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n the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. [[November 9]] is thus considered the date the Wall fell. In the days and weeks that followed people came to the wall with sledgehammers and gradually knocked it down.
The fall of the wall was the first step toward [[German reunification]], which was formally concluded on [[October 3]], [[1990]].
===Celebrations===
[[Image:Berlinwall.jpg|right|thumb|200px|"Irgendwann fällt jede Mauer" <br />- "Eventually all walls fall"]]
On [[December 25]], [[1989]] [[Leonard Bernstein]] gave a concert in Berlin celebrating the end of the Wall, including [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|9th symphony]] (''[[Ode to Joy]]'') with the chorus' word "Joy" ''(Freude)'' changed to "Freedom" ''(Freiheit)''. [[Roger Waters]] performed the [[Pink Floyd]] concert ''[[The Wall]]'' in [[Potsdamer Platz]] on [[21 July]] [[1990]], with guests including [[The Scorpions (English band)|The Scorpions]], [[Bryan Adams]], and [[Van Morrison]]. [[David Hasselhoff]] performed his song "Looking for Freedom", which was very popular in Germany at that time, standing on the Berlin wall.
Some believe [[November 9]] would have made a suitable German National Holiday both because it marks the emotional apogee of East Germany's peaceful revolution because it was also the date of the declaration of the first German republic, the [[Weimar Republic]], in [[1918]]. However, because November 9 is also the anniversary of the infamous ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' [[pogrom]]s of [[1938]], [[October 3]] was chosen instead. Part of this decision was that the West German government wanted to conclude reunification before East Germany could celebrate a 41st anniversary on [[October 7]] [[1990]].
===Aftermath and implications===
[[Image:Berlin wall 1990.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Almost all of the remaining sections of Berlin Wall were rapidly chipped away. Photo December [[1990]].]]
[[Image:Checkpoint Charlie Memorial.JPG|thumb|200px|right|A temporary memorial of over 1,000 crosses and a segment of the wall for those who died attempting to cross.]]
The fall of the Wall considerably changed traffic patterns in the city and the [[M-Bahn]]. An experimental [[maglev train|magnetic levitation train]] system around 1.6 km (1 mile) in length was demolished just months after its official opening in July [[1991]] as it used part of the track bed of an underground line previously severed by the wall.
==Legacy==
Little is left of the Wall in Berlin, which was destroyed almost everywhere, except for three locations: an 80 meter (300 ft) section near [[Potsdamer Platz]], a longer section along the [[Spree]] River near the [[Oberbaumbrücke]] nicknamed [[East Side Gallery]], and a third section in the north at [[Bernauer Straße]], which was turned into a memorial in 1999. Even the parts that are left standing no longer accurately represent the Wall's original appearance: they are badly damaged (since so many people attempted to pick up "original Berlin Wall" pieces), and today [[graffiti]] is prevalent on the eastern side of the Wall, which obviously would not have been possible while the Wall was actually guarded by the armed soldiers of East Germany. Previously, graffiti was exclusively on the western side.
===Museum===
Fifteen years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, a private museum rebuilt a 200 meter (656 ft) section close to [[Checkpoint Charlie]], although not in the location of the original wall. They also erected over 1,000 crosses in memoriam to those who had died attempting to flee to the West. The memorial was installed in October 2004 and demolished in July 2005.<ref>http://www.goethe.de/ins/gb/prj/scs/txt/en205918.htm</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=Furlong, Ray | title=Berlin Wall memorial is torn down | publisher=BBC News | year=July 5, 2005 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4651823.stm | accessdate=2006-02-23}}</ref>
[[Image:Brussels EU Berlin Wall.jpeg|thumb|200px|right|A portion of the wall is on display outside the EU Parliament in [[Brussels, Belgium]].]]
===Cultural differences===
Even now, some years after reunification, there is still talk in Germany of continuing cultural differences between East and West Germans (colloquially ''[[Ossi]]s'' and ''[[Wessi]]s''), sometimes described as "Mauer im Kopf" ("The wall in the head"). A September 2004 poll found that 25% of West Germans and 12% of East Germans wished that East Germans and West Germany were again cut off by the Berlin Wall.<ref>{{cite web | author=Reuters | title=One in 5 Germans wants Berlin Wall rebuilt | publisher=MSNBC | year=September 8, 2004 | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5942091/ | accessdate=2006-02-23}}</ref> Many German public figures have called these numbers "alarming".
==See also==
* [[List of walls]]
* [[Brandenburg Gate]]
* ''[[Der Tunnel]]'', a film about a mass evacuation to West Berlin through a tunnel
* [[Operation Gold]]
* [[Ostalgie]]
==References==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<references/>
</div>
==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| authorlink = William F. Buckley, Jr.
| last = Buckley | first = William F., Jr.
| title = The Fall of the Berlin Wall
| location = [[Hoboken, New Jersey]]
| publisher = [[John Wiley and Sons]]
| year = [[2004]]
| id = ISBN 0471267364
}} (A concise, very readable account of the history of the wall.)
* {{cite book
| first = Curtis | last = Cate
| title = The Ides of August: The Berlin Wall Crisis—1961
| location = [[New York City]]
| publisher = M. Evans
| year = [[1978]]
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Honoré M. | last = Catudal
| title = [[John F. Kennedy | Kennedy]] and the Berlin Wall Crisis
| location = [[West Berlin]]
| publisher = Berlin Verlag
| year = [[1980]]
}}
* {{cite web
| author = [[John F. Kennedy | Kennedy, John F.]]
| url = http://www.jfklibrary.org/speeches.htm
| title = July 25, 1961 speech
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Peter | last = Wyden
| title = Wall: The Inside Story of Divided Berlin
| location = [[New York City]]
| publisher = [[Simon and Schuster]]
| year = [[1989]]
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.wall-berlin.org/ www.wall-berlin.org]
* [http://www.die-berliner-mauer.de/en/index.html Retracing the Berlin Wall]
* [http://www.berliner-mauer-dokumentationszentrum.de/ Bernauer Straße Memorial website]
* [http://www.passkontrolle-ddr.de/ Information on the East German border system (in German)]
* [http://www.western-allies-berlin.com Allied Forces in Berlin (FR, UK & US Berlin Brigade)]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/wall/ Photographs of time of the Fall as well as updates on the current situation in Germany]
* [http://www.theberlinobserver.com/1stBG18thinf.html Reports on reinforcements to Berlin Brigade]
* [http://www.jfklibrary.org/jfk_berlin_crisis_speech.html JFK speech clarifying limits of American protection]
* [http://home.att.net/~rw.rynerson/index2.htm "Berlin 1969" includes sections on Helmstedt-Berlin rail operations.]
* [http://home.att.net/~rails_to_berlin/home.htm Includes articles on rail transport for Berlin during the Cold War. (large files)]
* [http://www.restless-soul.co.uk/berlin1.htm Berlin 1983: Berlin and the Wall in the early 1980s ]
===Images and Personal Accounts===
* [http://www.dieberlinermauer.de/berlinwallhome/berlinwallhome.html Berlin Wall - Pictures Photographs]
* [http://rosset.org/photography/berlin/berlin.htm Photos of the Berlin Wall by Georges Rosset]
* [http://www.berlinphotos.co.uk/html/the_wall.html Photos of the Berlin Wall 1989 to 1999]
* [http://www.berlin-wall.net/ Berlin Wall photos and stories 1989]
* [http://www.dewitt.photographer.org.uk/ images of the Berlin wall]
* [http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/ Berlin Wall Online], Chronicle of the Berlin Wall history includes an archive of photographs and texts
* [http://www.andreas.com/berlin.html Personal Account of the Fall of the Berlin Wall]
{{Cold War}}
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Destroyed landmarks]]
[[Category:East Germany]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures of Germany]]
[[Category:Graffiti and unauthorised signage]]
[[Category:History of Berlin]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]
[[Category:Separation barriers]]
[[Category:Walls]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[af:Berlynse Muur]]
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[[he:חומת ברלין]]
[[id:Tembok Berlin]]
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[[nl:Berlijnse muur]]
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[[sk:Berlínsky múr]]
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[[sv:Berlinmuren]]
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[[uk:Берлінська стіна]]
[[zh:柏林圍牆]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bse</title>
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<timestamp>2005-09-15T14:02:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Punkmorten</username>
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<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[BSE]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Biography</title>
<id>3724</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:22:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Matatigre36</username>
<id>894146</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ List of political career biographies</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
[[Image:lemorte.jpg|Le Morte d'Arthur|thumb|300px|Sir [[Thomas Malory]] wrote the most famous fictional biography of the Middle Ages with ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'' abou |
ath> is the mass of the object.
This centrifugal force is a sufficient correction to Newton's second law only if the body is stationary in the rotating frame. For bodies that move with respect to the rotating frame it must be supplemented with a fictitious [[Coriolis force]]. For example, a body that is stationary relative to the ''non''-rotating frame, will be rotating when viewed from the rotating frame. The ''centripetal'' force of <math>-m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp</math> required to account for this apparent rotation is the sum of the centrifugal force (<math>m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp</math>) and the Coriolis force (<math>-2m \mathbf{\omega \times v} = -2m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp</math>). Since this centripetal force includes contributions from only fictitious forces, it has no reactive counterpart.
=== Potential energy of the fictitious centrifugal force ===
The fictitious centrifugal force can be described by a [[potential energy]] of the form
:<math>E_p = -\frac{1}{2} m \omega^2 r_\perp^2</math>
This is useful, for example, in calculating the form of the water surface <math>h(r)\,</math> in a rotating bucket: requiring the potential energy per unit mass on the surface <math>gh(r) - \frac{1}{2}\omega^2 r^2\,</math> to be constant, we obtain the [[parabolic]] form <math>h(r) = \frac{\omega^2}{2g}r^2 + C</math> (where <math>C</math> is a constant).
Similarly, the potential energy of the centrifugal force is often used in the calculation of the height of the [[tide]]s on the Earth (where the centrifugal force is included to account for the rotation of the Earth around the Earth-Moon center of mass).
The principle of operation of the [[centrifuge]] also can be simply understood in terms of this expression for the potential energy, which shows that it is favorable energetically when the volume far from the axis of rotation is occupied by the heavier substance.
==Centrifugal forces in statics==
Consider a ball that swings around a stationary pivot to which it is [[Tetherball|tethered]] by a light, strong rope. There is tension in the rope, pulling inwards on the ball (the centripetal force) and simultaneously pulling outwards on the pivot (the reactive centrifugal force). The tension is real, so these two forces still exist if we move to a corotating frame. However, in the rotating frame there is also a fictitious centrifugal force that pulls outwards on the ''ball''. It is distinct from the reactive centrifugal force that pulls outward on the ''pivot''.
When solving [[statics]] problems in a rotating frame (e.g. when calculating the internal stresses in a [[flywheel]]) it is convenient to think of the fictitious centrifugal force as being transmitted through the rope and ''becoming'' the pull on the pivot. In statics one often considers a force "the same" before and after it has been conveyed by a structural element, so according to this view the reaction force on the pivot ''is'' the fictitious force.
This identification often leads to confusion about the "fictitious" nature of the centrifugal force, because the pull on the pivot is a perfectly real force. The confusion can be resolved by noting that the distinction between fictitious and real forces depends on the frame of reference that one chooses for the laws of physics. On the other hand, considering the reaction force to ''be'' the fictitious force is only valid in [[statics]], that is, once we have decided to always use that particular reference frame in which the entire system is stationary. The convenience of viewing a transmitted force as the same as the original force comes at the cost of a meaningful distinction between whether a force is real or fictitious.
==Confusion and misconceptions==
Centrifugal force can be a confusing term because it is used (or misused) in more than one instance, and because sloppy labeling can obscure which forces are acting upon which objects in a system (which is true for physics in general). When diagramming forces in a system, one must describe each object separately, attaching only those forces acting ''upon'' it (not forces that it ''exerts'' upon other objects).
One can avoid dealing with fictitious forces entirely by analyzing systems using only [[Inertial frame of reference|inertial frames of reference]]. This is not necessarily the simplest approach, however: [[weather forecasting]] is made considerably simpler by always remaining within the rotating frame of the Earth, and taking the fictitious [[Coriolis effect]] as given.
Because rotating frames are not vital for understanding mechanics, science teachers often de-emphasize the fictitious centrifugal force that arises in a rotating reference frame. However, in their zeal to stamp out the misunderstanding of the term in this one case, they may try to expunge it from the language entirely.
==References and external links==
* [http://members.tripod.com/~gravitee/booki2.htm Newton's description in Principia]
* [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0811114.html Centrifugal force] - Columbia electronic encyclopedia
* [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/CentrifugalForce.html Centrifugal Force] - from [[ScienceWorld]]
* [http://www.sos.bangor.ac.uk/~oss041/des/o1p01/text/coriolis.html Java applet] demonstrating centrifugal and Coriolis forces
* M. Alonso and E.J. Finn, ''Fundamental university physics'', Addison-Wesley
[[Category:Force]]
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[[da:Centrifugalkraft]]
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[[fr:Force centrifuge]]
[[he:כוח צנטריפוגלי]]
[[it:Forza centrifuga]]
[[ko:원심력]]
[[nl:Middelpuntvliedende kracht]]
[[ja:遠心力]]
[[pl:Siła odśrodkowa]]
[[sv:Centrifugalkraft]]
[[vi:Lực ly tâm]]
[[zh:離心力]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Centripetal force</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">An object that moves in a [[rotation|circular path]] undergoes a continuous [[acceleration]] towards the center of the circle. The [[net force]] that causes this acceleration is called a
'''centripetal force''' (from [[Latin]] ''centrum'' "center" and ''petere'' "tend towards"). This term refers to the ''effect'' of the force (namely, to maintain the circular motion of the object); the ''origin'' of the centripetal force can be anything that causes a [[force]] to exist. An object can travel in a circle with a constant [[speed]] only if the [[net force]] acting on it is a centripetal force. (And if the object is traveling in a circle with a varying [[speed]], the component of the [[net force]] along the [[radius]] is the centripetal force.)
In the case of an orbiting [[satellite]], the centripetal force is supplied by the gravitational attraction between the satellite and its primary, and acts toward the center of mass which lies in the satellite's primary; in the case of an object at the end of a rope rotating about a [[vertical]] [[axis of rotation|axis]], the centripetal force is the [[horizontal]] component of the tension of the rope which acts towards the [[axis of rotation]]. In the case of a spinning object, internal [[tensile stress]] gives the centripetal force that keeps the objects together in one piece.
Centripetal force must not be mixed up with [[centrifugal force]]. In an [[inertial reference frame]] (not rotating or accelerating), the centripetal force accelerates a particle in such a way that it moves along a circular path. In a corotating [[reference frame]], a particle in circular motion appears to have zero velocity, if the rotation is not accounted for. The centripetal force is exactly cancelled by a centrifugal force that in this approach appears as a [[fictitious force]]. Centripetal forces are according to Newtonian mechanics true forces, while centrifugal forces only appear relative to rotating frames.
Centripetal force must not be confused with [[central force]] either.
Objects moving in a straight line with constant speed also have constant [[velocity]]. However, an object moving in an arc with constant speed has a changing direction of motion. As velocity is a vector of speed and direction, a changing direction implies a changing velocity. The rate of this change in velocity is the '''centripetal acceleration'''. [[Derivative|Differentiating]] the velocity vector gives the direction of this acceleration towards the center of the circle.
== Formula ==
The centripetal acceleration is given by
:<math> \mathbf{a}_c = - \frac{v^2}{r} \hat{\mathbf{r}} = - \frac{v^2}{r} \frac{\mathbf{r}}{r} = - \omega^2 \mathbf{r}</math>
By [[Newton's second law of motion]], as there is an [[acceleration]] there has to be a [[force]] in the direction of the acceleration. This is the centripetal force, and is equal to:
:<math> \mathbf{F}_c = - \frac{m v^2}{r} \hat{\mathbf{r}} = - \frac{m v^2}{r} \frac{\mathbf{r}}{r} = - m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}</math>
''(where m is mass, v is velocity, r is radius of the circle, and the minus sign denotes that the vector points to the center of the circle and &omega; = v / r is the [[angular velocity]])''.
In vector notation we can write:
:<math> \boldsymbol F_c = m \boldsymbol\omega \times (\boldsymbol\omega \times \boldsymbol r )</math>,
where <math>\boldsymbol\omega</math> is the angular velocity vector of the rotation and <math>\boldsymbol r</math> is a vector from an arbitrary point on the rotation axis to the body (with mass <math>m</math>).
== Derivation ==
Simply use a [[polar coordinate system]], assume a constant radius, and differentiate twice.
Let '''r'''(t) be a vector that describes the position of a [[point mass]] as a function |
ction took place. According to the Chechen electoral commission, [[Alu Alkhanov]], former Chechen Minister of Interior, received approximately 74% of the vote. Voter turnout was 85.2%. Some observers, such as the [[U.S. Department of State]], [[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights]], as well as the opposition, question the election, citing, in part, the disqualification of the major rival [[Malik Saidullayev]] on a technicality. Polling conditions were also questioned, but no formal complaints have been made. The election was internationally monitored by the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] and [[Arab League]]; western monitors didn't participate in monitoring the election in protest at previous irregularities, despite being invited.
In addition to the elected government, there is a self-proclaimed separatist government that is not currently recognized by any state (although members have been given political asylum in European and Arab countries, as well as the United States). The separatist government was recognised by Georgia (when Georgian President was [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]] and Chechen President was [[Dzhokhar Dudaev]]. In 1999 the [[Taliban]] government of Afghanistan recognized independent Chechnya and opened an embassy in Kabul on 16 January 2000. Recognition ceased with the fall of the Taliban in 2001. The president of this government was [[Aslan Maskhadov]], the Foreign Minister was [[Ilyas Akhmadov]], who was the spokeman for Maskhadov. Ilyas Akhmadov is currently living under asylum in the United States. [[Aslan Maskhadov]] had been elected in an internationally monitored election in [[1997]] for 4 years, when the separatists were a major political force. In [[2001]] he issued a decree prolonging his office for one additional year; he was unable to participate in the [[2003]] presidential election, since separatist parties were barred by the Russian government, and Maskhadov faced accusations of "terrorist offences" in Russia. Maskhadov left [[Grozny]] and moved to the separatist-controlled areas of the south at the onset of the [[Second Chechen War]]. President Maskhadov was unable to influence a number of warlords who retain effective control over Chechen territory, and his power was diminished as a result. He came to denounce the attack by insurgent forces on Beslan and attempted to distance himself from the Islamist [[Shamil Basayev]], who claimed responsibility for the attack. Russian forces claimed to have killed him on March 8, 2005.
[[Akhmed Zakayev]], Deputy Prime Minister and a Foreign Minister under Maskhadov, was appointed shortly after the 1997 election and is currently living under asylum in [[England]]. He and others chose [[Abdul Khalim Saidullayev]] to replace Maskhadov following his death, bypassing Basayev. It has been reported, however, that Basayev turned the position down and has since pledged loyalty to Saidullayev. Saidullayev is a relatively unknown Islamic judge who was previously the host of an Islamic program on Chechen television. His position as a rebel is also unknown, leading the Russians and others to speculate that his selection marks the continued rise of Basayev &ndash; with Saidullayev as a figurehead &ndash; and the dearth of leadership figures that remain in the Chechen separatist movement.
==Administrative divisions==
===Districts===
[[Image:ChechenRepublic(RussianFederation)DivisionMap.png|thumb|right|Chechnya map]]
<!--Map needs to be redone to accommodate alphabetized list of districts and towns-->
'''Chechen Republic''' consists of the following [[raion]]s (districts):
#[[Naursky District, Chechen Republic|Naursky]] (Наурский)
#[[Shelkovsky District, Chechen Republic|Shelkovsky]] (Шелковский)
#[[Nadterechny District, Chechen Republic|Nadterechny]] (Надтеречный)
#[[Groznensky District, Chechen Republic|Groznensky]] (Грозненский)
#[[Gudermessky District, Chechen Republic|Gudermessky]] (Гудермесский)
#[[Sunzhensky District, Chechen Republic|Sunzhensky]] (Сунженский)
#[[Achkhoy-Martanovsky District, Chechen Republic|Achkhoy-Martanovsky]] (Ачхой-Мартановский)
#[[Urus-Martanovsky District, Chechen Republic|Urus-Martanovsky]] (Урус-Мартановский)
#[[Shalinsky District, Chechen Republic|Shalinsky]] (Шалинский)
#[[Kurchaloyevsky District, Chechen Republic|Kurchaloyevsky]] (Курчалоевский)
#[[Itum-Kalinsky District, Chechen Republic|Itum-Kalinsky]] (Итум-Калинский)
#[[Shatoysky District, Chechen Republic|Shatoysky]] (Шатойский)
#[[Vedensky District, Chechen Republic|Vedensky]] (Веденский)
#[[Nozhay-Yurtovsky District, Chechen Republic|Nozhay-Yurtovsky]] (Ножай-Юртовский)
#[[Sharoysky District, Chechen Republic|Sharoysky]] (Шаройский)
===Major settlements===
#[[Znamenskoye]]
#[[Naurskaya]]
#[[Achkhoy-Martan]]
#[[Urus-Martan]]
#[[Grozny]]
#[[Shali]]
#[[Gudermes]]
#[[Shelkovskaya]]
#[[Itum-Shale]]
#[[Shatoy]]
#[[Vedeno]]
#[[Nozhay-Yurt]]
==Geography==
Situated in the eastern part of the North Caucasus, Chechnya is surrounded on nearly all sides by Russian territory. In the west, it borders North Ossetia and Ingushetia, in the north, Stavropol Kray, in the east, Dagestan, and to the south, Georgia. Its capital is Grozny.
*Area: 19,300 km²
*Borders:
**Inside [[Russia]]:
***[[Dagestan]]
***[[Ingushetia]]
***[[North Ossetia-Alania]]
***[[Stavropol Krai]]
**Foreign:
***[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
'''Rivers:'''
*[[Terek River|Terek]]
*[[Sunzha River|Sunzha]]
*[[Argun River]]
===Time zone===
[[Image:RTZ2.png|left|75px]]
Chechnya is located in the [[Moscow Time|Moscow Time Zone]] (MSK/MSD). [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] offset is +0300&nbsp;(MSK)/+0400&nbsp;(MSD).
<div style="clear:left"></div>
==Economy==
===As of 2003===
During the war, the Chechen economy fell apart. [[Gross domestic product]], if reliably calculable, would be only a fraction of the prewar level. Problems with the Chechen economy had an effect on the federal Russian economy - a number of financial crimes during the 1990s were committed using Chechen financial organizations. Chechnya has the highest ratio within [[Russian Federation]] of financial operations made in [[US Dollars]] to operations in [[Russian Rouble]]s. There are many [[counterfeit]] US Dollars printed there. In 1994, the separatists planned to introduce a new currency, the [[Nahar]], but that did not happen due to Russian troops re-taking Chechnya in the [[First Chechen War]].
As an effect of the war, approximately 80% of the economic potential of Chechnya was destroyed. The only branch of economy that has been rebuilt so far is the [[petroleum]] industry. The [[2003]] oil production was estimated at 1.5 million metric tons annually (or 30 thousand [[Barrel (unit)|barrels]] per day), down from a peak of 4 million metric tons annually in the [[1980s]]. The [[2003]] production constituted approximately 0.6% of the total oil production in Russia. The level of [[unemployment]] is high, hovering between 60 and 70 percent. Despite economic improvements, [[smuggling]] and [[barter|bartering]] still comprise a significant part of Chechnya's economy.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4091635.stm]
According to the Russian government, over 2 billion [[USD|dollars]] were spent on the reconstruction of the Chechen economy since [[2000]]. However, according to the Russian central economic control agency (''Schyotnaya Palata''), not more than 350 million dollars were spent as intended.
==Demographics==
{{main|Chechen people}}
The current population of Chechnya is approximately 1.3 million; this includes [[Chechen people|Chechens]], Russians, [[Ingush]], and other North Caucasians.
Most Chechens are [[Sunnite|Sunni]] [[Muslim]], the country having converted to that religion between the [[16th century|16th]] and the [[19th century|19th centuries]]. At the end of the Soviet era, ethnic Russians comprised about 23 percent of the population (269,000 in 1989). Due to widespread crime and the alleged [[ethnic cleansing]] carried out by the government of [[Dzhokhar Dudayev]] most non-Chechens (and many Chechens as well) fled the country during the 1990s. Today there are only several thousand ethnic Russian residents of Chechnya.
The languages used in the Republic are [[Chechen language|Chechen]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. Chechen belongs to the Vaynakh or [[North-central Caucasian languages|North-central Caucasian]] linguistic family, which also includes [[Ingush language|Ingush]] and [[Batsb language|Batsb]]. Some scholars place it in a wider [[Iberian-Caucasian languages|Iberian-Caucasian super-family]].
Chechnya has one of the youngest populations in the generally aging Russian Federation; in the early 1990s, it was among the few regions experiencing natural population growth.
*'''Population''': 1,103,686 (2002) - numbers are disputed.
**''Urban'': 373,177 (33.8%)
**''Rural'': 730,509 (66.2%)
**''Male'': 532,724 (48.3%)
**''Female'': 570,962 (51.7%)
*'''Average age''': 22.7 years
**''Urban'': 22.8 years
**''Rural'': 22.7 years
**''Male'': 21.6 years
**''Female'': 23.9 years
*'''Number of households''': 195,304 (with 1,069,600 people)
**''Urban'': 65,741 (with 365,577 people)
**''Rural'': 129,563 (with 704,023 people)
*''2004 Population in Chechnya'': 1,088,816.
**''In Grozny (the capital of Chechen Republic)'': 80,000.
**''Ethnic Chechens predominate, with 98% of the population.''
==See also==
*[[List of active autonomist and secessionist movements]]
*[[Chechen War]]
*[[Music of Chechnya]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/2565049.stm BBC Chechnya profile]
*[http://www.geocities.com/svetlana.gubareva/30.html Beginning of the Chechen War (translation of grani.ru article)]
*[http://chechnya.gov.ru/ Official site of the government of Chechen republic (in Russian)]
*[http://www.kavkazcenter.com/ Kavkaz Center]
*[http://freewebs.com/superbootneck/ Chechnya veterans association (in English)]
*[http://www.che |
ncountered the word "gryphon" in a book, had one of those aha! experiences, and presented my find at the next meeting as a sort of trophy. Although not exactly an everyday sort of word, "gryphon" appears in most dictionaries and is understood by most literate English readers.''
If these memories are accurate, then perhaps in 1975 a subtle flaw was introduced into an otherwise commonplace word puzzle. Instead of asking for three words that contain "gry," the flawed version asks for three words that end in "gry." Presumably the person who asked the question did
not know the answer and, in repeating the question, simply misstated it. Since the flawed version has no good answer, an explosion of searching followed.
==Alternate versions==
Some of the trick versions are enumerated below.
#This version only works when spoken: There are three words in English that end in "gree." The first two are "angry" and "hungry," and if you've listened closely, you'll agree that I've already told you the third one.
#*The answer is "agree."
#There are three words in the English language that end in the letters g-r-y. Two are "hungry" and "angry." Everyone knows what the third word means, and everyone uses it every day. What is the third word?
#*The answer is "energy." The riddle says that the word ends in the letters g-r-y; it says nothing about the order of the letters.
#The [http://www.marilynvossavant.com "Ask Marilyn"] ([[Marilyn vos Savant]]) column in [http://parade.com/homepage.html Parade magazine] on [[March 9]] [[1997]] featured this spoken version: There are at least three words in the English language that end in g or y. One of them is "hungry," and another one is "angry." There is a third word, a short one, which you probably say every day. If you are listening carefully to everything I say, you just heard me say it three times. What is it?
#*The answer is "say." This version depends upon the listener confusing the spoken word "or" and the spoken letter r.
#There are three words in the English language that end in "gry." Two words that end in "gry" are "hungry" and "angry." Everyone knows what the third word means, and everyone uses them every day. If you listened very carefully, I have already stated to you what the third word is. The three words that solve this riddle are...?
#*The answer is the three-word sentence "I am hungry." This version asks for three words that end in "gry," not three words each of which end in "gry."
#This version is a play on the use-mention ambiguity exploited by other versions: I know two words that end in "gry." Neither one is angry or hungry. What are they?
#*The answer is "angry" and "hungry." Since these are words, they are not angry or hungry.
#Here is a version invented by Frank Rubin on [[December 4]] [[2003]]: Give me 3 English words, commonly spoken, ending in g-r-y.
#*There are many possible answers, such as "Beg for mercy," or "Bring your money."
#There are three words in the English language that end g-r-y. One is "angry," another is "hungry." The third word is something that "everyone" uses. If you have listened carefully, I have already told you what it is.
#*The answer is "every," and the logic is as follows: There are three words, ending g, r and y. The first is "fuming," ending in g and meaning angry. The second is "eager," ending in r and meaning hungry. The third is "every," ending in y and clearly something that the word "everyone" uses.
The remaining versions are a form of meta-puzzle, in the sense that they make no use of the actual letters "gry" themselves, which therefore are a [[red herring]]. The red herring only works because there is another puzzle that does use these letters (even though that puzzle has no good answer).
#On [[March 28]] [[1996]], one such version was broadcast on WHTZ in New York City during "The Elvis Duran Afternoon Show." The person asking the question was a caller who worked in a beauty salon at a mall somewhere in NJ: Think of words ending in "gry." Angry and hungry are two of them. There are only three words in "the English language." What is the third word? The word is something that everyone uses everyday. If you have listened carefully, I have already told you what it is.
#*The answer to this version is "language" -- the third word in the phrase "the English language." There are quotation marks needed to make this answer correct when the puzzle is printed, but they give away the trick.
#Angry and hungry are two words in the English language that end in "gry." "What" is the third word. The word is something that everyone uses everyday. If you have listened carefully, I have already told you what it is.
#*The answer is "what." But again, the quotation marks spoil the puzzle when it is printed.
#There are three words in the English language that end with "gry." Two of these are "angry" and "hungry." The third word is a very common word, and you use it often. If you have read what I have told you, you will see that I have given you the third word. What is the third word? Think very carefully.
#*The answer is "three," the third word in the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph is a red herring.
#This version is usually stated with the word "one" capitalized, which is a hint at the solution: There are three words in the English language that end in "gry." The first ONE is "hungry," the second is "angry," and the third everyONE uses everyday. If you have read this carefully I have given a clue.
#*The answer is supposedly "one," which is the third "one." Probably because this answer does not make much sense, this version has a variant which contains more instances of the capitalized word "one." The idea is that the capitalized "one" is a hint for the letter a, which when prefixed to the sound "gree" yields the answer word "agree."
==List of obsolete words, compound words, and names ending in gry==
<pre>
[Explanation of references is given at the end of the list.]
affect-hungry [OED (see "sado-masochism")]
aggry [OED:1:182; W2; W3]
Agry [OED (see "snappily")]
Agry Dagh (Mount Agry) [EB11]
ahungry [OED:1:194; FW; W2]
air-hungry [OED (see "Tel Avivian")]
angry [OED; FW; W2; W3]
anhungry [OED:1:332; W2]
Badagry [Johnston; EB11; OED (see "Dahoman")]
Ballingry [Bartholomew:40; CLG:151; RD:164, pl.49]
begry [OED:1:770,767]
bewgry [OED:1:1160]
boroughmongry [OED (see "boroughmonger")]
bowgry [OED:1:1160]
braggry [OED:1:1047]
Bugry [TIG]
Chockpugry [Worcester]
Cogry [BBC]
cony-gry [OED:2:956]
conyngry [OED:2:956]
cottagry [OED (see "cottagery")]
Croftangry [DFC, as "Chrystal Croftangry"; OED (see "way")]
diamond-hungry [OED (see "Lorelei")]
dog-hungry [W2]
dogge-hungry [OED (see "canine")]
Dshagry [Stieler]
Dzagry [Andree]
eard-hungry [CED (see "yird"); CSD]
Echanuggry [Century:103-104, on inset map, Key 104 M 2]
Egry [France; TIG]
euer-angry [OED (see "ever")]
ever-angry [W2]
fenegry [OED (see "fenugreek")]
fire-angry [W2]
Gagry [EB11]
girl-hungry [OED (see "girl")]
gonagry [OED (see "gonagra")]
gry (from Latin _gry_) [OED:4/2:475; W2]
gry (from Romany _grai_) [W2]
haegry [EDD (see "hagery")]
half-angry [W2]
hangry [OED:1:329]
heart-angry [W2]
heart-hungry [W2]
higry pigry [OED:5/1:285]
hogry [EDD (see "huggerie"); CSD]
hogrymogry [EDD (see "huggerie"); CSD (as "hogry-mogry")]
hongry [OED:5/1:459; EDD:3:282]
hound-hungry [OED (see "hound")]
houngry [OED (see "minx")]
huggrymuggry [EDD (see "huggerie"); CSD (as "huggry-muggry")]
hund-hungry [OED (see "hound")]
hungry [OED; FW; W2; W3]
Hungry Bungry [Daily Illini, in ad for The Giraffe, Spring 1976]
hwngry [OED (see "quart")]
iggry [OED]
Jagry [EB11]
job-hungry [OED (see "gadget")]
kaingry [EDD (see "caingy")]
land-hungry [OED; W2]
Langry [TIG; Times]
leather-hungry [OED]
ledderhungry [OED (see "leather")]
life-hungry [OED (see "music")]
Lisnagry [Bartholomew:489]
losengry [OED (see "losengery")]
MacLoingry [Phillips (as "Flaithbhertach MacLoingry")]
mad-angry [OED:6/2:14]
mad-hungry [OED:6/2:14]
magry [OED:6/2:36, 6/2:247-48]
malgry [OED:6/2:247]
man-hungry [OED]
managry [OED (see "managery")]
mannagry [OED (see "managery")]
Margry [Indians (see "Pierre Margry" in bibliog., v.2, p.1204)]
maugry [OED:6/2:247-48]
mawgry [OED:6/2:247]
meagry [OED:6/2:267]
meat-hungry [W2; OED (see "meat")]
menagry [OED (see "managery")]
messagry [OED]
music-hungry [OED (see "music")]
nangry [OED]
overangry [RH1; RH2]
Pelegry [CE (in main index as "Raymond de Pelegry")]
Pingry [Bio-Base; HPS:293-94, 120-21]
Podagry [OED; W2 (below the line)]
Pongry [Andree (Supplement, p.572)]
pottingry [OED:7/2:1195; Jamieson:3:532]
power-hungry [OED (see "power")]
profit-hungry [OED (see "profit")]
puggry [OED:8/1:1573; FW; W2]
pugry [OED:8/1:1574]
red-angry [OED (see "sanguineous")]
rungry [EDD:5:188]
scavengry [OED (in 1715 quote under "scavengery")]
Schtschigry [LG/1:2045; OSN:97]
Seagry [TIG; EB11]
Segry [Johnston; Andree]
self-angry [W2]
selfe-angry [OED (see "self-")]
sensation-hungry [OED (see "sensation" |
ysician]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[1707]]-[[May 23|05-23]]
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[[ar:كاروليوس لينيوس]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Darwin</title>
<id>5234</id>
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<id>42063818</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:37:50Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other uses see [[Darwin (disambiguation)]]}}
[[Image:Charles Darwin 1854.jpg|frame|right|In his lifetime Charles Darwin gained international fame as an influential scientist examining controversial topics.]]
'''Charles Robert Darwin''' ([[12 February]] [[1809]] – [[19 April]] [[1882]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[natural history|naturalist]] who achieved lasting fame by convincing the [[scientific community]] of the occurrence of [[evolution]] and proposing the [[scientific theory|theory]] <!-- PLEASE see [[Evolution#Distinctions_between_theory_and_fact]], [[Talk:Charles_Darwin#Evolution_is_a_fact_and_a_theory]] & http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_fact-and-theory.html THEN discuss any proposed changes on the talk page BEFORE making changes--> that this could be explained through [[natural selection|natural]] and [[sexual selection]]. This theory is now considered the central explanatory paradigm in [[biology]].
He developed an interest in natural history while studying first [[medicine]], then [[theology]], at university. Darwin's [[The Voyage of the Beagle|five-year voyage]] on the [[HMS Beagle|''Beagle'']] and subsequent writings brought him eminence as a [[geology|geologist]] and fame as a popular author. His [[biology|biological]] observations led him to study the [[transmutation of species]] and, in 1838, develop his theory of natural selection. Fully aware that others had been severely punished for such "[[heresy#Contemporary heresy|heretical]]" ideas, he only confided in his closest friends and continued his research to meet anticipated objections. However, in 1858 the information that [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] had developed a similar theory forced early joint [[publication of Darwin's theory|publication of the theory]].
His 1859 book ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life'' (usually abbreviated to ''[[The Origin of Species]]'') established evolution by [[common descent]] as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature. He was made a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]], continued his research, and wrote a series of books on plants and animals, including humankind, notably ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' and ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]''.
In recognition of Darwin's pre-eminence, he was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]], close to [[William Herschel]] and [[Isaac Newton]].
==Early life ==
[[Image:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|thumb|190px|The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, a year before the sudden loss of his mother.]]
{{main|Charles Darwin's education}}
Charles Darwin was born in [[Shrewsbury, Shropshire]], [[England]], on [[12 February]] [[1809]], at his family home, the [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|Mount House]]. He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor [[Robert Darwin]] and [[Susannah Darwin]] (''née'' Wedgwood). He was the grandson of [[Erasmus Darwin]] on his father's side, and of [[Josiah Wedgwood]] on his mother's side, both from the prominent English [[Darwin — Wedgwood family|Darwin &ndash; Wedgwood]] family which supported the [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] church. His mother died when he was only eight. When he went to the nearby [[Shrewsbury School]] the next year, he lived as a "[[boarding school|boarder]]".
In 1825 after spending the summer as an apprentice doctor, helping his father with treating the poor of [[Shropshire]], Darwin went to [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh University]] to study medicine, but his revulsion at the brutality of surgery led him to neglect his medical studies. He learnt [[taxidermy]] from [[John Edmonstone]], a freed black slave, who told him exciting tales of the South American [[rainforest]]. In Darwin's second year he became active in student societies for [[natural history|naturalists]]. He became an avid pupil of [[Robert Edmund Grant]], who pioneered development of the theories of [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] and of Charles' grandfather Erasmus concerning evolution by acquired characteristics. Darwin took part in Grant's investigations of the life cycle of marine animals on the shores of the [[Firth of Forth]] which found evidence for ''[[homology (biology)|homology]]'', the radical theory that all animals have similar organs and differ only in complexity. In March 1827 Darwin made a presentation to the [[Plinian society]] of his own discovery that the black spores often found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. He also sat in on [[Robert Jameson]]'s [[natural history]] course in which he learnt about [[stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] [[geology]] and received training in [[alpha taxonomy|how to classify plants]] when assisting with work on the extensive collections of the [[Royal Museum|Museum of Edinburgh University]].
In 1827 his father, unhappy that his younger son had no interest in becoming a physician, shrewdly enrolled him in a [[Bachelor of Arts]] course at [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]], [[University of Cambridge]], to qualify as a clergyman. This was a sensible career move at a time when [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[parson]]s were provided with a comfortable income, and when most naturalists in England were clergymen who saw it as part of their duties to "explore the wonders of God's creation". At Cambridge, Darwin preferred riding and shooting to studying. Along with his cousin [[William Darwin Fox]], he became engrossed in the craze at the time for the competitive collecting of [[beetle]]s, and Fox introduced him to the Reverend [[John Stevens Henslow]], professor of [[botany]], for expert advice on beetles. Darwin subsequently joined Henslow's natural history course, became his favourite pupil and came to be known as "the man who walks with Henslow". When exams began to loom Darwin focused more on his studies and received private tuition from Henslow. Darwin became particularly enthused by the writings of [[William Paley]], including the [[teleological argument|argument of divine design in nature]]. In his finals in January 1831, he performed well in theology and, having scraped through in [[classics]], [[mathematics]] and [[physics]], came tenth out of a pass list of 178.
Residential requirements kept Darwin at Cambridge until June. In keeping with Henslow's example and advice, he was in no rush to take holy orders. Inspired by [[Alexander von Humboldt]]'s ''Personal Narrative'', he planned to visit the [[Madeira Islands]] to study natural history in the tropics with some classmates after graduation. To prepare himself, Darwin joined the geology course of the Reverend [[Adam Sedgwick]], a strong proponent of [[history of creationism|divine design]], then in the summer went with him to assist in mapping strata in [[Wales]]. Darwin was surveying strata on his own when his plans to visit Madeira were dashed by a message that his intended companion had died, but on his return home he received another letter. Henslow had recommended Darwin for the unpaid position of gentleman's companion to [[Robert FitzRoy]], the captain of [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']], on a two-year expedition to chart the coastline of [[South America]] which would give Darwin valuable opportunities to develop his career as a naturalist. His father objected to the voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by [[Josiah Wedgwood II]] to agree to his son's participation. This voyage became a five-year expedition that would lead to dramatic changes in many fields of science.
=== Journey on the ''Beagle'' ===
{{main|The Voyage of the Beagle}}
[[Image:HMS_Beagle_by_Conrad_Martens.jpg|thumb|245px|right|As [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']] surveyed the coasts of [[South America]], Darwin began to theorise about the wonders of nature around him.]]
The ''Beagle'' survey took five years, two-thirds of which Darwin spent exploring on land. He studied a rich variety of geological features, [[fossil]]s and living organisms, and met a wide range of people, both native and colonial. He methodically collected an enormous number of specimens, many of them new to science. This established his reputation as a naturalist and made him one of the precursors of the field of [[ecology]], particularly the notion of [[biocoenosis]]. His extensive detailed notes showed his gift for theorising and formed the basis for his later work, as well as provi |
se of previous generations. Flynn himself does not believe this to be the case. It is conceivable that something about modern society is responsible, e.g the greater need for abstract thinking, presence of computers, more visually-oriented culture.
==Proposed explanations==
Better [[nutrition]] has been proposed as a factor. However, there is evidence from [[Scandinavia]]n countries that IQ scores rose even more, 20 points per generation, following the austerity of occupation during [[World War II]]. Another possible explanation is that people are maturing faster, so that, for example, a ten-year-old today may have the mental age that a twelve-year-old had sixty years ago, although this may also be ultimately due to nutrition.
In 2001, James R. Flynn and William T. Dickens, a [[Brookings Institution]] economist, presented a mechanism by which environmental effects on IQ may be magnified by feedback effects. The paper "Heritability Estimates Versus Large Environmental Effects: The IQ Paradox Resolved<ref>[http://www.apa.org/journals/features/rev1082346.pdf American Psychological Association]</ref>" was published in [[Psychological Review]].
In 2005, Colom ''et al.'' (Colom, 2005) presented data supporting the nutrition hypothesis, which predicts that gains in IQ will predominantly occur at the low end of the distribution where nutritional deprivation is most severe. Two large samples of Spanish children were assessed with a 30-year gap. Comparison of the IQ distributions indicated that 1) the mean IQ had increased by 9.7 points (the Flynn effect), 2) the gains were concentrated in the lower half of the distribution and negligible in the top half, and 3) the gains gradually decreased from low to high IQ.
Possibly related to the Flynn effect is change in [[cranial vault]] size and shape during the last 150 years in the US. These changes must occur by early childhood because of the early development of the vault.<ref>"<cite>Changes in vault dimensions must occur by early childhood because of the early development of the vault.</cite>" [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/71007970/ABSTRACT Secular change in craniofacial morphology]
"<cite>During the 125 years under consideration, cranial vaults have become markedly higher, somewhat narrower, with narrower faces. The changes in cranial morphology are probably in large part due to changes in growth at the cranial base due to improved environmental conditions. The changes are likely a combination of phenotypic plasticity and genetic changes over this period.</cite>" [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11451056&dopt=Abstract Cranial change in Americans: 1850-1975.]</ref>
Studies that make use of multigroup confirmatory factor analysis test for "measurement invariance." Where tenable, invariance demonstrates that group differences exist in the latent constructs the tests contain and not, for example, as a result of measurement artifacts or cultural bias. Wicherts ''et al.'' (2004) found evidence from five data sets that IQ scores are not measurement invariant over time, and thus "the gains cannot be explained solely by increases at the level of the latent variables (common factors), which IQ tests purport to measure". In other words, according to this study, some of the inter-generational difference in IQ is attributable to bias or other artifacts, and not real gains in [[general intelligence factor|general intelligence]] or higher-order ability factors.
In the end, a number of varied phenomena may be contributing to the Flynn effect.
==Contrary evidence==
The Flynn effect may have ended in some places starting in the mid 1990s. Teasdale & Owen (in press) "report intelligence test results from over 500,000 young Danish men, tested between 1959 and 2004, showing that performance peaked in the late 1990s, and has since declined moderately to pre-1991 levels." They speculate that "a contributing factor in this recent fall could be a simultaneous decline in proportions of students entering 3-year advanced-level school programs for 16–18 year olds."
Another recent study done by Professor of Education [[Philip Adey]] and [[psychology]] professor [[Michael Shayer]] also show that the Flynn effect may have ended. According to Professor Adey, “The intelligence of 11-year-olds has fallen by three years’ worth in the past two decades.” <ref> [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2092-2014198,00.html Failing to teach them how to handle real life]</ref> The study compared results of IQ tests taken by 11 year old children in [[2005]], the mid [[1990s]], and [[1976]], showing a precipitous drop in average IQ.
== References ==
<references/>
* Ulric Neisser et al.: The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures. American Psychological Association (APA), 1998, ISBN 1557985030. Discusses the Flynn effect, and its possible explanations and consequences.
* {{cite journal|author=Colom, R., Lluis-Font, J.M., and Andrés-Pueyo, A. |date=2005|title=The generational intelligence gains are caused by decreasing variance in the lower half of the distribution: Supporting evidence for the nutrition hypothesis|journal=Intelligence|volume=33|pages=83-91}}
* {{cite journal | author=Mingroni, M.A. | title=The secular rise in IQ: Giving heterosis a closer look | journal=Intelligence | year=2004 | volume=32 | pages=65–83}}
* {{cite journal|author=Wicherts, J.M., Dolan, C.V., Hessen, D.J., Oosterveld, P., Baal, G.C.M. van, Boomsma, D.I., & Span, M.M. |date=2004|title=Are intelligence tests measurement invariant over time? Investigating the nature of the Flynn effect|journal=Intelligence|volume= 32|pages= 509–537|url=http://users.fmg.uva.nl/jwicherts/wicherts2004.pdf }} (''links to PDF file'')
* Teasdale, T.W. & Owen, D.R. (in press). "A long-term rise and recent decline in intelligence test performance: The Flynn Effect in reverse." ''Personality and Individual Differences.''
==See also==
* [[Intelligence (trait)|Intelligence]]
* [[Intelligence quotient]]
* [[Dysgenics]]
* [[Heterosis]]
* [[Generational Compression]]
==External links==
* Marguerite Holloway, ''Flynn's effect'', [[Scientific American]], January 1999; [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00037F65-D9C0-1C6A-84A9809EC588EF21&ref=sciam online edition]
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/FLYNNEFF.html Increasing intelligence: the Flynn effect]
* [http://www.psych.usyd.edu.au/spearman/bios/flynn.html Flynn biography]
* [http://home.adelphia.net/~rdfuerle/Flynn.html "An Explanation for the Flynn Effect"]
* [http://www.apa.org/journals/features/rev1082346.pdf "Heritability Estimates Versus Large Environmental Effects: The IQ Paradox Resolved"] - article by Dickens and Flynn
*[http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/anthro/course.und/3L/105-1_gravleeetal.pdf Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form: A Reanalysis of Boas’s Immigrant Data]
* [http://lance.qualquant.net/gravlee03b.pdf Did Boas get it right or wrong?]
[[Category:Psychometrics]]
[[Category:Futurology]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Field ion microscope</title>
<id>11774</id>
<revision>
<id>38626825</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T16:05:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] change "a" to "an".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Field ion microscopy''' (FIM) is an analytical technique used in [[materials science]]. The field ion microscope is a type of [[microscope]] that can be used to image the arrangement of [[atom]]s at the surface of a sharp metal tip.
It was the first technique by which individual atoms could be spatially resolved. The technique was pioneered by [[Erwin Müller]]. Images of atomic structures of [[tungsten]] were first published in 1951 in the journal ''Zeitschrift für Physik''.
In FIM, a sharp metal tip is produced and placed in an [[ultra high vacuum]] chamber, which is backfilled with an imaging gas such as [[helium]] or [[neon]]. The tip is cooled to cryogenic temperatures (20–100 K). A positive [[voltage]] of 5000 to 10&nbsp;000 [[volt]]s is applied to the tip. Gas atoms adsorbed on the tip are ionized by the strong [[electric field]] in the vicinity of the tip (thus, "field ionization"), becoming positively charged and being repelled from the tip. The curvature of the surface near the tip causes a natural magnification — [[ion]]s are repelled in a direction roughly perpendicular to the surface (a "point projection" effect). A detector is placed so as to collect these repelled ions; the image formed from all the collected ions can be of sufficient resolution to image individual atoms on the tip surface.
Unlike conventional microscopes, where the spatial resolution is limited by the wavelength of the particles which are used for imaging, the FIM is a projection type microscope with atomic resolution and an approximate magnification of a few million times.
==See also==
*[[Atom Probe]]
*[[Electron microscope]]
*[[Field emission microscope]]
*[[List of surface analysis methods]]
==External links==
* [http://arc.nucapt.northwestern.edu/ Northwestern University Center for Atom-Probe Tomography]
[[Category:Microscopes]]
[[de:Feldionenmikroskop]]
[[pl:Mikroskop jonowy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Battle of El Alamein</title>
<id>11775</id>
<revision>
<id>39753242</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T17:10:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sannya</username>
<id>763106< |
ion ==
The Cayman Islands Education Council operates public schools on the island.
==Military==
{{main|Military of the Cayman Islands}}
The defence of the Cayman Islands is the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom]]. Therefore, the islands have no established military. They do however have their own police force, the [[Royal Cayman Islands Police Service]] and in 2001, the small [[Cayman Islands Cadet Corps]] was formed in the place of a traditional army.
== Foreign relations ==
{{main|Foreign relations of the Cayman Islands}}
The foreign relations of the Cayman Islands are largely managed from the [[United Kingdom]], as the islands remain an overseas territory of the UK. However, the Government of the Cayman Islands often resolves important issues with foreign governments alone, without intervention from Britain. Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands' most important relationships were with Britain and [[Jamaica]], in recent years, this has shifted, and they now rely more so on the [[United States]].
Though the Cayman Islands are involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and [[money laundering]]. In an attempt to address this, the Government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the [[Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty]] of 1986 with the United States, in order to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities. In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to cooperate with foreign investigators.
Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands have no representation either on the [[United Nations]], or in most other international organizations. However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organisations, being a full member of the [[Central Development Bank]] and [[International Olympic Committee]], an associate member of [[Caricom]] and [[UNESCO]], and a member of a sub-bureau of [[Interpol]].
== In fiction ==
Large parts of the novel ''[[The Firm (book)|The Firm]]'' by [[John Grisham]] takes place on the Cayman Islands. The main character works for a [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Tennessee]] law firm that uses island banks for money laundering.
[[Frankie Flowers]]' [[2004]] film ''[[Haven (movie) | Haven]]'' takes place on Grand Cayman. Frankie Flowers is a native of the Cayman Islands.
[[Image:Cayman Islands-CIA WFB Map.png|thumb|Map of the Cayman Islands]]
== References ==
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cj.html
| title = Cayman Islands
| work = 2005 CIA World Factbook
| accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = July 4
}} ''Originally from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.''
* {{Anb | UN_decolonisation }}{{cite web
| url = http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust3.htm
| title = Non-Self-Governing Territories listed by General Assembly in 2002
| work = United Nations Special Committee of 24 on Decolonization
| accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = July 4
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Michael Craton and the New Historical Committee
| year = 2003
| title = Founded upon the Seas: A History of the Cayman Islands and Their People
| publisher = Ian Randel Publishers
| id = ISBN 0-9729358-3-5
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso,
| year = 1914
| title = Lexografía Antillana
| publisher = El Siglo XX Press, Havana
| id = ISBN 0-000-000
}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.gov.ky Cayman Islands Government]
* [http://www.caymanislands.ky/ Cayman Islands Department of Tourism]
* [http://www.investcayman.gov.ky/ Cayman Islands Investment Bureau]
* [http://www.gocayman.ky/ Grand Cayman Islands Vacation Directory]
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/cy/gcmap.shtml Map of Grand Cayman]
{{Caricom}}
{{West_Indies}}
{{British dependencies}}
[[Category:Caribbean islands]]
[[Category:Cayman Islands|Cayman Islands]]
[[Category:Current British colonies]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
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[[gl:Illas Caimán - Cayman Islands]]
[[he:איי קיימן]]
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[[hu:Kajmán-szigetek]]
[[id:Kepulauan Cayman]]
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[[ja:ケイマン諸島]]
[[ko:케이맨 제도]]
[[lt:Kaimanų salos]]
[[nl:Caymaneilanden]]
[[no:Caymanøyene]]
[[pl:Kajmany (wyspy)]]
[[pt:Ilhas Caymans]]
[[ru:Каймановы острова]]
[[simple:Cayman Islands]]
[[sk:Kajmanské ostrovy]]
[[sl:Kajmanski otoki]]
[[sv:Caymanöarna]]
[[tr:Cayman Adaları]]
[[uk:Кайманові острови]]
[[zh:開曼群島]]
[[zh-min-nan:Cayman Kûn-tó]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Cayman Islands</title>
<id>5469</id>
<revision>
<id>36464638</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T05:23:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.12.116.10</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>The same old...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Christopher Columbus]] discovered the [[Cayman Islands]] on [[May 10]], [[1503]] and named them ''Las Tortugas'' after the numerous [[sea turtle]]s there. Columbus had found the two small islands (Cayman Brac and Little Cayman) and it was these 2 islands that he named "Las Tortugas".
A 1523 map of the islands referred to them as Lagartos, meaning alligators or large lizards, but by 1530 they were known as the Caymanas after the Carib word for the marine crocodile which also lived there.
The first recorded English visitor was [[Sir Francis Drake]] in [[1586]], who reported that the ''caymanas'' were edible, but it was the turtles which attracted ships in search of fresh meat for their crews. Overfishing nearly extinguished th turtles from the local waters.
The Cayman Islands remained largely uninhabited until the 17th century. A variety of people settled on the islands: [[pirate]]s, refugees from the [[Spanish Inquisition]], shipwrecked sailors, deserters from [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s army in [[Jamaica]], and [[Slavery|slave]]s. The majority of Caymanians are of [[Africa]]n and [[Great Britain|British]] descent, with considerable interracial mixing.
Britain took formal control of the Caymans, along with Jamaica, under the [[Treaty of Madrid (1670)|Treaty of Madrid]] in 1670 after the first settlers came from Jamaica in 1661-71 to Little Cayman and Cayman Brac. These first settlements were abandoned after attacks by Spanish privateers, but British privateers often used the Cayman Islands as a base and in the 18th century they became an increasingly popular hideout for pirates, even after the end of legitimate privateering in 1713. Following several unsuccessful attempts, permanent settlement of the islands began in the 1730s. The Cayman Islands historically have been popular as a tax haven. In November 1794, a convoy of 10 Jamaican merchantmen was wrecked on the reef in Gun Bay, on the East end of Grand Cayman, but with the help of local settlers, there was no loss of life. Legend has it that there was a member of the Royal Family onboard and that in gratitude for their bravery, King George III decreed that Caymanians should never be conscripted for war service and Parliament legislated that they should never be taxed.
From 1670, the Cayman Islands were effective dependencies of Jamaica, although there was considerable self-government. In [[1832]], a legislative assembly was established, consisting of eight magistrates appointed by the Governor of Jamaica and 10 (later increased to 27) elected representatives. The Cayman Islands were officially declared and administered as a dependency of Jamaica from 1863, but were rather like a [[parish]] of Jamaica with the nominated justices of the peace and elected vestrymen in their Legislature. From 1750 to 1898 the Chief Magistrate was the administrating official for the dependency, appointed by the Jamaican governor. In 1898 the Governor of Jamaica began appointing a Commissioner for the Islands. In 1959, upon the formation of the [[Federation of the West Indies]] the dependency status with regards to Jamaica ceased officially although the Governor of Jamaica remained the Governor of the Cayman Islands and had reserve powers over the Islands. Starting in 1959 the chief official overseeing the day to day affairs of the islands (for the Governor) was the Administrator. Upon Jamaica's independence in 1962, the Cayman Islands broke its administrative links with Jamaica and opted to become a direct dependency of the British Crown, with the chief official of the islands being the Administrator.
In 1971 the governmental structure of the Islands was again changed with a Governor now running the Cayman Islands.
In 1991 a review of the 1972 constitution recommended several constitutional changes to be debated by the Legislative Assembly. The post of [[Chief Secretary]] was reinstated in 1992 after having been abolished in 1986. The establishment of the post of [[Chief Minister]] was also proposed. However, in November 1992 elections were held for an enlarged Legislative Assembly and the Government was soundly defeated, casting doubt on constitutional reform. The "National Team" of government critics won 12 (later reduced to 11) of the 15 seats, and independents won the other three, after a campaign opposing the appointment of
Chief Minister and advocating spending cuts. The unofficial leader of the team, Thomas Jefferson, had been the appointed Financial Secretary until March 1992, when he resigned over public spending disputes to fight the election. After the elections, Mr. Jefferson was appointed Minister and leader of government business; he also held the portfolios of Tourism, Aviation and Co |
f unseen companions. His announcement of Sirius' "dark companion" in [[1841]] was the first correct claim of a previously unobserved companion by positional measurement, and eventually led to the discovery of [[Sirius B]].
Despite lacking a university education, Bessel was a major figure in astronomy during his lifetime. He was elected a fellow of the [[Royal Society]], and the largest [[Impact crater|crater]] in the moon's [[Mare Serenitatis]] was named after him.
He won the [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] in [[1841]]. The asteroid [[1552 Bessel]] was named in his honour.
==External links==
* http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Bessel.html
[[Category:1784 births|Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm]]
[[Category:1846 deaths|Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm]]
[[Category:German astronomers|Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm]]
[[da:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]]
[[de:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]]
[[es:Friedrich Bessel]]
[[eo:Friedrich BESSEL]]
[[fa:فردریش بسل]]
[[fi:Friedrich Bessel]]
[[fr:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]]
[[it:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]]
[[nl:Friedrich Bessel]]
[[ja:フリードリヒ・ヴィルヘルム・ベッセル]]
[[no:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]]
[[pl:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]]
[[ru:Бессель, Фридрих Вильгельм]]
[[sl:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]]
[[fi:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]]
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[[zh:弗里德里希·威廉·贝塞尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti</title>
<id>11576</id>
<revision>
<id>15909315</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-10T01:24:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curps</username>
<id>44727</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FSB (Russia)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FSB</title>
<id>11577</id>
<revision>
<id>41461212</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:21:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trombotik</username>
<id>373036</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''FSB''' may stand for one of the following.
* '''Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti''', [[Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation]]
*[[Trade Union Social Citizens List|Faglig Social Borgerliste]]
*[[Federal Savings Bank]] in the [[United States]]
*[[Fire support base]] or [[Firebase]] (Military encampment)
*[[Front side bus]] (Computer data bus type)
*[[FSB (band)|FSB]], a Bulgarian band
*[[Fairfield Symphonic Band|Fairfield Symphonic Band]], Singapore
*[[FSB Trombone Section|FSB Trombone Section]] Fairfield Symphonic Band, Singapore
*[[Federation of Small Businesses|Federation of Small Businesses]], UK
*[[Financial Services Board]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[da:FSB]]
[[de:FSB]]
[[fr:FSB]]
[[ja:FSB]]
[[pl:FSB]]
[[sv:FSB]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Facism</title>
<id>11578</id>
<revision>
<id>25719459</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-17T06:56:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lucashazel</username>
<id>506355</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fascism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fermi paradox</title>
<id>11579</id>
<revision>
<id>42080930</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:18:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.102.119.18</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+iw.ca</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arecibo message.png|frame|right|A graphical representation of the [[Arecibo message]], Humanity's first attempt to communicate its existence to alien civilizations]]
The '''Fermi Paradox''' is a [[physical paradox]] that was brought to light by a simple question posed by the [[physicist]] [[Enrico Fermi]] when speculating about the existence of [[technology|technologically]] advanced [[civilization]]s within the observable universe, and exactly how common they would be.
The age of the universe and the vast number of stars in our galaxy alone suggest that extraterrestrial life should not be rare &mdash; a notion later supported by many estimates based on the [[Drake equation]]. However, Fermi is said (perhaps apocryphally) to have asked, "Where are they?" If there is a multitude of advanced extraterrestrial civilizations in our [[galaxy]] (the [[Milky Way]]) then why have we not seen any evidence, such as [[Von Neumann probe|probes]], [[spacecraft]] or [[Radio|radio transmissions]]? The paradox can be stated as follows:
<blockquote>
''The belief that the universe contains many technologically advanced civilizations, combined with our lack of observational evidence to support that view, is inconsistent. Either this assumption is incorrect (and technologically advanced intelligent life is much rarer than we believe), our current observations are incomplete (and we simply have not detected them yet), or our search methodologies are flawed (we are not searching for the correct indicators).''
</blockquote>
Those who believe that the lack of such overt evidence is a conclusive argument for the ''non''-existence of technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilization within communication distance of earth refer to this lack of evidence as the '''Fermi principle'''.
There have been attempts to resolve the Fermi Paradox by locating evidence of technologically advanced civilizations, or to respond to it by explaining how extraterrestrial civilizations could exist and yet remain undetected by us.
== Theorizing about extraterrestrial life: The basis of the paradox ==
A great deal of effort has gone into developing scientific theories and possible models of extraterrestrial life. Since we have very little ''empirical'' evidence &mdash; and that which we do have is not yet exhaustive or comprehensive &mdash; we are in a position much like ancient Greek philosophers trying to form a [[cosmology]] [[a priori]] without direct physical evidence. Still, given what we know about [[physical cosmology]], [[astronomy]], [[biology]] and [[ecology]] we attempt to come to as reasonable a view as we can.
The questions around the idea of extraterrestrial life break down into several parts: ''does'' intelligent extraterrestrial life exist; and if it exists how common is it, how may we find it, and how may we communicate with it?
The various answers to these questions are the basis out of which the Fermi paradox arose.
=== Does it exist? ===
==== Pro: The argument by scale ====
Some speculate that if life is possible at all in the universe &mdash; and we are an example of it &mdash; then given the vast scale of the universe, and the age of the universe, it should not only be possible, but ''almost certain'' that there are large numbers of extraterrestrial civilizations ''somewhere'' in the Universe. This view is based on the [[mediocrity principle]], which states that Earth is not special, merely a typical planet, one of trillions of worlds which are all subject to the same laws, effects, and chances. Even if intelligent life occurs once for every few ''billion'' of these "ordinary" planets and takes ''billions'' of years, they argue, there are potentially ''trillions'' of planets (or more) and the universe is billions of years old as well. The vast universal scales of time and space make even ''infinitesimal'' probabilities of any one planet producing intelligent life an almost certainty when large numbers of planets are considered together.
This is the argument and assumption that lay at the root of Fermi's question, and the classic response of "Where are they then?" the spark that has fueled the debate. Given the lack of evidence to the contrary, we cannot yet know for certain that we are not alone &mdash; at least in our part of the [[Milky Way]] galaxy.
It cannot be denied that intelligent life is ''possible'' within our universe &mdash; at least at this stage of its development &mdash; since ''we'' exist.
==== Con: The 'Rare Earth' hypothesis ====
The [[rare Earth hypothesis]] is a repudiation of [[mediocrity principle]], and claims that Earth is an unusual world &mdash; maybe even unique &mdash; within the universe. While some believe that this is true for philosophical or religious reasons, most arguments based on the rare earth hypothesis are based on a [[statistical]] evaluation of Earth's position in our [[solar system]] and in our [[Milky Way|galaxy]].
Most proponents of the rare Earth hypothesis, argue that multicellular life may be exceedingly rare in the universe because Earth-like planets are most likely very rare. They argue that many improbable coincidences converged to make complex life on Earth possible, such as,
* The solar system orbits the galactic center ''between'' the spiral arms, in an almost perfectly circular orbit, at an orbital velocity which matches the speed of the shock front formed in the intergalactic medium by the movements of the spiral arms. This orbit &mdash; which has lasted for the last 30 galactic orbits, almost the entire time that "higher life forms" have existed on Earth &mdash; shields the solar system from the high levels of radiation (which is thought to interfere with the development of life) within the spiral arms themselves, caused by numerous [[nova]]e.
* The unlikely possession of such a relatively large [[Moon]] has stabilized the [[Precession#Precession_of_the_equinoxes|precession of the Earth's axis]] to a large degree &mdash; resulting in a relative uniformity of climate, which makes the development of "higher life forms" easier. The [[Moon]] has also likely protected Earth from numerous asteroidal collisions.
* The unlikely possession of such a relatively large [[Moon]], and the internal tidal stresses it creates within the Earth, may have caused heating of the core, s |
ide humanity between the saved and the lost (the Great White Throne judgment [[Book of Revelation]] 20:11) and Christ will sit in judgment of the believers (the Judgment Seat of Christ [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]] 5:10), rewarding them for things done while alive. [[Amillennialism]], [[dispensationalism]], and historic [[premillennialism]] stand as the main eschatological views of Baptists, with views such as [[postmillennialism]] and [[preterism]] receiving only scant support.
=== Comparisons with other denominations ===
Baptists share certain emphasis with other groups such as [[evangelism]] and [[mission (Christian)|missions]]. While the general flavor of any denomination changes from city to city, this aspect of Baptist churches is much more prominent than in most [[Anglican]], [[Methodist]], [[Lutheran]] and [[Presbyterian]] churches.
The [[Pacifism]] of the [[Anabaptists]] and the Quakers is not an ideal held by most Baptists. The [[Baptist Peace Fellowship of North America]] was organized in [[1984]] to promote peace, justice, and non-violence, but it does not speak for all Baptists that accept the ideal of pacifism. Moreover, Baptists are strongest in the southern United States, an area known for strong support of the military and thus generally not supportive of pacifist views.
In [[Australia]], the Baptist Union is very close to the [[Campbell-Stone]] [[Church of Christ]]. The two groups share similar theology, even sharing a Bible college.
== Worship style ==
The focus of Baptist church services is the sermon. This can be seen in traditional Baptist church architecture--the [[pulpit]], which is symbolic of proclamation of the Word of God, is the largest piece of furniture and centered on the platform, while the communion table placed below it in a symbolically "subservient" position (in sharp contrast to the [[Roman Catholic]] church which places the communion table at the center of the platform, since communion is the focus of the mass, while the pulpit is off to one side). However, some of the modern megachurches have abandoned traditional architecture in favor of an entertainment-type stage, where a small podium and chair are brought out after the musical worship is complete.
Sermons often range in time from 30-60 minutes. They range in style from [[Expository preaching|expository]] sermons that focus on one biblical passage and interpret its meaning, to topical sermons which address an issue of concern and investigate several biblical passages related to that topic. Sermons often vary in solemnity.
The sermon is often surrounded by periods of musical worship lead by a song leader, choir or band. Musical style varies between [[hymns]] and [[Contemporary Christian music]] with many churches choosing a blend of the two. The choice in music style is often correlated to the predominant age of the members, with older congregations preferring traditional [[hymns]] played with piano and/or organ (the latter is becoming less frequent due to fewer organists) and featuring a choir, while younger congregations prefer contemporary music with modern instruments and no choir. Larger churches may have a full orchestra along with the choir. Some fundamentalist Baptists will only sing hymns (which usually includes songs in their hymnals written between the 1700s and the 1950s) and generally oppose the use of drums and/or electric guitar in their services because they associate those instruments with [[rock music]].
Other common features in a Baptist church service include the collection of offering, an altar call, a period of announcements and Communion. Most Baptist congregations are small in number with membership under 200 people while other congregations are [[megachurch]]es with membership in the tens of thousands.
== Origins ==
There are several views about the origins of Baptists within the Baptist church.
=== Separatist ===
This view suggests that Baptists were originally separatists in the [[Puritan]] reaction to perceived corruptions in the [[Church of England]] in the 1600s. In 1609, [[John Smyth (1570-1612)|John Smyth]] led a group of separatists to the Netherlands to start the [[General Baptist]] church with an [[Arminian]] theology. In 1616, [[Henry Jacob]] led a group of Puritans in England with a [[Calvinist]] theology to form a congregational church that would eventually become the [[Reformed Baptist|Particular Baptists]] in 1638 under [[John Spilsbury]]. Both groups had members who sailed to America as [[pilgrims]] to avoid religious persecution in England and Europe and who started Baptist churches in the early colonies. The Particular and General Baptists would disagree over Arminianism and Calvinism until the formation of the [[Baptist Union of Great Britain]] in the 1800s under [[Andrew Fuller]] and [[William Carey]] for the purpose of missions. American Baptists soon followed suit.
This is the most common view held by modern Baptists, which is found represented in the works of H. Leon McBeth and many others.
=== Landmarkist ===
[[Landmark_Baptist_Church|Landmarkism]] is the belief that Baptist churches and traditions have preceded the Catholic Church and have been around since the time of [[John the Baptist]] and [[Christ]]. Proponents believe that Baptist traditions have been passed down through a succession of visible congregations of Christians that were Baptist in doctrine and practice, but not necessarily in name. This view is theologically based on Matthew 16:18 , "...and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." and a rejection of Catholicism as part of the historical origins of Baptists.
This lineage grants Baptist churches the status of being unstained and separate from what they see as the corruptions of [[Catholicism]] and other [[religious denomination|denomination]]s. It also allows for the view that Baptists predate the Catholic church and is therefore not part of the Reformation or the Protestant movement. [[Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement)|Alexander Campbell]] of the [[Restoration Movement]] was a strong promoter of this idea.
[[James Milton Carroll|J. M. Carroll]]'s ''[[The Trail of Blood]]'', written in [[1931]], is commonly presented to defend this origin's view. Several groups considered to be part of this Baptist succession were groups persecuted by the Roman Catholic Church throughout history including [[Montanists]], [[Novatianists]], [[Donatists]], [[Paulicians]], [[Albigensians]], [[Catharists]], [[Waldenses]], and [[Anabaptists]]. While some of these groups shared a few theological positions with current Baptists, many held positions that would now be considered heretical by current Baptists. It is also difficult to show historical connections between those groups which were often separated by large gaps in geography and time.
The works of [[John T. Christian]] offer the best presentation of this viewpoint.
=== Anabaptist ===
[[Anabaptists]] ([[Mennonites]], [[Amish]], [[Hutterites]]) were a group in the 1500s that rejected infant baptism and "rebaptized" members as adults. They share many teachings of the early Baptists, such as the [[believer's baptism]] and [[religious freedom]] and were probably influential in the development of many Baptist characteristics. While their names suggest some connection, some Anabaptists differed from the Baptists on many other issues such as [[pacifism]] and the [[communal]] sharing of material goods.
It is difficult to say how much influence the Anabaptists had on the actual formation of Baptist churches. One of the strongest relationships between the two groups happened when John Smyth's [[General Baptist]]s attempted but failed to merge with the Mennonites.
The works of [[William Roscoe Estep]] offer the best presentation of this viewpoint.
==The name "Baptist" ==
'''Baptist''' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word 'βαπτιστής' ['baptistés'] (Baptist, used to describe John the Baptist), which is related to the verb 'βαπτίζω' ['baptizo'] (to baptize, wash, dip, immerse), and the [[Latin]] 'baptista', and is in direct connection to 'the baptiser', 'John the Baptist'.
As a [[first name]] it is used in [[Europe]] from the 12th century also as Baptiste, Jan-Baptiste, Jean-Baptiste, John-Baptist. In the Netherlands as of the 17th century, but mainly as of the 18th century as a combination like Jan Baptist or Johannes Baptist.
As [[last name]] it is used as of the 13th century . Also commonly used as Baptiste, Baptista, Batiste, Battista.
== Questions of labeling ==
Some Baptists object to the application of the labels ''[[Protestant]]'', ''[[religious denomination|denomination]]'', ''[[evangelicalism|Evangelical]]'' and even ''Baptist'' to themselves or their churches, while others accept those labels.
Those who reject the label ''Baptist'' prefer to be labeled as Christians who attend Baptist churches. Also, a recent trend is to eliminate the name "Baptist" from the church name, as it is perceived to be a "barrier" to reaching persons of no church background who have negative views of Baptists. Conversely, others accept the label ''Baptist'' because they identify with the distinctives they consider to be uniquely Baptist, and believe those who are removing the name "Baptist" from their churches are "compromising with the world" in order to attract more members.
The name ''[[Protestant]]'' is rejected by some Baptists because some Baptists believe they do not have a direct connection to [[Martin Luther|Luther]], [[John Calvin|Calvin]] or the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. They do not feel that they are "protesting" anything; Landmark Baptists believe they actually pre-date the Roman Catholic Church. Other Baptists accept the ''Protestant'' label as a demographic concept that describes churches who share similar theologies of ''[[so |
Jaynes, E.T. (1998) [http://www-biba.inrialpes.fr/Jaynes/prob.html ''Probability Theory : The Logic of Science''].
* Bretthorst, G. Larry, 1988, [http://bayes.wustl.edu/glb/book.pdf ''Bayesian Spectrum Analysis and Parameter Estimation''] in Lecture Notes in Statistics, 48, Springer-Verlag, New York, New York;
* http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html
* David Howie: ''Interpreting Probability, Controversies and Developments in the Early Twentieth Century'', Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0521812518
* Colin Howson and Peter Urbach: ''Scientific Reasoning: The Bayesian Approach'', Open Court Publishing, 2nd edition, 1993, ISBN 0812692357, focuses on the philosophical underpinnings of Bayesian and frequentist statistics. Argues for the subjective interpretation of probability.
* Jeff Miller [http://members.aol.com/jeff570/b.html "Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (B)"]
* James Franklin [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title_pages/2844.html The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal], history from a Bayesian point of view.
* Paul Graham [http://www.paulgraham.com/better.html "Bayesian spam filtering"] [[Category:Probability and statistics]]
* novomind AG [http://www.imaillight.com/ "Outlook categorizing tool based on Bayesian filtering"]
* Howard Raiffa ''Decision Analysis: Introductory Lectures on Choices under Uncertainty''. McGraw Hill, College Custom Series. (1997) ISBN 007-052579-X
* Devender Sivia, ''Data Analysis: A Bayesian Tutorial''. Oxford: Clarendon Press (1996), pp. 7-8. ISBN 0-19-851889-7
* Henk Tijms: ''Understanding Probability'', Cambridge University Press, 2004
* Is the portrait of Thomas Bayes authentic? [http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/bayespic.htm Who Is this gentleman? When and where was he born?] ''The IMS Bulletin'', Vol. '''17''' (1988), No. 3, pp. 276-278
[[de:Bayesscher Wahrscheinlichkeitsbegriff]]
[[fr: Inférence bayésienne]]
[[pl:Prawdopodobie&#324;stwo subiektywne]]
[[th:&#3607;&#3620;&#3625;&#3598;&#3637;&#3588;&#3623;&#3634;&#3617;&#3609;&#3656;&#3634;&#3592;&#3632;&#3648;&#3611;&#3655;&#3609;&#3649;&#3610;&#3610;&#3648;&#3610;&#3618;&#3660;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ballet dance</title>
<id>4891</id>
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<timestamp>2003-07-07T15:12:39Z</timestamp>
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<ip>195.92.67.66</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ballet]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bert Bell</title>
<id>4892</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-20T15:55:03Z</timestamp>
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<username>BillFlis</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image: 01110_3265.jpg|right|300px]]
'''DeBenneville (Bert) Bell''' ([[February 25]], [[1895]]-[[October 11]], [[1959]]) was co-founder (with [[Lud Wray]]--a former college teammate) of the [[Frankford Yellow Jackets]] in [[1924]] (whose name was changed to the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] in [[1933]]), and commissioner of the [[National Football League]] from [[1946]] until his death.
Bell grew up in a prominent [[Philadelphia]] family, the son of [[John Cromwell Bell]], [[Pennsylvania]]'s [[attorney general]]. Once commenting on his son's plans for college, the elder Bell said, "Bert will go to Penn (the [[University of Pennsylvania]]) or he will go to hell." While there, Bell played quarterback for the Quakers' football team, a stretch that was interrupted by [[World War I]] service at the Mobile Hospital Unit in [[France]].
After graduating, Bell served as backfield coach at his alma mater from [[1920]] to [[1928]], then held the same position for two years at Temple University in [[1930]] and [[1931]]. In [[1933]], he became co-owner of the Eagles for $2,500.
On [[May 6]], [[1934]], he married Broadway actress Frances Upton. They would have three children (sons Bert, Jr. and Upton, and daughter Jane).
Taking the approach of making the overall league stronger, Bell was credited with establishing the [[NFL draft]] in [[1935]]. By [[1937]], the Eagles had lost $90,000 and were put up for public auction. Bell became sole owner with a winning bid of $4,500, but after continuing financial struggles, he became co-owner of the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] with his friend [[Art Rooney]] in a bizarre transaction in which Rooney sold the Steelers to Philadelphia businessman [[Alexis Thompson]], who then traded franchises with Bell. By [[1943]], a wartime manpower shortage led the Steelers and Eagles to temporarily merge into the "Pennsylvania Steagles" (officially known as "Phil-Pitt"). The following year, the Steelers merged with the [[Arizona Cardinals|Chicago Cardinals]].
On [[January 11]], [[1946]], Bell was selected to replace [[Elmer Layden]] as NFL commissioner and subsequently sold his ownership in the Steelers after being given a three-year contract at $25,000 per year. One year later, the contract was changed to a five-year pact at the same salary, a move that was followed in [[1949]] by a ten-year agreement that boosted his annual pay to $30,000.
Among his accomplishments as commissioner, Bell merged the league with the [[All-America Football Conference]], developed the league's relationship with the new medium of [[television]], and did battle with the [[Canadian Football League]] over scheduling and player rights. One of his first major acts dealt with a gambling scandal that marred the [[1946]] [[NFL Championship game]]. In response, he was able to create laws in virtually every state that made it a crime for athletes not to report a bribe attempt. In addition to all these duties, Bell also single-handedly plotted out league schedules each season on his dining-room table by using a giant checkerboard.
He died of a heart attack on [[October 11]], [[1959]] at [[Philadelphia]]'s [[Franklin Field]], while watching a game between the team he co-founded, the Eagles, and the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], which he briefly co-owned during [[World War II]]. Bell had been under a doctor's care for two years and had recovered from a [[heart attack]] the previous [[February]].
He coined the phrase, "On any given Sunday, any team can beat any other team." The Bert Bell Benefit Bowl, colloquially referred to as the [[Playoff Bowl]] and first played in [[1960]] (the year after Bell's death), was named for him. Bell's older brother, [[John C. Bell, Jr.]], was governor of Pennsylvania from January 2, 1947 to January 21, 1947.
He was inducted into the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]] in [[1963]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]| before=First class ever| years=Class of 1963| after=Class of 1964}}
{{succession box|
title=Commissioner of the [[National Football League]]|
before=[[Elmer Layden]]|
after=[[Austin Gunsel]] (interim)|
years=1946-1959 |
}}
{{succession box | title=[[Pittsburgh Steelers|Pittsburgh Steelers Head Coaches]] | before=[[Aldo Donelli]] | years=1941| after=[[Walt Kiesling]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Philadelphia Eagles|Philadelphia Eagles Head Coaches]] | before=[[Lud Wray]] | years=1936-1940| after=[[Greasy Neale]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1895 births|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:1959 deaths|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:American football executives|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Pittsburgh Steelers coaches|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Temple Owls football coaches|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Pro Football Hall of Fame|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Penn Quakers football players|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Penn Quakers football coaches|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:American football quarterbacks|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Philadelphia Eagles|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Pittsburgh Steelers|Bell, Bert]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bob Costas</title>
<id>4893</id>
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<id>42117463</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:02:07Z</timestamp>
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<username>Levineps</username>
<id>929196</id>
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<comment>/* Talk Show= */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bob Costas.jpg|framed|right]]
'''Robert Quinlan Costas''' (born [[March 22]], [[1952]] in [[Queens, New York]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[sportscaster]], on the air for the [[NBC]] network since the early [[1980s]]. Costas is known for his smooth delivery, knowledge of sports, and his quick wit. His mother was of Irish Catholic descent, and his father was of Greek descent. He was raised as a Roman Catholic. Bob's father, John Costas, was a Greek electrical engineer, baseball fan, and gambler.
==Early Life==
Costas grew up in [[Commack, New York]] on [[Long Island]] and went to Commack High School. Following high school he attended the Newhouse School of Public Communications at [[Syracuse University]], though he left school before graduating. Prior to joining NBC in [[1980 in sports|1980]], he was a play-by-play announcer for the [[Spirits of St. Louis]] of the [[American Basketball Association]], worked at [[KMOX]] Radio in St. Louis, and was briefly employed by the [[CBS]] network.
==Honors==
Bob Costas has won four National Sportcaster of the Year awards (from the National Sportcaster and Sportswriter Association) and three [[Sports Emmy Awards|Emmy]] Awards for outstanding sports announcing. In 1999, Costas was a recipient of the [[Curt Gowdy]] Award, which is awarded to members of the electronic and print media for outstanding contributions to basketball.
==NBC Sports==
He has been an in-studio host of [[National Football League]] coverage and [[play-by-play]] man for the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] and for [[Major League |
ght iron. Wrought iron was very low in carbon content and was not easily hardened by quenching. The people of the Middle East found that a much harder product could be created by the long term heating of a wrought iron object in a bed of [[charcoal]], which was then quenched in water or oil. The resulting product, which had a surface of [[steel]], was harder and less brittle than the bronze it began to replace.
In China the first irons used were also meteoric iron, with archeological evidence for items made of wrought iron appearing in the northwest, near Xinjiang, in the 8th century BC. These items were made of wrought iron, created by the same processes used in the Middle East and Europe, and were thought to be imported by non-Chinese people.
In the later years of the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (ca 550 BC), a new iron manufacturing capability began because of a highly developed [[kiln]] technology. Producing [[blast furnace|blast furnaces]] capable of temperatures exceeding 1300 K, the Chinese developed the manufacture of [[cast iron|cast]], or [[pig iron]].
Iron was used in India as early as 250 BCE. The famous iron pillar in the [[Qutb complex]] in [[Delhi]] is made of very pure iron (98%) and has not rusted or eroded till this day.
[[Image:Maramec Iron Works furnace a.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This blast furnace in eastern [[Missouri]] consumed up to 11,000 tons of ore and 16,000 [[Wood fuel#Firewood|cords]] of wood annually from 1827 to 1891.]]
If iron ores are heated with carbon to 1420&ndash;1470 K, a molten liquid is formed, an [[alloy]] of about 96.5% iron and 3.5% carbon. This product is strong, can be cast into intricate shapes, but is too brittle to be worked, unless the product is ''decarburized'' to remove most of the carbon. The vast majority of Chinese iron manufacture, from the Zhou dynasty onward, was of cast iron. Iron, however, remained a pedestrian product, used by farmers for hundreds of years, and did not really affect the nobility of China until the [[Qin dynasty]] (ca 221 BC).
Cast iron development lagged in Europe, as the smelters could only achieve temperatures of about 1000 K. Through a good portion of the Middle Ages, in Western Europe, iron was still being made by the working of sponge iron into wrought iron. Some of the earliest casting of iron in Europe occurred in [[Sweden]], in two sites, Lapphyttan and Vinarhyttan, between 1150 and 1350 AD. There are suggestions by scholars that the practice may have followed the [[Mongol]]s across [[Russia]] to these sites, but there is no clear proof of this hypothesis. In any event, by the late fourteenth century, a market for cast iron goods began to form, as a demand developed for cast iron cannonballs.
Early iron [[smelting]] (as the process is called) used [[charcoal]] as both the heat source and the reducing agent. In [[18th century]] England, wood supplies ran down and [[coke (fuel)|coke]], a fossil fuel, was used as an alternative. This innovation by [[Abraham Darby I|Abraham Darby]] supplied the energy for the [[Industrial Revolution]].
== Occurrence ==
[[Image:IronInRocksMakeRiverRed.jpg|thumb|right|The red appearance of this water is due to iron in the rocks.]]
Iron is one of the most common elements on Earth, making up about 5% of the Earth's crust. Most of this iron is found in various [[iron oxide]]s, such as the minerals [[hematite]], [[magnetite]], and [[taconite]]. The [[earth's core]] is believed to consist largely of a metallic iron-[[nickel]] alloy. About 5% of the [[meteorite]]s similarly consist of iron-nickel alloy. Although rare, these are the major form of natural metallic iron on the earth's surface.
Iron is also one of the least [[reactive]] metals, and therefore, it is sometimes found pure in [[nature]].
== Extraction from ore ==
Industrially, iron is extracted from its [[ores]], principally hematite (nominally Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) and magnetite (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>) by a [[carbothermic]] reaction (reduction with [[carbon]]) in a [[blast furnace]] at temperatures of about 2000°C. In a blast furnace, iron ore, carbon in the form of [[coke (fuel)|coke]], and a ''flux'' such as [[limestone]] are fed into the top of the furnace, while a blast of heated [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] is forced into the furnace at the bottom.
In the furnace, the [[coke (fuel)|coke]] reacts with [[oxygen]] in the air blast to produce [[carbon monoxide]]:
:6 [[carbon|C]] + 3 [[oxygen|O<sub>2</sub>]] &rarr; 6 [[carbon monoxide|CO]]
The carbon monoxide reduces the iron ore (in the [[chemical equation]] below, hematite) to molten iron, becoming [[carbon dioxide]] in the process:
:6 [[carbon monoxide|CO]] + 2 [[hematite|Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>]] &rarr; 4 Fe + 6 [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]]
The flux is present to melt impurities in the ore, principally [[silicon dioxide]] [[sand]] and other [[silicate]]s. Common fluxes include limestone (principally [[calcium carbonate]]) and dolomite ([[magnesium carbonate]]). Other fluxes may be used depending on the impurities that need to be removed from the ore. In the heat of the furnace the limestone flux decomposes to [[calcium oxide]] (quicklime):
:[[calcium carbonate|CaCO<sub>3</sub>]] &rarr; [[calcium oxide|CaO]] + [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]]
Then calcium oxide combines with silicon dioxide to form a ''slag''.
:[[calcium oxide|CaO]] + [[silicon dioxide|SiO<sub>2</sub>]] &rarr; [[wollastonite|CaSiO<sub>3</sub>]]
The slag melts in the heat of the furnace, which silicon dioxide would not have. In the bottom of the furnace, the molten slag floats on top of the more dense liquid iron, and spouts in the side of the furnace may be opened to drain off either the iron or the slag. The iron, once cooled, is called [[pig iron]], while the slag can be used as a material in [[road]] construction or to improve mineral-poor soils for [[agriculture]].
Approximately 1100Mt (million tons) of iron ore was produced in the world
in [[2000]], with a gross market value of approximately 25 billion US dollars. While ore production occurs in 48 countries, the five largest producers were China, Brazil, Australia, Russia and India, accounting for 70% of world iron ore production. The 1100Mt of iron ore was used to produce approximately 572Mt of pig iron.
== Compounds ==
[[Image:LightningVolt Iron Ore Pellets.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This heap of [[iron ore]] pellets will be used in [[steel]] production.]]
Common [[oxidation state]]s of iron include:
* the '''Iron(-II)''' state, Fe<sup>2-</sup> (e.g. Fe(CO)<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup>,Fe(CO)<sub>2</sub>(NO)<sub>2</sub>.
* the '''Iron(0)''' state, Fe(CO)<sub>5</sub>, Fe(PF<sub>3</sub>)<sub>5</sub>.
* the '''Iron(I)''' state, [Fe(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>5</sub>NO]<sup>2+</sup>.
* the '''Iron(II)''' state, Fe<sup>2+</sup>, previously ''ferrous'' is very common.
* the '''Iron(III)''' state, Fe<sup>3+</sup>, previously ''ferric'', is also very common, for example in [[rust]].
* the '''Iron(IV)''' state, Fe<sup>4+</sup>, previously ''ferryl'', stabilized in some enzymes (e.g. [[peroxidase|peroxidases]]).
Note that despite the chemical formula, the iron in the common [[pyrite]] is '''not''' in the +4 oxidation state; the sulfur is in the -1 oxidation state.
* the '''Iron(VI)''' state, Fe<sup>6+</sup> is also known, if rare, in [[potassium ferrate]].
Iron carbide Fe<sub>3</sub>C is known as [[cementite]].
== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring iron consists of four [[isotope]]s: 5.845% of radioactive <sup>54</sup>Fe (half-life: >3.1E22 years), 91.754% of stable <sup>56</sup>Fe, 2.119% of stable <sup>57</sup>Fe and 0.282% of stable <sup>58</sup>Fe.
<sup>60</sup>Fe is an extinct [[radionuclide]] of long [[half-life]] (1.5 million years). Much of the past work on measuring the isotopic composition of Fe has centered on determining <sup>60</sup>Fe variations due to processes accompanying [[nucleosynthesis]] (i.e., [[meteorite]] studies) and ore formation.
The isotope <sup>56</sup>Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists. A common misconception is that this isotope represents the most stable nucleus possible, and that it thus would be impossible to perform fission or fusion on <sup>56</sup>Fe and still liberate energy. This is not true, as both <sup>62</sup>Ni and <sup>58</sup>Fe are more stable.
In phases of the meteorites ''Semarkona'' and ''Chervony Kut'' a correlation between the concentration of <sup>60</sup>[[Nickel|Ni]], the [[daughter product]] of <sup>60</sup>Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes could be found which is evidence for the existence of <sup>60</sup>Fe at time formation of solar system. Possibly the energy released by the decay of <sup>60</sup>Fe contributed, together with the energy released by decay of the radionuclide <sup>26</sup>[[Aluminium|Al]], to the remelting and [[planetary differentiation|differentiation]] of [[asteroid]]s after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of <sup>60</sup>[[nickel|Ni]] present in [[extraterrestrial]] material may also provide further insight into the origin of the [[solar system]] and its early history.
Of the stable isotopes, only <sup>57</sup>Fe has a nuclear [[spin (physics)|spin]] (&minus;1/2). For this reason, <sup>57</sup>Fe has application as a spin isotope in chemistry and biochemistry.
== Biological role ==
Iron is essential to all [[organism]]s, except for a few [[bacterium| |
awa człowieka]]
[[pt:Direitos humanos]]
[[ru:Права человека]]
[[simple:Human rights]]
[[sk:Ľudské práva]]
[[sv:De mänskliga rättigheterna]]
[[tr:İnsan hakları]]
[[uk:Права людини]]
[[zh:人权]]
[[zh-min-nan:Jîn-kôan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Hello world</title>
<id>13832</id>
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<timestamp>2002-06-13T02:00:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hello world program]]
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<page>
<title>Hash table</title>
<id>13833</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:59:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mayrel</username>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], a '''hash table''', or a '''hash map''', is a [[data structure]] that associates ''keys'' with ''values''. The primary operation it supports efficiently is a ''lookup'': given a key (e.g. a person's name), find the corresponding value (e.g. that person's telephone number). It works by transforming the key using a [[hash function]] into a ''hash'', a number that the hash table uses to locate the desired value.
[[Image:HASHTB08.svg|thumb|362px|right|A small phone book as a hash table.]]
Hash tables are often used to implement [[associative array]]s, [[Set (computer science)|sets]] and [[cache]]s. Like [[array]]s, hash tables provide constant-time [[Big-O notation|O(1)]] lookup on average, regardless of the number of items in the table. However, the rare worst-case lookup time can be as bad as O(''n''). Compared to other associative array data structures, hash tables are most useful when large numbers of records of data are to be stored.
Hash tables store data in pseudo-random locations, so accessing the data in a sorted manner is a very time consuming operation. Other data structures such as [[self-balancing binary search tree]]s generally operate more slowly (since their lookup time is O(log ''n'')) and are rather more complex to implement than hash tables but maintain a sorted data structure at all times. See [[Associative_array#Efficient_representations|a comparison of hash tables and self-balancing binary search trees]].
== Overview ==
The basic operations that hash tables generally support are :
:<code>insert(key, value)</code>
:<code>lookup(key)</code> which returns <code>value</code>
Most, but not all hash tables support <code>delete(key)</code>. Other services like iterating over the table, growing the table, emptying the table may be provided. Some hash tables allow multiple values to be stored under the same key. Other types of hash table only pass a single value representing both the key/data or even just a key, depending on what the hash table is to be used for.
Keys may be pretty much anything, a number, a string, an object; with some hash tables even a reference to the value being stored. The only requirement is the existence of a [[hash function]] for the keys used (see below).
Hash tables use an array, which is sometimes confusingly also called the ''hash table''. Each element of the array, also called a ''slot'' or ''bucket'', can contain one key&ndash;value pair, or ''record''.
Because the number of valid keys is typically much larger than the range of valid indexes into the array, a way is needed to convert each key into a valid index. This is achieved using a [[hash function]] which is a function that takes a key and returns an index into an array. The indexed element of the array, in turn, should contain the record that is associated to that key.
However, when there are more potential keys than array indexes, it can be shown (by the [[pigeonhole principle]]) that two or more potential keys will have the same hash; this is called a ''collision''. The hash function should be designed so as to minimise the number of collisions for any index returned.
Because multiple keys can map to each array slot, we need a [[#Collision_resolution|collision resolution]] strategy, whose function is to find a place to store a new key if the slot is already occupied. For example, the colliding record may be inserted in the next free array slot, or we can have each array slot refer to a linked list of records.
Even though some collisions occur, with good hash functions and when the table is up to around 80% full, collisions are relatively rare and performance is very good, as very few comparisons will be made on average. However, if the table becomes too full, performance becomes poor, and the hash table's array must be enlarged. Enlarging the table (see the ''[[#Table resizing|Table resizing]]'' section) means that effectively all the records in the hash table have to be added all over again.
Most implementations of hash tables are not [[persistent data structure]]s, in the sense that there is no way to update them while retaining access to the previous copy of the hash table (although they often are persistent in the sense of ''disk-based''). Some implementations of hash tables, such as those using a [[VList]], are persistent, but these are rarely used in practice and are not as efficient as normal hash tables due to increased indexing time.
==Common uses of hash tables==
Hash tables are commonly used for [[symbol table]]s, [[cache]]s, and [[Set (computer science)|sets]].
Hash tables are not, generally speaking, [[persistent data structure]]s, in the sense that there is no simple space-efficient way to update a hash table while retaining access to the previous copy of the hash table. Hash tables may be "persistent" in the other sense of the word, meaning disk-based; database indexes commonly use disk-based data structures based on hash tables.
In [[computer chess]], a hash table is generally used to implement the [[transposition table]].
==Choosing a good hash function==
A good hash function is essential for good hash table performance. Hash collisions are generally resolved by some form of [[Linear_search|linear search]], so if a hash function tends to produce similar values, slow searches will result.
In an ideal hash function, changing any single bit in the key (including extending or shortening the key) would change half the bits of the hash, and this change would be independent of the changes caused by any other bits of the key. Because a good hash function can be hard to design, or computationally expensive to execute, much research has been devoted to collision resolution strategies that mitigate poor hashing performance. However, none of them are as effective as using a good hash function in the first place.
It is desirable to use the same hash function for arrays of any conceivable size. To do this, the index into the hash table's array is generally calculated in two steps:
# A generic hash value is calculated which fills a natural machine integer
# This value is reduced to a valid array index by finding its [[Modular arithmetic|modulus]] with respect to the array's size.
Hash table array sizes are sometimes chosen to be [[prime number]]s, or at least to be [[coprime]] with the numbers used to construct the hash value. This is done to avoid any tendency for the large integer hash to have common divisors with the hash table size, which would otherwise induce collisions after the modulus operation. However, a prime table size is no substitute for a good hash function.
