is real and man-made, no action need be taken now because:
*Future scientific advances or engineering projects will remedy the problem before it becomes serious and for less money.
*A small amount of global warming would be benign or even beneficial, as increased carbon dioxide would benefit plant life, thus potentially becoming profitable for agriculture world-wide.
*There is a distinct correlation between GDP growth and greenhouse gas emissions. A cutback in emissions might lead to a decrease in the rate of GDP growth.
===Opponents of the global warming theory===
Some of the most visible opponents of the global warming theory from within the climate/scientific community have been:
*[[Patrick Michaels]] from the Department of Environmental Services at the University of Virginia
*[[Robert Balling]] of Arizona State University
*[[Sherwood B. Idso]] of the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory [http://www.uswcl.ars.ag.gov/]
*[[S. Fred Singer]], atmospheric physicist and professor emeritus of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia
*[[Richard Lindzen]] of [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].
*[[Ross McKitrick]]
*[[Frederick Seitz]] (anti-global warming treaties, accepts the temperature rise as real, but not yet properly explained)
*See also the [[List of scientists opposing global warming consensus]]
Some prominent opponents from outside the climate/science community have been:
*[[Petr Beckmann]] (anti-global warming treaties)
*[[Lester Hogan]] (anti-global warming treaties)
*[[Kary Mullis]], biochemist and inventor of [[PCR]]
*[[John Daly (skeptic)|John Lawrence Daly]] (now deceased)
*[[Andrey Illarionov]], former economic advisor to Russian president Vladimir Putin
*[[Michael Crichton]], science fiction author and critic of the politicization of science, Global Warming is an issue in his 2004 novel, [[State of Fear (novel)|State of Fear]]
*[[David Bellamy]], British environmental campaigner who has since ''decided to draw back from the debate on global warming''.
Some organisations were formed to further the opponents' views:
*[[Information Council on the Environment]] (defunct): Michaels, Balling and Idso all lent their names in 1991 to the scientific advisory panel of the Information Council on the Environment (ICE), an energy industry public relations group.
*[[Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change]]
*[[Science and Environmental Policy Project]], founded by S. Fred Singer.
==Counting experts / Petitions and attacks on them==
{{main|Scientific opinion on climate change}}
The proportion of scientists who support or oppose any of the global warming theories is a matter of controversy in its own right. Environmental groups, many governmental reports, and the non-US media often claim virtually unanimous support for the global warming theory from the scientific community. Some opponents maintain that it is the other way around, claiming that the majority of scientists either consider global warming "unproven" or even dismiss it altogether. Other opponents decry the dangers of [[consensus science]], which would imply that they do believe there is a consensus.
A [[2004]] essay in [[Science (journal)|Science]] [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/30 |
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