A common alternative to prime sizes is to use a size which is a [[power of two]], with simple bit masking to achieve the modulus operation. Such bit masking may be significantly computationally cheaper than the division operation. With a power of two hash table size, often a [[permutation]] function is applied to the hash value before applying the bit masking operation. This helps reduce clustering and collision effects. Here's a pseudocode example of a permutation function, where NOT is bitwise NOT, XOR is bitwise XOR, and << and >> are shift-left and shift-right:
''// key is a 32 bit unsigned integer
'''function''' permutation(key)
key := (NOT key) + (key << 15)
key := key XOR (key >> 11)
key := key + (key << 3)
key := key XOR (key >> 5)
key := key + (key << 10)
key := key XOR (key >> 16)
'''return''' key
One surprisingly common problem that can occur with hash functions is ''clustering''. Clustering occurs when the structure of the hash function causes commonly used keys to tend to fall closely spaced or even consecutively within the hash table. This can cause significant performance degradation as the table fills when using certain collision resolution strategies, such as linear probing.
When debugging the collision handling in a hash table, it is sometimes useful to use a hash function that always returns a constant value, such as 1, which causes collisions on every insert.
In environments where an adversary may attempt to force the algorithm to run slowly by supplying bad input, a good solution is [[universal hashing]], a scheme where we randomly select a hash function at the beginning of the algorithm. Because the adversary doesn't know which hash function we're using, they don't know what input is "bad".
==Collision resolution==
If two keys hash to the same index, the corresponding records cannot be stored in the same location. So, if it's already occupied, we must find another location where to store the new record, and do it so that we can find it when we look it up later on.
To give an idea of the importance of a good collision resolution strategy, consider the following result, derived using the [[Birthday_paradox#Generalization|birthday paradox]]. E |
le: [[Corinthian order]]''.
[[Image:Korintisk1.png]]
The [[Corinthian order]] is the most ornate of the Greek orders, characterized by a slender fluted column having an ornate capital decorated with acanthus leaves. It is commonly regarded as the most elegant of the five orders. The most distinct characteristics is the striking capital. The capital of the Corinthian order is carved with two rows of leaves and four scrolls.
The shaft of the Corinthian order has 24 flutes. The column is commonly ten diameters high.
Designed by [[Callimachus (sculptor)|Callimachus]], a Greek [[sculpture|sculptor]] of the [[5th century BC]]. The oldest known building to be built according to the Corinthian order is the monument of [[Lysicrates]] in [[Athens]]. It was built in 335 to 334 BC. The Corinthian order was raised to rank by the writings of the Roman writer [[Vitruvius]] in the 1st century BC.
== Roman orders ==
The Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also developed two orders of their own, basically modification of Greek orders. The Romans also invented the [[superimposed order]]. A superimposed order is when successive stories of a building have different orders. The heaviest orders were at the bottom, whilst the lightest came at the top. This means that the Doric order was the order of the ground floor, the Ionic order was used for the middle storey, while the Corinthian or the Composite order was used for the top storey.
The [[Colossal order]] was invented by [[Renaissance architecture|architects in the Renaissance]]. The Colossal order is characterized by columns that extend the height of two or more stories.
=== Tuscan order ===
:''Main article: [[Tuscan order]]''
[[Image:PalladioTuscan.jpg|thumb|The Tuscan order in [[Andrea Palladio]], ''Quattro Libri di Architettura,'' 1570]]
The Tuscan order has a very plain design, with a plain shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. It is a simplified adaption of the Doric order by the Romans. The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a capital that only consist of an echinus and an abacus. In proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid.
=== Composite order ===
:''Main article: [[Composite order]]''
[[Image:Komposita1.png]]
The Composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order. Until the [[Renaissance]] it was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The column of the Composite order is ten diameters high.
=== Nonce orders ===
Several orders, usually based upon the Composite order and only varying in the design of the capitals, have been invented under the inspiration of specific occasions, but have not been used again. Thus they may be termed "nonce orders" on the analogy of [[nonce word]]s. [[Robert Adam]]'s brother [[James Adam|James]] was in Rome in 1762, drawing antiquities under the direction of [[Charles-Louis Clérisseau|Clérisseau]]; he invented a '''British Order''', of which his ink-and-wash rendering with red highlighting, is at the [[Avery Library]], [[Columbia University]]. Adam published an engraving of it. In its capital the heraldic lion and unicorn take the place of the Composite's volutes, a Byzantine/Romanesque conception, but expressed in terms of neoclassical realism. In 1789 [[George Dance the Elder|George Dance]] invented an [[Ammonite Order]], a variant of Ionic substituting volutes in the form of [[fossil]] [[ammonite]]s for [[John Boydell]]'s Shakespeare Gallery in [[Pall Mall, London]].
[[Image:Corn-capital-litchfield.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Corn capital at the Litchfield Villa designed by [[architect]] [[A.J. Davis]], located in [[Prospect Park (Brooklyn)]]]]
In the United States [[Benjamin Latrobe]], the architect of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol building]] in Washington DC, designed a series of botanically '''American orders'''. Most famous is the order substituting corncobs and their husks, which was executed by [[Giuseppe Franzoni]] and employed in the small domed Vestibule of the Supreme Court. Only the Supreme Court survived the fire of August 24, 1814, nearly intact. With peace restored, Latrobe designed an American order that substituted for the acanthus tobacco leaves, of which he sent a sketch to [[Thomas Jefferson]] in a letter, November 5, 1816. He was encouraged to send a model of it, which remains at [[Monticello]]. In the 1830s [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] admired it enough to make a drawing of it. In 1809 Latrobe invented a second American order, employing [[magnolia]] flowers contrained within the profile of classical mouldings, as his drawing demonstrates. It was intended for "the Upper Columns in the Gallery of the Entrance of the Chamber of the Senate" ([http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/us.capitol/s4.html United States Capitol exhibit]).
These nonce orders all express the "speaking architecture" (''architecture parlante'') that was taught in the Paris courses, most explicitly by [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]], in which sculptural details of classical architecture could be enlisted to speak symbolically, the better to express the purpose of the structure and enrich its visual meaning with specific appropriateness. This idea was taken up strongly in the training of [[Beaux-Arts architecture]], ca 1875-1915: see [[architecture parlante]].
== Original writings ==
The handbook ''De Architectura'' of [[Vitruvius]] is the only architectural writing that survived from Antiquity. After it was rediscovered in the 15th century, Vitruvius was instantly hailed as the authority on classical orders and architecture in general.
Architects of the [[Renaissance]] and the [[Baroque]] period in Italy based their rules on Vitruvius' writings. What was added was rules for superimposing the classical orders and the exact proportions of the orders down to the most minute detail.
== Modernist approaches ==
Later the rules of the Renaissance and the Baroque period were disregarded and the original use of the orders was revived, often hailed as the 'correct' use of the orders. Many architects, however, used the Classical orders at their freedom.
In America, [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0486222365 "The American Builder's Companion"], written in the early 1800s by the architect Asher Benjamin, influenced many builders in the eastern states, particularly those who developed what become known as the Federalist style. The Dover edition is based on the 1827 6th edition of the work, and contains 70 plates with many details of columns, capitals, pilasters, plinths, bases, mouldings, architraves, and so on, with numerous instructions regarding proportion as well.
In 20th century modernist architecture the orders have often become ornaments and regarded as superfluous. Instead columns of steel and reinforced concrete are used. In late 20th century postmodernist architecture, however, elements of the traditional orders have sometimes been reintroduced.
See also: [[Temple (Roman)]], [[Temple (Greek)]]
==Further reading==
*Curl, James Stevens, ''Classical Architecture: An Introduction to Its Vocabulary and Essentials, with a Select Glossary of Terms'' 2003. ISBN 0393731197
*[[John Summerson|Summerson, Sir John]], ''The Classical Language of Architecture'' MIT Press, 1966. ISBN 0262690128 (developed from a set of BBC radio talks).
*Tzonis, Alexander, ''Classical Architecture: The Poetics of Order'' 1986 ISBN 026270031X
[[Category:Ancient Roman architecture]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Classical education</title>
<id>6940</id>
<revision>
<id>40574922</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T15:25:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rfrisbie</username>
<id>896545</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reworked "Western" reference</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Classical education''' as understood and taught in the [[middle ages]] of [[Western culture]] is roughly based on the [[ancient Greek]] concept of [[Paideia]]. [[China]] had a completely different tradition of classical education, based in large part on [[Confucian]] and [[Taoist]] traditions. This article concerns the Western tradition.
== The overall organization ==
Classical education developed many of the terms now used to describe modern [[education]]. Western classical education has three phases, each with a different purpose. The phases are roughly coordinated with human development, and would ideally be exactly coordinated with each individual student's development.
"Primary education" teaches students how to learn.
"Secondary education" then teaches a conceptual framework that can hold all human knowledge (history), and then fills in basic facts and practices of the major fields of knowledge, and develops the skills (perhaps in a simplified form) of every major human activity.
"Tertiary education" then prepares a person to pursue an educated profession, such as law, theology, war, medicine or science.
=== Primary Education ===
Primary education was often called the ''[[trivium]]'', which covered grammar, logic, and rhetoric.
Logic and rhetoric was often taught in part by the [[Socratic method]], in which the teacher raises questions and the class discusses them. By controlling the pace, the teacher can keep the class very lively, yet disciplined.
==== Grammar ====
Grammar consists of [[language]] skills such as reading and |
rt Institute]], a museum of fine arts. The [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]] is at nearby Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.
The [[Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park]] commemorates the lives and achievements of Dayton natives, Orville and Wilbur Wright and Paul Laurence Dunbar.
[[SunWatch Indian Village|SunWatch Indian Village/Archaeological Park]] is located on the south end of Dayton. SunWatch is the location of a 12th century American Indian village that has been partially reconstructed and includes a museum where visitors can learn about the Indian history of the Miami Valley.
Dayton is also home to the [[Schuster Center]] for the [[performing arts]] and the [[Victoria Theater]] which specialize in hosting concerts, traveling [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] shows, and [[ballet]], completed in [[2004]]. The Schuster Center is also the home performance venue of the [[Dayton Philharmonic Orchestra]].
South of the city of Dayton is the [[Fraze Pavilion]] which hosts many nationally and internationally known musicians for concerts, located in the community of [[Kettering]]. Also south of downtown, on the banks of the [[Great Miami River]], is the [[University of Dayton Arena]], home venue for the [[University of Dayton]] Flyers basketball teams and the location of various other events and concerts. North of Dayton is the [[Hara Arena]] and the [[Nutter Center]], venues that frequently host sporting events and concerts. The Nutter Center is the home arena for athletics of [[Wright State University]] and the [[Dayton Bombers]] [[ECHL]] hockey team.
[[Fifth Third Field]] is the home of the [[Dayton Dragons]] [[Minor League Baseball|minor league baseball]] team.
From 1996 to 1998, Dayton hosted the [[National Folk Festival (USA)|National Folk Festival]].
The Dayton Amateur Radio Association annually hosts North America's largest [[hamfest]] at [[Hara Arena]]. Amateur radio operators are commonly referred to as "hams" with as many as 25,000 traveling from around the world to attend this convention.
=== Adult amateur sports ===
Dayton has an [[amateur]] women's [[ice hockey]] team, the [http://www.daytonfangs.com/ Dayton Fangs], established in August 2005. The Gem City Rollergirls, a women's [[roller derby]] league, began forming in early 2006.
[[Image:Dayton-ohio-flyover-sculpture.jpg|thumb|300px|The sculpture ''Flyover'' (David Evans Black, 1996) on Main Street downtown. The sculpture tracks the path of the Wright Brothers first powered airplane flight.]]
==Media==
The principal general-circulation daily newspaper in the region is the ''[[Dayton Daily News]]'', which is owned by [[Cox Communications]]. ''[http://www.citizenusa.us/ Christian Citizen USA]'' (currently doing business as ''Citizen USA'') is a politically [[conservative]] newspaper with circulation in greater Dayton and its surrounding suburban communities. The [http://www.daytoncitypaper.com Dayton City Paper] is a free weekly circulation newspaper.
===Television===
The Dayton metro area's broadcast television stations are as follows:
*[[WDTN]], Channel 2 – [[NBC]], operated by [[Lin TV]]
*[[WHIO-TV]], Channel 7 – [[CBS]], operated by [[Cox Communications]]
*[[WPTD]], Channel 16 – [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]], operated by [[ThinkTV]] (formerly known as ''Greater Dayton Public Television''), which also operates [[WPTO]], assigned to [[Oxford, Ohio]]
*[[WKEF]], Channel 22 – [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], operated by [[Sinclair Broadcasting]]
*[[WBDT]], Channel 26 – [[The WB Television Network|WB]]/[[I (TV network)|i]], operated by [[Acme Television]]
*[[WRGT]], Channel 45 – [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], operated under a local marketing agreement by [[Sinclair Broadcasting]]
The Dayton television market is ranked the #59 [http://www.nielsenmedia.com/DMAs.html Nielsen DMA] in the United States.
===Radio===
====AM format====
*WONE 980 – Sports/Talk
*WIZE 1340 – Sports/Talk (WONE repeater)
*WDAO 1210 – Black contemporary/soul music
*WHIO 1290 – News/Talk
*WING 1410 – [[ESPN Radio]]
====FM format====
*WDPR 88.1 – Dayton Public Radio (Classical)
*WCSU 88.9 – Urban Jazz and Gospel
*WCDR 90.3 - Christian/Inspirational, [[Cedarville University]], ([[Cedarville, Ohio]])
*WYSO 91.3 – [[National Public Radio]] ([[Yellow Springs, Ohio]])
*WROU 92.1 – Urban Contemporary
*WGTZ 92.9 – Top 40 Pop
*WFCJ 93.7 – Christian/Inspirational
*WDKF 94.5 – Top 40 Rhythmic Pop
*WZLR 95.3 – Classic Hits
*WDPT 95.7 – 1980s
*WHKO 99.1 – Modern Country
*WUDR 99.5 – University of Dayton Radio (plus a repeater at 98.1)
*WLQT 99.9 – Soft adult contemporary music
*WDHT 102.9 – Urban
*WXEG 103.9 – Modern Rock
*WTUE 104.7 – Classic Rock
*WDSJ 106.5 – Urban jazz
*WWSU 106.9 – Wright State University Radio
*WMMX 107.7 – Contemporary music
Some Cincinnati and other southwest Ohio radio and television stations can be received in parts of Dayton, as well.
==Public transportation==
The [[Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority]] (RTA) operates public bus routes in the Dayton metro area. In addition to routes covered by traditional [[diesel]]-powered buses, RTA has a number of [[Trolleybus|electric trolley bus]] routes. In continuous operation since [[1888]], Dayton's is the longest-running of the six remaining trolley bus systems in the U.S.
Air transportation is available via the [[Dayton International Airport|James M. Cox Dayton International Airport]], located in nearby [[Vandalia, Ohio|Vandalia]], just north of Dayton proper.
[[Liberty Cab]] (in operation since 1929), [[Checker Cab]] and [[Airport Checker Cab]] all provide [[taxicab]] service throughout the Dayton metro area.
==Education==
Dayton is home to two major universities: the [[University of Dayton]], a private, [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] institution founded in [[1850]] by the [[Society of Mary|Marianist order]], and the public [[Wright State University]], which became a state university in [[1967]]. The University of Dayton has the only [[American Bar Association]] (ABA) approved [[law school]] in the Dayton area, [http://www.law.udayton.edu UDSL]
Dayton is also home to one of the country's leading [[community college]]s, [[Sinclair Community College]] (founded as a YMCA college in 1887), located in central downtown Dayton. Miami Jacobs College is another [[junior college]] in Dayton.
==Notable Natives==
Actors
*[[Nancy Cartwright (actress)|Nancy Cartwright]], Voice of [[Bart Simpson]]
*[[Dorian Harewood]], Actor
*[[Allison Janney]], Actress
*[[Gordon Jump]], Actor
*[[Chad Lowe]], Actor
*[[Rob Lowe]], Actor
*[[Gary Sandy]], Actor
*[[Martin Sheen]], Actor
*[[Jonathan Winters]], Actor/Comedian
Musicians
*[[Kim Deal]], Rock musician, member of [[Pixies]] and [[The Breeders]] with sister [[Kelley Deal]]
*[[Guided by Voices]], Rock Group, and singer [[Robert Pollard]]
*[[Roger Troutman]] and [[Zapp (band)|Zapp]], Musicians/Producers
*[[Brainiac (band)|Brainiac]], Rock Group, and singer [[John Schmersal]], who went on to form [[Enon]]
*[[Stevie Brock]], Pop Singer
*[[Dead Poetic]], Rock group
*[[Rick Derringer]], Rock musician
*[[Hawthorne Heights]], [[Emo (music)|Emo]] Group
*[[Lakeside]], [[Funk]] Group
*[[Ohio Players]], [[Funk]] Group
*[[Kim Richey]] [[Singer/Songwriter]]
*[[Slave (band)|Slave]], Funk Group
Athletes
*[[Roger Clemens]], Baseball player
*[[Marco Coleman]], NFL defensive tackle
*[[Ron Harper]], Baseketball Player
*[[Darrell Jackson]], NFL Wide Receiver
*[[Edwin C. Moses]], Olympic Athlete, Track and Field
*[[Peerless Price]], [[NFL]] wide receiver
*[[Mike Schmidt]], Baseball Player
*[[Chris Spradlin]], Pro Wrestler better known as Chris Hero
*[[Dan Wilkinson]], [[NFL]] Defensive Tackle
*[[Tamika Williams]], Basketball player in the [[WNBA]]
Authors
*[[Erma Bombeck]], Nationally-known columnist and author
*[[Paul Laurence Dunbar]], Noted early African-American poet
*[[Joe Eszterhas]], Screenwriter - [[Showgirls]], [[Basic Instinct]]
*[[Cathy Guisewite]], National Cartoonist
*[[Mike Jackson]], Author, TV personality, veterans advocate
*[[Mike Peters]], Nationally-syndicated opinion [[cartoonist]]
Entertainers
*[[Phil Donahue]], Talk show host
*[[Mel Epstein]], Film producer
Entrepreneurs
*[[John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)|John H. Patterson]], Founder - National Cash Register
*[[Edward A. Deeds]], engineer, inventor, industrialist
*[[Charles Kettering]], Inventor - Automobile Self-Starter
*[[James Ritty]], Inventor - [[Cash Register]]
*[[Wright Brothers]], Inventors - Airplane
Politicians
*[[James Middleton Cox]], Congressman, [[Ohio]] governor, 1920 Democratic presidential candidate, founder of [[Cox Enterprises]]
== Geography ==
Dayton is located at 39&deg;45'46" North, 84&deg;11'48" West (39.762708, -84.196665){{GR|1}}. The city sits in the [[Miami Valley (Ohio)|Miami River Valley]], north of [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]], well south of [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]], south-west of [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], and east of [[Richmond, Indiana|Richmond]], [[Indiana]], in the southwest quadrant of the state. Most official and government designations place it in ''west-central Ohio'' (a term which colloquially often refers to [[Lima, Ohio]]). It is at the confluence of the [[Great Miami River]], the [[Stillwater River (Ohio)|Stillwater]] and [[Mad River (Ohio)|Mad]] rivers, and [[Wolf Creek]]. Area natives seldom use the phrase 'greater Dayton". They affectionately refer to the region as the Miami Valley, which is meant to mean all areas between the cities of [[Sidney]] and [[Middletown]] (north and south), and [[Springfield, Ohio|Springfield]] to the [[Indiana]] border (east west).
Following the flood of [[1913]], the [[Miami Conservancy District]] was established in [[1914]] to build [[dams]] and [[levee|levees]] and to [[dredge]] and straighten channels to control flooding of the Miami and surrounding rivers.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 146.7 [[ |
[[Haganah]]'s transformation into the Israel Defense Forces), Sharon was a [[platoon]] commander in the [[Alexandroni Brigade]]. Sharon was severely wounded in the [[groin]] by the [[Jordan]]ian [[Arab Legion]] in the Second Battle of [[Latrun]], an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the [[Siege|besieged]] [[Jew]]ish community of [[Jerusalem]]. His injuries eventually healed.
In September 1949, he was [[Promotion|promoted]] to [[Company (military unit)|company]] commander (of the Golani Brigade's reconnaissance unit) and in 1950 to [[intelligence officer]] for Central Command. He then took leave to begin studies of history and Middle Eastern culture at the [[Hebrew University|Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. A year and a half later, he was asked to return to active service in the rank of [[major]] and as the leader of the new [[Unit 101]], Israel's first [[special forces]] unit.
Unit 101 undertook a series of [[Revenge|retaliatory]] [[raid]]s against [[Palestinian]]s and neighboring [[Arab]] states that helped bolster Israeli morale and fortify its [[deterrence|deterrent]] image. However, the unit was also known for targeting civilians as well as Arab soldiers, notably in the widely condemned [[Qibya massacre|Qibya operation]] in the fall of 1953, in which 69 Palestinian civilians, half of which were women and children, were killed by Sharon's troops in a reprisal attack on their [[West Bank]] village. In the [[documentary]] "Israel and the Arabs: 50 Year War" Ariel Sharon recalls what happened after the raid, which was heavily condemned by many countries in the West, including the U.S.:
:''I was summoned to see [[David Ben-Gurion|Ben-Gurion]]. It was the first time I met him, and right from the start Ben-Gurion said to me: "Let me first tell you one thing: it doesn't matter what the world says about Israel, it doesn't matter what they say about us anywhere else. The only thing that matters is that we can exist here on the land of our forefathers. And unless we show the Arabs that there is a high price to pay for murdering Jews, we won't survive."''
Shortly afterwards, just a few months after its founding, Unit 101 was merged into the 202nd [[Paratroopers Brigade]] (Sharon eventually became the latter's commander), which continued to attack military and civilian targets, culminating with the attack on [[Qalqilyah]] police station in autumn 1956.
Sharon has been [[widow]]ed twice. Shortly after becoming a [[Drill instructor|military instructor]], he married his first wife, [[Margalit Sharon|Margalit]], with whom he had a son, Gur. Margalit died in a [[car accident]] in 1962. Their son, Gur, died in October 1967 after a friend shot him while they were playing with the elder Sharon's [[rifle]]. [http://www.smh.com.au/news/Middle-East-Conflict/Sharon-mourns-slain-son/2005/02/14/1108229937965.html] [http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,589127,00.html] [http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0306/14/pitn.00.html] After Margalith's death, Sharon married her younger sister, [[Lily Sharon|Lily]]. They had two sons, [[Omri Sharon|Omri]] and [[Gilad Sharon|Gil'ad]]. Lily Sharon died in 2000.
==Mitla incident==
In the [[1956 Suez War]] (the British "[[Operation Musketeer]]"), Sharon commanded the 202nd Brigade and was responsible for taking ground east of the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]'s [[Mitla Pass]] and eventually taking the pass itself. Having successfully carried out the first part of his mission (joining a battalion paratrooped near Mitla with the rest of the brigade moving on ground), Sharon's unit was deployed near the pass. Neither [[reconnaissance aircraft]] nor [[Reconnaissance|scouts]] reported enemy forces inside the Mitla Pass. Sharon, whose forces were initially heading east, away from the pass, reported to his superiors that he was increasingly concerned with the possibility of an enemy thrust through the pass, which could attack his brigade from the flank or the rear.
Sharon asked for permission to attack the pass several times but his requests were denied although he was allowed to check its status so that if the pass was empty, he could receive permission to take it later. Sharon sent a small scout force which was met with heavy fire and became bogged down due to vehicle [[malfunction]] in the middle of the pass. Sharon ordered the rest of his troops to attack in order to aid their comrades. In the ensuing successful battle to capture the pass thirty-eight Israeli soldiers were killed. Sharon was not only criticized by his superiors, he was damaged by revelations several years later by several former subordinates (one of IDF's first major revelations to the press), who claimed that Sharon tried to provoke the [[Egypt]]ians and sent out the scouts in bad faith, ensuring that a battle would ensue. Deliberate or not, the attack was considered strategically reckless because the Egyptian forces were expected to withdraw from the pass in the following one or two days.
==Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War==
{{main articles|[[Six-Day War]] and [[Yom Kippur War]]}}
The Mitla incident hindered Sharon's military career for several years. In the meantime, he occupied the position of an infantry brigade commander and received a [[law degree]] from [[Tel Aviv University]]. When [[Yitzhak Rabin]] (who within a few years became associated with the [[Labour (Israel)|Labour Party]]) became [[Chief of Staff]] in 1962, however, Sharon began again to rise rapidly in the ranks, occupying the positions of Infantry School Commander and Head of Army Training Branch, eventually achieving the rank of [[Major General]] (''[[Aluf]]''). In the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], Sharon commanded the most powerful armored division on the Sinai [[Front (military)|front]] which made a breakthrough in the Kusseima-Abu-Ageila fortified area. In 1969, he was appointed the Head of IDF's Southern Command. He had no further promotions before retiring in August 1973. Soon after, he joined the right-wing Likud [[political party]].[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/storyville/ariel-sharon.shtml]
[[Image:Arik_Sharon_with_Bandage_Dayan.jpg|right|thumb|22
30px|Sharon (in bandage) with [[Moshe Dayan]] (right) in 1973]]
Sharon' s military career was not over, however. At the start of the [[Yom Kippur War]] on [[October 6]] [[1973]], Sharon was called back to duty and assigned to command a reserve armored division. His forces did not engage the [[Egyptian Army]] immediately but it was Sharon who helped locate a breach between the Egyptian forces, which he then exploited by capturing a [[bridgehead]] on [[October 16]] and throwing a bridge across the [[Suez Canal]] the following day. He violated his orders from the head of Southern Command by exploiting this success to cut the [[supply line]]s of the Egyptian Third Army, located to the south of the canal crossing, isolating it from other Egyptian units.
The divisions of Sharon and [[Abraham Adan|Abraham Adan]] (Bren) passed over this bridge into [[Africa]] advancing to within 101 kilometers of [[Cairo]]. They wreaked havoc on the supply lines of the Third Army stretching to the south of them, cutting off and [[Encirclement|encircling]] the Third Army, but could not force its surrender before the [[cease-fire]]. Tensions between the two generals followed his decision, but a [[military tribunal]] later found his action was militarily effective. This move was regarded by many Israelis as the turning point of the war in the Sinai front. Thus, Sharon is viewed by some as a [[war hero]] who saved Israel from defeat in Sinai. A photo of Sharon wearing a head bandage on the Suez Canal became a famous symbol of Israeli military prowess.
Sharon's aggressive political positions were controversial and he was relieved of duty in February 1974.
==Sabra and Shatila massacre==
{{main|Sabra and Shatila massacre}}
During the [[1982 Lebanon War]], while Ariel Sharon was [[Defense minister]], the [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]] took place, in which between 460 and 3,500 Palestinian civilians in the [[refugee camp]]s were killed by Lebanese Christian forces under the command of Lebanese [[Maronite]] [[Phalange]] [[militia]]. The Security Chief of the Phalange militia, [[Elie Hobeika]], was the ground commander of the militiamen who entered the Palestinian camps and killed the Palestinians. The Phalange had been sent into the camps to clear out [[PLO]] fighters, and Israeli forces had been sent to the camps at Sharon's command to provide them with [[logistical]] support and to guard camp exits.
The [[Kahan Commission]] claimed that "absolutely no direct responsibility devolves upon Israel or upon those who acted in its behalf." Yet it did charge Sharon with "personal responsibility." It recommended in early 1983 the removal of Sharon from his post as Defense minister. In their recommendations and closing remarks, the commission stated:
:''We have found, as has been detailed in this report, that the Minister of Defense [Ariel Sharon] bears personal responsibility. In our opinion, it is fitting that the Minister of Defense draw the appropriate personal conclusions arising out of the defects revealed with regard to the manner in which he discharged the duties of his office - and if necessary, that the [[Prime Minister]] consider whether he should exercise his authority under Section 21-A(a) of the Basic Law: the Government, according to which "the Prime Minister may, after informing the Cabinet of his intention to do so, remove a minister from office."''[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1982-1984/104%20Report%20of%20the%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20e]
Nevertheless the [[Kahan Commission]] did not interview Palestinian survivors of the massacre.
Journalist [[Robert Fisk]], based on some eyewitness accounts and his own investigation, alleged that Sharon and the IDF bore a greater resp |
e landing.ogg|title=F-35 vertical landing (video)|description=Vertical landing (video)|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video end}}
== Further reading ==
* Spick, Mike (2002), ''The Illustrated Directory of Fighters''. Salamander ISBN 1-84065-384-1
* Kopp, Carlo; Goon, Peter, ''Australian Aviation'', [http://www.ausairpower.net/jsf.html JSF related articles].
==Notes and references==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<references/>
</div>
==External links==
*[http://www.jsf.mil/ Official homepage]
*[http://www.teamjsf.com/ Official Industrial Team homepage]
*[http://www.edfinc.com/pages/jsf-engine.htm JSF advanced military gas turbine engine Test Stand C-14 (West Palm Beach, Florida)]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/xplanes/ PBS NOVA: Battle of the X-Planes (JSF selection)]
*[http://www.f-35jsf.net/ F-35 JSF news articles]
*[http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-35.htm Data on the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) by the Federation of American Scientists]
*[http://www.f-16.net/f-16_photos_album80.html F-35 photo gallery ]
*[http://www.raf.mod.uk/equipment/jsf.html F-35 Web Page at the Royal Air Force Website]
*[http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2005/12/itar-fallout-britain-to-pull-out-of-f35-jsf-program/index.php British threats of disassociation with the program]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/f-35.htm Global Security on the F-35 JSF Program]
*[http://www.ausairpower.net/jsf.html Air Power Australia JSF Page]
==Related content==
{{commons|F-35 Joint Strike Fighter}}
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|sequence=
[[IAI Kfir|F-21]] -
[[F/A-22 Raptor|F/A-22]] -
[[YF-23 Black Widow II|YF-23]] -
'''F-35'''
<br>
[[Boeing X-32|X-32]] -
[[Lockheed Martin X-33|X-33]] -
[[Orbital Sciences X-34|X-34]] -
'''X-35''' -
[[McDonnell Douglas X-36|X-36]] -
[[Boeing X-37|X-37]] -
[[X-38]]
|similar aircraft=
*[[X-32]]
*[[Dassault Rafale]]
*[[Sukhoi Su-47]]
*[[Eurofighter Typhoon]]
*[[Mikoyan Project 1.44]]
|lists=
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]
* [[List of experimental aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
|see also=
* [[Comparison of 21st century fighter aircraft]]
* [[Royal Navy in the 21st century]]
* [[Future Offensive Air System]]
* [[X-plane]]
}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:British attack aircraft 2000-2009]]
[[Category:British fighter aircraft 2000-2009]]
[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:Fleet Air Arm]]
[[Category:Stealth aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. attack aircraft 2000-2009]]
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 2000-2009]]
[[Category:VTOL aircraft]]
[[ar:أف 35]]
[[da:F-35]]
[[de:Lockheed Martin F-35]]
[[fr:Lockheed F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]]
[[he:F-35]]
[[it:Lockheed Martin F-35]]
[[ja:F-35 (戦闘機)]]
[[nl:Joint Strike Fighter]]
[[no:F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F-16 Fighting Falcon</title>
<id>11813</id>
<revision>
<id>42102629</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:16:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Spartian</username>
<id>952421</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:F-16_Fighting_Falcon.jpg|thumb|300px|F-16 Fighting Falcon over Iraq]]
The '''F-16 Fighting Falcon''' is a modern multi-role [[jet]] [[fighter aircraft]] built in the [[United States]]. Designed as a lightweight fighter, it evolved into a successful multi-role aircraft. The F-16 was developed by [[General Dynamics]]. In 1993 General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the [[Lockheed Corporation]], now [[Lockheed Martin]]. The Falcon's versatility is a paramount reason it was a success on the export market, and is serving 24 countries. It is the largest and probably most significant Western fighter program, with over 4000 aircraft built. Though no longer produced for the [[United States Air Force]], it is still produced for export. The F-16 is one of the most famous fighters in the world, with a rakish silhouette and a fearsome reputation.
The Fighting Falcon is regarded as a superb dogfighter, with innovations such as the bubble canopy, side-mounted control stick, and reclined seat. It was also the first US fighter aircraft to match the [[English Electric Lightning]]'s ability to execute 9 [[Gee|g]] turns. Although the F-16's official popular name is "Fighting Falcon", it is known to its pilots as the "Viper", the General Dynamics codename for the project during its early development.
==History==
===Development===
The F-16 originated in a set of specifications by the [[United States Department of Defense]]. The deficiencies of the [[F-4 Phantom II]] in aerial combat in the [[Vietnam War]], particularly at close ranges, shaped the specifications for the [[F-15 Eagle]]. An informal and influential group nicknamed the "Fighter Mafia", among them systems analyst [[Pierre Sprey]], test pilot [[Charles E. Meyers]], and former instructor pilot [[John Boyd (military strategist)|John Boyd]], believed the F-15 was a move in the wrong direction. They argued that the F-15 was too large and expensive. Designed as a fast interceptor, it had a wide turn radius and was not well suited to close range dogfighting. The Fighter Mafia argued for a lighter fighter with superb maneuverability, that was cheap enough to deploy in numbers. These specifications became the [[Lightweight Fighter]] (LWF) program, begun in 1971.
The LWF specified a plane weighing 20,000 pounds (9,000 kg), half the weight of the F-15, stressing low cost, small size, range, and emphasising maneuverability &mdash; turn rate and acceleration &mdash; at the expense of top speed. Its ideal operating environment was intended to be under Mach 1.6 and 40,000 feet (12,000 m). Two companies were chosen during the concept stage: [[General Dynamics]] with the '''YF-16''' design and [[Northrop]] with a design which bore the name [[YF-17 Cobra]].
The LWF faced significant opposition in the Air Force because it was seen as competition to the F-15, the Air Force's premier fighter program. To head off opposition the project was redesignated Air Combat Fighter (ACF). At this time, [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Norway]] were seeking a replacement for their [[F-104 Starfighter]]s, and formed the [[Multinational Fighter Program Group]] to choose a replacement. Both ACF aircraft were in consideration, as well as the [[Dassault Mirage F1]] and the [[Saab Viggen]]. Also during this time, the Navy was looking for a low-cost alternative to the [[F-14 Tomcat]], a similarly expensive, costly interceptor as the F-15, in a program called [[VFAX]]. Congress directed the Navy to use the same aircraft as the ACF programme. As the VFAX was envisioned to be a multi-role aircraft, this requirement made it into the ACF specifications as well, staving off direct competition with the F-15 as it was pitched to be a counterpart.
The first flight of the YF-16 prototype was in 1974. The first prototype was powered by the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-100 turbofan engine also used on early versions of the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle. On January 13, 1975, the Air Force chose the YF-16 as the winner of the ACF competition as it gave superior performances across the board and promised to be cheaper to procure and maintain. It used the same engine as the F-15, which F-15 supporters believed would help their program. There were also political concerns with keeping General Dynamics in business after the end of the [[General Dynamics F-111|F-111]] program. The [[US Navy]] chose to have the YF-17 design developed into the [[F/A-18]] because it offered twin-engined reliability, then viewed as essential for over-water operations.
The plane was offered to NATO members, and made an appearance at the 1975 [[Paris Air Show]]. The MFPG nations agreed to purchase 348 planes, with final assembly to take place in Belgium (SABCA), The Netherlands (FOKKER) and various parts subcontracted among them.
==Production==
Initially, the F-16 was manufactured in two models: "A" (single-seat combat version) and "B" (combat-capable two-seat trainer). The F-16A first took flight in December [[1976 in aviation|1976]] and was first delivered to the [[388th Tactical Fighter Wing]] in January 1979. In the same month, they were delivered to the Belgian Air Force. The F-16 is the first American fighter to be concurrently deployed domestically and abroad. The B model is a trainer version with an extended canopy to accommodate a second pilot, also reducing fuel and avionics growth space. Typically the student pilot sits in the front cockpit with the instructor pilot behind.
In the 1980s, the F-16A/B was superseded by the F-16C/D with improved avionics and engine. The F-16 has been continually upgraded throughout its production history; block designations reflect significant upgrades and are outlined below. The empty weight of F-16 grew from 15,600 pounds (Block 10 F-16A) to 19,200 (Block 50 F-16C).
=== Combat service ===
[[Image:F-16C01.jpg|thumb|350px|F-16 with a full weapons load.
]]
Due to their ubiquity, the F-16s have participated in numerous conflicts, most of them in the [[Middle East]]. In [[1981 in aviation|1981]], 4 [[Israel]]i F-16s participated in a raid that destroyed [[Osiraq]], an [[Iraq|Iraqi]] [[nuclear reactor]] near [[Baghdad]]. During the same year, the [[Israeli Air Force]] obtained the first shot downs for the entire F-16 series, shooting down a [[Syrian]] [[Mi-8]] [[helicopter]] and a [[MiG-21]] jet. The following year, during [[Operation Peace for Galilee]] ([[1982 Lebanon War|Lebanon War]]) Israeli F-16s engaged on numerous occasions with [[Syrian]] aircraft, ending up victorious at all times but one. F-16s were also used afterwards in their ground-attack role for strikes against targets in [[Lebanon]]. In the [[Gulf War]] of [[1991 in aviation|1991]], F-16 from the air forces of the [[Coalition]] p |
he aircraft are capable of flying vertically off the deck, using the ramp is more fuel efficient. As catapults and arrestor cables are unnecessary, carriers with this arrangement reduce weight, complexity, and space needed for equipment.
==Common types==
Over the course of the last century there have been several types of aircraft carrier, some of which are now obsolete. They can be generally categorised as follows:
===Initial designs and inter-war developments===
* [[Seaplane tender]]s, such as [[HMS Engadine (1911)|HMS ''Engadine'']], out of frontline use after the 1920s when carriers capable of handling conventional airplanes came into fleets and the superiority of landplanes over [[seaplane]]s in naval operations became firmly established.
* Standard carriers, such as [[HMS Ark Royal (91)|HMS ''Ark Royal'']], typically 20,000 to 65,000 tons. Often known as "fleet carriers."
* Flying aircraft carrier; airship that can carry aircraft. Example include [[USS Akron (ZRS-4)|USS ''Akron'']] and [[USS Macon (ZRS-5)|''Macon'']]
===World War II developments===
[[Image:Hmcs bonaventure.jpg|250px|right||thumb|[[HMCS Bonaventure (CVL 22)|HMCS ''Bonaventure'']], a [[Majestic class aircraft carrier|''Majestic'' class]] aircraft carrier of the [[Royal Canadian Navy]].]]
* [[Escort carrier]]s, such as [[USS Barnes (CVE-20)|USS ''Barnes'']], were built only during World War II, and were used by the Royal Navy and U.S. Navy.
* [[Light aircraft carrier]]s, such as [[USS Independence (CVL-22)|USS ''Independence'']], were designed to primarily carry fighters.
* [[CAM ship]]s, such as [[SS Michael E|SS ''Michael E'']], cargo carrying merchant ships which could launch but not retrieve fighter aircraft. These vessels were an emergency measure during [[World War II]].
* [[Merchant aircraft carrier]]s (MACs), such as [[MV Empire MacAlpine|MV ''Empire MacAlpine'']], another emergency measure which saw cargo-carrying merchant ships equipped with flight decks.
* [[Carrier battleship]]s were created by the Imperial Japanese Navy to partially compensate for the loss of carrier strength at [[Battle of Midway|Midway]]. Two of them were made from [[Ise class battleship|''Ise'' class]] battleships during late 1943. The aft turrets were removed and replaced with a hangar, deck and catapult. The heavy cruiser [[Mogami|''Mogami'']] concurrently received a similar conversion.
* [[Submarine aircraft carrier]]s, such as the French [[French submarine Surcouf|''Surcouf'']], or the Japanese [[I-400 class submarine]]s which were capable of carrying 3 [[Aichi]] [[Aichi M6A|M6A ''Seiran'']] aircraft. The first of these were built in the 1920s.
In addition, many battleships, cruisers and merchant raiders were equipped with floatplanes for reconnaissance.
===Post-war developments===
* [[Amphibious assault ship|Amphibious assault carrier]]s, such as [[USS Tarawa (LHA-1)|USS ''Tarawa'']], which often also serve the purpose of carrying and landing [[soldier]]s and operate a large contingent of helicopters for that purpose. Also known as "commando carriers" or "helicopter carriers."
* [[Anti-submarine warfare carrier]]s, such as [[HMS Ocean (L12)|HMS ''Ocean'']], also known as "helicopter carriers."
* [[Supercarrier]]s, such as [[USS Nimitz (CVN-68)|USS ''Nimitz'']], typically 75,000 tons or greater.
Some [[cruiser (warship)|cruisers]] and [[capital ship]]s of the inter-war years often carried a catapult launched seaplane for reconnaissance and spotting the fall of the guns. It was launched by a catapult and recovered by crane from the water after landing. These were mostly removed during World War II, but had some notable successes early in the war as shown by [[HMS Warspite (1913)|HMS ''Warspite'']]’s [[Supermarine Walrus|Walrus]] during operations in the Norwegian fjords in 1940.
Many modern warships have [[helicopter]] landing capability and helicopter assault ships represent a new form of amphibious assault carrier.
==History and milestones==
===Genesis===
[[Image:Ely-takeoff.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Ely takes off from<br>USS ''Birmingham'', [[14 November]] [[1910]].]]
[[Image:Ely-landing.jpg|thumb|200px|Ely lands on USS ''Pennsylvania'', <br>[[18 January]] [[1911]].]]
As heavier-than-air aircraft developed in the early 20th century various navies began to take an interest in their potential use as scouts for their big gun warships. A number of experimental flights were made to test the concept. [[Eugene Ely]] was the first [[Aviator|pilot]] to launch from a stationary ship in November 1910. He took off from a structure fixed over the forecastle of the US [[armoured cruiser]] [[USS Birmingham (CL-2)|USS ''Birmingham'']] at [[Hampton Roads]], [[Virginia]] and landed nearby on [[Willoughby Spit]] after some five minutes in the air. On [[January 18]] [[1911]] he became the first pilot to land on a stationary ship. He took off from the Tanforan racetrack and landed on a similar temporary structure on the aft of [[USS Pennsylvania (ACR-4)|USS ''Pennsylvania'']] anchored at the [[San Francisco]] waterfront&mdash;the improvised braking system of sandbags and ropes lead directly to the arrestor hook and wires described above. His aircraft was then turned around and he was able to take off again. [[Commander]] Charles Samson, RN, became the first airman to take off from a moving warship on [[May 2]] [[1912]]. He took off in a [[Short S27]] from the battleship [[HMS Hibernia (1905)|HMS ''Hibernia'']] while she steamed at 10.5 knots (19 km/h) during the [[Royal Fleet Review]] at [[Weymouth, Dorset|Weymouth]].
[[HMS Ark Royal (1914)|HMS ''Ark Royal'']] was the first aircraft carrier. She was originally laid down as a merchant ship, but was converted on the building stocks to be a seaplane carrier. Launched in 1914, she served in the [[Dardanelles]] campaign and throughout World War I.
The first strike from a carrier against a land target took place on [[July 19]] [[1918]]. Seven [[Sopwith Camel]]s launched from [[HMS Furious (1916)|HMS ''Furious'']] attacked the German [[Zeppelin]] base at [[Tondern]], with two 50 lb bombs each. Several [[airship]]s and [[balloon]]s were destroyed, but as the carrier had no method of recovering the aircraft safely, two of the pilots ditched their aircraft in the sea alongside the carrier while the others headed for neutral [[Denmark]].
===The inter-war years===
[[Image:H42235.jpg|thumb|left|150px|left|The first flat deck, [[HMS Argus (I49)|HMS ''Argus'']] in 1918]]
[[Image:Japanese aircraft carrier Hosho.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The first purpose-designed aircraft carrier, the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'s [[Japanese aircraft carrier Hosho|''Hosho'']], in 1922]]
The [[Washington Naval Treaty]] of 1922 placed strict limits on the tonnages of battleships and [[battlecruiser]]s for the major naval powers after [[World War I]], as well as limits not only on the total tonnage for carriers, but also an upper limit on 27,000 tonnes for each ship. Although exceptions were made regarding the max ship tonnage (fleet units counted, experimental units did not), the total tonnage could not be exceeded. However, while all of the major navies were over-tonnage on battleships, they were all considerably under-tonnage on aircraft carriers. Consequently, many battleships and battlecruisers under construction (or in service) were converted into aircraft carriers. The first ship to have a full length flat deck was [[HMS Argus (1917)|HMS ''Argus'']] the conversion of which was completed in September [[1918]], with the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] not following suit until 1920, when the conversion of [[USS Langley (CV-1)|USS ''Langley'']] had completed. The first American fleet carriers would not join the service until [[Lexington class aircraft carrier|1928]] ([[USS Lexington (CV-2)|USS ''Lexington'']] and [[USS Saratoga (CV-3)|''Saratoga'']]).
The first purpose-designed aircraft carrier to be developed was the [[HMS Hermes (1923)|HMS ''Hermes'']], although the first one to be commissionned was the Japanese [[Japanese aircraft carrier Hosho|''Hosho'']] (commissioned in December 1922, followed by HMS ''Hermes'' in July 1923). ''Hermes''<nowiki>'</nowiki> design preceded and influenced that of the Hosho, and its construction actually began earlier, but numerous tests, experiments and budget considerations delayed its commission.
By the late 1930s, aircraft carriers around the world typically carried three types of aircraft: [[torpedo bomber]]s, also used for conventional bombings and [[reconnaissance]]; [[dive bomber]]s, also used for reconnaissance (in the U.S. Navy, this type of aircraft were known as "scout bombers"); and [[fighter aircraft|fighter]]s for fleet defence and bomber escort duties. Because of the restricted space on aircraft carriers, all these aircraft were of small, single-engined types, usually with [[folding wing]]s to facilitate storage.
===The Second World War===
Aircraft carriers played a significant role in [[World War II]]. With seven aircraft carriers afloat, the Royal Navy had a considerable numerical advantage at the start of the war as neither the Germans or the Italians had carriers of their own. However, the vulnerability of carriers to traditional battleships was quickly illustrated by the sinking of [[HMS Glorious|HMS ''Glorious'']] by German battlecruisers during the Norwegian campaign in 1940. By World War II, seaplane carriers were no longer considered to be equals to carriers which could operate conventional aircraft, as conventional planes could fly farther, faster, with heavier weapons loads and greater performance; by the end of the war, early helicopters were taking over many of the roles of seaplanes.
This apparent weakness to battleships was turned on its head in November 1940 when [[HMS Illustrious (R87)|HMS ''Illustrious'']] launched a long-range strike on the Italian fleet at [[Battle of Taranto|Taranto]]. This oper |
without licensing them under the GPL.
Some critics dislike the ideological tone of the GPL's preamble, or complain that the license is too long. Others feel that it restricts certain software business models too much in favor of unneeded user freedoms and a better "middle ground" must be found. This can include licenses which disallows reproduction of source or the binaries but allows free modification for personal or corporate use. One such example of a license of that variety is the [http://koala.ilog.fr/jackaroo/OPL_1_0.TXT Open Public License].
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===See also===
*[[GNU Free Documentation License]]
*[[Dual license|Dual licensing]]
* [[BSD and GPL licensing]]
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* [[Wikisource:GNU General Public License Discussion Draft 1 of Version 3|GNU General Public License Discussion Draft 1 of Version 3]]
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* [[List of software licenses]]
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*[http://www.gplmedicine.org/ GPLMedicine.org] an advocacy site for the GPL in health-related software
*[http://www.free-soft.org/gpl_history/ History of the GPL]
*[http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20031214210634851 Groklaw: The GPL is a license, not a contract]
* [http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20050622221934277 Groklaw: FSF Moves to Dismiss Wallace and for Stay on Filing Briefs on Summary Judgment Motion], [[June 22]] [[2005]]
*[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/enforcing-gpl.html Enforcing the GNU GPL] by Eben Moglen, [[September 10]] [[2001]]
*[http://www.groklaw.net/staticpages/index.php?page=20050131065655645 Groklaw GPL References]
*[http://www.rattlesnake.com/software-law/GNU-GPL-and-Commentaries.html GNU General Public License and Commentaries] - Edited by [[Robert Chassell]].
*[http://www.dwheeler.com/essays/gpl-compatible.html Make Your Open Source Software GPL-Compatible. Or Else.] (David A. Wheeler, [[7 April]] [[2004]]) &mdash; why a GPL-compatible license is important to the health of a project
*[http://software.newsforge.com/software/04/07/15/163208.shtml "Toward True Open Source"] - an article about why the GPL is allegedly too restrictive
*[http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20040725150736471 The German GPL Order - Translated]
*[http://www.riseforth.com/ossLicensingPrimer.htm John Koenig: Linux GPL Derivatives in a Nutshell]
*[http://www.iusmentis.com/computerprograms/opensourcesoftware/patentrisks/ Patent risks of open source software] - explains the patent license grant in the GPL
* [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2001/06/02/ballmer_linux_is_a_cancer/ "Ballmer: 'Linux is a cancer'"] by Thomas C Greene, The Register, [[June 2]] [[2001]]
*[http://www.novell.com/coolsolutions/feature/1532.html NOVELL: The GPL: Understanding the License that Governs Linux] - This article explains one view of the GPL in easy terms, talks about static vs. dynamic linking and the GPL, and discusses why companies like Microsoft may "fear" the license.
*[http://www.softpanorama.org/Copyright/License_classification/index.shtml SOFTPANORAMA: Labyrinth of Software Freedom ] - Nikolai Bezroukov's e-book about BSD, GPL and social aspects of free licensing
*[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=569101 Viral Contracts or Unenforceable Documents? Contractual Validity of Copyleft Licenses ] - Article looking at the GPL from an European perspective.
*[http://gpl-violations.org/ GPL-Violations.org] - website [[monitoring]] the net for GPL violations
*[http://www.ifso.ie/documents/gplv3-launch-2006-01-16.html A transcript of FSF's January 16th, 2006, presentation of the changes they propose from GPLv2 to v3]
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[[de:GNU General Public License]]
[[et:GNU GPL]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gregorian calendar</title>
<id>12315</id>
<revision>
<id>41957634</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:53:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Indefatigable</username>
<id>20612</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gregorianscher Kalender Petersdom.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Inscription on the tomb of Pope Gregory XIII celebrating the introduction of the Gregorian Calendar]]
The '''Gregorian calendar''' is the [[calendar]] that is used nearly [[Calendar#Currently used calendars|everywhere]] in the world. A modification of the [[Julian calendar]], it was first proposed by the [[Calabria]]n doctor [[Aloysius Lilius]], and was decreed by [[Pope Gregory XIII]], for whom it was named, on [[24 February]] [[1582]] (but see Note below under "beginning of the year"). Its years are numbered from the ''[[anno Domini]]'' era, beginning with the traditionally accepted year of [[Jesus]]' birth.
The Gregorian Calendar was devised because the mean [[year]] in the Julian Calendar was slightly too long, causing the [[vernal equinox]] to slowly drift backwards in the [[calendar year]].
==History==
===Invention===
The motivation of the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]] in adjusting the calendar was to have [[Easter]] celebrated at the time that they thought had been agreed to at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in [[325]]. Although a canon of the council implies that all churches used the same Easter, they did not. The Church of Alexandria celebrated Easter on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after the [[vernal equinox]], which they placed on [[21 March]]. However, the Church of Rome still regarded [[25 March]] as the equinox and used a different day of the moon. By the tenth century all churches (except for some on the eastern border of the [[Byzantine Empire]]) had adopted the Alexandrian Easter, which still placed the vernal equinox on [[21 March]], although [[Bede]] had already noted its drift in 725 &mdash; it had drifted even further by the sixteenth century.
Worse, the reckoned Moon that was used to compute Easter was fixed to the Julian year by a [[Metonic cycle|19 year cycle]]. However, that is an approximation that built up an error of one day every 310 years. So by the sixteenth century the lunar calendar was out of phase with the real Moon by four days.
The [[Council of Trent]] approved a plan in [[1563]] for correcting the calendrial errors, requiring that the date of the [[vernal equinox]] be restored to that which it held at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and that an alteration to the calendar be designed to prevent future drift. This would allow for a more consistent and accurate scheduling of the feast of [[Easter]].
The fix was to come in two stages. First, it was necessary to approximate the correct length of a solar year. The value chosen was 365.2425 days in decimal notation. This is 365;14,33 days in [[sexagesimal]] notation - the length of the [[tropical year]], rounded to two sexagesimal positions; this was the value used in the major astronomical tables of the day. Although close to the [[mean tropical year]] of 365.2422 days, it is even closer to the [[vernal equinox year]] of 365.2424 days; this fact made the choice of approximation particularly appropriate as the purpose of creating the calendar was to ensure that the vernal equinox would be near a specific date ([[March 21]]). See [[#accuracy|Accuracy]].
The second stage was to devise a model based on the approximation which would provide an accurate yet simple, rule-based calendar. The formula designed by [[Aloysius Lilius]] was ultimately successful. It proposed a 10 day correction to revert the drift since Nicaea and the imposition of a leap day in only 97 years in 400 rather than in 1 year in 4. To implement the model, it was provided that ''years divisible by 100 would be [[leap year]]s only if they were divisible by 400 as well''. So, in the last millennium, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not. In this millennium, 2100, 2200, 2300 and 2500 will not be leap years, but 2400 will be. This theory was expanded upon by [[Christopher Clavius]] in a closely argued, 800 page volume. He would later defend his and Lilius's work against detractors.
The 19 year cycle used for the lunar calendar was also to be corrected by one day every 300 or 400 years (8 times in 2500 years) along with corrections for the years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100 etc.) that are no longer leap years. In fact, a new method for [[Computus|computing |
] [[150 BC|150]]-[[146 BC]], was a native of [[Izmir|Smyrna]] of humble origin, but gave himself out to be the son of [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and heir to the Seleucid throne. Along with his sister Laodice, the youngster Alexander was "discovered" by Heracleides, a former minister of Antiochus IV and brother of [[Timarchus]], a usurper in [[Media]] who had been executed by the reigning king [[Demetrius I of Syria|Demetrius I Soter]].
Alexander's claims were recognized by the Roman senate, [[Ptolemy VI of Egypt|Ptolemy Philometor of Egypt]] and others. He married [[Cleopatra Thea]], a daughter of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]. At first unsuccessful, Alexander finally defeated Demetrius Soter in [[150 BC]]. Being now master of the empire, he is said to have abandoned himself to a life of debauchery. Whatever the truth behind this, the young king was forced to depend heavily on his Ptolemaic support and even struck portraits with the characteristic features of king [[Ptolemy I]].
Demetrius Soter's son [[Demetrius II of Syria|Demetrius II]] profited by the opportunity to regain the throne. Ptolemy Philometor, who was Alexander's father-in-law, went over to his side, and Alexander was defeated in a pitched [[battle of Antioch (145 BC)|battle near Antioch]] in Syria.
He fled for refuge to a [[Nabataea]]n prince, who murdered him and sent his head to Ptolemy Philometor, who had been mortally wounded in the engagement.
See [[1 Maccabees]] 10 ff.; [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]] xxxv. 1 and 2; [[Josephus]],
''Antiq.'' xiii. 2; [[Appian]], ''Sir.'' 67; [[Polybius]] xxxiii. 14.
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid King]]|before=[[Demetrius I Soter]]|after=[[Demetrius II Nicator]]'''<br>or<br>'''[[Antiochus VI Dionysus]]|years=150&ndash;146 BC}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:146 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Seleucid rulers|Alexander 1]]
[[Category:Ptolemaic dynasty|Alexander 1]]
[[ca:Alexandre I Balas]]
[[de:Alexander I. Balas]]
[[fr:Alexandre Ier Balas]]
[[he:אלכסנדר באלאס]]
[[nl:Alexander Balas]]
[[no:Aleksander I Balas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander of Pherae</title>
<id>1587</id>
<revision>
<id>28049794</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-11T19:38:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander''', tagus or [[despotism|despot]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]], ruled from [[369 BC]] to [[358 BC]]. He was the son and successor of the tyrant [[Jason of Pherae]], who was assassinated in [[370 BC]].
Alexander's [[tyranny]] caused the Aleuadae of [[Larissa]] to invoke the aid of [[Alexander II of Macedon]], whose intervention was successful, but after the Macedonian withdrawal Alexander treated his subjects as cruelly as before. The Thessalians next applied to [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]]; [[Pelopidas]], who was sent to their assistance, was treacherously seized and thrown into prison ([[368 BC|368]]), and it was necessary to send [[Epaminondas]] with a large army to secure his release. Alexander's conduct caused renewed intervention; in 364 he was defeated at [[Battle of Cynoscephalae (364 BC)|Cynoscephalae]] by the Thebans, although the victory was dearly bought by the loss of Pelopidas, who fell in the battle.
Alexander was at last crushed by the Thebans, compelled to acknowledge the freedom of the Thessalian cities and to limit his rule to Pherae, and forced to join the [[Boeotia]]n league. He was murdered by his wife's brother at her instigation. Ancient accounts, such as [[Plutarch]]'s ''Life of Pelopidas,'' agree in describing Alexander as a cruel and suspicious tyrant:
:''Alexander, the tyrant of Pherae (this last should be his only appellation; he should not be permitted to disgrace the name of Alexander), as he watched a tragic actor, felt himself much moved to pity through enjoyment of the acting. He jumped up, therefore, and left the theatre at a rapid pace, exclaiming that it would be a dreadful thing, if, when he was slaughtering so many citizens, he should be seen to weep over the sufferings of Hecuba and Polyxena. And he came near visiting punishment upon the actor because the man had softened his heart, as iron in the fire.''
:::&mdash;Plutarch, ''Moralia:'' "On the Fortune of Alexander."
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:358 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek rulers]]
[[fr:Alexandre de Phères]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander II of Epirus</title>
<id>1588</id>
<revision>
<id>41688955</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:56:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jrp</username>
<id>80959</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander II''', king of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], succeeded his father [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] in [[272 BC]]. He attacked [[Antigonus II of Macedon|Antigonus Gonatas]] and conquered the greater part of [[Macedon]]ia, but was in turn driven out of both Epirus and Macedonia by [[Demetrius II of Macedon|Demetrius]], the son of Antigonus. He subsequently recovered his kingdom by the aid of the Acarnanians and Aetolians. He died about [[260 BC]].
See Thirlwall, ''History of Greece,'' vol. viii.;
[[Johann Gustav Droysen|Droysen]], ''Hellenismus'';
B. Niese, ''Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten'';
J. Beloch, ''Griech. Gesch.'' vol. iii.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Greek monarchs]]
[[Category:260 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[de:Alexander II. von Epirus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aleksander Jagiellon</title>
<id>1589</id>
<revision>
<id>40359142</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=250 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
| align="center" style="background:#efefef;" colspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" | <font size="+1">'''''Aleksander Jagiellończyk''''' (drawing by [[Jan Matejko]])
|-
| align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=250 style="background:#f9f9f9;"
[[Image:Aleksander_Jagiellonczyk.jpg|250px|Aleksander Jagiellończyk]]
|}
|-
|'''Reign''' || [[December 12]], [[1501]] -<br> [[August 19]], [[1506]].
|-
|'''Coronation''' || [[December 12]], [[1501]],<br>[[Wawel Cathedral]],<br>[[Kraków]], [[Poland]].
|-
|'''[[Royal House]]''' || [[Jagiellon]].
|-
|'''Parents''' || [[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]],<br>[[Elzbieta Rakuszanka|Elżbieta Rakuszanka]].
|-
|'''Consorts'''|| Helena.
|-
|'''Children''' || None.
|-
|'''Date of Birth''' || [[August 5]], [[1461]].
|-
|'''Place of Birth''' || [[Kraków]], [[Poland]].
|-
|'''Date of Death''' || [[August 19]], [[1506]].
|-
|'''Place of Death''' || [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]].
|-
|'''Place of Burial''' || Holy Mary Cathedral,<br>[[Wilno]], [[Lithuania]]<br>([[1506]]).
|-
|}
'''Aleksander Jagiellon''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: '''''Aleksander Jagiellończyk'''''; [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: '''''Aleksandras Jogailaitis'''''; [[1461]] – [[1506]]), King of [[Poland]] and Grand Duke of [[Lithuania]], was the fourth son of [[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]]. He was elected Grand Duke of Lithuania on the death of his father
([[1492]]), and King of Poland on the death of his brother [[Jan I Olbracht]] ([[1501]]).
His shortage of funds immediately made him subservient to the Polish Senate and nobility (''szlachta''), who deprived him of control of the mint (then one of the most lucrative sources of revenue for the Polish kings), curtailed his prerogatives, and generally endeavored to reduce him to a subordinate position. This ill-timed parsimony exerted a deleterious effect on Polish politics. For want of funds, Aleksander was unable to resist the Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Knights]] or prevent Grand Duke of Muscovy [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]] from ravaging Lithuania with the [[Tatars]]. The most the King could do was to garrison [[Smolensk]] and other strongholds and employ his wife Helena, the Tsar's daughter, to mediate a truce between his father-in-law and himself after the disastrous [[Battle of Vedrosha]] (1500). In the terms of the truce, Lithuania had to surrennder about a third of its territory to the nascent Russian state.
During his reign, Poland suffered much humiliation from the attempts of her subject principality, [[Moldavia]], to throw off her yoke. Only the death of [[Stephen of Moldavia|Stephen]], the great ''[[hospodar]]'' of Moldavia, enabled Poland still to hold her own on the [[Danube River]]; while the liberality of [[Pope Julius II]], who issued no fewer than 29 bulls in favor of Poland and granted Aleksander [[Peter's Pence]] and other financial help, enabled the Polish King to restrain somewhat the arrogance of the Teutonic Order.
In Aleksander, the characteristic virtues of the [[Jagiellon]]s, patience and generosity, degenerated into slothfulness and extravagance. Frequently he was too poor to pay the expenses of his own table. He never felt at home in Poland, and bestowed his favor principally upon his fellow-countrymen, the most notable of whom was the wealthy Lithuanian magnate [[Michał Gliński]], who justified his master's confidence by his great victory over the Tatars at Kleck ([[August 5]], [[1506]]), news of which was brought to Aleksander on his deathbed.
[[Image:Senatusconsultu |
th and Middle Andaman, [[Homfray's Strait]] between Middle Andaman and Baratang, and the north extremity of South Andaman, [[Middle Strait|Middle (or Andaman) Strait]] between Baratang and South Andaman and [[Macpherson Strait]] between South Andaman and Rutland Island. Of these only the last is navigable by ocean-going vessels.
Together with the chief islands are, on the extreme north, [[Landfall Islands]], separated by the navigable [[Cleugh Passage]]; [[Interview Island]], separated by the navigable [[Interview Passage]], off the West coast of the Middle Andaman; the [[Labyrinth Island]] off the southwest coast of the South Andaman, through which is the navigable [[Elphinstone Passage]]; [[Ritchie's Archipelago|Ritchie's (or the Andaman) Archipelago]] off the East coast of South Andaman and Baratang, separated by the wide and safe [[Diligent Strait]] and intersected by [[Kwangtung Strait]] and the [[Tadma Juru]] (Strait). Little Andaman, roughly 42 km by 26 km, forms the southern extremity of the whole group and lies 50 km south of Rutland Island across the Manners Strait, the main shipping route between the Andamans and the [[Chennai|Madras]] coast. Besides these are a great number of islets lying off the shores of the main islands.
The principal outlying islands include the [[North Sentinel]], a dangerous island of about 73 km&sup2;, lying about 29 km off the west coast of the South Andaman. About 29 km west of the Andamans are the dangerous Western Banks and Dalrymple Bank, rising to within a few [[fathom]]s of the surface of the sea and forming, with the two [[Sentinel Islands]], the tops of a line of submarine hills parallel to the Andamans.
Andamans is the only place in India with an [[active volcano]]. [[Barren Island (Andaman Islands)|Barren Island]], northeast of Port Blair, became active in [[1990s]] after being quiescent for almost two hundred years. It erupted again in May 2005, experts pointing to the post-tsunami change in tectonic plates as the likely cause. The isolated extinct volcano of [[Narcondam Island|Narcondam]], rising 710 m out of the sea, is 114 km east of North Andaman. Plans are afoot to make volcano tourism popular. Also 64 km to the east is the [[Invisible Bank]], with one rock just awash, and 55 km southeast of Narcondam is a submarine hill rising to 689 m below the surface of the sea. Narcondam, Barren Island and the Invisible Bank, a great danger of these seas, are in a line almost parallel to the Andamans inclining towards them from north to south.
===Topography===
The Andamans, unlike the Lakshadweep-Chagos chain, are high volcanic islands, arising from a submerged mountain chain that follows the southward extension of the continental shelf.
Extensive fringing reefs exist here, as well as a 320 kilometers-long barrier reef on the west coast. Much of the wildlife on these islands is endemic, including 112 species of endemic birds. While poorly known scientifically, these reefs may prove to be the most diverse and best preserved in the Indian Ocean.
The islands forming Great Andaman consist of a mass of hills enclosing very narrow valleys, the whole covered by dense tropical jungle. The hills rise to a considerable elevation:
the chief heights being in the North Andaman, Saddle Peak (732 m); in the Middle Andaman, Mount Diavolo behind Cuthbert Bay (511 m); in the South Andaman, Koiob (459 m), Mount Harriet (364 m) and the Cholunga range (324 m); and in Rutland Island, Ford's Peak (433 m). Little Andaman is practically flat. There are no rivers and few perennial streams in the islands. The whole of the Andamans and the outlying islands were completely surveyed topographically by the Indian Survey Department under Colonel Hobday in [[1883]]-[[1886]], and the surrounding seas were charted by Commander Carpenter in [[1888]]-[[1889]].
===Harbours===
The coasts of the Andamans are deeply indented, giving existence to a number of safe harbours, which are often surrounded by mangrove swamps. The chief harbours are (starting northwards from Port Blair, the great harbour of South Andaman) on the East coast: Port Meadows, Colebrooke Passage, Elphinstone Harbour (Homfray's Strait), Stewart Sound and Port Cornwallis. The last three are very large. On the West coast: Temple Sound, Interview Passage, Port Anson or Kwangtung Harbour (large), Port Campbell (large), Port Mouat and Macpherson Strait. There are many other safe anchorages about the coast, notably Shoal Bay and Kotara Anchorage in South Andaman; Cadell Bay and the Turtle Islands in North Andaman; and Outram Harbour and Kwangtung Strait in the archipelago.
==Geology==
The Andaman Islands and the [[Nicobar Islands]] to the south form part of a range of submarine mountains, 1130 km long, running from Cape Negrais in the Arakan Yoma range of Burma, to Achin Head in Sumatra. This range separates the Bay of Bengal from the Andaman Sea, and it contains much that is geologically characteristic of the Arakan Yoma. The older rocks are early Tertiary or late Cretaceous. The newer rocks are in Ritchie's Archipelago chiefly, and contain fossils of radiolarians and foraminifera. There is coral along the coasts everywhere, and the Sentinel Islands are composed of the newer rocks with a superstructure of coral. A theory of a still continuing subsidence of the islands was formed by Kurz in [[1866]] and confirmed by Oldham in [[1884]]. Signs of its continuance are found on the east coast in several places.
==Climate==
The climate of the Andamans themselves may be described as normal for tropical islands of similar latitude. It is always warm, but with sea-breezes; very hot when the sun is northing; irregular rainfall, but usually dry during the north-east, and very wet during the south-west monsoon. Not only does the rainfall at one place vary from year to year, but there is an extraordinary difference for places quite close to one another. The Islands are barely affected by the often disastrous cyclones that come up the Bay of Bengal, though they are within the influence of practically every one. The Andamans thus were once of great importance for monitoring weather in the region for the benefit of the Indian mainland and ships at sea in the Indian Ocean. A meteorological station was established at Port Blair in [[1868]].
==Flora==
A section of the Forest Department of India was established in the Andamans in [[1883]], and in the neighbourhood of Port Blair 400 km&sup2; were set apart for regular forest operations to be carried on by convict labour. The chief timber of indigenous growth is [[padouk]] ''(Pterocarpus dalbergioides'') used for buildings, boats, furniture, fine joinery and all purposes to which teak, mahogany, hickory, oak and ash are applied. This tree was widespread and formed a valuable export to European markets. Other first-class timbers are koko (''Albizzia lebbek''), white chuglam (''Terminalia bialata''), black chugiam (''Myristica irya''), marble or zebra wood (''Diospyros kurzii'') and satin-wood (''Murraya exotica''), which differs from the satin-wood of Ceylon (''Chloroxylon swietenia''.) All of these timbers are used for furniture and similar fine purposes, but many are now endangered. In addition there are a number of second- and third-class timbers, which are used locally and for export to Calcutta. Gangaw (''Messua ferrea'') the Assam iron-wood, is suitable for railway sleepers; and didu (''Bombax insigne'') is used for tea-boxes and packing-cases.
Among the introduced flora are tea, Siberian coffee, cocoa, Ceará rubber (which has not done well), Manila hemp, teak, cocoanut and a number of ornamental trees, fruit-trees, vegetables and garden plants. Tea is grown in considerable quantities and the cultivation was once under a department of the penal settlement. The general character of the forests is Burmese with an admixture of Malay types. Great mangrove swamps supply unlimited fire-wood of the best quality. The great peculiarity of Andaman flora is that, with the exception of the Cocos islands, no coconut palms are found in the archipelago.
==Fauna==
The Andamans are home to a wide variety of bird, animal and marine life, with many [[species]] [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the islands, or even locations on the islands, to a large degree owing to the islands' relative isolation from nearby landmasses. Several of these species are also to be found in the Nicobar islands, whilst others are found only in one or the other island groups.
Endemic [[bird]] species include the [[Nicobar scrubfowl]] (''Megapodius nicobariensis'', a type of [[megapode]]), [[Nicobar green imperial pigeon]] (''Ducula aenea nicobarica''), and the [[Nicobar emerald dove]] (''Chancophaps indica augusta'').
[[Reptile|Reptilian]] species include the [[saltwater crocodile]] (''Crocodylus porusus'') which nests in [[estuary|estuarine]] regions. Several species of endangered [[Sea turtle]] (family ''Cheloniidae'') are also found in the islands' waters, such as [[Hawksbill turtle]]s (''Eretmochelys imbricata''), [[Leatherback Sea Turtle]]s (''Dermochelys coriacea''), and [[Olive Ridley]] sea turtles (''Lepidochelys olivacea''). Terrestrial- and arboreal-dwelling reptiles include several species of [[lizard]], such as the [[Coryphophylax subcristatus|Bay Island forest lizard]] (''Coryphophylax subcristatus''), a species from the [[Agamidae]] Family of lizards.
Marine mammals include [[Dugong]] (''Dugong dugon''), Finless porpoise (''Neophocaena hocaenoides''), and [[Blainville's Beaked Whale]] (''Mesoplodon densirostris''), a wide-ranging but non-migratory species of [[mesoplodont whale]]s. Rich fish and invertebrate faunas exist on the reefs; fish families include Labridae, Pomacentridae, Scaridae, and Blenniidae. Nine species of seagrass are also present.
Fish are very numerous and many species are endemic to the Andaman seas. Turtles are abundant and supply the Calcutta market. Of imported animals, cattle, goats, asses |
third [[Earl of Moray]] by virtue of his marriage to the elder daughter of the [[James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray|first earl]]. From it comes the earl's title of [[Lord St Colme]] ([[1611]]).
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdour}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:Towns in Fife]]
[[no:Aberdour]]
[[ro:Aberdour]]
ô</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aberdovey</title>
<id>2713</id>
<revision>
<id>15901107</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-27T15:42:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mwng</username>
<id>87951</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge with [[Aberdyfi]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aberdyfi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aberfoyle</title>
<id>2714</id>
<revision>
<id>40500486</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T00:34:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DonnyM</username>
<id>946150</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[http://www.example.com link title]:''There is also [[Aberfoyle, Ontario, Canada]].''
'''Aberfoyle''' ([[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]: <I>Obar Phuill</I>) is a [[village]] in the region of [[Stirling (district)|Stirling]], [[Scotland]], 27 miles [[northwest]] of [[Glasgow]]. The [[population]] stands at 635 as of the [[1998]] [[census]].
The town is situated at the base of [[Craigmore]] (1271 [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] [[Height|high]]) and on the Laggan, a head-water of the [[River Forth]]. Since [[1885]], when the [[Duke of Montrose]] constructed a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older road at the entrance of the [[Trossachs]] pass, Aberfoyle has become the alternative route to the Trossachs and [[Loch Katrine]]; this road, known as the Duke's Road or Duke's Pass, was opened to the [[public]] in [[1931]] when the [[Forestry Commission]] acquired the land.
[[Loch Ard]], about 2 [[mile]]s west of Aberfoyle, lies 105 feet above the [[sea level|sea]]. It is 3 miles long (including the narrows at the east end) and 1 mile broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (''the green isle''), and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. Two miles northwest is Loch Chon, at 90 feet above the sea, 1.25 miles long, and about half a mile broad. It [[Drainage|drains]] by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Laggan.
== Industry ==
The [[slate]] [[Quarry|quarries]] on Craigmore which operated from the [[1820s]] to the [[1950s]] are now defunct; at its peak this was a major [[industry]]. Other industries included an ironworks, established in the [[1720s]], as well as wool spinning and a lint mill. In 1880 a railway line from [[Glasgow]], via Dumgoyne, to Aberfoyle was established. However, due to the [[Beeching Axe]], the line was closed in [[1959]].
The above industries have since died out, and Aberfoyle is supported mainly by the forestry industry and [[tourism]].
== Tourism ==
Visitors were first attracted to Aberfoyle and the surrounding area after the publication of ''[[Lady_of_the_Lake|The Lady of the Lake]]'' by [[Sir Walter Scott]] in 1810. The poem described the beauty of [[Loch Katrine]]. Aberfoyle describes itself as 'The Gateway to the [[Trossachs]]', and is well situated for visitors to access attractions such as [[Loch Lomond]] and [[Inchmahome Priory]] at the [[Lake of Menteith]]. Aberfoyle is also part of the [[Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park]].
== Historical Figures ==
Aberfoyle has connections to many historical figures such as [[Robert Roy MacGregor|Rob Roy]] and [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]]. Robert Roy MacGregor was born at the head of nearby Loch Katrine, and his well known cattle stealing exploits took him all around the area surrounding Aberfoyle. There currently stands a tree in the village that MacGregor was reputed to have climbed and hid in to escape the clutches of the law. Also, Mary Queen of Scots visited nearby Inchmahome Priory often as a child, and during her short reign. She also used the priory during her short reign, particularly in 1547, where she felt safe from the English Army.
However, the most local historical figure is the Reverend Robert Kirk, born in 1644. It was the Rev. Kirk who provided the first translation into [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaidhlig]] of the Book of Psalms, however, he is better remembered for the publication of his book ''"The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns, and Fairies"'' in 1861. Kirk had long been researching fairies, and the book collected several personal accounts and stories of folk who claimed to have encountered them. It was after this, while Kirk was minsiter of Aberfoyle parish, that he died in unusual circumstances.
Kirk had long believed that the local Doon Hill (or Fairy Knowe as it is more commonly known), was the gateway to the 'Secret Commonwealth', or the land of the Fairies. It was a place that Kirk visited often, taking daily walks there from his manse. The story goes that the Fairies of Doon Hill were angry with the Rev. Kirk for revealing their secrets, and decided to imprison him in Doon Hill - for one night in May 1692, the Rev. Kirk went out for a walk to the hill, in his nightshirt. Some accounts claim that he simply vanished, however he suddenly collapsed. He was found and brought home, but died soon afterwards. He was buried in his own kirkyard, although local legends claim that the fairies took his body away, and the coffin contains only stones. The huge pine tree that still stands at the top of Doon Hill is said to contain Kirk's imprisoned spirit.
Kirk's cousin, Graham of Duchray, was then to claim that the spectre of Kirk had visited him in the night, and told him that he had been carried off by the Fairies. Having left his widow expecting a child, the spectre of Kirk told Graham that he would appear at the baptism, whereupon Graham was to throw an iron knife at the apparition, thus freeing Kirk from the Fairies' clutches. However when Kirk's spectre appeared, Graham was apparently too shocked by the vision to throw the knife, and Kirk's ghost faded away forever.
Today, visitors to Doon Hill write their wishes on pieces of white silk, or other white cloth, and tie them to the branches of the trees for the Fairies to grant. It is also said that if you run around the great pine tree at the summit seven times, then the Fairies will appear.
==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberfoyle}}
* {{gbmapping|NN525005}}
http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/6863
[[Category:Towns in Stirling council area]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abergavenny</title>
<id>2715</id>
<revision>
<id>41792481</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:05:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>V0rt3x</username>
<id>1000575</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing the sentence about "Ennerverbaggy." I've never, ever, heard it called that before and it seems a little odd to refer to dyslexics with it.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{1911}}
{{infobox Wales place|
|Place= Abergavenny
|Council= [[Monmouthshire]]
|Traditional= [[Monmouthshire]]
|Ceremonial= [[Gwent]]
|Constituency= [[Monmouth (UK Parliament constituency)|Monmouth]]
|PostalTown= ABERGAVENNY
|PostCode= NP7
|DiallingCode= 01873
|GridReference= SO295145
|Population= 14,055
|Police= [[Gwent Police]]
}}
'''Abergavenny''' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Abergafenni'' or ''Y Fenni'') is a market town in [[Monmouthshire]], [[Wales]]. It is 14 miles west of [[Monmouth]]. Situated at the confluence of a small stream called the Gavenny with the [[River Usk]], it is almost surrounded by lofty hills. The town was formerly walled, and contains the remains of a castle built soon after the [[Norman Conquest]], frequently the scene of border strife. It is in the [[Welsh Marches]].
The church of St Mary belonged originally to a [[Benedictine]] monastery founded early in the 12th century. The existing building, however, is [[Gothic architecture|Decorated and Perpendicular]].
Abergavenny, often known as 'Aber' to the locals, was the [[Roman Britain|Roman]] ''Gobannium,'' a small fort guarding the road along the valley of the Usk for keeping the peace among the hill tribes. There is practically no trace of this fort. The name is associated with the Celtic smith god [[Govannon]]. Abergavenny (Bergavenny) grew under the protection of the lords of Abergavenny, whose title dated from [[William I of England|William I]] (the Conqueror).
Owing to its situation, the town was frequently embroiled in the border warfare of the 12th and 13th centuries, and [[Giraldus Cambrensis]] relates how in [[1173]] the castle was seized by the Welsh. [[Hamelyn de Baalun]], first lord of Abergavenny, founded the Benedictine [[priory]], which was subsequently endowed by [[William de Braose]] with a tenth of the profits of the castle and town. At the dissolution of the priory part of this endowment went towards the foundation of a free [[grammar school]], the site itself passing to the Gunter family. During the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] prior to the siege of [[Raglan Castle]] in [[1645]], [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] visited Abergavenny, and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trevor Williams and other [[Parliamentarian|Parliamentarians]].
In [[1639]] Abergavenny received a charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses. A charter with extended privileges was drafted in [[1657]], but appears never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect. Owing to the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the [[oath of allegiance]] to [[William III of England|William III]] in [[1688]], the charter was annulled, and the town subsequently declined in |
eaffirmed Fiji's support for the One China policy.
It was announced on [[24 January]] [[2006]] that Chinese [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]] [[Wen Jiabao]] would visit Fiji in [[April 2006|April]] to open the China-Pacific Islands Countries Economic Development & Cooperation Forum Ministerial Conference 2006 at Sofitel Fiji Resort in Nadi, a conference of economic and trade ministers from Pacific island countries. Six Prime Ministers from neighbouring countries are expected to participate, according to a [[Fiji Times]] report on [[23 February]]. His visit to Fiji will be the first by a senior Chinese government official.
In an interview with [[PACNEWS]] on [[1 February]] [[2006]], [[Jeremaia Waqanisau]], Fiji's [[Ambassador]] to [[Beijing]], made a stinging attack on the efficiency of the Fijian civil service, saying that it negatively affected Fiji's ability to present itself to China. [[Cabinet (Fiji)|Cabinet Ministers]] visited China without the Fijian [[embassy]] being informed, he complained. Certain civil servants were extremely passive in their dealings with China, he said. Another factor inhibiting Chinese investment was the [[Fiji crisis of 2005-2006|instability caused by friction between the government and the Military]], he surmised, and the Fijian embassy in Beijing was continually engaged in damage control.
=== Relations with New Zealand ===
On [[10 June]] [[2005]], Foreign Minister Tavola signed a '''Memorandum of Understanding''' with his [[New Zealand]] [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (New Zealand)|counterpart]], [[Phil Goff]], aimed at fostering cooperation in the fight against [[terrorism]]. Meanwhile, New Zealand's [[List of Prime Ministers of New Zealand|Prime Minister]] [[Helen Clark]] announced that New Zealand would double its annual aid to Fiji, from NZ$4 million to NZ$8 million. Much of this aid, the Fijian government revealed, would be used for poverty alleviation and squatter resettlement.
New Zealand's Foreign Minister [[Winston Peters]] (who replaced Goff in late [[2005]]) flew into Fiji on [[8 February]] [[2006]] for three days of talks with Fijian government officials. He met Prime Minister Qarase, [[Minister for Finance (Fiji)|Finance Minister]] [[Ratu]] [[Jone Kubuabola]], and [[Military of Fiji|Military]] Commander [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]] on the first day of his visit; meetings with Foreign Minister Tavola and [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] [[Speaker of the House of Representatives (Fiji)|Speaker]] [[Ratu]] [[Epeli Nailatikau]] were held later. The meeting with Bainimarama attracted some media attention; Bainimarama said that the meeting had been approved by Prime Minister Qarase and that there was nothing underhand about it.
The talks are to cover such matters as the [[Pacific Plan]] and a cost-sharing agreement for a citizen education project, promoted by the [[United Nations Development Programme]].
=== Concern over reduced British presence ===
Foreign Minister Tavola expressed concern on [[11 July]] about moves by the [[United Kingdom|British]] government to reduce its presence in the Pacific region. ''"We were not happy with that and on occasions, informed them of the folly of their decision to downsize their presence in the Pacific,"'' Tavola said. Britain has already closed its [[consulate]] in [[Kiribati]] and plans to close its missions in [[Tonga]] [[2005|this year]] and [[Vanuatu]] [[2006|next year]]. Britain has also withdrawn from the [[Secretariat of the Pacific Community]], a regional organization of which it was a founding member and a major donor.
Tavola said the British withdrawal could create a power vacuum which others could exploit. A new [[Cold War]] era could come to the Pacific region, he said, with rivalries between [[China]] and [[Taiwan]], as well as between China and [[Japan]].
=== Trade war with Vanuatu ===
* ''More on [[n:Fiji "running out of patience" with Vanuatu over ban on Fijian biscuits|Wikinews]].''
On [[11 March]] [[2005]], [[Vanuatu]] imposed a ban in biscuit imports, ostensibly to protect its own biscuit manufacturing industry, giving a monopoly on the business to the [[Santo]]-based [[Wong Sze Sing]] store. The ban was the second in a year. Bread and breakfast cereals produced by [[Flour Mills of Fiji]] (FMF) were the worst-hit; the company claimed to be losing [[Fijian dollar|F$2 million]] annually.
Fiji retaliated on [[13 June]] with a threat to impose a total commercial embargo on Vanuatu. Major income-earners for Vanuatu targeted by the Fijian government include Vanuatu [[kava]], valued at almost [[United States Dollar|US$]]3.2 million, and [[Air Vanuatu]] flights ([[United States Dollar|US$]]8 million).
On [[29 June]], Foreign Minister Tavola said that Fiji was ''"running out of patience"'' and that he was writing to the government of Vanuatu in what he called a ''"final gesture of friendship."''
On [[27 July]], Vanuatu's Trade Minister [[James Bule]] signed an order lifting the ban, effective from [[22 July]]. No reason was given for the change of policy, but the [[Fiji Live]] news service reported that the decision averted a lawsuit from FMF and the threatened kava ban.
Fiji's Foreign Affairs chief executive officer, [[Isikeli Mataitoga]], said that Fiji's policy of pursuing diplomatic channels in dealing with such disputes had been vindicated. ''"Whilst I agree that it can take a bit of time to see it through carefully, it nevertheless, demonstrates to our regional friends that we are principled in our approach to international relations and diplomacy,"'' Mataitoga said.
There was another twist on [[28 July]], however, when FMF Chairman [[Hari Punja]] called the lifting of the ban a fabrication. He said that in place of the ban, the Vanuatu government had introduced a restrictive new quota system for imports which would make it "impossible" to export to Vanuatu. He called on the Fijian government to continue to pressure its Vanuatu counterparts.
Foreign Minister Tavola denounced the latest move of the Vanuatu government on [[3 August]], saying that it breached an agreement. On [[9 August]], he announced that the government had decided to go ahead with its threatened embargo against the importing of Vanuatu kava. On [[16 August]] the [[Cabinet (Fiji)|Cabinet]] finalized the decision, banning all imports of Vanuatu kava for six months, after which the ban would be reviewed. On [[18 August]], [[Fiji Islands Revenue and Customs Authority]] chief executive [[Tevita Banuve]] said that importers would be given two weeks to clear their kava stock from the wharf. A special license would be granted only to clear the stock, he said. It would not be usable for importing more kava.
On [[27 August]], Tavola announced that following negotiations at the [[Melanesian Spearhead Group]] meeting in [[Papua New Guinea]], he expected the Vanuatu government to lift the biscuit ban soon. If they did so, he said he would ask the [[Cabinet (Fiji)|Cabinet]] to lift the embargo against Vanuatu kava.
The [http://www.Fijivillage.com Fiji Village] news service reported on [[11 October]] that Vanuatu's Trade Minister, [[James Bule]], would visit Fiji on [[25 October]]. The purpose of the visit would be to deliver his government's decision to lift the ban on Fijian biscuits, in return for Fiji lifting its ban on Vanuatu kava.
In return for Vanuatu's lifting of the biscuit ban on [[25 October]], the Fijian government announced on [[7 December]] that it was lifting its kava ban for the sake of freer trade among the members of the [[Melanesian Spearhead Group]] (MSG).
On [[22 December]] [[2005]], Vanuatu's [[Minister for Finance (Vanuatu)|Finance Minister]] [[Willie Rarua]] formally apologized to Fiji's Acting [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Fiji)|Foreign Minister]], [[Pita Nacuva]], for having imposed the ban.
=== Relations with India ===
* ''See main article: [[India-Fiji relations]]''
Fiji's relationship with [[India]] is often seen by observers against the backdrop of the sometimes tense relations between its [[Fijian people|indigenous people]] and the 38 percent of the population who are of [[Indo-Fijian|Indian descent]]. A major diplomatic event for Fiji in [[2005]] occurred from [[8 October|8]] to [[15 October]], when [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]] [[Laisenia Qarase]] and [[List of Foreign Ministers of Fiji|Foreign Minister]] [[Kaliopate Tavola]] made an official visit to India.
=== Relations with Tonga===
It was reported on [[2 November]] [[2005]] that a territorial dispute was looming between Fiji and [[Tonga]] over a reef lying to the south of both countries. The people of [[Ono-i-Lau]] in the [[Lau Islands]] archipelago claim that [[Minerva Reef]] is part of their traditional fishing ground. [[Attorney General (Fiji)|Attorney General]] [[Qoriniasi Bale]] told the [[Lau Islands|Lau]] [[Local government of Fiji|Provincial Council]] that the government had a team of experts preparing a case to be taken to the [[United Nations International Seabed Authority]], which is based in [[Jamaica]]. The reef has also been claimed by [[Tonga]] since [[1972]], and Tonga's [[Surveyor General]], [[Tevita Malolo]], told [[Radio New Zealand]] that Fiji had never contested Tonga's claim until now.
=== Relations with Papua New Guinea ===
* ''See main article: [[Fijian mercenaries in Bougainville, 2005]]''
Relations between Fiji and [[Papua New Guinea]] became strained in [[November 2005]], in the wake of revelations that a number of Fijian citizens, possibly mercenaries, had entered Papua New Guinea illegally and were involved in arming and training a [[separatism|separatist]] [[militia]] on the island of [[Bougainville]].
On a separate matter, PNG Trade and Industry Minister [[Paul Tiensten]] was quoted in [[Fiji Village]] on [[21 February]] [[2006]] as sayin |
not large throughout the year.
* Setonaikai (瀬戸内海) or [[Seto Inland Sea|Inland Sea]]: The mountains in the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions block the seasonal winds and bring mild climate and many fine days throughout the year.
* Taiheiyō (太平洋) or Pacific Ocean: Winters are cold, with little snowfall, and summers are hot and humid due to the southeast seasonal wind.
* Nansei-shotō (南西諸島) or Southwest Islands: This zone has a subtropical climate with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very high, and is especially affected by the rainy season and typhoons.
As an island nation, Japan has a long coastline. A few prefectures are landlocked: [[Gunma Prefecture|Gunma]], [[Tochigi Prefecture|Tochigi]], [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]], [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]], [[Yamanashi Prefecture|Yamanashi]], [[Gifu Prefecture|Gifu]], [[Shiga Prefecture|Shiga]], and [[Nara Prefecture|Nara]]. The others all have coasts on the Pacific Ocean, Sea of Japan, Seto Inland Sea or have a body of salt water connected to them. Two prefectures&mdash;[[Hokkaido Prefecture|Hokkaido]] and [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]]&mdash;are composed of islands.
==Environmental protection==
''Main article:'' [[Environmental protection in Japan]]; ''see also'' [[Whaling in Japan]]
'''Environment - current issues''': air pollution from [[automobile|car]] emissions in urban area suspected for causing [[Asthma]]; over-enrichment of lakes and reservoirs degrading water quality for aquatic life; quota for fisheries imposed on Japanese fishing fleets; over-fish farming causing degrading water quality for aquatic life; [[Biodiversity]] threatened by foreign animals, fish, insects, and plants
'''Environment - international agreements''': <br>
''party to'': [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty|Antarctic-Environmental Protocol]], [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]], [[Convention on Biological Diversity|Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|Desertification]], [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|Endangered Species]], [[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques|Environmental Modification]], Hazardous Wastes ([[Basel Convention]]), [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|Law of the Sea]], [[Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter|Marine Dumping]], [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|Nuclear Test Ban]], Ozone Layer Protection ([[Montreal Protocol]]), Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983|Tropical Timber 83]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994|Tropical Timber 94]], Wetlands ([[Ramsar Convention]]), [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling|Whaling]] <br>
''signed, but not ratified'': Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]
==Natural hazards==
Ten percent of the world's active [[volcano]]es—forty in the early 1990s (another 148 were dormant)—are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme [[crustal instability]]. As many as 1,500 [[earthquake]]s are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of four to six on the [[Richter scale]] are not uncommon. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the twentieth century was the [[great Kantō earthquake]] of 1923, in which 130,000 people died. [[Undersea earthquake]]s also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from [[tsunami]] (津波), tidal wave.
Japan has become a world leader in research on causes and prediction of earthquakes. The development of advanced technology has permitted the construction of [[skyscraper]]s even in earthquake-prone areas. Extensive civil defense efforts focus on training in protection against earthquakes, in particular against accompanying fire, which represents the greatest danger.
Another common hazard are typhoons ([[tropical cyclone]]s) (台風) that reach Japan from the pacific.
== Regions ==
{{dablink|Main article: [[Regions of Japan]]}}
[[Image:Regions of Japan.png|right|Map of Japan]]
Japan is informally divided into eight regions. Each contains several [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectures]], except the Hokkaido region, which covers only Hokkaido [[Prefecture]].
The region is not an official administrative unit, but has been traditionally used as the regional division of Japan in a number of contexts: for example, maps and geography textbooks divide Japan into the eight regions, weather reports usually give the weather by region, and many businesses and institutions use their home region as part of their name ([[Kinki Nippon Railway]], Chugoku Bank, [[Tohoku University]], etc.). While Japan has eight High Courts, their jurisdictions do not correspond to the eight regions.
== See also ==
* [[Japanese addressing system]]
* [[List of national parks of Japan]]
* [[List of islands of Japan]]
* [[List of lakes in Japan]]
* [[Rivers of Japan]]
* [[Peninsulas of Japan]]
* [[Ou Mountains]]
==Notes==
1. See [[Sea of Japan naming dispute]]. South Korea proposes "East Sea" as the international name for the sea.
==References==
{{loc}} — [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ Japan].
{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Japan| ]]
[[Category:Lists of subnational entities|Japan, Regions of]]
[[de:Geographie Japans]]
[[es:Geografía de Japón]]
[[fr:Géographie du Japon]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של יפן]]
[[lt:Japonijos geografija]]
[[ja:日本の地理]]
[[nl:Geografie van Japan]]
[[pt:Geografia do Japão]]
[[vi:Địa lí Nhật Bản]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Japan</title>
<id>15576</id>
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<id>41468643</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:33:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>222.150.17.115</ip>
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<comment>/* Basic facts */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Japan]]'s population, currently 127,417,224, experienced a high growth rate during the 20th century, as a result of scientific, industrial, and social changes. Population growth has more recently decreased, because of falling [[birth rate]]s and almost no net [[immigration]]. High [[sanitary]] and health standards produce a [[life expectancy]] exceeding that of any other nation in the world. The population started declining in 2005, as the 1.067 million births were exceeded by the 1.077 million deaths. Assuming current birth and death rates, the 2005 population of 127 million will decline to 100 million in 2050, and 64 million in 2100--and keep falling. The main problem will be the financial crisis that comes from having a higher and higher [[Dependency ratio]] (that is, nonworking young and old compared to working ages.)
Japan is an urban society with only about 5% of the labor force engaged in agriculture. Many farmers supplement their income with part-time jobs in nearby towns and cities. About 80 million of the urban population are heavily concentrated on the Pacific shore of [[Honshu]] and in southern [[Kyushu]]. Metropolitan [[Tokyo]] with approximately 12 million; [[Yokohama]] with 3,555,473; [[Osaka]] 2,624,129; [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]] 2,190,549; [[Sapporo, Hokkaido|Sapporo]] 1,854,837; [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]] 1,513,967; [[Kyoto]] 1,466,163; [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]] 1,325,611; [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]] 1,290,426; and [[Kitakyushu, Fukuoka|Kitakyushu]] with 1,000,211 each account for part of this population. Japan faces the same problems that confront urban industrialized societies throughout the world: over-crowded cities, congested highways, [[air pollution]], and rising [[juvenile delinquency]].
==Population density==
Japan's population density is 337 persons per square kilometer according to the CIA World Factbook website as of July 2005. It ranks 18th in a [[list of countries by population density]], ranking directly above [[India]] (328 per km², 19th), and directly below [[Belgium]] (339 per km², 17th).
<!--
higher than
Australia (2, 191th),
Canada (3, 185th),
Russia (8, 178th),
the United States (30, 143th),
Mexico (53, 117th),
France (110, 68th),
the People's Republic of China (136, 54th),
Italy (192, 40th),
Germany (230, 34th),
the United Kingdom (243, 33rd),
and India (328, 19th),
lower than
Belgium (339, 17th),
South Korea (491, 12th),
and Taiwan (636, 9th).
-->
Japan's population density has helped promote extremely high [[Real Property|land]] prices. Between 1955 and 1989, land prices in the six largest cities increased 15,000 %. Urban land prices generally increased 40 % from 1980 to 1987; in the six largest cities, the price of land doubled over that period. For many families, this trend put housing in central cities out of reach. The result was lengthy commutes for many workers; daily commutes of up to two hours each way are not uncommon in the Tokyo area. Despite the large amount of forested land in Japan, [[parkland|park]]s in cities are smaller and scarcer than in major West European or North American cities, which average ten times the amount of parkland per inhabitant.
National and regional governments devote resources to making regional cities and rural areas more attractive by developing transportation networks, social services, industry, and educational institutions in attempts to decentralize settlement and improve the quality of life. Nevertheless, major cities, especially Tokyo, remain attractive to young people seeking education and jobs.
==Age Structure==
Like other [[postindustrial]] countries, Japan faces the problems associated with an aging population. In 1989, only 11.6 % of the population was sixty-five years or older, but projections were that 25.6 % would be in that age category by 2030. That shift will make Japan one of the world's |
In the [[Julian calendar]] before the Gregorian reform, this was the shortest day and longest night, and widely celebrated as such
* In the [[Irish calendar]] the Wednesday, Friday and Saturday following the Feast of Saint Lucy were observed as [[Quarter tense]].
* [[Malta]] - [[Republic Day]] (since [[1974]])
* [[Saint Lucy|St. Lucia]]'s Day in [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Denmark]] and [[Finland]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/13 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[December 12]] - [[December 14]] - [[November 13]] - [[January 13]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:13 Desember]]
[[ar:13 ديسمبر]]
[[an:13 d'abiento]]
[[ast:13 d'avientu]]
[[bg:13 декември]]
[[be:13 сьнежня]]
[[bs:13. decembar]]
[[br:13 Kerzu]]
[[ca:13 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 13]]
[[cv:Раштав, 13]]
[[co:13 di decembre]]
[[cs:13. prosinec]]
[[cy:13 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:13. december]]
[[de:13. Dezember]]
[[et:13. detsember]]
[[el:13 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:13 de diciembre]]
[[eo:13-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 13]]
[[fo:13. desember]]
[[fr:13 décembre]]
[[fy:13 desimber]]
[[ga:13 Nollaig]]
[[gl:13 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 13일]]
[[hr:13. prosinca]]
[[io:13 di decembro]]
[[id:13 Desember]]
[[ia:13 de decembre]]
[[is:13. desember]]
[[it:13 dicembre]]
[[he:13 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:13 Desember]]
[[ka:13 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:13 gòdnika]]
[[ku:13'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:13 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 13]]
[[lb:13. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 13]]
[[mk:13 декември]]
[[ms:13 Disember]]
[[nap:13 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:13 december]]
[[ja:12月13日]]
[[no:13. desember]]
[[nn:13. desember]]
[[oc:13 de decembre]]
[[pl:13 grudnia]]
[[pt:13 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:13 decembrie]]
[[ru:13 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 13.]]
[[sco:13 December]]
[[sq:13 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:13 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 13]]
[[sk:13. december]]
[[sl:13. december]]
[[sr:13. децембар]]
[[fi:13. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:13 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 13]]
[[tt:13. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 13]]
[[th:13 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:13 tháng 12]]
[[tr:13 Aralık]]
[[uk:13 грудня]]
[[wa:13 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 13]]
[[zh:12月13日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 13]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dr Suess</title>
<id>8853</id>
<revision>
<id>15906794</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-08T16:47:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
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<comment>redirect to Dr. Seuss</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dr. Seuss]]
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<page>
<title>Dr Seuss</title>
<id>8854</id>
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<id>15906795</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-06T00:20:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eclecticology</username>
<id>372</id>
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<comment>revise redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dr. Seuss]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Dr. Seuss</title>
<id>8855</id>
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<revision>
<id>41968098</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:08:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Quiddity</username>
<id>210259</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>title - namely to particularly</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{sprotected}}
[[Image:US_postal_service_dr_seuss.jpg|400px|thumb|Postage stamp honoring Dr. Seuss and depicting him along with several of his creations, such as ''The Cat in the Hat'' and ''The Grinch.'' (courtesy of the [[United States Postal Service]])]]
'''Theodor Seuss Geisel''' ([[March 2]], [[1904]] &ndash; [[September 24]], [[1991]]), better known by his [[pen name]], '''Dr. Seuss''', was a famous [[United States|American]] [[writer]] and [[cartoonist]] best known for his [[children's books]], particularly [[The Cat in the Hat]]. He also wrote under the pen names '''Theo LeSieg''' and '''Rosetta Stone'''.
==Life and Work==
Geisel was born in [[Springfield, Massachusetts|Springfield]], [[Massachusetts]]. He graduated from [[Dartmouth College]] in [[1925]], where he was a member of [[Sigma Phi Epsilon]], the Casque & Gauntlet Society, and wrote for the <i>[[Dartmouth Jack O'Lantern]]</i> humor magazine under his own name and the pen name "Seuss." He entered [[Lincoln College, Oxford]], intending to earn a [[doctorate]] in [[literature]]. At [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] he met Helen Palmer, married her in [[1927]], and returned to the [[United States]] before earning his doctorate.
He began submitting humorous articles and illustrations to ''Judge'' (a humor magazine), ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]'', ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'', ''[[Vanity Fair magazine|Vanity Fair]]'', and ''[[Liberty magazine|Liberty]]''. One notable "Technocracy Number" made fun of [[Technocracy Incorporated|Technocracy, Inc.]] and featured satirical rhymes at the expense of [[Frederick Soddy]]. He became nationally famous from his advertisements for [[Flit]], a common insecticide at the time. His slogan, "Quick, Henry, the Flit!" became a popular catchphrase. Geisel supported himself and his wife through the [[Great Depression]] by drawing advertising for [[General Electric]], [[NBC]], [[Standard Oil]], and many other companies. He also wrote and drew a short lived comic strip called ''[[Hejji]]'' in [[1935]].
Even at this early stage, Geisel had started using the pen name "Dr. Seuss". His first work signed as "Dr. Seuss" appeared six months into his work for ''Judge''. Seuss was his mother's maiden name; as an immigrant from [[Germany]], she would have pronounced it more or less as "zoice", but today it is universally pronounced with an initial ''s'' sound and rhyming with "juice". The "Dr." is an acknowledgment of his father's unfulfilled hopes that Seuss would earn a doctorate at Oxford. Geisel also used the pen name '''Theo. LeSieg''' (Geisel spelled backwards) for books he wrote but others illustrated.
In [[1936]], while Seuss sailed again to Europe, the rhythm of the ship's engines inspired the poem that became his first book, ''And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street''. Seuss wrote three more children's books before [[World War II]] (see list of works below), two of which are, atypically for him, in [[prose]].
As World War II began, Dr. Seuss turned to political cartoons, drawing over 400 in two years as editorial cartoonist for the [[left-wing]] [[New York City]] daily newspaper, ''[[PM (newspaper)|PM]]''. Dr. Seuss's political cartoons opposed the viciousness of [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] and [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] and were highly critical of isolationists, most notably [[Charles Lindbergh]], who opposed American entry into the war. Some cartoons depicted [[Japanese Americans]] as traitors, one of which appeared days before the [[Japanese internment|internments]] started.
In [[1942]], Dr. Seuss turned his energies to direct support of the US government's war effort. First, he worked drawing posters for the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] and the [[United States War Production Board|War Production Board]]. Then, in [[1943]], he joined the [[US Army|Army]] and was sent to [[Frank Capra]]'s [[United States Armed Forces Signal Corps Unit|Signal Corps Unit]] in [[Hollywood]], where he wrote films for the [[United States Armed Forces]], including "Your Job in Germany," a [[1945]] propaganda film about peace in Europe after World War II, "Design for Death," a study of [[Japanese culture]] that won the [[Academy Award]] for Best [[Documentary film|Documentary]] in [[1948]], and the ''[[Private Snafu]]'' series of army training films. While in the Army, he was awarded the [[Legion of Merit]]. Dr. Seuss's non-military films from around this time were also well-received; ''[[Gerald McBoing-Boing]]'' won the Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Animated) in [[1951]].
Despite his numerous awards, Dr. Seuss never won the [[Caldecott Medal]] nor the [[Newbery Medal|Newbery]]. Three of his titles were chosen as Caldecott runners-up (now referred to as Caldecott Honor books): ''McElligot's Pool'' (1947), ''Bartholomew and the Oobleck'' (1949), and ''If I Ran the Zoo'' (1950).
After the war, Dr. Seuss and his wife moved to [[La Jolla]], [[California]], a small community forming part of [[San Diego]]. Returning to children's books, he wrote what many consider to be his finest works, including such favorites as ''If I Ran the Zoo'', (1950), ''Scrambled Eggs Super!'' (1953), ''On Beyond Zebra!'' (1955), ''If I Ran the Circus'' (1956), and ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'' (1957).
At the same time, an important development occurred that influenced much of Seuss's later work. In May [[1954]], ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'' magazine published a report on [[illiteracy]] among school children, which concluded that children were not learning to read because their books were boring. Accordingly, Seuss's publisher made up a list of 400 words he felt were important and asked Dr. Seuss to cut the list to 250 words and write a book using only those words. Nine months later, Seuss, using 220 of the words given to him, completed ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]''. This book was a ''tour de force''&mdash;it retained the drawing style, verse rhythms, and all the imaginative power of Seuss's earlier works, but because of its simplified vocabulary could be read by beginning readers. In [[1960]], [[Bennett Cerf]] bet Dr. Seuss $50 that he couldn't write an entire book using only fifty words. The result was ''[[Green Eggs and Ham]]''. The prevalent rumor that Cerf never paid Seuss the $50 has never been proven and is most likely untrue. These books achieved significant international success and remain very popular.
Dr. Seuss went on to write many other children's books, both in his new simp |
924]], the [[American Radio Relay League]] adopted Esperanto as its official [[international auxiliary language]], and hoped that the language would be used by [[Amateur radio|radio amateurs]] in international communications, but actual use of the language for radio communications was negligible. Esperanto is the working language of several [[non-profit organization|non-profit]] international organizations such as the ''[[Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda]]'' and the [[United Citizens Alliance]], but most others are specifically Esperanto organizations. The largest of these, the [[World Esperanto Association]], has an official consultative relationship with the [[United Nations]] and [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]]. The [[Oomoto]] [[religion]] encourages the use of Esperanto among their followers. The [[Bahá'í Faith]] encourages the use of an auxiliary international language, and, while endorsing no specific language, sees Esperanto as having great potential in this role.
== Linguistic properties ==
=== Classification ===
As a [[constructed language]], Esperanto is not [[Genealogy|genealogically]] related to any [[ethnic group|ethnic]] language.
Esperanto can be described as "a language [[lexicon|lexically]] predominantly [[Romance languages|romanic]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] intensively [[agglutination|agglutinative]] and to a certain degree [[isolating languages|isolating]] in character" ([[#References|Blanke 1985]]).
The [[phonology]], [[grammar]], [[vocabulary]], and [[semantics]] are based on the western [[Indo-European languages]]. The [[phoneme|phonemic inventory]] is essentially [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], as is much of the semantics, while the [[vocabulary]] derives primarily from the [[Romance languages]], with a lesser contribution from [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]. [[Pragmatics]] and other aspects of the language not specified by Zamenhof's original documents were influenced by the native languages of early speakers, primarily [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[German language|German]], and [[French language|French]].
[[Linguistic typology|Typologically]], Esperanto has [[preposition]]s and a [[information flow|pragmatic word order]] that by default is ''[[Subject Verb Object]]'' and ''[[Adjective Noun]]''. New words are formed through extensive [[prefix]]ing and [[suffix]]ing.
=== Phonology ===
:''See also [[Esperanto phonology]].''
Esperanto has 5 [[vowel]]s and 23 [[consonant]]s, of which two are [[semivowel]]s. It does not have [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]. [[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] is always on the second-last vowel, unless a final vowel ''o'' is [[Elision|elided]] (which in practice occurs most in [[poetry]]). For example, ''familio'' (family) is {{IPA|[fa.mi.ˈli.o]}}, but ''famili’'' is {{IPA|[fa.mi.ˈli]}}.
==== Consonants ====
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto;"
|-
|
| colspan="2" | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
| colspan="2" | [[Labiodental consonant|Labio-<br/>dental]]
| colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
| colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br/>alveolar]]
| colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
| colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
| colspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
| | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| [[Voiceless bilabial plosive|{{IPA|p}}]] || [[Voiced bilabial plosive|{{IPA|b}}]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| [[Voiceless alveolar plosive|{{IPA|t}}]] || [[Voiced alveolar plosive|{{IPA|d}}]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| [[Voiceless velar plosive|{{IPA|k}}]] || [[Voiced velar plosive|{{IPA|g}}]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
| | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| &nbsp; || [[Voiced bilabial nasal|{{IPA|m}}]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || [[Voiced alveolar nasal|{{IPA|n}}]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
| | [[Flap consonant|Tap]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || [[Voiced alveolar tap|{{IPA|ɾ}}]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
| | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| [[Voiceless labiodental fricative|{{IPA|f}}]] || [[Voiced labiodental fricative|{{IPA|v}}]]
| [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|{{IPA|s}}]] || [[Voiced alveolar fricative|{{IPA|z}}]]
| [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʃ}}]] || [[Voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʒ}}]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| [[Voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|x}}]] || &nbsp;
| [[Voiceless glottal fricative|{{IPA|h}}]] || &nbsp;
|-
| | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| [[Voiceless alveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʦ}}]] || &nbsp;
| [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʧ}}]] || [[Voiced postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʤ}}]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
| | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral approximant]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || [[Voiced alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|l}}]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
| | [[Approximant]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || [[Voiced palatal approximant|{{IPA|j}}]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
|}
The sound {{IPA|/r/}} is usually [[alveolar trill|rolled]], but may be [[alveolar flap|tapped]] ({{IPA|[ɾ]}} in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]). The {{IPA|/v/}} has a normative pronunciation like an [[English language|English]] ''v'', but is sometimes somewhere between a ''v'' and a ''w'' (IPA {{IPA|[ʋ]}}), depending on the language background of the speaker. A semivowel {{IPA|[u̯]}} normally occurs only in [[diphthong]]s after the vowels {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/e/}}. Common (if debated) [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] includes the pronunciation of /nk/ as {{IPA|[ŋk]}}, as in English ''sink'', and /kz/ as {{IPA|[gz]}}, like the ''x'' in English ''example''.
A large number of possible consonant clusters can occur, up to three in initial position and four in medial position (for example, in ''instrui'', to teach). Final clusters are uncommon except in foreign names, poetic elision of final ''o'', and a very few basic words such as ''cent'' (hundred) and ''post'' (after).
==== Vowels ====
Esperanto has the five vowels of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Swahili language|Swahili]]. There are no long or nasalized vowels.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;"
!
! | [[Front vowel| Front]]
! | [[Back vowel| Back]]
|-
! style="text-align: right;" | [[Close vowel| Close]]
| {{IPA|i}}
| {{IPA|u}}
|-
! style="text-align: right;" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA|e}}
| {{IPA|o}}
|-
! style="text-align: right;" | [[Open vowel| Open]]
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|a}}
|}
There are six falling diphthongs: {{IPA|/ui̯}}, {{IPA|oi̯}}, {{IPA|ei̯}}, {{IPA|ai̯}}, {{IPA|au̯}}, {{IPA|eu̯/}}.
With only five vowels, a good deal of variation is tolerated. For instance, {{IPA|/e/}} commonly ranges from {{IPA|[e]}} (French ''é'') to {{IPA|[ɛ]}} (French ''è''). The details often depend on the speaker's native language. A [[glottal stop]] may occur between adjacent vowels in some people's [[speech]], especially when the two vowels are the same, as in ''heroo'' (hero) and ''praavo'' (great-grandfather).
=== Grammar ===
{{seesubarticle|Esperanto grammar}}
Esperanto words are [[Derivation (linguistics)|derived]] by stringing together [[prefix]]es, [[Root (linguistics)|roots]], and [[suffix]]es. This is very regular, so that people can create new words as they speak and be understood. [[Compound (linguistics)|Compound]] words are formed with modifier-first, head-final order, i.e. the same way as in English ''birdsong'' vs. ''songbird''.
The different [[Part of speech|parts of speech]] are marked by their own suffixes: all [[noun]]s end in ''-o'', all [[adjective]]s in ''-a'', adverbs in ''-e'', and [[verb]]s end in one of six [[Grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Grammatical mood|mood]] suffixes, such as [[present tense]] ''-as''.
[[Grammatical number|Plural]] nouns end in ''-oj'' (pronounced "oy"), whereas [[direct object]]s end in ''-on''. Plural direct objects end in ''-ojn'' (pronounced to rhyme with "coin"). Adjectives [[Grammatical number#Effect of number on verbs and other parts of speech|agree]] with their nouns; their endings are plural ''-aj'' (pronounced "eye"), direct-object ''-an'', and plural direct-object ''-ajn'' (pronounced to rhyme with "fine").
<table border=0 align=center><tr><td>
<table border=1 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0>
<tr align=center style="background: #cccccc"><th>[[Noun]]</th><th style="background: #efefef">Subject</th><th style="background: #efefef">Object</th></tr>
<tr align=center><th style="background: #efefef">Singular</th><td>-'''o'''<td>-'''on'''</td></tr>
<tr align=center><th style="background: #efefef">Plural</th><td>-'''oj'''</td><td>-'''ojn'''</td></tr>
</table></td&g |
ong form:'' Pays d'outre-mer de la Polynesie Francaise
<br>''local short form:'' Polynésie française
'''Data code:''' FP
'''Dependency status:'''
Between [[1946]] and [[2003]], French Polynesia had the status of a overseas territory.([[French language|French]]: ''[[territoire d'outre-mer]]'', or ''TOM''). In [[2003]] it became an overseas collectivity ([[French language|French]]: ''[[collectivité d'outre-mer]]'', or COM). Its statutory law of [[27 February]] [[2004]] gives it the particular designation of "overseas country" to underline the large autonomy of the territory.
See also: [[French overseas departments and territories]] and [[Administrative divisions of France]]
'''Government type:''' NA
'''Capital:''' [[Papeete]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
none (overseas collectivity of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 5 archipelagic divisions.
French Polynesia has 5 administrative subdivisions ([[French language|French]]: ''subdivisions administratives''):
* [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) Îles du Vent'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des Îles du Vent'') (the two ''subdivisions administratives'' [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] and [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] are part of the [[Society Islands]])
* [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) Îles Sous-le-Vent'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des Îles Sous-le-Vent'') (the two ''subdivisions administratives'' [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] and [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] are part of the [[Society Islands]])
* [[Marquesas Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Marquises'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Marquises'')
* [[Austral Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Australes'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Australes'') (including the [[Bass Islands (French Polynesia)|Bass Islands]])
* [[Îles Tuamotu-Gambier|Tuamotu-Gambier]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier'') (the [[Tuamotus]] and the [[Gambier Islands]])
''note:'' [[Clipperton Island]] ([[French language|French]]: ''Île de Clipperton''), just off the coast of Mexico, is administered by France from French Polynesia.
'''Electoral divisions:'''
The members of the [[Assembly of French Polynesia]] are elected in 6 different electoral districts or electoral circumscriptions ([[French language|French]]: ''circonscriptions électorales'') which slightly differ from the administrative subdivisions (''subdivisions administratives'') on the [[Tuamotus]] and the [[Gambier Islands]]. The 6 electoral circumscriptions (''circonscriptions électorales'') are:
* electoral circumscription of the [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] (''circonscription des Îles du Vent'') (37 members)
* electoral circumscription of the [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] (''circonscription des Îles Sous-le-Vent'') (8 members)
* electoral circumscription of the [[Austral Islands]] (''circonscription des Îles Australes'') (3 members)
* electoral circumscription of the [[Gambier Islands and the Islands Tuamotu-East]] (''circonscription des Îles Gambier et Tuamotu Est'') (3 members)
* electoral circumscription of the [[Islands Tuamotu-West]] (''circonscription des Îles Tuamotu Ouest'') (3 members)
* electoral circumscription of the [[Marquesas Islands]] (''circonscription des Îles Marquises'') (3 members)
'''Independence:''' none (overseas collectivity of France)
'''National holiday:''' [[Bastille Day]], [[July 14]], [[1789]].
'''Constitution:''' [[September 28]], [[1958]] ([[Constitution of France|French Constitution]]) ; [[February 27]], [[2004]] (organic law on the auonoms status of French Polynesia)
'''Legal system:''' based on French system
'''Suffrage:''' 18 years of age; universal
'''Executive branch:'''
''chief of state:''
[[President of the French Republic]] (''Le Président de la République'') [[Jacques Chirac]] (since [[May 17]], [[1995]]), represented by the [[High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia]] (''Le Haut-Commissaire de la République en Polynésie française'') [[Anne Boquet]] (since [[10 September]] [[2005]]).
''head of government:''
President of French Polynesia (''Le président de la Polynésie française'') [[Oscar Temaru|Oscar (Manutahi) Temaru]] (since [[March 3]], [[2005]]); President of the Assembly of French Polynesia (''Le président de l'Assemblée de la Polynésie française'') [[Antony Géros]] (since [[May 9]], [[2004]]).
''cabinet:''
Council of Ministers; president submits a list of members of the Territorial Assembly, the [[Assembly of French Polynesia]] (''Assemblée de la Polynésie française''), for approval by them to serve as ministers.
'''Legislative branch:'''
[[Assembly of French Polynesia]] ([[French language|French]]: ''Assemblée de la Polynésie française''), the unicameral assembly (57 seats; members are elected by [[popular vote]] to serve five-year terms)
''note:''
one seat was elected to the [[French Senate]] on [[September 27]], [[1998]] (next to be held September [[2007]]); ''results:'' percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NA; two seats were elected to the [[French National Assembly]] on [[June 9]] [[2002]]-[[June 16]] [[2002]] (next to be held NA [[2007]]); ''results:'' percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - UMP/RPR 1, UMP 1.
'''Judicial branch:'''
Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel; Court of the First Instance or Tribunal de Premiere Instance; Court of Administrative Law or Tribunal Administratif.
'''International organization participation:'''
[[ESCAP]] (associate), [[FZ]], [[ICFTU]], [[Secretariat of the Pacific Community|SPC]], [[WMO]]
'''Flag description:'''
Two narrow red horizontal bands encase a wide white band; centered on the white band is a disk with blue and white wave pattern on the lower half and gold and white ray pattern on the upper half; a stylized red, blue and white ship rides on the wave pattern; the French flag is used for official occasions.
== See also ==
* [[French Polynesia]]
* [[Elections in French Polynesia]]
* [[French Polynesian legislative election, 2004]]
* [[Assembly of French Polynesia]]
== External links ==
* [http://francepolitique.free.fr/om-pf.htm Francepolitique]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fp.html CIA World Factbook — French Polynesia]
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Fr_Polynesia.html Listing of politicians of French Polynesia]
{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:French Polynesia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of French Polynesia</title>
<id>10742</id>
<revision>
<id>18742152</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-13T13:18:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fenice</username>
<id>90242</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwikilink fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Economics|Economy]] - overview:'''
Since [[1962]], when [[France]] stationed [[military]] personnel in the region, French Polynesia has changed from a [[subsistence economy]] to one in which a high proportion of the work force is either employed by the military or supports the [[tourism|tourist]] industry. Tourism accounts for about one-fourth of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] and is a primary source of hard [[currency]] earnings. The small [[manufacturing]] sector primarily processes [[agriculture|agricultural]] products. The territory benefited from a five-year (1994-98) development agreement with France aimed principally at creating new jobs.
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $2.6 billion (1997 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $10,800 (1997 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
4%
<br>''industry:''
18%
<br>''services:''
78% (1997)
'''[[Population]] below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''[[Inflation]] rate (consumer prices):'''
1.5% (1994)
'''[[Labour (economics)|Labor]] force:'''
118,744 (of which 70,044 are employed) (1988)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 13%, industry 19%, services 68% (1997)
'''[[Unemployment]] rate:'''
15% (1992 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$1 billion
<br>''expenditures:''
$900 million, including capital expenditures of $185 million (1996)
'''Industries:'''
[[tourism]], [[pearl]]s, [[agriculture|agricultural]] processing, [[handicraft]]s
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%
'''[[Electricity]] - production:'''
360 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''[[fossil fuel]]:''
59.72%
<br>''[[hydropower]]:''
40.28%
<br>''[[nuclear power]]:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
335 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[coconut]]s, [[vanilla]], [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[poultry]], [[beef]], [[dairy]] products
'''[[Export]]s:'''
$212 million (f.o.b., 1996)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
cultured pearls 50%, coconut products, mother-of-pearl, [[vanilla]], shark meat (1997)
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[United States]] 11%, [[France]] 6% (1997)
'''[[Import]]s:'''
$860 million (c.i.f., 1996)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
[[fuel]]s, [[food]]stuffs, equipment
'''Imports - partners:'''
France 44.7%, US 13.9% (1994)
'''[[Debt]] - external:'''
$NA
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$450.4 million (1995)
'''Currency:'''
1 [[Comptoirs Franc |
the Reports. On the other hand, not requiring Panel re-endorsement of Reports has also been criticized, after changes required by the approval process were made to Reports.
== IPCC Reports ==
The IPCC published a [[IPCC First Assessment Report|first assessment report]] in 1990, a supplementary report in 1992, a [[IPCC Second Assessment Report|second assessment report (SAR)]] in 1995, and a [[IPCC Third Assessment Report|third assessment report (TAR)]] in 2001. A [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report|fourth assessment report (AR4)]] is currently underway. Each of the assessment reports is in three volumes from the working groups I, II and III. Unqualified, "the IPCC report" is often used to mean the WG I report.
=== Consensus in reports ===
IPCC Reports attempt to present a scientific consensus view. The general approach of identifying consensus among a group of climate scientists means that areas where there remains considerable uncertainty tend to be automatically deemphasized or simply omitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/cct1.pdf]. Another means of handling consensus problems was used in the SRES scenarios, where due to a lack of consensus there were many variations included with no indication of which are more probable {{doi|10.1038/35075167}}.
"Firstly, the Panel as a whole must always respect and consider the specific perspectives of each member. But, more importantly, each member must respect and consider the perspectives of the entire Panel. Consensus is not something that happens by itself. It is an outcome that has to be shaped, and the only basis for shaping it is to follow the two cardinal rules that I have just mentioned" &mdash; Dr Rajendra K. Pachauri, Chairman of the IPCC[http://www.ipcc.ch/press/sp-09112004.htm].
=== IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: AR4 ===
:''Main article: [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report]]''
Work on the fourth assessment report (AR4) is well underway [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1_home.html]. Author lists and a chapter outline of the WGI report are available [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1_ar4.html], as is a poster of the basic contents and new foci of AR4 [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/WG1AR4_Poster.pdf]. The report's publication is planned for early 2007 .
=== IPCC Third Assessment Report: Climate Change 2001===
:''Main article: [[IPCC Third Assessment Report]]''
The most recent IPCC report is ''Climate Change 2001'', the Third Assessment Report (TAR).
The TAR consists of four reports, three of them from the Working Groups:
* Working Group I: The Scientific Basis [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/index.htm]
* Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm]
* Working Group III: Mitigation [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg3/index.htm]
* Synthesis Report [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/vol4/index.htm]
The "headlines" from the summary for policymakers [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/005.htm] in ''The Scientific Basis'' were:
#An increasing body of observations gives a collective picture of a warming world and other changes in the climate system (The global average surface temperature has increased over the 20th century by about 0.6°C; Temperatures have risen during the past four decades in the lowest 8 kilometres of the atmosphere; Snow cover and ice extent have decreased)
#Emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols due to human activities continue to alter the atmosphere in ways that are expected to affect the climate (Anthropogenic aerosols are short-lived and mostly produce negative radiative forcing; Natural factors have made small contributions to radiative forcing over the past century)
#Confidence in the ability of models to project future climate has increased (Complex physically-based climate models are required to provide detailed estimates of feedbacks and of regional features. Such models cannot yet simulate all aspects of climate (e.g., they still cannot account fully for the observed trend in the surface-troposphere temperature difference since 1979) and there are particular uncertainties associated with clouds and their interaction with radiation and aerosols. Nevertheless, confidence in the ability of these models to provide useful projections of future climate has improved due to their demonstrated performance on a range of space and time-scales [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm].)
#There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities
#Human influences will continue to change atmospheric composition throughout the 21st century
#Global average temperature and sea level are projected to rise under all IPCC SRES scenarios
The TAR estimate for the [[climate sensitivity]] is 1.5 to 4.5 °C; and the average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees over the period 1990 to 2100, and the sea level is projected to rise by 0.1 to 0.9 metres over the same period. The wide range in predictions is based upon several different scenarios that assume different levels of future CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. Each scenario then has a range of possible outcomes associated with it. The most optimistic outcome assumes an aggressive campaign to reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, while the most pessimistic is a "business as usual" scenario. The more realistic scenarios fall in between.
IPCC predictions are based on the same models used to establish the importance of the different factors in global warming.
These models need data about anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols.
These data are predicted from [[economic model]]s based on 35 different scenarios.
Scenarios go from pessimistic to optimistic, and predictions of global warming depend on the kind of scenario considered.
IPCC uses the best available predictions and their reports are under strong scientific scrutiny.
The IPCC concedes that there is a need for better models and better scientific understanding of some climate phenomena, as well as the uncertainties involved.
Critics assert that the available data is not sufficient to determine the real importance of [[greenhouse gas]]es in climate change.
Sensitivity of climate to greenhouse gases may be overestimated or underestimated because of some flaws in the models and because the importance of some external factors may be misestimated. The predictions are based on scenarios, and the IPCC did not assign any probability to the 35 scenarios used.
==== Debate over Climate Change 2001 ====
===== Economic growth estimates =====
Castles and Henderson asserted that the IPCC has been using inflated economic growth rates, which result in increased emission estimates [http://www.co2andclimate.org/climate/previous_issues/vol8/v8n13/assess.htm]. This was incorrect because IPCC growth and emissions rates were based upon several factors and not only [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], as rebutted by [http://www.multi-science.co.uk/ee.htm Nebojsa Nakicenovic et al.]
===== Physical modeling =====
:''See also: [[global climate model]]''
A few participants in IPCC Working Group I (Science) do not agree with the IPCC reports (of the 120 lead authors, 2 have complained [http://www.warwickhughes.com/climate/consensus.htm]).
A particularly active critic, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] physicist [[Richard Lindzen]], expressed his unhappiness about those portions in the Executive Summary based on his contributions in [[May 2001]] before the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation]]:
:"The summary does not reflect the full document... For example, I worked on Chapter 7, Physical Processes. This chapter dealt with the nature of the basic processes which determine the response of climate, and found numerous problems with model treatments &#8211; including those of clouds and water vapor. The chapter was summarized with the following sentence: 'Understanding of climate processes and their incorporation in climate models have improved, including water vapour, sea-ice dynamics, and ocean heat transport.'"
The "Summary for Policymakers" of the WG1 reports ''does'' include caveats on model treatments: ''Such models cannot yet simulate all aspects of climate (e.g., they still cannot account fully for the observed trend in the surface-troposphere temperature difference since 1979) and there are particular uncertainties associated with clouds and their interaction with radiation and aerosols. Nevertheless, confidence in the ability of these models to provide useful projections of future climate has improved due to their demonstrated performance on a range of space and time-scales.'' [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm].
These statements are in turn supported by the executive summary of chapter 8 of the report, which includes:
* ''Coupled models can provide credible simulations of both the present annual mean climate and the climatological seasonal cycle over broad continental scales for most variables of interest for climate change. Clouds and humidity remain sources of significant uncertainty but there have been incremental improvements in simulations of these quantities''.
* ''Confidence in the ability of models to project future climates is increased by the ability of several models to reproduce the warming trend in 20th century surface air temperature when driven by radiative forcing due to increasing greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols. However, only idealised scenarios of only sulphate aerosols have been used''.
=== IPCC Second Assessment Report: Climate Change 1995 ===
:''Main article: [[IPCC Second Assessment Report]]''
''Climate Change 1995'', the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR) was finished in [[1996]]. It is split into four parts:
* A synthesis to help interpret [[UNFCCC]] article 2.
* ''The Science of Climate |
very close to the [[ISO-8859]] series leading many to falsely assume that they are identical.
[[ASCII art]] which is colorized or animated by way of ANSI terminal control codes (X3.64 sequences) are commonly referred to as "[[ANSI art]]" and were predominantly popular on [[bulletin board system]]s throughout the 1980s and 1990s.
== See also==
* [http://www.ansi.org/nsp American National Standards Institute Nanotechnology Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP)]
* [http://www.ansi.org/hssp American National Standards Institute Homeland Security Standards Panel (ANSI-HSSP)]
* [http://www.ansi.org/hitsp American National Standards Institute Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (ANSI-HITSP)]
* [[ANSI art]], art created from a subset of [[ANSI X3.64|X3.64]]
* [[ANSI.SYS]], a device driver for [[MS-DOS]]
* [[ANSI escape code|ANSI escape codes]]
* [[Unified Thread Standard]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ansi.org/ American National Standards Institute] official website
* [http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/introduction.aspx?menuid=1 ANSI Overview]
* [http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/history.aspx?menuid=1 ANSI Historical Overview]
*[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Char (ASCII), HEX, Binary, Base64, etc... Encoder/Decoder]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Anchorage, Alaska</title>
<id>660</id>
<revision>
<id>42009131</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:48:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.10.251.112</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the city in the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[Alaska]]|other meanings|Anchorage}}
{{Infobox City |
official_name = Anchorage, Alaska |
nickname = The City of Lights and Flowers |
image_skyline = Downtownanchorage,Alaska.jpg |
image_flag = Us-ak-an.jpg |
image_seal = |
image_map = Map of Alaska highlighting Anchorage Municipality.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Alaska]] |
subdivision_type = [[Boroughs of the United States|Borough]] |
subdivision_name = [[Municipality of Anchorage]] |
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Mark Begich]] |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 1,961.1 mi&sup2; / 5,079.2 |
area_land = 1,697.2 mi&sup2; / 4,395.8 |
area_water = 2.63.9 mi&sup2; / 683.4 |
population_as_of = 2004 |
population_metro = 339,286 |
population_total = 272,687 |
population_density = 160.7 |
timezone = [[Alaska Standard Time Zone|AST]] |
utc_offset = -9 |
timezone_DST = [[Alaska Daylight Time|ADT]] |
utc_offset_DST = -8 |
latd = 61 |
latm = 13 |
lats = 06 |
latNS = N |
longd = 149 |
longm = 53 |
longs = 57 |
longEW = W |
elevation = 115 |
website = [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/ www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/] |
footnotes =
}}
'''Anchorage''' is a Unified [[Home Rule]] [[Municipality]] (officially called the '''Municipality of Anchorage''') in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Alaska]]. It is also a [[census area]]. With 260,283 residents according to the [[U.S. Census, 2000|2000 census]], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing more than two-fifths of the state's population. A State of Alaska Demographer in 2004 estimates the population at 277,498. Anchorage was founded in 1915 and named after a place where a ship lies at [[anchor]]. Its official [[List of city nicknames|nickname]] is "The City of Lights and Flowers". Garden writers call Anchorage the "Hanging Basket Capital of the World" when it comes to the city's 100,000 hanging baskets, and aviation buffs refer to the city as the "Air Crossroads of the World" because of its geographical location between the two northern continents.
In downtown Anchorage along the streets and sidewalks are 425 baskets of bright gold triploid marigold drenched with trailing sapphire lobelia. The blue and gold flowers represent the colors of the Municipality of Anchorage flag and the [[Flag of Alaska|Alaska state flag]]. The city of Anchorage blooms with vibrant color during the late spring and summer when it comes to [[flowers]].
Today Anchorage has many features of a modern [[urban area]], such as [[park]]s and forests, bike and city trails, [[skiing]] and cross-country ski trails, business and [[commerce]], theaters and other [[entertainment]]s. The [[tourist industry]] is strong and offers many activities and attractions.
== History ==
{{main|History of Anchorage, Alaska}}
Russia was well-established in North America by the 1800s. In 1867, U.S. Secretary of State [[William H. Seward]] brokered a [[Alaska purchase|deal to purchase Alaska]] from debt-ridden [[Russia]] for $7.2 million, about two cents an acre. Alaska's value was not appreciated by the American masses at that time, calling it "'''Seward's folly'''", "'''Seward's icebox'''" and "'''Walrussia'''". By 1888, gold was discovered along [[Turnagain Arm]]. In 1912, Alaska became a [[United States Territory]]. Anchorage was carefully laid out by city planners in 1914, originally as a [[railroad]] [[construction]] [[port]] for the [[Alaska Railroad]], and on [[July 9]], [[1915]], the first sale of town lots was held. In 1915 President [[Woodrow Wilson]] authorized funds for the construction of the [[Alaska Railroad]]. That same year the Anchorage [[Chamber of Commerce]] was formed. Ship Creek Landing in Anchorage was selected as the headquarters of this effort. Soon a "Tent City" sprang up at the mouth of Ship Creek and the population quickly swelled to more than 2,000. Would-be entrepreneurs flocked to this bustling frontier town, and they brought with them everything necessary to build a city. A popular hardware and clothing store, "The Anchorage," was actually an old dry-docked steamship named "Berth." Although the area had been known by various names, the [[U.S. Post Office]] Department formalized the use of the name "Anchorage," and despite some protests the name stuck. In 1920, the United States government relinquished its direct control over the city, and elections were held. Anchorage was incorporated on [[November 23]], [[1920]]. In 1923, [[William Mulcahy]] establishes the Anchorage Baseball League. Mulcahy was a baseball fan who was working as the Alaska Railroad station auditor assistant and established the baseball league in his spare time. Later in life, Mulcahy introduced Little League baseball and established the city's [[YMCA]]. The Mulcahy Park stadium and ball field were named in his honor for his contributions to early Anchorage.
The 1930s were a time that Anchorage rebounded from the loss of population and industry it had suffered during [[World War I]]. [[Air transportation]] became increasingly important to Anchorage.
In 1930, the original "Park Strip" landing field was replaced by a new facility, [[Merrill Field]], which had a beacon and a control [[tower]], and in a few short years, it became one of the busiest centers of [[civilian]] [[aircraft]] activity in the [[United States]]. In 1937, [[Providence Alaska Medical Center]] opened its doors.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anchorage-1940s2.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Fourth Avenue in the 1940s.]] -->
The arrival of US Army troops in 1940 marked a decade of growth based on military expansion for Anchorage. Growth spurted in the 1940s, with the construction of [[Elmendorf Air Force Base]] and [[Fort Richardson]], which made Anchorage a major defense center. In 1940, a canal was built connecting [[Lake Spenard]] with [[Lake Hood]], making it the world's largest [[seaplane]] base. The outbreak of [[World War II]] with the threat of a Japanese invasion prompted continued expansion of military personnel and aircraft, and later the pressures of the [[Cold War]] between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] ensured continued heavy military investment in the Anchorage area. In 1947, the [[parking meter]] was introduced in Anchorage, and in 1949, the first [[traffic light]]s were installed on Fourth Avenue. Between 1939 and 1950, Anchorage's population spurted from 4,230 to 30,060, and the cost of living soared. Anchorage also experienced an unfortunate rise in crime during this tumultuous growth period, a problem the city would fight for decades.
The decade of the 1950s was also eventful. In 1951 came the opening of the [[Seward Highway]]. On [[December 10]], [[1951]], Anchorage established itself as the "Air Crossroads of the World" when Anchorage International Airport opened with transpolar airline traffic flying between Western [[Europe]] and East [[Asia]]. The new airport also became a refueling stop for flights between the contiguous 48 states and East Asia, until nonstop flights became practical around 1970, with the Boeing 747 airliner. In 1953, [[health care]] expanded with the opening of the [[Alaska Native Medical Center]]. Also, three volcanoes erupted in the area, including [[Mount Spurr]], which dumped several inches of ash on Anchorage. [[KTVA]], the city's first [[television station]], began broadcasting in 1953. In 1954, the [[Alyeska Resort]] was established. In 1957, oil was discovered on the [[Kenai Peninsula]]. On [[January 3]], [[1959]], Alaska joined the union as the 49th state.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anc65.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Downtown Anchorage in 1965.]] -->
The decade of t |
litary operation]]s, many of which result in battle, are given [[codename]]s, which are not necessarily meaningful or indicative of the type or the location of the battle. [[Operation Market Garden]] and [[Operation Rolling Thunder]] are examples of battles known by their military codenames.
When a battleground is the site of more than one battle in the same conflict, the instances are distinguished by [[ordinal number]], such as the [[First Battle of Bull Run|First]] and [[Second Battle of Bull Run|Second Battles of Bull Run]]. An extreme case are the twelve [[Battle of the Isonzo|Battles of the Isonzo]] &mdash; [[First Battle of the Isonzo|First]] to [[Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo|Twelfth]] &mdash; between [[Italy]] and [[Austria-Hungary]] during the First World War.
Some battles are named for the convenience of [[military historian]]s so that periods of combat can be neatly distinguished from one another. Following the First World War, the British Battles Nomenclature Committee was formed to decide on standard names for all battles and subsidiary actions. To the soldiers who did the fighting, the distinction was usually academic; a soldier fighting at [[Beaumont Hamel]] on [[13 November]] [[1916]] was probably unaware he was taking part in what the committee would call the "[[Battle of the Ancre]]".
Many combats are too small to merit a name. Terms such as "action", "skirmish", "firefight", "raid" or "offensive patrol" are used to describe small-scale battle-like encounters. These combats often take place within the time and space of a battle and while they may have an objective, they are not necessarily "decisive". Sometimes the soldiers are unable to immediately gauge the significance of the combat; in the aftermath of the [[Battle of Waterloo]], some British officers were in doubt as to whether the day's events merited the title of "battle" or would be passed off as merely an "action".
== The effects of a battle ==
Battles have both personal and political effects. The personal effect of a battle can be a psychological or a physical effect; a psychological effect is on the minds of the participants. For example, many battle-survivors have nightmares <!-- about wars such as the [[Korean War]] or [[World War II]]. --> or abnormal reactions to certain sights or sounds. The physical effects of battle on survivors can include scars, amputations, lesions, loss of hearing, blindness, and paralysis.
Battles also affect [[politics]]. A decisive battle that is won can cause one side to surrender &ndash; or that same victory can be a [[Pyrrhic Victory]]. A decisive victory can force one side to submit to the interests of the victor, perhaps by ceding territory or changing policies. Battles have been fought in [[civil wars]] to decide the fate of [[monarchs]] and different political factions. Examples include the [[War of the Roses]] and the [[Jacobite Uprisings]]. Battles have also affected such things as the continuance of a war. An example is the [[Battle of Inchon]].
==See also==
*[[Naval battle]]
*[[Pitched battle]]
*[[Military tactic]]s
*[[Warfare]]
*[[List of battles]]
== References ==
*{{cite book | title = The Face of Battle | author = Keegan, John | year = 1976 | id = ISBN 1844137481 | publisher = Pimlico }}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berry Berenson</title>
<id>4182</id>
<revision>
<id>40650733</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T01:46:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bbsrock</username>
<id>137159</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Berry Berenson''' (née '''Berinthia Berenson''', a.k.a. '''Berry Perkins'''), ([[April 14]], [[1948]] &ndash; [[September 11]], [[2001]]), was a U.S. model, actress and photographer. She was best known as the wife of actor [[Anthony Perkins]], from 1973 until his death in 1992. She was also the mother of actor [[Oz Perkins]], and Elvis Perkins.
Following a successful modelling career, Berenson had a number of minor roles in big budget movies, including ''[[Cat People (1982 film)|Cat People]]'', before starring opposite [[Jeff Bridges]] in ''Remember My Name''. She then developed a career in photography, shooting many photos for the covers of [[Life magazine]], as well as fashion pictures for ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'' magazine.
She died at age 53 in the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]] on board [[American Airlines flight 11]]. She had been returning from a holiday on [[Cape Cod]] to her [[California]] home.
Born into distinguished American and European families, she was the younger daughter of Robert L. Berenson, a U.S. diplomat of Lithuanian-Jewish descent whose original family name was Valvrojenski. Her mother was Countess Marisa de Wendt de Kerlor, also known as Gogo Schiaparelli, a socialite of Italian, Swiss, and Egyptian ancestry (she is now Marchesa Cacciapuoti di Giugliano). Berry Berenson's maternal grandmother was the Paris fashion designer [[Elsa Schiaparelli]], and her sister was actress and model [[Marisa Berenson]]. She was also a great-great-niece of [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]], an Italian astronomer who believed he had discovered the supposed [[Martian canal|canals of Mars]], a great-great-niece of art expert [[Bernard Berenson]] (1865&ndash;1959), and a great-great-niece of Senda Berenson (1868&ndash;1954), an athlete and educator who was one of the first two women elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame.
==See also==
* [[sep11:Berry Berenson|Memorial to Berry Berenson]] on the September 11 wiki
==External links==
* [http://www.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/showbiz.today/featured.story/0109/12.html CNN Showbiz Today&mdash;Cultural figures among the victims]
*{{imdb name|id=0073550|name=Berry Berenson}}
[[Category:1948 births|Berenson, Berry]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Berenson, Berry]]
[[Category:September 11, 2001 attacks|Berenson, Berry]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Berenson, Berry]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims|Berenson, Berry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Botany</title>
<id>4183</id>
<revision>
<id>41925626</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:43:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MPF</username>
<id>38759</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.213.216.246|64.213.216.246]] ([[User talk:64.213.216.246|talk]]) to last version by 4.240.120.55</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings, see [[Botany (disambiguation)]]''
'''Botany''' is the [[Scientific method|scientific study]] of plant[[life]]. As a branch of [[biology]], it is also sometimes referred to as '''plant science(s)''' or '''plant biology'''. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the [[growth]], [[reproduction]], [[metabolism]], [[morphogenesis|development]], [[phytopathology|diseases]], [[ecology]], and [[evolution]] of [[plant|plants]].
[[Image:US long grain rice.jpg|right|thumb|Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice.]]
==Scope and importance of botany==
As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the [[molecular biology|molecular]], [[genetics|genetic]] and [[biochemistry|biochemical]] level through [[organelle]]s, [[cell biology|cells]], [[biological tissue|tissues]], [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, individuals, plant [[population]]s, and [[biodiversity|communities]] of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification ([[taxonomy]]), structure ([[anatomy]]), or function ([[plant physiology|physiology]]) of plant life.
Historically, botany covers all organisms that were not considered to be [[animal]]s. Some of these "plant-like" organisms include [[fungi]] (studied in [[mycology]]), [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[viruses]] (studied in [[microbiology]]), and [[algae]] (studied in [[phycology]]). Most algae, fungi, and microbes are no longer considered to be in the plant kingdom. However, attention is still given to them by botanists, and bacteria, fungi, and algae are usually covered in introductory botany courses.
So why study plants? Plants are a fundamental part of life on earth. They generate the [[oxygen]], [[food]], [[fibre]]s, fuel and medicine that allow higher life forms to exist. Plants also absorb [[carbon dioxide]], a significant [[greenhouse gas]], through [[photosynthesis]]. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to:
* Feed the world
* Understand fundamental life processes
* Utilise medicine and materials
* Understand environmental changes
===Feed the world===
Virtually ''all'' of the food we eat comes from plants, either directly from [[staple food]]s and other [[fruit]] and [[vegetables]], or indirectly through [[livestock]], which rely on plants for [[fodder]]. In other words, plants are at the base of nearly all [[food chain]]s, or what ecologists call the first [[trophic level]]. Understanding how plants produce the food we eat is therefore important to be able to ''feed the world'' and provide [[food security]] for future generations, for example through [[plant breeding]]. Not all plants are beneficial to humans, [[weeds]] are a considerable problem in [[agriculture]] and botany provides some of the basic science in order to understand how to minimise their impact. [[Ethnobotany]] is the study of this and other relationships between plants and people.
|
ttp://www.gigglepoetry.com/poetryclass/clerihew.htm How to write a Clerihew]
*[http://www.poetry4kids.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=8 How to write a Clerihew poem]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Central American Court of Justice</title>
<id>7082</id>
<revision>
<id>39262984</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T23:16:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Central American Court of Justice''' (1907&ndash;1918, 1962 to date) is an [[international judicial institutions|international court]] established by five [[Central America]]n states. It was initially created by a treaty signed on [[December 20]], [[1907]] at [[Washington, D.C.]], [[United States]]; following its dissolution in 1918, it was re-created in 1962 as an action of the [[Organization of Central American States]].
==History==
===Founding===
Between [[November 14]], and [[December 20]], [[1907]], following a proposal made by [[Mexico]] and the United States, five Central American nations &ndash; [[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]] and [[Nicaragua]] &ndash; took part in the [[Central American Peace Conference]] in Washington, D.C.
The five nations, which had all previously been [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonies]] had sought on numerous prior occasions, with great difficulty, to form a political alliance. The earliest attempt was the [[United Provinces of Central America]], and the most recent such effort had taken place 11 years earlier, with the founding of the [[Republic of Central America]]. On [[December 20]] an agreement was reached and the five nations ended the Conference by signing a peace treaty, one aspect of which created the Central American Court of Justice ''(Corte de Justicia Centroamericana)''.
The signatories agreed that the convention creating the Court would remain in effect for ten years, beginning at the time of the last ratification.
All communications between the signatories were made through the government of Costa Rica. The Convention was ratified by the member states on the following dates:
*Nicaragua, [[February 15]], [[1908]]
*Costa Rica, [[February 28]], [[1908]]
*El Salvador, [[March 4]], [[1908]]
*Honduras, [[March 4]], [[1908]]
*Guatemala, [[March 12]], [[1908]]
The Court was composed of five judges, one each from each member state.
===Operation of the first CACJ===
For the period of its functioning the Court heard teb cases, five of which were brought by private individuals and declared inadmissible, and three of which were started by the Court's own initiative.
===Dissolution of the first CACJ===
The court operated for 10 years, until April [[1918]], from its headquarters in [[Costa Rica]], at which point it dissolved. Its members had sought without success from March [[1917]], when Nicaragua gave a notice of termination from the agreement, to continue the arrangement.
Several explanations for the treaty's failure exist:
*The court lacked an effective system of judicial procedure.
*The judges were not free to act independently of their respective governments.
*The court had been given a jurisdiction too broad to satisfy its member states.
===Creation of the second Court===
Following the end of [[World War II]], a new interest in integrating the Central American governments began. On [[October 14]], [[1951]], 33 years after the dissolution of the CACJ, the governments of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua signed a new treaty creating the [[Organization of Central American States]] ''(Organización de Estados Centroamericanos'', or ''ODECA)''.
The following year, [[December 12]], [[1962]], ODECA's charter was altered to create a new Central American Court of Justice (this time called the ''Corte Centroamericana de Justicia'', or ''CCJ)'', without the time limitation of its previous incarnation.
Idle for nearly 30 years thereafter, the court changed shape in [[1991]] when Article 12 of the [[Protocol of Tegucigalpa]] created the [[Central American Integration System]] ''(Sistema de Integración Centroamericana'', or ''SICA)'', and the union was joined by [[Panama]] (as a member state), and [[Belize]] (as an observer).
===The CCJ today===
The current mission of the CCJ is to promote peace in the region and unity between its member-states. Today's Court has jurisdiction to hear cases:
*between member States
*between a member state and a non-member state which agrees to the Court's jurisdiction
*between states and any natural or legal person who is a resident of any member state
*regarding the integration process between Central American Integration System's (''SICA'') organs and member states or natural or legal persons
The Court may also offer consultation to the Supreme Courts of the region.
As of [[July 2005]], the CCJ has made 70 resolutions since hearing its first case in [[1994]].
==Notable decisions==
*In [[2005]], the Court ruled that Nicaraguan congressional reforms, which took control of water, energy and telecommunications services away from President [[Enrique Bolaños]] were "legally inapplicable", possibly further inciting the Nicaraguan political crisis.
==See also==
*[[History of Central America]]
*[[Republic of Central America]]
==External references==
*[http://www.ccj.org.ni/ Official website of the CCJ] (Spanish language)
*[http://www.worldcourts.com/cacj/eng/history.htm History of the CACJ from worldcourts.com]
*[http://www.pict-pcti.org/courts/CACJ.html CACJ history page from PICT]
*[http://www.ticotimes.net/cent_amer.htm "Commission Studies Impeachment"], the ''[[Tico Times]],'' [[July 15]] &ndash; [[July 21]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.virtual-institute.de/en/wcd/wcd.cfm?104020501200.cfm Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute, World Court Digest]
[[Category:Central America]]
[[Category:International law]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Civil war</title>
<id>7085</id>
<revision>
<id>42086870</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:10:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>206.190.193.91</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Earlier Civil Wars */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[civil war (disambiguation)]]. See [[list of civil wars]] for individual examples.''
A '''civil war''' is a [[war]] in which the parties within the same [[country]] or [[empire]] struggle for national control of state [[Power (sociology)|power]]. As in any war, the conflict may be over other matters such as [[religion]], [[ethnicity]], or distribution of [[wealth]]. Some civil wars are also categorized as [[revolution]]s when major societal restructuring is a possible outcome of the conflict. An [[insurgency]], whether successful or not, is likely to be classified as a civil war by some [[historian]]s if, and only if, organized armies fight conventional [[battle]]s. Other historians state the criteria for a civil war is that there must be prolonged violence between organized factions or defined regions of a country (conventionally fought or not).
Ultimately the distinction between a "civil war" and a "revolution" or other name is arbitrary, and determined by usage. The successful insurgency of the 1640s in England which led to the (temporary) overthrow of the monarchy became known as the '''[[English Civil War]]'''. The successful insurgency of the 1770s in British colonies in America, with organized armies fighting battles, came to be known as the [[American Revolution]]. In the United States, and in American-dominated sources, the term 'the civil war' almost always means the '''[[American Civil War]]''', with other civil wars noted or inferred from context.
==Earlier Civil Wars==
What is generally agreed on is that the factors such as nationalism, religion, and ideology, played little role in pre-modern civil wars. While it is quite common for nationalists to read past revolts, such as those of [[Scotland]] against [[England]] as early stirrings of nationalism, this is a somewhat suspect notion. Religion is more contentious, there are some civil wars that can be seen as fueled by religion in early years, such as the [[Jewish Revolts]] against [[Rome]], but these can also be seen as revolts by a servile people against their oppressors or uprisings by local notables in an attempt to gain independence.
==Premodern Civil Wars==
===Religious conflicts===
Civil wars fought over religion have tended to occur more frequently in [[monotheistic]] societies than in [[polytheistic]] societies; this has been explained as being due to the fact that the latter tend to be more "flexible" in terms of dogma, to allow for some latitude in belief. In [[Europe]] through the [[Middle Ages]], the Christianity of the great bulk of the population was influenced by pagan tradition. With the great majority of the population [[illiterate]], access to the [[Bible]] was limited and led to a significant amount of [[syncretism]] between Christian and pagan elements. With religion so loosely applied, it was rare for people to feel particularly oppressed by it. There were periodic appearances of [[heresies]], such as that of the [[Albigensians]], which led to violence, but historians tend to view these to be the product of [[peasant revolt]]s rather than themselves motivators of a civil war.
As religions tended to become more rigidly defined and understood by their followers, inter-religious tensions generally increased. The rise of [[Islam]] witnessed a rash of uprisings against non-Islamic rulers soon after its appearance. Subsequent Islamic history has been marked by repeated civil conflicts, mostly stem |
l warfare was demonstrated to its greatest effect when the [[Russian Navy]] equipped with these guns annihilated the Turkish fleet at the [[Battle of Sinop]] in [[1853]].
From [[1854]], the American [[John A. Dahlgren]], took the Paixhans gun, which was designed only for a shell, to develop a gun capable of firing shot and shell, and these were used during the [[American Civil War]] ([[1861]]-[[1865]]).
===Steam battleships===
Before the experimental adoption of the [[screw]] in warships in the 1840s, the only available steam technology was that of the [[paddle wheel]]s, which, due to their positioning on the side of the hull and the large machinery they required, were not compatible with the broadside cannon layout of the battleships. The screw was therefore the only technological option for the development of steam battleships.
[[Image:Napoleon(1850).jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Le Napoléon (1850)|Le Napoléon]]'' (1850), the first purpose-built steam battleship.]]
The [[French Navy]] battleship ''[[Le Napoléon (1850)|Le Napoléon]]'' became the first purpose-built steam battleship in the world when she was launched in [[1850]] <ref>''"Napoleon (90 guns), the first purpose-designed screw line of battleships"'', "Steam, Steel and Shellfire", Conway's History of the Ship (p39)</ref>. She was also the first screw battleship, and is considered as the first true steam battleship <ref>''"Hastened to completion Le Napoleon was launched on 16 May 1850, to become the world's first true steam battleship"'', "Steam, Steel and Shellfire", Conway's History of the Ship (p39)</ref>. In the United Kingdom, the ''[[HMS Agamemnon (1852)|Agamemnon]]'' was ordered in [[1849]] as a response to rumours of the French development, and commissioned in [[1853]].
The United Kingdom had developed a few harbour-protection units with screw/steam propulsion in the [[1840]]s, called "[[blockship]]s" or "steam-guard-ships", which were conversions of small traditional battleships cut down into floating batteries, with ballast removed, and a jury rig with a medium 450 [[Horsepower|hp]] engine for speeds of 5.8 [[kts]] to 8.9 kts installed. These ships, converted in 1846, were the ''Blenheim'', ''[[HMS Ajax (1809)|Ajax]]'' and their sisters <ref>"A Century of Naval Construction"</ref>. The United Kingdom was however reluctant to develop regular steam battleships, apparently due to her commitment to long-distance, worldwide operation, for which, at that time, sail was still thought the most appropriate and reliable mode of propulsion.
Eight sister ships to ''Le Napoléon'' were built in France over a period of ten years, as the United Kingdom soon managed to take the lead in production, in number of both purpose-built and converted units. Altogether, France built 10 new wooden steam battleships and converted 28 from older battleship units, while the United Kingdom built 18 and converted 41 <ref>''Steam, Steel and Shellfire'', Conway's History of the Ship (p41)</ref>.
In the end, France and the United Kingdom were the only two countries to develop fleets of wooden steam battleships, although several other navies are known to have had at least one unit, built or converted with British technical support ([[Russia]], [[Turkey]], [[Sweden]], [[Naples]], [[Denmark]] and [[Austria]]).
===Ironclads===
[[Image:La Gloire.jpg|thumb|300px|[[FS Gloire (1858-1883)|''La Gloire'']], the first ocean-going [[ironclad]] warship ([[1858]])]]
The United Kingdom's naval supremacy was further challenged in [[1859]] when France launched [[FS Gloire (1858-1883)|''La Gloire'']], the first ocean-going [[ironclad]] warship. ''La Gloire'' was developed as a ship of the line, in effect a battleship cut to one deck due to weight considerations. Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most of her journeys, ''La Gloire'' was fitted with a propeller and her wooden hull was protected by a layer of thick iron armour. This ship instantly rendered all British battleships obsolete, as British vessels would easily be outmaneuvered and their [[cannonball]]s would simply bounce off ''Gloire's'' revolutionary metal armour. The United Kingdom sparked a massive naval [[arms race]] by launching the superior all-iron [[HMS Warrior (1860)|''Warrior'']] in [[1860]]. The improvements in ship design that followed made both ships obsolescent within 10 years. With the Royal Navy's "wooden walls" rendered obsolete by the new breed of ironclad ships, other world powers seized the opportunity to build high-tech warships to rival British vessels, and major warship construction programmes began in earnest in the United Kingdom, France, [[Italy]], [[Austria-Hungary]], Russia and [[Prussia]]/[[Germany]]. Intent to maintain naval superiority (under the premise that the Royal Navy had to outnumber the world's next two largest navies combined), the British government spent more and more money on up-to-the-minute warship designs.
===Turrets and rifled guns===
Soon after, however, turreted guns began to be used, following the designs of the Swedish [[shipwright]] [[John Ericsson]] and the British inventor [[Cowper Phipps Coles|Capt. Cowper Coles]]. This was largely necessitated by the introduction of [[paddle wheel]]s, which prevented ships from displaying lines of guns along their sides. [[Turret]]s allowed the guns to fire on both beams, so fewer guns needed to be carried. In the 1870s the armoured frigate type, with its side-ported guns, dropped out of fashion. Armoured cruisers, which were first built with broadside guns, soon adopted turrets as well. The transition from [[smoothbore]] cannon to [[Rifled Muzzle Loader]]s and [[Rifled Breech Loader]]s greatly affected the design of the ships. The fear that an enemy naval power could launch an attack with ships that were only slightly superior became a major factor in British defence policy during the late [[19th Century]]. Warship technology was advancing so rapidly from 1865-1906 that new battleships were often rendered obsolete within a few years of construction. This created a huge financial strain - by 1870, the British government was spending a staggering 37% of its annual national budget on the construction of new battleships.
=== [[Gunpowder]] advances ===
[[Black powder]] combusted rapidly, and therefore useful [[cannon]]s required relatively short barrels, otherwise the friction of the barrel would slow down the shell accelerated by the violent expansion of the powder. The sharpness of the black powder explosion also meant that guns were subjected to extreme material stress. One important step was to press the powder into pellets. This kept the ingredients from separating and allowed some control of combustion by choosing the pellet size. Brown powder (black powder, "incorporating charcoal that was only partially carbonized" [http://footguards.tripod.com/06ARTICLES/ART28_blackpowder.htm]), which combusted less rapidly, allowed longer barrels, which allowed greater accuracy; and because it expanded less sharply than regular black powder, it put less strain on the insides of the barrel, allowing guns to last longer and to be manufactured to tighter tolerances.
The development of [[smokeless powder]] was a critical step in the creation of the modern battleship. It did not seriously impede vision. The energy content, and therefore the propulsion, is much greater than that of black powder, its rate of combustion can be controlled by choosing the right mixture, it resists detonation and it has little tendency to corrode the metal of the gun.
These advances permitted a battleship to mount fewer guns to greater effect than its predecessors.
===Steel battleships===
[[Image:LeRedoutablePhoto.jpg|thumb|300px|The French ''Redoutable'' (1876), the first battleship to use steel as the main building material]]
Compared to [[iron]], [[steel]] allowed for greater structural strength for a lower weight. [[France]] was the first country to manufacture steel in large quantities, using the [[Carl Wilhelm Siemens|Siemens]] process. The French Navy's [[French battleship Redoutable (1876)|''Redoutable'']], laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876 was a central battery and [[barbette]] warship which became the first battleship in the world to use [[steel]] as the principal building material <ref>Conway Marine, ''Steam, Steel and Shellfire'' (p96)</ref>. At that time, steel plates still had some defects, and the outer bottom plating of the ship was made of [[wrought iron]].
Warships with all-steel constructions were later built by the [[Royal Navy]], with the dispatch vessels ''Iris'' and ''Mercury'', laid down in 1875 and 1876. For these, the United Kingdom initially adopted the Siemens process, but then shifted to the more economical [[Bessemer process|Bessemer]] steel manufacturing process, so that all subsequent ships were all-steel, other than some cruisers with composite hulls (iron/steel framing and wood planking).
===Design experiments===
From [[1870]] to [[1890]] battleship design was in a wildly experimental phase, as different navies experimented with different turret arrangements, sizes and numbers, with each new design rendering the previous ones largely obsolete overnight. Unlike the British the French often built a single example of each new design. Therefore the French navy was mocked as a " fleet of samples". Bizarre experimental warships appeared&mdash;a series of German warships were built with dozens of small guns to repel smaller craft, a British vessel was built using a [[turbine]] engine (which ironically became the main propulsion system for all ships), whilst an entire class of French battleships such as the 1896 [[French battleship Bouvet|''Bouvet'']] &mdash; known as "fierce-face" designs &mdash; were developed without regard to symmet |
[[Theremin]], invented by Professor [[Léon Theremin|Leon Theremin]] circa 1919 - 1920. Another early electronic instrument was the [[Ondes Martenot]], which was used in the ''[[Turangalîla-Symphonie]]'' by [[Olivier Messiaen]] and also by other, primarily French, composers such as [[Andre Jolivet]].
===Post-war years: 1940s to 1950s===
:''Main articles: [[Electronic art music#History|History of electronic art music]], [[Musique concrète]]''
The [[tape recorder]] was invented in Germany during [[World War II]]. It wasn't long before composers used the tape recorder to develop a new technique for composition called [[Musique concrète]]. This technique involved editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. Frequently, composers used sounds that were produced entirely by electronic devices not designed for a musical purpose. The first pieces of ''musique concrète'' were written by [[Pierre Schaeffer]], who later worked alongside such [[avant-garde]] [[modern classical music|classical]] composers as [[Pierre Henry]], [[Pierre Boulez]] and [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]. Stockhausen has worked for many years as part of [[Cologne]]'s [[Studio for Electronic Music]] combining electronically generated sounds with conventional [[orchestra]]s. The first electronic music for [[magnetic tape]] composed in [[United States of America|America]] was completed by [[Louis and Bebe Barron]] in 1950.
Two new electronic instruments made their debut in 1957. Unlike the earlier Theremin and Ondes Martenot, these instruments were hard to use, required extensive programming, and neither could be played in real time. The first of these electronic instruments was the computer when [[Max Mathews]] used a program called [[Music 1]], and later [[Music 2]], to create original compositions at [[Bell Laboratories]]. Other well-known composers using computers at the time include [[Edgard Varèse]], and [[Iannis Xenakis]]. The other electronic instrument that appeared that year was the first electronic synthesizer. Called the [[RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer]], it used [[vacuum tube]] oscillators and incorporated the first electronic [[music sequencer]]. It was designed by RCA and installed at [[The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center]] where it remains to this day.
The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, now known as the [[Computer Music Center]], is the oldest center for electronic and computer music research in the United States. It was founded in 1958 by [[Vladimir Ussachevsky]] and [[Otto Luening]] who had been working with magnetic tape manipulation since the early 1950s. A studio was built there with the help of engineer [[Peter Mauzey]] and it became the hub of American electronic music production until about 1980. [[Robert Moog]] developed voltage controlled oscillators and envelope generators while there, and these were later used as the heart of the [[Moog synthesizer]].
===1960s to late 1970s===
Because of the complexities of composing with a synthesizer or computer, let alone the lack of access, most composers continued exploring electronic sounds using musique concrète even into the 60s. But musique concrète was clumsy at best and a few composers sought better technology for the task. That search led three, independent, teams to develop the world's first, playable, electronic [[synthesizer]]s.
The first of these synthesizers to appear was the [[Buchla]]. Appearing in 1963, it was the product of an effort spearheaded by musique concrète composer [[Morton Subotnick]]. In 1962, working with a grant from the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], Subotnick and business partner [[Ramon Sender]] hired electrical engineer [[Don Buchla]] to build a "black box" for composition. Subotnick describes their idea in the following terms:
:"Our idea was to build the black box that would be a palette for composers in their homes. It would be their studio. The idea was to design it so that it was like an analog computer. It was not a musical instrument but it was modular...It was a collection of modules of voltage-controlled envelope generators and it had sequencers in it right off the bat...It was a collection of modules that you would put together. There were no two systems the same until CBS bought it...Our goal was that it should be under $400 for the entire instrument and we came every close. That's why the original instrument I fundraised for was under $500."
Another playable synthesizer, the first to use a piano styled keyboard, was the brainchild of [[Robert Moog]]. In 1964, he invited composer [[Herb Deutsch]] to visit his studio in Trumansburg. Moog had met Deutsch the year before, heard his music, and decided to follow the composer's suggestion and build electronic music modules. By the time Deutsch arrived for the visit, Moog had created prototypes of two voltage-controlled oscillators. Deutsch played with the devices for a few days; Moog found Deutsch's experiments so musically interesting that he subsequently built a voltage-controlled filter. Then, by a stroke of luck, Moog was invited that September to the [[AES]] Convention in New York City, where he presented a paper called "Electronic Music Modules" and sold his first synthesizer modules to choreographer [[Alwin Nikolais]]. By the end of the convention, Moog had entered the synthesizer business.
Also in 1964, [[Paul Ketoff]], a sound engineer for RCA Italiana in Rome, approached [[William O. Smith]], who headed the electronic music studio at the city's American Academy, with a proposal to build a small playable synthesizer for the academy's studio. Smith consulted with [[Otto Luening]], [[John Eaton]], and other composers who were in residence at the academy at the time. Smith accepted Ketoff's proposal, and Ketoff delivered his [[Synket]] (for Synthesizer Ketoff) synthesizer in early 1965.
Although electronic music began in the world of classical (or "art") composition, within a few years it had been adopted into popular culture with varying degrees of enthusiasm. One of the first electronic signature tunes for [[television]] was the [[theme music]] for ''[[Doctor Who]]'' in [[1963]]. It was created at the [[BBC]] sound special effects unit [[Radiophonic Workshop]] by [[Ron Grainer]] and [[Delia Derbyshire]].
In the late [[1960s]], [[Wendy Carlos]] popularized early [[synthesizer]] music with two notable albums ''[[Switched-On Bach]]'' and ''[[The Well-Tempered Synthesizer]]'', which took pieces of baroque [[European classical music|classical music]] and reproduced them on [[Robert Moog|Moog]] [[synthesizer]]s. The Moog generated only a single note at a time, so that producing a multilayered piece, such as Carlos did, required many hours of studio time. The early machines were notoriously unstable, and went out of tune easily. Still, some musicians, notably [[Keith Emerson]] of [[Emerson Lake and Palmer]] did take them on the road. The [[theremin]], an exceedingly difficult instrument to play, was even used in some popular music, most notably in "Good Vibrations" by [[The Beach Boys]]. There was also the [[Mellotron]] which appeared in [[the Beatles]]' [[Strawberry Fields Forever]], and the volume tone pedal was uniquely used as a backing instrument in [[Yes It Is]].
As technology developed, and [[synthesizer|synthesizers]] became cheaper, more robust and portable, they were adopted by many [[rock band]]s. Examples of relatively early adopters in this field are bands like [[The United States of America (band)|The United States of America]], [[The Silver Apples]] and [[Pink Floyd]], and although not all of their music was electronic (with the notable exception of The Silver Apples), much of the resulting sound was dependent upon the synthesiser. In the 1970s, this style was mainly popularised by [[Kraftwerk]], who used electronics and robotics to symbolise and sometimes gleefully celebrate the alienation of the modern technological world. To this day their music remains uncompromisingly electronic. In [[Germany]] particularly electronic sounds were incorporated into popular music by bands such as [[Tangerine Dream]], [[Can (band)|Can]], and others.
In [[jazz]], amplified [[acoustic instrument]]s and synthesizers were combined in a series of influential recordings by [[Weather Report]]. [[Joe Zawinul]], the synthesizer artist in that group, has continued to field ensembles of the same kind. The noted jazz pianist [[Herbie Hancock]] with his band [[Head Hunters (album)|The Headhunters]] in the 1970s also introduced jazz listeners to a wider palette of electronic sounds including the synthesizer, which he further explored with even more enthusiasm on the ''Future Shock'' album, a collaboration with producer [[Bill Laswell]] in the [[1980s]], which spawned a pop hit "[[Rockit]]" in [[1983]].
Musicians such as [[Tangerine Dream]], [[Klaus Schulze]], [[Brian Eno]], [[Vangelis]], [[Jean Michel Jarre]], [[Ray Buttigieg]], as well as the Japanese composers [[Isao Tomita]] and [[Kitaro]], also popularised the sound of electronic music. The film industry also began to make extensive use of electronic music in [[soundtrack]]s. An example is the [[Wendy Carlos]]' score for ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'', [[A_Clockwork_Orange_(film)|Stanley Kubrick's film]] of the [[Anthony Burgess]] novel.
The score for ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'', by [[Louis and Bebe Barron]], had used electronic sound, although not synthesizers per se, in 1956. Once electronic sounds became more common in popular recordings, other [[science fiction]] films such as ''[[Blade Runner]]'' and the ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'' series of movies began to depend heavily for [[mood]] and [[ambience]] upon the use of electronic music and electronically derived effects. Electronic groups were also hired to produce entire soundtracks, just like other popular music stars.
===Late 1970s to late 1980s===
:''Main articles: [[Industrial mus |
o appeared in the movie The Last Samurai at the final battle between the Samurais and the government.
==See also==
{{Commonscat|Gatling gun}}
* [[Volley gun]]
* [[Mitrailleuse]]
* [[Maxim gun]]
* [[Revolver cannon]]
* [[CIWS]]
==External links==
*[http://www.canit.se/~griffon/aviation/text/akandata.htm List of Military Gatling & Revolver cannons]
*{{US patent|36836}} -- ''Gatling gun''
*{{US patent|47631}} -- ''improved Gatling gun''
*{{US patent|112138}} -- ''revolving battery gun''
*{{US patent|125563}} -- ''improvement in revolving battery guns''
*[http://www.geocities.com/maj314159/Colt1900.html "Colt 30 Cal Gatling Gun Model 1900 Army" drawings]
*http://www.world.guns.ru/machine/minigun-e.htm
*[http://www.nazarian.no/wepc.asp?lang=0&group_id=25 Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide]
*[http://science.howstuffworks.com/machine-gun4.htm Description of operating principle with animation from How Things Work website]
[[Category:Early machine guns]]
[[Category:Multi-barrel machine guns]]
[[Category:Rotary cannons]]
[[Category:Weapons of the United States]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Granville''' is a suburb of [[Sydney]], [[Australia]], within the [[City of Parramatta]] [[Local Government Area]]. It is most notable as the site of the [[Granville railway disaster]].
== External links ==
{{Mapit-AUS-suburbscale|long=151.00790|lat=-33.84040}}
{{Sydney Holroyd suburbs}}
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<title>Georg Philipp Telemann</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Georg Philipp Telemann''' ([[March 14]], [[1681]] &ndash; [[June 25]], [[1767]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[Baroque music]] [[composer]], born in [[Magdeburg]]. Self-taught in music, he studied languages and science at the [[University of Leipzig]]. Credited as the most prolific composer of all time, he was a contemporary of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], and friend of [[George Frideric Handel]]. While in the present day Bach is generally thought of as the greater composer, Telemann was widely renowned for his musical abilities during his lifetime.
[[Image:Telemann.jpg|right|framed|Georg Philipp Telemann]]
Telemann was so prolific that he was never able to count the number of his compositions. He traveled widely, absorbing various musical styles and incorporating them into his own compositions.
Telemann is known for writing concertos for unusual combinations of instruments, such as multiple violas or trumpets.
He held a series of important musical positions, culminating in that of music director of the five largest churches in [[Hamburg]], from [[1720]] until his death in 1767. He was succeeded by his godson [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]].
==Life==
Georg Philipp Telemann was born in [[Magdeburg]], now part of [[Saxony-Anhalt]], in 1681. Telemann’s family was not particularly musical; his great-grandfather had served as [[Cantor]] at [[Halberstadt]], but no one else in his direct family had been involved in music. Telemann’s father died in [[1685]], leaving his mother to raise and see to the education of the children. They were an upper-middle class family, and many worked in the church. Telemann began to discover music at age 10, and quickly showed talent, composing his first [[opera]] by age 12. But this talent was not approved of by his family. Fearing that her son would pursue a career in music, Telemann’s mother confiscated all of his musical instruments and in [[1693]] sent him to a new school in Zellerfeld hoping that this change would put the boy on a more lucrative career path. However, the superintendent of this school approved of his talents, and Telemann continued to compose and expand his knowledge of music on his own. By the time he completed his studies at the Gymnasium Andreanum in Hildesheim, Telemann had learned to play the [[recorder]], [[organ (music)|organ]], [[violin]], [[viola da gamba]], [[flute]], [[oboe]], [[chalumeau]], [[double bass]], and [[bass trombone]], almost entirely by himself. His travels had also exposed him to newer musical styles, and the music of [[Johann Rosenmüller|Rosenmüller]] and [[Corelli]] became early influences.
In [[1701]], Telemann entered the Leipzig University intending to study law, perhaps at the request of his mother. It was not long before his musical talent was found out, however, and he was commissioned to write music for two of the city’s main churches. Soon thereafter, he founded a 40-member [[Collegium Musicum]] to give concerts of his music. The next year, Telemann became the director of Leipzig’s [[opera]] house and cantor of one of its churches. His growing prominence began to anger elder composer [[Johann Kuhnau]], whose position as director of music for the city had been encroached upon by Telemann’s appointment as a cantor. Telemann was also using many students in his opera productions, leaving them less time to devote to participation in church music for Kuhnau. Kuhnau denounced Telemann as an “opera musician”. Even after Telemann’s departure, Kuhnau could not regain the performers he had lost to the opera.
Telemann left [[Leipzig]] in [[1705]] to become [[Kapellmeister]] for the court of Count Erdmann II. Here he acquainted himself with the French style of [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]] and [[André Campra|Campra]], composing around 200 French [[overture]]s and [[suite]]s in his 16 years at the post. Despite this prodigious output, the most productive phase of Telemann’s career did not begin until he took his next post in [[1721]], as musical director of the five main churches in Hamburg, a position he would hold for the rest of his life. Here Telemann wrote two [[cantata]]s for each Sunday, as well as other sacred music for special occasions, all while teaching singing and [[music theory]] and directing another collegium musicum, which gave weekly or bi-weekly performances. Telemann also directed the local opera house for a few years, but this proved a financial failure.
When the position Kuhnau had once held in Leipzig became vacant, Telemann applied for the position. Of the six musicians who applied, he was the favored candidate, even winning the approval of the city’s council. Telemann declined the position, but only after using the offer as leverage to secure a pay raise for his position in Hamburg. When Telemann declined, the job was given to [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]. Telemann also augmented his Hamburg pay with a few small positions in other courts, and through publishing volumes of his own music.
Starting around [[1740]], Telemann’s output decreased as he began to focus more energy on writing theoretical treatises. During this time he also corresponded with some younger composers, including [[Franz Benda]] and Telemann's godson, [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|C.P.E. Bach]]. Following the death of his eldest son Andreas in [[1755]], Telemann assumed the responsibility of raising his grandson [[Georg Michael Telemann]], and beginning the future composer’s education in music. Many of his sacred [[oratorio]]s date from this period. In his later years, Telemann’s eyesight began to deteriorate, and this led to a decline in his output around [[1762]], but the composer continued to write until his death on June 25, 1767.
==Works and reputation==
The ''[[Guinness Book of World Records]]'' lists Telemann as the most prolific composer of all time with more than 800 credited works. More recent study, for example the thematic catalogues of his works published in the 1980s and 1990s, has shown that Telemann actually composed over 3,000 compositions, many of which are now lost. Many of the manuscripts were destroyed during World War II.
Telemann was highly regarded during his lifetime, and for several decades afterwards; however by the first decades of the 19th century his works were performed increasingly less frequently. The last performance of a substantial work by Telemann, ''Der Tod Jesu'', until the 20th century, was in 1832. Indeed the 1911 ''[[1911 Encyclopedia Britannica|Encyclopedia Britannica]]'', which includes large articles on both [[J.S. Bach]] and [[Handel]], makes not a single mention of Telemann.
The revival of interest in Telemann be |
;#30436;|p=su&agrave;np&aacute;n}}) of the [[China|Chinese]] is similar to the Roman abacus in principle, though has a different construction, and it was designed to do both decimal and hexadecimal arithmetics.
[[image:abacus_6.png|right|Chinese abacus, the suanpan]]
The Chinese abacus is typically around 20 cm (8 inches) tall and it comes in various widths depending on the application. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom for both decimal and hexadecimal computation. The beads are usually rounded and made of a hard wood. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam. The abacus can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick jerk along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center.
Chinese abaci can be used for functions other than counting. Unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools, very efficient suanpan techniques have been developed to do [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]] and [[cube root]] operations at high speed.
'''Bead arithmetic''' is the calculating technique used with various types of abaci, in particular the Chinese abacus.
== Japanese abacus (Soroban) ==
The Japanese eliminated (first) one bead from the upper deck and (later) another bead from the lower deck in each column of the Chinese abacus. The Japanese also eliminated the use of Qiuchu (Chinese division table). The method of Chinese division table was still used when there were 5 lower beads. There came the war of the Multiplication Table versus the Division Table. The school of Multiplication table prevailed in 1920s. The rods (number of digits) increase to usually 21, 23, 27 or even 31, thus allowing calculation for more digits.
Soroban is taught in elementary schools as a part of lessons in mathematics. When teaching the soroban, a song-like instruction is given by the tutor. The soroban is about 8 cm (3 inches) tall. The beads on a soroban are usually shaped as a double cone (bi-cone) to facilitate ease of movement.
Often, primary students may bring along with them two sorobans, one with 1 upper bead and 5 lower beads, the other with 1 upper bead with 4 lower beads, when they learn soroban in school.
The size of beads of soroban is standardized, and they come in two types: the "Japanese" classified soroban for native Japanese, and a separate size for foreigners (since Westerners tend to be larger than most Japanese, and therefore have larger hands and fingers). The soroban that are for foreigners are made with a plastic pipe on both the left and right side of the frame, while ones made for native Japanese were all made with wooden frames. In this way the "thickness" of the soroban (for foreigners) is higher, rendering it easier for the non-Japanese to manipulate.
<center>[[Image:Soroban.JPG|none|thumb|400px|Japanese soroban]]</center>
== Russian abacus ==
[[Image:Schoty_abacus.jpg|thumb|Russian abacus]]
The Russian abacus, the [[schoty]] or sjotty (&#1089;&#1095;&#1105;&#1090;&#1099;), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire which has four, and acts as a separator or for fractions). This wire is usually near the user. The Russian abacus is often used vertically, with wires from left to right in the manner of a book. The wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, in order to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually have a colour different to the other 8 beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color.
The Russian abacus is still in common use today in shops and markets throughout the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|former Soviet Union]], although it is no longer taught in most schools.
== School abacus ==
[[Image:Kugleramme.jpg|right|150px|thumb|School abacus used in Danish elementary school. Early 20th century.]]
Around the world, abaci have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching arithmetics. In Western countries, a '''bead frame''' similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires has been common (see image). It is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy.
== Uses by the visually impaired ==
Abaci are still commonly used by individuals who have [[blindness|visual impairments]]. They use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]] and [[cubic root]]. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they don't move inadvertently. This keeps the beads in place while the user feels or manipulates them.
Recently, abaci have been replaced to some extent by electronic calculators with speech, but only in those countries where they are easily available and affordable. However, even when they are available, many visually impaired people still prefer to use the abacus. In addition, many blind children are required to learn how to use the abacus before they are permitted the use of a talking calculator or similar device. This can be compared to sighted children being required to learn how to solve mathematical problems on paper before they are allowed the use of a calculator.
== Native American abacus ==
Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a ''Nepohualtzintzin'' in ancient Mayan culture. This Mesoamerican abacus uses the 5-digit base-20 [[Mayan numerals|Mayan numeral]] system.
The [[khipu]] of the [[Inka]]s was a system of knotted cords used to record numerical data - like advanced [[tally stick]]s&mdash;but was not used to perform calculations.
== See also ==
* [[Chisenbop]]
* [[Slide rule]]
* [[Napier's bones]]
* [[History of computing]]
* [[History of computing hardware]]
* [[Abacus logic]]
* [[Abacus system | Mental abacus]]
* [[Positional notation]]
==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abacus}}
{{Commons|Abacus}}
===General and historical articles===
*[http://www.abacus.ca/abacus-images.php Abacus Photos and Images]
*[http://www.ee.ryerson.ca/~elf/abacus/ Abacus]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Abacus.html#4 Roman abacus]
===Tutorials===
<!-- in alphabetical order by author -->
* [http://www.gis.net/~daveber/Abacus/Abacus.htm Bernazzani's Soroban Abacus Handbook]
* [http://www.minmm.com/minc/show_classes.php?id=273 Min Multimedia]
* [http://www.sungwh.freeserve.co.uk/sapienti/abacus01.htm Suan Pan]
* [http://webhome.idirect.com/~totton/abacus/ Abacus: Mystery of the Bead - an Abacus Manual]
===Abacus curiosities===
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/Abacus.shtml Abacus in Various Number Systems] at [[cut-the-knot]]
*[http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/abacus.html Java applet of Chinese, Japanese and Russian abaci]
*[http://www.research.ibm.com/atomic/nano/roomtemp.html An atomic-scale abacus]
[[Category:Ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Mathematical tools]]
[[Category:Mechanical calculators]]
[[af:Abakus]]
[[ar:أباكوس]]
[[be:Абак]]
[[ca:Àbac]]
[[cs:Abakus]]
[[da:Abacus (regnemaskine)]]
[[de:Abakus (Rechentafel)]]
[[el:Άβακας]]
[[es:Ábaco]]
[[eo:Abako]]
[[fa:چرتکه]]
[[fr:Boulier]]
[[gl:Ábaco]]
[[ia:Abaco]]
[[it:Abaco]]
[[he:חשבונייה]]
[[hu:Abakusz]]
[[nah:Nepohualtzintzin]]
[[nl:Abacus]]
[[ja:そろばん]]
[[pl:Abakus (liczydło)]]
[[pt:Ábaco]]
[[ru:Абак]]
[[sl:Abak]]
[[fi:Helmitaulu]]
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[[tl:Abakus]]
[[ta:எண்சட்டம்]]
[[th:ลูกคิด]]
[[tr:Abaküs]]
[[zh:算盘]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acid</title>
<id>656</id>
<revision>
<id>42117662</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:03:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hashbrowncipher</username>
<id>592332</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Replaced false arab etymology</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|strong acid}}
{{Acids and Bases}}
{{otheruses}}
{{For|the cyber novellete by Nadeem Parachee|Acidity (Novelette)}}
An '''acid''' (often represented by the generic formula '''HA''') is a water-soluble, sour-tasting [[chemical compound]] that when dissolved in [[water]], gives a solution with a [[pH]] of less than 7.
== Definitions of acids and bases ==
The word "acid" comes from the [[Latin]] ''acidus'' meaning "sour", but in [[chemistry]] the term acid has a more specific meaning. There are three common [[Acid-base reaction theories|ways to define an acid]], namely, the '''Arrhenius''', the '''Brønsted-Lowry''' and the '''Lewis''' definitions, in order of increasing generality.
* '''Arrhenius''': According to this definition, an acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ion (H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>) when dissolved in water, while bases are substances that increase the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH<sup>-</sup>). This definition limits acids and bases to substances that can dissolve in water. Around 1800, many [[France|French]] chemists, including [[Antoine Lavoisier]], incorrectly believed that all acids contained [[oxygen]]. [[England|English]] chemists, including [[Sir Humphry Davy]] at the same time believed all acids contained hydrogen. The [[Sweden|Swedish]] chemist [[Svante Arrhenius]] used this belief to develop this definition of acid.
* '''Brønsted-Lowry''': According to this definition, an acid is a [[proton]] donor and a base is a proton acceptor. The acid is said to be dissociated after the proton is donated. An acid and the corresponding base are referred to conjugate acid-base pairs. [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted|Brønsted]] and [[Martin |
own off course by [[Zephyrus]], who was jealous of Apollo and loved Hyacinthus as well. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said in some accounts to have been so filled with grief that he cursed his own immortality, wishing to join his lover in mortal death. Out of the blood of his slain lover Apollo created the [[hyacinth (flower)|hyacinth flower]] as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with ''άί'' ''άί'', meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.
One of his other liaisons was with [[Acantha]], the spirit of the [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] tree. Upon his death, he was transformed into a sun-loving herb by Apollo, and his bereaved sister, Acanthis, was turned into a thistle finch by the other gods.
Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave the boy a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo turned the sad boy into a [[Cupressaceae|cypress]] tree, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.
== Apollo and the Birth of [[Hermes]] ==
Hermes was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in Arcadia. The story is told in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Hermes]]. His mother, [[Maia]], had been secretly impregnated by [[Zeus]], in a secret affair. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to [[Thessaly]], where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre and Hermes invented a kind of pipes-instrument called a [[syrinx]].
Later, Apollo exchanged a [[caduceus]] for a [[syrinx]] from Hermes.
== Other stories ==
=== Musical contests ===
==== [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] ====
Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[lyre]], to a trial of skill. [[Tmolus]], the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented, and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]].
==== [[Marsyas]] ====
[[Image:The Flaying of Marsyas.jpg|thumb|230px|''The Flaying of Marsyas'' by [[Titian]], c.1570-76.]]
Marsyas was a [[satyr]] who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. Marsyas lost and was [[flaying|flayed]] alive in a cave near [[Calaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. His blood turned into the river Marsyas.
Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive. [taken from ''MAN MYTH & MAGIC'' by Richard Cavendish]
=== Miscellaneous ===
When Zeus killed [[Asclepius]] for raising the dead and violating the natural order of things, Apollo killed the [[Cyclopes]] in response. They had fashioned Zeus' thunderbolts, which he used to kill Apollo's son, Asclepius. As punishment, he was condemned by Zeus to year's servitude to King Admetus.
Apollo gave the order, through the Oracle at Delphi, for [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] to kill his mother, [[Clytemnestra]], and her lover, [[Aegisthus]]. Orestes was punished fiercely by the [[Erinyes]] for this crime.
In the [[Odyssey]], [[Odysseus]] and his surviving crew landed on an island sacred to Helios the sun god, where he kept sacred cattle. Though Odysseus warned his men not to (as [[Tiresias]] and [[kirke]] had told him), they killed and ate some of the cattle and Helios had [[Zeus]] destroy the ship and all the men save [[Odysseus]].
Apollo also had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], his son, who committed suicide when he lost.
Apollo killed the [[Aloadae]] when they attempted to storm [[Mt. Olympus]].
It was also said that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperboreans]] during the winter months, a swan that he also lent to his beloved Hyacinthus to ride.
Apollo turned [[Cephissus]] into a [[sea monster]].
'''Consorts/Children'''
# Male Beloveds
## [[Acantha]]
## [[Cyparissus]]
## [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]]
## [[Hymenaeus]]
# Female Lovers
## [[Arsinoe (mythology)|Arsinoe]]
### [[Asclepius]]
## [[Cassandra]]
## [[Calliope]]
### [[Linus]]
### [[Orpheus]]
## [[Chione]]
### [[Philammon]]
## [[Coronis]]
### [[Asclepius]]
## [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]]
### [[Aristaeus]]
## [[Daphne]]
## [[Dryope]]
### [[Amphissus]]
## [[Hecuba]]
### [[Troilius]]
### [[Polyxena]]
## [[Leucothea]]
## [[Manto (Greek mythology)|Manto]]
### [[Mopsus]]
## [[Psamathe]]
### [[Linus]]
## [[Rhoeo]]
### [[Anius]]
## [[Terpsichore]]
### [[Linus]]
## Unknown Mother
### [[Cinyras]]
### [[Cycnus]]
### [[Phemonoe]]
## [[Urania]]
### [[Linus]]
== Spoken-word myths - audio files ==
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
|-
! style="background:#ffdead;" | Apollo Myths as told by story tellers
|-
|[[Media:Apollo and Hyacinth - wiki.ogg|1. ''Apollo and Hyacinthus,'' read by Timothy Carter]]
|-
|'''Bibliography of reconstruction:''' [[Homer]], ''Illiad'' ii.595 - 600 (c. 700 BC); Various 5th century BC vase paintings; [[Palaephatus]], ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 BC); [[Apollodorus]], ''Library'' 1.3.3 (140 BC); [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162-219 (AD 1 - 8); [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (AD 160 - 176); [[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (AD 170 - 245); [[Philostratus the Younger]], ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (AD 170 - 245); [[Lucian]], ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (AD 170); [[First Vatican Mythographer]], 197. Thamyris et Musae
|-
|}
==Apollo in popular culture==
In the ''[[Star Trek]]'' episode "[[Who Mourns for Adonis?]]" a man claiming to be Apollo is seen on a [[Greek]]-themed planet that [[Captain Kirk]], [[Pavel Chekov]], [[Mr. Spock]], and [[Dr. McCoy]] arrive on.
In the ''[[Battlestar_Galactica|Battlestar Galactica]]'' series, one of the main characters is given the call-sign of Apollo.
The song "[[Cygnus X-1 Book II: Hemispheres]]" by [[Rush (band)|Rush]] is about the struggle between the champions of the two Hemispheres, Apollo, the God of Reason, and [[Dionysus]], the God of Love. The song appears of the [[1978]] album ''[[Hemispheres (1978 album)|Hemispheres]]''.
In the sixties, [[NASA]] named its [[Apollo program|Apollo Lunar program]] because Apollo was considered the god of all wisdom. Many people mistakenly believe that the rockets that carried astronauts to the Moon were called Apollo rockets; they were [[Saturn V]] rockets.
== References ==
* [[F. L. W. Schwartz]], ''De antiquissima Apollinis Natura'' (Berlin, 1843)
* [[J. A. Schönborn]], ''Über das Wesen Apollons'' (Berlin, 1854)
* [[Arthur Milchhoefer]], ''Über den attischen Apollon'' (Munich, 1873)
* [[Theodor Schreiber]], ''Apollon Pythoktonos'' (Leipzig, 1879)
* [[W. H. Roscher]], ''Studien zur vergleichenden Mythologie der Griechen und Romer'', i. (Leipzig, 1873)
* [[R. Hecker]], ''De Apollinis apud Romanos Cultu'' (Leipzig, 1879)
* [[Gaston Colin]], ''Le Culte d'Apollon pythien à Athènes'' (1905)
* [[Louis Dyer]], ''Studies of the Gods in Greece'' (1891)
* articles in [[Pauly-Wissowa]]'s ''Realencyclopädie'', W. H. Roscher's ''Lexikon der Mythologie'', and [[Daremberg]] and [[Saglio]]'s ''Dictionnaire des antiquités''
* [[L. Preller]], ''Griechische und romische Mythologie'' (4th ed. by [[C. Robert]])
* [[J. Marquardt]], ''Römische Staalsverwaltung'', iii.
* [[G. Wissowa]], ''Religion und Kultus der Romer'' (1902)
* [[D. Bassi]], ''Saggio di Bibliografia mitologica'', i. ''Apollo'' (1896)
* [[L. Farnell]], ''Cults of the Greek States'', iv. (1907)
* [[O. Gruppe]], ''Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte'', ii. (1906)
* {{1911}}
* M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art'' (Chicago)
* N. Yalouris, 1980. ''The Search for Alexander'' (Boston) Exhibition.
2. For the iconography of the Alexander-Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, "Helios," Journal of the Arnerican Research Center in Egypt 2 (1963) 117-23; cf. Yalouris, no. 42.
==External links==
{{commons|Apollo}}
* [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/ Greek Mythology resource]
* [http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/FCO2003/apollo.htm The Temple of Apollo, Rome]
* [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ The stories of Apollo and Hyacinthus; and Apollo and Cyparissus; and Apollo and Orpheus]
* [http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Apollo/MultifacetedGod.html Apollo and the Romans]
{{Greek myth (Olympian)2}}
{{Roman myth (major)}}
[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Roman gods]]
[[Category:Solar gods]]
[[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]]
[[ar:أبولو (إله إ |
]'' ([[1956]]) and ''[[I'm All Right, Jack]]'' ([[1959]]). As in the U.S., in the next decade much of this talent would move into [[television]].
A number of French comedians were also able to find an [[English language|English speaking]] audience in the '50s, including [[Fernandel]] and [[Jacques Tati]].
===[[1960s in film|1960s]]===
The next decade saw an increasing number of broad, star-packed comedies including ''[[It's a Mad Mad Mad Mad World]]'' ([[1963]]), ''[[Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines]]'' ([[1965]]) and ''[[The Great Race]]'' ([[1965]]). By the middle of the decade, some of the [[1950s]] generation of American comedians, such as [[Jerry Lewis]], went into decline, while [[Peter Sellers]] found success with international audiences in his first American film ''[[The Pink Panther]]''. The bumbling [[Inspector Clouseau]] was a character Sellers would continue to return to over the next decade.
Toward the end of the [[1950s]], darker humor and more serious themes had begun to emerge that included satire and social commentary. ''[[Dr. Strangelove]]'' ([[1964]]) was a satirical comedy about [[Cold War]] paranoia, while ''[[The Apartment]]'' ([[1960]]), ''[[Alfie]]'' ([[1966]]) and ''[[The Graduate]]'' ([[1967]]) featured sexual themes in a way that would have been impossible only a few years previously.
===[[1970s|1970s]]===
In [[1970]] the [[black comedy|black comedies]] ''[[Catch 22]]'' and ''[[M*A*S*H (film)|M*A*S*H]]'' reflected the anti-war sentiment then prevalent, as well as treating the sensitive topic of suicide. ''M*A*S*H'' would be toned down and brought to television in the following decade as a long-running series.
Among the leading lights in comedy films of the next decade were [[Woody Allen]] and [[Mel Brooks]]. Both wrote, produced and acted in their movies. Brooks' style was generally slapstick and zany in nature, often parodying film styles and [[genres]], including [[Universal Horror|Universal horror films]] (''[[Young Frankenstein]]''), [[westerns]] (''[[Blazing Saddles]]'') and [[Alfred Hitchcock|Hitchcock]] films (''[[High Anxiety]]'').
Woody Allen focused on humorous commentary and satire, often based around relationships, as in ''[[Annie Hall]]'' in [[1977]] and ''[[Manhattan]]'' in [[1979]].
Following his success on film and on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] with ''[[The Odd Couple]]'' [[playwright]] and [[screenwriter]] Neil Simon would also be prominent in the [[1970s]], with films like ''[[The Sunshine Boys]]'' and ''[[California Suite]]''.
Other notable film comedians that appeared later in the decade were [[Richard Pryor]], [[Steve Martin]] and [[Burt Reynolds]].
Most [[British comedy]] films of the early 70s were spin-offs of [[television series]], including ''[[Dad's Army]]'' and ''[[On the Buses]]''. The greatest successes, however, came with the films of the [[Monty Python]] team, including ''[[And Now for Something Completely Different]]'' ([[1971]]), ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' ([[1975]]) and ''[[Monty Python's Life of Brian]]'' in [[1979]].
Late in the [[1970s]] a trend toward youth-oriented movies began to emerge, and this was reflected in the comedies. More than half of all movie-goers were under the age of 25, and this resulted in movies such as ''[[Animal House]]'', ''[[Meatballs (film)|Meatballs]]'', and ''[[Kentucky Fried Movie]]'', all in [[1978]]-[[1979]].
===[[1980s in film|1980s]]===
In [[1980 in film|1980]] the gag-based comedy ''[[Airplane!]]'', a [[Parody|spoof]] of the previous decade's disaster film series was released and paved the way for more of the same including ''[[Top Secret!]]'' ([[1984]]) and the ''[[Naked Gun]]'' films.
[[Image:turner_et_hooch.jpg|thumb|150px|left| Cover of Turner and Hooch]]
Popular comedy stars in the '80s included [[Dudley Moore]], [[Tom Hanks]], [[Eddie Murphy]] and [[Dan Aykroyd]]. Many had come to prominence on the American TV series ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', including [[Bill Murray]], [[Steve Martin]] and [[Chevy Chase]]. Eddie Murphy made a success of comedy-[[action movie|action]] films including ''[[48 Hrs.]]'' ([[1982]]) and the ''[[Beverly Hills Cop]]'' series ([[1984]]-[[1993]]).
The decade also saw the rise of [[teen comedies]] like ''[[Fast Times at Ridgemont High]]'', ''[[Porky's]]'' and ''[[Revenge of the Nerds]]''. Many of these were based around teenagers attempts to lose their [[virginity]], a theme that would surface again in the late [[1990s]].
Also popular were the films of [[John Hughes (film director)|John Hughes]], who would become best-known for the ''[[Home Alone]]'' series of the early [[1990s]]. The latter film helped a revival in comedies aimed at a family audience, along with ''[[Honey, I Shrunk the Kids]]'' and its sequels.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s a trend emerged toward the release of sequel films based on previously successful productions. Among the sequels were ''[[Trail of the Pink Panther]]'', ''[[The Great Muppet Caper]]'', and ''[[Porky's II]]''. Unfortunately the revenue for sequels sometimes did not satisfy the investment, and the films would often met with criticism.
Other notable comedies of the decade include the gender-swap film ''[[Tootsie]]'' ([[1982]]), ''[[Broadcast News]]'' ([[1987]]), and a brief spate of age-reversal films including ''[[Big]]'', ''[[18 Again]]'', ''[[Vice Versa]]'' and ''[[Like Father, Like Son]]''. Also notable were the ''[[Police Academy]]'' series of broad comedies, produced between [[1984]] and [[1993]]. Another high quality comedy from the decade was [[Turner & Hooch]].
===[[1990s in film|1990s]]===
Popular comedy stars in the [[1990s]] included [[Jim Carrey]] (''[[The Mask]]''), [[Adam Sandler]] (''[[The Wedding Singer]]'') and [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]] (''[[Austin Powers]]'' and ''[[Wayne's World]]'').
One of the major developments was the re-emergence of the [[romantic comedy]] film, encouraged by the success of ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'' in [[1989 in film|1989]]. Other examples included ''[[Sleepless in Seattle]]'' ([[1993]]), ''[[Clueless]]'' ([[1995]]) and ''[[You've Got Mail]]'' ([[1998]]) from the [[U.S.]], and ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]'' ([[1994]]), ''[[Sliding Doors]]'' ([[1998]]) and ''[[Notting Hill]]'' ([[1999]]) from the [[U.K.]].
Probably more representative of [[British humour]] were the working class comedies ''[[Brassed Off]]'' ([[1996]]) and ''[[The Full Monty]]'' ([[1997]]). Other [[British comedy|British comedies]] examined the role of the [[Asian]] community in British life, including ''[[Bhaji on the Beach]]'' ([[1993]]), ''[[East is East]]'' ([[1999]]), ''[[Bend It Like Beckham]]'' ([[2002]]) and ''[[Anita and Me]]'' ([[2003]]).
Some [[Cinema of Australia|Australian]] comedies also found an international audience following the [[1980s]] success of ''[[Crocodile Dundee]]''. Examples included ''[[Strictly Ballroom]]'' ([[1992]]), ''[[Muriel's Wedding]]'' ([[1994]]) and ''[[The Dish]]'' ([[2001]]).
Another development was the increasing use of "[[gross-out humour]]" usually aimed at a younger audience, in films like ''[[There's Something About Mary]]'', ''[[American Pie (film)|American Pie]]'' and its sequels, and ''[[Freddy Got Fingered]]''.
===[[2000s in film|2000s]]===
In mid 2000s the trend of "gross-out" movies is revamping, with adult-oriented comedies picking up the box office. In [[2005]] several gross-out movies have performed surprisingly well catering to such an adult market, these include ''[[Wedding Crashers]]'' and ''[[The 40-Year-Old Virgin]]''. But serious black comedies (also known as dramatic comedies or dramedies) were performing also well, such as ''[[The Weather Man]]'', ''[[Broken Flowers]]'' and ''[[Shopgirl]]''.
==See also==
* [[100_Years_Series#100_Years...100_Laughs|AFI's 100 Years, 100 Laughs]] (1924-1998, list made in 2000)
* [[Humor]]
* [[List of British comedy films]]
* [[List of comedy films in languages other than English]]
* [[List of United States comedy films]]
==References==
* Thomas W. Bohn and Richard L. Stromgren, ''Light and Shadows: A History of Motion Pictures'', 1975, Mayfield Publishing.
== External links ==
* [http://www.xhollywood.com Funny Videos] Archives of free funny videos and animation
* [http://www.filmsite.org/comedyfilms.html Comedy films] overview
[[Category:Comedy films]]
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[de:Filmkomödie]]
[[es:Comedia (cine)]]
[[ru:Кинокомедия]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cult film</title>
<id>5645</id>
<revision>
<id>42140402</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:13:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Masciare</username>
<id>794625</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Overview */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''cult film''' is a [[film|movie]] that attracts a small but devoted group of [[fan (aficionado)|fans]], usually failing to achieve considerable success outside that group.
==Overview==
Most movies considered "cult films" failed to achieve mainstream success upon original theatrical release, often grossing more money in video rentals and sales than in theater tickets. In most cases (but by no means all), the film hardly makes an impression with the general public and critics are often apathetic as well. However, a small, devoted group of viewers, often "film buffs" or film students, show an extreme appreciation of the film.
[[Image:Rocky Horror Picture Show Cover.jpg|thumb|left|170px|''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'' (1975)]]
''[[The Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'' is the best known and longest-running cult film." The movie combines the conventions from [[science fiction]] and [[horror film|horror]] films and included elements of [[transvestitism]], [[incest]] and [[homosexuality]] — all within the context of a [[Musical film|musical]]. The film received little attention when first released in 1975 but, a few years |
igamous marriage career. He divorced Adelheid in 1356, married a lady named Christina, divorced her, and fourthly (when at least Adelheid and possibly also Christina were alive) c. 1365 married Jadwiga of Glogow and Sagan. His daughters by his fourth wife were very young and regarded as of dubious legitimacy because of their father's bigamy.
When Kazimierz, the last [[Piast]] king of Poland, died in 1370, his nephew king [[Louis I of Hungary]] succeeded him to become king of [[Poland]] in personal union with [[Hungary]].
=== The Great King ===
[[Image:Krakow nagrobek Kazimierza W.jpg|thumb|right|Sarcophagus of Kazimierz the Great at [[Wawel Cathedral]].]]
Kazimierz is the only Polish king who did receive and maintain the title of '''the great''' in Polish history ([[Boleslaw I Chrobry]] was once also called ''the great'', but not today), and the title is well deserved. When he received the crown, his hold on it was in danger, as even his neighbours did not recognise his title and instead called him "king of [[Kraków]]". The [[economic system|economy]] was ruined, and country was depopulated and tired with wars. When he left the country, it had doubled in size (mostly through joining lands in today's [[Ukraine]], then Duchy of [[Halicz]]), grew prosperous, wealthy and had great prospects to the future. Although he is depicted as a peaceful king in children books, he in fact waged many victorious wars and was preparing other ones just before he died.
[[Image:Pieczec Kazimierz Wielki.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Royal seal of Kazimierz the Great.]]
He built many new [[castle]]s, reformed the Polish [[army]] and Polish [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] and [[criminal law]]. At the [[Sejm]] in [[Wislica]], March 11, [[1347]], he introduced salutary legal reforms in the jurisprudence of his country. He sanctioned a code of laws for Great and Little Poland, which gained for him the title of "the Polish Justinian"; and he also limited the [[interest rate]] charged by Jewish money-lenders to Christians to 8 % per annum, while a 108-180% was previously common (owing to extremely high and unstable inflation rates, significantly lower interest rates would result in net losses for the lender. For example, in 1264 the King of Austria had capped Jewish money-lenders' interest rates at 8 dinars on the talent, approximately 170% at the time). This measure was passed after consistent pressure by the [[szlachta]] of the [[Sejm]] (who were primary clients of Jewish money-lenders). This measure was to the detriment of the King, who later affirmed that Jews be allowed to loan on interest as "property" of the King, in order to supplement the King's income when needed. He founded the [[University of Kraków]], although his death stalled the university's development (which is why it is today called the "Jagiellonian" rather than "Casimirian" University).
He organized a meeting of kings at Kraków (1364) in which he exhibited the wealth of the Polish kingdom.
=== Concession to szlachta ===
In order to enlist the support of nobleman ([[szlachta]]), especially the military help of [[pospolite ruszenie]], Kazimierz was forced to give up important privileges to their caste, which made them finally clearly dominant over townsfolk ([[burgher]]s or ''mieszczanstwo'').
[[Image:Wiec Kazimierz Wielki.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[14th century|14th-century]] ''[[wiec]]'', in the reign of Kazimierz the Great.]]
In [[1335]], in the "treaty of [[Trenčín]]", Kazimierz relinquished for "eternal times" his claims to [[Silesia]].
In [[1355]] in [[Buda]] Kazimierz designated Louis of Anjou (Louis I of Hungary) as his successor. In exchange, the szlachta's tax burden was reduced and they would no longer be required to pay for military expeditions expenses outside Poland. Those important concessions would eventually lead to the rise of uthe nique [[Nobles' Democracy|noble's democracy]] in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]].
His second daughter, Elisabeth, Duchess of Pomerania, bore a son in 1351, named after his maternal grandfather as [[Kazimierz of Pomerania]]. He was slated to become the heir, but did not succeed. He died childless in 1377, 7 years after King Kazimierz. He was the only male descendant of King Kazimierz who lived during his lifetime.
Also, his son-in-law Louis of Bavaria-Brandenburg was thought as a possible successor. However, he was not deemed very capable, and his wife had died already in 1357, without children.
Kazimierz had no sons. Apparently he deemed his own descendants either unsuitable to inherit or too young. Thus, and in order to provide a clear line of succession instead of problems of uncertainty, he arranged for his sister Elisabeth, Dowager Queen of Hungary, and her son Louis king of Hungary to be his successors in Poland. Louis was proclaimed king in Kazimierz's death 1370, and Elisabeth held much of the practical power until her death in 1380.
[[Image:50zl r.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Polish 50-''[[złoty]]'' [[banknote]] with image of Kazimierz the Great.]]
Many of the influential lords of Poland were unsatisfied with any personal union with Hungarians, and 12 years after Kazimierz's death, and only a couple of years after Elisabeth's, they refused in 1382 to accept the succession of Louis's eldest surviving daughter Mary (Queen of Hungary) in Poland too. They therefore chose Mary's younger sister, Hedvig, as their new monarch, and she became "King" (=Queen Regnant) [[Jadwiga of Poland]], thus restoring the independence enjoyed until the death of Kazimierz, twelve years earlier.
=== Relationship with Polish Jews ===
He was favorably disposed toward [[Jew]]s. On [[October 9]], [[1334]], he confirmed the privileges granted to Jewish Poles in [[1264]] by [[Boleslaus V]]. Under [[penalty of death]], he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of forcible [[Christianity|Christian]] [[baptism]]. He inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of [[Jewish]] [[cemeteries]].
Although [[Jew]]s were living in Poland earlier, Kazimierz allowed them to settle in Poland in great numbers and protected them as ''people of the king''.
[[Image:Herb Orzel Piastowski.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Piast Eagle coat-of-arms.]]
==See also==
* [[History of Poland (966-1385)]]
{{Monarchs of Poland}}
[[Category:Polish monarchs]]
[[Category:1310 births]]
[[Category:1370 deaths]]
[[be:Казімір III Вялікі]]
[[cs:Kazimír Veliký]]
[[de:Kasimir III. (Polen)]]
[[lv:Kazimirs III]]
[[nl:Casimir III van Polen]]
[[ja:カジミェシュ3世 (ポーランド王)]]
[[pl:Kazimierz III Wielki]]
[[ru:Казимир III]]
[[uk:Казимир III Великий]]
[[zh:卡西米尔三世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Complexity</title>
<id>7363</id>
<revision>
<id>42070478</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:46:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.33.60.41</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ clarification of the link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the [[Electronic sports|professional gaming]] team, see [[Complexity Gaming]].}}
'''Complexity''' is the opposite of [[simplicity]].
Complexity in systems or behaviour is often described as what is "on the [[edge of chaos]]" - between order and [[randomness]].
==Study of complexity==
Complexity has always been a part of our environment, and therefore many [[science|scientific]] fields have dealt with complex systems and phenomena. Indeed, some would say that only what is somehow complex - what displays variation without being purely [[randomness|random]] - is worthy of interest.
While this has led some fields to come up with specific definitions of complexity, there is a more recent movement to regroup observations [[interdisciplinarity|from different fields]] in order to study complexity in itself, whether it appears in [[anthill]]s, [[human brain]]s, or [[stock market]]s.
===Complex systems===
{{main|Complex system}}
[[Systems theory]] has long been concerned with the study of [[complex system]]s (In recent times, '''complexity theory''' and '''complex systems''' have also been used as names of the field). These [[system]]s can be [[biological]], [[economic]], [[technology|technological]], etc.
Complex systems tend to be high-[[dimension]]al and [[non-linearity|non-linear]], but may exhibit low dimensional behaviour.
==== Complex mechanisms ====
Recent development around [[artificial life]], [[evolutionary computation]] and [[genetic algorithm]]s have led to an increasing emphasis on complexity and [[complex adaptive systems]].
==== Complex simulations ====
In [[social science]], the study on the emergence of macro-properties from the micro-properties, also known as macro-micro view in [[sociology]]. The topic is commonly recognized as [[social complexity]] that is often related to the use of [[computer simulation]] in social science, i.e.: [[computational sociology]]
==== Complex behaviour ====
Complex systems's behaviour is often due to [[emergence]] and [[self-organization]]
[[Chaos theory]] has investigated the sensitivity of systems to variations in initial conditions as one cause of complex behaviour.
One of the main claims in [[Stephen Wolfram]]'s book ''[[A New Kind of Science]]'' is that such behaviour can be generated by simple systems, such as the [[rule 110 cellular automaton]].
=== Complexity in data ===
In [[information theory]], [[algorithmic information theory]] is concerned with the complexity of [[string (computer science)|strings]] of data.
Complex strings are harder to compress. While intuition tells us that this may depend on the [[codec]] used to compress a string (a codec could be theoretically created in any arbitrary language, including one in which the very small command "X" could cause the computer to output a very complicated string like '18995316'"), any two [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]] languag |
e of the Confederacy'' 1944.
* C. Vann Woodward , ed. ''Mary Chesnut's Civil War'' 1981.
===Politics===
* Alexander Thomas B., and Richard E. Beringer. ''The Anatomy of the Confederate Congress: A Study of the Influences of Member Characteristics on Legislative Voting Behavior, 1861-1865'' 1972.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24351427 Gabor S. Boritt, et al, ''Why the Confederacy Lost'' (1992)]
* William J. Cooper, ''Jefferson Davis, American'' (2000), standard biography
* E. Merton Coulter . ''The Confederate States of America, 1861-1865''. 1950.
* {{cite book | author=William C. Davis | title=Look Away! A History of the Confederate States of America | publisher=New York: Free Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-684-86585-8}}
* Clement Eaton . ''A History of the Southern Confederacy'' 1954.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1258658 H. J. Eckenrode, ''Jefferson Davis: President of the South'' (1923)]
* Gary W. Gallagher, ''The Confederate War'' (1999)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=29306356 Mark E. Neely Jr., ''Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties'' (1993)]
* Rembert W. Patrick. ''Jefferson Davis and His Cabinet''.1944.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10417084 George C. Rable, ''The Confederate Republic: A Revolution against Politics'' (1994)]
* Charles P. Roland. ''The Confederacy'' 1960. brief
* Emory M. Thomas, ''Confederate Nation: 1861-1865'' (1979) standard political-economic-social history
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14550494 Wilfred Buck Yearns, ''The Confederate Congress'' (1960)]0
* Jon L. Wakelyn: ''Biographical Dictionary of the Confederacy'' Greenwood Press ISBN 0-8371-6124-X
===Primary Sources===
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10434945 Jefferson Davis, ''The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government - Vol. 1'' (1881)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=13580975 Richard B. Harwell, ''The Confederate Reader'' (1957)]
* Jones John B. ''A Rebel War Clerk's Diary at the Confederate States Capital''. Edited by Howard Swiggert. 1935. 2 vols. 1993.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=51247215 W. Buck Yearns and John G. Barret,eds. ''North Carolina Civil War Documentary'' (1980)]
* Jon L. Wakelyn, ed. ''Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860-April 1861'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99424913 Online]
* [http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/index.html online publications from Confederacy] 400 maps, books, pamphlets, plus manuscripts
==External links==
{{commons|Confederate States of America}}
*[http://politicalgraveyard.com/offices/confed1.html#ZY4102y1862 Confederate offices
Index of Politicians by Office Held or Sought]
*Civil War Research & Discussion Group - [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FieldsOfConflict/ Fields Of Conflict] - Containing 1000+ Links And 350+ Articles.
*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/csa/scarsec.htm''Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union''], 1860, South Carolina's Declaration of Independence
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/JK9708x1864/ ''An Act to Prohibit the Importation of Luxuries, or of Articles not Necessary or of Common Use''], 1864, a Confederate Congress document
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/canu/ ''Confederate States of Am. Army and Navy Uniforms''], 1861
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/AP2xC84/ ''The Countryman'', 1862-1866], published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/ccsus/ ''The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared'']
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/F206xS727xv9/ ''The Making of the Confederate Constitution''], by A. L. Hull, 1905.
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/JK4725x1861xA25/ ''Official Journal of the House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana''], November, 1861
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/E468x7xM647/ ''Photographic History of the Civil War'', 10 vols., 1912.]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cw/17609.htm Preventing Diplomatic Recognition of the Confederacy]
*[http://docsouth.unc.edu/index.html DocSouth: Documenting the American South] - numerous online text, image, and audio collections.
*[http://www.archontology.org/nations/csa/ Confederate States of America: Heads of State: 1861-1865]
*[http://docsouth.unc.edu/moore1/moore1.html ''The Geographical Reader for the Dixie Children''] - a Confederacy textbook written in 1863.
[[Category:Confederate States of America| ]]
[[ca:Estats Confederats d'Amèrica]]
[[da:Amerikas Konfødererede Stater]]
[[de:Konföderierte Staaten von Amerika]]
[[et:Ameerika Riikide Konföderatsioon]]
[[es:Estados Confederados de América]]
[[eo:Konfederaciitaj Ŝtatoj de Ameriko]]
[[fr:États confédérés d'Amérique]]
[[hr:Konfederativne Države Amerike]]
[[he:קונפדרציית המדינות של אמריקה]]
[[nl:Geconfedereerde Staten van Amerika]]
[[ja:アメリカ連合国]]
[[no:Amerikas konfødererte stater]]
[[nn:Confederate States of America]]
[[pl:Skonfederowane Stany Ameryki]]
[[pt:Estados Confederados da América]]
[[ru:Конфедеративные штаты Америки]]
[[sr:Конфедеративне Америчке Државе]]
[[fi:Etelävaltiot]]
[[sv:Amerikas konfedererade stater]]
[[zh:美利堅聯盟國]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cranberry</title>
<id>7025</id>
<revision>
<id>42037111</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:37:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MPF</username>
<id>38759</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.126.32.112|24.126.32.112]] ([[User talk:24.126.32.112|talk]]) to last version by Cheftarashetty</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cranberry
| image = Cranberry bog.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Ericales]]
| familia = [[Ericaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Vaccinium]]''
| subgenus = ''Oxycoccus''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''Vaccinium macrocarpon''<br/>
''Vaccinium microcarpum''<br/>
''Vaccinium oxycoccus''
}}
The '''cranberries''' are a group of [[evergreen]] dwarf [[shrub]]s in the genus '''''[[Vaccinium]]''''' subgenus '''''Oxycoccus''''', or in some treatments, in the distinct genus '''''Oxycoccus'''''. They are found in [[acid]]ic [[bog]]s throughout the cooler parts of the [[Northern Hemisphere]]. Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs to 10&nbsp;cm tall (often less), with slender, wiry stems, not thickly woody, and small [[evergreen]] leaves. The [[flower]]s are dark pink, with very distinct ''reflexed'' [[petal]]s, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. The fruit is a [[berry]] that is larger than the leaves of the plant. It is initially white, but turns a deep red when fully ripe.
The name cranberry probably derives from their being a favourite food of [[Crane (bird)|cranes]], though some sources claim the name comes from "'craneberry' because before the flower expands, its stem, calyx, and petals resembled the neck, head, and bill of a crane". Another name, used in northeastern Canada, is '''mossberry'''.
There are four species of cranberry:
*''Vaccinium oxycoccus'' or ''Oxycoccus palustris'' ('''Common Cranberry''' or '''Northern Cranberry''') is widespread throughout the cool temperate [[Northern Hemisphere]], including northern [[Europe]], northern [[Asia]] and northern [[North America]]. It has small 5-10 mm leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with a purple central spike, produced on finely hairy stems. The fruit is a small pale pink [[berry]], with a refreshing sharp acidic flavour.
*''Vaccinium microcarpum'' or ''Oxycoccus microcarpus'' ('''Small Cranberry''') occurs in northern Europe and northern Asia, and differs from ''V. oxycoccus'' in the leaves being more triangular, and the flower stems hairless.
*''Vaccinium macrocarpon'' or ''Oxycoccus macrocarpus'' ('''American Cranberry''') native to the north-eastern part of the [[North America]]n continent (eastern [[Canada]], and eastern [[United States]] south to [[North Carolina]]). It differs from ''V. oxycoccus'' in the leaves being larger, 10-20 mm long, and in its slightly appleish taste.
*''Vaccinium erythrocarpum'' or ''Oxycoccus erythrocarpus'' ([[Southern Mountain Cranberry]]) native to the south-eastern part of the [[North America]]n continent at high altitudes in the southern [[Appalachian Mountains]].
[[Image:Cranberrymap.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Approximate ranges of the cranberries: Red: Common Cranberry. Orange: Small Cranberry. Green: American Cranberry.]]
The cranberries are related to the [[bilberry|bilberries]], [[blueberry|blueberries]], and [[huckleberry|huckleberries]], all in ''Vaccinium'' subgenus ''Vaccinium''. These differ in having stouter, woodier stems forming taller shrubs, and in the bell-shaped flowers, the petals not being reflexed.
Some plants of the completely unrelated genus ''[[Viburnum]]'' are sometimes inaccurately called "highbush cranberries".
Cranberries from Massachusetts and New Jersey are susceptible to false blossom, a harmful but controllable virus disease.
==History==
[[Image:Jonathan eastman johnson cranberry harvest.jpg|thumb|''The Cranberry Harvest on the Island of [[Nantucket, Massachusetts|Nantucket]]'', [[Eastman Johnson]], 1880.]]
Cranberries have been eaten by [[Arctic]] peoples for millennia and remain a very popular fruit for wild harvesting in the [[Nordic countries]] and [[Russia]]. In [[Scotland]] the berries were formerly wild harvested but with the loss of suitable habitat, the plants have become so scarce that this is no longer done. In [[North America]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were the first to recognise and use the cranberry as a source of food. Some tribes called the red berries '''Sassamanash'''. They are reported to have introduced the cranberry to starving English settlers in [[Massachusetts]] around 1620, who incorporated the berry into the t |
t, sex is the highest celebration of our greatest values. Sex is a physical response to intellectual and spiritual values&mdash;a mechanism for giving concrete expression to values that could otherwise only be experienced in the abstract.
One is sexually attracted to those who embody one's values. Those who have base values will be attracted to baseness, to those who also have ignoble values. Those who lack any clear purpose will find sex devoid of meaning. People of high values will respond sexually to those who embody high values.
That our [[sexual desire]] is a response to the embodiment of our values in others is a radical and original theory. However, even those who are sympathetic to this theory have criticized it as being incomplete. For instance, since according to Rand the economy is also such an expression of values, and since it is always possible to encounter someone who embodies one's values more completely, this would seem to make [[family]] undesirable. (Indeed, Rand treats "family" as a sort of trap.) Furthermore, [[promiscuity]], [[prostitution]], and an endless [[round-robin]] of "values-driven" sexual relationships would become inevitable. From this viewpoint, one could say that [[Aldous Huxley]] portrayed the ideal sexual state: ''[[Brave New World]]'' features humans who are incapable of deviating from their caste-oriented "values", which naturally include a code of sexual desirability.
Her sexual theory is illustrated in the contrasting relationships of [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] with [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Lillian Rearden]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]], and later with Dagny Taggart and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]].
Other important illustrations of this theory are found in:
[[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|Section]] 152 - recounts Dagny's relationship with [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Francisco d'Anconia]].
[[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|Section]] 161 - recounts Hank and Lillian Rearden's courtship, and Lillian's attitude towards sex.
[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Places In Atlas Shrugged</title>
<id>366</id>
<revision>
<id>15899096</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-13T15:37:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ams80</username>
<id>7543</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Making redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Places in Atlas Shrugged]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Things in Atlas Shrugged</title>
<id>368</id>
<revision>
<id>35151715</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-14T15:11:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.177.190.150</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* John Galt Legends */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of general items in [[Ayn Rand]]'s ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''.
{{spoiler}}
==Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule==
The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the National Alliance of Railroads in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 145, allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between [[railroad]]s. The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country. It was crafted by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] as a favor for [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]], with the purpose of driving the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged#Colorado|Colorado]].
==Bracelet==
The very first thing made from ''Rearden Metal'' is a bracelet. The bracelet is used to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged#Theory of Sex|Theory of Sex]].
The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent Rearden Metal. When he gives it to [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] as a present in section 121; she says, "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails." However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift; her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.
In section 161, Lillian wears this bracelet at a party thrown on her anniversary. She makes fun of it all night long, and when [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears Lillian say she would gladly trade it for a common diamond bracelet, Dagny takes her up on it.
Lillian later asks for it back upon realizing her power over her husband was slowly diminishing. Dagny denies the offer.
The bracelet appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161.
==Cub Club==
A night club in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]]. When [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue.
==Equalization of Opportunity Bill==
A bill designed by the [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Looters|Looters]] that proposes to limit the number of businesses any one person can own to one. It is aimed primarily at [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]], who uses [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Ore|Rearden Ore]] to guarantee [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] with a supply of iron ore. By passing this Bill, the Looters can seize Rearden's other businesses for themselves, and then deny him the iron he needs to run his steel mills.
The Looters claim the Bill is meant to give a chance to the little guy.
The Equalization of Opportunity Bill is appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==Galt's Gulch==
A secluded refuge in a valley of Colorado where the men of ability have retreated after relinquishing participation in American society. Nicknamed "Galt's Gulch" by its inhabitants, it is in fact the property of "Midas" Mulligan, one of the early strikers to follow John Galt's call. This call was to the great men of mind and action to abandon the increasingly slave-state inclinations of a decaying United States - to go on strike - thereby withdrawing the only thing supporting the parasites and looters.
Sarcastically nicknamed Midas in the press because everything he seemed to touch turned to gold, Mulligan adopted the nickname during his explosive investment career before dropping out of sight. He had purchased this land among his far-ranging speculative endeavors, and subsequently retreated to it upon his disappearance. Other strikers soon followed him there, including John Galt, renting or buying land for summer retreats as a respite from continuing their search for fellow strikers among the increasingly collapsing American society. Eventually, a society develops in Galt's Gulch as more people live there year-round as the outside world becomes virtually unsafe to visit.
We are introduced to Galt's Gulch in the final section of the Novel, in the first chapter, entitled Atlantis. The people live with each other in completely free society and embody everything which is the thesis of the Novel, the appropriate values for a society of Mankind: philosophical, moral, economic, legal, aesthetic, and sexual, among others too numerous to mention.
We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation. Conversely, there is a reverence for private property; everything transacted is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley. The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley. They purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the air-wave reflection device (giving the view from above the camouflage of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby), and some attend Galt's lectures on Physics, where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics. The people purchase medical treatment from the care of Dr. Hendricks, who uses his invention of a portable [[X-ray]] machine to initially diagnose Dagny Taggart upon her crash landing into the valley, attend concerts of new musical compositions of Richard Halley who has continued to compose in the Valley, acquire raw materials from the efforts of Francisco D'Anconia's excavations around the valley, attend philosophy lectures from the now-retired pirate Ragnar Danneskjöld, receive loans from Midas Mulligan, etc.
Rand's description of Galt's Gulch was inspired by a visit she and her husband Frank O'Connor took to [[Ouray, Colorado]] while researching Colorado for the novel.
==Halley's Fifth Concerto==
[[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] disappeared after he had written only four concertos. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 112, [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], an enthusiastic fan of Halley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Brakeman|brakeman]] on the Taggart Comet. She asks him what it is; he responds Halley's Fifth Concerto. When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
Later, Dagny calls [[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged|Mr. Ayers]] to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto. Ayers says Halley did not.
Halley's Fifth Concerto is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 114 and 152.
==Halley's Fourth Concerto==
The last thing [[Characters in Atlas Shrugge |
td><td> nch </td><td> nkh</td><td> nkh</tr>
<tr> <td>μπ </td><td> mp </td><td> mp </td><td> b, mb</tr>
<tr> <td>ντ </td><td> nt </td><td> nt</td><td> d, nd</tr>
<tr> <td>οι </td><td> oe, e</td><td>oi </td><td> i</tr>
<tr> <td>ου </td><td> u </td><td> ou </td><td> ou, u</tr>
</table>
}}
{{expand list}}
This is a '''list of Greek words with derivatives in English''' (and other modern languages).
<table id=toc border=0><tr><th>Contents<tr><td>
*[[#Transliteration|Transliteration]]
*[[#Greek Words with Modern Derivatives|Greek Words with Modern Derivatives]]
**[[#Α|Α]] [[#Β|Β]] [[#Γ|Γ]] [[#Δ|Δ]] [[#Ε|Ε]] [[#Ζ|Ζ]] [[#Η|Η]] [[#Θ|Θ]] [[#Ι|Ι]] [[#Κ|Κ]] [[#Λ|Λ]] [[#Μ|Μ]] [[#Ν|Ν]] [[#Ξ|Ξ]] [[#Ο|Ο]] [[#Π|Π]] [[#Ρ|Ρ]] [[#Σ|Σ]] [[#Τ|Τ]] [[#Υ|Υ]] [[#Φ|Φ]] [[#Χ|Χ]] [[#Ψ|Ψ]] [[#Ω|Ω]]
*[[#See also|See also]]
*[[#External links|External links]]
</table>
__NOTOC__
==Transliteration==
There are considerable differences between the various [[transliteration]]s used to represent the [[Greek alphabet]] in [[English Language|English]]. The table in the sidebar shows:
* the "traditional" transliteration, in other words that used in [[Latin]], representing classical Greek: this is the form in which most Greek words have made their way into English
* a "classical" transliteration, commonly used to represent more accurately the pronunciation of Ancient Greek
* the "modern" transliteration often used for [[Modern Greek]] &mdash; see [[Transliteration of Greek into English]] for some variations.
Greek had no letter h: a [[rough breathing]] over an initial vowel or diphthong &ndash; {{polytonic|ἁ ἑ ἡ ἱ ὁ ὑ ὡ}} &ndash; indicates that the word was pronounced with an initial h, and a [[smooth breathing]] &ndash; {{polytonic|ἀ ἐ ἠ ἰ ὀ ὐ ὠ}} &ndash; indicates the absence of an h, but this has since disappeared in speech, and Modern Greek omits the breathings. An initial [[Upsilon (letter)|upsilon]] ({{polytonic|υ}}) always had the rough breathing &ndash; {{polytonic|ὑ}} &ndash; hence ''hy'' is very common at the start of words derived from Greek, but no (or very few) such words start with ''y''.
The letter [[Rho (letter)|rho]] ({{polytonic|ρ}}) at the start of a word always had the rough breathing &ndash; {{polytonic|ῥ}} &ndash; and is transliterated ''rh''. If a rho occurred doubled within a word, the first {{polytonic|ρ}} always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing &ndash; {{polytonic|ῤῥ}} &ndash; leading to the transiliteration ''rrh''.
For a fuller discussion of these matters, see [[Greek alphabet]].
<small>Note: the distinction between the rough and smooth breathings as shown above may not be very clear on certain browsers.</small>
== Greek Words with Modern Derivatives ==
The Citation form shown is the form most commonly shown in dictionaries, but this form is often unrepresentative of the word as used to form a compound word, hence the Root form is also shown.
The "classical" transliteration as described above is used for both the Citation form and the Root form.
The Greek words are shown in [[polytonic orthography]], in other words showing the breathings and the fuller range of accents, as used in Ancient Greek.
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
===Α===
'''''(h)a'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀ-}}||a-||{{polytonic|ἀ-<br>ἀν-}}||a-<br>an-||without, not||[[adiabatic]], [[agnostic]], [[ahistorical]], [[Amorality|amoral]], [[anaemia]], [[anaesthesia]], [[anhydrous]], [[anonymous]], [[apathy]], [[asymmetric]], [[asymptote]], [[atrophic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄβαξ}}||ābax||{{polytonic|ἀβαξ}}-||abac-||reckoning-board, used for counting votes||[[abacus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄβιος}}||ābios||{{polytonic|ἀβιο}}-||abio-||without a living, starving [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2391]||[[abiosis]], [[abiogenesis]], [[Abiotic petroleum|abiotic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄβουλος}}||āboulos||{{polytonic|ἀβουλ}}-||aboul-||indecisive||[[abulia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄβυσσος}}||ābussos||{{polytonic|ἀβυσσ}}-||abyss-||bottomless||[[abyss]], [[abyssal]], [[abyssocottidae]], [[abyssopelagic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγαλμα}}||āgalma||{{polytonic|ἀγαλμ}}-||agalm-||glory, delight, honour, statue||[[agalmatolite]], [[Statuephilia|agalmatophilia]], [[agalmics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγαμος}}||āgamos||{{polytonic|ἀγαμ}}-||agam-||not married||[[agamia]], [[agamidae]], [[agama]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγαθή}}||agathē||{{polytonic|ἀγαθ}}-||agath-||good||[[agate]], [[Agatha]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγάπη}}||agapē||{{polytonic|ἀγαπ}}-||agap-||love||[[Love styles|agape]], [[agapanthus]], [[agapanthaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγαρικόν}}||agarikon||{{polytonic|ἀγγαρ}}-||angar-||from Αgari, a town in Sarmatia||[[agaricus]], [[agaricales]], [[agaricaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγαυός}}||agauos||{{polytonic|ἀγαυ}}-||agav-||illustrious, noble||[[agave]], [[agavaceae]], [[agavaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγγαρεία}}||angareia||{{polytonic|ἀγγαρ}}-||angar-||impressment for public service||[[angary]], [[angaria]], [[Angaria|angariate]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγγείον}}||angeion||{{polytonic|ἀγγειο}}-||angio-||vessel||[[angiosperm]], [[angiocardiography]], [[angiodysplasia]], [[angiogenesis]], [[angiogram]], [[angiography]], [[angioma]], [[angiopathy]], [[angioplasty]], [[angiosperma]], [[angiostatin]], [[angiotensin]],
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγγελος}}||angelos||{{polytonic|ἀγγελ}}-||angel-||messenger||[[archangel]], [[evangelist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγειν}}||agein||{{polytonic|ἀγω}}-||agō-||to drive, lead||[[pedagogue]], [[wiktionary:anagoge|anagoge]], [[mystagogue]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγευστος}}||ageustos||{{polytonic|ἀγευσ}}-||ageus-||not tasting or having tasted||[[ageusia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἅγιος}}||hagios||{{polytonic|ἁγιο}}-||hagio-||holy||[[hagiography]], [[hagiology]], [[hagiographa]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγκυλόπους}}||ankulōpous||{{polytonic|ἀγκυλοπ}}-||ankylοp-||with bent legs [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%23597]||[[ancylopoda]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγκύλος}}||ankulos||{{polytonic|ἀγκυλ-<br>ἀγκυλ}}-||ancyl-<br>angul-||crooked, curved [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%23598]||[[ancylus]],<br>[[angle]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγκύλωσις}}||ankulōsis||{{polytonic|ἀγκυλο}}-||ankylο-||stiffening of the joints||[[ankylose]], [[ankyloglossia]], [[ankylosaurus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγκυρα}}||ankyra||{{polytonic|ἀγκυρ}}-||anchor-||anchor||[[anchoring]], [[anchor|anchorage]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγκών}}||ankōn||{{polytonic|ἀνισο}}-||aniso-||elbow||[[ancon]], [[anconad]], [[anconal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγνωστος}}||agnōstos||{{polytonic|ἀγνωστ}}-||agnost-||not known||[[agnosticism]], [[agnostic]], [[agnostida]], [[agnostidae]], [[agnost]],
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγορά}}||agora||{{polytonic|ἀγορ}}-||agor-||marketplace||[[agoraphobia]], [[agoranomic]], [[agora (disambiguation)|agora]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγρα}}||agra||{{polytonic|-ἀγρα}}||-agra||seizure, trap||[[podagra]], [[pellagra]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγρός}}||agros||{{polytonic|ἀγρο}}-||agro-||tilled land||[[agrobiology]], [[agronomics]], [[agriculture]], [[agrology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἂγχειν}}||ankhein||{{polytonic|ἀγχει-<br>ἀγχει}}-||angi-<br>anxi-||to compress, press tight, to strangle, throttle, choke
||[[angina]]<br>[[anxious]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγωνία}}||agōnia||{{polytonic|ἀγων}}-||agōn-||agony||[[agonize]], [[antagonistic]], [[agony]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδάμας}}||adamas||{{polytonic|ἀδαμα}}-||adama-||unconquerable, diamond||[[adamant]], [[adamantine]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδελφός}}||adelphos||{{polytonic|ἀδελφ}}-||adelph-||brother||[[adelphopoiesis]], [[Philadelphia]], [[monadelphous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδήν}}||adēn||{{polytonic|ἀδενο}}-||adeno-||gland||[[adenoma]], [[List of diseases starting with A|adenomelablastoma]], [[adenomyosis]], [[adenosine]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἅδης}}||Hades||{{polytonic|Ἁδη-<br>Ἁδο}}-||hade-<br>hado-||god of the underworld||[[hadean]], [[hadopelagic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδιάβατος}}||adiabatos||{{polytonic|ἀδιάβατ}}-||adiabat-||impassable ||[[adiabatic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁδρός}}||hadros||{{polytonic|ἁδρο}}-||hadro-||thick||[[hadron]], [[hadrosaurus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδυναμία}}||adunamia||{{polytonic|ἀδυναμι}}-||adynami-||loss of strength or vigor||[[adynamia]], [[adynamic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδιάφορος}}||adiaphoros||{{polytonic|ἀδιάφορ}}-||adiaphor-||indifferent||[[adiaphora]], [[adiaphorism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄδυτον}}||aduton||{{polytonic|ἀδυτ}}-||adyt-||not to be entered||[[adytum]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀέριος}}||aerios||{{polytonic|ἀέρι}}-||aeri-||of the air||[[aerial]], [[aerie]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀερόβιος}}||aerobios||{{polytonic|ἀερόβι}}-||aerobi-||living in air||[[aerobic]], [[aerobics]], [[aerobiology]], [[wikt:anaerobic|anaerobic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀηδής}}||aēdēs||{{polytonic|ἀηδ}}-||aed-||distasteful, unpleasant||[[aedes]], [[Toxorhynchites|genus aedes]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀήρ}}||aēr||{{polytonic|ἀέρο}}-||aero-<br>air-||air||[[aerobatics]], [[aerobics]], [[aerodrome]], [[aerodynamics]], [[aerodynamic]], [[aeroelasticity]], [[aerofoil]], [[aerography]], [[aeronautics]], [[aerophobia]], [[aerophonic]], [[aerosol]], [[aerospace]], [[aerospike]], [[aerostat]], anaerobic,<br> [[airplane]], [[airbag]], [[airbase]], [[airborne]], [[airbrake]], [[aircraft]], [[airfield]], [[airline]]s, [[airmail]], [[airship]], [[airspace]], [[airspeed]], [[airstream]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄηχος}}||aēchos||{{polytonic|ἀηχος}}-||anecho-||without sound ||[[anechoic]], [[anechoic chamber]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀθή |
Team]]
* [[Channel Available Time]]
* [[Charges, easy Access and fair Terms]]
* [[Chemical Addition Tank]]
* [[Chicago Area Theatres]]
* [[Chromatic Adaptation Transform]]
* [[Citizens Against Tolls]]
* [[Citizens Area Transit]], public transportation by bus in Clark County, Nevada (Las Vegas)
* [[Citizens' Army Training]]
* [[Civic Action Team]]
* [[Civil Air Transport]], the airline forerunner of Air America that was formed after World War II by General Claire Lee Chennault of the Flying Tigers
* [[Civil Aviation Tribunal]]
* [[Civilian Augmented Training]]
* [[Clear air turbulence]], a term in aviation
* [[Clemson Area Transit]]
* [[Cloud Arrival Time]]
* [[Cockpit Automation Technology]]
* [[Cognitive Ability Test]]
* [[Coital Alignment Technique]]
* [[Collaborative Access Team]]
* [[College Ability Test]]
* [[College of Advanced Technology]]
* [[Combat AGE Team]]
* [[Combat Aircraft Technology]]
* [[Combat Aircrew Training]]
* [[Combat Application Tourniquet]]
* [[Combat Auto Theft]]
* [[Combined Acceptance Trials]]
* [[Combined Arms Team]]
* [[Combined Arms Training]]
* [[Command Action Team]]
* [[Commodity Action Team]]
* [[Common Admission Test]], a graduate test in India, conducted by the Indian Institutes of Management or by Cochin University of Science and Technology
* [[Common Aptitude Test]]
* [[Common Authentication Technology]]
* [[Communications Assist Team]]
* [[Community Action Team]]
* [[Compact Audio Technology]]
* [[Competency Assessment Tool]]
* [[Complementary Angle Theorem]]
* [[Compliance Assessment Team]]
* [[Component Advanced Technology]]
* [[Computer-adaptive test]], a type of test that dynamically adapts to the testee's ability level
* [[Computer-aided tomography]]
* [[Computer Aided Transceiver]], a class of software application and communications interface used for the control of radio transmitting and receiving equipment, especially amateur (ham) radios.
* [[Computer-aided technology]]
* [[Computer-aided training]]
* [[Computer-aided transcription]]
* [[Computer-aided translation]]
* [[Computer-assisted translation]], a form of computer software used to help human translators
* [[Computed axial tomography]], a tomographical X-ray technique
* [[Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope]], the first telescope to measure fine details in the fireball from the Big Bang
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:CAT]]
[[ja:CAT]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chlorophyceae</title>
<id>6505</id>
<revision>
<id>37288872</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:05:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Chlorophyceae
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Chlorophyta]]
| classis = '''Chlorophyceae'''
| subdivision_ranks = Orders
| subdivision =
See text.
}}
The '''Chlorophyceae''' are one of the classes of [[green alga]]e, distinguished mainly on the basis of ultrastructural morphology. For example the chlorophycean CW clade, and chlorophycean DO clade, are defined by the arrangement of their [[flagella]]. Members of the CW clade have flagella that are displaced in a "clockwise" (CW, 1–7 o'clock) direction eg. [[Chlamydomonadales]]. Members of the DO clade have flagella that are "directly opposed" (DO, 12–6 o'clock) eg. [[Sphaeropleales]].
The following orders are typically recognised:
* [[Dunaliellales]]
* [[Chlamydomonadales]] (e.g. ''[[Chlamydomonas]]'')
* [[Volvocales]] (e.g. ''[[Volvox]]'')
* [[Chlorococcales]] (e.g. ''[[Chlorella]]'')
* [[Oedogoniales]] (e.g. ''[[Oedogonium]]'')
* [[Sphaeropleales]]
* [[Chaetophorales]]
* [[Microsporales]]
* [[Tetrasporales]] (e.g. ''[[Tetraspora]]'')
In older classifications, the term Chlorophyceae is sometimes used to apply to all the green algae except the [[Charales]], and the internal division is considerably different.
[[Category:Green algae]]
[[pl:Zielenice właściwe]]
[[pt:Chlorophyceae]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyril</title>
<id>6508</id>
<revision>
<id>34156236</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T20:59:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brandmeister</username>
<id>276745</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyril''' is the name of several historic figures:
* [[Saint Cyril]] - "godfather" of [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] [[800]] A.D.
* Saint [[Cyril of Alexandria]] - [[archbishop]] of Alexandria [[412]] A.D.
* Saint [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] - theologian [[315]]-[[380]] A.D.
* [[Cyril of Turaw]] - see the [[history of Belarus]]
* Sir [[Cyril Burt]] - [[psychologist]]
* Another name of [[Nikita the Furrier]]
The name Cyril is derived from [[Greek language|Greek]] Κύριλλος (''Kyrillos'' - lordly, masterful), related to ''kyrios'' - lord, master.
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Human name disambiguation]]
[[de:Kyrill]]
[[fr:Cyrille]]
[[nl:Cyrillus]]
[[pl:Cyryl]]
[[sk:Cyril]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer architecture</title>
<id>6509</id>
<revision>
<id>41542412</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:19:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NongBot</username>
<id>817745</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer engineering]], '''computer architecture''' is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a [[computer]] system. It is a [[blueprint]] and functional description of requirements (especially speeds and interconnections) and design implementations for the various parts of a computer &mdash;focusing largely on the way by which the CPU performs internally and accesses [[memory address|addresses in memory]].
"Architecture" hence typically refers to the fixed internal structure of the CPU (ie. electronic [[switch]]es to represent [[logic gate]]s) to perform logical operations, and may also include the built-in interface (ie. [[opcode]]) by which [[hardware]] resources (ie. [[Central Processing Unit|CPU]], [[computer memory|memory]], and also [[motherboard]], [[peripheral]]s) may be used by the [[software]].
More specific usages of the term include:
* The design of a computer's [[CPU architecture]], [[instruction set]], [[addressing mode]]s, and techniques such as [[SIMD]] and [[MIMD]] parallelism.
* More general wider-scale hardware architectures, such as [[cluster computing]] and [[Non-Uniform Memory Access]] (NUMA) architectures.
* Architecture is often defined as the set of machine attributes that a programmer should understand in order to successfully program the specific computer (i.e., being able to reason about what the program will do when executed). For example, part of the architecture are the instructions and the width of operands manipulated by them. Similarly, the frequency at which the system operates is not part of the architecture. This definition reveals the two main considerations for computer architects: (1) Design hardware that behaves as the programmers think it should. (2) Utilize existing implementation technologies (e.g., semiconductors) to build the best computer possible (best can be defined in many different ways as described in ''Design Goals''). The latter consideration is often referred to as [[microarchitecture]].
<!-- problematic //
In the same way as a building architect sets the principles and goals of a building project as the basis for the draftsman's plans, so too, a computer architect sets out the computer architecture as a basis for the actual design specifications. There are several usages of the term, which can be used to refer to:-->
==Design goals==
The most common goals in computer architecture revolve around the tradeoffs between cost and performance (i.e. speed), although other considerations, such as size, weight, reliability, feature set, expandability and power consumption, may be factors as well.
===Cost===
Generally cost is held constant, determined by either system or commercial requirements, and speed and storage capacity are adjusted to meet the cost target.
===Performance===
Computer retailers describe the performance of their machines in terms of clock speed (usually in MHz or GHz). This refers to the cycles per second of the main clock of the CPU. However, this metric is somewhat misleading, as a machine with a higher clock rate may not necessarily have higher performance. Modern CPUs can [[superscalar|execute multiple instructions per clock cycle]], which dramatically speeds-up a program. Other factors aid speed, such as the mix of [[functional unit]]s, [[computer bus|bus]] speeds, available memory, and the type and order of instructions in the programs being run.
But there are also different types of speed. [[interrupt latency|Interrupt latency]] is the guaranteed maximum response time of the system to an electronic event (e.g. when the disk drive finishes moving some data). This number is affected by a very wide range of design choices -- for example, adding [[CPU cache|cache]] usually makes latency worse (slower) but makes other things faster. Computers that control machinery usually need low interrupt latencies, because the machine can't, won't or should not wait. For example, computer-controlled anti-lock brakes should not wait for the computer to finish what it's doing - they should brake. Low latencies can often be had very inexpensively.
[[Benchmark (computing)|Benchmark]]ing tries to take all these factors into account by measuring the time a computer takes to run through a series of test programs. Although benchmarking shows strengths, it may not help one to choose a computer. Often the measured machines split on different measures. For example, one system might handle scientific |
ment&#8217;s policy contend that this was mainly due to the growth of overall national prosperity (due in large part to the discovery of important oil and gas reserves) and migration of rural people to the cities rather than to state intervention. Little was done to improve the living standards of the low-paid workers in plantation agriculture, although this group steadily declined as a proportion of the workforce. By [[1990]] the poorest parts of Malaysia were rural Sabah and Sarawak, which lagged significantly behind the rest of the country. These years saw rapid growth in Malaysian cities, particularly Kuala Lumpur, which became a magnet for immigration both from rural Malaya and from poorer neighbours such as Indonesia, [[Bangladesh]], Thailand and the Philippines. Urban poverty became a problem for the first time, with shanty towns growing up around the cities.
The second arm of government policy, driven mainly by Mahathir first as Education Minister and then as Prime Minister, was the transfer of economic power to the Malays. Mahathir greatly expanded the number of secondary schools and universities throughout the country, and enforced the policy of teaching in Malay rather than English. This had the effect of creating a large new Malay professional class. It also created an unofficial barrier against Chinese access to higher education, since few Chinese are sufficiently fluent in Malay to study at Malay-language universities. Chinese families therefore sent their children to universities in Singapore, Australia, Britain or the United States &#8211; by [[2000]], for example, 60,000 Malaysians held degrees from Australian universities. This had the unintended consequence of exposing large numbers of Malaysians to life in Western countries, creating a new source of discontent. Mahathir also greatly expanded educational opportunities for Malay women &#8211; by [[2000]] half of all university students were women.
To find jobs for all these new Malay graduates, the government created several agencies for intervention in the economy. The most important of these were PERNAS (National Corporation Ltd), PETRONAS (National Petroleum Ltd), and HICOM (Heavy Industry Corporation of Malaysia), which not only directly employed many Malays but also invested in growing areas of the economy to create new technical and administrative jobs which were preferentially allocated to Malays. As a result, the share of Malay equity in the economy rose from 1.5 percent in [[1969]] to 20.3 percent in [[1990]], the percentage of businesses of all kinds owned by Malays rose from 39 percent to 68 percent. This latter figure was deceptive because many businesses that appeared to be Malay-owned were still indirectly controlled by Chinese, but there is no doubt that the Malay share of the economy has considerably increased. The Chinese remain disproportionately powerful in Malaysian economic life, but by [[2000]] the distinction between Chinese and Malay business was fading as many new corporations, particularly in growth sectors such as [[information technology]], were owned and managed by people from both ethnic groups.
Malaysia&#8217;s rapid economic progress since [[1970]], which was only temporarily disrupted by the [[Asian financial crisis]] of [[1997]], has not been matched by change in Malaysian politics. The repressive measures passed in [[1970]] remain in place. Malaysia has had regular elections since [[1974]], and although campaigning is reasonably free at election time, it is in effect a one-party state, with the UMNO-controlled National Front usually winning nearly all the seats, while the DAP wins some Chinese urban seats and the PAS some rural Malay ones. Since the DAP and the PAS have diametrically opposed policies, they have been unable to form an effective opposition coalition. There is almost no criticism of the government in the media and public protest remains severely restricted. The ISA continues to be used to silence dissidents, and the members of the UMNO youth movement are deployed to physically intimidate opponents.
Under Mahathir&#8217;s long Prime Ministership ([[1981]]-[[2003]]), Malaysia&#8217;s political culture became increasingly authoritarian, culminating in the dismissal and imprisonment on trumped-up charges of the Deputy Prime Minister, [[Anwar Ibrahim]], in [[1997]] after an internal dispute within the government. The complicity of the judiciary in this piece of persecution was seen as a particularly clear sign of the decline of Malaysian democracy. The Anwar affair led to the formation of a new party, the [[People's Justice Party ]], or Keadilan, led by Anwar&#8217;s wife, Dr [[Wan Azizah Wan Ismail]]. At the [[1999]] elections Keadilan formed a coalition with the DAP and the PAS known as the Alternative Front ([[Barisan Alternatif]]). The result of this was that the PAS won a number of Malay seats from UMNO, but many Chinese voters disapproved of this unnatural alliance with the Islamist PAS, causing the DAP to lose many of its seats to the MCA, including that if its veteran leader, [[Lim Kit Siang]]. Wan Azizah won her husband&#8217;s former constituency but otherwise Keadilan made little impact.
Mahathir retired in [[2003]], and his successor, Dato Seri [[Abdullah Ahmad Badawi]], released Anwar and allowed him to go abroad, which was seen as a portent of a mild liberalisation. At the [[Malaysian general election, 2004|2004 election]], the National Front led by Abdullah has a massive victory, virtually wiping out the PAS and Keadilan, although the DAP recovered the seats it had lost in [[1999]]. This victory was seen as the result mainly of Abdullah&#8217;s personal popularity and the strong recovery of Malaysia&#8217;s economy, which has lifted the living standards of most Malaysians to almost &#8220;[[first world]]&#8221; standards. Malaysia&#8217;s objective is now to become a fully [[developed country]] by [[2020]], and this seems quite achievable. It leaves unanswered, however, the question of when and how Malaysia will acquire a first world political system (a multi-party democracy, a free press, an independent judiciary and the restoration of civil and political liberties) to go with its new economic maturity.
==Notes and references==
<references/>
===Other references===
*Goh, Cheng Teik (1994). ''Malaysia: Beyond Communal Politics''. Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 967-978-475-4.
*Musa, M. Bakri (1999). ''The Malay Dilemma Revisited''. Merantau Publishers. ISBN 1-58348-367-5.
*Ye, Lin-Sheng (2003). ''The Chinese Dilemma''. East West Publishing. ISBN 0-9751646-1-9.
[[Category:History of Malaysia|*]]
[[de:Geschichte Malaysias]]
[[id:Sejarah Malaysia]]
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[[zh:马来西亚历史]]</text>
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<page>
<title>History of Israel</title>
<id>13808</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-19T11:56:03Z</timestamp>
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<username>Humus sapiens</username>
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<comment>/* External links */ First Photos of the Holy Land</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article discusses the history of the modern [[Israel|State of Israel]], from its independence proclamation in [[1948]] to the present. See also [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]] and [[History of Palestine]] for prior history of the geographic region. See [[Zionism]] and [[Timeline of Zionism]] for issues pertaining the history of the Zionist movement.
[[Image:Cia-is-map.gif|thumb|Map of Israel]]
=== Zionism and Israel ===
{{Israelis}}
The independence of the modern [[Israel|State of Israel]] was achieved in 1948 after more than 60 years of efforts by [[Zionism|Zionist]] leaders to establish [[sovereignty]] and [[self-determination]] in the [[Jewish National Homeland]].
The desire of Jews to return to what they consider their rightful homeland was first expressed during the [[Babylonian captivity]] after [[597 BCE]] (see the [[Psalm]] 137:1 as an example). This became a universal Jewish theme after the [[destruction of Jerusalem]] by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in 70 CE and the [[exile]]s that followed. (see [[Jewish-Roman wars]]). The [[Jewish diaspora]] and those who stayed continued to see the land as their spiritual home and as the [[Promised Land]]; there is no evidence of any interruption of the Jewish presence there for the last three millennia. See also [[Religious significance of Jerusalem|Importance of Jerusalem to Jews]].
For generations, the universal theme carried mostly religious overtones due to the belief that the Jewish people would return to [[Zion]] (a [[synecdoche]] for the [[Land of Israel]]) with the coming of the [[Messiah]], i.e., only after divine intervention; some proposed or attempted to return earlier, but they were in a minority.
While today most Jews support Zionism to one degree or another, when it was first proposed it was highly controversial and a great many Jews opposed it. The [[Reform Judaism|Reform Jews]] of 1800s and early 1900s [[Germany]] were, at the time, anti-Zionist; they were opposed to any conception of Jewry as anything other than a religion.
In [[Eastern Europe]], Zionism met heavy opposition by the [[General Jewish Labor Union|Bund]]. Secular Zionists, by contrast, were intent on seeing it primarily as an ethnic group - many of the Zionists had rejected Judaism, but still viewed themselves as in some sense "Jewish". Many [[Hasidim]] and other [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi Jews]] believed that any attempt to return to Israel before the coming of the [[Messiah]] was sacrilegious. The [[Chabad Lubavitch|Lubavitcher Rebbe]]s, for instance, were anti-Zionist. [[Conservative Judaism]], which in the late 1800s was more of a scholarly school of thought than a formal denomination, has always been Zionist.
Since [[the Holocaust]], however, Judaism has become overwhelm |
.htm British Horological Institute]
* [http://homepage.mac.com/pete.boardman/24hourclock/history.html 24 hour analog clocks]
* [http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/wells-clock/index.asp Science Museum - more details on early clocks]
* [http://www.humanclock.com Humanclock.com] a website with a unique image for every minute of the day
* [http://www.ieee-uffc.org/freqcontrol/marrison/Marrison.html] article, by a key figure in the development of quartz crystal clocks, on the history of timekeeping up to the late 1940s (based on remarks he made when given a prize for his contributions to horology) from ''The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. XXVII, pp. 510-588, 1948''
www.Timeforclocks.nl: information on Dutch clocks
==Footnotes==
<references/>
==References==
* Bruton, Eric. ''The History of Clocks and Watches''. London: Black Cat, 1993.
* Edey, Winthrop. ''French Clocks''. New York: Walker & Co., 1967.
* Lloyd, Alan H. “Mechanical Timekeepers.” In ''A History of Technology.'' Vol. III. Edited by Charles Joseph Singer, et. al. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957, pp. 648-675.
* Robinson, Tom. ''The Longcase Clock''. Suffolk, England: Antique Collector’s Club, 1981.
* Smith, Alan. ''The International Dictionary of Clocks''. London: Chancellor Press, 1996.
* Tardy. ''French Clocks the World Over''. Part One and Two. Translated with the assistance of Alexander Ballantyne. Paris: Tardy, 1981.
* Yoder, Joella Gerstmeyer. ''Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the mathematization of nature''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
[[Category:Clocks| ]]
[[bg:&#1063;&#1072;&#1089;&#1086;&#1074;&#1085;&#1080;&#1082;]]
[[ca:Rellotge]]
[[da:Ur (kronometer)]]
[[de:Uhr]]
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[[it:Orologio]]
[[he:&#1513;&#1506;&#1493;&#1503;]]
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[[pl:Zegar (czasomierz)]]
[[pt:Relógio]]
[[fi:Kello]]
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[[sv:Klocka]]
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[[zh:時鐘]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Proteus Steinmetz</title>
<id>6451</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-19T02:46:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.151.115.11</ip>
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<comment>Silesia not Prussia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:charlesproteussteinmetz.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865-1923)]]
[[Image:Somerset_01.jpg|thumb|250px|Marconi Wireless Station in Somerset, New Jersey in 1921]]
'''Charles Proteus Steinmetz''' ([[April 9]], [[1865]] &ndash; [[October 26]], [[1923]]) was a [[mathematician]] and [[electrical engineer]]. He fostered the development of [[alternating current]] that made possible the expansion of the electric power industry in the [[United States]], formulating mathematical theories for engineers. [http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/139.html]
==Birth==
He was born as '''Carl August Rudolph Steinmetz''' to Carl Heinrich Steinmetz in [[Breslau]], [[Silesia]] on [[April 9]], [[1865]]. Breslau is now the city of [[Wrocław]] in [[Poland]]. Steimetz was born deformed, was only 4 foot tall, had a hunchback, and a [[hip dysplasia]] required him to use crutches.
==Education==
He received his undergraduate degree from the [[University of Breslau]], first taking classes in 1883. He received his [[Ph.D.]] in 1888.
==Socialism==
He adhered to the belief that electrification of societies would bring about a [[revolution|social revolution]]. He became a [[socialist]] but had to leave Germany when [[Bismarck]] began rounding up socialists.
==Emigration==
He emigrated to the United States in 1889 and went to work for [[Rudolf Eickemeyer]] in [[Yonkers, New York]] and published in the field of [[magnetic hysteresis]]. In 1893 Eickmeyer's company was bought by the newly formed [[General Electric]] Company. In 1894, General Electric moved to [[Schenectady, New York]], and Steinmetz was promoted to head of the calculating department. [http://www.ge.com/en/company/companyinfo/executivebios/printable/printable_ew_rice.htm].
==Later years==
He served as president of the Board of Education of [[Schenectady, New York]], and as president of the Schenectady city council. He served as president of the [[American Institute of Electrical Engineers]] (AIEE) from 1901 to 1902.
==Death and burial==
Steinmetz died in 1923 and was buried in [[Vale Cemetery]], [[Schenectady]], New York.
==Anecdote==
The following was published in the Letters section of ''Life'' magazine (May 14, 1965):
<blockquote>
Sirs: In your article on Steinmetz (April 23) you mentioned a consultation with Henry Ford. My father, Burt Scott, who was an employee of Henry Ford for many years, related to me the story behind that meeting. Technical troubles developed with a huge new generator at Ford's River Rouge plant. His electrical engineers were unable to locate the difficulty so Ford solicited the aid of Steinmetz. When "the litte giant" arrived at the plant, he rejected all assistance, asking only for a notebook, pencil and cot. For two straight days and nights he listened to the generator and made countless computations. Then he asked for a ladder, a measuring tape and a piece of chalk. He laboriously ascended the ladder, made careful measurements, and put a chalk mark on the side of the generator. He descended and told his skeptical audience to remove a plate from the side of the generator and take out 16 windings from the field coil at that location. The corrections were made and the generator then functioned perfectly. Subsequently Ford received a bill for $10,000 signed by Steinmetz for General Electric. Ford returned the bill acknowledging the good job done by Steinmetz but respectfully requesting an itemized statement. Steinmetz replied as follows: Making chalk mark on generator $1. Knowing where to make mark $9,999. Total due $10,000.
</blockquote>
==Awards==
* [[Cedergren Medal]] (1914).
==Publications==
* Steinmetz, "''The Natural Period of a Transmission Line and the Frequency of lightning Discharge Therefrom''". The Electrical world. August 27, 1898. Pg. 203 - 205.
* Steinmetz, "''Future of Electricity''".
==Patents==
At the time of his death, Steinmetz held over 200 [[patent]]s: [http://www.becklaser.de/hbeng/steinmetz.html]
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|533244}}, "''System of distribution by alternating current''". January 29, 1895.
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|559419}}, "''Inductor dynamo''".
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|583950}}, "''Three phase induction meter"
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|594145}}, "''Inductor dynamo''".
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|714412}}, "''Induction motor".
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|717464}}, "''System of electrical distribution''".
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|865617}}, "''Induction motor".
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|1025932}}, "''Means for producing light''". May 7, 1912.
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|1042986}}, "''Induction furnace".
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|RE11576}}, "''Inductor dynamo''".
==External links==
* U.S. Supreme Court, "''[http://laws.findlaw.com/us/192/543.html Steimetz v. Allen, 192 U.S. 543 (1904)]''". Steimetz v. Allen, Commissioner of Patents. No. 383. Argued January 12, 13, 1904. Decided February 23, 1904.
* [http://www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/3/9/1/13910/13910-h/13910-h.htm#SCIENCE_AND_RELIGION Essay on Science and Religion by Steinmetz at Project Gutenberg]
* [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/steinmetz.html Biographical page]
* [http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blsteinmetz.htm About.com page]
* [http://www.union.edu/N/DS/s.php?s=1512 Engineering site]
[[Category:1865 births|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:1923 deaths|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:Hunchbacks|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:Socialists|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:General Electric people|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Martel</title>
<id>6452</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:56:07Z</timestamp>
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<username>Srnec</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Leadup and importance */ spacing (wouldn't "Catholic" be better, seeing as it's more descriptive?)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Person
|name= Charles Martel
|image= [[Image:Carlosmartelempoitiers.JPEG|300px]]
|caption= Charles Martel is primarily famous for his victory at the [[Battle of Tours]].
|allegiance=
|commands=
|nickname= "the Hammer"
|lived= [[August 23]], [[686]] - [[October 22]], [[741]]
|placeofbirth= [[Herstal]] ([[Belgium]])
|portrayedby=
}}
{{Campaignbox Charles Martel}}
{{dablink|For the 13th century titular King of Hungary, see [[Charles Martel d'Anjou]].}}
'''Charles Martel''' (or, in [[modern English|English]], Charles ''the Hammer'' and, in [[Latin]], ''Carolus Martellus'') ([[August 23]], [[686]] &ndash; [[October 22]] [[741]]) was [[Mayor of the Palace]] of the three kingdoms of the Franks. He is best remembered for winning the [[Battle of Tours]] in [[732]], which has traditionally been characterised as saving [[Europe]] from the [[Al-Andalus|Emirate of Cordoba]]'s expansion beyond the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. Martel's Frankish army defeated an [[Arab]] army that had crushed all resistance before it.
Martel was born in [[Herstal]], in what is now [[Wallonia]], [[Belgium]], the illegitimate son of [[Pippin of Herstal|Pippin the Middle]] ([[635]] or [[640]] &am |
s. Four other subspecies have been described, but are not widely agreed upon: Cape Giraffe (''G.c. capensis''), Lado Giraffe (''G.c. cottoni''), Congo Giraffe (''G.c. congoensis''), and Transvaal Giraffe (''G.c. wardi''). Some scientists go so far as to group all populations except the Masai into a single subspecies.
==Characteristics==
[[Image:Giraffe (head).jpg|thumb|right|242px|Giraffes use their long, prehensile tongues to extend their reach. Specimen at the [[National Museum of Natural History]], [[Washington, DC]].]]
Giraffes are famous for their long necks which allow them to browse on the leaves of trees, and elongated forelegs (which appear much longer than the hind legs, but in reality, are only 1/10th longer). The bony structure of the neck is essentially unchanged from that of other mammals: there are no extra vertebrae, but each of the seven bones is greatly enlarged. Bone constitutes the bud-like horns called ''ossicorns'', which are covered with the Giraffe's skin like the rest of the skull.
Modifications to the Giraffe's structure have evolved, particularly to the
[[circulatory system]]. A giraffe's heart, which can weigh up to 24&nbsp;lb (10&nbsp;kg), has to generate around double the normal blood pressure for a large mammal in order to maintain blood flow to the brain against gravity. In the upper neck, a complex pressure-regulation system called the [[rete mirabile]] prevents excess blood flow to the brain when the
Giraffe lowers its head to drink. Conversely, the blood vessels in the lower legs are under great pressure (because of the weight of fluid pressing down on them). In other animals such pressure would force the blood out through the capillary walls: Giraffes, however, have a very tight sheath of thick skin over their lower limbs which maintains high extravascular pressure in exactly the same way as a pilot's [[g-suit]].
Male giraffes determine female fertility by tasting the female's urine to detect estrus in a multi-step process known as the [[Flehmen response]].
Giraffe [[gestation]] lasts between 14 and 15 months after which a single calf is born. The mother gives birth standing up and the [[embryo]]nic sack actually bursts when the baby falls to the ground. Newborn giraffes are about 1.8 metres tall. Within a few hours of being born, calves can run around and are indistinguishable from a calf that may be a week old already; however, for the first two weeks, they spend most of their time lying down, guarded by the mother. While adult Giraffes are too large to be attacked by most predators, the young can fall prey to [[Lion]]s, [[Leopard]]s, [[hyena]]s, and [[African Hunting Dog]]s. It has been speculated that their characteristic spotted pattern provides a certain degree of [[camouflage]]. Only 25 to 50 percent of Giraffe calves reach adulthood; those that do have a life expectancy of between 20 and 25 years in the wild and 28 years in captivity (Encyclopedia of Animals).
In its native country the Giraffe browses on the twigs of trees, preferring plants of the [[Mimosa]] genus; but it appears that it can without inconvenience live on other vegetable food. A Giraffe can eat 63 kilograms (140 pounds) of leaves and twigs daily.
[[image:giraffe.zoo.500pix.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Rothschild's Giraffe]]
The pace of the Giraffe is an amble, though when pursued it can run extremely fast. However, the small size of its lungs prevents it from supporting a lengthened chase.
The Giraffe defends itself against threats by kicking with great force. A single well-placed kick of an adult giraffe can shatter a lion's skull or break its spine.
The Giraffe has one of the shortest sleep requirement of any mammal, which is reckoned to be between 20 minutes and two hours in a 24 hour period.
A Giraffe will clean off any bugs that appear on its face (usually while eating) with its extremely long tongue (about 18 inches). The tongue is unusually tough on account of the giraffe's diet, which often consists of thorns from the tree it is making a meal of.
Giraffes are thought to be [[mute]]. However, recent research has shown evidence that the animal communicates at an [[infrasound]] level with a surprising level of complexity.
The English word "Camelopard" first appeared in the 14th century, and survived in common usage well into the 19th century. A number of European languages, including [[Spanish Language|Spanish]] retain it. The Arabic word &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; ''ziraafa'' or ''zurapha'' (undoubtedly of African origin), was used in English from the sixteenth century on, often in an Italianate form ''Giraffa''.
{{-}}
==Evolutionary perspectives==
[[Image:Giraffewithbaby.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Female Giraffe with calf, in Kenya.]]There can be no doubt that the neck and forelegs of the giraffe are long relative to the proportions found in almost all other ungulates. What cannot be said with any good certainty however, is exactly why this is the case. We can, however, observe the behavior of modern giraffes and infer why they may have such long necks.
The long necks do allow a giraffe to eat from the tops of trees. However, since female giraffes are not as high as male giraffes and tend to feed from much lower heights than their male counterparts, it is hard to say that they need the long necks for metabolic reasons. Furthermore, the additional length that helps a giraffe reach the top food sources makes it incredibly difficult for the same creature to drink. While the [[ecological niche]] which at least male giraffes utilize is only used by a single other species, the [[African Elephant]], there has been no selective forces to maintain the length of the giraffe's neck for a long time. It may be that the long neck originally evolved when the benefit of filling the ecological niche was more pronounced due to the presence of other giant ungulates in Africa, which are now extinct. Today, the maintenance of the giraffe's neck length is more an example of neutralist selection than of "survival of the fittest".
In addition to the remarkably long neck, giraffes have enlarged forelegs. These legs make it possible for giraffes to move swiftly and defend themselves against predators. It is unknown whether or not the size of the giraffe's neck, working in combination with the leg length, may provide a biomechanical advantage in defending against lion attacks.
Finally, it has been observed that males use their long necks, not just for feeding, but for combat and competition. Indeed, sexual dimorphism is strongly represented among giraffes with females having shorter, lighter necks than males. Among females, the neck and head mass levels off after about ten years of age, while the same organs in males will continue to grow throughout the twenty-plus year lifetime. The males engage in [[necking]] combat. These battles can be fatal, but are more often less severe. The longer a neck is, and the heavier the head at the end of the neck, the greater force a giraffe will be able to deliver in a blow. It has also been observed that males that are successful in necking have greater access to [[estrous]] females. In following the logic of [[sexual selection]], it is thus very possible that the giraffe's long neck may be a result of competition among males and female preferences.
==External links==
{{commons|Giraffe}}
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Giraffa_camelopardalis.html Animal Diversity Web - ''Giraffa camelopardalis'']
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/giraffe/ Giraffe Central web directory]
*[http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-giraffe.html San Diego Zoo giraffe fact sheet]
*[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php?species=9194 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/tallblondes/index.html PBS Nature: Tall Blondes (Giraffes)]
*[http://fohn.net/giraffe-pictures-facts/ Giraffe Pictures and Observations]
*[http://nature-wildlife.com Nature-Wildlife]
*[http://www.wickedgiraffe.com Matt's World of Wicked Giraffes]
*[http://www.dynoxicon.de/ Over 80 Giraffe Cartoons]
*[http://www.livescience.com/animalworld/050908_white_giraffe.html Rare White Giraffe spotted in Africa]
*[http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/mammals/giraffe.php Giraffe facts and photos] - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia
*[http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/breedlove/matingsystem.html flehman]
[[Category:Even-toed ungulates]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Griffith's experiment</title>
<id>12718</id>
<revision>
<id>38888523</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T07:21:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.247.136.48</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* More detailed description */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Griffith's experiment''' was conducted in [[1928]] by [[Frederick Griffith]] which was one of the first experiments suggesting that bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information, otherwise known as the “transforming principle”, which was later discovered to be [[DNA]].
Griffith used two [[strain]]s of [[Pneumococcus]] (which infects [[mouse|mice]]), a S (smooth) and a R (rough) strain. The S strain covers itself with a [[polysaccharide]] capsule that protects it from the host's [[immune system]], resulting in the death of the host, while the R strain doesn't h |
at this time his family home was at 40 Stansfield Road, although it is not known whether he was born at home or in hospital. It has been suggested that he may have been born as far away as Doncaster Royal Infirmary (see discussion page). He lived in [[Brixton]] until he was six years old, when his family moved to [[Bromley]] in [[Kent]] (now part of [[Greater London]]). He lived with his parents until he was eighteen.
Popular legend has it that in the spring of 1962, Bowie and his schoolmate, George Underwood, got into a fight over a girl which resulted in Bowie's peculiar eye condition. Underwood struck Bowie, who then hit his head sharply on the ground. At first, it appeared that Bowie would suffer only the usual bruises of a school yard fight but soon internal swelling developed, posing the threat of permanent blindness. Bowie was forced out of school for eight months so that doctors could conduct operations in attempt to repair his potentially blinded eye. Doctors could not fully repair the damage, leaving his pupil permanently [[mydriasis|dilated]].
As a result of the injury, Bowie has faulty [[depth perception]] and his left eye, although naturally blue, now usually appears to be brown or green, a condition known as [[heterochromia]]. Bowie has stated that although he can see with his injured eye, his color vision was mostly lost and a brownish or sepia tone is constantly present. In any case, the difference between his eyes added an exotic element to his looks that would become a signature of his image.
Rumors that Underwood stabbed Bowie's eye with a compass or other implement are false but enduring. The two continue to be friends. Coincidentally, Underwood went on to do artwork for Bowie's earlier (see[[http://www.georgeunderwood.com/pages/Album_covers/93 album covers]]).
Bowie stated that his earliest musical goal was to be a [[saxophone]] player in [[Little Richard]]'s group. Initially a saxophonist, he was discovered, quite by accident, as a singer when he subbed in for a missing vocalist at a club in London. He played with various blues groups, such as "The King Bees," "The Manish Boys" and "The Lower Third" in the 1960s. Bowie's greatest strength throughout his career has been his ability to adapt his public image to fit, and often anticipate, the prevailing musical trends. His early work shifts through the [[blues]] and [[Elvis]]-esque music while working with many British [[Pop music|pop]] styles.
Heavily influenced by the dramatic arts — from [[avant-garde]] [[theatre]] and [[mime]] to [[Commedia del Arte|Commedia dell'arte]]&mdash;much of his work has involved the creation of characters or personae to present to the world. The aspiring rock star needed to use a different stage name to avoid confusion with [[Davy Jones]] of [[The Monkees]], so he chose the last name Bowie after the [[Battle of the Alamo|Alamo]] hero [[Jim Bowie]] and his famous [[Bowie knife|Bowie Knife]]. David pronounces "Bowie" to rhyme with "Joey".
Bowie released his first solo album in 1967 for Deram records, simply called ''[[David Bowie (album)|David Bowie]]'', an amalgam of [[Psychedelic Rock]] and [[Easy Listening]]. Also released was a single, "[[The Laughing Gnome]]", with the cult-classic B-side "The Gospel According to Tony Day". None of these managed to chart; the 1967 album is hard to find today, although it exists in counterfeit copies. However, the materials of the album, the single, and several other works were later recycled in a multitude of compilation albums.
===1969 to 1973: Glam rock===
His first flirtation with fame came in 1969 when his single "[[Space Oddity]]" was released to coincide with the first [[moon landing]]. This [[ballad]] was the story of what was often called Bowie's first dual-subject and role, Major Tom, an [[astronaut]] who becomes lost in space. It became a [[United Kingdom|UK]] hit record. Its corresponding album was originally titled ''David Bowie'' and has caused some confusion, as both of Bowie's first and second albums were released with that name in the UK. In the US the second album bore the title ''Man of Words, Man of Music''. While the album is not as hard to find as the original ''David Bowie'', the highlights of the album are hardly well known. In 1972, the second album was re-released as ''[[Space Oddity (album)|Space Oddity]]''.
On [[19 March]], [[1970]], David married Mary Angela Barnett (now known as [[Angela Bowie]]) in Kent, England. Later that year, Bowie released ''[[The Man Who Sold the World]]'', rejecting the [[acoustic guitar]] sound of the previous album and replacing it with the heavy [[Rock and roll|rock]] backing provided by [[Mick Ronson]], who would be a major collaborator through 1973.
Much of the album resembles British [[hard rock]] of the period, but the album provided some interesting musical detours, such as the title track's use of [[Latin (music)|Latin]] sounds to hold the melody. The track provided an unlikely hit for UK [[pop music|pop]] singer [[Lulu (singer)|Lulu]] and would be covered by many bands over the years, including [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]. The cover of the first release of this album, on which Bowie is seen reclining in a dress, was an early indication of his interest in exploiting his [[androgynous]] appearance.
His next record, ''[[Hunky Dory]]'' (1971) saw the partial return of the fey pop singer of "Space Oddity," with light fare such as the droll "Kooks" (dedicated to his young son known to the world as [[Zowie Bowie]] but legally named Duncan Zowie Heywood Jones). Other places, the album included some of his most harrowing lyrics on tracks such as "Oh! You Pretty Things" (this song was also taken to UK #12 by [[Herman's Hermits]]' [[Peter Noone]] in 1971), the semi-autobiographical "The Bewlay Brothers" and the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]-influenced "Quicksand". Lyrically, the young songwriter also paid unusually direct homage to his influences with "Song for [[Bob Dylan]]", "[[Andy Warhol]]," and "Queen Bitch," which Bowie's somewhat cryptic liner notes indicate as a [[Velvet Underground]] pastiche.
As with the single "[[Changes (David Bowie song)|Changes]]", ''Hunky Dory'' was not a big hit but it laid the groundwork for the move that would shortly lift Bowie into the first rank of stars, giving him four top 10 albums and eight top ten singles in the UK in 18 months between 1972 and 1973.
Among Bowie's activities the next year were promoting and producing his rock and roll heroes. Former Velvet Underground singer [[Lou Reed]]'s solo breakthrough ''[[Transformer (album)|Transformer]]'' was produced by Bowie and Mick Ronson. And [[Iggy Pop]] and his band [[The Stooges]] also signed with Bowie's management, MainMan Productions, and recorded their ultimate album, ''[[Raw Power]]'', in London. Though he was not present for the tracking of the album, Bowie later performed its much debated [[Audio mixing|mix]].
Arguably, these credits did more to legitimize David Bowie as a rock music artist than any of his recordings to date. At the start of this intense period came Bowie's most highly regarded work, ''[[The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars]]''.
[[Image:Ziggystardust.jpg|left|thumb|250px|David Bowie in Ziggy Stardust attire]]
Bowie's [[androgynous]] image was taken a step further in June 1972 with the seminal ''[[Ziggy Stardust]]'', a [[concept album]] around the career of an [[extraterrestrial]] rock singer. The album's sound returns to the [[hard rock]] lineup of ''Man Who Sold the World'', but the feel is lighter and faster, typifying [[glam rock]] as pioneered by [[Marc Bolan]]. Many of the album's songs became rock classics, including "Ziggy Stardust," "Moonage Daydream," "Hang On To Yourself," and "Suffragette City".
Bowie's [[Ziggy Stardust]] character became the basis for his first tour beginning in 1972, where Bowie donned his famous red, flaming hair and wild outfits. The tour featured a three-piece band representing the "Spiders from Mars": Ronson on guitar, [[Trevor Bolder]] on bass, and [[Mick Woodmansey]] on drums. The album flew to #5 in the UK on the strength of the #10 placing of the single "[[Starman (song)|Starman]]", as well as an interview where Bowie, as the first rock singer ever, freely admitted to being gay (though 'bisexual' was probably more accurate). The success of the album made Bowie a star, and soon the one-year-old ''Hunky Dory'' album went forth and eclipsed ''Ziggy Stardust'', when it peaked at #3 on the UK chart. At the same time the non-album single ''[[John, I’m Only Dancing]]'' peaked at UK #12, and "[[All the Young Dudes (song)|All the Young Dudes]]", a song he had given to, and produced for, [[Mott The Hoople]], made UK #3.
The same musicians came together on 1973's ''[[Aladdin Sane]]'', another conceptual work about the [[disintegration]] of society, and Bowie's first #1 album in the UK. The album is sometimes called Bowie's "On the Road" album, because he wrote all the new songs on ship, bus or trains during the Ziggy Stardust tour. The album's cover, featuring Bowie shirtless with Ziggy hair and a red, black, and blue [[lightning]] bolt across his face, is one of the most famous covers of all time. ''Aladdin Sane'' included the UK #2 hit "[[Jean Genie]]", the UK #3 hit "[[Drive-In Saturday]]", and a cover of [[The Rolling Stones]]' "Let's Spend the Night Together". [[Mike Garson]] joined Bowie to play piano on this album, and his performance has been called the album's highlight. As of 2005, Garson often plays in Bowie's band.
Bowie's later Ziggy shows, which included songs from both the ''Ziggy Stardust'' and ''Aladdin Sane'' records as well as a |
Diedrich H. (1949). ''Sprachbeziehungen und sprachverwandtschaft in Afrika''. Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, 1948 (Nr. 1). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1952). ''The languages of West Africa''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1964). ''Practical phonetics for students of African languages'' (4th improvement). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
==External links==
* [http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/w/westermann_d_h.shtml Biographisch-Bibliographisch Kirchenlexikon] (entry on Westermann by Helma Pasch)
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[[Category:1956 deaths|Westermann, Diedrich Hermann]]
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[[Category:Inventors of writing systems|Westermann, Diedrich Hermann]]
[[de:Diedrich Westermann]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Diedrich Westermann</title>
<id>8438</id>
<revision>
<id>15906438</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann]]
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<page>
<title>Diacritic</title>
<id>8439</id>
<revision>
<id>41833768</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:14:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.29.60.170</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Diacritical marks}}
A '''diacritical mark''' or '''diacritic''', sometimes called an '''accent mark''', is a mark added to a [[letter (alphabet)|letter]] to alter a word's pronunciation or to distinguish between similar words. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word διακριτικός (''distinguishing''). Note that ''diacritic'' is a noun and ''diacritical'' is the corresponding adjective.
A diacritical mark can appear above or below the letter to which it is added, or in some other position; however, note that not all such marks are diacritical. For example, in [[English language|English]], the [[tittle]] (dot) on the letters ''i'' and ''j'' is not a diacritical mark, but rather part of the letter itself. Further, a mark may be diacritical in one language, but not in another; for example, in [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''u'' and ''ü'' are considered the same letter, while in [[German language|German]], [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] or [[Azeri language|Azeri]] they are considered to be separate letters.
The main usage of a diacritic is to change the phonetic meaning of the letter, but the term is also used in a more general sense of changing the meaning of the letter or even the whole word. Examples are writing numerals in [[numeral system]]s, such as early [[Greek numerals]] and marking abbreviations with the [[titlo]] in old [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] texts.
== Types of diacritic ==
* [[Dot (diacritic)|dot]]
* (''' ˙ ''') ''[[anunaasika]]'' superdot
* (''' . ''') ''[[anusvaara]]'' subdot, used in [[Sanskrit]]
* (''' ¸ ''') ''[[cedilla]]''
* (''' ˛ ''') ''[[ogonek]]'' or "Polish hook"
* (''' ° ''') ''[[kroužek]]'' or [[ring (diacritic)|ring]]; unlike in [[Czech language|Czech]], in the [[Scandinavian languages]] this is not considered a diacritic but an integral part of the character ''å''.
* (''' ˘ ''') [[breve]]; part of the character when used in [[Esperanto]]
* (''' ˇ ''') [[caron]] or ''[[háček]]'' ("little hook" in Czech). In Slovak it is called ''mäkčeň'' ("softener" or "palatalization mark"), in Slovenian ''strešica'' ("little roof"), in Croatian ''kvačica'' ("little hook").
* (''' ^ ''') [[circumflex]], part of the character when used in [[Esperanto]], also in Slovak is used on "o" and it is called ''vokáň''
* (''' ¯ ''') [[macron]]
* (''' ¨ ''') [[diaeresis]] (also dieresis) or [[umlaut]], a diacritic in some languages (such as [[German language|German]]), but part of the character in the [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Russian language]]s.
* accent
** (''' ` ''') [[grave accent]]
** (''' ´ ''') [[acute accent]]
** (''' ˝ ''') [[double acute accent]]
* (''' {{polytonic |&nbsp;&#788;}} ''') ''[[spiritus asper]]'' or rough breathing mark
* (''' {{polytonic |&nbsp;&#787;}} ''') ''[[spiritus lenis]]'' or smooth (or soft) breathing mark
* [[hook (diacritic)|hook]] (dấu hỏi), as used in [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
Marks that are sometimes diacritics, but also have other uses, are:
* (''' | ''') [[bar (diacritic)|bar]] through the basic letter
* (''' , ''') [[comma (punctuation)|comma]]
* (''' ~ ''') [[tilde]]
* ( {{unicode|&#1155;}} ) [[titlo]], used to indicate abbreviation in the [[early Cyrillic alphabet]]
* (''' ' ''') [[apostrophe (punctuation)|apostrophe]]
* (''' : ''') [[colon (punctuation)|colon]], used to attach native affixes (such as [[declension|case]] markers) to foreign words and abbreviations
* (''' - ''') [[hyphen]] - in English, hyphens can be used to break words between syllables, to resolve ambiguities in pronunciation:
** repair (fix) compared to re-pair (pair again).
** Kuringgai becomes Ku-ring-gai.
==Usage==
* [[Catalan language|Catalan]] has grave, acute, cedilla and diaeresis.
* Several [[Chinese language|Chinese]] [[romanization]]s use umlaut, but only on ''u'' (''ü''). In [[Hanyu Pinyin]], the four [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]] of [[Mandarin Chinese]] are denoted by the macron, acute, caron and grave diacritics.
* [[Czech language|Czech]] has acute, caron and ring.
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]] uses diaeresis. For example in ''ruïne'' it means that the u and i are separately pronounced in their usual way, and not in the way that the combination ui is normally pronounced. Thus it works as a separation sign and not as an indication for an alternative version of the i. Diacritics can be used for emphasis (''érg koud'' for ''very'' cold) or for disambiguation between the numeral one (''één appel'', one apple) and the indefinite article (''een appel'', an apple). Grave and acute accents are used on a very small number of words, mostly loanwords.
* In [[Estonian language|Estonian]], carons in ''š'' or ''ž'' may appear only in foreign proper names and [[loanwords]], but may be also substituted with ''sh'' or ''zh'' in some texts. Apostrophe can be used in declension of some foreign names to separate the stem from any [[declension]] endings; e.g., ''Monet' '' or ''Monet'sse'' for the [[genitive case]] and [[illative case]], respectively, for (the famous painter) "Monet".
* [[French language|French]] uses grave, acute, circumflex, cedilla and diaeresis. However, not all diacritics occur on all vowels in French:
** Acute (''accent aigu'') only occurs on ''e'' (''é'', pronounced /e/)
** Grave (''accent grave'') occurs on ''e'' (''è'', pronounced /ε/), ''a'' (''à''), and ''u'' (''ù'')
** Circumflex (''accent circonflexe'') occurs on all vowels: ''e'' (''ê'', pronounced /ε/), ''a'' (''â'', pronounced /α/), ''i'' (''î''), ''o'' (''ô'', pronounced /o/), and ''u'' (''û''; if occurring in the combination ''eû'', pronounced /ø/)
** Cedilla (''cédille'') is used only under the ''c'' (''ç'', pronounced /s/). It is used in cases in which a ''c'' is soft before ''a'', ''o'', or ''u'', such as ''ça'' (pronounced /sa/, not /ka/).
** Diaeresis (''tréma'') occurs on ''e'' (''ë''), ''i'' (''ï''), ''u'' (''ü''), and ''y'' (''ÿ''). The diaeresis only occurs on ''y'' in a few proper nouns, including ''Louÿs'' and ''[[L'Haÿ-les-Roses]]''. The mark's function is to indicate that the vowel is pronounced separately from the one just before it.
** Diacritics are sometimes omitted from [[majuscule|capitalized]] letters, especially in France.
** Not all French diacritics affect pronunciation. However, all cases in which they do have been noted in the foregoing.
* [[Finnish language|Finnish]] uses a colon to decline loanwords and abbreviations; e.g., ''USA:han'' for the illative case of "USA". Also characters ''ä'' and ''ö'' are part of the Finnish alphabet (''a'' and ''o'' with ''Umlaut'').
*[[German language|German]] has the ''Umlaut'' (¨). This can be used over ''a'', ''o'', or ''u'' to indicate vowel modification. For instance: ''Ofen'' (/'o:fən/); ''Öfen'' (/'ø:fən/), which in this case makes the difference between singular and plural (“oven”/“ovens”). The sign originated in a superscript ''e''; a handwritten [[Sütterlin]] ''e'' resembles two parallel vertical lines, like an umlaut.
* [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] has [[kahako]]s (macrons) and [[okina]]s ({{unicode|&#699;}}); often rendered as (‘).
* [[Irish language|Irish]] uses acute accent to indicate that the vowel is [[vowel length|long]]. It is known as ''síneadh fada'' in Irish.
* [[Italian language|Italian]] uses acute and grave to indicate irregular stress patterns (as in ''più'', which would otherwise be stressed on the ''i'') and to distinguish words that would otherwise be [[homograph]]s (such as ''te'' ["you"] and ''tè'' ["tea"]). In many words, acute and grave are interchangeable.
* Romanized [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ([[Romaji]]) uses diacritics to mark long vowels. The [[Hepburn romanization]] system uses a [[macron]] to mark [[long vowels]], and the [[Kunrei-shiki]] and [[Nihon-shiki]] systems use a [[circumflex]].
* [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] uses the [[acute]], [[grave]] and [[tilde]] in dictionaries to indicate stress types in the language's [[pitch stress]] system. In general usage, where letters appear with the [[caron]] (''č, š'' and ''ž'') they are considered as separate letters from ''c, s'' or ''z'' and collated separately; l |
th a projecting [[gnomon]] to cast a shadow. The foretold backward position of the sun's shadow, could have been caused by an eclipse of the sun, probably on [[May 6]], [[724 BCE]]. This eclipse took place between 6:09 and 8:24 a.m., its maximum was 64.3% at 7:15 a.m. This would then date Hezekiah's first year as king to [[738 BCE]], and his last to [[709 BCE]]. It is possible that ''Isaiah'' (38: 7-8) had been informed beforehand by an astronomer, perhaps by one of Merodach-baladan's envoys, about the expected date of a solar eclipse on [[May 6]], so Isaiah comforted the king on [[May 3]].
An alternative interpretation of Hezekiah's reign spans [[727 BCE]]-[[698 BCE]] with [[Manasseh]] co-reigning for some years as a teenager. This attempts to harmonize the reference to Hezekiah reigning during the conquest of [[Samaria]] (''2 Kings'' 18:9-10), and assumes the reference to [[Sennacherib]]'s attack in 701 was either a second campaign or that the reference to it being in Hezekiah's 14th year is a corruption.
{| align="center" cellpadding="2" border="2"
|-
| width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:<br>'''[[Ahaz]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Kingdom of Judah|King of Judah]]'''
| width="30%" align="center" | Succeeded by:<br>'''[[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]]'''
|}
==Resources==
* {{cite book | last = Grena | first = G.M. | year = 2004 | title = LMLK—A Mystery Belonging to the King vol. 1 | publisher = Redondo Beach, California: 4000 Years of Writing History | id = ISBN 0-9748786-0-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Austin | first = Lynn | title = Gods And Kings | id = ISBN 0764229893 }} a fictionalized account of Hezekiah's rise to power, Book 1 in Austin's "Chronicles of the Kings" series
== External links ==
*[http://www.kingscalendar.com/bible_dates_research/Research_bible_dates_viewnews_id_163.html Hezekiah King Of Judah - The King's Calendar]
*[http://jeru.huji.ac.il/eb34l.htm King Hezekiah] from Jerusalem Mosaic
*[http://www.allaboutgod.com/truth-topics/hezekiah.htm Hezekiah] See all Bible verses pertaining to King Hezekiah
[[Category:687 BC deaths|687 BCE deaths]]
[[Category:Kings of ancient Judah]]
[[ca:Ezequies]]
[[de:Hiskija]]
[[fr:Ézéchias]]
[[he:חזקיהו המלך]]
[[nl:Hizkia]]
[[no:Hiskia]]
[[zh:希西家]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Haemophilia</title>
<id>14006</id>
<revision>
<id>41941871</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:57:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Haemophilia |
ICD10 = D66 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|286}} |
}}
<!--Please note that any attempt to change the spelling to US English will be reverted unless consensus is first sought on the talk page-->
'''Haemophilia''' or '''hemophilia''' is the name of any of several [[heredity|hereditary]] [[genetic illness]]es that impair the body's ability to control [[hemorrhage|bleeding]]. Genetic deficiencies (or, very rarely, an [[autoimmune disorder]]) cause lowered plasma [[clotting factor]] activity so as to compromise blood-clotting; when a blood vessel is injured, a scab will not form and the vessel can continue to bleed excessively for a very long period of time. The bleeding can be [[hemorrhage|external]], if the [[skin]] is broken by a scrape, cut or abrasion, or it can be [[internal bleeding|internal]], into muscles, joints or hollow organs. It might therefore present visibly as skin bruises, or subtly as melena, hematuria, or bleeding in the brain.
==Forms==
*[[Haemophilia A]] - [[factor VIII]] deficiency, "classic haemophilia" (X-linked)
*[[Haemophilia B]] - [[factor IX]] deficiency, "Christmas disease" (X-linked)
*[[Haemophilia C]] - [[factor XI]] deficiency ([[Ashkenazi]] Jews, [[autosomal recessive]])
The unrelated type 1 and type 2 [[von Willebrand disease]] (vWD) are milder than any of the three haemophilias; only type 3 von Willebrand disease expresses a severity similar to the haemophilias. vWD is caused by mutations in the coagulation protein [[von Willebrand factor]]. It is the most common coagulation disorder present in 1% of the population.
==Genetics==
[[Image:XlinkRecessive.jpg|right|X-linked recessive inheritance]]
Haemophilia A and B are inherited in an [[X-linked recessive]] pattern. They are caused by mutations affecting the genes encoding one of the [[clotting factor]]s. The genes for both [[Haemophilia A]] and [[Haemophilia B]] are located on the [[X chromosome]]; other clotting factor deficiencies exist, but are not X linked resulting in different clinical symptoms.
Females possess two X-chromosomes, whereas males have one X and one [[Y chromosome]]. Since the mutations causing the disease are [[recessive gene|recessive]], a woman carrying the defect on one of her X-chromosomes may not be affected by it, as the equivalent [[allele]] on her other chromosome should express itself to produce the necessary clotting factors. However the Y-chromosome in men has no [[gene]] for factors VIII or IX. If the genes responsible for production of [[factor VIII]] or [[factor IX]] present on a male's X-chromosome is deficient there is no equivalent on the Y-chromosome, so the deficient gene is not masked by the [[autosomal|dominant]] allele and he will develop the illness.
Since a male receives his single X-chromosome from his mother, the son of a healthy female silently carrying the deficient gene will have a 50% chance of inheriting that gene from her and with it the disease; and if his mother is affected with haemophilia, he will have a 100% chance of being a haemophiliac. In contrast, for a female to inherit the disease, she must receive two deficient X-chromosomes, one from her mother and the other from her father (who must therefore be a haemophiliac himself). Hence haemophilia is far more common among males than females. However it is possible for female carriers to become mild Haemophiliacs due to lyonisation of the X chromosomes. Haemophiliac daughters are more common than they once were, as improved treatments for the disease have allowed more haemophiliac males to survive to adulthood and become parents. Haemophilia is particularly dangerous in adult females because of the recurring bloodflows involved in [[menstruation]].
As with all genetic disorders, it is of course also possible for a human to acquire it spontaneously ([[de novo]]), rather than inheriting it, because of a new mutation in one of their parents' gametes. Spontaneous mutations account for about 1/3 of all hemophilia A and 1/5 of all hemophilia B cases. [[Genetic testing]] and [[genetic counseling]] is recommended for families with hemophilia. [[Prenatal testing]], such as [[amniocentesis]], is available to pregnant women who may be carriers of the condition.
==Probability==
If a female gives birth to a haemophiliac child, she is possibly a carrier for the disease. Until modern direct DNA testing, however, it was impossible to determine if a female with only healthy children was a carrier or not. Generally, the more healthy sons she bore, the higher the probability that she was not a carrier, specifically
<math>P = 1 - \frac{(x!)^2}{(2x)! + (x!)^2}</math>
where ''x'' is the number of unaffected sons. (More complicated formulae could be used if healthy grandchildren and other relatives were to be taken into consideration.)
It is estimated that about 0.006% percent of the United States population suffers from Haemophilia.
==Table==
Ignoring the possibility of ''de novo'' mutations, the following table shows how people's chances of inheriting hemophilia depend on their sex and their parents' hemophilia-gene status.
[[Image:Haemophilia_table.GIF]]
==Treatment==
Though there is no cure for haemophilia, it can be controlled with regular injections of the deficient clotting factor, i.e. [[factor VIII]] in haemophilia A or [[factor IX]] in haemophilia B. Some haemophiliacs develop antibodies ([[inhibitors]]) against the replacement factors given to them, so the amount of the factor has to be increased or non-human replacement products must be given, such as [[porcine]] factor VIII. The increasing availability of human recombinant replacement blood products means the incidence of inhibitor formation is decreasing.
If a patient becomes refractory to replacement coagulation factor as a result of circulating inhibitors, this may be overcome with recombinant human [[factor VII]] (NovoSeven&reg;), which is registered for this indication in many countries.
In western countries, common standards of care fall into one of two categories: prophylaxis or on-demand. Prophylaxis involves the infusion of clotting factor on a regular schedule in order to keep clotting levels sufficiently high to prevent spontaneous bleeding episodes. On-demand treatment involves treating bleeding episodes once they arise.
As a direct result of the contamination of the blood supply in the late 1970's and early 1980's with virologic agents such as [[HIV]] and [[Hepatitis]], new methods were developed in the production of clotting factor products. The initial response was to heat treat ([[pasteurize]]) plasma-derived factor concentrate, followed by the development of monoclonal factor concentrates which use a combination of heat treatment and affinity chromatography to inactivate any viral agents in the pooled plasma from which the factor concentrate is derived. More recently, recombinant factor products (which are typically cultured in Chinese hamster ovaries and involve little, if any contact with human plasma products) have become available and are widely used in wealthier western countries. While recombinant clotting factor products offer high |
Soviet Union]], below).
Anti-Jewish sentiments continued to be present in Poland, even after the country regained its independence. One notable manifestation of these attitudes includes [[Numerus clausus#numerus clausus in Poland|numerus clausus]] rules imposed, by almost all Polish universities in the 1930's. [[William W. Hagen]] in his ''Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland'' article in ''Journal of Modern History (July, 1996): 1-31'', details:
:"''In Poland, the semidictatorial government of [[Pilsudski]] and his successors, pressured by an increasingly vocal opposition on the radical and fascist right, implemented many anti-Semitic policies tending in a similar direction, while still others were on the official and semiofficial agenda when war descended in 1939.... In the 1930s the realm of official and semiofficial discrimination expanded to encompass limits on Jewish export firms... and, increasingly, on university admission itself. In 1921-22 some 25 percent of Polish university students were Jewish, but in 1938-39 their proportion had fallen to 8 percent.''"
While there are many examples of Polish support and help for the Jews during World War II and the Holocaust, there are also numerous examples of anti-Semitic incidents, and the Jewish population was certain of the indifference towards their fate from the Christian Poles. The Polish Institute for National Memory identified twenty-four [[pogroms]] against Jews during World War II, the largest occurring at the village of [[Jedwabne]] in 1941 (see [[massacre in Jedwabne]]).
After the end of World War II the remaining anti-Jewish sentiments were skillfully used at certain moments by communist party or individual politicians in order to achieve their assumed political goals, which pinnacled in the [[March 1968 events]]. These sentiments started to diminish only with the collapse of the [[communist]] rule in Poland in 1989, which has resulted in a re-examination of events between Jewish and Christian Poles, with a number of incidents, like the masscre at Jedwabne, being discussed openly for the first time. Violent anti-semitism in Poland in 21st century is marginal[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2004/graph-7.jpg] compared to elsewhere, but there are very few Jews remaining in Poland. Still, according to recent (June 7, 2005) results of research by [[B'nai Brith]]s [[Anti-Defamation League]], Poland remains among the European countries (with others being Italy, Spain and Germany) with the largest percentages of people holding anti-Semitic views.
Poland is actively trying to address concerns about anti-semitism. In 2004, the Polish government approved a National Action Program against racism, including anti-semitism. Additionally the Polish Catholic Church has widely distributed materials promoting the need for respect and cooperation with Judaism.
==== Germany ====
[[Image:dstsatan.jpeg|thumb|200px|Der St&uuml;rmer: "Satan". The caption reads: "The Jews are our misfortune."]]
''See main articles: [[History of the Jews in Germany]], [[Holocaust]]''
From the early Middle Ages to the 18th century, the Jews in Germany were subject to many persecutions as well as brief times of tolerance. Though the 19th century began with a series of riots and pogroms against the Jews, [[Jewish emancipation|emancipation]] followed in 1848, so that, by the early 20th century, the Jews of Germany were the most integrated in Europe. The situation changed in the early 1930's with the rise of the [[Nazi]]s and their explicity anti-Semitic program. [[Hate speech]] which referred to [[Jew]]ish citizens as "dirty Jews" became common in anti-Semitic pamphlets and [[newspaper]]s such as the ''[[Völkischer Beobachter]]'' and ''[[Der Stürmer]]''. Additionally, blame was laid on German Jews for having caused Germany's defeat in [[World War I]] (see ''[[Dolchstosslegende]]'').
[[Image:Der Giftpilz - Gott des Juden - Nazi propaganda.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Nazi propaganda for German children from [[Julius Streicher]]'s publication [http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/thumb.htm ''Der Giftpilz'' (Toadstool)], 1938. The caption reads: "The God of the Jew is Money. And to gain money, he will commit the greatest crimes…."]]
Anti-Jewish propaganda expanded rapidly. Nazi cartoons depicting "dirty Jews" frequently portrayed a dirty, physically unattractive and badly dressed "talmudic" Jew in traditional religious garments similar to those worn by [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]]. Articles attacking Jewish Germans, while concentrating on commercial and political activities of prominent Jewish individuals, also frequently attacked them based on religious dogmas, such as [[blood libel]].
The Nazi anti-Semitic program quickly expanded beyond mere speech. Starting in 1933, repressive laws were passed against Jews, culminating in the [[Nuremberg Laws]] which removed most of the rights of citizenship from Jews, using a racial definition based on descent, rather than any religious definition of who was a Jew. Sporadic violence against the Jews became widespread with the [[Kristallnacht]] riots, which targeted Jewish homes, businesses and places of worship, killing hundreds across Germany and Austria.
The anti-Semitic agenda culminated in the [[genocide]] of the Jews of Europe, known as the [[Holocaust]].
==== Russia and the Soviet Union ====
[[Image:Iudaism bez prikras 63-7.gif|right|thumb|"Judaism Without Embellishments" by Trofim Kichko, published by the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in 1963: "It is in the teachings of Judaism, in the Old Testament, and in the Talmud, that the Israeli militarists find inspiration for their inhuman deeds, racist theories, and expansionist designs..."]]
''Main articles: [[History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union]], [[Pogrom]]''
The [[Pale of Settlement]] was the Western region of [[Imperial Russia]] to which Jews were restricted by the Tsarist [[Ukase]] of 1792. It consisted of the territories of former [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], annexed with the existing numerous Jewish population, and the [[Crimea]] (which was later cut out from the Pale).
During 1881-1884, 1903-1906 and 1914-1921, waves of anti-Semitic [[pogrom]]s swept Russian Jewish communities. At least some pogroms are believed to have been organized or supported by the Russian [[okhranka]]; although there is no hard evidence for this, the Russian police and army generally displayed indifference to the pogroms (e.g. during the three-day [[Kishinev pogrom|First Kishinev pogrom]] of 1903), as well as to anti-Jewish articles in newspapers which often instigated the pogroms.
During this period the [[May Laws]] policy was also put into effect, banning Jews from rural areas and towns, and placing strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed into higher education and many professions. The combination of the repressive legislation and pogroms propelled mass Jewish emigration, and by 1920 more than two million Russian Jews had emigrated, most to the [[United States]] while some made [[aliya]] to the [[Land of Israel]].
One of the most infamous anti-Semitic tractates was the Russian okhranka literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', created in order to blame the Jews for Russia's problems during the period of revolutionary activity.
Even though many [[Old Bolsheviks]] were ethnically Jewish, they sought to uproot Judaism and Zionism and established the [[Yevsektsiya]] to achieve this goal. By the end of the 1940s the Communist leadership of the former USSR had liquidated almost all Jewish organizations, including Yevsektsiya.
The anti-Semitic campaign of 1948-1953 against so-called "[[rootless cosmopolitans]]," destruction of the [[Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee]], the fabrication of the "[[Doctors' plot]]," the rise of "[[Zionology]]" and subsequent activities of official organizations such as the [[Anti-Zionist committee of the Soviet public]] were officially carried out under the banner of "anti-Zionism," but the use of this term could not obscure the anti-Semitic content of these campaigns, and by the mid-1950s the state persecution of Soviet Jews emerged as a major human rights issue in the West and domestically. See also: [[Jackson-Vanik amendment]], [[Refusenik (Soviet Union)|Refusenik]], [[Pamyat]].
Today, anti-Semitic pronouncements, speeches and articles are common in Russia, and there are a large number of anti-Semitic neo-Nazi groups in the republics of the former Soviet Union, leading Pravda to declare in 2002 that "Anti-semitism is booming in Russia"[http://english.pravda.ru/main/2002/07/30/33489.html]. Over the past few years there have also been bombs attached to anti-Semitic signs, apparently aimed at Jews, and other violent incidents, including stabbings, have been recorded.
Though the government of [[Vladimir Putin]] takes an official stand against anti-semitism, some political parties and groups are explicitly anti-Semitic, in spite of a Russian law (Art. 282) against fomenting racial, ethnic or religious hatred. In 2005, a group of 15 [[Duma]] members demanded that Judaism and Jewish organizations be banned from Russia. In June, 500 prominent Russians, including some 20 members of the nationalist ''Rodina'' party, demanded that the state prosecutor investigate ancient Jewish texts as "anti-Russian" and ban Judaism &mdash; the investigation was actually launched, but halted amid international outcry.
=== Asia ===
==== Japan ====
{{main|Antisemitism in Japan}}
Originally Japan, with no Jewish population, had no anti-Semitism but Nazi ideology and propaganda left an influence on Japan during World War II, and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion were translated into Japanese. Today |
means of the [[Single Transferable Vote]]. Under the constitution, parliamentary elections must be held at least every seven years, though a lower limit may be set by statute law. The current statutory maximum term is every five years.
[[Image:Leinsterhouseirl.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Leinster House]], the seat of the [[Oireachtas Éireann]] (Parliament of Ireland)]]
The Government is constitutionally limited to fifteen members. No more than two members of the Government can be selected from the Senate, and the Taoiseach, ''[[Tánaiste]]'' (deputy prime minister) and Minister for Finance ''must'' be members of the Dáil. The current government consists of a coalition of two parties; [[Fianna Fáil]] under Taoiseach [[Bertie Ahern]] and the [[Progressive Democrats]] under Tánaiste [[Mary Harney]].
The main opposition in the current Dáil consists of [[Fine Gael]] and [[Irish Labour Party|Labour]]. Smaller parties such as the [[Green Party/Comhaontas Glas|Green Party]], [[Sinn Féin]] and the [[Socialist Party of Ireland|Socialist Party]] also have representation in the Dáil.
Ireland joined the [[European Union]] in 1973. Since then it has received 16% of all "first warnings" issued on environmental issues, despite being under 1% of the EU's population.
In 2004 Ireland held the Presidency of the Council of the [[European Union]] .
===Role of the Catholic Church in national affairs===
As mentioned in the [[#Demographics|Demographics]] section, church attendance has declined rapidly in Ireland in recent years. As with other European states (e.g., [[Italy]]) that were predominantly Roman Catholic, the Irish state has undergone a period of secularisation and legal de-Catholicisation. In [[1972]], the "special position" of the Catholic Church in Ireland [[Fifth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland|was deleted from the Irish constitution]].
In 1995, after a seventy-year ban, a constitutional amendment allowed [[divorce]] in the Republic.
In [[1983]], the Irish constitution was amended to recognise "the right to life of the unborn", subject to qualifications concerning the "equal right to life" of the mother. In the 1990s the Supreme Court interpreted the qualifications in the amendment as allowing [[Abortion in Ireland|abortion]] in limited circumstances. However, the [[Oireachtas]] has not introduced a law enabling abortion to take place in those circumstances allowed by the court. A subsequent series of constitutional amendments allow Irish citizens access to information about abortion and to travel freely to get abortions outside Ireland.
The Catholic Church was hit in the 1990s by a series of sexual abuse scandals and cover-up charges against its hierarchy. In 2005, a major inquiry was made into child sexual abuse allegations. The Fern's report, published on [[25 October]] [[2005]], revealed that more than 100 cases of child sexual abuse, between 1962 and 2002, by 21 priests, had taken place in the Diocese of Ferns alone. The report criticised the Garda and the health authorities, who failed to protect the children to the best of their abilities; and in the case of the Garda before 1988, no file was ever recorded on sexual abuse complaints.
==Counties==
''Main article: [[Counties of Ireland]]''
The Republic of Ireland has 26 [[county|counties]], and these are used in political, cultural and sporting contexts. [[Dáil Éireann|Dáil]] constituencies are required by statute to follow county boundaries, as far as possible. Hence counties with greater populations have multiple constituencies (e.g. Limerick East/West) and some constituencies consist of more than one county (e.g. Sligo-Leitrim), but by and large, the actual county boundaries are not crossed. As local government units, however, some have been restructured, with County Dublin distributed between three new county councils in the [[1990s]] and County Tipperary having been administratively two separate counties since the [[1890s]], giving a present-day total of 29 administrative counties and five cities. The five cities — Dublin, Cork, Galway, Limerick, and Waterford — are administered separately from the remainder of their respective counties. Five boroughs — Clonmel, Drogheda, Kilkenny, Sligo and Wexford — have a level of autonomy within the county:
<table><tr valign=top><td>
* [[County Carlow]]
* [[County Cavan]]
* [[County Clare]]
* [[County Cork]]
** [[Cork|City of Cork]]
* [[County Donegal]]
* [[County Dublin]]
** [[Dublin|City of Dublin]]
** [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]]
** [[Fingal]]
** [[South Dublin]]
* [[County Galway]]
** [[Galway|City of Galway]]
* [[County Kerry]]
* [[County Kildare]]
* [[County Kilkenny]]
** [[Kilkenny|City of Kilkenny]] (Borough)
* [[County Laois]]
* [[County Leitrim]]
* [[County Limerick]]
** [[Limerick|City of Limerick]]
<td>
* [[County Longford]]
* [[County Louth]]
** [[Drogheda]] (Borough)
* [[County Mayo]]
* [[County Meath]]
* [[County Monaghan]]
* [[County Offaly]]
* [[County Roscommon]]
* [[County Sligo]]
** [[Sligo]] (Borough)
* [[County Tipperary]]
** [[North Tipperary]]
** [[South Tipperary]]
*** [[Clonmel]] (Borough)
* [[County Waterford]]
** [[Waterford|City of Waterford]]
* [[County Westmeath]]
* [[County Wexford]]
** [[Wexford]] (Borough)
* [[County Wicklow]]
</table>
These counties are grouped together into [[Regions of the Republic of Ireland|regions]] for statistical purposes.
==Geography==
[[image:Ei-map.png|right|thumb|250px|Map of Ireland]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Ireland]]''
The island of Ireland extends over 84,421 km² of which 83% (or five-sixths) belong to the Republic (at 70,280 km²), with the remainder constituting Northern Ireland. It is bound to the west by the [[Atlantic Ocean]], to the northeast by the [[North Channel (Great Britain)|North Channel]]. To the east is found the [[Irish Sea]] which reconnects to the ocean via the southwest with [[St. George's Channel]] and the [[Celtic Sea]]. The west-coast of Ireland mostly consists of cliffs, hills and low mountains (the highest point being [[Carrauntoohill|Carrauntoohil]] at 1,041 m). In from the perimeter of the country is mostly relatively flat farmland, traversed by rivers such as the [[River Shannon]] and several large lakes or ''loughs''. The center of the country is part of the River Shannon watershed, containing large areas of [[bogland]], used for [[peat]] production.
The local [[temperate climate]] is modified by the [[North Atlantic Current]] and is relatively mild. Summers are rarely very hot, but it freezes only occasionally in winter. [[precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is very common, with up to 275 days with rain in some parts of the country. Chief cities are the capital [[Dublin]] on the east coast, [[Cork]] in the south, [[Galway]] and [[Limerick City|Limerick]] on the west coast, and [[Waterford City|Waterford]] on the south east coast (see [[Cities in Ireland]]).
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of the Republic of Ireland]]''
The economy of the Republic of Ireland has transformed in recent years from an agricultural focus to one dependent on trade, industry and investment. While still small compared to its European neighbours, its growth is averaging a robust 10% in [[1995]]–[[2000]], and 7% in [[1995]]-[[2004]]. [[Industry]], which accounts for 46% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], about 80% of exports, and 29% of the labor force, now takes the place of [[agriculture]] as the country's leading sector.
Exports play a fundamental role in the state's rampant growth, but the economy also benefits from the accompanying rise in consumer spending, construction, and business investment. On paper, the country is the largest exporter of software-related goods and services in the world. In fact, a lot of foreign software, and sometimes music, is filtered through the country to avail of the state's non-taxing of royalties from copyrighted goods.
One key reason for the country's economic surge might be her government's role in the past ten years. A number of programs to address the problems of high [[inflation]] (with poor results in recent years), large tax burdens, government spending, lack-luster foreign investment and low job skills have been introduced.
A key part of economic policy, since 1987, has been [[Social Partnership]] which is a [[neo-corporatist]] set of voluntary 'pay pacts' between the Government, employers and trades unions. These usually set agreed pay rises for three-year periods.
The state joined in launching the [[euro]] currency system in January [[1999]] (leaving behind the [[Irish pound]]) along with ten other EU nations. The [[1995]] to [[2000]] period of high economic growth led many to call the country the [[Celtic Tiger]]. The economy felt the impact of the global economic slowdown in [[2001]], particularly in the high-tech export sector — the growth rate in that area was cut by nearly half. GDP growth continued to be relatively robust, with a rate of about 6% in 2001 and 2002. Growth for 2004 was over 4% and it is expected to be 5% or higher for 2005.
With high growth came high levels of inflation, particularly in the capital city. Prices in [[Dublin]], where nearly 30% of Ireland's population lives, are considerably higher than elsewhere in the country [http://www.finfacts.com/Private/bestprice/irishconsumerprices.pdf], especially in the [[Irish Property Bubble | booming property market]].
Ireland has the fourth-highest [[GDP]] (based on [[PPP]]) per capita in the world after [[Luxembourg]], [[Norway]] and the [[United States]], but lies 8th in the [[Human Development Index|2005 UN Human Development Index]], which counts GDP per capita as a factor. This indicates that life expectancy (77.56 in 2005), which place Ireland at about 32nd in the world, currently trails behind economic growth and [[literacy]] (99.9% in 2005 [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/pdf/HDR05_HDI.pdf]).
[[The Economist]] Intelli |
as an office created to protect the right of the common man in Roman politics and served as the head of the [[Plebeian Council]]. Those who held the office were granted sacrosanctity (the right to be legally protected from any physical harm), the power of rescue any plebeian from the hands of a patrician magistrate, and the right to veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including another tribune of the people and the consuls. The tribune also had the power to exercise capital punishment against any person who interfered in the performance of his duties. The tribunes could even convene a Senate meeting and lay legislation before it and arrest magistrates. Their houses had to remain open for visitors even during the night, and they were not allowed to be more than a days' journey from Rome. Due to their unique power of sacrosanctity, the Tribune had no need for lictors for protection and owned no imperium, nor could they wear the toga praetexta.
==Princeps senatus==
Another office officially out of the ''cursus honorum'' was the ''[[princeps senatus]]'', and was an extremely prestigious office for a patrician. The ''princeps senatus'' served as the leader of the Senate and was chosen to serve a five year term by each pair of Censors every five years. Censors could, however, confirm a ''princeps senatus'' for a period of another five years. The ''princeps senatus'' was chosen from all Patricians who had served as a Consul, with former Censors usually holding the office. The office originally granted the holder the ability to speak first at session on the topic presented by the presiding magistrate but eventually gained the power to open and close the senate sessions, decide the agenda, decide where the session should take place, impose order and other rules of the session, meet in the name of the senate with embassies of foreign countries, and write in the name of the senate letters and dispatches. This office, like the Tribune, did not own ''imperium'', was not escorted by lictors, and could not wear the ''toga praetexta''.
==Dictator and Master of the Horse==
{{main|Roman Dictator}}
Of all the offices within the Roman Republic, none granted as much power and authority as the position of [[Roman Dictator|Dictator]], known as the Master of the People. In times of emergencies, the Senate would declare that a dictator was required, and the current consuls would appoint a dictator, and this was the only decision that could not be vetoed by the Tribune of the Plebs. The dictator was the sole exception to the Roman legal principles of having multiple magistrate in the same office and being legally able to be held to answer for actions in office. There could never be more than one dictator at any one time for any reason, and no dictator could ever be held legally responsible for any action during his time in office for any reason. The dictator was the highest magistrate in degree of imperium and was attended by 24 lictors. Though his term lasted only 6 months instead of 12, all other magistrates were suspended, granting the dictator absolute authority in both civil and military matters through out the Republic.
When a Dictator entered office, he appointed a [[Master of the Horse]] to serve as his second-in-command, whose office ceased to exist once the Dictator left office. The Master of the Horse held Praetorian imperium, was attended by six lictors, and was charged with assisting the Dictator in managing the State. When the Dictator was away from Rome, the Master of the Horse usually remained behind to administer the city. The Master of the Horse, like the Dictator, had unchangeable authority in all civil and military affairs, with his decisions only being overturned by the Dictator himself.
== See also ==
* [[Career]]
* [[List of Ancient Rome-related topics]]
* [[Political institutions of Rome]]
* [[Roman Empire]]
* [[Roman Republic]]
* [[Roman senate]]
==External links==
*[http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/romangvt.html Diagram of the ''cursus honorum'']
[[Category:Ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Roman law]]
[[cs:Cursus honorum]]
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[[ja:古代ローマの公職一覧]]
[[nl:Cursus honorum]]
[[no:Cursus honorum]]
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[[zh:晉升體系]]</text>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:pangea_animation_03.gif|right|frame|Portrayal of shifting continents]]
The concept of '''continental drift''' was first proposed by [[Alfred Wegener]]. In [[1912]] he noticed that the shapes of continents on either side of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] seem to fit together (for example, Africa and South America). [[Francis Bacon]], [[Antonio Snider-Pellegrini]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], and others had noted much the same thing earlier. The similarity of southern continent [[fossil]] [[Fauna (animals)|faunae]] and some geological formations had led a relatively small number of Southern hemisphere geologists to conjecture as early as 1900 that all the continents had once been joined into a [[supercontinent]] known as [[Pangaea]]. The concept was initially ridiculed by most geologists, who felt that an explanation of how a continent drifted was a prerequisite and that the lack of one made the idea of drifting continents wholly unreasonable. The theory received support through the controversial years from [[South Africa]]n geologist [[Alexander Du Toit]] as well as from [[Arthur Holmes]]. The idea of continental drift did not become widely accepted as [[theory]] until the 1950s in Europe. By the 1960s, geological research conducted by [[Robert S. Dietz]], [[Bruce C. Heezen|Bruce Heezen]], and [[Harry Hess]] along with a rekindling of the theory including a mechanism by [[J. Tuzo Wilson]] led to acceptance among North American geologists.
The hypothesis of continental drift became part of the larger theory of plate tectonics. This article deals mainly with the historical development of the continental drift hypothesis before [[1950]]. ''See'': '''[[plate tectonics]]''' for information on current ideas underlying concepts of continental drift.
== Various data ==
South America and Africa are moving apart at an average of [[Centimetre|5.7 cm]] per year, due to the [[seafloor spreading]] along the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]]. This is comparable to the growth speed of a fingernail.
The fastest recorded seafloor spreading takes place along the [[East Pacific Rise]] at 17.2 cm per year.
== Evidence for continental drift ==
{{seesubarticle|Plate tectonics}}
*[[Sir Francis Bacon]] first noticed this peculiarity in the 17th century.
''Note: This section contains evidence available to Wegener's contemporaries and predecessors''
[[Image:Snider-Pellegrini Wegener fossil map.gif|thumb|right|Fossil patterns across continents.]]
Evidence for continental drift is now extensive, in the form of plant and animal [[fossil]]s of the same age found around different continent shores, suggesting that these shores were once joined. For example the fossils of the freshwater [[crocodile]] found in Brazil and South Africa. Another illustrative example is the discovery of fossils of the aquatic [[reptile]] ''[[Lystrosaurus]]'' from [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s of the same age from locations in [[South America]], [[Africa]], and [[Antarctica]]. There is also living evidence - the same animals being found on two continents. An example of this is a particular [[earthworm]] found in South America and South Africa.
The complementary shapes of the facing sides of South America and Africa is obvious, but is a temporary coincidence. In millions of years, seafloor spreading, continental drift, and other forces of [[Tectonophysics|tectonophysics]] will further separate and rotate those two continents. It was this temporary feature which inspired [[Alfred Wegener]] to study what he defined as continental drift.
== Permo-Carboniferous ==
Permo-Carboniferous was a period of great glaciation that occurred about 250 million years ago. It is one of the many ice ages that has occurred on this Earth. This is also an era that has been used to submit proof that the continents were once a large land mass called [[pangaea]]. Permo-Carboniferous rocks are widely distributed in pangaea. The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift. Glacial activity spanned virtually the whole of Carboniferous and Early Pe |
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| how much? || ''sa është?'' || {{IPA|/sa əʃtə/}} || (sAh ush-te) ||([[Media:Albanian_sa_është.ogg|listen]])
|-
| English || ''anglisht'' || {{IPA|/angliʃt/}} || (ahn-GLEE-sht)|| ([[Media:Albanian_anglisht.ogg|listen]])
|-
| yes || ''po'' || {{IPA|/po/}} || (POE) ||([[Media:Albanian_po.ogg|listen]])
|-
| no || ''jo'' || {{IPA|/jo/}} || (IOH)|| ([[Media:Albanian_jo.ogg|listen]])
|-
| sorry || ''më fal'' || {{IPA|/mə fal/}} || (mUh FAL) || ([[Media:Albanian_më_fal.ogg|listen]])
|-
| I don't understand || ''nuk kuptoj'' || {{IPA|/nuk kuptoj/}} || (nUhk KUP-toi) || ([[Media:Albanian_nuk_kuptoj.ogg|listen]])
|-
| where's the bathroom? || ''ku është banjoja?'' || {{IPA|/ku əʃtə baɲoja/}} || (kuh ush-tEh bA-nio-jA) || ([[Media:Albanian_ku_është_banjoja.ogg|listen]])
|-
| generic toast || ''gëzuar'' || {{IPA|/gəzuar/}} || (gUh-zuh-ar) || ([[Media:Albanian_gëzuar.ogg|listen]])
|-
| Do you speak English? || ''flisni Anglisht?'' || {{IPA|/flisni angliʃt/}} || (flee-snEE ahn-GLEE-sht) || ([[Media:Albanian_flisni_anglisht.ogg|listen]])
|}
: ''Note: All the above sounds are in the [[Ogg]] [[Vorbis]] format.''
== [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]]) ==
''See also: [[List of Islamic terms in Arabic]]
'''Note that this is relevant only to Modern Standard Arabic''' and not to the colloquial forms of Arabic spoken in daily life, which vary from place to place. Also, some of the following expressions were written only to suit a male speaker.
Pronunciation guide: Stress in Arabic is most often on the penult syllable (i.e., the one preceding the last).
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
| Arabic || <big> العربيّة </big> || {{IPA|/alʕaraˈbijja/}} || ''(al-ara'beeya)''
|-
| Hello || <big> مرحبًا </big> || {{IPA|/marˈħaba/}} || ''(mar'Haba)''
|-
| Good-bye || <big> إلى اللقاء </big> || {{IPA|/ilalliˈqaʔ/}} || ''(ila-lli'qa')''
|-
| Please || <big> من فضلك </big> || {{IPA|/min ˈfadˁlak/}} || ''(min 'fad/lak)''
|-
| Thank you || <big> شكرًا </big> || {{IPA|/ˈʃukran/}} || ''('Shukran)''
|-
| That one || <big> ذلك </big> || {{IPA|/ˈðalika/}} || ''('Dalika)''
|-
| How much? || <big> كمْ؟ </big> || {{IPA|/kam/}} || ''(kam)''
|-
| English || <big> الإنجليزيّة </big> || {{IPA|/alʔinʤliˈzeeya/}} ''(formal)'', <br>{{IPA|/alʔinkliˈzeeya/}} ''(colloquial)''
|-
| Yes || <big> نعم </big> || {{IPA|/ˈnaʕam/}} || ''('na-am)''
|-
| No || <big> لا </big> || {{IPA|/laː/}} || ''(la:)''
|-
| Where's the bathroom? || <big> أين الحمّام؟ </big> || {{IPA|/ʔejnalħamˈmaːm/}} || ''(eina-Ham'ma:m)''
|-
| What is your name? || <big> ما اسمك؟ </big> || {{IPA|/ˈmaː ˈʔismuk/}} || ''('ma: 'ismuk)''
|-
| Goodbye || <big> مع السلامة </big> || {{IPA|/maʕa ssaˈlaːma/}} || ''(ma-a ssa'la:ma)''
|-
| I don't know || <big> لا أعرف </big> || {{IPA|/laː ˈʕarifu/}} || ''(la: 'aarifu)''
|-
| I don't understand || <big> لا أفهم </big> || {{IPA|/laː ˈʔafham/}} || ''(la: 'afham)''
|-
| I don't remember || <big> لا أتذكر </big> || {{IPA|/laː ʔataˈðakkar/}} || ''(la: ata'Dakkar)''
|-
| Welcome || <big> أهلاً وسهلاً بكم </big> || {{IPA|/ˈahlan waˈsahlan ˈbikum/}} || ''('ahlan wa'sahlan 'bikum)''
|-
| I am sick || <big> أنا مريض </big> || {{IPA|/ʔana maˈriːdˁ/}} || ''('ana ma'ri:d/)''
|-
| Hello || <big> السلام عليكم </big> || {{IPA|/assaˈlaːm ʕaˈlejkum/}} || ''(assa'la:m aa'laykum)''
|-
| Hello (response), how are you? || <big> وعليكم السلام! كيف الحال؟ </big> || {{IPA|/waʕaˈlejkumu ssaˈlaːm. kejfa lħaːl/}} || ''(wa-a'lejkumu ssa'la:m. kejfa lHa:l)''
|-
| Fine, and you? || <big> بخير، الحمد لله. وكيف أنت؟ </big> || {{IPA|/biˈxerrin, alˈħamdu lilˁˈlˁahi. waˈkejfa ʔint/}} || ''(bi'xejrin, al'Hamdu lil/'l/ahi. wa'kejfa int)''
|}
== [[Bangla|Bengali]] ([[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]) ==
Pronunciation guide: Small letter t and d represent unaccented t and d pronunciations as in French. Capital letter T and D represent accented pronunciations in English. 'a' is pronounced as /a/ in 'father'. Small letter 'o' represents /o/ as in 'old'. Capital letter 'O' is /o/ as in 'log'.
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|- valign=top
|-
|hello || || || ''assalamu alaikum'' <br> ''nOmoshkar''|| (Muslims) <br> (Hindus)
|-
|good morning || || || ''suprobhat'' || (not commonly used)
|-
|greetings || || || ''shubhech-chha''
|-
|how are you? || || || ''(apni) kamon achhen?''
|-
|how is it going? || || || ''ki khobor?''
|-
|what's up? || || || ''ki holo?''
|-
|good-bye || || || ''Allah/khoda hafez'' <br> ''nOmoshkar''
|-
|see you later || || || ''pOre' dekha hObe''
|-
|talk to you later || || || ''pOre' kOtha hObe''
|-
|see you again || || || ''abar dekha hObe''
|-
|adieu || || || ''biday''
|-
|please || || || ''dOya kore'' <br> ''onugroho purbok'' || <br>(very formal)
|-
|thank you || || || ''dhonnobad''
|-
|sorry || || || ''duk-khito''
|-
|English || || || ''ingreji''
|-
|nice/good || || || ''shundor'' / ''bhalo''
|-
|bad || || || ''baje'''
|-
|that one || || || ''oiTa/oTa''
|-
|how much does this cost? || || || ''eiTar dam kOto?''
|-
|how much does that cost? || || || ''oiTar dam kOto?''
|-
|what is your name? || || || ''apnar nam ki?''
|-
|I can't understand || || || ''ami bujhte' parchhi na''
|-
|can you help me? || || || ''apni ki amake' shahaj-jo korte' paren?''
|-
|I don't know || || || ''ami jani na''
|-
|I don't speak Bangla || || || ''ami bangla bolte' pari na''
|-
|I don't understand Bangla || || || ''ami bangla bujhi na''
|-
|do you speak English? || || || ''apni ki ingreji bolte' paren?''
|-
|could you repeat what you just said? || || || ''doya kore' abar bolben ki?'' <br>''doya kore arekbar ektu bolun''
|-
|yes || || || ''ha'' <br> ''ji'' / ''ji hai'' ||(informal) <br> (formal)
|-
|no || || || ''na'' <br> ''ji na'' ||(informal) <br> (formal)
|-
|what? || || || ''ki?''
|-
|how? || || || ''kibhabe?''
|}
== [[Basque language|Basque]] ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
|-
|Basque:
|''Euskara''
|{{IPA|/eus̻kaɾa/}}
|-
|hello:
|''kaixo''
|{{IPA|/kajʃ̺o/}}
|-
|good-bye:
|''agur''
|{{IPA|/aguɾ/}}
|-
|please:
|''mesedez''
|{{IPA|/mes̻edes̺/}}
|-
|thank you:
|''eskerrik asko''
|{{IPA|/es̻kerik as̻ko/}}
|-
|that one:
|''hori''
|{{IPA|/hoɾi/}}
|-
|how much?:
|''zenbat''
|{{IPA|/s̺enbat/}}
|-
|yes:
|''bai''
|{{IPA|/baj/}}
|-
|no:
|''ez''
|{{IPA|/es̺/}}
|-
|English:
|''Ingelesa''
|{{IPA|/ingeles̻a/}}
|-
|Do you speak English?
|"Badakizu ingelesez?"
|{{IPA|/badakis̺u ingeles̻es̺?/}}
|}
== [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation (IPA)
! align=left | Pronunciation (approximate)
|- valign=top
|-
|Belarusian || '''Беларускі''' || {{IPA|/bʲelaruskʲi/}} || (bye-lah-ROOH-skee)
|-
|hello || '''прывітанне''' || {{IPA|/prɪvʲitanʲnʲe/}} || (pree-vee-TAHN-nye)
|-
|good-bye || '''да пабачэння''' || {{IPA|/da pabaʧenʲnʲa/}} || (duh puh-buh-CHEN-nyuh)
|-
|please || '''калі ласка''' || {{IPA|/kaʎi laska/}} || (kuh-LEE LUS-kuh)
|-
|thank you || '''дзякуй''' || {{IPA|/ʥakuj/}} || (DZYUH-kooy)
|-
|sorry || '''выбачайце''' || {{IPA|/vɪbaʧajʨe/}} || (vee-buh-CHUY-tsye)
|-
|that one || '''той''', '''тая''', '''тое''' || {{IPA|/toj/}}, {{IPA|/taja/}}, {{IPA|/toje/}} || (TOY, TUY-uh, TOY-eh)
|-
|how much? || '''колькі?''' || {{IPA|/koʎkʲi/}} || (KOL-kee)
|-
|yes || '''так''' || {{IPA|/tak/}} || (TUHK)
|-
|no || '''не''' || {{IPA|/ɲe/}} || (NYE)
|-
|I don't understand || '''Не разумею''' || {{IPA|/ɲe razumʲeju/}} || (nye ruh-zoo-MEY-ooh)
|-
|where's the bathroom? || '''дзе туалет?''' || {{IPA|/ʥe tuaʎet/}} || (dzye too-uh-LET)
|-
|generic toast || '''за здароуе''' || {{IPA|/za zdarouje/}} || (zuh zduh-ROW-yeh)
|-
|Do you speak English? || '''Ці размауляеце па-англійску?''' || {{IPA|/ʨi razmauʎajeʨe pa anɡʎijsku/}} || (tsee ruz-muw-LYUY-et-eh puh un-GLEE-skoo)
|}
== [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
|Bosnian || '''Bosanski'''||(Bos-aHn-skee)
|-
|hello || '''zdravo''' ||
|-
|good-bye || '''doviđenja''' ||(Doh-vidge-eH-Nya)
|-
|please || '''molim''' ||(moh-lIm)
|-
|Thank You
|| '''hvala'''||(Hh-vaa-laa)
|-
|sorry || '''oprostite'''||(Oh-prost-it-eh)
|-
|that one || '''to''', '''taj'''||(t-oh)/(t-eye)
|-
|how much || '''koliko?'''||(Kol-ihk-oh)
|-
|English || '''engleski'''||(ehn-glesk-eeh)
|-
|yes || '''da'''||(daah)
|-
|no || '''ne'''||(Neh)
|-
|I don't understand || '''ne razumijem'''||(Neh raaz-uhm-ihy-yehm)
|-
|Where is the bathroom || '''gdje je toalet?'''||(g-dee-yeh yeh veh-ceh)
|-
|generic toast || '''na zdravlje''' || || || (to our health)
|-
|Do you speak English || '''govorite li engleski?'''||(goh-voh-rih- |
tatus is not only mirrored in
scholar studies in the field{{ref|research}} but also in main stream movies such as ''[[Sounder]]'' (1972), ''the [[Blues Brothers]]'' (1980 and 1998), and ''[[Crossroads (1986 film)|Crossroads]]'' (1986). The ''Blues Brothers'' movies, which mix up almost all kinds of music related to blues such as R&B or [[Zydeco]], have had a major impact on the image of blues music. They promoted the standard traditional blues "Sweet Home Chicago", whose version by Robert Johnson is probably the best known, to the unofficial status of Chicago's city anthem. More recently, in 2003, [[Martin Scorsese]] made significant efforts to promote the blues to a larger audience. He asked several famous directors such as [[Clint Eastwood]] and [[Wim Wenders]] to participate in a series of films called ''The Blues''.{{ref|www.imdb.com.1000}} He also participated in the reedition of compilations of major blues artists in a series of high quality CDs.
==American Blues Clubs==
The local nightclub scene in America has carried the torch for blues music and likely accounts for as much of the resilience of the blues as recorded music. These local joints thrive despite the increase in ultra lounges and dance clubs, cranking out live music every night of the week across the country.
==References==
* {{cite journal | author = William Barlow | title = Cashing In | journal = Split Image: African Americans in the Mass Media | year = 1993 | pages = 31}}
* {{cite book | author = Clarke, Donald | title = The Rise and Fall of Popular Music | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0312115733}}
* {{cite book | author = Ewen, David | title = Panorama of American Popular Music | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 1957 | id = ISBN 0136483607 }}
* {{cite book | author = Ferris, Jean | title = America's Musical Landscape | publisher = Brown & Benchmark | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0697125165}}
* {{cite book | author = Garofalo, Reebee | title = Rockin' Out: Popular Music in the USA | publisher = Allyn & Bacon | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0205137032}}
* {{cite book | author = Morales, Ed | title = The Latin Beat | publisher = Da Capo Press | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0306810182}}
* {{cite book | author = Schuller, Gunther | title = Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1968 | id = ISBN 0195040430}}
* {{cite book | author = Southern, Eileen | title = The Music of Black Americans | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company, Inc | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0393038432}}
* {{cite web | url = http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2004/08/15/INGMC85SSK1.DTL | title = Muslim Roots of the Blues | work = SFGate | accessdate = August 24 | accessyear = 2005}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| first = Paul | last = Oliver
| title = The Story Of The Blues
| publisher = Northeastern University Press
| year = 1998
| edition = new edition
| pages = 212 pages
| id = ISBN 1555533558
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Robert | last = Palmer
| authorlink = Robert Palmer (author/producer)
| title = Deep Blues
| publisher = Viking
| year = 1981
| pages = 310 pages
| id = ISBN 0670495115
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Mike | last = Rowe
| title = Chicago Breakdown
| publisher = Eddison Press
| year = 1973
| pages = 226 pages
| id = ISBN 0856490156
}}
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 75%">
# {{note|oed}} The Oxford English Dictionary (Second Edition, 1989) gives Handy as the earliest attestation of "Blues."
# {{note|slang}} Eric Partridge, ''A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English'', 2002, Routledge (UK), ISBN 0415291895
# {{note|bolden}} Tony Bolden, ''Afro-Blue: Improvisations in African American Poetry and Culture'', 2004, [[University of Illinois Press]], ISBN 0252028740
# {{note|noabsolute}} Southern, pg. 333
# {{note|pre-blues}} Garofalo, pg. 44
# {{note|origins}} Ferris, pg. 229
# {{note|interplay}} Morales, pg 276 Morales attributes this claim to John Storm Roberts in ''Black Music of Two Worlds'', beginning his discussion with a quote from Roberts ''There does not seem to be the same African quality in blues forms as there clearly is in much Caribbean music''.
# {{note|Muslimmusic}} SFGate
# {{note|bluesevolution}} Garofalo, pg. 44 ''Gradually, instrumental and harmonic accompaniment were added, reflecting increasing cross-cultural contact.'' Garofalo goes on to cite others mentioning the "Ethiopian airs" and "Negro spirituals".
# {{note|ragtimeblues}} Schuller, cited in Garofalo, pg. 27
# {{note|barschords}} Garofalo, pgs. 46-47
# {{note|bluenotes}} Ewen, pg. 143
# {{note|lyrics}} Ewen, pgs. 142-143
# {{note|orisha}} Morales, pg. 277
# {{note|lyricalform}} Ferris, pg. 230
# {{note|Mozart}} Grace notes were common in the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] and [[Classical music era|Classical]] periods, but they acted as ornamentation rather than as part of the harmonic structure. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] comes very close in the slow movement of his ''[[Piano Concerto No. 21 (Mozart)|Piano Concerto No. 21]]'', holding a flatted fifth in the dominant for a full quarter-note. But this was a technique for building unbearable tension for resolution into the major fifth, while a blues melody could sustain the flatted fifth indefinitely as part of the scale. In other words both a blues musician and Mozart could slide from a flatted ''mi'' to a major ''mi'' over a dominant chord, but the blues musician could also use the flatted ''mi'' as a harmonic resolution in a major key.
# {{note|hamburger}} David Hamburger, ''Acoustic Guitar Slide Basics'', 2001, ISBN 1890490385.
# {{note|shuffle}} {{cite web | title=Lesson 72: Basic Blues Shuffle by Jim Burger | url=http://www.wholenote.com/default.asp?src=l&l=72&p=1 | accessdate=November 25 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|savidge}} Wilbur M. Savidge, Randy L. Vradenburg, ''Everything About Playing the Blues'', 2002, Music Sales Distributed, ISBN 1884848095, pg. 35
# {{note|bluescountry}} Garofalo, pgs. 44-47 ''As marketing categories, designations like race and hillbilly intentionally separated artists along racial lines and conveyed the impression that their music came from mutually exclusive sources. Nothing could have been further from the truth... In cultural terms, blues and country were more equal than they were separate.'' Garofalo goes on to later claim that ''artists were sometimes listed in the wrong racial category in record company catalogues.''
# {{note|nicholls}} Philip V. Bohlman, "Immigrant, folk, and regional music in the twentieth century", in ''The Cambridge History of American Music'', ed. David Nicholls, 1999, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521454298, pg. 285
# {{note|levine}} Lawrence W. Levine, ''Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1977, ISBN 0195023749, pg. 223
# {{note|1912}} Garofalo, pg. 27; Garofalo cites Barlow in ''Handy's sudden success demonstrated [the] commercial potential of [the blues], which in turn made the genre attractive to the Tin Pan Alley acks, who wasted little time in turning out a deluge of imitations''. {parentheticals in Garofalo)
# {{note|Handypseudoblues}} Garofalo, pg. 27
# {{note|habanera}} Morales, pg. 277
# {{note|LemonJefferson}} Clarke, pg. 138
# {{note|RJohnson}} Clarke, pg. 141
# {{note|Piedmontblues}} Clarke, pg. 139
# {{note|countrycity}} Garofalo, pg. 47
# {{note|BessieSmith}} Ewen, pg. 146
# {{note|tracy}} Introduction of ''Write Me a Few of Your Lines'', ed. Steven Tracy, 1999, [[University of Massachusetts]] Press, pg. 3
# {{note|SmithRainey}} Clarke, pg. 137
# {{note|Carr}} Clarke, pg. 138
# {{note|YanceyHines}} Garofalo, pg. 47
# {{note|jumpblues}} Garofalo, pg. 76
# {{note|bjorn}} Lars Bjorn, ''Before Motown'', 2001, [[University of Michigan]] Press, ISBN 0472067656, pg. 175
# {{note|Hendrix}} Garofalo, pgs. 224-225
# {{note|festivals}} A directory of the most significant blues festivals can be found at http://blues.about.com/od/bluesfestivals/
# {{note|venues}} A list of important blues venues in the U.S. can be found at http://blues.about.com/cs/venues/
# {{note|awards}} {{cite web | title=Blues Music Awards informations | url=http://www.blues.org/bluesmusicawards/ | accessdate=November 25 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|label}} A complete directory of contemporary blues labels can be found at http://blues.about.com/cs/recordlabels/
# {{note|criticism}} SFGate
# {{note|1920spop}} Garofalo, pg. 27
# {{note|research}} {{cite web
| title=Research centers for American music
| url=http://www.american-music.org/resources/ResearchCenters.htm
| accessdate=December 6 | accessyear=2005
}}
# {{note|www.imdb.com.1000}} {{imdb title | title="The Blues" (2003) (mini) | id = 0287198 }}
</div>
==See also==
*[[List of blues musicians]]
*[[List of British blues musicians]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Blues music}}
* The [http://www.blueslinks.nl mother of all blueslinks] collection
*[http://www.radioblack.com/jazz_webcast.html Blues radio stations]
*[http://www.blues.org/ Blues Foundation]
*[http://www.bottomsupblues.com/ Bottoms up Blues Gang]
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/folklife/audio.cfm Music from Florida Folklife Collection], available free for public use from the State Archives of [[Florida]]
<!-- Categorization -->
<!-- blues is a sub-category of radio formats-->
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{{featured article}}
[[Category:African American art]]
[[Category:American styles of music]]
[[Category:Blues| ]]
[[Category:Radio formats]]
[[bg:Блус]]
[[ca:Blues]]
[[da:Blues]]
[[de:Blues]]
[[eo:Bluso]]
[[es:Blues]]
[[fa:بلوز]]
[[fi:Blues]]
[[fr:Blues]]
[[fy:Blues]]
[[gl:Blues]]
[[he:בלוז]]
[[hu:Blues]]
[[id:Blues]]
[[it:Blues]]
[[ja:ブルース]]
[[nds:Blues]]
[[nl:Blues]]
[[no:Blues]]
[[pl:Blues]]
[[pt:Blues]]
[[ru:Блюз]]
[[s |
-03-03T11:38:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tasc</username>
<id>853739</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.171.250.252|193.171.250.252]] to last version by Gugganij</comment>
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national_anthem = [[Land der Berge, Land am Strome]]|
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leader_names = [[Heinz Fischer]]<br>[[Wolfgang Schüssel]]|
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GDP_PPP = $267 billion|GDP_PPP_year=2005|GDP_PPP_rank=35th|
GDP_nominal = $318 billion|GDP_nominal_year=2005|GDP_nominal_rank=22nd|
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $32,962|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=9th|
GDP_nominal_per_capita = $39,292|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank=10th|
HDI_year = 2003|
HDI = 0.936|
HDI_rank = 17th|
HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>|
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]|
established_events = From [[Austria-Hungary]]|established_dates=<br>1919|
currency = [[Austrian euro coins|Euro]]&sup1;|currency_code=EUR|
time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset=+1 |
time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST=+2 |
cctld = [[.at]] |
calling_code = 43|
footnotes = &sup1; Prior to 2002: Austrian [[Schilling]]|
}}
The '''Republic of Austria''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Republik Österreich)'' is a [[landlocked]] country in central [[Central Europe|Europe]]. It borders [[Germany]] and the [[Czech Republic]] to the north, [[Slovakia]] and [[Hungary]] to the east, [[Slovenia]] and [[Italy]] to the south, and [[Switzerland]] and [[Liechtenstein]] to the west. The capital is the city of [[Vienna]].
Austria is a parliamentary [[representative democracy]] consisting of nine federal states and is one of two European countries that have declared their everlasting [[neutral country|neutrality]], the other being Switzerland. Austria is a member of the [[United Nations]] (since 1955) and the [[European Union]] (since 1995). For the first half of 2006 Austria holds the seat of the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union|Presidency of the EU]].
==Origin and history of the name==
The [[German language|German]] name ''Österreich'' can be translated into [[English language|English]] as the "eastern realm", which is derived from the [[Old German]] ''[[Ostarrîchi]]''. ''Reich'' can also mean "empire", and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]]/[[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], although not in the context of the modern Republic of ''Österreich''. The term probably originates in a [[vernacular]] translation of the [[Medieval Latin]] name for the region: ''Marchia orientalis'', which translates as "eastern border", as it was situated at the eastern edge of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], that was also mirrored in the name ''[[Ostmark]]'' applied after ''[[Anschluss]]'' to [[Germany]].
==History==
{{details|History of Austria}}
===Austria and the Holy Roman Empire===
The territory of Austria originally known as the [[Celts|Celtic]] kingdom of [[Noricum]], was a long time ally of Rome. It was occupied rather than conquered by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] during the reign of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] and made the province Noricum in [[16 BC]]. Later it was conquered by [[Huns]], Rugii, [[Lombards]], [[Ostrogoth]]s, [[Bavarii]], [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] (until c. 800), and [[Franks]] (in that order). Finally, after 48 years of Hungarian rule (907 to 955), the core territory of Austria was awarded to [[Leopold I of Austria (Babenberg)| Leopold of Babenberg]] in 976. Being part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] the Babenbergs ruled and expanded Austria from the 10th century to the 13th century.
[[image:Juliusz Kossak Sobieski pod Wiedniem.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|Battle of Vienna 1683]]
After Duke [[Frederick II]] died in 1246 and left no successor, [[Rudolf I of Habsburg]] gave the lands to his sons marking the beginning of the line of the [[Habsburg]]s, who continued to govern Austria until the 20th century.
With the short exception of [[Charles VII Albert]] of Bavaria, Austrian Habsburgs held the position of German Emperor beginning in 1438 with [[Albert II of Habsburg]] until the end of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. During the [[14th century|14th]] and 15th century Austria continued to expand its territory until it reached the position of a European imperial power at the end of the 15th century until the end of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918.
===Modern history===
Just two years before the abolition of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806, in 1804 the [[Austrian Empire|Empire of Austria]] was founded, which was transformed in 1867 into the dual-monarchy [[Austria-Hungary]]. The empire was split into several independent states in 1918, after the defeat of the [[Central Powers]] in [[World War I]], with most of the German-speaking parts becoming a [[republic]]. (See [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]].) Between 1918 and 1919 it was officially known as the Republic of German Austria (''Republik Deutschösterreich''). After the [[Entente]] powers forbade German Austria to unite with Germany, they also forbade the name, and then it was changed to simply Republic of Austria. The democratic republic lasted until 1933 when the chancellor [[Engelbert Dollfuß]] established an autocratic regime oriented towards Italian fascism ([[Austrofascism]]).
Austria became part of [[Germany]] in 1938 through the [[Anschluß]] and remained under [[Nazis|Nazi]] rule until the end of [[World War II]]. After the defeat of the [[Axis Powers]], the [[Potsdam Conference|Allies occupied Austria]] until 1955, when the country became a fully independent republic under the condition that it would remain neutral (see: [[Austrian State Treaty]]). Austria also became a member of the UN in the same year. After the collapse of [[communist state]]s in [[Eastern Europe]], Austria became increasingly involved in European affairs, and in 1995, Austria joined the [[European Union]], and the [[Euro]] monetary system in 1999.
==Politics==
{{details|Politics of Austria}}
[[image:AustrianParliament.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Austrian Parliament in Vienna]]
Austria became a federal, [[parliamentary democracy|parliamentarian, democratic]] [[republic]] through the [[Federal Constitution (Austria)|Federal Constitution]] of 1920. It was reintroduced in 1945 to the nine [[States of Austria|states]] of the Federal Republic. The [[head of state]] is the [[President of Austria|Federal President]], who is directly elected. The chairman of the [[Government of Austria|Federal Government]] is the [[Chancellor of Austria|Federal Chancellor]], who is appointed by the president. The government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by [[vote of no confidence]] in the lower chamber of parliament, the [[National Council of Austria|Nationalrat]].
The [[Parliament of Austria]] consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat is determined every four years by a free general election in which every citizen is allowed to vote to fill its 183 seats. A "Four Percent Hurdle" prevents a large splintering of the political landscape in the Nationalrat by awarding seats only to political parties that have obtained at least a four percent threshold of the general vote, or alternatively, have won a direct seat, or ''Direktmandat'', in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the upper house of parliament, the [[Federal Council of Austria|Bundesrat]] has a limited right of [[veto]] (the Nationalrat can - in most cases - pass the respective bill a second time bypassing the Bundesrat altogether). A convention, called the ''Österreich&ndash;Konvent'' [http://www.konvent.gv.at/] was convened in [[June 30]], [[2003]] to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but has failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform. However some important parts of the final report were generally agreed upon and are still expected to be implemented.
==Subdivisions==
{{details|States of Austria}}
A federal republic, Austria is divided into nine [[states]], ([[German language|German]]: ''[[States of Austria|Bundesländer]]''). These states are divided into [[district]]s (''[[Bezirke]]'') and cities (''[[Statutarstadt|Statutarstädte]]''). Districts are subdivided into municipalities (''Gemeinden''). Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions, but have some distinct legislative authority separate from the |
he lifetime of a standard is an important practical issue. Modern Rubidium standard tubes last more than ten years, and can cost as little as $50 US. Caesium reference tubes suitable for national standards currently last about seven years, and cost about $35,000 US. Hydrogen standards have an unlimited lifetime.
==Research==
Most research focuses on way to make the clocks smaller, cheaper, more accurate, and more reliable. These goals usually conflict.
A lot of research currently focuses on various sorts of ion traps. Theoretically, a single ion suspended electromagnetically could be observed for very long periods, increasing the accuracy of the clock, while also reducing its size and power consumption.
In practice, single-ion clocks have poor short term accuracy because the ion moves so much. Current research uses [[laser cooling]] of ions, with optical resonators to increase the short term stability of the driving optics. Much of the difficulty is related to eliminating temperature and mechanical [[Noise (physics)|noise effects]] in the resonators and lasers. No laser has achieved wide use. The result is that the ion trap is very small, but the supporting equipment is still large.
Some researchers developed clocks with different geometries of ion traps, as well. Linear clouds of ions usually have better short term accuracy than single ions. There are trade-offs.
The best developed systems use [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] ions. Some researchers experiment with other ions. A particular isotope of [[Ytterbium]] has a particularly precise resonant frequency in one of its hyperfine transitions. [[Strontium]] has a hyperfine transition that is not as precise, but can be driven by solid-state lasers. This might permit a very inexpensive, long-lasting compact clock.
==See also ==
* [[NIST-F1]]
* [[Optical Atomic Clock]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4023777.stm]
* [[Radio clock]]
* [[Second]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ptb.de PTB Braunschweig, Germany - with link in English language]
* [http://www.atomic-clock.org.uk/atomuhr.html Atomic Clock United Kingdom]
* [http://www.npl.co.uk/time National Physical Laboratory (UK) time website]
* [http://www.boulder.nist.gov/timefreq/service/its.htm NIST Internet Time Service (ITS): Set Your Computer Clock Via the Internet]
* [http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/miniclock.htm NIST press release about chip-scaled atomic clock]
* [http://nist.time.gov/ NIST website]
* [http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/atomclocks Web pages on atomic clocks] by [[Science Museum (London)|The Science Museum (London)]]
[[Category:Clocks]]
[[Category: Nuclear technology]]
[[bg:Атомен часовник]]
[[cs:Atomové hodiny]]
[[da:Atomur]]
[[de:Atomuhr]]
[[es:Reloj atómico]]
[[fr:Horloge atomique]]
[[id:Jam atom]]
[[it:Orologio atomico]]
[[he:שעון אטומי]]
[[nl:Atoomklok]]
[[ja:原子時計]]
[[no:Atomur]]
[[pl:Zegar atomowy]]
[[pt:Relógio atômico]]
[[ru:Атомные часы]]
[[sv:Atomur]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cobble Hill Tunnel</title>
<id>2244</id>
<revision>
<id>41738867</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:39:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Atlantic Avenue Tunnel''' (or '''Cobble Hill Tunnel''' of the [[Long Island Rail Road]]) is an abandoned railroad tunnel beneath Atlantic Avenue in downtown [[Kings County, New York|Brooklyn, New York]]. When open, it ran for about 2750 feet (830&nbsp;m) between Hicks Street and Boerum Place.
It was opened on [[December 3]], [[1844]] and was finished by [[January 1]], [[1845]], as an open cut--that is, a reinforced trench open to the sky. It was built to reduce the grade of the railroad line on its way to the South Ferry at the foot of Atlantic Street (now Avenue), from which passenger could catch ferries to [[Manhattan|New York County]].
Five years later a "sturdy brick arch" was placed over the cut, making it a true tunnel. As built, the tunnel was 21 feet (6.4&nbsp;m) wide, 17 feet (5.1&nbsp;m) high and 1,611 feet (491&nbsp;m) long.
Insofar as it carried railroad trains under a city street, it could be described as a [[subway]] tunnel, though unlike a modern [[rapid transit]] subway, it had no stations. The similar [[Murray Hill Tunnel]] on the [[New York and Harlem Railroad]] was roofed over in the [[1850s]]. The ends of the tunnel were sealed in the fall of [[1861]].
In March 1916, the FBI suspected German terrorists were making bombs in the tunnel, and broke through. They found nothing, installed an electric light, and resealed the tunnel. In the 1920s the tunnel was reportedly used for both mushroom growing and bootleg whiskey stills. In 1936, New York City police broke into the tunnel with jackhammers to look for the body of a hoodlum supposedly buried there. In 1941 the tunnel was again inspected by the federal [[Works Progress Administration]] to determine its structural strength. A few years later, it was once again opened, this time by the FBI, in an unsuccessful search for spies. During the late 1950s it was inspected by two rail historians, George Horn and Martin Schachne.
It fell into myth, but was rediscovered by the then-18-year-old [[Bob Diamond|Robert "Bob" Diamond]] in 1981, who entered from a manhole at Atlantic and Court Street. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1989.
[[Walt Whitman]] wrote of the tunnel:
:The old tunnel, that used to lie there under ground, a passage of Acheron-like solemnity and darkness, now all closed and filled up, and soon to be utterly forgotten, with all its reminiscences; however, there will, for a few years yet be many dear ones, to not a few Brooklynites, New Yorkers, and promiscuous crowds besides. For it was here you started to go down the island, in summer. For years, it was confidently counted on that this spot, and the railroad of which it was the terminus, were going to prove the permanent seat of business and wealth that belong to such enterprises. But its glory, after enduring in great splendor for a season, has now vanished&mdash;at least its Long Island Railroad glory has. The tunnel: dark as the grave, cold, damp, and silent. How beautiful look earth and heaven again, as we emerge from the gloom! It might not be unprofitable, now and then, to send us mortals&mdash;the dissatisfied ones, at least, and that's a large proportion&mdash;into some tunnel of several days' journey. We'd perhaps grumble less, afterward, at God's handiwork.
==See also==
*[[Brooklyn Historic Railway Association]]
==External links==
* {{cite web | title=Early Transit in New York City | work=NYSubway.org | url=http://www.nycsubway.org/faq/earlysubway.html | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=The Atlantic Avenue Tunnel | work=New York City Subway Transit Scenes | url=http://wt.mit.edu/Subway/Tunnel/ | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=Brooklyn Historic Railway Association and Atlantic Avenue Tunnel | url=http://home.att.net/~Berliner-Ultrasonics/bhra.html | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=A Long-Lost Tunnel in Brooklyn | work=LI History.com | url=http://www.newsday.com/community/guide/lihistory/ny-history-hs515d,0,6961092.story | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=Crossing Brooklyn LIRR Tunnel | work=Forgotten NY | url=http://www.forgotten-ny.com/SUBWAYS/tunnel/tunnel.html | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=Cobble Hill (Atlantic Avenue) Tunnel History | work=RapindTransit.net | url=http://www.rapidtransit.net/net/faq/nyc/AtlanticTunnel.html | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{Mapit-US-hoodscale|40.6904|-73.995}}
[[Category:Brooklyn]]
[[Category:Tunnels in New York City]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places]]
[[Category:Railway tunnels]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Annapolis Valley</title>
<id>2245</id>
<revision>
<id>40913474</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T21:23:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Plasma east</username>
<id>60804</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Annapolis Valley''' is a valley in western [[Nova Scotia]], formed by a trough between two parallel mountain ranges along the shore of the [[Bay of Fundy]].
==Geography==
The Annapolis Valley measures approximately 150 [[kilometre|km]] in length from [[Digby, Nova Scotia|Digby]] and the [[Annapolis Basin]] in the west to [[Wolfville, Nova Scotia|Wolfville]] and the [[Minas Basin]] in the east, spanning the counties of [[Digby County, Nova Scotia|Digby]], [[Annapolis County, Nova Scotia|Annapolis]] and [[Kings County, Nova Scotia|Kings]].
Some also include the western part of [[Hants County, Nova Scotia|Hants County]], including the towns of [[Hantsport, Nova Scotia|Hantsport]] and [[Windsor, Nova Scotia|Windsor]] even further to the east, but geographically speaking they are part of the [[Avon River (Nova Scotia)|Avon River]] valley.
The steep face of basaltic North Mountain shelters the valley from the adjacent Bay of Fundy and rises to almost 1000 feet in elevation in some parts. The granitic South Mountain also rises to similar elevation and shelters the valley from the climate of the Atlantic Ocean approximately 100 kilometres further south on the province's [[South Shore (Nova Scotia)|South Shore]].
Within the valley itself are two "major" rivers, the [[Annapolis River]] which flows west from the Caribou Bog in the central part of the valley into the [[Annapolis Basin]], and the [[Cornwallis River]] which flows east from Caribou Bog into the [[Mi |
quired a large and disciplined labour force, and the British did not regard the Malays as reliable workers. The solution was the importation of plantation workers from India, mainly [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-speakers from South India. The mines, mills and docks also attracted a flood of immigrant workers from southern China. Soon towns like Singapore, Penang and [[Ipoh]] were majority Chinese, as was [[Kuala Lumpur]], founded as a tin-mining centre in [[1857]]. By [[1891]], when Malaya&#8217;s first [[census]] was taken, Perak and Selangor, the main tin-mining states, had Chinese majorities.
The Chinese mostly arrived poor, but their industrious habits and tight-knit networks of mutual aid (run by secret societies or [[Triads]]) soon made many of them rich. In the 1890s [[Yap Ah Loy]], who held the title of Kapitan China of Kuala Lumpur, was the richest man in Malaya, owning a chain of mines, plantations and shops. Malaya&#8217;s banking and insurance industries were run by the Chinese from the start, and Chinese businesses, usually in partnership with London firms, soon had a stranglehold on the economy. Since the Malay Sultans tended to spend well beyond their incomes, they were soon in debt to Chinese bankers, and this gave the Chinese political as well as economic power. At first the Chinese immigrants were nearly all men, and most intended to return home when they had made their fortunes. Many did go home, but many more stayed. At first they married Malay women, producing a community of Sino-Malayans or [[Peranakan|baba]] people, but soon they began importing Chinese brides, establishing permanent communities and building schools and temples.
The Indians were initially less successful, since unlike the Chinese they came mainly as indentured labourers to work in the rubber plantations, and had few of the economic opportunities that the Chinese had. They were also a less united community, since they were divided between Hindus and Muslims and along lines of language and [[caste]]. An Indian commercial and professional class emerged during the early 20th century, but the majority of Indians remained poor and uneducated in rural ghettos in the rubber-growing areas.
Traditional Malay society had great difficulty coping with both the loss of political sovereignty to the British and of economic sovereignty to the Chinese. By the early 20th century it seemed possible that the Malays would become a minority in their own country. The Sultans, who were seen as collaborators with both the British and the Chinese, lost some of their traditional prestige, particularly among the increasing number of Malays with a western education, but the mass of rural Malays continued to revere the Sultans and their prestige was thus an important prop for colonial rule. A small class of Malay nationalist intellectuals began to emerge during the early 20th century, and there was also a revival of Islam in response to the perceived threat of other imported religions, particularly [[Christianity]]. In fact few Malays converted to Christianity, although many Chinese did. The northern regions, which were less influenced by western ideas, became strongholds of Islamic conservatism, as they have remained.
The one consolation to Malay pride was that the British allowed them a virtual monopoly of positions in the police and local military units, as well as a majority of those administrative positions open to non-Europeans. While the Chinese mostly built and paid for their own schools and colleges, importing teachers from China, the colonial government fostered education for Malays, opening [[Malay College Kuala Kangsar|Malay College]] in [[1905]] and creating the Malay Administrative Service in [[1910]]. (The college was dubbed &#8220;Bab ud-Darajat&#8221; &#8211; the Gateway to High Rank.) A Malay Teachers College followed in [[1922]], and a Malay Women&#8217;s Training College in [[1935]]. All this reflected the official British policy that Malaya belonged to the Malays, and that the other races were but temporary residents. This view was increasingly out of line with reality, and contained the seeds of much future trouble.
In the years before [[World War II]], the British neglected constitutional development in Malaya. Following their usual policy of indirect rule, they were concerned to prop up the authority of the Sultans and to discourage any talk of Malaya as a united or self-governing country. There were no moves to give Malaya a unitary government, and in fact in [[1935]] the position of Resident-General of the Federated States was abolished, and its powers decentralised to the individual states. With their usual tendency to racial stereotyping, the British regarded the Malays as amiable but unsophisticated and rather lazy, incapable of self-government, although making good soldiers under British officers. They regarded the Chinese as clever but dangerous &#8211; and indeed during the 1920s and &#8216;30s, reflecting events in China, the Chinese Nationalist Party (the [[Kuomintang]]) and the [[Chinese Communist Party]] built rival clandestine organisations in Malaya, leading to regular disturbances in the Chinese towns. The British saw no way that Malaya&#8217;s disparate collection of states and races could become a nation, let alone an independent one.
==War and Emergency ==
[[Image:Tugu_negara.jpg|thumb|400px|right|''[[Tugu Negara]]'', the Malaysian national monument is dedicated to those that fell during World War II and the Malayan Emergency]]
The outbreak of war in the Pacific in December [[1941]] found the British in Malaya completely unprepared. During the 1930s, anticipating the rising threat of Japanese naval power, they had built a great naval base at Singapore, but never anticipated an invasion of Malaya from the north. Because of the demands of the war in Europe, there was virtually no British air capacity in the Far East. The Japanese were thus able to attack from their bases in [[French Indo-China]] with impunity, and despite stubborn resistance from British, [[Australia|Australian]] and Indian forces, they overran Malaya in two months. Singapore, with no landward defences, no air cover and no water supply, was forced to surrender on [[February 15]], [[1942]], doing irreparable damage to British prestige. British North Borneo and Brunei were also occupied.
The Japanese had a racial policy just as the British did. They regarded the Malays as a colonial people liberated from British imperialist rule, and fostered a limited form of Malay nationalism, which gained them some degree of collaboration from the Malay civil service and intellectuals. (Most of the Sultans also collaborated with the Japanese, although they maintained later that they had done so unwillingly.) The occupiers regarded the Chinese, however, as enemy aliens, and treated them with great harshness: during the so-called ''sook ching'' (purification through suffering), up to 40,000 Chinese in Malaya and Singapore were killed. Chinese businesses were expropriated and Chinese schools closed. Not surprisingly the Chinese, led by the [[Malayan Communist Party]] (MCP), became the backbone of the [[Malayan People&#8217;s Anti-Japanese Army]] (MPAJA), which with British assistance became the most effective resistance force in the occupied Asian countries. But the Japanese also offended Malay nationalism by allowing their ally [[Thailand]] to re-annex the four northern states they had surrendered to Britain in [[1909]]. The loss of Malaya&#8217;s export markets soon produced mass unemployment which affected all races and made the Japanese increasingly unpopular.
The Malayans were thus on the whole glad to see the British back in [[1945]], but things could not be as they were before the war. Britain was bankrupt and the new [[British Labour Party|Labour]] government was keen to withdraw its forces from the East as soon as possible. Colonial self-rule and eventual independence were now British policy. The tide of colonial nationalism sweeping through Asia soon reached Malaya. But most Malays were more concerned with defending themselves against the Chinese than with demanding independence from the British &#8211; indeed their immediate concern was that the British not leave and abandon the Malays to the armed Communists of the MPAJA, which was the largest armed force in the country. During the last year of the war there had been armed clashes between Chinese and Malays and many Malays were killed by the armed Chinese Communists members of the MPAJA and the returning British found a country on the brink of civil war.
In [[1946]] the British announced plans for a Malayan Union, which would turn the Federated and Unfederated Malay States, plus Penang and Melaka (but not Singapore), into a unitary state, with a view to independence within a few years. There would be a common Malayan citizenship regardless of race. The Malays were horrified at this recognition that the Chinese and Indians were now to be a permanent and equal part of Malaya&#8217;s future, and vowed their opposition to the plan. The Sultans, who had initially supported it, backed down and placed themselves at the head of the resistance. In [[1946]] the [[United Malays National Organisation]] (UMNO) was founded by Malay nationalists led by [[Onn Jaafar|Dato Onn bin Jaafar]], the Chief Minister of Johore. UMNO favoured independence for Malaya, but only if the new state was run exclusively by the Malays. Faced with implacable Malay opposition, the British dropped the plan.
Meanwhile the Communists were moving towards open insurrection. The MPAJA had been disbanded in December [[1945]], and the MCP organised as a legal political party, but the MPAJA&#8217;s arms were carefully stored for future use. The MCP policy was for immediate independence with full equality for all races. This meant it recruited very few Malays. The Party&#8217;s st |
s French nationalist tale, ''Napoléon et la conquête du monde, 1812-1823'' ([[1836]]) &ndash; in English ''Napoleon and the Conquest of the World''. In this book, Geoffroy-Château postulates that [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] turns away from [[Moscow]] before the disastrous winter of [[1812]]. Without the severe losses he suffered historically, Napoleon is able to conquer the world. Geoffroy-Château's book must have been popular in [[France]], for the subsequent years saw many similar novels published.
In the [[English language]], the first known complete alternate history is [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]'s [[short story]] "P.'s Correspondence", published in [[1846]] and which recounts the tale of an apparent madman and his purported encounters with various literary and political figures of the 1840s. At novel length, the first alternate history in English would seem to be [[Castello Holford]]'s ''Aristopia'' ([[1895]]). While not as nationalistic as ''Napoléon et la conquête du monde, 1812-1823'', ''Aristopia'' is another attempt to portray a utopian society which never existed. In ''Aristopia'', the earliest settlers in [[Virginia]] discover a reef made of solid [[gold]] and are able to build a [[Utopia|utopian]] society in [[North America]].
=== Early 20th century and the era of the pulps===
Although a number of alternate history stories and novels appeared in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the next major work is perhaps the strongest anthology of alternate history ever assembled. In [[1932]], British historian [[Sir John Squire]] collected a series of essays, many of which could be considered stories, in ''If It Had Happened Otherwise'' from some of the leading historians of the period. In this work, scholars from major universities as well as important non-university-based authors turned their attention to such questions as "If the Moors in Spain Had Won" and "If [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] Had Had an Atom of Firmness."
The essays range from serious scholarly efforts through [[Henrik Van Loon]]'s fanciful and satiric portrayal of an independent 20th century Dutch city state on the island of Manhattan.
Four of the fourteen pieces examined the two most popular themes in alternate history prior to the [[World War II|Second World War]]: Napoleon's victory and the [[American Civil War]]. One of the entries in Squire's volume was [[Winston Churchill]]'s "If Lee Had Not Won the Battle of Gettysburg", written from the viewpoint of a historian in a world where the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] had won the [[American Civil War]], considering what would have happened if the North <!-- Please do not change this, North is correct --> had been victorious. (This kind of speculative work which posts from the point of view of an alternate history is variously known as a "recursive alternate history", a "double-blind what-if" or an "alternate-alternate history".) Other authors appearing in Squire's book included [[Hilaire Belloc]] and [[André Maurois]].
Another example of alternate history from this period (and arguably the first to explicitly posit cross-time travel from one universe to another as anything more than a visionary experience) was [[H.G. Wells]]' ''[[Men Like Gods]]'' (1923) in which several British politicians are transferred via an accidental encounter with a cross-time machine into an alternate universe in which Britain had changed course in earlier centuries and developed into a seemingly pacifistic and utopian society. When the politicians from our world try to seize power, the utopians simply point a ray gun at them and send them on to someone else's universe. Wells works out the entire multiverse-pancake framing complete with paratime travel machines that would become popular with U.S. pulp writers (see below), but since his hero experiences only a single alternate world this story is not very different from conventional alternate history (the intruders from our world cause no significant change in the world they enter and are really just a device for examining the results of a past divergence between Wells' utopia and our own world).
The 1930s would see alternate history move into a new arena. The December [[1933]] issue of ''[[Astounding (magazine)|Astounding]]'' published [[Nat Schachner]]'s "Ancestral Voices". This was quickly followed by [[Murray Leinster]]'s "Sidewise in Time". While earlier alternate histories examined reasonably straight-forward divergences, Leinster attempted something completely different. In his "world gone mad", pieces of Earth traded places with their analogs from different timelines. The story follows [[Robinson College (fictitious)|Robinson College]] Professor Minott as he wanders through these analogs, each of which features remnants of worlds which followed a different history.
=== Time travel as a means of creating historical divergences ===
This period also saw the publication of the [[time travel]] novel ''[[Lest Darkness Fall]]'' by [[L. Sprague de Camp]], which was similar to [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court]]'' but sent an American academic to the [[Italy]] of the [[Ostrogoths]] at the time of the Byzantine invasion led by [[Belisarius]]. De Camp's work is concerned with the historical changes wrought by his time traveler, Martin Padway, thereby making the work an alternate history. Padway is depicted as making permament changes and implicitly forming a new time branch (in contrast to Twain's hero, who ultimately fails, with the result that history reverts to its "normal" course).
Time travel as the cause of a point of divergence (creating two histories where before there was one, or simply replacing the future that existed before the time traveling event) has continued to be a popular theme over the decades. In [[Bring the Jubilee]], by [[Ward Moore]], the hero, who lives in a backward world in which the South won the Civil War, travels through time and brings about an alternate history in which the North won at Gettysburg. [[Ray Bradbury]]'s [[A Sound of Thunder]] creates a scenario in which the time travelers inadvertently destroy all history as we know it.
When a story's assumptions about the nature of time necessitate, as in the Bradbury tale, a replacement of the visited historical time's future rather than just the creation of a new time line, the next step is obviously the founding of a time patrol (a device that is <i>not</i> to be confused with the paratime police, see below). Such an agency has the grim task of saving civilization every day, every hour, with patrol members--depicted most notably in [[Poul_Anderson#Time_Patrol|Poul Anderson's Time Patrol]]--racing uptime and downtime to preserve the "correct" history.
Of course not all time travel stories involve alternate histories. The writer may ignore the possibility of change, or have the cause-and-effect work out so that the time traveler's actions cause the future he remembers, as in [[Harry Harrison]]'s [[Technicolor Time Machine]].
=== The Connecticut Yankee wins at last! ===
A recent time travelling splitter variant involves entire communities (and not just individuals like Twain's [[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court|Connecticut Yankee]]) being shifted uptime to be the founding fathers of new time branches. These communities are transported either from the present or the near-future to the past via a natural disaster, the action of technologically advanced aliens, or a human experiment gone wrong.
[[S.M. Stirling]] has written the ''[[Island in the Sea of Time]]'' trilogy, in which [[Nantucket]] Island and all its modern inhabitants are transported to [[Bronze Age]] times to become the world's first superpower. In [[Eric Flint]]'s [[1632 series]], a small town in [[West Virginia]] is transported to 17th century Europe and leads a revolution against the [[Hapsburgs]]. [[John Birmingham]]'s [[Axis of Time]] trilogy, deals with the culture shock when a United Nations naval task force from 2021 finds itself back in 1942 helping the Allies against the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] and the [[Nazi Germany|Germans]] (and doing almost as much harm as good in spite of its advanced weapons).
=== Cross-time stories ===
H.G. Wells' "cross-time"/"many universes" variant (see above) was fully developed by De Camp in his 1940 short story "The Wheels of If" (''[[Unknown Fantasy Fiction]]'', October 1940), in which the hero is repeatedly shifted from one alternate history to another, each more remote from our own than the last. This subgenre was used early on for purposes far removed from quasi-academic examination of alternative outcomes to historical events. [[Fredric Brown]] employed it to satirize the s-f pulps and their adolescent readers--and fears of foreign invasion--in the classic ''[[What Mad Universe]]'' (1949). In [[Clifford Simak]]'s ''[[Ring Around the Sun]]'' (1953), the hero ends up in an alternate earth of thick forests in which humanity never developed (the ultimate divergence) but where a band of mutants is establishing a colony; the story line appears to frame the author's anxieties regarding [[McCarthyism]] and the [[Cold War]].
=== Introducing the paratime patrol ===
Also in the late 1940s and the 1950s, however, writers such as [[H. Beam Piper]], [[Sam Merwin Jr.]] and [[Andre Norton]] wrote thrillers set in a [[multiverse]] in which all alternate histories are co-existent and travel between them occurs via a technology involving portals and/or paratime capsules. These authors established the convention of a secret paratime trading empire that exploits and/or protects worlds lacking the paratime technology via a network of James Bond style secret agents (Piper called them the "paratime police").
This concept provided a conveni |
henko Putin August 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Belarusian President Lukashenko meeting Russia|Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] at an [[August]] [[2005]] CIS meeting.]]
''Main articles: [[Politics of Belarus]], [[Foreign relations of Belarus]]''.
Belarus is a [[republic]], governed by a [[Leaders of Belarus|President]] and a [[bicameral]] [[parliament]]—the [[National Assembly of the Republic of Belarus|National Assembly]]—comprising a lower house, the 110 member [[House of Representatives of the Republic of Belarus|House of Representatives]], and an upper house, the 64 member [[Council of the Republic of Belarus|Council of the Republic]]. The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the Prime Minister of Belarus, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister and make suggestions on the foreign and domestic policy of Belarus. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president and the ability to accept or reject the bills passed from the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the [[Constitution of Belarus]]. The President—since 1994, [[Alexander Lukashenko]]—is the [[head of state]]. The government is a [[Council (government)|Council]] of Ministers, headed by a [[Prime Minister of Belarus|prime minister]]; the members of the Council of Ministers need not be members of the legislature, and are appointed by the President. The judiciary comprises the [[Supreme Court of Belarus|Supreme Court]] and various specialized courts, such as the [[Constitutional Court of Belarus|Constitutional Court]], which deal with specific issued related to the constitution or business law. The judges of the Constitutional Court are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic.
In Belarus, while there are [[political party|political parties]] that either support or oppose President Lukashenko, the majority of the seats in the National Assembly are filled by those not affiliated with any political parties ("non-partisans"). However, there are three political parties who hold seats in the House of Representatives: the [[Communist Party of Belarus]] (8 seats), the [[Agrarian Party of Belarus]] (3 seats), and the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus]] (1 seat). The other two parties that pledged their support to Lukashenko, the [[Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party]] and the [[Republican Party of Labour and Justice]], did not secure any seats in [[October]] [[2004]] election. Opposition parties, such as the [[Belarusian People's Front]] and the [[United Civic Party of Belarus]] did not gain any seats. The UCPB and the BPF are some of the parties that comprise the [[People's Coalition 5 Plus]], a group of political parties who oppose Lukashenko. Several organizations, including as the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]], declared the election un-free due to opposition parties negative results and the bias of the Belarusian media in favor of the government. {{ref|OSCE}} However, in constitutional as well as political terms, the House is of marginal importance. At the 2000 election, it took four rounds of voting before all the seats were filled; in the end, 86% of the elected deputies were independents, and the remainder were the representatives of parties traditionally loyal to the president (OSCE, 2000). The [[Belarusian presidential election, 2006|next round of elections]] take place on March 19th, 2006, and this election also includes selecting the President. Lukashenko is being opposed in the election by [[Alexander Milinkevich]], a candidate representing a collitation of oppositional parties. Another opposition candiate, [[Alaksandar Kazulin]] of the Social Democrats was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the Lukashenko sponsored event, the [[All Belarusian People's Assembly]]. This event, among others, have caused for concern that the 2006 elections will once again have iregularities. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4766024.stm]
Western media, politicians and [[political scientist]]s have increasingly labeled Belarus under President Lukashenko's rule as [[Europe]]'s last [[dictatorship]]. Lukashenko was quoted as saying that he has an "authoritarian ruling style" that he uses to run the country. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3882843.stm] The [[Council of Europe]] has barred Belarus from membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections. According to the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe, Belarus's constitution is "illegal and does not respect minimum democratic standards and thus violates the principles of separation of powers and the rule of law". {{ref|CoE}} The Belarusian government is also criticized for [[human rights]] violations and its actions against [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]], independent journalists, national minorities and opposition politicians.{{ref|HRW}} During the rule of the current administration in Belarus, there have been several cases of persecution, including the [[Forced disappearance|disappearance]] or death of prominent opposition leaders and independent journalists. Belarus is also one of just two nations in Europe that retains the [[Capital punishment in Belarus|death penalty]] for certain crimes.
==Subdivisions==
{{main|Subdivisions of Belarus}}
[[Image:Belarus.geohive.png|thumb|320px|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]
Belarus is divided into six [[province]]s ("[[voblast]]s"), named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers. The city of Minsk, located in the Minsk province, has the special status of being a national subordinate as it isn't included in any voblast. Subdivision into ''voblasts'' is inherited from the Soviet era. Voblasts are further subdivided into ''[[raion]]s'' (commonly translated as "[[district]]s" or "regions"). Local legislative authorities (''raisovet'', "raion council") are elected by the raion's residents; local executive authorities (''raion administration'') are appointed by higher executive authorities. In the same way, each voblast has its own legislative authority (''oblsovet''), elected by residents, and an executive authority (''voblast administration''), whose leader is appointed by the President.
(Administrative centers are given in parentheses.)
# [[Minsk]] (capital)
# [[Brest Province]] ([[Brest, Belarus|Brest]])
# [[Homyel Province]] ([[Homyel']])
# [[Hrodna Province]] ([[Hrodna]])
# [[Mahilyow Province]] ([[Mahilyow]])
# [[Minsk Province]] ([[Minsk]])
# [[Vitsebsk Province]] ([[Vitsebsk]])
==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Belarus}}
[[Image:Swamp lake Balarus.jpg|thumb|Swamps, forests and a lake in Belarus]]
Belarus is [[landlocked]], relatively flat, and contains large tracts of [[marsh]]y land. Lakes and rivers punctuate the country. The largest marsh territory is [[Polesia]], which is also amongst the largest marshes in Europe. There are 11,000 lakes in Belarus, but the majority of the lakes are smaller than 0.5&nbsp;[[square kilometre]] (124&nbsp;[[acre]]s). Three major rivers run through the country, the [[Neman River]], the [[Pripyat River]], and the [[Dnepr River]]. Belarus' highest point is [[Dzyarzhynskaya Hara]] (Dzyarzhynsk Hill), 345&nbsp;[[metre]]s (1,132&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), and its lowest point is on the Neman River, 90&nbsp;metres (295&nbsp;ft). The [[climate]] ranges from harsh [[winter]]s (average January temperatures are in the range &minus;8&nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]](18&nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) to &minus;2&nbsp;°C (28&nbsp;°F)) to cool and moist [[summer]]s (average temperature 15&nbsp;°C (59°F) to 20&nbsp;°C(68°F)).
Forest covers about 34 % of the total landscape, making it one of the most dominant natural resources in Belarus. Other natural resources to be found in Belarus include [[peat]] deposits, small quantities of [[petroleum|oil]] and natural gas, [[granite]], dolomitic [[limestone]], [[marl]], [[chalk]], [[sand]], [[gravel]], and [[clay]]. About one fifth of the territory, mostly in the South-Eastern provinces of [[Homyel voblast|Homyel]] and [[Mahilyow voblast|Mahilyow]], continues to be affected by fallout from the 1986 [[nuclear power plant]] disaster in [[Chernobyl]], [[Ukraine]]. While the amount of radiation has decreased (by one percent) since the disaster, most of the area is considered uninhabitable. {{ref|Chernobyl}}
==Economy==
[[Image:Belarus-2000-Bill-500-Obverse.jpg|thumb|Obverse of the 500 [[Belarusian rouble]] (BYB/BYR), the national currency]]
{{main|Economy of Belarus}}
The Belarusian [[Economic system|economy]] has so far not converted into a [[free-market economy]], since the central steering element economy is still preferred by the government. However, it has not come close to economic collapse as in other states of the former Soviet Union. The country is economically relatively stable. The country depends to a large extent on [[raw material]] supplies from [[Russia]]. [[Industry]] and [[agriculture]] are in large amount in state hands. Belarus ranks thus among the few existing state-capitalistic national economies. The agriculture is dominated by collective agriculture and with major branches: [[cultivation]] of [[potato|potatoes]], [[cattle]] [[breeding]].
Historically important branches of industry are the [[textile]] industry and the wood processing. After 1965, creation of heavy industry and [[mechanical engineering]] [[tractors]],[[refrigerator]]s) significantly strengthens countries development. Within the Soviet Union Belarus was one of the industrially most developed republic. Economically Belarus engages itself in the [[Commonwealth of Independent Sta |
of [[Spain]].
*'''[[Declaration of Independence (United States)|United States Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1776]]) - Made by thirteen of Great Britain's North American colonies. In [[1778]], the [[Treaty of Alliance]] and the [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] were signed by the [[United States]] and [[France]] signaling the first official recognition of the new country. The [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] formally recognized the new country in the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] of [[1783]].
*'''[[Brazilian Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1822]]) - [[Brazil]] was declared independent from [[Portugal]] on [[September 7]] by then regent Pedro de Bragança e Bourbon, who was then crowned [[Peter I of Brazil|Emperor Peter I of Brazil]].
*'''[[Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[May 20]], [[1775]] in North Carolina) - Declared [[North Carolina]] independence from Great Brittain a year before the US Declaration of Independence.
*'''[[Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand]]''' ([[1835]]) - This was a declaration of the independence of the [[Māori]] tribes.
*'''[[Texas Declaration of Independence|Texan Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1836]]) - [[Texas]] declared its independence from [[Mexico]] as the [[Republic of Texas]].
*'''[[Hungarian Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1849]]) - [[Hungary]] declared independence from the [[Austrian Empire]] and deposed the [[Habsburg dynasty]] on [[April 14]], [[1849]].
*'''[[Philippine Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1898]]) - The [[Philippines]] were declared independent from [[Spain]] by [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] on [[June 12]], [[1898]] when the [[Spanish-American War]] was still under way. However, neither Spain nor the United States recognized the declaration. Official Philippine independence was finally granted by Congress on [[July 4]], [[1946]] after 48 years of United States colonial rule.
*'''[[Easter Proclamation]]''' ([[Ireland]], [[1916]]) - During the [[Easter Rising]] in [[Dublin]] Irish rebels proclaimed, on behalf of the Irish people, the establishment of an independent Irish republic. Unlike the later Declaration of Independence of 1919, the Proclamation of the Republic was not issued by an elected body and was not followed by the establishment of any ''de facto'' political institutions.
*'''[[Finland's declaration of independence]]''' ([[1917]]) - [[Finland]] declared its independence from [[Russia]] shortly after [[October Revolution]], on 6th [[December]].
*'''[[Irish Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1919]]) - The [[Irish Republic]], encompassing the whole island of [[Ireland]], was declared by [[Dáil Éireann (1919-1922)|Dáil Éireann]] (a revolutionary parliament setup by the vast majority of elected representatives of Ireland) in 1919. By the declaration the Dáil ratified the earlier Easter Proclamation. The new Irish Republic was recognized by no country except the [[Russian SFSR]] and was rivaled by the administration of the [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]] during the [[Anglo-Irish War]]. It was superseded by the [[Irish Free State]] in [[1922]].
*'''[[ Korean independence movement | Korean Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1919]]) - [[Korea]] declared independence from the [[Japan]] on [[March 1]], [[1919]]. Japanese government brutally cracked down the [[March 1st Movement | independence movement]]. Leaders of the movement fled to Shanghai of China and founded [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]].
*'''[[Icelandic Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1944]]) - [[Iceland]] declared its independence from [[Denmark]], following a [[plebiscite]] of the local population, on [[June 17]], [[1944]]. The Danish [[Christian X|King Christian X]], whose country was under [[Occupation of Denmark|Nazi occupation]] at the time, had urged Iceland to wait until the end of the war before making any such move but otherwise did nothing to prevent it (and was unable to do so in any case as Iceland was under U.S. [[military occupation]]).
*'''[[Indonesian Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1945]]) - [[Indonesia]] declared independence from the [[Netherlands]] on [[August 17]], [[1945]]. Its independence was soon recognized by the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], but not by the Netherlands until [[1949]].
*'''[[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel]]''' (1948) - The declaration was made on [[May 14]], [[1948]] (the day in which the British Mandate over Palestine expired) by the [[Jewish People's Council]].
*'''[[Katangan Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1960]]) - [[Katanga]], a former a province of the [[Belgian Congo]], attempted to secede by means of a UDI in 1960, when Congo was granted its independence. The attempted secession was ended by the implementation of the [[United Nations]] supervised [[National Conciliation Plan]] in January, [[1963]].
*'''[[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Rhodesian Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1965]]) - [[Ian Smith]]'s white minority government declared independence from the [[United Kingdom]] in 1965. Few states accepted this declaration's legitimacy. The UDI Rhodesian state was ultimately replaced under the [[Lancaster House Agreement]] by a restored British regime under a governor: [[Lord Soames]]. Within a short time, a new, much more widely recognized independent state, [[Zimbabwe]], came into existence.
*'''[[Declaration of Independence of Bangladesh]]''' ([[1971]]) - [[Bangladesh]] (East Pakistan) declared independence from the [[West Pakistan]] in 1971. Pakistan sent its military and brutally killing liberation fighters. After bloody nine month Bangladesh Freedom Fighter defeat Pakistan military. [[Bangladesh]] got recognised of the world within a year.
*'''[[Declaration of Independence of Guinea-Bissau]]''' ([[1973]]) - [[Guinea-Bissau]], formerly Portuguese Guinea, declared independence from [[Portugal]] in 1973. The declaration was recognized by many countries. Portugal formally granted independence in [[1974]].
*'''[[East Timorese Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1975]]) - [[East Timor]], formerly [[Portuguese Timor]], declared independence from Portugal on [[November 28]]. The declaration was recognized by several Communist ([[Communist state|Marxist-Leninist]]) and [[Third World]] nations, including the [[People's Republic of China]], but not by neighboring [[Australia]], [[Portugal]] or [[Indonesia]]. Indonesia invaded on [[December 7]], [[1975]], and annexed East Timor as its 'twenty-seventh province' on [[July 17]], [[1976]].
*'''[[Declaration of Independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]''' ([[1983]]) - The [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] was proclaimed in northern [[Cyprus]] in 1983. The area had been occupied by Turkish forces since a Turkish invasion in [[1974]]. The state has only received international recognition from [[Turkey]] and the [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic]].
*'''[[South Africa]]''' On adopting the 1996 constitution[http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/index.htm][http://www.saweb.co.za/election/constit/saconst.html], the government of South Africa declared that people of South Africa did not have to ask the [[Westminster Parliament]] to pass legislation to make the new constitution legal [http://www.constitutionalcourt.org.za/site/theconstitution/history.htm][http://www.library.und.ac.za/CONHistoryLecture.doc]. See also [[Constitutional Court of South Africa]] and [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] .
*'''[[Palestinian Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1988]]) - The [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]] proclaimed the [[State of Palestine]] in 1988. The PLO had no control of any territory at the time and a ''de facto'' state has yet to come into existence.
*'''[[Somaliland Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1991]]) - With Somalia sliding down into total anarchy, the former colony of [[British Somaliland]], which became a [[constituent state]] of the newly independent Somalia in 1960, reasserted its independence. Despite the non-recognition of [[Somaliland]] by the international community, Somaliland has enjoyed stability and economic growth.
*Recent self-declared states include: '''[[Chechnya]]''', '''[[Puntland]]''', '''[[Nagorno-Karabakh]]''', '''[[South Ossetia]]''', '''[[Abkhazia]]''', and '''[[Transnistria]]'''.
==Independence without a UDI==
In many cases, independence is achieved without a declaration of independence but instead occurs by bilateral agreement. An example of this is the independence of many components of the [[British Empire]], most parts of which achieved independence through negotiation with the United Kingdom government. [[Australia]] and [[Canada]], for example, achieved full independence through a series of acts of the respective national [[parliament]]s of the United Kingdom, Australia and Canada.
One notable example of self-government in the absence of a formal declaration of independence is [[Taiwan]], which is administered by the [[Republic of China]] (ROC). The [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) has stated that a formal declaration that Taiwan is independent of [[China]] would be one of the conditions under which they would use force against Taiwan.
The [[political status of Taiwan]] remains controversial; the position of most supporters of [[Taiwanese independence]] has been that since Taiwan has never been a part of the PRC, and the governing institutions of the ROC function as an independent and sovereign state, there is no need to formally declare Taiwan to be independent. Opponents of Taiwanese independence on Taiwan itself, who are sometimes but not always supporters of [[Chinese reunification]], also see no point in a declaration of independence in that they argue that Taiwan is and should be part of a greater cultural entity of China, and a new [[Republic of Taiwan]] would only bring about a change in name at the cost of an invasion attempt Taiwan could little afford.
==See also==
*[[Independenc |
hes the president, the remaining house either investigates the charge or commissions another body or committee to do so. The investigating house can remove the president if it decides, by at least a two-thirds majority of its members, both that she is guilty of the charge of which she stands accused, and that the charge is sufficiently serious as to warrant her removal. To date no impeachment of an Irish president has ever taken place. The president holds a largely ceremonial office, the dignity of which is considered important, so it is likely that a president would resign from office long before undergoing formal conviction or impeachment.
The Republic's constitution and law also provide that only a joint resolution of both houses of the Oireachtas may remove a judge. Although often referred to as the 'impeachment' of a judge, this procedure does not technically involve impeachment.
==Other jurisdictions==
*'''Austria''': The [[President of Austria|Austrian Federal President]] can be impeached by the [[Federal Assembly of Austria|Federal Convention]] (''Bundesversammlung'') before the Constitutional Court. The constitution also provides for the recall of the president by a [[referendum]]. Neither of these courses has ever been taken.
*'''Brazil''': The President of Federative Republic of [[Brazil]] can be impeached. This happened to [[Fernando Collor de Mello]], due to evidences of bribery and misappropriation.
*'''Germany''': The [[President of Germany|Federal President of Germany]] can be impeached by the [[Bundestag]] for willfully violating German law. Once the Bundestag impeaches the president, the Federal Constitutional Court decides whether to remove him or her from office. No such case has yet occurred.
*'''Norway''': Members of government, representatives of the national assembly (Stortinget) and Supreme Court judges can be impeached for criminal offences tied to their duties and committed in office, according to th Constitution of 1814, §§ 86 and 87. The procedural rules were modelled on the US rules and are quite similar to them. Impeachment has been used 8 times since 1814, last in 1927. Many argue that impeachment has fallen into [[desuetude]].
===Presidents, who were removed from office following impeachment===
* [[Fernando Collor de Mello]], president of [[Brazil]] was impeached in [[1992]], and this led to his resignation.
* [[Carlos Andrés Pérez]], president of [[Venezuela]], was impeached in [[1993]].
* [[Raúl Cubas Grau]], president of [[Paraguay]], was impeached in [[1999]].
* [[Joseph Estrada]], president of the [[Philippines]], was impeached on [[November 13]], [[2000]] and led to his resignation on [[January 20]], [[2001]].
* [[Roh Moo-hyun]], president of [[South Korea]], was impeached on [[March 12]], [[2004]]; Korea's Constitutional Court overturned the decision on [[May 14]], [[2004]].
* [[Rolandas Paksas]], president of [[Lithuania]], was impeached on [[April 6]], [[2004]].
[[Category:Constitutional law]]
[[bg:Импийчмънт]]
[[ca:Moció de censura]]
[[de:Impeachment]]
[[es:Impeachment]]
[[fr:Impeachment]]
[[id:Impeachment]]
[[it:Impeachment]]
[[nl:Impeachment]]
[[ja:弾劾裁判]]
[[ko:탄핵]]
[[pl:Impeachment]]
[[pt:Impeachment]]
[[th:การถอดถอนจากตำแหน่ง]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Information Technology</title>
<id>15330</id>
<revision>
<id>15912807</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Information_technology]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Information space</title>
<id>15331</id>
<revision>
<id>35490004</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T03:00:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Babajobu</username>
<id>125012</id>
</contributor>
<comment>expand template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expand}}
{{importance}}
An '''information space''' is the application of a [[space|spatial]] [[metaphor]] to [[information]].
==See also==
*[[Cartography]]
*[[Cluster analysis]]
*[[Cyberspace]]
*[[Factor analysis]]
*[[Knowledge representation]]
*[[Semantic network]]
*[[Virtual reality]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cybergeography.org/atlas/info_spaces.html An Atlas of Cyberspaces: Three-Dimensional Information Spaces]
*[http://www.cybergeography.org/atlas/info_maps.html An Atlas of Cyberspaces: Information Space Maps]
{{tech-stub}}
[[Category:Metaphors]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Institutional mode of representation</title>
<id>15333</id>
<revision>
<id>15912809</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-27T19:13:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Institutional Mode of Representation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ibizan Hound</title>
<id>15334</id>
<revision>
<id>40926787</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T22:53:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.121.75.17</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Appearance */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
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<!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. -->
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/ibizan_hound/index.cfm
| altname = Ibizan Podenco<br>Ibizan Warren Hound<br>Podenco Ibicenco<br>Ca Eivissenc
| ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hounds)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/ibizan.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 - Hounds
| ckcstd = ?
| country = [[Spain]]
| fcigroup = 5
| fcinum = 89
| fcisection = 7
| fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:bvtX45643r0J:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/089gb2000_en.doc+site:www.fci.be+%2289+/+04.+02.+2000%22&hl=en&ie=UTF-8
| image = Ibizanhoundsit.jpg
| image_caption = ''Podenco Ibicenco'', or the ''Ibizan Hound'', believed to have originated in [[Ancient Egypt]], may actually be a more recent breed.
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h784.htm
| name = Ibizan Hound
| nzkcgroup = Hounds
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br474.html
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/ibizanhound.std.shtml
}}
<!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here -->
The '''Ibizan Hound''', also called '''Podenco Ibicenco''' in Spanish or '''Ca Eivissenc''' in Catalan, is an agile, deer-like [[dog]] of the [[sighthound]] family. There are three hair types of the [[dog breeds|breed]]: smooth, long, and wire, of which the most common is the smooth-haired. Long-haired Ibizans are considered rare.
== Appearance ==
The Ibizan Hound has no black on its body; they are either red or white or a combination of red and white. Its nose is flesh coloured, as is its ears. Its eyes are a striking [[amber (color)|amber]] colour.
The Ibizan may range in height from 24 to 29 inches and weigh from 45 to 60 pounds. The breed has a pronounced sensitivity to cold, their hair providing little in the way of insulation.
==History==
For many years, this breed was considered one of the oldest dog breeds. It was believed the Ibizan Hound originated in ancient [[Egypt]], as pictures that appear to be of Ibizan hounds have been seen on the walls of ancient [[pyramid]]s.
However, according to [[Dr. Elaine Ostrander]], a geneticist at the [[Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center]] and [[University of Washington]], recent [[DNA analysis]] reveals that this breed is actually a recent construction, bred to resemble an older form.
In a study directed by Dr. Ostrander, with the aid of her colleague, Dr. Leonid Kruglyak, "they have found genetic variations that allow them to distinguish among 85 dog breeds and to identify an individual dog's breed with 99 percent accuracy," according to Mark Derr, a science writer for the New York Times.
"We can assign a dog to a breed, but we can't tell what behavior it will have," asserts Ostrander. "There is huge variation in behavior between dogs within breeds." The results of the study, published in May 2004 in ''Science'' magazine, may help in the study of disease, both canine and human, because certain breeds are prone to some of the same genetic diseases as humans.[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/21/science/21dog.html?ex=1400472000&en=6b49c839cde80d81&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND]
Wherever it may have actually originated, the breed were used to hunt [[rabbit]]s and other small game in [[Ibiza]]. The Ibizan Hound is a fast dog that can hunt on all types of terrain, working by sight, sound, and scent. Spanish hunters run these dogs in mostly female packs, with perhaps a male or two, as the female is the better hunter. This breed is similar to the [[Pharaoh Hound]], but the Ibizan Hound is larger and can have a multicolored hair pattern. The Ibizan Hound was fully recognized by the AKC in 1979.
<!--- en:Ibizan Hound --->
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]
[[de:Podenco Ibicenco]]
[[no:Podenco ibicenco]]
[[pl:Podenco z Ibizy]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Irish Wolfhound</title>
<id>15335</id>
<revision>
<id>41014664</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T14:16:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>169.139.224.10</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
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rates, as indicated by comparisons of satellite and historic data, and as shown by the widespread, rapid growth of lakes on the glacier surfaces. The researchers have found a strong correlation between increasing temperatures and glacier retreat.]]
Even a relatively small rise in sea level would make some densely settled coastal plains uninhabitable and create a significant [[refugee]] problem. If the sea level were to rise in excess of 4 metres almost every coastal city in the world would be severely affected, with the potential for major impacts on world-wide trade and economy. Presently, the IPCC predicts [[sea level rise]] of less than 1 meter through 2100, but they also warn that global warming during that time may lead to irreversible changes in the Earth's glacial system and ultimately melt enough ice to raise sea level many meters over the next millennia. It is estimated that around 200 million people could be affected by sea level rise, especially in [[Vietnam]], [[Bangladesh]], [[China]], [[India]], [[Thailand]], [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Egypt]]. [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/681.htm] [http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=070d8d54cad94ca9a10ec2069c7bd079&referrer=parent&backto=issue,14,14;journal,43,114;linkingpublicationresults,1:102022,1] [http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/chanton.html]
=== Spread of disease ===
Global warming may extend the range of [[Vector (biology)|vectors]] conveying [[infectious disease]]s such as [[malaria]]. [[Bluetongue disease]] in [[domesticated]] [[ruminants]] associated with [[mite]] bites has recently spread to the north [[Mediterranean]] region. [[Hantavirus]] infection, [[Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever]], [[tularemia]] and [[rabies]] increased in wide areas of [[Russia]] during 2004–2005. This was associated with a population explosion of [[rodents]] and their [[predator]]s but may be partially blamed on breakdowns in governmental [[vaccination]] and rodent control programs.[http://www.promedmail.org/pls/promed/f?p=2400:1001:11691307049244640380::NO::F2400_P1001_BACK_PAGE,F2400_P1001_PUB_MAIL_ID:1010,30306] Similarly, despite the disappearance of malaria in most temperate regions, the indigenous [[mosquito]]es that transmitted it were never eliminated and remain common in some areas. Thus, although temperature is important in the transmission dynamics of malaria, many other factors are influential [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol6no1/reiter.htm].
=== Financial effects ===
Financial institutions, including the world's two largest insurance companies, [[Munich Re]] and [[Swiss Re]], warned in a 2002 study ([http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/CEO_briefing_climate_change_2002_en.pdf UNEP summary]) that "the increasing frequency of severe climatic events, coupled with social trends" could cost almost 150 billion US dollars each year in the next decade. These costs would, through increased costs related to insurance and disaster relief, burden customers, tax payers, and industry alike.
According to the [http://www.abi.org.uk/Display/File/Child/552/Financial_Risks_of_Climate_Change.pdf Association of British Insurers], limiting carbon emissions could avoid 80% of the projected additional annual cost of tropical cyclones by the 2080s. According to Choi and Fisher (2003) each 1% increase in annual precipitation could enlarge catastrophe loss by as much as 2.8%.
The United Nation’s Environmental Program recently announced that severe weather around the world has made 2005 the most costly year on record [http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/dec2005/2005-12-07-01.asp], although ''there is no way to prove that [a given hurricane] either was, or was not, affected by global warming'' [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=181]. Preliminary estimates presented by the German insurance foundation [[Munich Re]] put the economic losses at more than 200 billion U.S. dollars, with insured losses running at more than 70 billion U.S. dollars.
=== Possible beneficial effects ===
[[Image:Arctic Ice Thickness.gif|250px|right|thumb|[[NOAA]] projects that by the 2050s, there will only be 54% of the volume of sea ice there was in the 1950s.]]
Global warming may also have positive effects. Plants form the basis of the biosphere. By means of [[photosynthesis]], they use solar energy to convert water, [[nutrient]]s, and carbon dioxide into usable [[biomass]]. Plant growth can be limited by a number of factors, including soil fertility, water, temperature, and carbon dioxide concentration. Lack of carbon dioxide can induce [[photorespiration]], which can destroy existing [[sugar]]s. Thus, an increase in temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide can stimulate plant growth in places where these are the limiting factors. IPCC models predict that higher carbon dioxide concentrations would only spur growth of flora up to a point however, because in many regions the limiting factors are water or nutrients, not temperature or carbon dioxide. Despite the limiting factor of water, an increase in carbon dioxide concentration has the direct effect of increasing the transpiration efficiency of most plants so that they actually produce more net biomass per unit of water used by the plant.[http://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/47/294/61] Satellite data shows that the productivity of the northern hemisphere has indeed increased from 1982 to 1991 [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v386/n6626/abs/386698a0.html]. However, more recent studies [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/102/31/10823],[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/102/38/13521] found that from 1991 to 2002, wide-spread droughts had actually caused a decrease in summer photosynthesis in the mid and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere.
Moreover, an increase in the total amount of biomass produced is not necessarily all good, since [[biodiversity]] can still decrease even though a smaller number of species are flourishing.
Melting [[Arctic]] ice may open the [[Northwest Passage]] in summer, which would cut 5,000 [[nautical mile]]s from shipping routes between Europe and Asia. This would be of particular relevance for supertankers which are too big to fit through the [[Panama Canal]] and currently have to go around the tip of South America. According to the Canadian Ice Service, the amount of ice in Canada's eastern Arctic Archipelago decreased by 15 percent between 1969 and 2004 [http://www.washingtontimes.com/specialreport/20050612-123835-3711r.htm].
==Mitigating and adapting to global warming==
{{main|Mitigation of global warming}}
"Mitigation of global warming" covers all actions aimed at reducing the extent or likelihood of global warming. The world's primary international agreement on combating climate change is the [[Kyoto Protocol]]. Various other strategies include [[Future energy development|development of new technologies]], [[wind power]], [[nuclear power]], [[renewable energy]], [[biodiesel]], [[electric car]]s (and [[hybrid vehicle|hybrids]]), and [[fuel cell]]s, [[Energy conservation]], [[carbon tax]]es and [[carbon sequestration]] schemes.
Adaptation strategies accept some warming as a given and focus on preventing or reducing undesirable consequences: for example defending against rising sea levels or ensuring [[food security]].
''See also [[Individual action against global warming]], [[business action on climate change]].''
==References==
* [http://www.abi.org.uk/Display/File/Child/552/Financial_Risks_of_Climate_Change.pdf Association of British Insurers] ''Financial Risks of Climate Change'', June 2005, (PDF) Accessed Jan. 7, 2006
* Choi, O. and A. Fisher (2003) "The Impacts of Socioeconomic Development and Climate Change on Severe Weather Catastrophe Losses: Mid-Atlantic Region (MAR) and the U.S." ''Climate Change,'' vol. 58 pp. 149
* {{cite book
| last = Dyurgerov | first = Mark B
| coauthors = Mark F. Meier
| year = 2005
| title = Glaciers and the Changing Earth System: a 2004 Snapshot
| publisher = [[Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research]], Occasional Paper #58
}} [http://instaar.colorado.edu/other/download/OP58_dyurgerov_meier.pdf]
* Emanuel, K.A. (2005) "Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years." ''Nature'' '''436,''' pp. 686-688. ftp://texmex.mit.edu/pub/emanuel/PAPERS/NATURE03906.pdf
* {{cite journal
| author = Hoyt, D.V., and K.H. Schatten
| year = 1993
| title = A discussion of plausible solar irradiance variations, 1700-1992
| journal = J. Geophys. Res.
| volume = 98
| pages = 18895–18906
}}
* {{cite journal
| title = The effect of increasing solar activity on the Sun's total and open magnetic flux during multiple cycles: Implications for solar forcing of climate
| author = Lean, J.L., Y.M. Wang, and N.R. Sheeley
| year = 2002
| journal = Geophys. Res. Lett.
| volume = 29 | issue = 24 | pages = 2224
| url = http://www.agu.org/journals/gl/gl0224/2002GL015880/
| id= {{DOI|10.1029/2002GL015880}}
}}''(online version requires registration)''
* {{cite journal
| author = Oerlemans, J
| year = 2005
| title = Extracting a Climate Signal from 169 Glacier Records
| journal = Science
| volume = 308
| pages = 675 - 677
}}
* Naomi Oreskes, 2004 [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1686 Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change] - The author discussed her survey of 928 peer-reviewed scientific abstracts on climate change. Retrieved [[December 8]], [[2004]]. Also available as a [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/306/5702/1686.pdf 1 page pdf file]
* {{cite journal
| author = Revkin, Andrew C
| year = 2005
| title = Rise in Gases Unmatched by a History in Ancient Ice
| journal = New York Times
}} "Shafts of ancient ice pulled from Antarctica's frozen depths show that for at least 650,000 years three important heat-trapping greenhouse gases never reached recent atmo |
hemselves get involved within the community. As long as a monarchy can remain popular in the public eye, there is little reason for the politicians to meddle, and those who do can easily find themselves at the receiving end of harsh public criticism.
Other defenders of constitutional monarchies argue that royal families promote tourism, and are a (key) tradition associated with [[patriotism]] and national pride. For example, in many constitutional monarchies the monarch's birthday is a [[national holiday]], and an event marked with public patriotic events and parties. In recent years many royal families have also become popular targets of [[tabloid]] journalism and [[gossip]], which although often argued as being intrusive and destructive, continues to prove that many find royals interesting simply as [[celebrity|celebrities]]. A further argument speculates that abolishing a popular monarchy may be a pointless endeavor anyway, as even a "deposed" royal family could presumably still live their royal lifestyle and capture public attention, making any republican replacement seem illegitimate. Historically, when monarchies have been abolished the royal family was usually [[exile]]d to a foreign country to prevent their presence from interfering or distracting from the new republican government. However, such moves were usually done during periods of conflict and turmoil with the monarchy. If a democratic country was to abolish its monarchy today, an exile for the royal family would likely be denounced as cruel, and would thus not be seen as a practical option.
In the 20th Century a much more politically sophisticated view in favour of preserving constitutional monarchies in parliamentary democracies has emerged, for example, in the case of [[Queen Elizabeth II]], in terms of the usefulness of an observer within the Executive who is unaffiliated with political parties, who does not owe her job security to the Prime Minister of the day, and who can afford to scrutinise political controversies that may sweep the incumbent Prime Minister from office. She has no policy powers -- that is the domain of the elected government, headed by the Prime Minister -- but she is a required, formal co-signatory to political instruments, who has a personal stake in protecting constitutional government from non-justiciable abuses. The most famous advocates of this view were Canadian historian Eugene Forsey (later a Canadian senator, whose defence of the monarchy formed part of his doctoral thesis in history at Oxford) and Australian lawyer H.V. Evatt (later a High Court Judge and Australian attorney-general, whose treatment of Westminster law concerning the monarch and reserve powers was the basis of his doctoral thesis in law). It is interesting to note both Forsey and Evatt were social democrats, heavily involved in the labour movements of their respective countries. Their work built on that of Alpheus Todd, the 19th Century Librarian of the Canadian House of Commons. Todd's encyclopedic work effectively contradicted the popularly-known, class-obsessed treatise by Walter Bagehot, whose opinions on the monarchy as a "bauble" to distract the "lower" classes remain influential in Britain. In recent decades Bagehot has been effectively discredited, his historical, political and legal assumptions disproved. (For example, his belief that the Queen's position exists solely at the pleasure of the British Parliament does not withstand detailed scrutiny.)
Ironically, given the public perception of wealth and privilege associated with monarchy, the Todd/Evatt/Forsey case argues that the reserve powers of the Crown and the peculiar nature of the office render it a useful, if limited, asset against the "presidential" aspirations of prime ministers, and a superior safeguard for Executive oversight than anything available in a republican context. The case suggests she is an external observer who, when combined with the conventions of ministerial responsibility, enhances the democratic accountability of the Executive branch to the elected legislature, and the accountability of the elected legislature to the electorate.
(See Nigel Greenwood, "For the Sovereignty of the People", Australian Academic Press, 1999, for a defence of the Crown as a useful instrument of parliamentary democracy, giving a detailed examination of Todd, Evatt and Forsey, and a contrast-and-compare of modern US and French problems with 20th Century executive lawlessness; e.g. the post-Watergate findings of the US congressional committees re the absence of an executive figure outside the corrupted chain of command.)
==Previous monarchies==
[[France]] functioned briefly as a constitutional monarchy during the [[French Revolution]]. It also was a constitutional monarchy under the reign of [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]] and [[Charles X of France|Charles X]], but the latter's attempt at reinstating absolute monarchy led to his fall. [[Louis-Philippe]] of France was also a constitutional monarch.
[[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]], as Emperor of the French, was a constitutional monarch, though he had wide powers and also occasionally abused powers that he did not have.
Prior to the [[Iranian Revolution]] in 1979, [[Iran]] was technically a constitutional monarchy under [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi]], though his unconstitutional actions and use of [[SAVAK|secret police]] in the later part of his reign qualify him as far more of an [[absolute monarch]].
[[Portugal]] until [[1910]] was a constitutional monarchy and the last king was [[Manuel II of Portugal]]. The last monarchic constitution, promulgated in 1838, excluded from the succession one of the actual pretender head of the Royal House of Portugal, [[Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza|Duarte Pio of Bragança]].
[[Category:Forms of government]]
[[bg:Конституционна монархия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ū hiàn-hoat ê ông-kok]]
[[ca:Monarquia constitucional]]
[[da:Konstitutionelt monarki]]
[[de:Konstitutionelle Monarchie]]
[[es:Monarquía constitucional]]
[[fr:Monarchie constitutionnelle]]
[[ko:입헌군주제]]
[[id:Monarki konstitusional]]
[[is:Stjórnarskrárbundin konungsstjórn]]
[[he:מונרכיה חוקתית]]
[[lt:Konstitucinė monarchija]]
[[ms:Raja berperlembagaan]]
[[nl:Constitutionele monarchie]]
[[ja:立憲君主制]]
[[no:Konstitusjonelt monarki]]
[[pt:Monarquia constitucional]]
[[sk:Konštitučná monarchia]]
[[sv:Konstitutionell monarki]]
[[zh:君主立宪制]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Comets</title>
<id>5650</id>
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<id>30455492</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-07T10:31:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brookie</username>
<id>153741</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.190.153.155|208.190.153.155]] ([[User talk:208.190.153.155|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Comet]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Computer networking</title>
<id>5652</id>
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<id>41923225</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:22:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ Removed commercial link.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''computer network''' is a system for [[communication]] between [[computer]]s. These [[Wiktionary:Network|network]]s may be fixed ([[network cable|cabled]], permanent) or temporary (as via [[modem]]s or [[null modem]]s).
Carrying instructions between calculation machines and [[history of computing|early computers]] was done by human users. In September, 1940 [[George Stibitz]] used a [[teletype machine]] to send instructions for a problem set from his Model K at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire to his [[Complex Number Calculator]] in New York and received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypes to computers was an interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency [[ARPA]] when, in 1962, [[J.C.R. Licklider]] was hired and developed a [[working group]] he called the 'Intergalactic Network', a precursor to the [[ARPANet]]. In 1964 researchers at Dartmouth developed a [[time sharing]] system for distributed users of large computer systems. The same year, at MIT, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer (DEC's [[PDP-8]]) to route and manage telephone connections. In 1968 [[Paul Baran]] proposed a network system consisting of datagrams or [[packets]] that could be used in a packet switching network between computer systems. In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the [[ARPANet]] network using 50 kbit/s circuits. Networks, and the technologies needed to connect and communicate through and between them, continue to drive [[computer hardware]], [[software]], and [[peripherals]] industries. This expansion is mirrored by growth in the numbers and types of users of networks from researchers and businesses to families and individuals in everyday use.
==Categorizing==
* [[Local area network]] (LAN)
** [[HomePNA]]
** [[Power line communication]] (HomePlug)
* [[Metropolitan area network]] (MAN)
* [[Wide area network]] (WAN)
* [[Personal area network]] (PAN)
===By functional relationship===
* '''[[Client-server]]'''
* [[Peer-to-peer]] (Workgroup)
===By [[network topology]]===
* [[Bus network]]
* [[Star network]]
* [[Ring network]]
* [[Mesh network]]
* [[Star-bus network]]
===By specialized function===
* [[Storage area network]]s
* [[Server farm]]s
* [[Process control network]]s
* [[Value added network]]
* [[SOHO network]]
* [[Wireless community network]]
* [[XML appliance]]
==Protocol stacks==
Computer networks may be i |
den's mother appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121.
==Richard Halley==
Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24 his opera ''Phaethon'' was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. (It was based on the [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]] in which [[Phaethon]] steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky. Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon succeeds.) For years Halley wrote in obscurity. After nineteen years, ''Phaethon'' was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. Richard Halley is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 114, 133, and 141, and appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152.
==Dr. Robert Stadler==
A former professor at Patrick Henry University, mentor to ''Francisco d'Anconia'', ''John Galt'' and ''Ragnar Danneskjöld''. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including the instrument of his demise: ''Project X.''
==Dr. Simon Pritchett==
The prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He is also a ''Looter''. He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals; he believes there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. He explains all this in his book ''The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe'', and at cocktail parties. Dr. Pritchett appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==The Strikers==
People of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by ''the Looters'' and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence. The leader of the Strikers is ''John Galt''. Other Strikers include: Hugh Akston, Francisco d'Anconia, Ragnar Danneskjöld, Richard Halley, and the Brakeman. Characters who join the Strikers in the course of the book include: Dagny Taggart, Ellis Wyatt, Hank Rearden, Dick McNamara, and Owen Kellogg.
==Mr. Thompson==
The "[[Head of State|Head of the State]]," which essentially means that he's the [[President of the United States]], though he's never specifically referred to as such. In the world of ''Atlas Shrugged'' all Presidents and Prime Ministers are referred to simply as "Head of the State" and "Mr. ____." This is because countries have been standardized as "People's States" which seem to share a common form of government. Thomspon's title can thus be seen as reflecting the fact that the US is in the process of evolving into one of these "People's States." One of the Looters, he's not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modelled him on President [[Harry S. Truman]].
==Wesley Mouch==
A member of the ''Looters'' and, at the beginning of the storyline, the incompetent lobbyist whom ''Hank Rearden'' reluctantly employs in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Washington]]. Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity. Eventually he becomes the most powerful Looter, and the [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|country's]] economic dictator, thereby illustrating Rand's belief that a government-run economy places too much power in the hands of incompetent bureaucrats who would never have positions of similar influence in a private sector business. Wesley Mouch appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131 and is mentioned in section 161.
==See also==
*[[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged]]
[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]
[[Category:Lists of fictional characters|Atlas Shrugged characters]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Technology in Atlas Shrugged</title>
<id>362</id>
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<timestamp>2005-12-30T20:28:28Z</timestamp>
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<username>Brianhe</username>
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<comment>/* Galt's Motor */ prototype</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Technology in Atlas Shrugged''', [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel includes a variety of technological products and devices. In addition to real world technology ([[aircraft]], [[automobile]]s, [[diesel engine]]s, [[phonograph record]]s, [[radio]]s, [[telephone]]s, [[television]], and [[traffic signals]]) [[Atlas Shrugged]] also includes various fictional technologies or fictional variants on real inventions.
{{spoilers}}
==Fictional technology==
Fictional inventions mentioned in the book include refractor rays (Gulch mirage), Rearden Metal, a sonic [[death ray]] ("Project X"), voice activated door locks (Gulch power station), motors powered by [[static electricity]], palm-activated door locks (Galt's NY lab), shale-oil drilling, and a [[nerve]]-induction [[torture]] machine.
===Traffic Signals===
Early on, the book mentions the "screech" of a traffic signal as it changes. This implies the older technology of mechanical traffic signals, the kind which displayed a pennant or flag indicating stop or go, and the inverse indicator in the opposite direction. Traffic signals using lights have been around for over 40 years, so anything of this type is very old compared to today.
===Project X===
Project X is an invention of the scientists at the state science institute, requiring tons of Rearden Metal. Basically, it is a "death ray", and is capable of destroying anything. The scientists claim that the project will be used to preserve peace and squash rebellion. It is destroyed towards the end of the book, and emits a pulse of radiation that destroys everything in the surrounding area, including Cuffy Meigs and Dr. Stadler, as well as the Taggart Bridge.
===Rearden Metal===
Rearden metal is a [[Fictional_chemical_substance#Fictional_compounds_and_alloys|fictitious metal]] alloy invented by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]]. It is lighter than traditional [[steel]] but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to [[iron]]. It is described as greenish-blue. Among its ingredients are iron and [[copper]].
Initially no one is willing to use Rearden metal because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it. Finally, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]].
The first thing made from Rearden metal is a [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|bracelet]].
Rearden metal is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 114, 121, 131, 148 and 161.
===Galt's Motor===
John Galt invented a new type of electrical apparatus described in the book as a [[motor]]. However, it does not operate like a motor in the common use of the word today: it is capable of harnessing, transforming and applying energy in many ways other than mechanical. Galt's Motor was capable of [[Radio jamming|jamming]] all [[radio receiver]]s on Earth, and completely destroying the contents of Galt's [[booby-trap]]ped laboratory without causing [[collateral damage|collateral structural damage]].
Though Rand describes it as turning [[static electricity ]] into useful [[mechanical work]], its operation is more reminiscent of modern speculation about [[zero-point energy]].
Dagny discovers a discarded prototype of the motor and it is superficially described in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] Part 1, Chapter 9. Galt shows Dagny the motor and describes it in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] Part 3, Chapter 1.
[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]
[[Category:Fictional technology|Atlas Shrugged]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Companies in Atlas Shrugged</title>
<id>364</id>
<revision>
<id>32287258</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-21T22:16:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Topynate</username>
<id>85137</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed NPOV and irrelevant additions to Taggart Transcontinental</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Companies in Atlas Shrugged''', the [[Ayn Rand]] [[novel]], generally, are divided into two groups, these that are operated by sympathetic characters are given the name of the owner, while companies operated by evil or incompetent characters are given generic names. In [[Atlas Shrugged]] men who give their names to their companies all become [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Strikers]] in due time.
==Amalgamated Switch and Signal==
A company run by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Mr. Mowen]] and located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Connecticut]]. They have supplied Taggart Transcontinental for generations. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] orders [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Rearden Metal]] switches from them.
Amalgamated Switch and Signal appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171.
==Associated Steel==
Associated Steel is the company owned by [[Charac |
uently seen picking up [[prostitute]]s, and drinking himself into a stupor, not arriving home until early in the morning. He was unsavory, ill-mannered, bathed infrequently, and often exhibited outrageous behavior in public.
While fascinated by him, the Saint Petersburg elite did not widely accept Rasputin. He did not fit with the royal family.
Rasputin and Russian Orthodox Church had a very tense relationship. [[Holy Synod]] frequently attacked Rasputin, and because of this, a lot of fakelore about his life were deliberately spread by the competing religion. Therefore, a lot of anecdotal evidence about Rasputin's life has to be taken with a [[grain of salt]]. Because Rasputin was a court official, however, his apartment was under 24-hour surveillance, so there exists some credible evidence about his lifestyle.
According to Rasputin's daughter, Maria, Rasputin did "look into" the [[Khlysty]] sect, and rejected it. While the Western world is particularly interested in the sexual practices of this sect (supposedly tied to a belief that one can only obtain a connection to God through sinning), Rasputin was particularly appalled by the belief that grace is found through self-flagellation.
Like most Orthodox Christians, Rasputin was brought up with the belief that the body is a sacred gift from God. Attaining divine grace through [[sin]] seems to have been one of the central secret doctrines that Rasputin preached to (and practised with) his inner circle of society ladies. The idea that one can attain grace through correction of sin is not unique. It is also understood that sin is an inescapable part of the human condition, and the responsibility of a believer is to be keenly aware of his sins and be willing to confess them, thereby attaining humility.
[[Image:Rasputincartoon.jpeg|thumb|left|200px|A 1916 cartoon suggesting Rasputin's influence over the Tzar and Tzarina]]
During [[World War I]] he became a focus of accusations of unpatriotic influence at court; the unpopular Tsarina was of [[Germany|German]] descent, and her "friend" Rasputin was accused of being a [[secret agent|spy]] in German employ.
When Rasputin expressed an interest in going to the front to bless the troops early in the war, the Commander-in Chief, [[Grand Duke Nicholas]], promised to hang him if he showed up. Rasputin then claimed that he had a revelation that the Russian armies would not be successful until the Tsar personally took command. This the ill-prepared Nicholas proceeded to do with dire consequences for himself and for Russia.
While Tsar Nicholas II was away at the front, Rasputin’s influence over Tsarina Alexandra increased immensely. He soon became the confidant and personal advisor of Alexandra. He also convinced her to fill some government offices with his own handpicked candidates. To further advance his power, Rasputin slept with upper-class women in exchange for granting political favors. Because of World War I, and to a lesser extent because of Rasputin, Russia’s economy was declining at a rapid rate. Many placed the blame with Alexandra, and with Rasputin, because of his influence over her. An example:
''[[Vladimir Purishkevich]] was an outspoken member of the [[Duma]]. On November 19, 1916, Purishkevich made a rousing speech in the Duma, in which he stated, 'The tzar’s ministers who have been turned into marionettes, marionettes whose threads have been taken firmly in hand by Rasputin and the Empress Alexandra Fyodorovna — the evil genius of Russia and the czarina… who has remained a German on the Russian throne and alien to the country and its people.' [[Felix Yusupov]] attended the speech and afterwards contacted Purishkevich, who quickly agreed to participate in the murder of Rasputin.''
Rasputin’s influence over the royal family was used against him and the [[Romanov|Romanovs]] by politicians and journalists who wanted to weaken the integrity of the dynasty, make the Tsar give up his absolute political power, and separate the Russian Orthodox Church from the state. Rasputin unintentionally contributed to the propaganda by having public disputes with clergy members, bragging over his ability to influence both the Tsar and Tsarina, and by his dissolute lifestyle. Nobles in influential positions around the Tsar as well as some parties of the [[Duma]], the Russian parliament, clamoured for his removal from the court. Perhaps inadvertently, Rasputin added to diminishing respect for the Tsar by his subjects.
==Assassination beliefs==
The legends recounting the death of Rasputin are perhaps even more bizarre than his strange life. Having decided that Rasputin's influence over the Tsarina made him too dangerous to the Empire, a group of nobles apparently lured Rasputin to the palace of their ringleader, Prince [[Felix Yusupov]], where they served him cakes and red wine laced with measured amounts of [[cyanide]]. According to the legend, Rasputin was not affected. (It is rumored that the amount of cyanide was enough to kill ten men.) Determined to finish the job, Yusupov went upstairs, then came back down and shot him through the chest with a revolver. Rasputin fell. A half an hour or so later when Yusupov returned to check the body (or as some versions go, Yusupov came back for his jacket), Rasputin sprang to his feet and began to throttle Yusupov, who fled in horror and told the other conspirators.
Heavily drugged by this time, Rasputin muzzily attempted his own escape. He bolted outside and ran across the courtyard toward the gate, threatening that he would tell everything to the Tsarina. Another conspirator shot three bullets that passed Rasputin, then he shot two more which hit Rasputin. The conspirators then clubbed him unconscious and flung him into the icy Neva River, but there was no splash. Rasputin had fallen on the ice (it was winter at this time), so they went down and cut a hole in the ice and stuffed him through it into the icy water. They were finally satisfied that the "Enemy of the State" was dead.
Three days later the body of Rasputin - poisoned, shot three times, and badly beaten - was recovered from the river and autopsied. The cause of death was drowning. His arms were apparently found in an upright position, as if he had tried to claw his way out from under the ice.
===Recent evidence===
The details of the assassination given by [[Felix Yusupov]] have never stood up to close examination. The statement given to the Petrograd police on [[16 December]]; the account he gave whilst in exile in the [[Crimea]] in 1917; his 1927 book, and the accounts given under oath to libel juries in 1934 and 1965. No two accounts were entirely identical. Until recently, lack of proof has ruled out any other credible evidence-based theories.
According to the unpublished 1916 [[autopsy]] report by Professor Kossorotov and subsequent reviews by Dr Vladimir Zharov in 1993 and Professor Derrick Pounder in 2004/5, no active [[poison]] was found in Rasputin's stomach. It couldn't have been said with certainty that he drowned, as the water found on his lungs is a common non-specific autopsy finding. All three agreed that Rasputin had been systematically beaten and attacked with a bladed weapon, but most importantly there were discrepancies regarding the number and calibre of handguns used.
This discovery may have significantly changed the whole premise and account of Rasputin's death. British intelligence reports between [[London]] and [[Petrograd]] in 1916 indicate that the British were extremely concerned about Rasputin's replacement of pro-British ministers in the Russian government, but more importantly his apparent insistence on withdrawing Russian troops from the [[First World War]]. This withdrawal would have allowed the Germans to move their Eastern Front troops to the Western Front, massively outnumbering the Allies and spelling almost certain victory. Whether this was actually Rasputin's intention is in dispute, but it is clear that the British viewed him as a real danger.
According to Professor Pounder, of the three shots fired into Rasputin's body, the third (which entered his forehead) was instantly fatal. This third shot also provides some intriguing evidence. In Pounder's view, concurred by the firearms department of the [[Imperial War Museum]] in London, the third shot was fired by a gun different to those responsible for the other two wounds. The "size and prominence of the abraded margin" suggested a large lead non-jacketed bullet. At that time, the majority of weapons used hard metal jacketed bullets, with Britain virtually alone in using lead unjacketed bullets for their officers' [[Webley]] revolvers. Pounder came to the conclusion that the bullet which caused the fatal shot was a Webley .455 inch unjacketed round, and was the best fit with the available forensic evidence.
Witnesses to the murder itself have stated that the only man present with a Webley revolver was one Lieutenant [[Oswald Rayner]], a British officer who was attached to the SIS station in Petrograd. This account was further backed up during an audience between the British Ambassador, [[George Buchanan (diplomat)|Sir George Buchanan]], and Tsar Nicholas, when Nicholas stated that he suspected a young Englishman who had been an old school friend of Yusopov. Indeed, Rayner had known Yusopov at [[Oxford University]]. Another SIS officer in Petrograd at the time, Captain Stephen Alley, had actually been born in the Yusopov Palace in 1876, and both families had strong ties.
Confirmation that Rayner, along with another officer, Captain John Scale, met with Yusopov in the weeks leading up to the assassination can be found in the diary of their [[chauffeur]], William Compton, who recorded all the visits. The last entry was the night before the murder. According to Compton, "it is a little known fact that Rasputin was shot not by a Russian but by an Englishman". He indic |
udyard Kipling]] congratulated Doyle on his success, asking "Could this be my old friend, Dr. Joe?". While living in Southsea he helped form [[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth Football Club]] and played as the club's first [[goalkeeper]].
In [[1885]] he married Louise Hawkins, who suffered from [[tuberculosis]] and eventually died in [[1906]]. He married Jean Leckie in [[1907]], whom he had first met and fallen in love with in [[1897]] but had maintained a [[Platonic love|platonic relationship]] with her out of loyalty to his first wife. Doyle had five children, two with his first wife (Mary and Kingsley), and three with his second wife ([[Jean Conan Doyle|Jean]], Denis, and [[Adrian Conan Doyle|Adrian]]).
In [[1890]] Doyle studied the eye in [[Vienna]], and in [[1891]] moved to [[London]] to set up a practice as an [[Ophthalmology|oculist]]. This also gave him more time for writing, and in November 1891 he wrote to his mother: "I think of slaying Holmes... and winding him up for good and all. He takes my mind from better things." In December 1893, he did so in order to dedicate more of his time to more "important" works (namely his historical novels), pitting Holmes against his arch-nemesis [[Professor Moriarty]]. They apparently plunged to their deaths together down a waterfall in the story "The Final Problem". Public outcry led him to bring the character back&mdash;Doyle returned to the story in "The Adventure of the Empty House", with the ingenious explanation that only Moriarty had fallen, but, since Holmes had other dangerous enemies, he had arranged to be temporarily "dead" also. Holmes eventually appears in a total of 56 [[short story|short stories]] and four Doyle novels (he has since appeared in many novels and stories by other authors).
Following the [[Second Boer War|Boer War]] in [[South Africa]] at the turn of the 20th century and the condemnation from around the world over Britain's conduct, Doyle wrote a short pamphlet titled ''The War in South Africa: Its Cause and Conduct'' which justified Britain's role in the Boer war and was widely translated. Doyle believed that it was this pamphlet that resulted in his being knighted and appointed as Deputy-Lieutenant of [[Surrey]] in [[1902]]. He also wrote the longer book ''The Great Boer War'' in [[1900]]. During the early years of the 20th century Sir Arthur twice ran for Parliament as a [[Liberal Unionist Party|Liberal Unionist]], once in Edinburgh and once in the Border Burghs, but although he received a respectable vote he was not elected.
[[Image:conandoylestatue.jpg|thumb|right|Arthur Conan Doyle statue in Crowborough]]Conan Doyle was involved in the campaign for the reform of the [[Congo Free State]], led by the journalist [[E. D. Morel]] and the diplomat [[Roger Casement]]. He wrote [[The Crime of the Congo]] in [[1909]], a long pamphlet in which he denounced the horrors in Congo. He become acquainted with Morel and Casement, taking inspiration from them for two of the main characters of the novel [[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]] (1912). He broke with both when Morel (who was rather left-wing) became one of the leaders of the pacifist movement during the [[World War I|First World War]], and Casement committed treason against Britain out of conviction for his [[Ireland|Irish]] nationalist views. Doyle tried, unsuccessfully, to save Casement from the death penalty, arguing that he had been driven mad and was not responsible for his actions.
Doyle was also a fervent advocate of justice, and personally investigated two closed cases, which led to two imprisoned men being released. The first case, in 1906, involved a shy half-British, half-Indian lawyer named [[George Edalji]], who had allegedly penned threatening letters and mutilated animals. Police were dead set on Edalji's conviction, even though the mutilations continued even after their suspect was jailed. It was partially as a result of this case that the [[Court of Criminal Appeal]] was established in [[1907]], so not only did Conan Doyle help George Edalji, his work helped to establish a way to correct other [[miscarriages of justice]]. The story of Conan Doyle and Edalji is told in fictional form in [[Julian Barnes]]'s 2005 [[novel]], [[Arthur & George]].
The second case&mdash;that of [[Oscar Slater]], a German Jew and gambling-den operator convicted of bludgeoning an 82-year-old woman in [[Glasgow]] in [[1908]]&mdash;excited Doyle's curiosity because of inconsistencies in the prosecution case and a general sense that Slater was framed.
In his later years, Doyle became involved with [[Spiritualism]], to the extent that he wrote a [[Professor Challenger]] novel on the subject, ''The Land of Mist''. One of the odder aspects of this period of his life was his book ''The Coming of the Fairies'' ([[1921]]). He was apparently totally convinced of the veracity of the [[Cottingley Fairies|Cottingley fairy]] photographs, which he reproduced in the book, together with theories about the nature and existence of fairies and spirits. His work on this topic was one of the reasons that one of his short story collections, [[The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes]], was banned in the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1929]] for supposed [[occult]]ism. This ban was later removed.
Doyle was friends for a time with the American magician [[Harry Houdini]], a prominent opponent of the Spiritualist movement. Although Houdini insisted that Spiritualist mediums employed trickery (and consistently attempted to expose them as frauds), Doyle became convinced that Houdini himself possessed supernatural powers, a view expressed in Doyle's ''The Edge of the Unknown''. Houdini was apparently unable to convince Doyle that his feats were simply magic tricks, leading to a bitter, public falling out between the two.
[[Richard Milner]], an [[United States|American]] historian of science, has presented a case that Doyle may have been the perpetrator of the [[Piltdown man]] hoax of [[1912]], creating the counterfeit [[hominid]] [[fossil]] that fooled the scientific world for over 40 years. Milner says that Doyle had a motive, namely revenge on the scientific establishment for debunking one of his favourite psychics, and that ''The Lost World'' contains several encrypted clues regarding his involvement in the hoax. [http://www.arts.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml;jsessionid=JXWTHVY1DHO5NQFIQMGSNAGAVCBQWJVC?html=/archive/1997/03/20/npil20.html]
[[Samuel Rosenberg]]'s [[1974]] book ''[[Naked is the Best Disguise]]'' purports to explain how Doyle left, throughout his writings, open clues that related to hidden and suppressed aspects of his mentality.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle died of a [[heart attack]] in [[1930]] and is buried in the Church Yard at [[Minstead]] in the [[New Forest]], [[Hampshire]], [[England]].
A statue has been erected in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's honour. It may be seen at Crowborough Cross in [[Crowborough]], [[East Sussex]], [[England]], where Sir Arthur lived for 23 years. There is also a statue of [[Sherlock Holmes|Sherlock Holmes]] in Picardy Place, [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]] - close to the house where Conan Doyle was born.
==Selected bibliography==
===[[Sherlock Holmes]] Stories===
*[[A Study in Scarlet]] (1887)
*[[The Sign of Four]] (1890)
*[[The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes]] (1892)
*[[The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes]] (1894)
*[[The Hound of the Baskervilles]] (1902)
*[[The Return of Sherlock Holmes]] (1904)
*[[The Valley of Fear]] (1914)
*[[His Last Bow]] (1917)
*[[The Case Book of Sherlock Holmes]] (1927)
===[[Professor Challenger]] Stories===
*[[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]] (1912)
*[[The Poison Belt]] (1913)
*[[The Land of Mists]] (1926)
*[[The Disintegration Machine]] (1927)
*[[When the World Screamed]] (1928)
===Historical novels===
*[[The White Company]] (1891)
*[[Micah Clarke]] (1888)
*[[The Great Shadow]] (1892)
*[[The Refugees]] (publ. 1893, written 1892)
*[[Uncle Bernac]] (1897)
*[[Sir Nigel]] (1906)
===Other works===
*[[J. Habakuk Jephson's Statement]] (1883), a story about the fate of the ship [[Mary Celeste]]
*[[Mystery of Cloomber]] (1889)
*[[The Captain of the Polestar, and other tales]] (1890)
*[[The Doings Of Raffles Haw]] (1891)
*[[Beyond the City]] (1892)
*[[Round The Red Lamp]] (1894)
*[[The Parasite]] (1894)
*[[The Stark Munro Letters]] (1895)
*[[Rodney Stone]] (1896)
*[[Songs of Action]] (1898)
*[[The Tragedy of The Korosko]] (1898)
*[[A Duet]] (1899)
*[[The Great Boer War]] (1900)
*[[The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard ]] (1903)
*[[Through the Magic Door]] (1907)
*[[The Crime of the Congo]] (1909)
*[[The New Revelation]] (1918)
*[[The Vital Message]] (1919)
*[[Tales of Terror & Mystery]] (1923)
*[[The History of Spiritualism]] (1926)
==See also==
*[[Toronto Public Library]]
*[[William Gillette]] Personal friend. Performed the most famous stage-version of ''Sherlock Holmes''.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=Arthur_Conan_Doyle|name=Arthur Conan Doyle}}
*[http://www.sherlockholmesonline.org Official site of Doyle's estate] - includes lengthy biography, history of the estate, bibliography, and more.
*[http://www.bakerstreet221b.de/canon/ The Complete Sherlock Holmes]
*[http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/scottish-authors/arthur-conan-doyle/ Sir Arthur Conan Doyle] - The majority of his works in easy to read HTML format.
*[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/doyle_arthur_conan.html Works available online]
*[http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/doyle Doyle in Birmingham]
*[http://quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Doyle__Sir_Arthur_Conan Searchable Works and Quotes of Arthur Conan Doyle]
*[http://www.siracd.com/ The Chronicles of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle] - Site includes articles, quotes, games and little-known facts
*[http://www.theplebeian.net/ Conan Doyle and the Parson's Son -The George Edalji case]
*[http://www |
|LW
|align=center|[[2005-06 NHL season|2005]]
|[[Carbonear, Newfoundland and Labrador|Carbonear, Newfoundland]]
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|align=center|'''13'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|RUS}}
|[[Pavel Datsyuk]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|C
|align=center|[[1998 NHL Entry Draft|1998]]
|[[Yekaterinburg|Sverdlovsk]], [[U.S.S.R.]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''14'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Brendan Shanahan]] - A
|align=center|R
|align=center|LW/RW
|align=center|[[1996-97 NHL season|1996]]
|[[Mimico, Ontario]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''18'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Kirk Maltby]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|LW/RW
|align=center|[[1995-96 NHL season|1995]]
|[[Guelph, Ontario]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''19'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Steve Yzerman]] - C
|align=center|R
|align=center|C/W
|align=center|[[1983 NHL Entry Draft|1983]]
|[[Cranbrook, British Columbia]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''20'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CZE}}
|[[Robert Lang (hockey player)|Robert Lang]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|C
|align=center|[[2003-04 NHL season|2004]]
|[[Teplice]], [[Czechoslovakia]]
<!-- in Grand Rapids
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|align=center|{{flagicon|CZE}}
|[[Jiří Hudler]]
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|align=center|C
|align=center|[[2002 NHL Entry Draft|2002]]
|[[Olomouc|Olomouc]], [[Czechoslovakia]] -->
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''29'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Jason Williams (hockey)|Jason Williams]]
|align=center|R
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|align=center|[[2000-01 NHL season|2000]]
|[[London, Ontario]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''33'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Kris Draper]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|C
|align=center|[[1992-93 NHL season|1993]]
|[[Toronto, Ontario]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''37'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Mikael Samuelsson]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|RW
|align=center|[[2005-06 NHL season|2005]]
|[[Mariefred]], [[Sweden]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''39'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Johan Franzen]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|C/LW
|align=center|[[2004 NHL Entry Draft|2004]]
|[[Vetlanda]], [[Sweden]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
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|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Henrik Zetterberg]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|LW
|align=center|[[1999 NHL Entry Draft|1999]]
|[[Njurunda]], [[Sweden]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''44'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|USA}}
|[[Mark Mowers]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|C/RW
|align=center|[[2002-03 NHL season|2002]]
|[[Whitesboro, New York]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''96'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Tomas Holmstrom]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|RW/LW
|align=center|[[1994 NHL Entry Draft|1994]]
|[[Pitea]], [[Sweden]]
|}
===[[Hockey Hall of Fame]]rs===
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*[[Sid Abel]]
*[[Jack Adams]]
*[[Marty Barry]]
*[[Paul Coffey]]
*[[Alex Delvecchio]]
*[[Marcel Dionne]]
*[[Viacheslav Fetisov]]
*[[Bill Gadsby]]
*[[Ebbie Goodfellow]]
*[[Glenn Hall]]
*[[George Hay]]
*[[Gordie Howe]]
*[[Syd Howe]]
*[[Mike Ilitch]]
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*[[Tommy Ivan]]
*[[Red Kelly]]
*[[Herbie Lewis]]
*[[Ted Lindsay]]
*[[Harry Lumley (hockey player)|Harry Lumley]]
*[[Frank Mahovlich]]
*[[Larry Murphy]]
*[[Marcel Pronovost]]
*[[Bill Quackenbush]]
*[[Terry Sawchuk]]
*[[Black Jack Stewart|"Black" Jack Stewart]]
*[[Cecil Thompson]]
*[[Norm Ullman]]
</div><br clear="all">
===Team captains===
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*[[Larry Aurie]] 1932-33
*[[Herbie Lewis (hockey)|Herbie Lewis]] 1933-34
*[[Ebbie Goodfellow]] 1934-35
*[[Doug Young (hockey player)|Doug Young]] 1935-38
*[[Ebbie Goodfellow]] 1938-41
*Ebbie Goodfellow & [[Syd Howe]] 1941-42
*[[Sid Abel]] 1942-43
*[[Mud Bruneteau]]/[[Bill Hollett]] 1943-44
*[[Bill Hollett]] 1944-45
*Bill Hollett & Sid Abel 1945-46
*Sid Abel 1946-52
*[[Ted Lindsay]] 1952-56
*[[Red Kelly]] 1956-58
*[[Gordie Howe]] 1958-62
*[[Alex Delvecchio]] 1962-73
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*Alex Delvecchio & [[Nick Libett]] & [[Gordon Berenson|Red Berenson]] & [[Gary Bergman]] & [[Ted Harris (hockey player)|Ted Harris]] & *[[Mickey Redmond]] & [[Larry Johnston (hockey player)|Larry Johnston]] 1973-74
*[[Marcel Dionne]] 1974-75
*[[Danny Grant]] & [[Terry Harper]] 1975-76
*Danny Grant & [[Dennis Polonich]] 1976-77
*[[Dan Maloney]] & [[Dennis Hextall]] 1977-78
*Dennis Hextall & Nick Libett & [[Paul Woods]] 1978-79
*[[Dale McCourt]] 1979-80
*[[Errol Thompson (hockey player)|Errol Thompson]] & [[Reed Larson]] 1980-81
*Reed Larson 1981-82
*[[Danny Gare]] 1982-86
*[[Steve Yzerman]] 1986-present
</div><br clear="all">
===Retired numbers===
* 1 [[Terry Sawchuk]], G, 1949-55, 1958-64 & 1968-69
* 6 [[Larry Aurie]], LW, 1933-1937 - (unofficially retired)
* 7 [[Ted Lindsay]], LW, 1944-57 & 1964-65
* 9 [[Gordie Howe]], RW, 1946-71
* 10 [[Alex Delvecchio]], C, 1950-73
* 12 [[Sid Abel]], LW-C, 1938-52; Head Coach, 1957-69; General Manager, 1963-71; Broadcaster
* 16 [[Vladimir Konstantinov]] D, 1991-1997 - (unofficially retired)
* 99 [[Wayne Gretzky]], retired NHL-wide
===Franchise scoring leaders===
These are the top-ten point-scorers in the history of the Red Wings. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season.
'''''Note:''' GP = Games Played, G = Goals, A = Assists, Pts = Points''
{| cellpadding=3 border=1 cellspacing=0 class="wikitable"
! Player !! POS !! GP !! G !! A !! Pts
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Gordie Howe]] || RW || 1687 || 786 || 1023 || 1809
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Steve Yzerman]] || C || 1453 || 678 || 1043 || 1721
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Alex Delvecchio]] || C || 1549 || 456 || 825 || 1281
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Sergei Fedorov]] || C || 908 || 400 || 554 || 954
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Norm Ullman]] || C || 875 || 324 || 434 || 758
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Ted Lindsay]] || LW || 862 || 335 || 393 || 728
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Nicklas Lidstrom]] || D || 1016 || 173 || 553 || 726
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Reed Larson]] || D || 708 || 188 || 382 || 564
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Brendan Shanahan]] || RW || 634 || 269 || 283 || 552
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[John Ogrodnick]] || RW || 539 || 259 || 275 || 534
|}
==See also==
* [[List of Stanley Cup champions]]
* [[List of Detroit Red Wings players]]
* [[Head Coaches of the Detroit Red Wings]]
* [[Russian Five]]
* [[List of NHL players]]
* [[Victoria Cougars]]
==External links==
* [http://www.detroitredwings.com Official Site of the Detroit Red Wings]
* [http://www.letsgowings.com Lets Go Wings! Unofficial fan site]
* [http://www.drwforever.com DRWForever: The Essential Detroit Red Wings Fan Site]
* [http://www.detroithockey.net DetroitHockey.Net - The Definitive Detroit Red Wings Resource (Unofficial fan site)]
{{NHL}}
[[Category:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[Category:1926 establishments]]
[[Category:Sports in Detroit, Michigan]]
[[bg:Детройт Ред Уингс]]
[[de:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[fr:Red Wings de Detroit]]
[[hr:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[ja:デトロイト・レッドウィングス]]
[[pt:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[simple:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[sk:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[fi:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[sv:Detroit Red Wings]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demiurge</title>
<id>8796</id>
<revision>
<id>41200781</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:15:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tomisti</username>
<id>348887</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[fi:Demiurgi]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Demiurge''' refers in some [[belief system]]s to a [[deity]] responsible for the creation of the [[physical universe]] and the physical aspect of [[humanity]]. The word derives from the ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] δημιουργός (''dēmiourgós'', latinized ''demiurgus''), generally taken to mean "artisan" or "craftsman"; literally, the word would translate as "tame worker" or "one who domesticates". The term's components in turn derive from δήμιος "official" which comes from δ&#8134;μος "people", and έργον meaning "creation" or "(piece of) work".
The term occurs in a number of different religious and philosophical systems, most notably [[Platonism]] and [[Gnosticism]]. The precise nature and character of the Demiurge however varies considerably from system to system, being the benign architect of [[matter]] in some, to the personification of [[evil]] in others. Frequently, alternative titles are used for the Demiurge in these systems, including '''Yaldabaoth''', '''[[Tetragrammaton|Yao or Iao]]''', '''Ialdabaoth''' and several other variants, such as '''Ptahil''', used in [[Mandaeanism]].
==Platonism==
[[Plato]] refers to the Demiurge frequently in the [[Socratic dialogue]] ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' as the entity who "fashioned and shaped" the material world. Plato describes the Demiurge as unreservedly benevolent and hence desirous of a world as good as possible. The world remains allegedly imperfect, however, because the Demiurge had to work on pre-existing [[chaos|chaotic]] [[matter]], which was recalcitrant to his efforts to shape it.
The concept of a Demiurgic intervention between God and his creation is completely at odds with [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] [[Christi |
xposures]].
===Setting===
Film noir tends to revolve around flawed and desperate characters in an unforgiving world. Crime, usually [[murder]], is an element of most films noirs, often sparked by [[jealousy]], [[Political corruption|corruption]], or [[Greed (emotion)|greed]]. Most films noirs contain certain archetypal characters (such as hard-boiled detectives, [[femme fatale|femmes fatales]], corrupt policemen, jealous husbands, insurance agents, or down-and-out writers), familiar locations (downtown Los Angeles, New York, or San Francisco), and archetypal storylines ([[heist film]]s, [[detective story|detective stories]], [[court film]]s, and films about rigged boxing games).
===Morality===
The [[morals]] of film noir tend to be ambiguous and relative, rather than simple "black and white" decisions. Characters may adhere to an absolute moral goal, but are more than willing to let the "ends justify the means." For example, in ''[[The Stranger (1946 film)|The Stranger]]'', the investigator is so obsessed with tracking down a [[Nazi]] [[war crimes|war criminal]] that he places other people in mortal danger to accomplish his goal.
===Outlook===
Film noir is, at its core, pessimistic. The stories it tells are of people trapped in situations they do not want (and generally not of their own making), striving against random uncaring fate, and usually doomed. Almost all film noir plots involve the hard-boiled, disillusioned male and the dangerous [[femme fatale]]. Much of the success of film noir is due to the political landscape of the 1930s, 40s and 50s (most notably, the global insecurity and alienation resulting from World War II and the Red Scare).
====Elements of noir====
Film noir is harder to define specifically than "classic" genres like the Western or the Musical, mostly because the filmmakers most responsible for the genre's creation were unaware they were part of a stylistic trend. Some movies, therefore, are considered noir by some but not by others. Examples include ''Vertigo'' (1958) or ''Niagara'' (1953), shot in (desaturated) color but sometimes considered noir. Films considered to be noir usually contain some, if not all, of the following:
=====Character elements=====
:Femme fatale or an homme fatale (male version of a femme fatale)
:Morally ambiguous protagonist(s)
:Alienated protagonist(s)
:[[Fall guy]] (male or female)
:Violence relative to character development/interaction
:Protagonist's presence in virtually every scene
=====Settings=====
:Black and white, or desaturated color cinematography
:Low angle shooting, and expressionistic techniques
:Sense of fatalism (either spoken or visual)
:Use of [[mise en scène]] to portray alienation
:Odd camera angles or visual effects and sequences
:Urban setting
:Exotic, remote, and/or barren location setting
:Night club and/or gambling setting
=====Plot/screenwriting elements=====
:Convoluted story line
:Use of flashbacks
:Murder or heist at the center of the story
:Spoken narrative
:Betrayal or double-cross
:Story told from criminal's perspective
:False accusation (or fear of same)
:Sexual relationships vs. plot development
:Hard-boiled dialogue/repartee
:Bleak ending. Some writers will not consider a noir to be truly authentic without a bleak ending, such as the end of ''[[Scarlet Street]]''. Some "noir" films end with happy, but somewhat bleak endings, such as ''[[Pitfall (1948 film)|Pitfall]]'' where the protagonist's life ultimately is turned upside down and his marriage is badly damaged -- but he's alive.
==Further reading==
* Christopher, Nicholas. ''Somewhere in the Night: Film Noir and the American City.'', Free Press, 1997
* Copjec, Joan, ed., ''Shades of Noir'', Verso, 1993
* Hannsberry, Karen Burroughs, ''Femme Noir: Bad Girls of Film'', McFarland, 1998
* Hannsberry, Karen Burroughs, ''Bad Boys: The Actors of Film Noir'', McFarland, 2003
* Hirsch, Foster, ''The Dark Side of the Screen: Film Noir''
* Kaplan, E. Ann, ed., ''Women in Film Noir'', University of California Press, 1999
* [[Eddie Muller|Muller, Eddie]], ''Dark City: The Lost World of Film Noir''
* Naremore, James, ''More Than Night: Film Noir in Its Contexts''
* Neale, Steve, ''Genre and Hollywood'', Routledge, 2000
* Rabinowitz, Paula ''Black & White & Noir: America's Pulp Modernism'', Columbia University Press 2002
* [[Paul Schrader|Schrader, Paul]], "Notes on Film Noir.", ''Film Comment'' 198?
* Silver, Alain et al, eds, ''The Film Noir Reader'', Vol. 1-4
* Silver, Alain and Elizabeth M. Ward, eds, ''Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference to the American Style''
* Silver, Alain, ''The Noir Style''
==See also==
*[[Neo-noir]]
*[[Pulp noir]]
==External links==
*[http://www.panbello.com/WebNoir6_List_of_Films_Noir.html List of Films Noir]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/Noirbib.html Film Noir Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/oh2/writer/Shadows1.html The Shadows of Film Noir by Brian W. Fairbanks]
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.filmsite.org/filmnoir.html
| title = Film Noir
| work = filmsite.org
| accessyear = 2005
| accessdate = March 23
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.imagesjournal.com/issue02/infocus/filmnoir.htm
| title = Film Noir: An Introduction
| work = Images Journal
| accessyear = 2005
| accessdate = March 23
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19950130/COMMENTARY/11010314/1023
| title = A Guide to ''Film Noir'' Genre
| publisher = Rogerebert.com
}}
* [http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/noir.jsp GreenCine primer on Film Noir]
<!-- Interwiki links -->
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Film noir]]
[[Category:Film styles]]
[[Category:French phrases]]
[[Category:Neo-noir]]
[[cs:Film noir]]
[[de:Film noir]]
[[es:Cine negro]]
[[fr:Film noir]]
[[he:סרט אפל]]
[[it:Film noir]]
[[lb:Film noir]]
[[nl:Film noir]]
[[ja:フィルム・ノワール]]
[[no:Film noir]]
[[pl:Film noir]]
[[ru:Нуар]]
[[fi:Film noir]]
[[sv:Film noir]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finno-Ugric languages</title>
<id>10803</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41283639</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T07:16:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eszett</username>
<id>12876</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Common vocabulary */ you'd think this'd be done by now :<</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Finno_Ugric_Languages.png|thumb|490px|Approximate geographical distribution of areas where indigenous Finno-Ugric languages are spoken. Diagonal patterns indicate sparsely populated areas. Dotted lines mark boundaries of corresponding subnational administrative units.]]
The '''Finno-Ugric languages''' form a subfamily of the [[Uralic languages]]. The majority of linguists believe that [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]], among other languages, should be included in the group. Unlike most of the other languages spoken in [[Europe]], the Finno-Ugric languages are not part of the [[Indo-European]] family of languages. The Uralic languages also include the [[Samoyedic languages]], and some linguists use the terms Finno-Ugric and Uralic as synonyms. Many of the smaller Finno-Ugric languages are endangered and near extinction.
==Origins==
The "[[Urheimat]]" of [[Proto-Finno-Ugric]], the hypothetical [[proto-language]] of the modern Finno-Ugric languages, cannot be located with any certainty. The area which lies in what is now central and northern European Russia (i.e., west of the [[Ural mountains]]) is generally assumed as a likely candidate, at a time of maybe the [[3rd millennium BC]]. This is based on the [[linguistic migration theory]], which appears to suggest a "centre of gravity" somewhere around the middle [[Volga River]], and on reconstructed plant and animal names (notably including [[spruce]], [[Siberian pine]], [[Siberian Fir]], [[Siberian larch]], [[brittle willow]]/[[elm]], and [[hedgehog]]). Reconstructed Proto-Finno-Ugric contains [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] [[loanword]]s, notably the words for "honeybee" and "honey", probably from the time when Indo-Iranian tribes (such as [[Scythians]] and [[Sarmatians]]) inhabited the Eurasian steppes.
There is evidence that before the arrival of the [[Slavic tribes|Slavic speaking tribes]] to the area of modern-day [[Russia]], speakers of Finno-Ugric languages may have been scattered across the whole area between the Urals and the [[Baltic Sea]]. This was the distribution of the [[Comb Ceramic Culture]], a stone age culture which appears to have corresponded to the Finno-Ugric speaking populations, c. [[4200 BC]]&ndash;c. [[2000 BC]].
There have been attempts to relate the Finno-Ugric languages to the [[Indo-European languages]], but there are not enough similarities to link them with any certainty. Similar inflectional endings exist, but whether or not they are genetically related is not resolvable. Common lexicon not attestable to borrowing is thin, and no sound laws are established. Conversely, there have been suggestions that the [[Germanic languages]] evolved from an Indo-European language such as [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] imposed on a [[Finnic]] [[Substratum|substrate]], but no satisfactory proof yet exists.
A portion of the Baltic-Finnic lexicon is not shared with the remaining Finno-Ugric languages and may be due to a pre-Finnic [[Substratum|substrate]], which may coincide in part with the substrate of the [[Indo-European]] [[Baltic languages]]. As far as the [[Sami people|Sami]] (''Lappic'') languages are concerned, a hypothesis has been advanced that the ancestors of the [[Sami people|Sami]] originally spoke a different language, but adopted their current tongue under the pressure of their Finnic-speaking neighbours.
According to data obtaine |
orest]]
** [[William B. Bankhead National Forest]]
* [[U.S. Wilderness Area|Wilderness Area]]s
** [[Cheaha Wilderness]]
** [[Dugger Mountain Wilderness]]
** [[Sipsey Wilderness]]
* [[National Scenic Trail]]
** [[Natchez Trace Trail]]
* [[National Recreation Trail]]
** [[Pinhoti National Recreation Trail]]
* [[National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Fern Cave National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Mountain Longleaf National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Sauta Cave National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Watercress Darter National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge]]
* [[National Seashore]]
** [[Gulf Islands National Seashore]]
==See also==
* [[Alabama]]
* [[Geography of the United States]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.gsa.state.al.us/ State of Alabama Geological Survey]
* [http://tapestry.usgs.gov/states/alabama.html USGS - Tapestry of Time - Alabama]
* [http://www.al.com/parks/north.html Summary of Alabama Park & Recreation Sites]
* [http://www.stateparks.com/al.html Interactive Map of Park & Recreation Sites]
[[Category:Geography of Alabama| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of governors of Alabama</title>
<id>1286</id>
<revision>
<id>40359107</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of [[Alabama]].
==Governor of [[Alabama Territory]]==
[[William Wyatt Bibb]], served [[1817]]-[[1819]]
==Governors of the State==
<br clear="all">
{| cellpadding=4 cellspacing=2
|- bgcolor=#cccccc
!Name!!Served!!Party
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William Wyatt Bibb]]<sup>1</sup>
|1819&ndash;[[1820]]
|[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Thomas Bibb]]<sup>2</sup>
|1820&ndash;[[1821]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Israel Pickens]]
|1821&ndash;[[1825]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[John Murphy (Alabama)|John Murphy]]
|1825&ndash;[[1829]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Gabriel Moore]]
|1829&ndash;[[1831]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Samuel B. Moore]]<sup>3</sup>
|1831
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[John Gayle]]
|1831&ndash;[[1835]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Clement C. Clay]]
|1835&ndash;[[1837]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Hugh McVay]]<sup>4</sup>
|1837
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Arthur P. Bagby]]
|1837&ndash;[[1841]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Benjamin Fitzpatrick]]
|1841&ndash;[[1845]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Joshua L. Martin]]
|1845&ndash;[[1847]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Reuben Chapman]]
|1847&ndash;[[1849]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Henry W. Collier]]
|1849&ndash;[[1853]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[John A. Winston]]
|1853&ndash;[[1857]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Andrew B. Moore]]
|1857&ndash;[[1861]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[John Gill Shorter]]
|1861&ndash;[[1863]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Thomas H. Watts]]
|1863&ndash;[[1865]]
|Democratic
|-
|[[Lewis E. Parsons]]<sup>5</sup>
|1865
|Provisional
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[Robert M. Patton]]
|1865&ndash;[[1867]]
|[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|-
|[[Wager Swayne]]<sup>6</sup>
|1867&ndash;[[1868]]
|Military
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[William H. Smith]]
|1868&ndash;[[1870]]
|Republican
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Robert B. Lindsay]]
|1870&ndash;[[1872]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[David P. Lewis]]
|1872&ndash;[[1874]]
|Republican
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[George S. Houston]]
|1874&ndash;[[1878]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Rufus W. Cobb]]
|1878&ndash;[[1882]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Edward A. O'Neal]]
|1882&ndash;[[1886]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Thomas Seay]]
|1886&ndash;[[1890]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Thomas G. Jones]]
|1890&ndash;[[1894]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William C. Oates]]
|1894&ndash;[[1896]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Joseph F. Johnston]]
|1896&ndash;[[1900]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William D. Jelks]]<sup>7</sup>
|1900
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William J. Samford]]
|1900&ndash;[[1901]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William D. Jelks]]
|1901&ndash;[[1907]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Russell Cunningham]]<sup>8</sup>
|[[1904]]&ndash;[[1905]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[B. B. Comer]]
|1907&ndash;[[1911]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Emmet O'Neal]]
|1911&ndash;[[1915]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Charles Henderson]]
|1915&ndash;[[1919]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Thomas Kilby]]
|1919&ndash;[[1923]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William W. Brandon]]
|1923&ndash;[[1927]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Charles McDowell]]<sup>9</sup>
|[[1924]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Bibb Graves]]
|1927&ndash;[[1931]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Benjamin M. Miller]]
|1931&ndash;[[1935]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Bibb Graves]]
|1935&ndash;[[1939]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Frank M. Dixon]]
|1939&ndash;[[1943]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Chauncey Sparks]]
|1943&ndash;[[1947]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Jim Folsom|James E. Folsom Sr.]]
|1947&ndash;[[1951]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Gordon Persons]]
|1951&ndash;[[1955]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Jim Folsom|James E. Folsom Sr.]]
|1955&ndash;[[1959]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[John Malcom Patterson|John Patterson]]
|1959&ndash;[[1963]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[George Wallace]]
|1963&ndash;[[1967]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Lurleen Wallace]]<sup>10</sup>
|1967&ndash;[[1968]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Albert Brewer]]
|1968&ndash;[[1971]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[George Wallace]]
|1971&ndash;[[1979]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Jere Beasley]]<sup>11</sup>
|[[1972]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Fob James|Forrest H. "Fob" James Jr.]]
|1979&ndash;[[1983]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[George Wallace]]
|1983&ndash;[[1987]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[H. Guy Hunt]]
|1987&ndash;[[1993]]
|Republican
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Jim Folsom, Jr.|James E. Folsom Jr.]]<sup>12</sup>
|1993&ndash;[[1995]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[Fob James|Forrest H. "Fob" James Jr.]]
|1995&ndash;[[1999]]
|Republican
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Don Siegelman]]
|1999&ndash;[[2003]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Robert R. Riley]]
|2003&mdash;
|Republican
|}
==Notes==
#William Wyatt Bibb was appointed as territorial governor; he was then elected first governor in 1819.
#William Wyatt Bibb died in 1820, and his brother Thomas Bibb, then president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term.
#In 1831, Governor Moore was elected to the [[United States Senate]], and Samuel Moore, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term.
#In 1837, Governor Clay was appointed to the [[United States Senate]], and Hugh McVay, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term.
#Lewis Parsons was appointed provisional governor by the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] occupation.
#Wager Swayne was appointed military governor during [[Reconstruction]].
#William Samford was out of state for 26 days at the beginning of his term seeking medical treatment, so William D. Jelks was acting governor.
#Russell Cunningham was governor for nearly a year when governor William D. Jelks was out of state for medical treatment.
#William W. Brandon was out of state for 21 days in 1924, and since the state constitution require the lieutenant governor to act as governor if the governor is out of the state for 20 days, Charles McDowell served two days as governor.
#Lurleen Wallace, wife of George Wallace, died in 1968. Albert Brewer, the lieutenant governor, filled the unexpired term.
#While campaigning for [[President of the United States]] in 1972, George Wallace was shot in an assassination attempt. After a few months of recovery in a [[Maryland]] hospital, Wallace resumed his duties as governor. Lieutenant Governor Jere Beasley served as governor for a month after Wallace had been out of the state for more than 20 days, as per the constitution.
#H. Guy Hunt was removed from office upon conviction of illegally using campaign and inagural funds to pay personal debts. Lieutenant Governor [[Jim Folsom, Jr.|James E. Folsom Jr.]] filled the unexpired term.
Until 1845, the term of state officials was one year, from then until 1901 it was two years, and since 1901 it has been four years.
==External links==
[http://www.archives.state.al.us/govslist.html The Alabama Department of Archives & History's List of Alabama Governors]
{| border="1" align="center" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|width="30%"|Preceded by:<br>'''-'''
|width="40%"|'''[[Lists of United States Governors]]'''
|width="30%"|Succeeded by:<br>'''[[List of Governors of Alaska]]'''
|}
[[Category:Lists of United States governors|Alabama]]
[[Category:Governors of Alabama|*]]
[[de:Liste der Gouverneure von Alabama]]
[[fr:Liste des gouverneurs de l'Alabama]]
[[nl:Lijst van gouverneurs van Alabama]]
[[pl:Gubernatorzy stanu Alabama]]
[[sl:Seznam guvernerjev Alabame]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alabama/History</title |
t he also acknowledged the orthodoxy of the filioque. Using Augustinian language, he also speaks of the Father as the ultimate principle (cause) of the deity.
In [[1274]], the [[Second Council of Lyons]] said that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, in accord with the ''filioque'' in the contemporary Latin version of the Nicene Creed. Reconciliation with the East, through this council, did not last. Remembering the crusader's sack of Constantinople in [[1204]], most Byzantine Christians did not want to be reconciled with the West. In [[1283]], Patriarch John Beccus, who supported reconciliation with the Latin Church, was forced to abdicate; reunion failed.
(These crusaders were the Venetians of the [[Fourth Crusade]], who had earlier been excommunicated for attacking other Christians. In [[1204]], they were getting even for a slaughter of Venetian merchants, in rioting, that took place in [[1182]]. Pope Innocent III had sent them a letter, asking them not to attack Constantinople; after hearing of the sack of the city, he lamented their action and disowned them. Nevertheless, the people of Constantinople had a deep hatred for the people they called the "Latins" or the "Franks.")
For much of the [[14th century]], there were two bishops, each claiming to be Pope, each excommunicating the followers of the other. The Great [[Western Schism]] concluded with yet a third individual claiming to be Pope and the [[Council of Constance]]. The East could hardly seek reconciliation with a Western Church divided among itself. In the middle of the century, about a third of Western Europe died of the [[Black Death]]. People were more concerned about the plague than about Church unity.
===Failing efforts to reunite East and West===
At the [[Council of Florence]], in the [[15th century]], Byzantine Emperor [[John VIII Palaeologus]], Bishop Joseph, Patriarch of Constantinople, and other bishops from the East travelled to northern Italy, in hope of reconciliation with the West and the aid of Roman armies in their conflict with the Ottoman Empire.
After extensive discussion, in Ferrara, then in Florence, they acknowledged that some Latin Fathers spoke of the procession of the Spirit differently from the Greek Fathers. Since the consensus of the Fathers was held to be reliable, as a witness to common faith, and since the Byzantine Empire desperately needed the military aid of the West, the Western usage was held not to be a heresy and not a barrier to restoration of full communion. All but one of the Orthodox bishops present, [[Mark of Ephesus]], agreed and signed a decree of union between East and West, ''Laetentur Coeli'' in [[1439]]. Mark refused to sign on the grounds that Rome was in both [[heresy]] and [[schism]] as a result of its acceptance of the ''Filioque'' and the papal claims of universal jurisdiction over the [[Church]]. For his stand, Mark is now venerated as a Saint in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].
Now, officially and publicly, the Catholic and Orthodox Churches were in communion. So, the Council of Florence helped establish a fundamental principle: the Church must be one in its faith, its essential beliefs, but may be diverse in its culture, customs, rites, and theology.
However, the reconciliation achieved at Florence was soon destroyed. Some Orthodox faithful and bishops rejected the union. The promised Western armies were too late to prevent the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the Turks in [[1453]]. From that time, the Turks fostered separation from the West, which remained an adversary to Islamic political and military dominance. The Patriarch of Constantinople now had to carry out the will of his Muslim overlord; the Church was no longer free. The patriarch was also one of the bishops who had repudiated the reunion of Florence, on his own initiative. The Eastern bishops were under immense political pressure from the emperor who wished to secure the support of the West, in the face of the Ottoman danger. Hence, the agreement of Florence, intellectually, represented in some respects the result of an imposition of Scholastic theology and a desparate plea for help.
Undeniably, the ''filioque'' controversy was officially resolved, for both Orthodox and Catholic. However, because of the historical situation, this resolution was neither fully received nor permanently sustained.
==Orthodox Church==
To this day, the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Church]] uses the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed of [[381]] without the ''filioque''. Many times, the Eastern Churches have rejected the phrase as an unauthorized interpolation, an example of what they consider to be Western hubris. Even more, they objected to the teaching it expressed, as conflicting with biblical and accepted doctrine. They said that for the Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father and the Son there would have to be two sources in the deity, whereas in the one God there can only be one source of divinity or deity.
Western theologians anticipated this objection by saying the Spirit proceeds from the Father and Son "as from one principle." The East, however, again objected that this formulation would merge and confuse the persons of the Father and the Son. It was also pointed out that if Father and Son are sources of deity (and only the Holy Spirit is not), it follows that the status of the Spirit is diminished, relative to the Father and the Son, by excluding the Spirit alone as a source of divinity, making the Spirit, rather, a recipient of it--as if the Son and Spirit were both subordinate in their own doctrine. Finally, if one says that the divine essence itself is the source of deity in God, which they took the Latin theologians to say, then (as the Eastern theologians pointed out) another problem is created, a suggestion that the Holy Spirit proceeds from himself, since he is certainly not separate from the divine essence. (By the same reasoning, the Father and Son would also proceed from Themselves. The typical Eastern approach to Triadology avoids this problem by starting with Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and considering that the unique divine Essence is the <i>content</i> of these Three, rather than that the Three "proceed" from the Essence.)
Both [[Photius I of Constantinople|Patriarch Photius]] in [[862]] and [[Patriarch Cerularius]] in [[1054]] accused the West of heresy for introducing the ''filioque'' in the Creed. In general, except for reconciliatory pauses in [[1274]] and [[1439]], at the [[Second Council of Lyons]] and the [[Council of Florence]], many Orthodox have repeated the charge of heresy, up to the present day. On the other hand, from the [[13th century]], other Orthodox have pointed out that no ecumenical council ever condemned the entire Western Church and excommunicated its members. Hence, they argued, Latins should not be denied Communion because of the ''filioque'' in their Creed.
An Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople, [[Patriarch Gregory II of Constantinople|Gregory II]], of Cyprus ([[1241]]&ndash;[[1290]]), proposed a different formula which has also been considered as an Orthodox "answer" to the ''filioque'', though it does not have the status of official Orthodox doctrine. Gregory spoke of an eternal ''manifestation'' of the Spirit by the Son. In other words, he held that the Son eternally manifests (shows forth) the Holy Spirit.
In general, even up to the time of the Council of Florence, the writings of Latin fathers were not widely read in the East; the language was not understood. Hence, the formulation of the ''filioque'', let alone its meaning, was not readily understood in the East. Up to the present, some Western practices are still condemned as heresy by some in the East, disciplinary customs such as mandatory celibacy for priests or the use of pouring water for baptism, rather than triple immersion. There is even a schismatic (noncanonical) Greek group which avoids the use of electric lights in church. When the Pope of Rome visited Greece, some clergy refused to pray with him; others protested publicly against his visit. In Ukraine, when he visited, one Orthodox community held a ceremony of "cursing" for a bishop they considered a heretic. Some Orthodox, too, speak of what they call the "heresy of ecumenism." The Patriarch of Constantinople has accused some monks of Mount Athos, Greece, as being schismatic in spirit, because they consider the entire West to be mired in heresy. Again and again, the ''filioque'' is brought up as the first example of heresy.
In the recent past, however, several Orthodox theologians have considered the ''filioque'' anew, with a view to reconciliation of East and West. Theodore Stylianopoulos, for one, provides an extensive, scholarly overview of the contemporary discussion. A "Father Chrysostom", following Jean-Miguel Garrigues, appeals for common prayer, instead of polemicism. Twenty years after first writing ''The Orthodox Church'', Bishop Timothy [Kallistos] Ware says that he has changed his mind; now, he considers the ''filioque'' dispute to be primarily semantic.
The Moscow patriarchate has said that it does not rebaptize or even chrismate Catholics who become Orthodox; they simply repent and are welcomed. Should the conflict over [[Eastern Rite]] Catholics in Russia be resolved, the ''filioque'' dispute would perhaps not be an obstacle to full reconciliation. Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople has said that all that is necessary is resolution of what he calls the "[[Uniate]]" problem. For many Orthodox, then, the ''filioque'', while still a matter of conflict, would not impede full communion of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches.
==Catholic Church==
In [[1274]], at the Second Council of Lyons, the Catholic Church condemned those who "presume to deny" that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son. In the r |
s (1658, 1661, 1662) travelled through the greater part of Great Britain, and selections from his private notes of these journeys were edited by [[George Scott]] in 1760, under the title of ''Mr Ray's Itineraries''. Ray himself published an account of his foreign travel in 1673, entitled ''Observations topographical, moral, and physiological, made on a Journey through part of the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and France''. From this tour Ray and Willughby returned laden with collections, on which they meant to base complete systematic descriptions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Willughby undertook the former part, but, dying in 1672, left only an ornithology and ichthyology, in themselves vast, for Ray to edit; while the latter used the botanical collections for the groundwork of his ''Methodus planiarurn nova'' (1682), and his great ''Historia generalis plantarum'' (3 vols., 1686, 1688, 1704). The plants gathered on his British tours had already been described in his ''Catalogus plantarum Angliae'' (1670), which work is the basis of all later English floras.
In 1667 Ray was elected Fellow of the [[Royal Society]], and in 1669 he published in conjunction with Willughby his first paper in the Philosophical Transactions on ''Experiments concerning the Motion of Sap in Trees''. They demonstrated the ascent of the sap through the wood of the tree, and supposed the sap to precipitate a kind of white coagulum or jelly, which may be well conceived to be the part which every year between bark and tree turns to wood and of which the leaves and fruits are made. Immediately after his admission into the Royal Society he was induced by Bishop [[John Wilkins]] to translate his ''Real Character'' into Latin, and it seems he actually completed a translation, which, however, remained in manuscript; his ''Methodus plantarum nova'' was in fact undertaken as a part of Wilkins's great classificatory scheme.
In [[1673]] Ray married Margaret Oakley of [[Launton]]; in 1676 he went to [[Sutton Coldfield]], and in 1677 to Falborne Hall in [[Essex]]. Finally, in 1679, he removed to Black Notley, where he afterwards remained. His life there was quiet and uneventful, although he had poor health, including chronic sores. He occupied himself in writing books and in keeping up a wide scientific correspondence, and lived, in spite of his infirmities, to the age of seventy-six, dying at Black Notley on [[17 January]], 1705. The [[Ray Society]], for the publication of works on natural history, was founded in his honor in [[1844]].
== Works ==
Ray's first book, the ''Catalogus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nascentium'' (1660, followed by appendices in 1663 and 1685), was written in conjunction with his ''amicissimus et individuus comes'', [[John Nid]]. The 626 plants are listed alphabetically, but a system of classification differing little from [[Caspar Bauhin]]'s is sketched at the end of the book; and the notes contain many references to other parts of natural history. The locations of the plants are minutely described; and Cambridge students still gather some of their rarer plants in the copses or chalk-pits where he found them. The book shows signs of his indebtedness to [[Joachim Jung]] of [[Hamburg]], who had died in 1657, leaving his writings unpublished; but a manuscript copy of some of them was sent to Ray by [[Samuel Hartlib]] in 1660. Jung invented or gave precision to many technical terms which Ray and others at once made use of in their descriptions, and which are now classical; and his notions of what constitutes a specific distinction and what characters are valueless as such seem to have been adopted with little change by Ray. The first two editions of the ''Catalogus plantarum Angliae'' (1670, 1677) were likewise arranged alphabetically; but in the ''Synopsis stirpium rum'' (1690, 1696, also re-edited by Dillenius, 1724, and by Hill, 1760) Ray applied the scheme of classification which he had by that time elaborated in the ''Methodus'' and the ''Historia plantarum''. The ''Methodus plantarum nova'' (1682) was largely based on the works of [[Caesalpinus]] and Jung, and still more on that of [[Robert Morison]] of Oxford. The greatest merit of this book is the use of the number of [[cotyledons]] as a basis of classification; though it must be remembered that the difference between the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous embryo was detected by [[Nehemiah Grew]]. After dividing plants into flowerless and flowering, Ray says:
<blockquote>Floriferas dividemus in Dicotyledones. auarum semina sata binis foliis anomalis, seminalibus dictis, quae cotyledonorum usum praestant, e terra exeunt, yel in binos saltem lobos dividuntur, quamvis eos supra terrem foliorum specie non efferunt; et Monocotyledones, quae nec folia bina seminalia efferunt nec lobos binos condunt. Haec divisio ad arbores etiam extendi potest; siquidem Palmae et congeneres hoc respectu eodem modo a reliquis arboribus differunt quo Monocotyledones a reliquis herbis.</blockquote>
But a serious blemish was his persistent separation of trees from herbs, a distinction whose falsity had been exposed by Jung and others, but to which Ray tried to give scientific foundation by denying the existence of buds in the latter. At this time he based his classification, like Caesalpinus, chiefly upon the fruit, and he distinguished several natural groups, such as the grasses, ''[[Labiatae]]'', ''[[Umbelliferae]]'' and ''[[Papilionaceae]]''.
The classification of the ''Methodus'' was extended and improved in the ''Historia plantarum'', but was disfigured by a large class of Anomalae, to include forms that the other orders did not easily admit, and by the separation of the cereals from other grasses. This vast book enumerates and describes all the plants known to the author or described by his predecessors, to the number, according to Adanson, of 18,625 species. In the first volume a chapter ''De plantis in genere'' contains an account of all the anatomical and physiological knowledge of the time regarding plants, with the recent speculations and discoveries of Caesalpinus, Grew, Malpighi and Jung; and Cuvier and Dupetit Thouars, declaring that it was this chapter which gave acceptance and authority to these authors works, say that the best monument that could be erected to the memory of Ray would be the republication of this part of his work separately. The ''Stirpium Europaearum extra Britannias nascentium Sylloge'' (1694) is a much amplified edition of the catalogue of plants collected on his own European tour. In the preface to this book he first clearly admitted the doctrine of the sexuality of plants, which, however, he had no share in establishing. Here also begins his long controversy with Rivinus ([[Augustus Quirinus Bachmann]]) which chiefly turned upon Ray's indefensible separation of ligneous, from herbaceous plants, and also upon what he conceived to be the misleading reliance that Rivinus placed on the characters of the corolla. But in the second edition of his ''Methodus'' (1703) he followed Rivinus and [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]] in taking the flower instead of the fruit as his basis of classification: he was no longer a fructicist but a corollist.
Besides editing his friend Willughby's books, Ray wrote several zoological works of his own, including ''Synopsis methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis'' (1693), that is to say, both mammals and reptiles, and ''Synopsis methodica Aviusn et Piscium'' (1713); the latter was published posthumously, as was also the more important ''Historia Insectorum'', which embodied a great mass of Willughbys notes.
Most of Ray's minor works were the outcome of his faculty for carefully amassing facts; for instance, his ''Collection of English Proverbs'' (1670), his ''Collection of Out-of-the-way English Words'' (1674), his ''Collection of Curious Travels and Voyages'' (1693), and his ''Dictionariolum trilingue'' (1675, 5th edition as Nomenclator classicus, 1706). The last was written for the use of Willughby's sons, his pupils; it passed through many edtions, and is still useful for its careful identifications of plants and animals mentioned by Greek and Latin writers. But Ray's influence and reputation have depended largely upon his two books entitled ''The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Creation'' (1691), and ''Miscellaneous Discourses concerning the Dissolution and Changes of the World'' (1692). The latter includes three essays on ''The Primitive Chaos and Creation of the World'', ''The General Deluge, its Causes and Effects'', and ''The Dissolution of the World and Future Conflagrations''. The germ of these works was contained in sermons preached long before in Cambridge. Both books obtained immediate popularity, and the former, at least, was translated into several languages. In ''The Wisdom of God'' Ray recites innumerable examples of the perfection of organic mechanism, the multitude and variety of living creatures, the minuteness and usefulness of their parts, and many, if not most, of the familiar examples of purposive adaptation and design in nature were suggested by him, such as the structure of the eye, the hollowness of the bones, the camel's stomach and the hedgehog's armour.
== Legacy ==
In [[1986]], to mark the 300th anniversary of the publication of Ray's ''Historia Plantarum'', there was a celebration of Ray's legacy in Braintree. A "John Ray Gallery" was opened in the Braintree Museum. The scientific society at his old college is named the "John Ray Society" after him.
The standard [[Binomial nomenclature#Authorship in scientific names|botanical author abbreviation]] '''Ray''' is applied to [[species]] he described.
{{wikiquote}}
==References==
*{{1911}}
==External links==
* [http://www.jri.org.uk/ The John Ray Initiative: connecting Environment and Christianity]
[[Category:1627 births|Ray, John]]
[[Category:1705 deaths|Ray, John]]
[[Category |
, be longer than the average movie. There are also theatrical shorts derived from existing televisions series and billed in Japanese theaters together to form feature-length showing.
*'''Television series''' anime is [[Television syndication|syndicated]] and broadcast on television on a regular schedule. [[Television program|Television series]] are generally low quality compared to OVA ([[Original Video Animation]]) and film titles, because the production budget is spread out over many episodes rather than a single film or a short series. Most episodes are about 23 minutes in length, to fill a typical thirty-minute time slot with added [[Television commercial|commercials]]. One full season is 26 episodes, and many titles run half seasons, or 13 episodes. Most TV series anime episodes will have [[opening credits]], [[closing credits]], and often an "[[eyecatch]]", a very short scene, often humorous or silly, that is used to signal the start or end of the commercial break (as "bumpers" in the United States are used in a similar fashion). "Eyecatch" scenes are often found in TV series anime and are generally similar throughout the series.
*'''OVA''' ('''[[Original Video Animation]]'''; sometimes '''OAV''', or '''Original Animated Video''') anime is often similar to a television [[miniseries]]. OVAs are typically two to twenty episodes in length; [[one-shot]]s are particularly short, usually less than film-length. They are most commonly released directly to video. As a general rule OVA anime tends to be of high quality, approaching that of films. Titles often have a very regular, continuous plot best enjoyed if all episodes are viewed in sequence. Popular OVA titles include ''[[FLCL]]'', ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]'', and ''[[Tenchi Muyo!]]''. Opening credits, closing credits, and eyecatches may sometimes be found in OVA releases, but not universally.
'''Franchising'''
It is very common for one title to spawn several different releases. A title that starts as a popular television series might then have a movie produced at a later date. A good example is ''Tenchi Muyo!''. Originally an OVA, it spawned three movies, three television series, and several spinoff titles and specials.
Not all successors to an anime are a sequel to the original story. Prequels and alternate stories are commonly adapted from the original.
==Licensing and distribution==
Anime is available outside of Japan in localized form. Licensed anime is modified by [[Western world|Western]] distributors through [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbing]] into the language of the country. The anime may also be [[edited movie|edited]] to alter cultural references that may not be understood by a non-Japanese person and companies may remove what may be perceived as objectionable content. For the fans who may object to the editing and dubbing of anime, DVDs may be their preference. DVD releases often include both the dubbed audio and the original Japanese audio with [[subtitle]]s, are typically unedited, and lack [[Television commercial|commercial]]s.
'''Fansubs'''
Although it is a violation of [[copyright]] laws in many countries, some fans watch [[fansub]]s, recordings of anime series that have been subtitled by fans. Watching subtitled Japanese versions is usually seen as the intended method of watching anime by enthusiasts. The ethical implications of producing, distributing, or watching fansubs is a topic of much controversy even when fansub groups do not profit from and cease distribution of their work once the series has been licensed.
:''See [[fansub]] for further discussion of ethical issues of fansubbing''
==See also==
[[Image:Laputa-robot-ghibli.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A life-size model of a [[robot]] from the animation ''[[The Castle in the Sky|Laputa]]'' on top of the [[Ghibli Museum]] in [[Mitaka, Tokyo]].]]
*[[Animated cartoon]]
*[[Animation]]
*[[Anime industry]]
*[[Anime physics]]
*[[History of anime|History of Anime]]
*[[Manga]]
*[[Traditional animation]]
*[[Amerime]]
*[[Editing of anime in international distribution]]
'''Terminology'''
*[[Anime music video|Anime Music Video]]
*[[Catgirl]]
*[[Chibi]]
*[[Cosplay]]
*[[Dōjinshi|Dōjinshi or Doujinshi]]
*[[Dorama]]
*[[Eroge]]
*[[Ganguro]]
*[[Guro]]
*[[Hentai]]
*[[J-pop]]
*[[Lolicon]]
*[[Otaku]]
*[[Seiyū]]
*[[Shota]]
'''Licensing and translation'''
*[[Editing of anime in international distribution]]
*[[Fansub]]
*[[Wikt:Glossary:Japanese film credit terms|Glossary:Japanese film credit terms]]
'''Lists'''
*[[Animated television series]]
*[[Anime characters|Anime Characters]]
*[[List of anime companies|Anime Companies]]
*[[List of anime conventions|Conventions]]
*[[List of anime]]
**[[Notable anime]]
**[[Anime theatrically released in America]]
*[[Notable names in anime]] (directors, creators, and so forth)
==References==
*Clements, Jonathan and Helen McCarthy. ''The Anime Encyclopedia''. Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press, 2001. ISBN 1880656647.
*Napier, Susan J. ''Anime: From Akira to Princess Mononoke''. New York: Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 031223862.
*Poitras, Gilles. ''Anime Companion''. Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press, 1998. ISBN 1880656329.
*Poitras, Gilles. ''Anime Essentials''. Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press, 2000. ISBN 1880656531.
*Baricordi, Andrea and Pelletier, Claude. ''Anime: A Guide to Japanese Animation (1958-1988)''. Montreal, Canada.: Protoculture, 2000. ISBN 2980575909.
==External links==
'''Databases'''
*[http://www.anidb.net/ AniDB]: database of anime series, hashes, fansub groups, and 'mylist' feature.
*[http://www.animeacademy.com/ Anime Academy]: Anime database, community forum and articles on culture, style, and prominent figures.
*[http://www.animelyrics.com/ Anime Lyrics]
*[http://www.AnimeNfo.com/ AnimeNfo]: Anime database, reviews, and community forums.
*[http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rllew/anitv.html Richard Llewellyn's Anime TV Series List]: Comprehensive anime title database.
'''Link sites'''
*[http://www.animeallies.com Anime Allies Directory] Directory of anime sites and resources.
*[http://www.anipike.com/ Anime Web Turnpike]
'''News'''
*[http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/ Anime News Network]: Anime news site, also has weekly columns, forums, and an extensive encyclopedia of series, companies, and staff/cast.
'''Wikis'''
*[http://www.anime-wiki.org/ Anime Wiki] Their goal is to build a wiki without copying other sources.
'''Review sites'''
*[http://www.dannychoo.com/ Anime reviews, toys and opening movie intros]
*[http://www.animeondvd.com/ Anime on DVD]: Extensive database of anime DVD reviews.
*[http://www.animefridge.com/ Anime Fridge] An archive of anime, video games, manga, and related soundrack reviews.
*[http://www.theanimereview.com/ The Anime Review] Reviews of current and past anime series.
*[http://www.themanime.org/ THEM Anime] Indepth reviews and synopses of various anime titles.
*[http://www.animefrontier.com/ Anime Frontier] Reviews of anime and manga, as well as other various resources.
'''Other reference'''
*[http://www.japan-7.com/ Japan-7]: Webzine and an archive of anime music, ost, j-music.
*[http://www.tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/AnimeTrope Anime Tropes]: Common cliches and visual cues.
*[http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/anime.jsp GreenCine primer on Anime]
*[http://www.anime.com.ru/ Anime portal in Russia]
==Notes==
# {{note | refbot.15 }} {{cite web | title = Do Manga Characters Look "White"? | url = http://www.matt-thorn.com/mangagaku/faceoftheother.html | accessdate = December 5 | accessyear = 2005 }}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Asterism</title>
<id>801</id>
<revision>
<id>41953207</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:21:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Asterism (disambiguation)]] to [[Asterism]]: Since the article without parentheses is a redirect...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Asterism''' may refer to:
*[[Asterism (astronomy)]]
*[[Asterism (gemmology)]]
*[[Asterism (typography)]]
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Astérisme]]
[[it:Asterismo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ankara</title>
<id>802</id>
<revision>
<id>41707805</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:06:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SDC</username>
<id>181435</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Shopping */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox town TR
|name = Ankara
|map2 = Ankara_City_Center.jpg
|map2 size = 250
|map2 cap = Ankara from the Atakule Tower, looking N-NE
|map = Ankara Turkey Provinces locator.gif
|map size = 250
|map cap = Location in [[Turkey]]
|province = Ankara
|population = 4,319,167
|population_as_of = 2005
|population_ref = []
|pop_dens =
|area =
|lat_deg = 39
|lat_min = 52
|lat_hem = N
|lon_deg = 32
|lon_min = 52
|lon_hem = E
|elevation = 850
|postal_code = 06x xx
|area_code = 0312
|licence = 06
|mayor = İ. Melih Gökçek (Justice and Development Party)
|website = [http://www.ankara.bel.tr/ http://www.ankara.bel.tr/]
}}
'''Ankara''' is the [[capital city|capital]] of [[Turkey]] |
riest
| none; always invalid
|-
| [[Holy Matrimony]]
| husband and wife (witnessed by bishop, priest, or deacon)
| husband and wife (without witnessing clergy) (legal in isolated regions underserved by priests and deacons)
|-
| [[Holy Orders]] (bishop)<sup>4</sup>
| three or more bishops
| fewer than three bishops; legal with permission of the [[Pope]]
|-
| Holy Orders (priest and deacon)
| bishop
| none; always invalid
|}
#''Clergy'', in this context, means a [[bishop]], [[priest]], or [[deacon]].
#The Eucharist has two parts. The first part of the Eucharistic sacrament is the consecration, or the prayer over the gifts that the priest or bishop says. This is when [[transubstantiation]] occurs, according to Catholics.
#The second part of the Eucharist is communion, or the distribution of the consecrated elements (bread and/or wine). More people may participate as ministers in this part, so it is treated separately.
#Since Holy Orders has special rules when ordaining a bishop, the bishop ordination is treated separately.
==[[Anglo-Catholicism]]==
The Anglican Churches retain seven sacraments as well. Some Anglicans consider the five sacraments other than Baptism and the Eucharist to be "sacramental rites" but the distinction is semantic.
The theology and canon law of the sacraments is similar, with a few key differences:
*Many Anglican churches hold that a woman can receive holy orders and celebrate the mass
*Anglicans differ on what change takes place in the Eucharist. Opinions range from [[transubstantiation]] to [[memorialism]]. (See [[lay presidency]]).
*Private Confession is not required. The traditional Anglican saying on the matter is "All may, none must, some should."
*There is mounting debate in the West over whether a marriage can be contracted by two persons of the same sex.
*Only bishops can confirm. This is never delegated to priests.
==External links==
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church on the Seven Sacraments] (see also [[Catechism of the Catholic Church|entry]])
* [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/default.asp Seven Catholic Sacraments'Signs and Instruments of God's Grace]
[[ja:??]]
[[it:Sacramento (cattolicesimo)]]
[[zh:聖禮]]
[[Category:Seven sacraments|*]]
[[Category:Sacraments|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of basic chemistry topics</title>
<id>6896</id>
<revision>
<id>36287119</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T00:24:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bduke</username>
<id>541218</id>
</contributor>
<comment>quantum chemistry --> semiempirical methods</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[chemistry]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of chemistry. For a comprehensive list, see [[List of chemistry topics]].
'''Structured list :'''
* '''Atomic structure :''' [[Atom]] -- [[Ion (physics)]] -- [[Electron]] -- [[Proton]] -- [[Neutron]] -- [[Atomic orbital]] -- [[Molecular orbital]] -- [[Chemical element]] -- [[Valence]] -- [[Atomic nucleus]] -- [[Isotope]]
* '''[[Chemical reaction]]''' -- [[Chemical formula]] -- [[Structural formula]] -- [[mole (unit)|Mole]] -- [[Stoichiometry]] -- [[Chemical nomenclature]] -- [[Chemical equilibrium]] -- [[Reversible reaction]] -- [[Electrophile]] -- [[Nucleophile]] -- [[Redox]]
* '''Bonding :''' [[Chemical bond]] -- [[Ionic bond]] -- [[Covalent bond]] -- [[Metallic bond]] -- [[Hydrogen bond]] -- [[Intermolecular force]] -- [[Dipole]]
* '''Structure :''' [[Gas]] -- [[Liquid]] -- [[Molecule]] -- [[Solid]] -- [[Isomer]] -- [[Allotropy]] -- [[Crystal]] -- [[Complex (chemistry)]] -- [[Ligand]] -- [[Chemical compound]] -- [[Stereochemistry]]
* '''Mixtures and [[Solution]]s:''' [[Concentration]] -- [[Vapour pressure]] -- [[Raoult's law]] -- [[Partial pressure]] -- [[solvation]]
* '''Chemical techniques :''' [[Titration]] -- [[Distillation]] -- [[Chromatography]] -- [[Reflux]] -- [[Buffer solution]] -- [[Filtration]] -- [[Hydrolysis]] -- [[Condensation reaction]]
* '''Properties :''' [[pH]] -- [[electronegativity]]
*'''Apparatus :''' [[Bunsen burner]] -- [[Calorimeter]] -- [[Colorimeter]] -- [[Burette]] -- [[Thermometer]]
* '''Branches of chemistry'''
** '''[[Analytical chemistry]]''' :
*** '''[[Electrochemistry]] :''' [[Electrochemical cell]] -- [[Oxidation]] -- [[Reduction]] -- [[Electrode potential]] -- [[Oxidation number]] -- [[Electrolysis]] -- [[Electrolytic cell]] -- [[Electrolyte]] -- [[Nernst equation]]
*** '''[[Spectroscopy]]''' : [[atomic absorption spectroscopy]] -- [[Auger electron spectroscopy]] -- [[electromagnetic spectroscopy]] -- [[fluorescence spectroscopy]] -- [[infrared spectroscopy]] -- [[mass spectrometer]] -- [[Mossbauer spectroscopy]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[neutron activation analysis]] -- [[Raman spectroscopy]] -- [[UV/VIS spectroscopy| UV/Vis spectrophotometry]] -- [[X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy]] --
** '''[[Inorganic chemistry]]''' : [[Acid]] -- [[Base (chemistry)]] -- [[Alkali]] -- [[Salt]] -- [[pH]]
*** '''[[Solid state chemistry]]'''
** '''[[Organic chemistry]]''' : [[Functional group]] -- [[Hydrocarbon]] -- [[Alkane]] -- [[Alkene]] -- [[Halogenoalkane]] - [[Alcohol]] -- [[Ether]] -- [[Aldehyde]] -- [[Ketone]] - [[Carboxylic acid]] -- [[Ester]] -- [[Alicyclic compound]] -- [[Amine]] -- [[Amide]] -- [[Amino acid]] -- [[Polymer]] -- [[Polymerization]] -- [[Organic nomenclature]] -- [[Aromatic hydrocarbon|Arene]] -- [[Phenol]] -- [[Peptide]]
*** '''[[Stereochemistry]]''' : [[Optical isomerism]] -- [[Chirality (chemistry)|Chirality]]
** '''[[Physical chemistry]]''' :
*** '''[[chemical kinetics|Kinetics]]:''' [[Catalyst]] -- [[Enzyme]] -- [[Arrhenius equation]]
*** '''[[Thermochemistry]]''' : [[Enthalpy]] -- [[Activation energy]] -- [[Entropy]]
*** '''[[Computational chemistry]]''' : [[Molecular modeling]] -- [[Molecular dynamics]] -- [[Molecular mechanics]] -- [[Quantum chemistry|Quantum methods]] -- [[Combinatorial chemistry]] -- [[Cheminformatics]] -- [[Bioinformatics]]
*** '''[[Quantum chemistry]]''' : [[Slater determinant]] - [[Hartree-Fock|Self-consistent field]] -- [[Hartree-Fock]] -- [[Moller-Plesset]] - [[Electron correlation]] - [[Valence electron semiempirical methods|Semiempirical methods]]
** '''[[Biochemistry]]''' : [[Protein]] -- [[Carbohydrate]] -- [[Fat]] -- [[Nucleic Acid]]
*'''[[Periodic table]]''' : [[Periodicity]] -- [[Group 1 element]]s -- [[Group 2 element]]s -- [[Transition metal]] -- [[Group 5 element]]s -- [[Group 6 element]]s -- [[Halogen]] -- [[Noble gas]] -- [[s block]] -- [[d block]] -- [[p block]] -- [[f block]]
*'''Famous [[chemist]]s''' : [[Marie Curie]] -- [[Dmitriy Mendeleyev]] -- [[Louis Pasteur]] -- [[Karl Ziegler]] -- [[Humphry Davy]] -- [[Michael Faraday]] -- [[John Dalton]] -- [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] -- [[Linus Pauling]] -- [[Joseph Priestley]]
*'''Important Chemical substances''': [[Water]] -- [[Ammonia]] -- [[Benzene]] -- [[Phenol]]
== See also ==
[[List of chemistry topics]]
[[Category:Chemistry| ]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Chemistry]]
[[Category:Lists|Chemistry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of basic communication topics</title>
<id>6897</id>
<revision>
<id>39994542</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T10:09:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Davemon</username>
<id>874442</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* General */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[communication]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of communications. For a comprehensive list, see [[List of communication topics]].
[[:Category:Human communication]]
== General ==
[[Alphabet]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Communication theory]] -- [[Development communication]] -- [[Dialectic]] --[[Graphic Design]]-- [[Information]] -- [[Information theory]] -- [[Language]] -- [[Library]] -- [[Printing]] -- [[Propaganda]] -- [[Public speaking]] -- [[Speech]] -- [[Sophist]] -- [[Symbol]] -- [[Semiotics]]-- [[Translation]] -- [[Writing]]
== Fields ==
[[Advertising]] -- [[Computer mediated communication]] -- [[Journalism]] -- [[Marketing communications]] -- [[Non-verbal communication]] -- [[Organizational communication]] -- [[Persuasion]] -- [[Public relations]] -- [[Rhetoric]] -- [[Semiotics]]
-- [[Telecommunications]]
== People ==
[[Theodor Adorno]] -- [[Irwin Altman]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Dean Barnlund]] -- [[Roland Barthes]] -- [[Gregory Bateson]] -- [[Walter Benjamin]] -- [[Charles Berger]] -- [[Frank Biocca]] -- [[Kenneth Burke]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Noam Chomsky]] -- [[Hugh Dalziel Duncan]] -- [[Karl W. Deutsch]] -- [[Walter Fisher]] -- [[George Gerbner]] -- [[Cees J. Hamelink]] -- [[Jürgen Habermas]] -- [[Max Horkheimer]] -- [[Harold Innis]] -- [[Irving Janis]] -- [[Wendell Johnson]] -- [[Walter Lippman]] -- [[Herbert Marcuse]] -- [[George Herbert Mead]] -- [[Marshall McLuhan]] -- [[Desmond Morris]] -- [[Maxwell McCombs]] -- [[Walter J. Ong]] -- [[Vance Packard]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Neil Postman]] -- [[Quintilian]] -- [[I. A. Richards]] -- [[Everett M. Rogers]] -- [[Wilbur Schramm]] -- [[Claude Shannon]] -- [[Deborah Tannen]] -- [[Dalmas Taylor]] -- [[Warren Weaver]] -- [[Joe Walther]]
== Media and Technology ==
[[Book]] -- [[Communication technology]] -- [[Computers]] -- [[Computer arts]] -- [[Computer networks]] -- [[Conversation]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Graphic arts]] -- [[Image]] -- [[Internet]] -- [[Mail]] -- [[Mass media]] -- [[Media arts]] --[[News media]] -- [[Net-conferencing]] -- [[Newspaper]] -- [[Printing]] -- [[Radio]] -- [[Reacting]] -- [[Reading (activity)|Reading]] -- [[Technical writing]] -- [[Telephone]] -- [[Television]] -- [[Video]] -- [[Writing]]
== Theories, Schools, and Approaches ==
[[Theories of communication]] -- [[Agenda-se |
t;(t)he superficial commonalities between Carrel and Qutb are plain: we meet the medical man's elite in a "scientific monastery" as Qutb's "avant garde," and the Carrel's "biological classes" are Qutb's "belief classes." Whether "civilization" (Carrel) or "barbarism" (Qutb) -- neither are "worthy of us," because they contradict "our true nature" (Carrel) or Qutb's "good, healthy nature." Both are in agreement in their goal to reconcile knowledge and belief.
Qutb follows Carrel in making "human nature" the condition and measure of all thought and action. Because "human nature" is simultaneously posited as God-given, both immunize "human nature" against criticism, because God answers queries as little as "nature" does objections. The core of Qutb's supposed Middle Eastern Islamism is formed by a naturalistic logical error that is deeply rooted in European philosophy... Carrel writes: "The goal of life is to follow the laws of life. We decipher these laws from our bodies and our souls, not from philosophical systems and concepts." Thus ethical norms ("laws of life") are derived directly from biological facts and psychological diagnoses. Translated to Qutb's language, human freedom and thus a free, varied society are not possible, only obedience to the law of God. [...]
What Qutb calls "the Islamic method," the integration of education, ethics, economics and politics to a unified system of "divine uniqueness," matches Carrel's "unification of all capabilities and their coordination to a single belief," the "super-science" in every detail ..."
This influence is ironic, given that Carrel himself was a devoted Roman Catholic and Christian mystic. He mentions Islam in ''Man, the Unknown'' just once, and not in a complimentary manner. He notes of European Christian civilization, that, "(a)t the cost of immense efforts, we succeeded in thrusting back the sleep of Islamism." Throughout his book, he refers to European civilization as "Christendom." Moreover, he believed in the racial superiority of northern Europeans. These ideas would have been anathema to Qutb.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://crishunt.8bit.co.uk/alexis_carrel.html Web page about Alexis Carrel]
* [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/press.html Nobel Prize presentation speech to Dr. Carrel]
* [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/carrel-bio.html Nobel Prize biography of Dr. Carrel]
*[http://patrickpoole.blogspot.com/2005/10/alexis-carrel-and-sayyid-qutb.html Alexis Carrel and Sayyid Qutb]
*[http://pages.prodigy.net/thomasn528/blog/2003_08_17_newsarcv.html#106125889084239517 Sayyid Qutb's French connection (Monday, August 18, 2003)]
==Sources==
* Carrel, Alexis. ''Man, The Unknown.'' New York and London: Harper and Brothers. 1935.
* Andrés Horacio Reggiani. ''Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy'' (FRENCH HISTORICAL STUDIES 25:2 SPRING 2002)[http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331]
* Wallace, Max. ''The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich'' St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003.
* Szasz, TS. ''The Theology of Medicine'' New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977.
* Ali, Tariq. ''Clash of Fundamentalisms'' Verso, London, 2002
* Choueiri, Youssef. ''Islamic Fundamentalism'' Continuum International Publishing Group, London, 2002.
* Walther, Rudolph. ''Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel'', DIE ZEIT 31.07.2003 Nr.32 [http://www.zeit.de/2003/32/A-Carrel]
* Bonnafé, Lucien and Tort, Patrick. ''L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz'' Editions Syllepse, 1996. [http://www.amazon.fr/exec/obidos/ASIN/2907993143/403-4807364-1466832]
* Abu-Rabi, Ibrahim M. ''Intellectual Origins of Islamic Resurgence'', SUNY Press, Albany, 1996
* Azmeh, Aziz (Aziz Al-Azmeh). ''Islams and Modernities'' Verso, London, 1993.
* Berman, Paul. ''Terror and Liberalism'' W. W. Norton, 2003
* Mairowitz, David Zane. "Fascism a la mode: in France, the far right presses for national purity." Harper's Magazine; 10/1/1997
* Pioneers of Islamic Revival (edited by Ali Rahnema), Zed Books, London 1994
* Schneider, William. Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France, Cambridge Studies in the History of Medicine (chap. 7 French eugenics in the thirties; and 10 Vichy and after)
* Terrenoire, Par Gwen, CNRS. ''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings'' Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, March 24, 2003 [http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf]
[[Category:1873 births|Carrel, Alexis]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Carrel, Alexis]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Carrel, Alexis]]
[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Carrel]]
[[Category:American physicians|Carrel]]
[[de:Alexis Carrel]]
[[es:Alexis Carrel]]
[[fr:Alexis Carrel]]
[[id:Alexis Carrel]]
[[ja:アレクシス・カレル]]
[[pl:Alexis Carrel]]
[[pt:Alexis Carrel]]
[[fi:Alexis Carrel]]
[[tr:Alexis Carrel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anthony Eden</title>
<id>1052</id>
<revision>
<id>42049852</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:21:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.83.172.67</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Prime Minister */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox BPM
| name=[[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] Sir Anthony Eden, Earl of Avon
| image=Eden.jpg
| kingdom=the United Kingdom
| term=[[7 April]] [[1955]] &ndash; [[9 January]] [[1957]]
| before=[[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]]
| after=[[Harold Macmillan]]
| date_birth=[[12 June]] [[1897]]
| place_birth=[[Bishop Auckland]], [[Durham]]
| date_death=[[14 January]] [[1977]]
| place_death=[[Alvediston]], [[Salisbury]], [[Wiltshire]]
| party=[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
}}
'''Robert Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of Avon''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Military Cross|MC]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] ([[June 12]], [[1897]]&ndash; [[January 14]], [[1977]]), [[United Kingdom|British]] politician, was [[Foreign Secretary]] during [[World War II]] and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] during the 1950s. He is remembered mainly for his role in the disastrous [[Suez Crisis]] of [[1956]]. In a 2004 poll [http://www.mori.com/polls/2004/leeds.shtml] of 139 political science academics organised by [[MORI]], Eden was voted the least successful British Prime Minister of the 20th Century. This echoed the outcome of an earlier survey by BBC Radio's ''The Westminster Hour'', ranking the British Prime Ministers of the 20th Century. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/575219.stm[2]] Winston Churchill came top, Eden bottom.
==Early career==
Eden was born in [[Durham]], into a very conservative landowner family. His mother, Sybil Grey, was a member of the famous Grey family of [[Northumberland]] (see below). He studied at [[Eton College|Eton]] and [[Christ Church, Oxford]], where he graduated in oriental languages. (He was fluent in French, German and Persian. He also spoke Russian and Arabic). Following a military career during the [[World War I|First World War]], during which he received a [[Military Cross]], Eden entered politics in [[1923]] when he was elected [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Warwick and Leamington]], as a [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]. In that year also he married Beatrice Beckett. They had two sons, but the marriage was not a success and broke up under the strain of Eden's political career.
Eden became Parliamentary Private Secretary at the [[Foreign Office]] in [[1926]]. In [[1931]] he was promoted to Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs. In [[1934]] he was appointed [[Lord Privy Seal]] and Minister for the [[League of Nations]] in [[Stanley Baldwin]]'s Government. Like many of his generation who had served in the First World War, Eden was strongly anti-war and strove to work through the League of Nations to preserve European peace. He was however among the first to recognise that peace could not be maintained by [[appeasement]] of [[Nazi Germany]] and [[fascist]] [[Italy]]. He privately opposed the policy of the Foreign Secretary, [[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Sir Samuel Hoare]], of trying to appease [[Italy]] during its [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|invasion of Abyssinia]] ([[Ethiopia]]) in [[1935]]. When Hoare resigned after the failure of the [[Hoare-Laval Pact]], Eden succeeded him as Foreign Secretary.
At this stage in his career Eden was considered as something of a leader of fashion. He regularly wore a [[Homburg_(hat)|Homburg]] hat (similar to a [[bowler hat]] but with an upturned brim), which became forever known in Britain by his name.
He had an elder brother called Timothy and a younger brother, Nicholas, who had been killed when the Indefatigable had been sunk at the Battle of Jutland in 1916.
==Foreign Secretary==
Eden became Foreign Secretary at a time when Britain was having to adjust its foreign policy to face the rise of the fascist powers. He supported the policy of non-interference in the [[Spanish Civil War]], and supported [[Neville Chamberlain]] in his efforts to preserve peace through reasonable concessions to Germany. He did not protest when Britain and France failed to oppose [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler's]] reoccupation of the [[Rhineland]] in [[1936]]. But in February [[1938]], he resigned because he could not accept Chamberlain's opening of negotiations with Italy. This made him an ally of [[Winston Churchill]], then a rebel backbench Conservative MP and leading critic of appeasement. There was much speculation that Eden would become a rallying point for all the dispara |
1=CC=C(Cl)<br/>C=C1)C2=CC=C(Cl)C=C2</small>
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | [[Image:DDT chemical structure highres.png|200px|Chemical structure of DDT]]
|-
|}
'''DDT''' was the first modern [[pesticide]] and is arguably the most well known organic pesticide. It is a highly [[hydrophobic]] colorless solid with a weak, chemical [[odor]] that is nearly [[soluble|insoluble]] in [[Water (molecule)|water]] but has a good solubility in most [[Organic chemistry|organic]] [[solvent]]s, [[fat]], and [[Essential oil|oil]]s. DDT is also known under the chemical names ''1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(''p''-chlorophenyl)ethane'' and '''''d'''ichloro-'''d'''iphenyl-'''t'''richloroethane'' (from which the abbreviation was derived).
DDT was developed as the first of the modern [[insecticide]]s early in [[World War II]]. It was initially used with great effect to combat [[mosquito]]es spreading [[malaria]], [[typhus]], and other [[insect]]-borne human diseases among both military and civilian populations. The Swiss chemist [[Paul Hermann Müller]] of Geigy Pharmaceutical in Switzerland was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1948]] "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several [[arthropod]]s."
In 1962, American biologist [[Rachel Carson]] published the book '''Silent Spring''', which alleged that DDT caused [[cancer]] and harmed bird reproduction by thinning egg shells. The book resulted in a large public outcry which eventually led to the [[insecticide]] being banned for agricultural use in the USA, and was one of the signature events in the birth of the [[Environmentalism|environmental movement]]. It was subsequently banned for agricultural use in many countries in the [[1970s]] due to what many believe is a negative environmental impact. There is still a great controversy regarding the extent of this impact and the reduced use of DDT to fight human diseases.
DDT, the first of the chlorinated organic [[insecticide]]s, was originally prepared in [[1873]], but it was not until [[1939]] that Paul Müller discovered the effectiveness of DDT as an insecticide.
==Properties==
DDT is a colourless [[crystal]]line substance which is practically insoluble in [[water]] but highly soluble in fats and most organic [[solvent]]s.
DDT is created by the reaction of [[trichloroethanol]] with [[chlorobenzene]] (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>Cl). Trade or other names for DDT include Anofex, Cesarex, Chlorophenothane, Dedelo, p, p'-DDT, Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, Dinocide, Didimac, Digmar, ENT 1506, Genitox, Guesapon, Guesarol, Gexarex, Gyron, Hildit, Ixodex, Kopsol, Neocid, OMS 16, Micro DDT 75, Pentachlorin, Rukseam, R50 and Zerdane.
DDT has potent insecticidal properties; it kills by opening sodium channels in insect neurons, causing the neuron to fire spontaneously. This leads to uncontrolled spasming and eventual death. DDT was responsible for eradicating malaria from Europe and North America, and was also extensively used as an agricultural insecticide after [[1945]]. Insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene may be resistant to DDT and other similar insecticides.
=== Environmental impact ===
DDT is a [[Persistent Organic Pollutant]] and highly persistent in the environment. It has a reported [[half life]] of between 2-15 years and is immobile in most soils. Its half life is 56 days in lake water and approximately 28 days in river water. Routes of loss and degradation include runoff, volatilization, photolysis and [[biodegradation]] (aerobic and anaerobic). These processes generally occur slowly. Breakdown products in the soil environment are [[dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene|DDE]] (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-dichlorodiphenyl)ethylene) and DDD (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane), which are also highly persistent and have similar chemical and physical properties.
In the United States, human blood and fat tissue samples collected in the early [[1970s]] showed detectable levels in all samples. A later study of blood samples collected in the later half of the [[1970s]] showed that blood levels were declining further, but DDT or metabolites were still seen in a very high proportion of the samples.
DDT is an organochlorine. Some organochlorines have been shown to have weak [[estrogen]] ic activity, that is, they are chemically similar enough to estrogen to trigger hormonal responses in contaminated animals. This sort of activity has been observed in DDT in laboratory studies involving [[mouse]] and [[rat]] test [[research subject|subjects]], but available [[epidemiological]] evidence does not indicate that these effects have occurred in humans as a result of DDT exposure.
DDT and its metabolic products accumulate through the food chain, with [[apex predator]]s such as raptors having a higher concentration of the chemicals than other animals sharing the same environment. In particular, DDT has been cited as a major reason for the decline of the [[bald eagle]] in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. In general, however, DDT in small quantities has very little effect on birds; its primary metabolite, DDE, has a much greater impact. DDT and DDE have had little impact on some birds which are not apex predators, like the chicken.
DDT is highly toxic to aquatic life, including [[crayfish]], [[daphnids]], [[sea shrimp]] and many species of [[fish]]. DDT may be moderately toxic to some [[amphibian]] species, especially in the larval stages. In addition to acute toxic effects, DDT may bioaccumulate significantly in fish and other aquatic species, leading to long-term exposure.
Some research indicates DDT is not particularly [[toxic]] to [[human]]s, compared to other widely used pesticides. DDT can be applied directly to clothes and used in soap, with no demonstrated ill effects.[http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/vectcontrol/ch25.htm] Some studies have claimed there is no link between DDT and cancer in humans. [http://www.breastcancer.realage.com/content.aspx/topic/21] [http://healthfullife.umdnj.edu/archives/DDE_DDT_archive.htm] Indeed, DDT has been known to be administered orally as a treatment for barbiturate poisoning. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=4715198&dopt=Abstract] However some other research seems to indicate there may be a link between DDT and breast cancer in humans [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts35.html#bookmark06] [http://www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/pn22/pn22p3.htm] [http://www.healthnewsexpress.com/Articles2003/StudyDDTBreastCancer.aspx] In particular, Dr. Mary Wolf published a 1993 article in the ''Journal of the National Cancer Institute'' indicating a statistically significant link between DDT metabolites in the blood and the risks of developing breast cancer. Others have disputed this research.
Overall, it is known that DDT concentrates in biological systems (particularly in body fat), that it is a toxin (across a range of [[phylum|phyla]]), and that it [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulates]] up the food chain, reaching its greatest concentrations in higher animals such as humans.
==History==
DDT was first synthesized in [[1873]] by [[Othmar Ziedler]], but its insecticidal properties were not discovered until [[1939]], by the [[Swiss]] scientist [[Paul Hermann Müller]], who was awarded the [[1948]] [[Nobel Prize]] in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts. DDT is the best-known of a number of chlorine-containing [[pesticide]]s used in the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]]. It was used extensively during [[World War II]] by Allied troops and certain civilian populations to control insect [[typhus]] and malaria vectors (as a result nearly eliminating typhus). Civilian suppression used a spray on interior walls, which kills mosquitoes that rest on the wall after feeding to digest their meal; resistant strains are repelled from the area. Entire cities in Italy were dusted to control the typhus carried by [[lice]]. DDT also sharply reduced the incidence of biting midges in Great Britain.
DDT was responsible for eradicating malaria from Europe and North America. Though today malaria is thought of as a tropical disease, it was more widespread prior to an extensive malaria eradication program carried out in the [[1950]]s. Though this program was highly successful worldwide (reducing mortality rates from 192 per 100,000 to a low of 7 per 100,000), it was less effective in tropical regions due to the continuous life-cycle of the parasite and poor infrastructure. It was not pursued aggressively in sub-Saharan Africa due to perceived difficulties, with the result that mortality rates there were never reduced to the same dramatic extent, and now constitute the bulk of malarial deaths worldwide, especially following the resurgence of the disease as a result of microbe resistance to drug treatments and the spread of the deadly malarial variant caused by ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]''.
DDT was also extensively used as an agricultural insecticide after [[1945]].
By the [[1950s]], in some uses, doses of DDT and other insecticides had to be doubled or tripled as resistant insect strains developed. In addition, the evidence began to grow that the chemical became more concentrated at higher levels in the food chain.
In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] DDT was banned in most developed countries. DDT was first banned from use in [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]] in [[1970]] and was not banned in the [[United Kingdom]] until [[1984]].
=== The U.S. ban of DDT ===
In [[1962]] [[Rachel Carson]]'s book ''[[Silent Spring]]'' was published. The book argued that [[pesticide]]s, and especially DDT, were poisoning both wildlife and the environment and also endangering human health. The public reaction to ''Silent Spring'' launched the modern [[environmentalism|environmental movement]] in the United States, and DDT became a prime target of the growing |
returned safely to his base in [[Dutch New Guinea]].]]
The P-40's strengths were: It was sturdy, faster in a dive than most of its Japanese adversaries, possessed a low-speed rate of roll superior to most other USAAF fighters and a high-speed rate of roll superior to most Japanese fighters. It could carry an effective air-to-ground load, was semi-modular and thus easy to maintain in the field, and tolerated harsh conditions, for example in the desert war. Since success in air combat also depends on the capabilities of the opposing aircraft, the combat record of the P-40 as a fighter is rather varied.
In all 13,738 P-40s had been produced by November 1944, and they were used by the airforces of 28 nations. It saw the majority of its frontline action in the [[Mediterranean Theatre of World War II|Mediterranean theater]], [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|South East Asian theater]] and [[South West Pacific Area]] with the USAAF and Commonwealth forces, and with the [[VVS]] (Soviet air force) on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]. The VVS also fitted some of their Warhawks with domestic Klimov engines, for ease of maintenance and repair.
==P-40 Units==
===US Army Air Force===
====23rd Fighter Group====
The Flying Tigers were integrated into the USAAF as the 23rd Fighter Group. The unit continued to fly P-40s (of newer models) until the end of the war, racking up a high kill-to-loss ratio.
====57th Fighter Group====
The 57th Fighter Group, which also operated in the MTO, was equipped with the Curtiss fighter until early 1944, during which time they were credited with at least 140 air-to-air kills. It was the 57th that took part in the "Palm Sunday Massacre" which took place on [[April 18]], [[1943]]. On this day, decoded [[Ultra]] ciphers had given away a Luftwaffe plan to cross the Mediterranean Sea with a large formation of German transport planes ([[Junkers Ju 52|Ju-52]]) and their escorts ([[Messerschmitt Bf 109|Bf-109]]), and an ambush was laid for them, ignoring the warning of intelligence officers that this might give away the Allied ability to read German ciphers. The three squadrons of the 57th, one squadron from the 324th Fighter Group (also flying P-40s) and a small group of British Spitfires intercepted the German formation and shot down at least 70 German planes, with roughly 6 or 7 Allied airplanes being downed.
==== 325th Fighter Group "Checkertail Clan" ====
The 325th FG, better known as the "Checkertail Clan", fought in the [[Mediterranean Theater of Operations]] (MTO). While flying the P-40, the three squadrons of the 325th were credited with at least 130 air-to-air kills while flying the P-40, from April to October 1943.
===British Royal Air Force===
P-40s became operational with the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] [[Desert Air Force]] in North Africa on [[January 1]], [[1942]]. In all, 12 British [[Royal Air Force]], two [[South African Air Force]] (SAAF) and two [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) squadrons serving with RAF formations used 930 aircraft. The British government also donated 23 P-40s to the Soviet VVS.
===Royal Australian Air Force===
The Kittyhawk was the main fighter and ground attack aircraft used by the RAAF in World War II (ahead of the Mustang). Two RAAF squadrons serving with the Desert Air Force, [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF|No. 3]] and [[No. 450 Squadron RAAF|No. 450 Squadron]]s, were the first Australian units to be assigned P-40s.
At the same time, the [[Pacific War]] was also in its early stages, and RAAF units in Australia were completely lacking in state-of-the-art fighters. Spitfire production was being absorbed by the war in Europe, Mustangs had not yet reached squadrons anywhere and Australia's tiny and inexperienced aircraft industry was geared towards larger planes. US-built P-40s were seen as the main solution to this problem. During the course of the war, the RAAF acquired 838 Kittyhawks for use in the [[South West Pacific Area]]. The durability and bomb-carrying abilities of the P-40 made it ideal for the [[close air support|ground attack]] role which was the main task of the RAAF throughout the war.
The RAAF units which made the most use of Kittyhawks were: [[No. 75 Squadron RAAF|No. 75]], [[No. 76 Squadron RAAF|76]], [[No. 77 Squadron RAAF|77]], [[No. 78 Squadron RAAF|78]], [[No. 80 Squadron RAAF|80]], [[No. 82 Squadron RAAF|82]], [[No. 84 Squadron RAAF|84]], [[No. 86 Squadron RAAF|86]] and [[No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron]] (an RAAF unit recruited from Dutch fliers). No. 75 and 76 Squadrons were instrumental in the historic defeat of the Japanese at the [[Battle of Milne Bay]]. Kitthawks were in use with the RAAF until the very last day of the war, in the [[Borneo campaign (1945)]].
===Royal New Zealand Air Force===
301 P40s were allocated to the [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]] under lend lease, 297 seeing service, (the remaining 4 being lost on delivery). These aircraft equipped [[14 Squadron RNZAF|14 Squadron]], [[No. 15 Squadron RNZAF|15 Squadron]], [[No. 16 Squadron RNZAF|16 Squadron]], [[17 Squadron RNZAF|17 Squadron]], [[18 Squadron RNZAF|18 Squadron]], [[19 Squadron RNZAF|19 Squadron]], and [[20 Squadron RNZAF|20 Squadron]]. RNZAF P40s were successful in air combat against the [[Japan]]ese during intense fighting in the [[Pacific Ocean Areas]] theatre from 1942 until 1944, when they were replaced by F4Us. [[New Zealand]] pilots claimed 99 aerial victories in P40s, losing 20 aircraft in aerial combat. [[Geoff Fisken]], the [[Commonwealth]]'s highest scoring [[ace]] in the Pacific flew P40s with [[No. 15 Squadron RNZAF]], (although half his victories came on the [[Brewster Buffalo]]). From late 1943 and 1944 RNZAF P40s were increasingly used against ground targets. The last frontline RNZAF P40s were replaced by [[F4U Corsair]]s in 1944, P40s continued to serve as advanced pilot trainers. Some RNZAF pilots in North Africa and Italy flew British P40s while serving with RAF squadrons. Remaining RNZAF P40s, (excluding the 20 shot down and 154 written off following accidents, etc.), were mostly scrapped at [[Ruhukia]] in 1948, although some survived, including Fisken's machine, which remains airworthy in private ownership in New Zealand. In recent years New Zealand firms have restored a number of P40s, largely for overseas warbird collectors. Other New Zealand P-40s are on display at the [[Royal New Zealand Air Force Museum]] in [[Christchurch]] and the [[Museum of Transport and Technology]] in Auckland.
===Soviet Union===
The VVS used the P-40 quite extensively against the [[Germany|Germans]] on the Eastern front, where the Warhawk provided close air support as well as air-to-air capability, with many Soviet pilots becoming aces on the P-40 (although not as many as on the [[P-39 Airacobra]], which was the most popular American fighter used by the VVS).
===Other nations===
The P-40 was used by over two dozen countries during and after the war. The P-40 was used by Brazil, Canada, China, Chile, Egypt, France, Netherlands East Indies, South Africa and Turkey. The last P-40s in military service were serving with the [[Brazilian Air Force]] (FAB) when they were finally retired as late as 1958.
==Variants==
[[Image:P-40 Kittyhawk.jpg|thumb|250px|P-40 Kittyhawk - Australian War Memorial]]
* Departing from normal [[USAAC]] convention, there was no '''P-40A'''. Some records indicate this might have been reserved for a reconnaissance variant that was briefly in development by Curtiss, but quickly discarded.
* Revised versions of the P-40 soon followed: the '''P-40B''' or '''Tomahawk IIA''' had extra .30 cal (7.62 mm) US, or .303 cal (7.7 mm) UK machine guns in the wings and self-sealing tanks; the '''P-40C''' or '''Tomahawk IIB''' added underbelly drop tank and bomb shackles, as well as improved self-sealing fuel tanks and other minor revisions, but the extra weight did have a negative impact on aircraft performance. (All versions of the P-40 had an relatively low power-to-weight ratio compared to contemporary fighters.)
* Only a small number of '''P-40D''' or '''Kittyhawk Mk I'''s were made&mdash;less than 50. With a new, larger Allison engine, slightly narrower fuselage, redesigned canopy, and improved cockpit, the P-40D eliminated the nose-mounted .50 cal guns and instead had a pair of .50 cal (12.7 mm) guns in each wing. The distinctive chin airscoop grew larger in order to adequately cool the large Allison engine.
* Retrospective designation for a single prototype. The '''P-40A''' was a single camera-carrying aircraft.
* The '''P-40E''' or '''P-40E-1''' was very similar in most respects to the P-40D, except for a slightly more powerful engine and an extra .50 cal (12.7 mm) gun in each wing, bringing the total to 6. Some aircraft also had small underwing bomb shackles. Supplied to the RAF as the '''Kittyhawk Mk IA'''.
* The '''XP-40F''' was an expermental aircraft. One P-40D was fitted with a 1,300 hp Rolls-Royce Merlin 28 inline piston engine. Only one was ever built.
* '''P-40F''' and '''P-40L''', which both featured a Packard Merlin engine in place of the normal Allison, and thus did not have the carburetor scoop on top of the nose. Performance for these models at higher altitudes was better than their Allison-engined cousins. The L in some cases also featured a fillet in front of the [[vertical stabilizer]], or a stretched fuselage to compensate for the higher torque. The P-40L was sometimes nicknamed "[[Gypsy Rose Lee]]", after a famous stripper of the era, due to its lighter weight. Supplied to the RAF under the designation '''Kittyhawk Mk II'''.
* '''Kittyhawk Mk II''' : 330 aircraft were supplied to the RAF under Lend-Lease. The first 230 aircraft are sometimes known as the '''Kittyhawk Mk IIA'''.
* '''XP-40G''' : One prototype with armament and fuel tank changes.
* '''P-40G''' : 43 P-40 aircraft fitted with the wings of the Tomahawk M |
ecome increasingly more defensive.
Airshows usually feature a series of aerial demonstrations that take place over the runway at an airfield, or over the water by a coastal city. At airshows held in US airfields, crowds are restricted from being within 500 feet of the runway, and some aircraft cannot fly within even larger distances of the crowd. While helicopters and slower aircraft may fly at 500 feet from the crowd, faster jets may be required to keep a 1500ft distance except during takeoffs, landings, and a few straight-line passes. Aircraft may only fly over the crowd or at less that 500ft distances if they are flying in a straight line or in a “banana pass”, where the aircraft starts out flying away from the crowd and turns towards the crowd, “cutting the corner” of the area where the crowd is allowed. (If the “banana pass” maneuver must be aborted or if control is lost, the energy of the aircraft will take in a line tangent to the turn, away from spectators).
[[image:frecce.tricolore.fairford.arp.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Frecce Tricolori aerobatics team of the Italian Air Force, flying at the Royal International Air Tattoo, Fairford, England, in 2005]]
Aerobatic maneuvers may only be performed if the aircraft are not heading towards the crowd. All aerobatic maneuvers must be performed inside the “airshow box”, a rectangular volume of space with the runway at one edge, extending behind the runway and up to a certain altitude over this area. No people are allowed in the airshow box except those assisting the pilot in his or her act (for examples, to hold poles the aircraft flies between, or to drive ground vehicles associated with the aerial act). This means any roads in the airshow box (such as a highway at one end of the airfield) may have to be closed.
During US airshows, helicopters cannot bank or pitch more than 90 degrees (an imaginary line going away from the helicopter perpendicular to the plane of the rotor cannot point below the horizon). Aerobatic pilots earn certificates that initially only allow them to perform aerobatics at higher altitudes, and only with more advanced certificates can all maneuvers be performed near the ground. Formation flying, as well as flying vintage or high-performance aircraft, also requires special training.
These safety restrictions make US airshows very safe. While accidents do happen, spectators are not injured if modern safety rules are followed. Mechanical malfunctions and pilot error (most often a combination of both) are responsible for a handful of airshow accidents every year, but even then, most pilots manage to eject safely or to survive their crashes.
==Attractions==
While some smaller airshows may display only general aviation aircraft, some aerobatic aircraft, and a [[warbird]] or two, most airshows will feature warbirds, aerobats, and demonstrations of modern military aircraft. Helicopter demos are less common, but most airshows will feature at least one helicopter on static display. While some airshows ("Static" airshows) feature primarily aircraft on the ground with the occasional fly-by, most airshows will have some flying being performed for almost the entire duration of the event.
[[Image:red.bull.air.race.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Air racing at an air show in England: the Red Bull Air Race heat held at Kemble airfield, Gloucestershire. The aircraft fly singly, and have to pass between pairs of pylons]]
Airshows usually open their gates very early, giving spectators a few hours to wonder around the static displays before flying starts in the late morning or early afternoon. Flying usually continues until late afternoon or early evening – later at some airshows, especially evening airshows which may go into the night. In evening airshows, airplanes fly which are especially lit, which release flares or fireworks or other pyrotechnics, or which have bright afterburners. While military installations will usually ask spectators to leave once the flying ends, most airshows that take place in non-military airfields do not. This allows for airshow fans and photographers to watch the aircraft on static display depart the airfield at the end of the day, and to photograph static-display aircraft and/or departing aircraft with sunset lighting, and with fewer people obstructing their shots.
Airplanes used in aerobatic demos have powerful piston engines, light weight, and big control surfaces, making them capable of very high roll rates and accelerations. A skilled pilot will be able to climb vertically, perform very tight turns, tumble his/her aircraft end-over-end, to perform maneuvers during loops, and even to hover his/her aircraft like a helicopter with the nose pointing straight up.
[[Image:F-16 Fighting Falcons above New York City(2).jpg|thumb|left|250px|Six [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]s of the [[U.S. Air Force]] [[Thunderbirds (squadron)|Thunderbird]]s [[aerobatics]] team fly in [[Delta wing|delta formation]] in front of the [[Empire State Building]] in [[Manhattan]] during an [[air show]].]]
Military jet demos will often focus on the capabilities of the aircraft used in combat operations. The demo will include their very short (and very loud) takeoff rolls, fast speeds, slow approach speeds, as well as their ability to turn tight (in order to evade an enemy, or to turn around for another pass at a ground target) and climb quickly, and their ability to be precisely controlled at a large range of speeds. These are usually the highlight of an airshow – the loud, fast, and exciting demos spectators will remember. This is especially true when national teams perform, such as the Blue Angels and Thunderbirds of the USA, the Snowbirds of Canada, or the European teams such as the Red Arrows, Frecce Tricolori, or Patruille Française. Each team features up to nine agile military jets performing choreographed manoeuvres, often synchronized and in large formations. More often, though, military jet demos feature one single aircraft, usually a strike fighter or an advanced trainer.
Warbird demos allow modern audiences to familiarize themselves with the sights and sounds of aviation as it was two or maybe even three generations ago. These may include limited aerobatics or mock dogfights, but more often consist of a series of straight-line passes made by one or more World-War-2-era aircraft. Many warbird demos will feature large formations of warbirds, as would have been seen during World War 2. Often, the end of a warbird demo will coincide with the beginning of a modern military aircraft demo, and the old aircraft will fly along the new aircraft in what is known as a “Heritage Flight” (US Air Force) or a “Legacy Flight” (US Navy). This is a chance to see the great advances in aviation technology that have been achieved over the past six decades.
Helicopter demos usually focus on the search-and-rescue operations these helicopters are used for – such as lowering a rescuer via a cable, having him attach the rescuee to a harness, and then pulling them back up into the helicopter. Some military helicopters may also drop soldiers or vehicles, and even fire weapons, during these rescue operations. Fire-fighting water-drops are also occasionally included. Alternately, some helicopter demos may show off the agility and maneuverability of the helicopter, and the unique “tricks” it can do - these are usually performed with light two-seater helicopters.
Airshows can also feature air races, skydiving/paragliding demos, skywriting, wingwalking demos, glider demos, hovercraft, replicas of some of the earliest aircraft, new-technology demonstrator prototypes, cargo-transport or even airdrop demos, battlefield simulations (including soldiers, ground vehicles, helicopters, airplanes, and pyrotechnics), fire-fighting aircraft (which drop water or slurry), and remote-controlled aircraft. Interesting ground vehicles, such as vintage cars, race cars, modern muscle cars, military vehicles, and even the occasional jet-powered car or truck, are also often seen at airshows. Sometimes a "race" is staged between a ground vehicle (typically a muscle car or a jet-powered vehicle) and an aircraft (typically a warbird or an aerobatic airplane).
==Historical airshows==
*1909 Reims Air Meet in France in August 1909. A key aviator was [[Glenn Curtiss]] who won the Gordon Bennett Cup. This show inspired [[John Moisant]].
*1910 Dominguez Field, just south of Los Angeles, California from January 10, 1910 to January 20, 1910. Participants included: [[Glenn Curtiss]]; [[Charles Hamilton]]; [[Lincoln Beachey]]; and [[Louis Paulhan]]. The Los Angeles Times called it "one of the greatest public events in the history of the West."
*1910 Harvard-Boston Aero Meet at the Harvard Aviation Field in [[Atlantic, Massachusetts]], from September 3, 1910 to September 13, 1910. It was the first major air event in the Eastern United States and offered $90,000 in prizes and appearance fees. Participants included: The [[Wright brothers]] and the [[Glenn Curtiss]] exhibition teams; and [[Claude Grahame-White]]. This show inspired: [[Harriet Quimby]]
*1910 Belmont International Aviation Tournament offered approximately $75,000 in prize money. Participants included: Count [[Jacques de Lesseps]]; [[Roland Garros]]; [[Claude Grahame-White]]; [[Glenn Curtiss]]; [[John Moisant]]; [[Arch Hoxsey]]; [[Ralph Johnstone]]; and [[Charles Hamilton]].
== Major airshows ==
*The two largest air and aerospace trade shows are the [[Farnborough Air Show]] ([[Farnborough, Hampshire|Farnborough]], [[England]]), held on even years, and the [[Paris Air Show]] ([[Paris]], [[France]]), held on odd years. In addition to displays for the general public, these two shows have important showcases and display halls for professionnals. They are traditionally one of the occasions when major aerospace players announce deals.
*The third largest airshow, [[Asian Aerospace]], has been held in [[Singapore]] since i |
ease energy, they cool down.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heliopause diagram.png|right|thumb|300px|The '''heliopause''' is the boundary between the [[heliosphere]] and the [[interstellar medium]] outside the [[solar system]]. As the solar wind approaches the heliopause, it slows suddenly, forming a [[shock wave]].]]
[[Image:72408main ACD97-0036-1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Voyager 1 & 2 and Pioneer 10 & 11 approaching the [[heliosheath]]]]
In [[astronomy]], the '''heliopause''' is the boundary where the [[Sun]]'s [[solar wind]] is stopped by the [[interstellar medium]].
The [[solar wind]] blows a "bubble" known as the [[heliosphere]] in the [[interstellar medium]] (the rarefied hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[galaxy]]). The outer border of this "bubble" is where the solar wind's strength is no longer great enough to push back the interstellar medium. This is known as the heliopause, and is often considered to be the outer border of the [[solar system]].
Inside the heliopause is a boundary called the "[[termination shock]]" where [[supersonic]] solar wind particles are slowed to subsonic speeds by the interstellar medium. The layer between the termination shock and the heliopause is known as the [[heliosheath]].
Outside the heliopause, the interaction between the interstellar medium and the heliopause produces the [[bow shock]], a turbulent region in front of the Sun's progress through the interstellar medium.
The distance to the heliopause is not precisely known. It is probably much smaller on the side of the solar system facing the orbital motion through the galaxy. It may also vary depending on the current velocity of the solar wind and the local density of the interstellar medium. It is known to lie far outside the orbit of [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]]. The current mission of the [[Voyager 1]] and [[Voyager 2|2]] spacecraft is to find and study the termination shock, heliosheath, and heliopause. On [[May 24]], [[2005]] [[NASA]] announced consensus that Voyager 1 had passed the termination shock and is now in the heliosheath, with the possibility of reaching the heliopause.
When particles emitted by the sun bump into the interstellar ones, they slow down while releasing energy. Many particles accumulate in and around the heliopause, highly energised by their negative acceleration, creating a shock wave.
An alternative definition is that the heliopause is the [[magnetopause]] between the solar system's [[magnetosphere]] and the galaxy's plasma currents.
==Notes==
# {{note|NASA|1}} NASA. [[May 24]], [[2005]]. ''[http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/voyager_agu.html Voyager Enters Solar System's Final Frontier]''. Retrieved May 25, 2005.
== See also ==
* [[Bow shock]]
* [[Termination_shock|Termination Shock]]
* [[Solar flare]]
* [[Heliosheath]]
* [[Voyager I]]
* [[Voyager_program|Voyager Program]]
* [[Magnetopause]]
* [[Magnetosphere]]
== External links ==
* NASA: http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/interstellar.html
* [http://www.uiowa.edu/~ournews/2003/december/120803gurnett.html Univ. of Iowa Press release] -- [[December 8]], 2003
* http://www.universetoday.com/am/publish/size_of_heliopause.html
[[Category:Sun]]
[[Category:Space plasmas]]
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[[es:Heliopausa]]
[[fr:Héliopause]]
[[ko:태양권계면]]
[[it:Eliopausa]]
[[nl:Heliopauze]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Harwich, Massachusetts</title>
<id>14089</id>
<revision>
<id>28482847</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-16T06:53:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.82.91.244</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Harwich,_MA_Seal.jpg|thumb|right|150px|''Seal of Harwich, MA'']]
'''Harwich''' is a town on [[Cape Cod]], in [[Barnstable County, Massachusetts|Barnstable County]] in the state of [[Massachusetts]] in the [[United States]]. The town is a popular vacation spot, located near the [[Cape Cod National Seashore]]. Harwich's beaches are on "the Sound side" of Cape Cod; the shores that face [[Nantucket Sound]]. Harwich has 3 active harbors. Saquatucket, Wychmere and Allen Harbors are all located in [[Harwich Port, Massachusetts|Harwich Port]].
The town is know for its many [[cranberry]] salt bogs, which produce cranberries that are commercially farmed. Harwich also contains the largest lake on the Cape, called Long Pond, which serves as a private airport for planes with the ability to land on water.
For geographic and demographic information on specific parts of the town of Harwich, please see the articles on [[East Harwich, Massachusetts|East Harwich]], [[Harwich Center, Massachusetts|Harwich Center]], [[Harwich Port, Massachusetts|Harwich Port]], [[North Harwich, Massachusetts|North Harwich]] and [[Northwest Harwich, Massachusetts|West Harwich]].
== History ==
Harwich was first settled in [[1670]] and was officially incorporated in [[1694]].
== Geography ==
[[Image:harwich_ma_highlight.png|300px|right]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 85.9 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (33.2 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 54.5 km&sup2; (21.0 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 31.4 km&sup2; (12.1 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 36.53% water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|<sup>2</sup>]] of [[2000]], there are 12,386 people, 5,471 households, and 3,545 families residing in the town. The [[population density]] is 227.3/km&sup2; (588.6/mi&sup2;). There are 9,450 housing units at an average density of 173.4/km&sup2; (449.1/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the town is 95.41% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.71% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.19% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.22% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.05% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.03% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.40% from two or more races. 0.96% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 5,471 households out of which 21.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.4% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.0% have a female householder with no husband present, and 35.2% are non-families. 29.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 16.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.20 and the average family size is 2.72.
In the town the population is spread out with 18.3% under the age of 18, 4.2% from 18 to 24, 22.1% from 25 to 44, 25.8% from 45 to 64, and 29.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 49 years. For every 100 females there are 84.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 79.7 males.
The median income for a household in the town is $41,552, and the median income for a family is $51,070. Males have a median income of $38,948 versus $27,439 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town is $23,063. 5.5% of the population and 2.9% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 8.4% of those under the age of 18 and 4.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== External links ==
*[http://harwichma.virtualtownhall.net/ Harwich official website]
*[http://www.GoHarwich.com/ Harwich, Cape Cod's Online Guide]
*[http://www.harwich.edu/ Harwich Public Schools]
*[http://homepage.mac.com/mooncusser/PhotoAlbum2.html Photos and Video of Weir Fishing in Harwich, MA]
[[Category:Towns in Massachusetts]][[Category:Barnstable County, Massachusetts]]
{{Massachusetts}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Hull classification symbol</title>
<id>14090</id>
<revision>
<id>41795266</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:26:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>138.163.0.42</ip>
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<comment>/* Aircraft Carrier Type */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[United States Navy]] uses '''hull classification symbols''' (sometimes called '''hull codes''') to identify the types of its ships. See also [[pennant number]], a somewhat analogous system used by the [[Royal Navy]] and some European navies.
The combination of symbol and hull number identify a modern Navy ship uniquely. A heavily modified or repurposed ship may receive a new symbol, and either retain the hull number or receive a new one. Also, the system of symbols has changed a number of times since it was introduced in [[1907]], so ships' symbols sometimes change without anything being done to the physical ship.
Many of these symbols listed here are not presently in use. The [[Naval Vessel Register]] maintains an online database of US Navy ships.
The [[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification|1975 ship reclassification]] of cruisers, frigates, and ocean escorts brought US Navy classifications into line with other nations' classifications, and eliminated the perceived "cruiser gap" with the [[Soviet Navy]].
If a ship's hull classification symbol has "T-" preceding it, that symbolizes that it is a ship of the [[Military Sealift Command]], with a primarily civilian crew.
== Warships ==
Warships are designed to participate in combat operations.
=== Aircraft Carrier Type ===
All ships designed primarily for the purpose of conducting combat operations by [[aircraft]] which engage in attacks against airborne, surface, sub-surface and shore targets. The "CV" designation was originally derived from cruisers, since aircraft carriers were seen as an extension of the sea control and denial mission of cruisers. The "V" designation for heavier than air craft comes from the [[French language|French]] verb "''Volare''" (to fly). Since 1935, "CV" has been a two-letter, |
rs, ceased manufacturing drives in 1995.
==="Marketing" capacity versus true capacity===
Hard drive manufacturers often use the [[SI_prefix|metric]] definition of the prefixes "[[giga]]" and "[[mega]]", whilst nearly all [[operating system]] utilities report capacities using [[Binary numeral system|binary]] definitions for the prefixes. This is largely for historical reasons, since when storage capacities started to exceed thousands of bytes, there were no standard binary prefixes. The [[International_Electrotechnical_Commission|IEC]] only standardized [[Binary_prefix#IEC_standard_prefixes|binary prefixes]] in [[1999]], so 2<sup>10</sup> (1024) bytes was called a [[kilobyte]] because 1024 is "close enough" to the metric prefix [[kilo]], which is defined as 10<sup>3</sup> or 1000. This trend became habit and continued to be applied to the prefixes "[[mega]]," "[[giga]]," and even "[[tera]]." Obviously the discrepancy becomes much more noticeable in reported capacities in the multiple gigabyte range, and users will often notice that the volume capacity reported by their OS is significantly less than that advertised by the hard drive manufacturer. For example, a drive advertised as 200 [[giga|GB]] can be expected to store close to 200 x 10<sup>9</sup>, or 200 [[billion]], bytes. This uses the proper [[SI]] definition of "giga," 10<sup>9</sup> and can be considered as an approximation of a [[gibibyte]]. Since utilities provided by the operating system probably define a gigabyte as 2<sup>30</sup>, or 1073741824, bytes, the reported capacity of the drive will be closer to 186.26 GB (actually, GiB), a difference of well over 7 percent. For this very reason, many utilities that report capacity have begun to use the aforementioned IEC standard binary prefixes (e.g. [[Kibibyte|KiB]], [[Mebibyte|MiB]], [[Gibibyte|GiB]]) since their definitions are unambiguous.
Another side point is that many people mistakenly attribute the discrepancy in reported and advertised capacities to reserved space used for file system and partition accounting information. However, for large (several GiB) filesystems, this data rarely occupies more than several MiB, and therefore cannot possibly account for the apparent "loss" of tens of GBs.
==Hard disk usage==
From the original use of a hard drive in a single computer, techniques for guarding against hard disk failure were developed such as the [[redundant array of independent disks]] (RAID). Hard disks are also found in [[network attached storage]] (NAS) devices, but for large volumes of data are most efficiently used in a [[storage area network]] (SAN). Applications for hard disk drives expanded to include [[personal video recorder]]s, [[digital audio player]]s, [[Personal digital assistant|digital organizers]] and digital cameras. In 2005 the first cellular telephones to include hard disk drives were introduced by [[Samsung_Group|Samsung]] and [[Nokia]].
==History==
[[Image:IBM_old_hdd.jpg|300px|thumb|Old IBM Hard Disk Drive.]]
The first hard disk drive was the [[IBM]] 350 Disk File, invented by [[Reynold B. Johnson|Reynold Johnson]] and introduced in 1955 with the [[IBM 305]] computer. This drive had fifty 24 inch platters, with a total capacity of five million characters. A single head was used for access to all the platters, making the average access time very slow.
The IBM 1301 Disk Storage Unit, announced in 1961, introduced the usage of a separate head for each data surface.
The first disk drive to use removable media was the IBM 1311 drive, which used the IBM 1316 disk pack to store two million characters.
In 1973, IBM introduced the [[IBM 3340|3340]] "Winchester" disk system, the first to use a sealed head/disk assembly (HDA). Almost all modern disk drives now use this technology, and the term "Winchester" became a common description for all hard disks, though generally falling out of use during the 1990s. Project head designer/lead designer [[Kenneth Haughton]] named it after the [[Winchester rifle|Winchester 30-30 rifle]] after the developers called it the "30-30" because of its two 30 MB spindles.
For many years, hard disks were large, cumbersome devices, more suited to use in the protected environment of a data center or large office than in a harsh industrial environment (due to their delicacy), or small office or home (due to their size and power consumption). Before the early 1980s, most hard disks had 8-inch (20 cm) or 14-inch (35 cm) platters, required an equipment rack or a large amount of floor space (especially the large removable-media drives, which were often referred to as "[[washing machine]]s"), and in many cases needed high-amperage or even three-phase power hookups due to the large motors they used. Because of this, hard disks were not commonly used with microcomputers until after 1980, when [[Seagate Technology]] introduced the ST-506, the first 5.25-inch hard drive, with a capacity of 5 megabytes. In fact, in its factory configuration the original [[IBM PC]] (IBM 5150) was not equipped with a hard drive.
Most microcomputer hard disk drives in the early 1980s were not sold under their manufacturer's names, but by [[Original equipment manufacturer|OEM]]s as part of larger peripherals (such as the [[Corvus Disk System]] and the [[Apple ProFile]]). The IBM PC/XT had an internal hard disk, however, and this started a trend toward buying "bare" drives (often by [[mail order]]) and installing them directly into a system. Hard disk makers started marketing to end users as well as OEMs, and by the mid-1990s, hard disks had become available on retail store shelves.
While internal drives became the system of choice on PCs, external hard drives remained popular for much longer on the [[Apple Macintosh]] and other platforms. Every Mac made between 1986 and 1998 has a [[SCSI]] port on the back, making external expansion easy; also, "toaster" Macs did not have easily accessible hard drive bays (or, in the case of the Mac Plus, any hard drive bay at all), so on those models, external SCSI disks were the only reasonable option. External SCSI drives were also popular with older microcomputers such as the [[Apple II]] series, and were also used extensively in [[server]]s, a usage which is still popular today. The appearance in the late 1990s of high-speed external interfaces such as [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] and [[FireWire]] has made external disk systems popular among regular users once again, especially for users who move large amounts of data between two or more locations, and most hard disk makers now make their disks available in external cases.
The capacity of hard drives has grown exponentially over time. With early personal computers, a drive with a 20 megabyte capacity was considered large. In the latter half of the 1990s, hard drives with capacities of 1 gigabyte and greater became available. As of early 2005, the "smallest" desktop hard disk in production has a capacity of 40 gigabytes, while the largest-capacity internal drives are a half terabyte (500 gigabytes), with external drives at or exceeding one terabyte.
===Drive Families===
Notable drive families include:
* [[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]] (Modified Frequency Modulation) drives required that the "controller" electronics be compatible with the drive electronics.
* [[Run Length Limited|RLL]] (Run Length Limited) was a way of encoding bits onto the platters that allowed for better density.
* [[Enhanced Small Disk Interface|ESDI]] (Enhanced Small Disk Interface) was an interface developed by Maxtor to allow faster communication between the PC and the disk.
* [[SCSI]] (Small Computer System Interface) was an early competitor with ESDI, originally named SASI for Shugart Associates.
* [[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA/IDE and EIDE]] (Advanced Technology Attachment)/(Integrated Drive Electronics)
* [[Serial ATA|SATA]] (Serial ATA)
When the price of electronics dropped (and because of a demand by consumers) the electronics that had been stored on the controller card were moved to the disk drive itself. This advance was known as "Integrated Drive Electronics" or IDE. IDE drives were slower than SCSI drives because they did not have as big a cache, and could not write directly to RAM. IDE manufacturers attempted to close this speed gap by introducing Logical Block Addressing (LBA); these drives were known as EIDE. SCSI manufacturers continued to improve SCSI's performance, but at a price — its interfaces were more expensive. In order for EIDE's performance to keep pace with SCSI (while keeping the cost of the associated electronics low), manufacturers began to move from "parallel" to "serial" interfaces, the result of which is the SATA interface. However, [[as of 2005]], performance of SATA and PATA disks is comparable. [[Fiber channel]] (FC) interfaces are primarily used in server drives.
==Timeline of capacity and other technical improvements==
* (CS) denotes an improvement in the consumer market.
===1950s===
*1956 - first commercial hard disk, the [[IBM 350]] RAMAC disk drive, 5 megabyte.
===1960s===
===1970s===
===1980s===
*1980 - first 5.25-inch Winchester drive, the Shugart ST-506, 5 megabyte (CS)
*1986 - Standardization of SCSI
===1990s===
*1991 - 100 megabyte hard drive (CS)
*1994 - ATA-1 standardized
*1995 - 2 gigabyte hard drive (CS)
*1997 - 10 gigabyte hard drive (CS)
*1998 - UltraDMA/33 and ATAPI standardized
*1999 - IBM releases the [[Microdrive]] in 170MB and 340MB capacities (CS)
===2000s===
*2002 - 137 GB addressing space barrier broken
*2003 - [[Serial ATA]] introduced
*2005 - 500 GB hard drive
*2005 - Serial ATA 3G standardized
*2005 - Introduction of faster SAS (Serial Attached SCSI)
==See also==
|
[[1970s]].)
In [[1980 in music|1980]], Eithne joined [[Clannad]], the band composed of her siblings [[Máire Brennan|Máire]], [[Pól Brennan|Pól]], and [[Ciarán Brennan|Ciarán]] and twin uncles [[Noel Duggan|Noel]] and [[Padraig Duggan]]. Eithne played the [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] and provided backing vocals on their albums ''Crann Úll'' (1980) and ''Fuaim'' ([[1982 in music|1982]]). In 1982 (shortly before Clannad became famous for "Theme From Harry's Game"), producer and manager Nicky Ryan left Clannad and Eithne joined him to start her own solo career.
===Solo career===
Eithne, working with Nicky and his wife Roma, recorded two solo instrumental songs called "An Ghaoth Ón Ghrian" ("The Solar Wind") and "Miss Clare Remembers" that were released on the [[1984 in music|1984]] album ''Touch Travel''. Eithne was first credited as ''Enya'' for writing some of the music for the [[1984 in film|1984]] movie ''[[The Frog Prince (film)|The Frog Prince]]'' which was released on a soundtrack album [[The Frog Prince (album)|of the same title]]. Another early appearance on record followed in 1987, where Enya provided spoken (not sung) vocals on [[Sinéad O'Connor]]'s debut album, ''The Lion And The Cobra''. The title of the album is a partial English translation of Enya's Gaelic reading of Psalms 91:11-13 on the song "Never Get Old."
Enya was contracted to provide music for the soundtrack of the [[1986]] [[television documentary]] ''[[The Celts]]''. The music she produced was featured on her first solo album, ''[[Enya (album)|Enya]]'' ([[1987 in music|1987]]), but it attracted little attention at the time. The song "Boadicea" from this album would later be sampled by [[The Fugees]] ([[1996 in music|1996]]), causing a brief stir because the group neither sought permission from Enya nor gave her credit initially, and by [[Mario Winans]], who did give her credit. (Ironically the Winans track, "I Don't Wanna Know," which features a [[rapping|rap]] by [[P. Diddy]] and is officially credited to all three artists, became Enya's highest charting single in the US, when it peaked at #2 on the [[Hot 100]] in [[2004 in music|2004]].)[[Image:Tafetta1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Promoting her first Grammy Award album ''[[Shepherd Moons]]'', 1991]]
Enya achieved a breakthrough in her career in [[1988 in music|1988]] with the album ''[[Watermark (album)|Watermark]]'', which featured the hit song "Orinoco Flow" (sometimes known as "Sail Away"). "Orinoco Flow" topped the charts in [[Britain]], and the album sold eight million copies. Three years later she followed with another hit album: ''[[Shepherd Moons]]'', which sold ten million copies and earned Enya her first [[Grammy Award]]. The songs "On Your Shore" and "Exile" (from ''Watermark'') and "Epona" (from ''The Celts'') were featured strongly in the 1991 film ''[[L.A. Story]].'' "Epona" was also featured on the soundtrack to the [[Robin Williams]] film, ''[[Toys]]'', while the 1990 film ''[[Green Card (film)|Green Card]]'' made use of her ''Watermark'' track, "Exile".
Despite winning Grammys for "Best [[New Age music|New Age]] Album", Enya does not personally classify her music as belonging to that [[genre]]. Four years later she released the Grammy-winning ''[[The Memory of Trees]]'' ([[1995 in music|1995]]).
In [[1997 in music|1997]], Enya released her greatest hits collection ''[[Paint The Sky With Stars|Paint The Sky With Stars: The Best of Enya]]'', which featured two new songs. She was offered the chance to compose the score for [[James Cameron]]'s [[1997 in film|1997]] film ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'', but she declined. Cameron subsequently asked composer [[James Horner]] to adapt Enya's style for his score. The eventual choice of Norwegian vocalist [[Sissel]] resulted in work that some sources erroneously credited to Enya.
Following a five year wait, she released ''[[A Day Without Rain]]'' in [[2000 in music|2000]] featuring 34 minutes of new material. After the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], her song "Only Time" (from ''A Day Without Rain'') was used as a backdrop in many radio and TV reports about the attacks. She initially frowned upon this use, especially when many bootlegged versions of "Only Time" mixed with sound effects from the attack began to appear. She agreed to release a special edition of the song with funds going to the families of victims. Many Enya fans, however, are resentful that her music has been linked with the attacks; an example of this occurred on a [[2002 in music|2002]] appearance on [[CNN]]'s ''[[Larry King Live]]'' when images of battle in [[Afghanistan]] were shown on screen as she performed "May It Be", a song with no war connection. This sparked some complaints within Enya's fan community.
[[Image:Enya - Amarantine.jpg|left|thumb|200px|''[[Amarantine]]'', Enya's latest CD, was released on [[November 21]] [[2005]].]]
Enya is self-admittedly a slow worker when it comes to composing music. As a result, fans have had to wait as long as five years between albums. In [[2004 in music|2004]], Enya was reputedly working on her next album, but no release date had been set. In September 2004, a new song, set to words from a Japanese poem and called "Sumiregusa" ("Wild Violet") was unveiled in [[Japan]] as part of an advertising campaign for [[Panasonic]]. In announcing the new recording, [[Warner Brothers|Warner Music Japan]] stated that Enya's next album was scheduled for release (in Japan at least) in mid-November. After a brief flurry of excitement among fans, Enya issued a press release on her official Web site on [[19 September]] stating that this was a mistake and no new album was immediately forthcoming.
On [[November]], [[2005_in_music|2005]] a new album, entitled ''[[Amarantine]]'', was released.
===Personal life===
Enya is a very private person, who tries to keep her personal life apart from her musical career, even by expending an estimated €250,000 on security measures for her home - Manderley Castle in south Dublin. In spite of this, on [[September 29]] and [[October 3]], 2005, there were two separate security breaches at Enya's home. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4305058.stm] [http://www.examiner.ie/pport/web/ireland/Full_Story/did-sgmD1yfc0tDmksgdL11Zs5FWAE.asp] According to many rumours she lives there alone. However, this impression is exaggerated. She leads a normal life, which she even says herself, invites over friends, listens to [[classical music]] and travels often.
As of 2006, Enya remains single. [http://www.efanguide.com/~enya/enya/faqs.html#1a]
==Music==
A number of Enya's songs are sung entirely in [[Irish language|Irish]] or [[Latin]], with others containing the hitherto-mentioned mixed with [[English language|English]] or English by itself. Roma Ryan has written lyrics in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], Irish, Latin, [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]] and even [[languages of Middle-earth|languages created by J. R. R. Tolkien]]. [[Image:Wm04.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|On Amarantine album (2005), Enya sings in Japanese and Loxian, a language invented by Roma Ryan.]]On her latest album, ''Amarantine'', Enya also sings in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Loxian]], a language invented by Roma Ryan.
Enya has performed songs relating to [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', including [[1991 in music|1991]]'s "[[Lothlórien]]" (instrumental), [[2001 in music|2001]]'s "May It Be" (sung in English and [[Quenya]]), and "Aníron" (in [[Sindarin]])&mdash;the last two which she composed appearing on the soundtrack of [[Peter Jackson]]'s movie ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]''. "May It Be" was nominated for an [[Academy Award]] for Best Song at the 2002 ceremonies, but it lost to [[Randy Newman]]'s "If I Didn't Have You" from ''[[Monsters, Inc.]]''
Enya has given several live performances on various television shows, events and ceremonies (her most recent appearance was at a tribute to the Brennan family which took place in Letterkenny), but she has yet to do a concert. She has said, though, that she would love to do it some day, and considers it to be a great possible challenge.
==Discography==
{{dablink|For a full listing of albums and singles see [[Enya discography]].}}
===Albums===
*''[[Enya (album)|Enya]]'' ([[1987 in music|1987]])
*''[[Watermark (album)|Watermark]]'' ([[1988 in music|1988]])
*''[[Shepherd Moons]]'' ([[1991 in music|1991]])
*''[[The Celts (album)|The Celts]]'' (1992) (remastered re-release of the 1987 album ''Enya'')
*''[[The Memory of Trees]]'' ([[1995 in music|1995]])
*''[[Paint the Sky with Stars]]'' ([[1997 in music|1997]]) (greatest hits collection with two new tracks)
*''[[A Day Without Rain]]'' ([[2000 in music|2000]])
*''[[Amarantine]]'' ([[2005 in music|2005]])
=== Singles ===
Over the years, Enya has released a large number of CD singles, many of which included bonus tracks that were not included on any of the albums:
* "[[I Want Tomorrow]]" (1987)
* "[[Evening Falls...]]" (1988)
* "[[Orinoco Flow]]" ([[1988 in music|1988]])
* "[[Storms In Africa]]" ([[1989 in music|1989]])
* "[[6 Tracks]]" (1989)
* "[[Oíche Chiún (Silent Night)]]" (1989)
* "[[3 Tracks EP]]" ([[1990 in music|1990]])
* "[[Exile Enya Single|Exile]]" (1991)
* "[[Caribbean Blue]]" (1991)
* "[[How Can I Keep From Singing?]]" (1991)
* "[[Book Of Days]]" ([[1992 in music|1992]])
* "[[The Celts]]" (1992)
* "[[Marble Halls]]" ([[1994 in music|1994]])
* "[[The Christmas EP]]" (1994)
* & |
capital was [[Susa]]. Khuzestan has, however, been attacked and occupied by various kingdoms of Mesopotamia (the precursors of modern Iraq) many times.
On [[18 December]] [[1959]], [[Abdul Karim Qassim|`Abd al-Karīm Qāsim]], who had just taken control over Iraq by a ''[[coup d'etat|coup d'état]]'', openly declared: "''We do not wish to refer to the history of Arab tribes residing in Al-Ahwaz and Mohammareh [Khorramshahr]. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]s handed over Mohammareh, which was part of Iraqi territory, to Iran.''" The Iraqi regime's dissatisfaction over Iran's possession of [[petroleum|oil]]-rich Khuzestan province was not limited to rhetorical statements; Iraq started supporting [[secession]]ist movements in Khuzestan, and even raised the issue of its territorial claims in the next meeting of the [[Arab League]], without any success. Iraq showed reluctance in fulfilling existing agreements with Iran, especially after the death of [[Egypt]]ian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Gamāl `Abd an-Nāsir]] and the rise of the [[Ba'ath Party|Ba`th Party]], when Iraq decided to take on the role of "leader of the [[Arab world]]".
In 1969, the deputy prime minister of Iraq openly declared: "''Iraq's dispute with Iran is in connection with Arabistan ([[Khuzestan]]) which is part of Iraq's soil and was annexed to Iran during foreign rule.''" Soon Iraqi [[radio station]]s began exclusively broadcasting into "Arabistan", encouraging Iranian Arabs and even [[Baloch|Balūchīs]] to revolt against Iran's central government. [[Basra]] TV stations even started showing Iran's Khuzestan province as part of Iraq's new province called 'Nasiriyyah', renaming all Iranian cities with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] names.
In 1971, Iraq broke off diplomatic relations with Iran after claiming sovereignty rights over the islands of [[Abu Musa]], [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs|Greater Tunb and Lesser Tunb]] in the [[Persian Gulf]], following the withdrawal of the British. Iraq then expelled 70,000 Iranians from Iraq after complaining to the Arab League, and the UN, without any success.
One of the factors contributing to hostility between the two powers was a dispute over full control of the [[Arvand/Shatt al-Arab|Shatt al-Arab]] waterway at the head of the Persian Gulf, an important channel for the oil exports of both countries. In [[1975]], [[United States]] [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Henry Kissinger]] had sanctioned that [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Mohammad Rezā' Pahlavī]], the [[Shah of Iran]], attack Iraq over the waterway, which was under Iraqi control at the time; soon afterward both nations signed the [[Algiers Accord]], in which Iraq made territorial concessions, including the waterway, in exchange for normalized relations.
Iraq had staged a battle against Iranian forces a year earlier in 1974, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides. Iran attempted to destabilize Iraq and encouraged [[Kurd]]ish nationalists to break up the country, in answer to Iraq's similar activities in Iran's [[Khuzestan]] province. Iran's embassy in [[London]] was subsequently attacked by Iraqi-sponsered terrorist forces a few months prior to the war in 1980, in what came to be known as The [[Iranian Embassy Siege]].
Iraq's president, [[Saddam Hussein]], was eagerly interested in elevating Iraq to a strong regional power. A successful invasion of Iran would make Iraq the dominating force in the Persian Gulf region and its lucrative oil trade. Such lofty ambitions were not that far-fetched. Severe officer purges (including several executions ordered by [[Sadegh Khalkhali|Sādeq Khālkhālī]], the post-revolution ''[[Sharia|sharī`ah]]'' ruler) and spare part shortages for Iran's American-made equipment had crippled Iran's once mighty [[military of Iran|military]]. The bulk of the Iranian military was made up of poorly armed, though committed, [[militia|militias]]. Iran had minimal defenses in the Arvand/Shatt al-`Arab river.
Saddām on numerous occasions alluded to the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]] in propagating his ''anti-Persian'' position against Iran. For example, on [[02 April]] [[1980]], a half-year before the outbreak of the war, in a visit by Saddām to al-Mustansiriyyah University in Baghdad, drawing parallels to the 7th-Century defeat of Persia in the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] he announced:
:"In your name, brothers, and on behalf of the Iraqis and Arabs everywhere we tell those [Persian] cowards and dwarfs who try to avenge Al-Qadisiyah that the spirit of Al-Qadisiyah as well as the blood and honor of the people of Al-Qadisiyah who carried the message on their spearheads are greater than their attempts." (See Saddām, E3)
The aftermath of the [[Iranian Revolution]] of [[1979]] was central to the conflict. The [[Ayatollah|Āyat-Allāh]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Rūh-Ollāh Khomaynī]] was threatening to export Islamic revolution to the rest of the [[Middle East]], even though Iran was hardly in any position to do so militarily, for most of the Shah's army had already been disbanded. The Khomeinist camp despised Iraq's Ba`thist secularism in particular, and believed that the oppressed [[Shi'a Islam|Shī`īs]] in Iraq, [[Saudi Arabia]], and [[Kuwait]] could follow the Iranian example and turn against their governments. At the same time the revolution in Iran, the destabilization of the country and its alienation from the [[Western world|West]] made it a tempting target to the expansionist [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām Husayn]]. In particular he felt that Iranian Sunni citizens would rather join a powerful Sunni-led Iraq than remain in the Shia dominated Iran.
Thus both sides entered the war believing that citizens of the southern portions of the enemy's country - Sunnīs in Iran and Shī`īs in Iraq - would join the opposing forces. Neither seems to have fully appreciated the powers of nationalism over historically clan-centered differences, nor the power of the central state apparatus who controlled the press. In the end both were surprised to find their expected allies turning against them as invaders.
The [[UN Secretary General]] report dated [[9 December]] [[1991]] (S/23273) explicitly states "Iraq's aggression against Iran" in starting the war and breaching International security and peace. (See also "Who started the Iran-Iraq war?" by R.K. Ramazani, [http://www.student.virginia.edu/~vjil/ ''The Virginia Journal of International Law''] 33, Fall 1992, pp. 69&ndash;89)
==Invasion and repulse==
[[image:Jang.jpg|right|thumb|280px|The eight-year Iran-Iraq war resulted in [[USD]]$350 billion in damage in Iran alone.]] The two nations severed diplomatic relations in June 1980, and sporadic border clashes increased. On [[September 17]], Iraq declared the Shatt al-Arab part of its territory. [[Iraq]] launched a full-scale invasion of [[Iran]] on [[September 22]] [[1980]], claiming as a pretext, an Iranian assassination attempt on [[Foreign Minister]] [[Tariq Aziz]].
The objectives of Iraq's invasion of Iran were:
#Acquisition of the [[Arvand/Shatt al-Arab]] waterway as part of Iraqi territory (Iraq's only port connection to The [[Persian Gulf]]).
#Acquisition of the three islands of [[Abu Musa]] and the [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs]], on the unilateral behalf of the [[UAE]].
#Annexing [[Khuzestan]] (or "Arabistan") as part of Iraqi territory.
The [[blitzkrieg|surprise offensive]] advanced quickly against the still disorganized [[military of Iran|Iranian forces]], advancing on a wide front into Iranian territory along the [[Mehran]]-[[Khorramabad]] axis in Central Iran and towards Ahvaz in the oil-rich southern province of [[Khuzestan]].
[[Image:Jang2.jpg|right|thumb|Iranian soldiers protecting their territory.]]
Iraq encountered unexpected resistance, however. Rather than turning against the Ayatollah's government as exiles had promised, the people of Iran rallied around their revolution and mounted far stiffer resistance; an estimated 100,000 volunteers arrived at the front by November. An Iraqi Air Force attack on Iranian airfields was ineffective, and the Iraqis soon found the Iranian military was not nearly as depleted as they had thought. In June of [[1982]], a successful Iranian counter-offensive recovered the areas previously lost to Iraq.
Most of the fighting for the rest of the war occurred on Iraqi territory, although some have interpreted the Iraqi withdrawal as a [[tactics|tactical]] ploy by the Iraqi military. By fighting just inside Iraq, Saddām Husayn could rally popular Iraqi patriotism. The Iraqi army could also fight on its own territory and in well- established defensive positions. The Iranians continued to employ unsophisticated human wave attacks, while Iraqi soldiers remained, for the most part, in a defensive posture.
[[image:Saddam7.jpg|thumb|left|Upon invading Iran on [[22 September]] [[1980]], then-Iraqi President Saddām Husayn boasted he would be in [[Tehran]] in 3 days.]]
Iraq offered a cessation of hostilities in [[1982]], but Iran's insistence from July 1982 onward to destroy the Iraqi government prolonged the conflict for another six years of static warfare.
Newly declassified US intelligence (SNIE 34/36.2-82 available at http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB167/) explores a number of documents produced by U.S. agencies over the last thirty years concerning the Iraqi regime's policies and activities directed at maintaining itself in power and eliminating or neutralizing opposition to the regime.
==The Tanker War and U.S. entanglement==
The [[United States]] had been wary of the [[Tehran]] regime since the [[Iranian Revolution]], not least because of the detention of its Tehran [[embassy]] staff in the 1979&ndash;81 [[Iran hostage crisis]]. Starting in 1982 with Iranian success on the battlefield, the U.S. made its backing of Iraq more pronounced, supplying it with intelligence, economic aid, normalizing relations wit |
ing of Bavaria|Carloman]] and his [[concubine]], Liutswind (also ''Litwinde'' or ''Litwindie''), of [[Carinthia]]n origin, daughter of one Count Ernst. He was given the [[duchy of Carinthia]] (a Frankish [[vassal]] state and successor of the ancient [[Principality of Karantania]]) by his father when he divided his realm, giving Bavaria to [[Louis the Younger]] and [[Italy]] to [[Charles the Fat]], in [[880]] on his death.
He spent his childhood in Karantania, homeland of his mother. Carloman had a court there, in [[Moosburg]] (then ''Blatograd''), where the young Arnulf grew up. From later events it is evident that the Karantanians, from an early time, treated him as their own duke.
He took the leading role in the deposition of his uncle, the [[Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Charles the Fat]]. With the support of the nobles, Arnulf assumed his title of [[King of Germany|King of East Francia]] (later [[Germany]]) in [[887]]. Charles asked only for a few royal villas in [[Swabia]], which Arnulf granted him.
Arnulf was not a negotiator, but a fighter. At the decisive [[Battle of Leuven]] on [[September]] [[891]], he defeated an invading force of the Northmen, or [[Vikings]], essentially ending invasion attempts on that front. The ''Annales Fuldensis'' (Annals of [[Fulda]]) report that the bodies of dead Northmen blocked the run of the river. After his victory, Arnulf had built a new [[castle]] on an island in the [[Dijle]] river ([[Latin]] ''Luvanium'', local ''Lovon'').
In [[894]] or [[895]], [[Great Moravia]] probably lost a part of its territory &mdash; present-day Western [[Hungary]] &mdash; to him. Arnulf, however, failed to conquer Great Moravia in [[892]], [[893]], and [[899]]. In 895, [[Bohemia]] broke away from Great Moravia and became his vassal. An accord was made between him and the [[duke of Bohemia|Bohemian Duke]] [[Borivoj]] (reigned [[870]]-[[895]]); Bohemia was freed from the danger of invasion.
Arnulf invaded [[Italy]] in [[896]] and was crowned [[Emperor]] and [[King of Italy]] by [[Pope Formosus]] ([[pope]] [[891]]-[[896]]) in opposition to [[Lambert of Spoleto]]. He only retained power in Italy as long as he was personally there, he was vigourously opposed by Lambert's mother, [[Agiltrude]], and when he left, having taken ill, most of Italy was in Lambert's supporters' hands. On his death in [[899]], he was succeeded as a king of the [[East Franks]] by his son by his wife Ota, [[Louis the Child]] ([[900]]-[[911]]).
Arnulf's illegitimate son [[Zwentibold]] reigned as [[king of Lotharingia]] from [[895]] to [[900]].
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Charles the Fat]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Germany]]|years=[[887]]&ndash;[[899]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Louis the Child|Louis III the Child]]}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Lambert of Spoleto|Lambert]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Holy Roman Emperor]]|years=[[896]]&ndash;[[899]]}}
{{s-vac|rows=2|next=[[Louis the Blind|Louis III the Blind]]}}
|-
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Italy]]|years=[[896]]&ndash;[[899]]}}
|-
{{end}}
[[category:850 births]]
[[category:899 deaths]]
[[Category:Holy Roman emperors]]
[[Category:German Kings]]
[[de:Arnulf von Kärnten]]
[[et:Arnulf (Frangi keiser)]]
[[es:Arnulfo de Carintia]]
[[nl:Arnulf van Karinthië]]
[[ja:アルヌルフ (東フランク王)]]
[[no:Arnulf av Kärnten]]
[[sv:Arnulf av Kärnten]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexanderplatz</title>
<id>2511</id>
<revision>
<id>36064209</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T07:26:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.85.113.242</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>interwiki es:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alexanderplatz_2-7-2003.JPG|thumb|Alexanderplatz from the Fernsehturm]]
'''Alexanderplatz''' is a large open square and public transport hub in central [[Berlin]], near the [[Spree]] river and the [[Berliner Dom]]. Berliners often call it simply ''Alex''.
Originally a cattle market, it was named in honour of a visit of the [[Russia]]n Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] to Berlin on [[25 October]] [[1805]]. It gained a prominent role in the late 19th century with the construction of the station of the same name and a nearby public market, becoming a major commercial centre. Its heyday was in the [[1920s]], when together with [[Potsdamer Platz]] it was at the heart of Berlin's [[nightlife]], inspiring the [[1929]] [[novel]] ''[[Berlin Alexanderplatz]]''. (see [[1920s Berlin]])
The Alexanderplatz has been subject to redevelopment several times in its history, most recently during the [[1960s]], when it was enlarged as part of the [[German Democratic Republic]]'s redevelopment of the city centre. It is surrounded by several notable structures including the [[Fernsehturm]] (TV Tower), the second tallest structure in [[Europe]]. Because of its high profile, many newcomers to Berlin mistake the [[nickname]] ''Alex'' and apply it to the Fernsehturm instead. The ''Alex'' also accommodates the [[Forum Hotel Berlin]] and the World Time Clock, a continually rotating installation that shows the time throughout the globe.
[[Image:Berlin - Weltzeituhr.jpg|thumb|The World time clock]]
Following [[German reunification]] the Alexanderplatz has undergone a gradual process of change with many of the surrounding buildings being renovated. Despite the construction of a [[tram]] line and the addition of some greenery it has retained its socialist character, including the much-[[graffiti]]ed ''Fountain of Friendship between Peoples'' (''Brunnen der Völkerfreundschaft''). In [[1993]] plans for a major redevelopment including the construction of several skyscrapers were published, but due to a lack of demand it is unlikely these will be constructed. However, beginning with the reconstruction of the department store [[Kaufhof]] in 2004, some buildings will be redesigned and new structures built on the square's south-eastern side.
Many historic buildings are located in the area around Alexanderplatz. The traditional seat of city government, the [[Rotes Rathaus]], or ''Red City Hall'', is located nearby, as is the East German parliament building, the [[Palast der Republik]].
{{Commons|Alexanderplatz}}
[[Category:Squares in Berlin]]
{{Link FA|de}}
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[[de:Alexanderplatz (Berlin)]]
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[[th:อเล็กซานเดอร์พลาทซ์]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Asian Development Bank</title>
<id>2512</id>
<revision>
<id>41460746</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:17:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>218.226.4.70</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Asian Development Bank (ADB)''' is a multilateral development finance institution dedicated to reducing poverty in Asia and the Pacific. It was founded in 1966 with 31 members states and has now grown to include 64.
==Organization==
The highest policy-making body of the bank is the ''Board of Governors'' composed of one representative from each member state. The Board of Governors, in turn, elect among themselves the 12 members of the ''Board of Directors'' and their deputy. Eight of the 12 members come from regional (Asia-Pacific) members while the rest come from non-regional members.
The Board of Governors also elect the bank's ''President'' who is the legal representative of the bank and manages the Board of Directors. The president has a term of office lasting five years, and may be reelected. Traditionally, and because [[Japan]] is one of the largest shareholders of the bank, the President has always been Japanese. The current President is [[Haruhiko Kuroda]].
The headquarters of the bank is at 6 ADB Avenue, [[Mandaluyong City]], [[Metro Manila]], [[Philippines]], and it has representative offices around the world. The bank employs approximately 2,000 people, more than half of which are [[Filipino people|Filipino]].
The bank has been under corruption investigation by the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs.
==Notable projects of the ADB==
*[[Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline]] (US$3B)
*[[Gujarat(INDIA) Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project]] (US$500M)
*[[Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation Program]]
==Member states==
Names are indicated as it is recognized by the ADB.
The number after the state's name indicate the year of membership.
Founding member states are highlighted in '''bold letters''' and marked with an asterisk.
{| style="max-width: 750px;"
|-
| colspan="3" |
===Asian and Pacific region===
|-
| width="30%" valign="top" |
{| width="100%"
|-
| width="80%" | '''[[Afghanistan]]*''' || width="20%" | (1966)
|-
| [[Armenia]] || (2005)
|-
| '''[[Australia]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Azerbaijan]] || (1999)
|-
| [[Bangladesh]] || (1973)
|-
| [[Bhutan]] || (1982)
|-
| '''[[Cambodia]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[People's Republic of China|China, People's Republic of]] || (1986)
|-
| [[Cook Islands]] || (1976)
|-
| [[Fiji]] || (1970)
|-
| [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong, China]] || (1969)
|-
| '''[[India]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Indonesia]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Japan]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Kazakhstan]] || (1994)
|-
| [[Kiribati]] || (1974)
|}
| width="30%" valign="top" |
{| width="100%"
|-
| width="80%" | '''[[South Korea|Korea, Republic of]]*''' || width="20%" | (1966)
|-
| [[Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyz Republic]] || (1994)
|-
| '''[[Laos|Lao PDR]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Malaysia]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Maldives]] || (1978)
|-
| [[Marshall Islands]] || (1990)
|-
| [[Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia, Federated States of]]
| (1990)
|-
| [[Mongolia]] || (1991)
|-
| [[Myanmar]] || (1973)
|-
| [[Nauru]] || (1991)
|-
| '''[[Nepal]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[New Zealand]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Pakistan]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Palau]] || (2003)
|-
| [[Papua N |
"wikitable"
|+ ''Census information for 2001''
|-
! Composition
! [[Hindu]]s
! [[Muslim]]s
! [[Christianity|Christian]]s
! [[Sikh]]s
! [[Buddhist]]s
! [[Jain]]s
! Others
|-
| % total of population 2001
| 80.46
| 13.43
| 2.34
| 1.87
| 0.77
| 0.41
| 0.72
|-
| 10-Yr Growth % (est '91-'01)
| 20.3
| 29.3
| 22.6
| 18.2
| 24.5
| 26
| NA
|-
| Gender ratio* (avg. 933)
| 931
| 936
| 1009
| 893
| 953
| 950
| 992
|-
| Literacy rate (avg. 64.8)
| 65.1
| 59.1
| 80.3
| 69.4
| 72.7
| 94.1
| 47
|-
| Work Participation Rate
| 40
| 31.3
| 40
| 37.7
| 40
| 32.9
| NA
|-
| Rural gender ratio
| 944
| 953
| 1001
| 895
| 958
| 937
| 995
|-
| Urban gender ratio
| 894
| 907
| 1026
| 886
| 944
| 941
| 966
|-
| Child gender ratio (0-6 yrs)
| 925
| 950
| 964
| 786
| 942
| 870
| 927
|}
* Jews number about 4,000 of which 2,000 reside in [[Mumbai|Bombay]].
* Parsis number about 65,000, down from 71,000
== Ethnic Groups in India ==
The people of India belong to different Ethnic groups. There are atleast 4365{{fact}} different ethnic groups in India. These are divided into these broad groups. These ethnic groups are as follows.
<br>
<br>
'''[[Negrito]]s''': The Negritos or the [[Brachycephalic]] (broad headed) people from [[Africa]] were perhaps the earliest people to inhabit India. They have survived in their original inhabitat in [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. The [[Jarawa (Andaman Islands)|Jarawa]], [[Onge]], [[Sentinelese]], and the [[Great Andamanese]] are some of the examples. Some hill tribes like [[Irula]]s, [[Kodar]]s, [[Paniyan]]s, and [[Kurumba]]s are found in some patches in Southern part of mainland India.
<br>
<br>
'''[[Australoid|Pro-Australoids]] or [[Australoid|Austrics]]''': These groups were probably next to come to India after the Negritos. They are now found in some parts of India, [[Myanmar]] and the islands of [[South-East Asia]]. Their languages have survived in Central and Eastern India and are said to "form the bedrock of the people".
<br>
<br>
'''[[Mongoloid]]s''': These people are found in the North eastern part of India in the states of [[Assam]], [[Nagaland]], [[Mizoram]], [[Meghalaya]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Manipur]], and [[Tripura]]. They are also found in Northern parts of [[West Bengal]], [[Sikkim]], and [[Ladakh]].
<br>
<br>
'''[[Dravidians]]''': These are the culture bearers of the people of [[South India]]. They have been believed to come before the Aryans. They have different sub-groups like the Paleo-Mediterranean, the true Mediterranean, and the Oriental Mediterranean.
<br>
<br>
'''Western [[Brachycephalic|Bracycephals]]''': These include the [[Alpinoid]]s, [[Dinaric race|Dinaric]]s and [[Armenoid]]s. The [[Parsi]]s (who came long after the Indo-Aryans) and [[Kodava]]s also fall in this category.
<br>
<br>
'''[[Indo-Aryans]]''': This group were the last ones to immigrate to India. They came to India somewhere between 2000 and 1500 B.C. They are now mainly found in the [[North India|northern]] and central parts of India.
Most of this information was collected from [http://www.culturopedia.com/Tribes/tribesintro.html]
==External links==
{{wikinews|India subsidizes girls' education to offset gender imbalance}}
*[http://www.censusindia.net/ Census of India]; Govt. site with detailed data from 2001 census
*[http://www.censusindiamaps.net/ Census of India map generator]; generates maps based on 2001 census figures
*[http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/peopling.html Peopling of India]
{{Life in India}}
[[Category:Demographics of India| ]]
[[es:Demografía de la India]]
[[fr:Démographie de l'Inde]]
[[ta:இந்தியாவின் மக்கள்தொகை பரம்பல்]]
[[zh:印度人口]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of India</title>
<id>14599</id>
<revision>
<id>42052165</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:46:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cassowary</username>
<id>223527</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clarifying where the link goes to; clarifying the number of links; removing unneeded dicdef link.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of India}}
According to its [[constitution]], [[India]] is a "sovereign socialist secular democratic republic." India is said to be the largest nation on Earth with a democratically-elected government. Like the [[United States]], India has a federal form of government. However, the central government in India has greater power in relation to its states, and its central government is patterned after the British parliamentary system. Regarding the former, "the Centre", the national government, can and has dismissed state governments if no majority party or coalition is able to form a government or under specific Constitutional clauses, and can impose direct federal rule known as President's rule.
The government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the [[President of India|President]], whose duties are largely ceremonial. The president and vice president are elected indirectly for 5-year terms by a special electoral college. The vice president assumes the office of president in case of the death or resignation of the incumbent president.
Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers (cabinet), led by the [[Prime Minister of India]]. The President appoints the Prime Minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority. The President then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. (In reality, the President has no discretion on the question of whom to appoint as Prime Minister except when no political party or coalition of parties gains a majority in the Lok Sabha. Once the Prime Minister has been appointed, the President has no discretion on any other matter whatsoever, including the appointment of ministers. But all Central Government decisions are nominally taken in his name. This point should be kept in mind when reading about "decisions by the President", including such statements in this article)
[[Parliament of India|India's bicameral parliament]] (also known as the Sansad) consists of the [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States) and the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People). The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha.
The legislatures of the states and union territories elect 238 members to the Rajya Sabha, and the president appoints another 12, who are experts in science or the arts. The elected members of the Rajya Sabha serve 6-year terms, with one-third up for election every 2 years. The Lok Sabha consists of 545 members; 543 are directly elected, while the other two are appointed by the President from among the Anglo-Indian community. The term of the Lok Sabha is five years.
India has [[ States_and_territories_of_India | 28 states and 7 union territories]]. States have their own elected governments, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union (federal) government. Some of the state legislatures are bicameral, patterned after the two houses of the national parliament. The states' chief ministers are responsible to the legislatures in the same way the prime minister is responsible to parliament.
Each state also has a presidentially appointed governor who may assume certain broad powers when directed by the central government. The central government exerts greater control over the union territories than over the states, although some territories have gained more power to administer their own affairs. Local governments in India have less autonomy than their counterparts in the United States. Some states are trying to revitalize the traditional village councils, or [[ panchayat ]] systems, which aim to promote popular democratic participation at the village level, where much of the population still lives.
==Justice System==
India's independent judicial system began under the [[British Empire|British]], and its concepts and procedures resemble those of [[Anglo-Saxon]] countries. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and 25 other justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of the Chief Justice of India. In the [[1960s]] India moved away from using juries for most trials, finding them to be corrupt and ineffective, instead almost all trials are conducted by judges.
India has not joined the [[International Criminal Court]].
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in India|Elections in India}}
On [[22 May]], [[2004]], [[Manmohan Singh]] was appointed the [[Prime Minister of India]] following the surprise victory of the [[Indian National Congress]] in the [[Indian general election, 2004|2004 Lok Sabha election]]. Previously, [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] had taken office in October 1999 after a general election in which a [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]-led coalition of 13 parties called the [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]] emerged with a majority.
Formation of coalition governments reflects the transition in Indian politics away from the national parties toward smaller, more narrowly-based [[regional party|regional parties]]. This process has been underway throughout much of the past decade and is likely to continue in the future.
With more than 671 million registered voters in 2004, India has often been called "the world's largest democracy".
{{main|Indian general elections, 2004}}
{{Indian general elections, 2004}}
==External links==
===Party and partisan organization sites===
*[http://www.bjp.org Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)]
*[http://www.congress.org.in/ Indian National Congress (INC)]
*[http://www.ncp.org.in/ Nationalist Congress Party (NCP)]
*[http://www.liberalpartyofindia.org Swatantra Bharat Party]
*[http://www.sumitdahiya.com/ Anti-Government Pro-Enterprise Movement of India] |
lectivization in the USSR]]). By a decree of February [[1930]], about one million [[Kulak|"kulaks"]] were forced off their land. Many peasants strongly opposed regimentation by the state, often slaughtering their herds when faced with the loss of their land. In some sections they revolted, and countless peasants deemed "kulaks" by the authorities were executed. The combination of bad weather, deficiencies of the hastily-established collective farms, and massive confiscation of grain precipitated a serious famine, and several million peasants died of starvation, mostly in Ukraine and parts of southwestern Russia. The deteriorating conditions in the countryside drove millions of desperate peasants to the rapidly growing cities, fuelling industrialization, and vastly increasing Russia's urban population in the space of just a few years.
The plans received remarkable results in areas aside from agriculture. Russia, in many measures the poorest nation in Europe at the time of the Bolshevik Revolution, now industrialized at a phenomenal rate, far surpassing Germany's pace of industrialization in the nineteenth century and Japan's earlier in the twentieth century. Soviet authorities claimed in [[1932]] an increase of industrial output of 334 percent over [[1914]], and in [[1937]] a further increase of 180 percent over 1932. Moreover, the survival of Russia in the face of the impending [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] onslaught was made possible in part through the capacity for production that was the outcome of industrialization.
While the Five-Year Plans were forging ahead, Stalin was establishing his personal power. The secret police gathered in tens of thousands of Soviet citizens to face arrest, deportation, or execution. Of the six original members of the 1920 Politburo who survived Lenin, all were purged by Stalin. Old Bolsheviks who had been loyal comrades of Lenin, high officers in the Red Army, and directors of industry were liquidated in the [[Great Purges]]. Purges in other Soviet republics also helped centralize control in the USSR.
Stalin's repressions led to the creation of a vast system of internal exile, of considerably greater dimensions than those set up in the past by the tsars. Draconian penalties were introduced and many citizens were prosecuted for fictitious crimes of sabotage and espionage. The labor provided by convicts working in the [[labor camp]]s of the [[Gulag]] system became an important component of the industrialization effort, especially in Siberia. Perhaps around five percent of the population passed through the Gulag system.
===The Soviet Union on the international stage===
====World War II====
[[Image:Soviet Reichstag.gif|thumb|right|250px|Marking the Soviet Union's victory, a soldier raises the Soviet flag over the German Reichstag in the Nazi capital, Berlin]]
Until 1939 the USSR was in strong opposition to Nazi Germany, supporting the republicans of Spain who struggled against German and Italian troops during the [[Spanish Civil War]]. In 1938, however, Germany signed the [[Munich Agreement]] together with the major powers of Western Europe and together with Poland divided Czechoslovakia. The agreement increased fears in the Soviet Union of a coming German attack, which led the Soviet Union to respond with its own diplomatic maneuvers. In 1939 the Soviet Union signed the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with Nazi Germany. On September, 17 1939, as German armies were within 150 kilometers of the Soviet border, the Soviet army [[Polish September Campaign|invaded eastern portions of Poland]] populated by ethnic Ukrainians and Belorussians. The Soviets later fought a war with Finland known as the [[Winter War]] (1939-40). It was won by the Soviet Union, which gained part of the [[Karelian Isthmus]]. Despite Stalin's efforts to stay out of a war against Germany, Germany declared war on the Soviet Union and swept across the border on [[June 22]], [[1941]]. By November the German army had seized Ukraine, begun its [[siege of Leningrad]], and threatened to capture the capital, Moscow, itself.
However, the Soviet victory at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] proved decisive, reversing the course of the entire war. After losing this battle the Germans lacked the strength to sustain their offensive operations against the Soviet Union and the Soviet Union held the initiative for the rest of the war. By the end of [[1943]], the Red Army had broken through the German siege of Leningrad and recaptured much of Ukraine. By the end of [[1944]], the front had moved beyond the [[1939]] Soviet frontiers into eastern Europe. With a decisive superiority in troops, Soviet forces drove into eastern Germany, capturing [[Berlin]] in May [[1945]]. The war with Germany thus ended triumphantly for the Soviet Union.
Although the Soviet Union was victorious in World War II, its economy had been devastated in the struggle and the war resulted in around 27 million Soviet deaths. About seventy thousand settlements have been destroyed. Ten million Soviet citizens became victims of a repressive policy of Germans and their allies on an occupied territory. German ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'', along with Baltic and Ukrainian collaborators, were engaged in genocide of the Soviet Jewish population. The Romanian armies took part in genocide of Jews in occupied Odessa area. During occupation, Russia's Leningrad region lost around a quarter of its population. The occupied territories suffered from the ravages of German occupation, deportations of slave labour, as well as the Soviets' own scorched earth tactics in the retreat. Perhaps millions of Soviet citizens on occupied territories died because of famine and absence of elementary medical aid. Perhaps around 3.5 million Soviet prisoners of war (of 5.5 million) died in German camps.
====Cold War====
''Main article: [[Cold War]]''
Collaboration among the major Allies had won the war and was supposed to serve as the basis for postwar reconstruction and security. However, the conflict between Soviet and U.S. national interests, known as the [[Cold War]], came to dominate the international stage in the postwar period, assuming the public guise as a clash of ideologies.
The Cold War emerged out of a conflict between Stalin and U.S. President [[Harry Truman]] over the future of Eastern Europe during the [[Potsdam Conference]] in the summer of 1945. Russia had suffered three devastating Western onslaughts in the previous 150 years during the Napoleonic Wars, the First World War, and the Second World War, and Stalin's goal was to establish a buffer zone of states between Germany and the Soviet Union. Truman charged that Stalin had betrayed the [[Yalta]] agreement. With Eastern Europe under Red Army occupation, Stalin was also biding his time, as his own [[Soviet atomic bomb project|atomic bomb project]] was steadily and secretly progressing.
In April [[1949]] the United States sponsored the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), a mutual defense pact in which most Western nations pledged to treat an armed attack against one nation as an assault on all. The Soviet Union established an Eastern counterpart to NATO in [[1955]], dubbed the [[Warsaw Pact]]. The division of Europe into Western and Soviet blocs later took on a more global character, especially after [[1949]], when the U.S. nuclear monopoly ended with the testing of [[Joe-1|a Soviet bomb]] and the [[Communist Party of China|Communist]] takeover in [[People's Republic of China|China]].
The foremost objectives of Soviet foreign policy were the maintenance and enhancement of national security and the maintenance of hegemony over Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union maintained its dominance over the Warsaw Pact through crushing the [[1956 Hungarian Revolution]], suppressing the [[Prague Spring]] in Czechoslovakia in 1968, and supporting the suppression of the [[Solidarity]] movement in Poland in the early 1980s.
As the Soviet Union continued to maintain tight control over its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, the Cold War gave way to ''[[Cold War (1962-1991)#Détente|Détente]]'' and a more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer clearly split into two clearly opposed blocs in the 1970s. Less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence, and the two superpowers were partially able to recognize their common interest in trying to check the further spread and proliferation of nuclear weapons in treaties such as [[SALT I]], [[SALT II]] and the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]].
U.S.-Soviet relations deteriorated following the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] in [[1979]] and the [[U.S. presidential election, 1980|1980 election of Ronald Reagan]], a staunch anti-communist, but improved as the Soviet bloc started to unravel in the late 1980s. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia lost the [[superpower]] status that it had won in the Second World War.
===The Khrushchev and Brezhnev years===
''Main article: [[History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985)]]''
[[Image:Comming-home.jpg|left|150px|thumb|On [[April 12]], [[1961]], Russian [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first man in space. Here, a crowd in [[Red Square]] listens to him speak.]]
In the power struggle that erupted after Stalin's death in 1953, his closest followers lost out. [[Nikita Khrushchev]] solidified his position in a speech before the [[20th Party Congress|Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party]] in 1956 detailing Stalin's atrocities and attacking him for promoting a [[personality cult]]. As details of his speech became public, Khrushchev accelerated a wide range of reforms. Downplaying Stalin's emphasis on heavy industry, he increased the supply of consumer goods and housing and stimulated agricultural production. The new policies improved the standard of living, although shortages of appliances, clothing, and other consumer durables would increase in later years. The judicial syst |
me Theory. 2: 235-250.
* [[John Maynard Smith]] and [[George R. Price]] (1973). "The logic of animal conflict." ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''
* [[John Maynard Smith]]. (1982) ''[[Evolution and the Theory of Games]]''. ISBN 0521288843
* [[Robert Axelrod]] (1984) ''[[The Evolution of Cooperation]]'' ISBN 0465021212
* [[Bernhard Thomas|Thomas, B]] (1985) "On evolutionarily stable sets." J. Math. Biology 22: 105-115.
==External links==
*[http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.mealey.html ''The Sociobiology of Sociopathy'', Mealey, 1995]
{{Game_theory}}
[[Category:Game theory]]
[[Category:evolutionary biology]]
[[de:Evolutionär stabile Strategie]]
[[fr:Stratégie évolutionnairement stable]]
[[ja:進化的に安定な戦略]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Element</title>
<id>9617</id>
<revision>
<id>40232840</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T03:16:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Prsephone1674</username>
<id>97846</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>style edit [[Wikipedia:Elements_of_Style_improvement_project|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|element}}
The term '''element''' means "a constituent part" and may also mean:
In '''chemistry''' or '''electronics''':
* [[Chemical element]], the class of atoms with the same number of protons in the nucleus
* [[Electrical element]], any device (such as an inductor, resistor, capacitor, conductor, line, or cathode ray tube) with terminals at which it may be connected directly with other devices. It can also mean an antenna radiator (either parasitic or active). In circuitry, it can be used to specify a portion of an integrated circuit that contributes directly to the IC's operation
* [[Picture element]], better known as a pixel on a display device
In '''mathematics''':
* [[Element (mathematics)]], a member of a set or class
* ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'', a mathematical treatise on geometry
In '''philosophy''':
* [[Classical element]], in ancient times believed to be the realm wherein all matter in the universe existed and whereof all matter consisted. Also used for rituals by modern paganism, most prominently Wicca and ceremonial magic.
* [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)]], the basis of the universe according to Chinese Taoism
* [[Five elements (Japanese philosophy)]], the basis of the universe according to Japanese philosophy
* [[Tattva]], the basis of the universe according to Hindu Samkhya philosophy
In '''music''':
* ''[[Elements - The Best of Mike Oldfield]]'', a compilation album by Mike Oldfield
* [[The Elements (song)]], by Tom Lehrer
* [[Element (band)]], band from Indonesia
'''Element''' may also refer to:
* [[Element Skateboards]], a skateboard manufacturer
* [[Honda Element]], a sport utility vehicle
The term is also used as terminology in:
* [[Morse code]], where the dot and dash are elements
* [[XML]], where an element is a particular kind of grammatical fragment of a document
==See also==
* [[Elemental (disambiguation)]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Element]]
[[et:Element]]
[[eo:Elemento]]
[[fr:Élément]]
[[ga:Dúil]]
[[ko:원소]]
[[io:Elemento]]
[[it:Elemento]]
[[la:Elementum]]
[[ms:Unsur]]
[[nl:Element]]
[[ja:エレメント]]
[[nn:Element]]
[[pl:Pierwiastek]]
[[sv:Element]]
[[vi:Nguyên tố]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emission line</title>
<id>9618</id>
<revision>
<id>15907491</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-16T23:12:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JTN</username>
<id>81094</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merged into [[spectral line]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[spectral line]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extremophile</title>
<id>9619</id>
<revision>
<id>41029242</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T16:22:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vossman</username>
<id>250800</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Types of extremophiles */ +pic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''extremophile''' is an [[organism]], usually [[unicellular organism | unicellular]], which thrives in or requires "extreme" conditions. It is important to note that the definition of "extreme" in this context is [[anthropocentric]]; from the point of view of the organism, its [[natural environment|environment]] is completely normal.
Because many extremophiles are [[Archaea]] and most known archaea are extremophilic, on occasion, the terms are used interchangeably. However, this is not strictly correct and many [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[eukarya]] are extremophilic. Additionally, not all extremophiles are unicellular. Examples of extremophilic [[metazoa]] are the [[Pompeii worm]] and the [[Psychrophile|psychrophilic]] [[Grylloblattodea]] ([[insect]]s) and [[antarctic krill]] ([[crustaceans]]) .
== Types of extremophiles ==
There are many different classes of extremophiles, each corresponding to the way its chosen environment differs from what is considered "normal" by other organisms. These classifications are not exclusive. Many extremophiles fall under multiple categories. For example, organisms living inside hot rocks deep under Earth's surface are both ''thermophilic'' and ''barophilic''.
[[image:pompeii worm colony.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A [[Pompeii worm]] colony near a [[hydrothermal vent]].<BR>Photo credit: University of Delaware]]
* [[Acidophile]]: An organism with an optimum [[pH]] level at or below pH 3.
* [[Alkaliphile]]: An organism with optimal growth at pH levels of 9 or above.
* [[Endolith]]: An organism that lives inside rocks.
* [[Halophile]]: An organism requiring at least 2[[molarity|M]] of [[NaCl]] for growth.
* [[Hyperthermophile]]: An organism that can thrive at temperatures between 80-110 °C.
* [[Hypolith]]: An organism that lives inside rocks in cold deserts.
* [[Metalotolerant]]: capable of tolerating high levels of heavy metals, such as [[copper]], [[cadmium]], [[arsenic]], and [[zinc]].
* [[Oligotroph]]: An organism capable of growth in nutritionally limited environments.
* [[Piezophile]]: An organism that lives optimally at high hydrostatic [[pressure]]. See also [[Barophile]]
* [[Polyextremophile]]: An organism that can survive different extreme conditions.
* [[Psychrophile]]: An organism that can thrive at temperatures of 15 °C or lower.
* [[Radioresistant]]: resistant to high levels of [[ionizing radiation]].
* [[Thermophile]]: An organism that can thrive at temperatures between 60-80 °C.
* [[Xerophile]]: An organism that can grow in environments with a low [[water activity]].
== Bacteria on the Moon ==
[[Apollo 12]] astronauts retrieved parts from the [[Moon|lunar]] probe [[Surveyor 3]] for analysis. A common bacteria, [[Streptococcus mitis]], was unintentionally present inside the spacecraft's camera at launch. Around 50 to 100 of these bacteria survived [[dormant]] in this harsh environment for three years, to be detected when Apollo 12 brought the camera back to Earth. Many bacteria have dormant forms which can survive in harsh environments, and merely being dormant is not sufficient to make an organism be considered an extremophile.
== External links ==
{{wikinewspar|Bacteria thrive deep under sea floor}}
* http://www.nhm.ac.uk/zoology/extreme.html
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12813059&itool=iconpmc Extremophiles 2002]
* [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/extremophile.html DaveDarling's Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight]
[[Category:Microbiology]][[Category:Extremophiles]]
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[[ja:極限環境微生物]]
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[[zh:嗜極生物]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Education reform</title>
<id>9620</id>
<revision>
<id>40801028</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T02:37:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deltabeignet</username>
<id>195366</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm unexplained cleanup tag</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Education reform''' is a plan, program, or movement which attempts to bring about a systematic change in [[education]]al theory or practice across a [[community]] or [[society]].
At the current time, in the [[United States]], public attention focuses on the high expense and poor outcomes of primary and secondary schools relative to their counterparts in other countries. The U.S. however, has the best [[tertiary]] education system in the world. Important contributing factors to this excellence seem to be that this system admits on tested [[merit]], is supported by a large base of paying students—affording it the best teachers and researchers, and has nearly perfect [[student choice]]—leading to poor institutions losing funding.
== History ==
=== Classical times ===
Plato believed that children would never learn unless they wanted to learn. In ''The Republic'', he said "...compulsory learning never sticks in the mind."
One of the most important educational debates in the time of the [[Roman Empire]] arose after [[Christianity]] had achieved broad acceptance. The question concerned the educational value of pre-Christian classical thought: given that the body of knowledge of the pre-Christian Romans was heathen in origin, was it safe to teach it to Christian children?
In general, works of history, science, philosophy and literary art were preserved. Works on magic and nonchristian religions were not preserved. For example, [[Euclid]]'s books on Geometry were widely used. [[Aristotle]]'s works in logic, politics, law and natural science were used. [[Plato]]'s Socratic debates and [[Aristophanes]]' plays included questions of philosophy, morality and ethics, and were pre |
04) POS can operate at OC-192 (STM64) with higher speeds expected in the future.
On slow links (2 Mbit/s and below) ATM still makes sense, and this is why so many ADSL systems use ATM as an intermediate layer between the physical link layer and a Layer 2 protocol like PPP or Ethernet.
At these lower speeds, ATM's ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual medium provides a compelling business advantage. DSL can be used as an access method for an ATM network, allowing a DSL termination point in a telephone central office to connect to many internet service providers across a wide-area ATM network. In the United States, at least, this has allowed DSL providers to provide DSL access to the customers of many internet service providers. Since one DSL termination point can support multiple ISPs, the economic feasibility of DSL is substantially improved.
===Why Virtual Circuits?===
ATM is a channel based transport layer. This is encompassed in the concept of the Virtual Path (VP) and Virtual Circuit (VC). Every ATM cell has an 8- or 12-bit Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) and 16-bit Virtual Circuit Identifer (VCI) pair defined in its header. The length of the VPI varies according to whether the cell is sent on the user-network interface (on the edge of the network), or if it is sent on the network-network interface (inside the network).
As these cells traverse an ATM network, switching is achieved by changing the VPI/VCI values. Although the VPI/VCI values are not necessarily consistent from one end of the connection to the other, the concept of a circuit ''is'' consistent (unlike IP, where any given packet could get to its destination by a different route than the others).
Another advantage of the use of virtual circuits is the ability to use them as a multiplexing layer, allowing different services (such as voice, [[Frame relay|Frame Relay]], n*64 channels, IP, [[Systems Network Architecture|SNA]], etc.) to share a common ATM connection without interfering with one another.
===Using Cells and Virtual Circuits For Traffic Engineering===
Another key ATM concept is that of the traffic contract. When an ATM circuit is set up each switch is informed of the traffic class of the connection.
ATM traffic contracts are part of the mechanism by which "[[Quality of Service]]" (QoS) is ensured. There are three basic types (and several variants) which each have a set of parameters describing the connection.
* CBR - Constant bit rate: you specify a Peak Cell Rate (PCR), which is constant.
* VBR - Variable bit rate: you specify an average cell rate, which can peak at a certain level for a maximum interval before being problematic.
* ABR - Available bit rate: you specify a minimum guaranteed rate.
* UBR - Unspecified bit rate: your traffic is allocated all remaining transmission capacity.
VBR has [[Real-time|real-time]] and non-real-time variants, and is used for "bursty" traffic.
Most traffic classes also introduce the concept of Cell Delay Variation Time (CDVT) which defines the "clumping" of cells in time.
Traffic contracts are usually maintained by the use of "Shaping", a combination of queuing and marking of cells, and enforced by "Policing".
====Traffic Shaping====
[[Traffic shaping]] is usually done at the entry point to an ATM network and attempts to ensure that the cell flow will meet its traffic contract.
====Traffic Policing====
To maintain network performance it is possible to police virtual circuits against their traffic contracts. If a circuit is exceeding its traffic contract, the network can either drop the cells or mark the Cell Loss Priority (CLP) bit (to identify a cell as discardable further down the line). Basic policing works on a cell by cell basis, but this is sub-optimal for encapsulated packet traffic (as discarding a single cell will invalidate the whole packet). As a result, schemes such as Partial Packet Discard (PPD) and Early Packet Discard (EPD) have been created that will discard a whole series of cells until the next frame starts. This reduces the number of redundant cells in the network, saving bandwidth for full frames. EPD and PPD work with AAL5 connections as they use the frame end bit to detect the end of packets.
===Types of Virtual Circuits and Paths===
Virtual circuits and virtual paths can be built statically or dynamically. Static circuits (permanent virtual circuits or PVCs) or paths (permanent virtual paths or PVPs) require that the provisioner must build the circuit as a series of segments, one for each pair of interfaces through which it passes.
PVPs and PVCs are conceptually simple, but require significant effort in large networks. They also do not support the re-routing of service in the event of a failure. Dynamically built PVPs (soft PVPs or SPVPs) and PVCs (soft PVCs or SPVCs), in contrast, are built by specifying the characteristics of the circuit (the service "contract") and the two endpoints.
Finally, switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are built and torn down on demand when requested by an end piece of equipment. One application for SVCs is to carry individual telephone calls when a network of telephone switches are inter-connected by ATM. SVCs were also used in attempts to replace local area networks with ATM.
===Virtual Circuit Routing and Call Admission===
Most ATM networks supporting SPVPs, SPVCs, and SVCs use the Private Network Node Interface or Private Network-to-Network Interface (PNNI) protocol. PNNI uses the same shortest path first algorithm used by [[Open Shortest Path First|OSPF]] and [[IS-IS]] to route IP packets to share topology information between switches and select a route through a network. PNNI also includes a very powerful summarization mechanism to allow construction of very large networks, as well as a call admission control (CAC) algorithm that determines whether sufficient bandwidth is available on a proposed route through a network to satisfy the service requirements of a VC or VP.
==Structure of An ATM Cell==
An ATM cell consists of a 5 byte header and a 48 byte payload. The payload size of 48 bytes was a compromise between the needs of voice telephony and packet networks, obtained by a simple averaging of the US proposal of 64 bytes and European proposal of 32, said by some to be motivated by a European desire not to need echo-cancellers on national trunks.
ATM defines two different cell formats: NNI (Network-network interface) and UNI (User-network interface). Most ATM links use UNI cell format.
<table width="100%"><tr><td>
'''Diagram of the UNI ATM Cell'''
{| style="width: 50%; text-align: left;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|-----
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | 7
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | <br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | <br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | 4<br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | 3<br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | <br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | <br>
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | 0<br>
|-----
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="background-color: rgb(102, 255, 255); vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | GFC
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 255);" | VPI<br>
|-----
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 255);" | VPI<br>
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);" | VCI<br>
|-----
| colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);" | VCI<br>
|-----
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);" | VCI
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" | PT
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 204);" | CLP<br>
|-----
| colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(153, 255, 153);" | HEC
|-----
| colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | <br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
Payload (48 bytes)<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
|}
</td>
<td>
'''Diagram of the NNI ATM Cell'''
{| style="width: 50%; text-align: left;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|-----
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;" | 7
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: |
in the BA and MA from Harvard, and in 1863 was awarded the [[Lawrence Scientific School]]'s first B.Sc. in chemistry. This last degree was awarded ''summa cum laude''; his academic record was otherwise undistinguished. At Harvard, he began lifelong friendships with [[Francis Ellingwood Abbot]], [[Chauncey Wright]], and [[William James]]. One of his Harvard instructors, [[Charles William Eliot]], formed an unfavorable opinion of him; they clashed on later occasions. This was unfortunate, because Eliot was President of Harvard 1869-1909, a period encompassing nearly all of Peirce's working life, during which he repeatedly vetoed having Harvard employ Peirce in any capacity.
Charles was employed as a scientist by the [[United States Coast Survey]] ([[1859]]&ndash;[[1891]]), where he enjoyed the protection of his highly influential father until the latter's death in 1880. This employment exempted Charles from having to take part in the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], sparing him a very awkward situation, as his Boston Brahmin family sympathized with the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. At the Survey, he worked mainly in [[geodesy]] and in [[gravimetry]], refining the use of [[pendulum]]s to determine small local variations in the strength of the earth's [[gravity]]. The Survey sent him to Europe five times, the first in 1871, as part of a group dispatched to observe a [[solar eclipse]]. While in Europe, he sought out [[Augustus De Morgan]], [[William Stanley Jevons]], and [[William Kingdon Clifford]], British mathematicians and logicians whose turn of mind resembled his own. During 1869-72, he was employed as an Assistant in Harvard's astronomical observatory, doing important work on determining the brightness of [[stars]] and the shape of the [[Milky Way]]. (On Peirce the astronomer, see Lenzen's chapter in Moore and Robin, 1964.) In 1878, he was the first to define the [[meter]] as so many [[wavelength]]s of [[light]] of a certain [[frequency]], the definition employed today.
Over the 1880s, Peirce's indifference to bureaucratic detail waxed while the quality and timeliness of his Survey work waned. Peirce took years to write reports that he should have required mere months. Meanwhile, he wrote hundreds of logic, philosophy, and science entries for the ''Century Dictionary''. In 1885, an investigation by the [[Allison Commission]] exonerated Peirce, but led to the dismissal of Superintendent [[Julius Hilgard]] and several other Coast Survey employees for misuse of public funds. In 1891, he resigned from the Coast Survey, at the request of Superintendent [[Thomas Corwin Mendenhall]]. He never again held regular employment.
In 1879, Peirce was appointed Lecturer in logic at the new [[Johns Hopkins University]]. That university was strong in a number of areas that interested Peirce, such as philosophy ([[Royce]] and [[John Dewey]] were students), psychology (taught by [[G. Stanley Hall]] and studied by [[Joseph Jastrow]], who coauthored a landmark empirical study with Peirce), and mathematics, taught by [[J. J. Sylvester]], who came to admire Peirce's work on mathematics and logic. This untenured position proved to be the only academic appointment Peirce ever held. It is a fact that Clark, Wisconsin, Michigan, Cornell, Stanford, and Chicago all declined to hire him, although the precise reasons for their so doing can no longer be determined. Brent documents something Peirce never suspected, namely that his efforts to obtain academic employment, grants, and scientific respectability, were repeatedly frustrated by the covert opposition of a major American scientist of the day, [[Simon Newcomb]] (1835-1909). Peirce's ability to find academic employment may also have been frustrated by a difficult personality. Brent conjectures that Peirce may have been [[Bipolar disorder|manic-depressive]], further claiming that Peirce experienced 8 nervous breakdowns between 1876 and 1911. Brent also believes that Peirce tried to alleviate his symptoms with ether, morphine, and cocaine.
Peirce's personal life also proved a grave handicap. His first wife, [[Harriet Melusina Fay]], left him in 1875. He soon took up with a woman whose maiden name and nationality remain uncertain to this day (the best guess is that her name was Juliette Froissy and that she was French), marrying her immediately upon divorcing Harriet in 1883. That year, Newcomb pointed out to a Johns Hopkins trustee that Peirce, while a Hopkins employee, had lived and traveled with a woman to whom he was not married. The ensuing scandal led to his dismissal, and to his being deemed morally unfit for academic employment anywhere in the USA. Peirce had no children by either marriage.
In [[1887]], Peirce used an inheritance from his parents to purchase 2,000 rural acres near [[Milford, Pennsylvania]], land which never yielded an economic return. On that land he built a large house which he named "Arisbe" and where he spent the rest of his life, writing prolifically, much of it unpublished to this day. He insisted on living well beyond his means, which led to grave financial and legal difficulties. Peirce spent much of the last two decades of his life so destitute that he could not afford heat in winter. His only food was bread donated by the local baker, and he wrote on the verso side of old manuscripts because he could not afford new stationery. For a while an outstanding warrant for assault and debt led to his becoming a fugitive in New York. A variety of people including his brother [[James Mills Peirce]] and his neighbors, relatives of [[Gifford Pinchot]], paid his property taxes and mortgage, and settled other debts.
During this long final twilit phase of Peirce’s life, he did some scientific and engineering consulting, and wrote a good deal for meager pay, primarily dictionary and encyclopedia entries, and reviews for ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'' (with whose editor, [[Wendell Phillips Garrison]] he became friendly). He did translations for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], at the instigation of its director, [[Samuel Langley]]. Peirce also did substantial mathematical calculations for Langley’s research on powered flight. Peirce tried his hand at inventing, and began but did not complete a number of books, all in the hope of making money. In 1888, President [[Grover Cleveland]] appointed him to the [[Assay Commission]]. From 1890 onwards, he had a friend and admirer in Judge [[Francis C. Russell]] of Chicago, who introduced Peirce to [[Paul Carus]] and [[Open Court Publishing Company|Edward Hegeler]], the editor and owner, respectively, of the pioneering American philosophy journal ''[[Open Court Publishing Company|The Monist]]'', which eventually published a number of his articles. He applied to the newly formed [[Carnegie Foundation|Carnegie Institution]] for a grant to write a book summarizing his life’s work. The application was doomed; his nemesis Newcomb served on the Institution’s executive committee, and its President had been the President of Johns Hopkins at the time of Peirce’s dismissal.
The one who did the most to help Peirce in this his hour of desperate need was his old friend [[William James]], who helped arrange four series of lectures at or near Harvard, and dedicated his ''Will to Believe'' to Peirce. Most important, each year from 1898 until his death in 1910, James would write to his friends in the Boston intelligentsia, asking that they make a financial contribution to help support Peirce. Peirce showed his gratitude for these remarkable gestures of friendship by designating James’s eldest son as his heir should Juliette predecease him, and by adding "Santiago," "Saint James" in Spanish, to his full name (Brent 1998: 315-16, 374).
Peirce died destitute in [[Milford, Pennsylvania]], twenty years before his widow.
==Reception==
[[Bertrand Russell]] opined, "Beyond doubt … he was one of the most original minds of the later [[19th century| nineteenth century]], and certainly the greatest American thinker ever." (Yet his ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' fails to mention Peirce.) While reading some of Peirce's unpublished manuscripts soon after arriving at Harvard in 1924, [[Alfred North Whitehead]] was struck by the extent to which Peirce had anticipated his own "process" thinking. (On Peirce and [[process metaphysics]], see the chapter by Lowe in Moore and Robin, 1964.) [[Karl Popper]] viewed Peirce as "one of the greatest philosophers of all times". Nevertheless, Peirce's accomplishments were not immediately recognized. His imposing contemporaries [[William James]] and [[Josiah Royce]] admired him, and Cassius Keyser at Columbia and [[C. K. Ogden]] wrote about Peirce with respect, but to no immediate effect.
The first scholar to give Peirce his considered professional attention was Royce's student [[Morris Raphael Cohen]], the editor of a 1923 anthology of Peirce's writings titled ''Chance, Love, and Logic'' and the author of the first Peirce bibliography. From 1916 until his death, [[John Dewey]]'s writings repeatedly mention Peirce with deference, and his 1938 ''Logic: The Theory of Inquiry'' is Peircian through and through. The publication of the first six volumes of the ''Collected Papers'' (1931-35), the most important event to date in Peirce studies and one Cohen made possible by raising the needed funds, did not lead to an immediate outpouring of secondary studies. The editors of those volumes, [[Charles Hartshorne]] and Paul Weiss, did not become Peirce specialists. Early landmarks of the secondary literature include the monographs Buchler (1939), Feibleman (1946), and Goudge (1950), the 1941 Ph.D. thesis by Arthur Burks (who went on to edit volumes 7 and 8 of the ''Collected Papers''), and the edited volume Wiener and Young (1952). The Charles S. Peirce Society was founded in 1946. Its ''Transactions'', an academic journal specia |
of enthusiasm for all things Celtic and [[Druid]]ic. The "Irish revival" came after the ''[[Catholic Emancipation]] Act of 1829'' as a conscious attempt to demonstrate an Irish national identity, and with its counterpart in other countries subsequently became the "Celtic revival".
Nowadays "Celt" is usually pronounced as {{IPA|/kɛlt/}} and "Celtic" as {{IPA|/'kɛltɪk/}} (in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) when referring to the ethnic group and its languages, while the pronunciation {{IPA|/'sɛltɪk/}} remains in use mainly for certain sports teams (eg. the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] team, [[Boston Celtics]], and the [[Scottish Premier League|SPL]] side, [[Celtic F.C.]], in [[Glasgow]]). (The pronunciation with /s/ reflects historical [[palatalization]] of the letter 'C' when it occurs before 'I' or 'E' in words of [[Latin]] origin; in the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] era Latin 'C' was always pronounced as /k/. The modern pronunciation with /k/ is a reversion to the original, whereas the pronunciation with /s/ has not been reverted.) The word spelt as "Celtic" is (arguably) English, as the Latin was "Celticus" or "Celticum", the Welsh is "Celtaidd", and the Irish/Scottish Gaelic is "Ceilteach". By this argument, a pronunciation with /s/ should therefore be acceptable.
The term "Celt" or "Celtic" can be used in several senses: it can denote a group of peoples who speak or descend from speakers of Celtic languages; or the people of [[prehistoric]] and early historic Europe who share common cultural traits which are thought to have originated in the [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] and [[La Tène culture]]s. In contemporary terms, there are typically six nations defined as 'Celtic Nations'. To be defined as a Celtic nation, that nation must have ownership of a Celtic language. The first six are usually defined as [[Ireland]], [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], [[Cornwall]], the [[Isle of Man]], and [[Brittany]]. [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] Is also considered a celtic nation as gaelic language still survives in people and places names, while [[Asturias]] sometimes is considered to be modern Celtic nations based on the survival of Celtic traditions similar to the traditions of other Celtic nations, however, the Celtic language has not survived in either. [[England]] retains some Celtic influences yet hasn't retained a Celtic language (even Cornwall became fully English speaking during the 18th century) and thus falls outside of categorisation as a Celtic nation. The Brythonic language of pre-Anglo Celtic speaking peoples influences [[dialect]]s of some of its regions further from the south east, particularly those bordering Scotland and Wales and in the south west, the best known of which are [[Cumbric]] which was spoken from [[Strathclyde]] to [[Derbyshire]] as recently as the [[11th century]], and the language centred on [[Devon]]&nbsp;&mdash; both languages are under-going a modern revival. Other areas of Europe are associated with being Celtic as well, including [[France]], which traces its roots to the [[Gauls]]. In Scotland, the [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic language]] traces at least some of its roots to [[migration]] and settlement by the Irish [[Dalriada]]/[[Scotti]]. Due to the settlement of English speaking Angles in the lowlands, which&nbsp;&mdash; among other things&nbsp;&mdash; reduced the spread of the Gaelic language which was supplanting Brythonic in Scotland, Scots Gaelic survives only in the country's northern and western fringes in the area which comprised of the Scot kingdom of Dalriada.
The use of the word 'Celtic' as a valid [[umbrella term]] for the pre-Roman peoples of [[Britain]] has been challenged by a number of writers — including [[Simon James (archaeologist)|Simon James]], formerly of the [[British Museum]]. His book ''[[The Atlantic Celts - Ancient People Or Modern Invention?]]'' makes the point that the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] never used the term 'Celtic' in reference to the peoples of the [[Atlantic Archipelago|Atlantic archipelago]], i.e. the [[British Isles]] and [[Ireland]], and points out that the modern term "Celt" was coined as a useful umbrella term in the early [[18th century]] to distinguish the non-English inhabitants of the [[archipelago]] when [[England]] united with [[Scotland]] in [[1707]] to create [[the United Kingdom]]. [[Nationalists]] in [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]] and [[Wales]] looked for a way to differentiate themselves from England and assert their right to independence. James then argues that, despite the obvious linguistic connections, [[archaeology]] does not suggest a united Celtic culture and that the term is misleading, no more (or less) meaningful than 'Western European' would be today.
This is somewhat misleading, however, since the Romans and Greeks did describe the Atlantic and [[continental]] Celts as being related to each other, having [[military alliance]]s (and rivalries) with one another, sharing similar languages and [[tradition]]s, as well as having a common religion and [[priest]] class. Additionally, archeological evidence shows quite clearly that the Atlantic and continental Celts were engaged in commerce with each other via regular [[trade route]]s. No one on either side of the debate argues that Celtic people have ever been a single [[homogenous]] political or social unit, but to argue that the Atlantic Celts were not Celts at all simply because hostile Romans never described them as such betrays a rather unscholarly [[bias]].
Miranda Green, author of [[Celtic Goddesses]], describes archaeologists as finding "a certain homogeneity" in the traditions in the area of Celtic habitation including Britain and Ireland — She sees the inhabitants of the British Isles and Ireland as having become thoroughly Celticized by the time of the Roman arrival, mainly through spread of culture rather than a movement of people.
In his book ''Iron Age Britain'', [[Barry Cunliffe]] concludes that "...there is no evidence in the British Isles to suggest that a population group of any size migrated from the continent in the first millennium BC...". Cunliffe tempers his remarks by pointing out that absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, but modern archaeological thought tends to disparage the idea of large population movements without facts to back them up, a caution which appears to be vindicated by some genetic studies. In other words, Celtic culture in the Atlantic Archipelago and continental Europe could have emerged through the peaceful convergence of local tribal cultures bound together by networks of [[trade]] and [[kinship]]&nbsp;&mdash; not by war and conquest. This type of peaceful [[convergence]] and [[cooperation]] is actually relatively common among tribal peoples; other well known examples of the phenomenon include the [[Six Nations]] of the [[Iroquois League]] and the [[Nuer]] of [[East Africa]]. The ancient Celts are thus best depicted as a loose and highly diverse collection of indigenous tribal societies bound together by trade, a common [[druidic]] religion, and similar political institutions&nbsp;&mdash; but each having its own local language and traditions.
Michael Morse in the conclusion of his book ''How the Celts came to Britain'' concedes that the concepts of a broad Celtic linguistic area and recognizably Celtic art have their uses, but argues that the term implies a greater unity than existed. Despite such problems he suggests that the term Celt is probably too deep-rooted to be replaced and&nbsp;&mdash; what is more important&nbsp;&mdash; it has the definition that we choose to give it. The problem is that the wider public reads into the term quite [[anachronistic]] concepts of ethnic unity that no one on either side in the academic debate holds.
In any case, it can safely be argued that, given the fact that both Goidhels and Brythonic Celts spoke related languages, and shared many cultural, social and religious traits, many going very deep, they were indeed all members of a related group, even in the absence of early recognition of the fact and despite the linguistic and political differences between various sub groups.
===Population genetics===
With the information gathered recently by population [[geneticist]]s, it is becoming increasingly clear that the old idea of large-scale replacement by newer invaders is sometimes a misleading concept. The Celtic ethnicity debate took off at a particularly early stage in population genetic studies which is a science still in its very early stages of development. Taking this into account along with the fact that these limited studies are dealing only with particular sections of DNA (eg. [[MtDNA]], [[Y chromosome]]; no studies can currently be carried out regarding [[X chromosome]] inheritance), the results can not be considered conclusive in any way.
In his book ''Neanderthal'', archaeologist Douglas Palmer refers to genetic research conducted across Europe, then states the original modern genetic group in Europe arrived between 9,000 and 5,000 years ago with the spread of [[farming]], displacing the earlier [[hunter gatherer]] populations. Such displacement occurred by population explosion, since farming is capable of supporting up to 60 times greater population than the hunter-gatherer lifestyle in the same area:
:''"None of Europe's subsequent historic upheavals - even catastrophic wars and [[famine]]s - has seriously dented the old pattern set by the influx of farmers. The [[Goths]], [[Huns]] and Romans have come and gone without any significant impact on the ancient gene map of Europe"''.
It seems futile to suggest people who were once part of a wider Celtic cultural group cannot be considered Celtic, any more than their direct descendants in pla |
failed, however, as the five members received a tip-off and, prior to the arrival of the king with a party of soldiers, went into hiding. When the troops marched into Parliament, Charles asked [[William Lenthall]], the [[Speaker (politics)|Speaker]], where the five were. Lenthall replied "''May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House [of Commons] is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here''". In other words, the Speaker proclaimed himself a servant of Parliament, rather than of the King. Parliamentary supporters took to arms to protect the five men as they escaped across [[London]].
==The First English Civil War==
[[Image:English civil war map 1642 to 1645.JPG|thumb|220px|Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (yellow), 1642 — 1645.]]
:''Main article [[First English Civil War]].''
The "Long Parliament", having controverted the king's authority, raised an army led by [[Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex]]. This army had a twofold purpose: to defeat both an invasion from Scotland and also to prevent the attempts by the King and his supporters to restore the monarchy's power. Charles I, in the meantime, had left [[London]] and also raised an army using the archaic system of a [[Commission of Array]]. He raised the [[Royal Standard | royal standard]] at [[Nottingham]] in August.
In September 1642, King Charles I raised his standard in the market square of [[Wellington, Shropshire|Wellington]], a small, though highly influential, market town in the English Midland county of [[Shropshire]] and addressed his troops the next day at nearby [[Orleton Hall]]. He declared that he would uphold the Protestant Religion, the Laws of England, and the Liberty of Parliament.
At the outset of the conflict, much of the country remained neutral, though the [[Royal Navy]] and most English cities favoured Parliament, while the king found considerable support in rural communities. Historians estimate that between them, both sides had only about 15,000 men. However, the war quickly spread and eventually involved every level of society throughout the [[British Isles]]. Many areas attempted to remain neutral but found it impossible to withstand both the King and Parliament. On one side, the King and his supporters fought for traditional government in Church and state. On the other, supporters of Parliament sought radical changes in religion and economic policy and major reforms in the distribution of power at the national level. In addition, Parliament was not a united body; at one point in the nine years of war, there were more members of the Commons and Lords in the King's [[Oxford Parliament (1644)|Oxford Parliament]] than there were at [[Palace of Westminster|Westminster]].
Parliament did, however, have more resources at its disposal, due to its possession of all major cities including the large arsenals at [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]] and [[London]]. For his part, Charles hoped that quick victories would negate Parliament's advantage in [[materiel]]. This precipitated the first major siege, the [[siege of Hull (1642)|first siege of Hull]] in July 1642, which provided a decisive victory for Parliament.
[[Image:Oliver Cromwell.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Oliver Cromwell]].]]
The first [[pitched battle]] at [[Battle of Edgehill|Edgehill]] proved inconclusive, but both the Royalist and Parliamentarian sides claimed it as a victory. One of the king's outstanding officers, his nephew, [[Prince Rupert|Prince Rupert of the Palatinate]], proved himself a dashing [[cavalry]] commander. (A Parliamentarian cavalry troop raised by a country gentleman, evangelical puritan, and Member of Parliament named [[Oliver Cromwell]] also played a minor part in the battle. Cromwell would later devise the [[New Model Army]] system still evident in military organisation today. The New Model featured a unified command structure and [[professional]]ism, which would swing the military advantage firmly towards Parliament.) The second field action of the war, the stand-off at [[Turnham Green]], saw Charles forced to withdraw to [[Oxford]]. This city would serve as his base for the remainder of the war.
In [[1643]] the Royalist forces won at [[Battle of Adwalton Moor|Adwalton Moor]] and gained control of most of [[Yorkshire]]. In the Midlands, a Parliamentary force under [[Sir John Gell]] besieged and captured the cathedral city of [[Lichfield]] after the death of the original commander, Lord Brooke, and subsequently joined forces with Sir John Brereton to fight the inconclusive [[battle of Hopton Heath]], where the Royalist commander, the [[Earl of Northampton]], was killed. Subsequent battles in the west of England at [[Battle of Lansdowne|Lansdowne]] and at [[Battle of Roundway Down|Roundway Down]] also went to the Royalists. Prince Rupert could then take [[Bristol]]. In the same year, Oliver Cromwell formed his troop of "[[Ironside (cavalry)|Ironside]]s", a disciplined unit which demonstrated his military leadership ability. With their assistance, he was victorious at the [[Battle of Gainsborough]] in July.
In the general, the early part of the war went well for the Royalists. The turning point came in the late Summer and early Autumn of 1643, when the Earl of Essex's army forced the king to raise the siege of Gloucester and then brushed the Royalist army aside at the First Battle of Newbury, in order to return triumphantly to London. Other Parliamentarian forces won the [[Battle of Winceby]], giving them control of [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]]. Political manoeuvring on both sides now led Charles to negotiate a ceasefire in [[Ireland]], freeing up English troops to fight on the Royalist side, while Parliament offered concessions to the Scots in return for aid and assistance.
Parliament won at [[Battle of Marston Moor|Marston Moor]] in [[1644]], gaining [[York]] with the help of the Scots. Cromwell's conduct in this battle proved decisive; and demonstrated his potential as a political or military leader. The defeat at the [[Battle of Lostwithiel]] in [[Cornwall]], however, marked a serious reverse for Parliament in the south-west of England.
In 1645, Parliament reorganized its main forces into the [[New Model Army]], under the command of Sir [[Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Baron Fairfax of Cameron|Thomas Fairfax]], with Cromwell as his second-in-command and [[Lieutenant General|Lieutenant-General]] of Horse. In what were, in retrospect, two decisive engagements&mdash;the Battles of [[Battle of Naseby|Naseby]] on [[June 14]] and of [[Battle of Langport|Langport]] on [[July 10]]&mdash;Charles's armies were effectively destroyed.
In the remains of his English realm, Charles attempted to recover stability by consolidating the [[Midlands]]. He began to form an axis between Oxford and [[Newark on Trent]], Nottinghamshire. Those towns had become fortresses and were more reliably loyal to him than to others. He took [[Leicester]], which lies between them, but found his resources exhausted. Having little opportunity to replenish them, on May 1646, he sought shelter with a Scottish army at [[Southwell, Nottinghamshire|Southwell]] in Nottinghamshire. This marked the end of the First English Civil War.
==The Second English Civil War==
:''Main article [[Second English Civil War]].''
Charles I took advantage of this deflection of attention away from himself to negotiate a new agreement with the Scots, again promising church reform on [[December 28]], 1647. Although Charles himself was still a prisoner, this agreement led inexorably to the Second Civil War.
A series of Royalist uprisings throughout England and a Scottish invasion occurred in the summer of 1648. Most of the uprisings in England were put down by forces loyal to Parliament after little more than skirmishes, but uprisings in Kent, Essex and Cumberland, the rebellion in Wales and the Scottish invasion involved the fighting of pitched battles and prolonged sieges.
In the spring of 1648 unpaid parliamentarian troops in [[Wales]] changed sides. The Royalist rebels were defeated by Colonel [[Thomas Horton]] at the [[battle of St. Fagans]] ([[May 8]]) and the rebel leaders surrendered to Cromwell on [[July 11]] after the protracted two month [[siege of Pembroke]]. A Royalist uprising in Kent was defeated by [[Sir Thomas Fairfax]] at the [[battle of Maidstone]] on [[June 24]]. Fairfax, after his success at [[Maidstone]] and the pacification of [[Kent]], turned northward to reduce [[Essex]], where, under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir [[Charles Lucas]], the Royalists were in arms in great numbers. Fairfax soon drove the enemy into [[Colchester]], but the first attack on the town was repulsed and he had to settle down to [[siege of Colchester|a long siege]].
In the North of England Major-General [[John Lambert (General)|John Lambert]] fought very successful campaign against a number of Royalist uprisings. The largest was that of Sir [[Marmaduke Langdale]] in [[Cumberland]]. Thanks to the successes of Lambert and the Scottish commander the [[James Hamilton, 3rd Marquess and 1st Duke of Hamilton|Duke of Hamilton]] was forced to take the west route through Carlisle for the Royalist Scottish invasion of England. The Parliamentarians under Cromwell engaged the Scots at the [[Battle of Preston (1648)|Battle of Preston]] ([[August 17]] &ndash; [[August 19]]). The battle was fought largely at [[Walton-le-Dale]] near [[Preston]] in [[Lancashire]], and resulted in a victory by the troops of Cromwell over the [[Cavaliers|Royalist]]s and Scots commanded by Hamilton. This Parliamentarian victory marked the end of the Second English Civil War.
Nearly all the Royalists who had fought in the First Civil War had given their parole not to bear arms against the Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, like [[Jacob Astley, 1st Baron Astley of Reading|Lord Astley]], refused to break th |
dy on theoretical limitations on algorithms
* elementary [[probability theory]] and [[Markov chain|Markov chains]]
* [[linear algebra]] - a study of related linear equations
'''Some applications''': [[game theory]] &mdash; [[queuing theory]] &mdash; [[graph theory]] &mdash; [[combinatorial geometry]] and [[combinatorial topology|combinatorial topology]] &mdash; [[linear programming]] &mdash; [[cryptography]] (including [[cryptology]] and [[cryptanalysis]]) &mdash; [[theory of computation]] &mdash; [[Musical analysis|analysis]] of [[Atonality|atonal music]]
== See also ==
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Discrete mathematics| Important publications in discrete mathematics]]
=== Reference and further reading ===
{{book}}
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald E. Knuth]], ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]''
* Kenneth H. Rosen, ''Handbook of Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics'' CRC Press. ISBN 0849301491.
* Kenneth H. Rosen, ''Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications'' 5th ed. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0072930330. Companion Web site: http://www.mhhe.com/math/advmath/rosen/
* Richard Johnsonbaugh, ''Discrete Mathematics'' 5th ed. Macmillan. ISBN 0130890081. Companion Web site: http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/johnsonbaugh4/
* Norman L. Biggs, ''Discrete Mathematics'' 2nd ed. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198507178. Companion Web site: http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-850717-8 includes questions together with solutions..
* Neville Dean, ''Essence of Discrete Mathematics'' Prentice Hall. ISBN 0133459438. Not as in depth as above texts, but a gentle intro.
* Mathematics Archives, Discrete Mathematics links to syllabi, tutorials, programs, etc. http://archives.math.utk.edu/topics/discreteMath.html
* [[Ronald Graham]], [[Donald Knuth|Donald E. Knuth]], [[Oren Patashnik]], ''[[Concrete Mathematics]]''
[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics|*]]
[[af:Diskrete wiskunde]]
[[ar:رياضيات متقطعة]]
[[an:Matematica discreta]]
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[[ja:離散数学]]
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[[pt:Matemática discreta]]
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[[sk:Diskrétna matematika]]
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[[zh:离散数学]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Division algebra</title>
<id>8493</id>
<revision>
<id>40997343</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T10:42:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.238.149.123</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the field of [[mathematics]] called [[abstract algebra]], a '''division algebra''' is, roughly speaking, an [[algebra over a field]] in which [[division (mathematics)|division]] is possible.
== Definitions ==
Formally, we start with an algebra ''D'' over a [[field (mathematics)|field]], and assume that ''D'' does not just consist of its zero element. We call ''D'' a '''division algebra''' if for any element ''a'' in ''D'' and any non-zero element ''b'' in ''D'' there exists precisely one element ''x'' in ''D'' with ''a'' = ''bx'' and precisely one element ''y'' in ''D'' such that ''a'' = ''yb''.
For [[associative algebra]]s, the definition can be simplified as follows: an associative algebra over a field is a '''division algebra''' [[iff]] it has a multiplicative [[identity element]] 1&ne;0 and every non-zero element ''a'' has a multiplicative inverse (i.e. an element ''x'' with ''ax'' = ''xa'' = 1).
==Associative division algebras==
The best-known examples of associative division algebras are the finite-dimensional real ones (that is, algebras over the field '''R''' of [[real number]]s, which are finite-[[Hamel dimension|dimensional]] as a [[vector space]] over the reals). [[Frobenius theorem (real division algebras)|Frobenius theorem]] states that [[up to]] [[isomorphism]] there are three such algebras: the reals themselves (dimension 1), the field of [[complex number]]s (dimension 2), and the [[quaternions]] (dimension 4).
Over an [[algebraically closed field]] ''K'' (for example the [[complex number]]s '''C'''), there are no finite-dimensional associative division algebras, except ''K'' itself of course.
Associative division algebras have no [[zero divisor]]s. A ''finite-dimensional'' unitary associative algebra (over any field) is a division algebra ''if and only if'' it has no zero divisors.
Every [[field extension]] forms an associative division algebra over the ground field.
Whenever ''A'' is an associative unitary algebra over the [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''F'' and ''S'' is a [[simple module]] over ''A'', then the [[endomorphism ring]] of ''S'' is a division algebra over ''F''; every associative division algebra over ''F'' arises in this fashion.
The [[center (algebra)|center]] of an associative division algebra ''D'' over the field ''K'' is a field containing ''K''. The dimension of such an algebra over its center, if finite, is a [[square number|perfect square]]: it is equal to the square of the dimension of a maximal subfield of ''D'' over the center. Given a field ''F'', the (isomorphism classes) of associative division algebras whose center is ''F'' and which are finite-dimensional over ''F'' can be turned into a group, the [[Brauer group]] of the field ''F''.
One way to construct finite-dimensional associative division algebras over arbitrary fields is given by the [[quaternion algebra]]s (see also [[quaternion]]s).
For infinite-dimensional associative division algebras, the most important cases are those where the space has some reasonable [[topology]]. See for example [[normed division algebra]]s and [[Banach algebra]]s.
==Not necessarily associative division algebras==
If the division algebra is not assumed to be associative, usually some weaker condition (such as [[alternativity]] or [[power associativity]]) is imposed instead. See [[algebra over a field]] for a list of such conditions.
Over the reals there are (up to isomorphism) only two unitary [[commutative]] finite-dimensional division algebras: the reals themselves, and the complex numbers. These are of course both associative. For a non-associative example, consider the complex numbers with multiplication defined by taking the [[complex conjugate]] of the usual multiplication:
:<math>a*b=\overline{ab}.</math>
[[Example of a non-associative algebra|This]] is a commutative, non-associative division algebra of dimension 2 over the reals, and has no unit element. There are infinitely many other non-isomorphic commutative, non-associative, finite-dimensional real divisional algebras, but they all have dimension 2.
In fact, every finite-dimensional real commutative division algebra is either 1 or 2 dimensional. This is known as [[Heinz Hopf|Hopf's]] theorem, and was proved in 1940. The proof uses methods from [[topology]]. Although a later proof was found using [[algebraic geometry]], no direct algebraic proof is known. The [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] is a corollary of Hopf's theorem.
Dropping the requirement of commutativity, Hopf generalized his result: Any finite-dimensional real division algebra must have dimension a power of 2.
Later work showed that in fact, any finite-dimensional real division algebra must be of dimension 1, 2, 4, or 8. This was independently proved by Kervaire and [[John Milnor|Milnor]] in 1958, again using techniques of algebraic topology, in particular [[K-theory]].
While there are infinitely many non-isomorphic real division algebras of dimensions 2, 4 and 8, one can say the following: any real finite-dimensional division algebra
over the reals must be
* isomorphic to '''R''' or '''C''' if unitary and commutative (equivalently: associative and commutative)
* isomorphic to the quaternions if non-commutative but associative
* isomorphic to the [[octonions]] if non-associative but [[alternative algebra|alternative]].
The following is known about the dimension of a finite-dimensional division algebra ''A'' over a field ''K'':
* dim''A''= 1 if ''K'' is algebraically closed,
* dim''A''= 1, 2, 4 or 8 if ''K'' is real closed, and
* If ''K'' is neither algebraically nor real closed, then there are infinitely many dimensions in with there exist division algebras over ''K''.
==See also==
* [[normed division algebra]]
* [[division (mathematics)]]
* [[division ring]]
[[Category:Ring theory]]
[[de:Divisionsalgebra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DDT</title>
<id>8494</id>
<revision>
<id>42084502</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:50:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gizzakk</username>
<id>781770</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandal to last version as of 23:16, 2 March 2006</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other uses, see [[DDT (disambiguation)]].''
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{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; background: #ffffff;"
! colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#cccccc" | '''DDT'''
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| 4,4'-(2,2,2-trichloroethane-<br/>1,1-diyl)bis(chlorobenzene)
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>9</sub>Cl<sub>5</sub>
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 354.49 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 108.5 °C
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 260 °C
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 50-29-3
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| <small>ClC(Cl)(Cl)C(C |
o rounding. The most frequently used paper size is A4, which is 210 × 297 mm.
==B series==
The B series formats are [[geometric mean]]s between the A series format with the same number and the A series format with one lower number. For example, B1 is a geometric mean between A1 and A0. The sides of B0 are 1 m to &radic;2 m.
There is also an incompatible Japanese B series defined by the [[Japanese Industrial Standard|JIS]]. The lengths of JIS B series paper are approximately 1.22 times those of A-series paper.
==C series==
The C series formats are geometric means between the B series format with the same number and the A series format with the same number, e.g. C2 is the geometric mean between B2 and A2. The C series formats are used mainly for envelopes. An A4 page will fit into a C4 envelope. If you fold the A4 page so that it is A5 in size, it will fit in a C5 envelope and so on.
==Application==
Prior to the adoption of ISO 216, many different paper formats were used internationally. These formats did not fit into a coherent system and were defined in terms of non-metric units. The ISO 216 formats are organized around the ratio 1:&radic;2; two sheets next to each other together have the same ratio, sideways. This simplifies copying two A4 sheets in reduced size on one, and copying an A4 sheet in magnified size on an A3 sheet or copying half an A4 sheet in magnified size on an A4 sheet. The principal countries not generally using the ISO paper sizes are the [[United States|United States of America]] and [[Canada]], which use the [[Paper size#Current U.S. loose paper sizes|Letter]], [[Paper size#Current U.S. loose paper sizes|Legal]], and [[Paper size#Current U.S. loose paper sizes|Executive]] system. (Canada uses a P-series of sizes, which are the American paper sizes rounded to metric dimensions.)
==External links==
* [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/iso-paper.html Details] about paper sizes
[[Category:DIN standards]]
[[Category:ISO standards|#00216]]
[[Category:Stationery]]
[[Category:Metrication]]
[[cs:Formát papíru]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>ISO 3864</title>
<id>15276</id>
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<id>41891773</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:03:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Markus Kuhn</username>
<id>44867</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3864''' specifies [[international standard]]s for [[safety symbol]]s. These labels are graphical, to overcome language barriers. There is an alternative American standard, [[ANSI]] Z.535, which is incompatible with the international standard. The ANSI standard requires an accompanying text, which can pose problems for environments in which people expected to understand the sign may not read the language or may not read at all, including many workplaces in the [[United States|USA]].
{{standard-stub}}
[[Category:ISO standards|#03864]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Infinite product</title>
<id>15279</id>
<revision>
<id>34839262</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T02:08:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TobinFricke</username>
<id>68831</id>
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<minor />
<comment>spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], for a [[sequence]] of numbers ''a''<sub>1</sub>, ''a''<sub>2</sub>, ''a''<sub>3</sub>, ... the '''infinite product'''
:<math>
\prod_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n = a_1 \; a_2 \; a_3 \cdots
</math>
is defined to be the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of the partial products ''a''<sub>1</sub>''a''<sub>2</sub>...''a''<sub>''n''</sub> as ''n'' goes to infinity. The product is said to ''converge'' when the limit exists and is not zero. Otherwise the product is said to ''diverge''. The value zero is treated specially in order to get results analogous to those for [[Infinite series|infinite sums]]. If the product converges, then the limit of the sequence ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> as ''n'' goes to infinity must be 1 while the converse is in general not true. Therefore, the [[logarithm]] log ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> will be defined for all but finitely many ''n'', and for those we have
:<math>\log \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \log a_n</math>
with the product on the left converging if and only if the sum on the right does. This allows the translation of convergence criteria for infinite sums into convergence criteria for infinite products.
The best known examples of infinite products are probably some of the formulae for [[pi|&pi;]], such as the following two products, respectively by [[Viète]] and [[John Wallis]] ([[Wallis product]]):
:<math>\frac{2}{\pi} = \frac{ \sqrt{2} }{ 2 } \cdot \frac{ \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2}} }{ 2 } \cdot \frac{ \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2}}} }{ 2 } \cdots</math>
:<math>\frac{\pi}{2} = \frac{2}{1} \cdot \frac{2}{3} \cdot \frac{4}{3} \cdot \frac{4}{5} \cdot \frac{6}{5} \cdot \frac{6}{7} \cdot \frac{8}{7} \cdot \frac{8}{9} \cdots = \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left( \frac{ 4 \cdot n^2 }{ 4 \cdot n^2 - 1 } \right) </math>
==Product representations of functions==
One important result concerning infinite products is that every [[entire function]] ''f''(''z'') (i.e., every function that is [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] over the entire [[complex number|complex plane]]) can be factored into an infinite product of entire functions each with at most a single zero. In general, if ''f'' has a zero of order ''m'' at the origin and has other complex zeros at ''u''<sub>1</sub>, ''u''<sub>2</sub>, ''u''<sub>3</sub>, ... (listed with multiplicities equal to their orders) then
:<math>
f(z) = z^m \; e^{\phi(z)} \; \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 - \frac{z}{u_n} \right) \;
\exp \left\lbrace \frac{z}{u_n} + \left(\frac{z}{u_n}\right)^2 + \cdots + \left(\frac{z}{u_n}\right)^{\lambda n} \right\rbrace
</math>
where &lambda;''n'' are positive integers that can be chosen to make the series converge, and &phi;(''z'') is some uniquely determined analytic function (which means the term before the product will have no zeros in the complex plane). The above factorization is not unique, since it depends on the choice of &lambda;''n''s, and is not especially elegant. For most functions, though, there will be some minimum positive integer ''p'' such that &lambda;''n'' = ''p'' gives a convergent product, called the canonical product representation, and in the event that ''p'' = 1, this takes the form
:<math>
f(z) = z^m \; e^{\phi(z)} \; \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 - \frac{z}{u_n}\right)
</math>
This can be regarded as a generalization of the [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra]], since for polynomials the product becomes finite and &phi;(''z'') is constant. Aside from these, the following representations are of special note:
<table cellspacing=15><tr><td>
[[Sine]] function
</td><td>
<math>\sin \pi z = \pi z \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 - \frac{z^2}{n^2}\right)</math>
</td><td>
[[Euler]] - [[Wallis product|Wallis' formula for &pi;]] is a special case of this.
</td></tr><tr><td>
[[Gamma function]]
</td><td>
<math>1 / \Gamma(z) = z \; \mbox{e}^{\gamma z} \; \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 + \frac{z}{n}\right) \; \mbox{e}^{-z/n}</math>
</td><td>
[[Schlömilch]]
</td></tr><tr><td>
[[Riemann zeta function]]
</td><td>
<math>\zeta(z) = \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{(1 - p_n^{-z})}</math>
</td><td>
Euler - Here ''p''<sub>''n''</sub> denotes the sequence of [[prime number|prime numbers]].</tr></table>
Note the last of these is not a product representation of the same sort discussed above, as &zeta; is not entire.
[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]
[[fr:Produit infini]]
[[ja:総乗]]
[[sv:Oändlig produkt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isaac Abendana</title>
<id>15281</id>
<revision>
<id>36180359</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T05:04:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dmlandfair</username>
<id>296817</id>
</contributor>
<comment>bio</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}
'''Isaac Abendana''' (c.[[1640]] - [[1710]]) was the younger brother of [[Jacob Abendana]], ''haham'' ([[rabbi]]) of the Spanish Portuguese Synagogue in [[London]]. Isaac Abendana moved to [[England]] before his brother, in [[1662]], and taught [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]]. He completed an unpublished [[Latin]] translation of the [[Mishnah]] for the university in [[1671]].
While he was at Cambridge, Abendana sold Hebrew books to the [[Bodleian Library]] of [[Oxford University|Oxford]], and in [[1689]] he took a teaching position in [[Magdalen College]]. In Oxford, he wrote a series of [[Jewish]] [[almanac]]s for Christians, which he later collected and compiled as the ''[[Discourses on the Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity of the Jews]]'' ([[1706]]). Like his brother, he maintained an extensive correspondence with leading Christian scholars of his time, most notably with the philosopher [[Ralph Cudworth]], master of [[Christ's College, Cambridge]].
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abendana}}
{{judaism-bio-stub}}
[[Category:Middle Ages rabbis|Abendana, Isaac]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>I Ching</title>
<id>15282</id> |
<revision>
<id>41964614</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:43:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.159.45.209</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Implications of the title */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternative meaning: [[I Ching (monk)]]''
{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px bgcolor=#f7f8ff style="float:right; border:1px solid; margin:5px"
!style="background:#ccf; border-bottom:1px solid" colspan=2 align=center|'''I Ching'''
|-
|align=right|[[Simplified Chinese]]:|| &#26131;&#32463;
|-
|align=right|[[Traditional Chinese]]:|| &#26131;&#32147;
|-
|align=right|[[Hanyu Pinyin]]:|| Yì J&#299;ng;
|-
|align=right|[[Wade-Giles]]:||I<sup>4</sup> Ching<sup>1</sup>
|-
|align=right|Alt. [[romanization]]s||I Jing, Yi Ching, Yi King
|-
|align=right|[[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]:|| {{IPA|j&#618;k<sub>22</sub> k&#618;&#331;<sub>55</sub>}}
|-
|align=right|[[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] [[Jyutping|Jyutping]]:|| jik6 ging1
|}
The '''''I Ching''''' is the oldest of the [[Chinese classic texts]]. It describes an ancient system of [[cosmology]] and [[philosophy]] which is at the heart of Chinese cultural beliefs. The philosophy centers on the ideas of ''the dynamic balance of opposites'', ''the evolution of events as a process,'' and ''acceptance of the inevitability of change'' (see ''Philosophy'', below). In [[Western world|Western]] cultures, the ''I Ching'' is regarded by some as simply a system of [[divination]]; many believe it expresses the wisdom and philosophy of [[ancient China]].
== Implications of the title ==
Used as an adjective, it means "easy" or "simple", while as a verb it implies "to change".
* &#32147; (''j&#299;ng'') here means "classic (text)", which derived from its original meaning of "regularity" or "persistency", implying that the text describes the [[Tao|Ultimate Way]] which will not change throughout the flow of time.
The conception behind this title, thus, is profound. It has three implications:
# ''Simplicity'' - the root of the substance. The fundamental law underlying everything in the universe is utterly plain and simple, no matter how abstruse or complex some things may appear to be.
# ''Variability'' - the use of the substance. Everything in the universe is continually changing. By comprehending this one may realize the importance of flexibility in life and may thus cultivate the proper attitude for dealing with a multiplicity of diverse situations.
# ''Persistency'' - the essence of the substance. Everything in the universe seems to be changing, yet among the changing tides there is a persistent principle--which is the change itself. like in sunrise and set. full moon, half moon, that means, persistency. cheerZ
(&#26131;&#19968;&#21517;&#32780;&#21547;&#19977;義&#65306;&#26131;&#31777;&#19968;&#20063;&#65307;&#35722;&#26131;&#20108;&#20063;&#65307;&#19981;&#26131;&#19977;&#20063;&#12290; commented on by [[Zheng Xuan]] (&#37165;&#29572; ''zhèng xúan'') in his writings ''Critique of I Ching'' (&#26131;&#36106; ''yì zàn'') and ''Commentary on I Ching'' (&#26131;&#35770; ''yì lùn'') of [[Eastern Han Dynasty]])
Due to the profound ideas conveyed by the title itself, it is practically impossible to arrive at an unbiased translation which could preserve the original concepts intact. The translation of the title into English used to be ''Book of Changes'', though a slightly more accurate name, ''Classic of Changes'', appears more frequently in recent use.
== History ==
===Traditional view===
Traditionally it was believed that the principles of the ''I Ching'' originated with the legendary [[Fu Hsi]] (&#20239;&#32690; ''Fú X&#299;''). In this respect he is seen as an early [[culture hero]], one of the earliest legendary rulers of China (traditional dates [[29th century BC|2852 BCE]]-[[28th century BC|2738 BCE]]), reputed to have had the [[Bagua_(concept)|trigrams]] (&#20843;&#21350; ''b&#257; gùa'') revealed to him supernaturally. By the time of [[Yu the Great|Yu]] (&#31161; ''Y&#468;''), trigrams had been developed into hexagrams (&#20845;&#21313;&#22235;&#21350; ''lìu shí sì gùa''), which were recorded in the scripture [[Lian Shan]] (&#12298;連山&#12299; ''Lián Sh&#257;n''; also called ''Lian Shan Yi''). ''Lian Shan'', meaning "continuous mountains" in Chinese, begins with the hexagram [[I Ching hexagram 52|Bound]] (&#33390; ''gèn''), which depicts a ''mountain'' (::|) mounting on another and is believed to be the origin of the scripture's name.
After the [[Xia Dynasty]] was overthrown by the [[Shang Dynasty]], the hexagrams were re-deduced to form [[Gui Cang]] (&#12298;歸藏&#12299; ''G&#363;i Cáng''; also called ''Gui Cang Yi''), and the hexagram [[I Ching hexagram 02|Field]] (&#22372; ''k&#363;n'') became the first hexagram. ''Gui Cang'' may be literally translated into "return and be contained," which refers to ''earth'' as the first hexagram itself indicates. At the time of Shang's last king, [[Zhou Wang]], [[King Wen of Zhou]] deduced the hexagram and discovered that the hexagrams beginning with [[I Ching hexagram 01|Force]] (&#20094; ''qián'') revealed the rise of [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]]. He then gave each hexagram a description regarding its own nature, thus [[Gua Ci]] (卦辭 ''guà cí'', "Explanation of Hexagrams").
When [[King Wu of Zhou]], son of King Wen, toppled the Shang Dynasty, his brother [[Zhou Gong Dan]] created [[Yao Ci]] (&#29243;&#36781; ''yáo cí'', "Explanation of Horizontal Lines") to clarify the significance of each horizontal line in each hexagram. It was not until then that the whole context of ''I Ching'' was understood. Its philosophy heavily influenced the literature and government administration of the [[Zhou Dynasty]] ([[1122 BCE]] - [[256 BCE]]).
Later, during the time of [[Spring and Autumn]] ([[722 BCE]] - [[481 BCE]]), [[Confucius]] wrote [[Shi Yi]] (&#21313;&#32764; ''shí yì'', "Ten Wings"), an introductory comment on the ''I Ching''. By the time of [[Han Wu Di]] (漢武帝 ''Hàn W&#468; Dì'') of the [[Western Han Dynasty]] (circa [[200 BCE]]), ''Shi Yi'' was often called ''Yi Zhuan'' (&#26131;傳 ''yì zhùan'', "Commentary on the I Ching"), and together with the ''I Ching'' they composed ''Zhou Yi'' (&#21608;&#26131; ''zh&#333;u yì'', "Changes of Zhou"). All later texts about ''Zhou Yi'' were explanations only, due to the classic's deep meaning.
===Western ("Modernist") view===
In the past 50 years a "Modernist" history of the ''I Ching'' has been emerging, based on context criticism and research into Shang and Zhou dynasty [[oracle bones]], as well as Zhou bronze inscriptions and other sources (see below). These reconstructions are dealt with in a growing number of books, such as ''The Mandate of Heaven: Hidden History in the I Ching'', by S. J. Marshall, and Richard Rutt's ''Zhouyi: The Book of Changes'', (see ''References'', below). Scholarly works dealing with the new view of the Book of Changes include doctoral dissertations by Richard Kunst and Edward Shaughnessy. These and other scholars have been helped immensely by the discovery, in the 1970s, by Chinese archaeologists, of intact Han dynasty era tombs in [[Ma-wang-tui Texts|Mawangdui]] near [[Changsha]], [[Hunan]] province. One of the tombs contained more or less complete 2nd century BCE texts of the ''I Ching'', the [[Dao De Jing]] and other works, which are mostly similar yet in some ways diverge significantly from the "received," or traditional, texts preserved by the chances of history.
The tomb texts include additional commentaries on the ''I Ching'', previously unknown, and apparently written as if they were meant to be attributed to Confucius. All of the Mawangdui texts are many centuries older than the earliest known attestations of the texts in question. When talking about the evolution of the Book of Changes, therefore, the Modernists contend that it is important to distinguish between the traditional history assigned to texts such as the ''I Ching'' (felt to be anachronistic by the Modernists), assignations in commentaries which have themselves been canonized over the centuries along with their subjects, and the more recent scholarly history aided by modern linguistic textual criticism and [[archaeology]]. Many hold that these perspectives are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but, for instance, many Modernist scholars doubt the actual existence of Fuxi, think Confucius had nothing to do with the Book of Changes, and contend that the hexagrams came before the trigrams.
== Structure ==
The ''I Ching'' symbolism is embodied in a set of 64 abstract line arrangements called ''[[Hexagram (I Ching)|hexagrams]]'' (&#21350; ''guà''). These are each composed of six stacked horizontal lines (&#29243; ''yáo''); each line is either [[Yang]] (''unbroken'', a ''solid'' line), or [[Yin]] (''broken'', an ''open'' line with a gap in the centre). With six such lines stacked from bottom to top in each hexagram, there are 2<sup>6</sup> or 64 possible combinations and thus 64 hexagrams.
Each hexagram is considered to be composed of two three-line arrangements called ''trigrams'' (&#21350; ''guà''). There are 2<sup>3</sup>, hence 8, possible trigrams.
Each hexagram represents a state, a process and may represent a change happening. When a hexagram is cast using one of the processes of [[divination with I Ching|divination with ''I Ching'']], each of the lines may be indicated as |
the technique is that it has very little buffering against interruptions in the flow e.g. power outages, but overall, it is probably one of the more productive techniques.
=== Aeroponics ===
{{main|Aeroponics}}
A class of hydroponics where the roots of a plant are suspended in a mist or fog of nutrient rich solution. Traditional aeroponic techniques use pumps and misters more commonly found in micro-irrigation systems, whereas state-of-the-art techniques employ ultrasonic nebulizers which render the nutrient solution into an extremely fine fog.
== Media ==
One of the most obvious decisions a hydroponicist has to make is which medium they should use. Different media are appropriate for different growing techniques.
===Expanded Clay===
Also known as 'hydroton' or 'leca' (=light expanded clay aggregate), trademarked names, these small round baked spheres of clay are inert and are suitable for hydroponic systems in which all the nutrients are carefully controlled in the water. Clay pebbles can be reused provided they are cleaned thoroughly between crops. Baked clay pebbles are highly porous, yet irregularly shaped to create an balance of air space and nutrient solution.
===Rockwool===
Rockwool is probably the most widely used medium in Hydroponics. Made from basalt rock it
is heat treated at high temperatures then spun back together like candy floss. It comes in lots
of different forms including cubes, blocks, slabs and granulated or flock. When medium is dry, care needs be taken so as not inhale any particles. Inhaling such particles may carry a health risk.
===Coco Coir===
Coco is a compressed medium created from the husks of coconuts. Coco coir comes also in bags and in slabs. Some types of Coco coir are very high in sodium (salt) due to the nature of Coconut Palms growing on island environments and being processed in the salt air.
===Perlite===
[[Perlite]] is a volcanic rock that has been superheated into, very lightweight, expanded glass pebbles. It is used loose or in plastic sleeves immersed in the water. It is also used in potting soil mixes to decrease soil density. Perlite has similar properties and uses to [[vermiculite]] but generally holds more air and less water.
===Vermiculite===
Like perlite, [[vermiculite]] is another mineral that has been superheated until it has expanded into light pebbles. Vermiculite holds more water than perlite and has a natural "wicking" property that can draw water and nutrients in a passive hydroponic system. If too much water and not enough air surrounds the plants roots, it's possible to gradually lower the medium's water-retention capability by mixing in increasing quantities of perlite.
===Oasis Root Cubes===
An open cell foam cube with a preset pH and a mild fertilizer added, [[Horticube|Oasis root cubes]] produced by [http://www.smithersoasis.com/ Smithers Oasis] is the choice of large scale nutrient film growers. It is availible in many different sizes. Widely marketed in sheets sized to fit commercial trays (10"x20"), it is a convenient propogation media. Each sheet is pre-scored for easy removal of a single cube, block of cubes, or strip of cubes. Each cube has been pre-punched with a dibble hole for quick and easy seed or plant cutting insertion.
== Nutrient Solutions ==
Plant [[nutrient]]s are dissolved in the water used in hydroponics and are mostly in inorganic and [[ion]]ic form. Primary among the dissolved cations (positively-charged ions) are Ca<sup>2+</sup> ([[calcium]]), Mg<sup>2+</sup> ([[magnesium]]), and K<sup>+</sup> ([[potassium]]); the major nutrient anions in nutrient solutions are NO<sub>3</sub><sup>&minus;</sup> ([[nitrate]]), SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2&minus;</sup> ([[sulfate]]), and H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub><sup>&minus;</sup> ([[phosphate]]).
Numerous 'recipes' for hydroponic solutions are available. Many use different combinations of chemicals to reach similar total final compositions. Commonly-used chemicals for the macronutrients include [[potassium nitrate]], [[calcium nitrate]], potassium phosphate, and [[magnesium sulfate]]. Various micronutrients are typically added to hydroponic solutions to supply essential elements; among them are Fe ([[iron]]), Mn ([[manganese]]), Cu ([[copper]]), Zn ([[zinc]]), B ([[boron]]), Cl ([[chlorine]]), and Ni ([[nickel]]). [[Chelating]] agents are sometimes used to keep Fe soluble.
Plants will change the composition of the nutrient solutions upon contact by depleting specific nutrients more rapidly than others, removing water from the solution, and altering the [[pH]] by excretion of either acidity or alkalinity. Care is required not to allow salt concentrations to become too high, nutrients to become too depleted, or pH to wander far from the desired value.
== Commercial ==
Due to rising awareness of chemicals and other contaminants in the food supply, people are looking for more wholesome and safer alternatives. Fortunately, hydroponics is the exact fit for the consumer&#8217;s new requirements.
Some commercial installations use no [[pesticide]]s or [[herbicide]]s, preferring Integrated Pest Management Techniques. There is often a price premium willingly paid by consumers for produce which is labeled "Organic". This means that lawyers and lobbyists are paid to establish rules and laws determining exactly who can charge consumers more and which produce can be legally sold with the label "Organic". Some States in the USA require soil as a "[[sine qua non]]" to obtain Organic Certification. There are also overlapping and somewhat contradictory rules established by the Federal Government. So some food grown with hydroponics can be certified [[organic farming|organic]]. In fact, they are the cleanest plants possible because there is no environment variable and the dirt in the food supply is extremely limited. Hydroponics also saves an incredible amount of water; It uses as little as 1/20 the amount as a regular farm to produce the same amount of food. The water table can be impacted by the water use and run-off of chemicals from farms, but hydroponics may minimize impact as well as having the advantage that water use and water returns are easier to measure. This can save the farmer money by allowing reduced water use and the ability to measure consequences to the land around a farm.
The environment in a hydroponics [[greenhouse]] is tightly controlled for maximum efficiency and this new mindset is called Soil-less/Controlled Environment Agriculture (S/CEA). With this growers can make ultra-premium foods anywhere in the world, regardless of temperature and growing seasons. Growers monitor the temperature, humidity, and [[pH]] level constantly. In an era of farm globalization where each successive year thousands of farms are closed down worldwide due to excess capacity, only the most efficient farms will be passed down to generations in the 22nd century.
== Problems with hydroponics ==
Although hydroponics is useful and an expanding area of agriculture, it is not without problems. One of the biggest problems with hydroponics is the need to balance the Ph of the nutrient mixtures. On large scale commercial operations computers can be used to help control the different factors, making hydroponics more complex and thus more expensive. However, the added benefit of computer controlled growing environments is that manual intervention is kept to a minimum. There are experimental computer systems which allow every aspect of the growing environment to be monitored remotely, via a network.
Luckily, hydroponics is not nearly as difficult when done on a small scale. Hydroponic systems may be as complicated or as simple as the gardener's abilities and needs dictate. Often more advanced systems will produce more abundant or higher quality crops. However even the simplest hydroponic system can yield incredible results when compared to their soil counterparts.
== Present and future ==
With pest problems reduced, and nutrients constantly fed to the roots, productivity in hydroponics is high, plant growth being limited by the low levels of [[carbon dioxide]] in the atmosphere, or limited light. To increase yield further, some sealed greenhouses inject carbon dioxide into their environment to help growth (CO<sub>2</sub> enrichment), or add lights to lengthen the day, control vegetative growth etc.
Hydroponics can be used to grow plants anywhere, from [[Antarctica]] (where salad vegetables are grown in the 6 month nights) to a coal mine. If vegetables are grown in future space missions, it is likely to be by hydroponic methods.
The fact that plants can be grown almost anywhere, with no natural light by using hydroponics and lighting has not escaped the notice of clandestine [[marijuana]] growers, and a large amount of hydroponics equipment appears to be in use for this purpose. In the UK, theft of high intensity (HID) grow lamps from commercial vegetable growers is a chronic problem. However, this trend is being reduced by the increased availability, especially via the internet, of the specialist hydroponics equipment. Wide availability and low cost of equipment in the U.S. makes theft from greenhouses a rare event. In the UK, growing cannabis remains the criminal offence of [[trafficking]]. Large scale growing operations using hydroponics are often detected from abnormally high electricity consumption..
== See also ==
{{commonscat}}
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Futurology]]
[[Category:Horticulture]]
[[cs:Hydroponie]]
[[de:Hydrokultur]]
[[fi:Hydroviljely]]
[[fr:Hydroponie]]
[[he:הידרופוניקה]]
[[ja:水耕栽培]]
[[no:Vannkultur]]
[[pl:Hydroponika]]
[[ru:Гидропоника]]
[[th:ไฮโดรโปนิกส์]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Humanist</title>
<id>14134</id>
<revision> |
effect|greenhouse Earth]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 900 MYA
| There are 481 18-hour days in a year. The [[rotation]] of the Earth has gradually slowed ever since.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 750-580 MYA
| According to the [[Snowball Earth]] hypothesis, the [[Precambrian]] [[Cryogenian|Varangian]] ice age is so severe that the Earth's oceans freeze over completely; only in the tropics do oceans remain liquid.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 600 MYA
| Sponges ([[Porifera]]), Jellyfish ([[Cnidaria]]), flat worms ([[Platyhelminthes]]) and other multicellular [[Animal|animals]] appear in the oceans. Cnidaria and [[Ctenophora]] are some of the earliest creatures to have [[neuron]]s; these are in the form a simple net, with no [[brain]] or [[central nervous system]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 600-540 MYA
| The second supercontinent, [[Pannotia]], forms and breaks up.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 565-525 MYA
| The [[Cambrian explosion]], a rapid set of evolutionary changes, creates all the major body plans ([[Phylum (biology)|phyla]]) of modern [[Animal|animals]]. The cause of this huge expansion in the variety of life forms is still a matter of scientific debate. [[Arthropoda]], represented by an abundance of [[trilobites]], is the dominant phylum. ''[[Pikaia]]'', a small swimmer of the phylum [[chordata]], is possibly the ancestor of humans. ''[[Anomalocaris]]'' is a predator up to 2 meters in length whose living descendant today may well be the ''[[Pycnogonid]]'', or Sea Spider<ref>"<cite>The evolutionary foundation for the organization of many animal body plans is segmental—we are made of rings of similar stuff, repeated over and over again along our body length</cite>" [http://pharyngula.org/index/weblog/comments/pycnogonid_tagmosis Pycnogonid tagmosis and echoes of the Cambrian] <br /> "<cite>Pycnogonids are primitive chelicerates related to ticks and mites, and they make their living as predators and scavengers. This one, Haliestes dasos, is the oldest sea spider known.</cite>" [http://pharyngula.org/index/weblog/comments/haliestes_dasos_a_sea_spider/ Haliestes dasos, a sea spider] <br />"<cite>If you were a trilobite or other small Cambrian
animal, you did NOT want to see this coming</cite>" [http://www.trilobites.info/anohome.html The Anomalocaris Homepage (animation)]</ref>.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 530 MYA
| First footprints on land <ref>"<cite>The oldest fossils of footprints ever found on land hint that animals may have beaten plants out of the primordial seas. Lobster-sized, centipede-like animals made the prints wading out of the ocean and scuttling over sand dunes about 530 million years ago. Previous fossils indicated that animals didn't take this step until 40 million years later.</cite>" [http://www.innovations-report.com/print/print_en01.php3?id=9641&ctyp=1 Oldest fossil footprints on land]</ref>
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 505 MYA
| The first [[vertebrate]]s appear: the [[ostracoderms]], jawless fish related to present-day [[lamprey]]s and [[hagfish]]es. ''[[Haikouichthys]]'' and ''[[Myllokunmingia]]'' are examples of these jawless fish, or [[Agnatha]]. (See also [[prehistoric fish]]).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 488 MYA
| The [[Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events|first]] of the seven major [[extinction events]] over [[Geologic time scale|geological time]] occurs at the Cambrian-Ordovician transition.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 475 MYA
| The first primitive [[Plant|plants]] move onto land<ref>"<cite>The oldest fossils reveal evolution of non-vascular plants by the middle to late Ordovician Period (~450-440 m.y.a.) on the basis of fossil spores</cite>" [http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/pciesiel/gly3150/plant.html Transition of plants to land]</ref>, having evolved from green algae<ref>"<cite>The land plants evolved from the algae, more specifically green algae, as suggested by certain common
biochemical traits</cite>" [http://scitec.uwichill.edu.bb/bcs/bl14apl/conq.htm The first land plants]</ref> living along the edges of lakes. They are accompanied by [[fungus|fungi]], and very likely plants and fungi work [[symbiosis|symbiotically]] together; [[lichens]] exemplify such a symbiosis.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 450 MYA
| [[Arthropod|Arthropods]], with an exoskeleton that provides support and prevents water loss<ref>"<cite>The waxy cuticle of arachnids and insects prevents water loss and protects against desiccation</cite>" [http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.312.330 Natural history collection: arthropoda]</ref>, are the first [[animal]]s to move onto land<ref>"<cite>For hundreds of millions of years, animal life resided only in the oceans. And then about 400 million years ago, fossil tracks suggest that an animal called a eurypterid left the water to walk on land. Maybe it was fleeing enemies, maybe it was searching for an easy meal, or maybe it was seeking a safe place to lay its eggs.</cite>" [http://www.pbs.org/kcet/shapeoflife/episodes/conquerors.html The shape of life. The conquerors. PBS]</ref>. Among the first are [[Myriapoda]] ([[millipede]]s and [[centipede]]s), later followed by [[spider]]s and [[scorpion]]s.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 450-440 MYA
| The two [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction events]] occur. Taken together these constitute the second mass extinction event.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 400 MYA
| [[Insects#Fossils_and_evolution|First insects]] are without wings: [[silverfish]], [[springtail]]s, [[bristletail]]s. First sharks appear<ref>"<cite>The ancestry of sharks dates back more than 200 million years before the earliest known dinosaur.</cite> [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/evol_s_predator.htm Introduction to shark evolution, geologic time and age determination]</ref>. First ''[[Coelacanth]]'' appears; the species had been thought to be long-extinct until living specimens were discovered in 1938. It is often referred to as a [[living fossil]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 370 MYA
| ''[[Cladoselache]]'', a [[shark]], is a high speed predator<ref>"<cite>Cladoselache was something of an oddball among ancient sharks. A four-foot (1.2-metre) long inhabitant of late Devonian seas (about 370 million years ago), it exhibited a strange combination of ancestral and derived characteristics.</cite> [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/ancient.htm Ancient sharks]</ref>.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 365 MYA
| The [[Late Devonian extinction]] is the third mass extinction.
[[Insect|Insects]] evolve on land and in fresh water from the [[Myriapoda|myriapods]]. Some fresh water lobe-finned [[fish]] ([[Sarcopterygii]]) develop legs and give rise to the [[Tetrapoda]]. This happens in the water; [[Tetrapoda|tetrapods]] ([[Ichthyostega]] , [[Acanthostega]] and ''[[Pederpes finneyae]]'') then use their legs to move out onto land, probably to hunt insects. [[Lung]]s and [[swim bladder]]s evolve. [[Amphibia]]ns today still retain many characteristics of the early tetrapods.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 360 MYA
| Plants evolve [[seed]]s, structures that protect plant embryos and enable plants to spread quickly on land. Creation of [[Woodleigh crater]] (100 km wide) and [[Siljan_(lake)|Siljan Ring]] (40 km wide, [[Dalecarlia]], [[Sweden]]).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 360-286 MYA
| The golden age of sharks<ref>"<cite>Sharks have undergone a lot of evolutionary experimentation since their earliest beginnings. Over hundreds of millions of years, sharks were tested by a mercurial and often violently changeable environment.</cite>" [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/golden_age.htm A Golden Age of Sharks]</ref>.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 350-250 MYA
| [[Karoo]] [[Ice Age]], beginning with early [[Carboniferous]] and ending with late [[Permian]]. Two particular periods in which much of [[Gondwanaland]] is glaciated from an early centre in Africa and South America, and a later centre in India and Australia, caused by [[polar wandering]]
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 300 MYA
| The supercontinent [[Pangea]] forms and will last for 120 million years; this is the last time all of the earth's continents fuse into one. Evolution of the [[amniotic egg]] gives rise to the [[Amniota]], [[Reptile|reptiles]], who can reproduce on land. Insects evolve flight, and include a number of different orders (e.g. [[Palaeodictyoptera]], [[Megasecoptera]], [[Diaphanopterodea]], and [[Protorthoptera]]) Dragonflies ([[Odonata]]) still resemble many of these early insects. Vast [[Forest|forests]] of [[Lycopodiophyta|clubmosses]] ([[lycopods]]), [[Equisetophyta|horsetails]], and [[tree fern]]s cover the land; when these decay they will eventually form [[Coal#Composition_and_creation|coal]] and [[Petroleum#Biogenic_theory|oil]]. [[Gymnosperm]]s begin to diversify widely. [[Cycads]], plants resembling palms, first appear.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 280 MYA
| The [[Protodonata|Protodonatan]] [[dragonfly]] ''[[Meganeura|Meganeura monyi]]'' is among the biggest insects that ever lived, with a wingspan of a |
ers]]
* [[List of famous virgins|List of virgins]]
* [[List of notable people who have commented on the LSD experience]]
==People by belief==
* [[List of people by belief|Lists of people by belief]], religious belief or philosophy
* [[List of atheists]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[List of Christians]]
* [[List of Democrat celebrities|List of Democratic celebrities]]
* [[List of humanists]]
* [[List of Latter-day Saints]]
* [[List of Lutherans]]
* [[List of Muslims]]
* [[List of pacifists]]
* [[List of Republican celebrities]]
* [[List of Roman Catholics]]
* [[List of transhumanists]]
==People by achievements (possibly in some cases by circumstance)==
*[[List of prizes, medals, and awards]]
*[[List of people with two or more professions]]
*[[The 100 (book)|Michael H. Hart's list of the 100 most influential people in history]]
*[[Eponyms|List of people with things named after them]]
*[[Disney Legends|List of Disney Legends]]
*[[List of people on multiple governing boards]]
==People by occupation==
* [[List of people by occupation|Lists of people by occupation]], profession, vocation
* List of [[political theorist]]s
* [[Lists of office-holders]]: kings, popes and presidents
* [[List of exorcists]]
* [[List of show business families]]
* People who have worked in pairs
** [[List of entertainer pairs]]
** [[List of scientist pairs]]
** [[List of pairs of colleagues]]
==People by studies==
* [[List of former pupils of Westminster]]
* [[List of polymaths]]
==People by circumstance==
* [[List of billionaires]]
* [[List of Disney people]]
* [[List of famous families]]
* [[List of famous pairs]] (people, places and things)
** [[List of couples]]
** [[List of Hollywood celebrity couples]]
* [[List of famous people who died young]]
* [[List of people on stamps]]
* [[List of people who became famous only in death]]
* [[List of people who became famous for surviving a deadly event]]
* [[List of people who have acted as their own attorney]]
* [[List of mugshots collected by The Smoking Gun|List of people with mugshots collected by The Smoking Gun]]
* [[List of premature obituaries]]
* [[List of people in news this week]]
==Real people appearing in fiction==
* [[List of real people appearing in fictional context]]
**[[List of celebrities on The Simpsons]]
**[[Scrooge McDuck#Encounters with real people|Scrooge McDuck's Encounters with real people]]
==See also==
*[[List of reference tables]]
==External links==
*http://www.nndb.com/
[[Category:Lists of people|*Lists of people]]
[[bg:Списък на биографии]]
[[br:Roll an dud arroudennet]]
[[cs:Seznam osobností]]
[[de:Liste der Biografien]]
[[et:Biograafiad]]
[[es:Lista de biografías]]
[[eo:Listo de biografioj]]
[[fa:فهرستهای افراد]]
[[fr:Liste de personnes célèbres]]
[[fy:Biografylist]]
[[fur:Biografîs]]
[[ga:Liosta daoine]]
[[ko:인물일람]]
[[hr:Popis osoba]]
[[it:Biografie]]
[[li:Biografielies op alfabet]]
[[nl:Biografielijst]]
[[ja:人名一覧]]
[[pl:Noty biograficzne]]
[[pt:Biografias]]
[[ro:Listă de biografii]]
[[ru:Персоналии]]
[[scn:Biografìi]]
[[sl:Seznam osebnosti]]
[[sr:Списак људи]]
[[fi:Luettelo henkilöistä]]
[[tr:Önemli filozoflar]]
[[uk:Персоналії]]
[[zh:人名表]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of people by name: A</title>
<id>3885</id>
<revision>
<id>36796166</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T15:08:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 January 18|Jan 18]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{List_of_people_A}}
{{Index only| a person}}
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[[de:Liste der Biografien/A]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of people by name: Z</title>
<id>3886</id>
<revision>
<id>30548594</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-08T02:53:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jerzy</username>
<id>21860</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cnv template to std naming convention</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people Z}}
{{Index only| a person}}
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This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is
List of people by name
) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text.
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[[de:Liste der Biografien/Z]]
[[es:Lista de biografías (Z)]]
[[eo:Listo de biografioj - Z]]
[[nl:Biografielijst Z]]
[[pl:Noty biograficzne - Z]]
[[pt:Biografias: Z]]
[[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: Z]]
[[zh:人名表/Z]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of people by name: Y</title>
<id>3887</id>
<revision>
<id>41232427</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T23:22:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dale Arnett</username>
<id>25667</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Ye */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people}}
__FORCETOC__
=Ya=
==Yad - Yam ==
*[[Dimitri Yachvili|Yachvili, Dimitri]], (born 1980), French rugby player
*[[Laloo Prasad Yadav|Yadav, Laloo Prasad]], (born 1948), Indian politician
*[[Genrikh Yagoda|Yagoda, Genrikh Grigor'evich]], (1891-1938)
*[[Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev|Yakovlev, Alexander Nikolaevich]], (born 1923)
*[[Alexander Sergeyevich Yakovlev|Yakovlev, Alexander Sergeyevich]], (1906-1989)
*[[Anatoli A. Yakovlev|Yakovlev, Anatoli A.]]
*[[Vadim Yakovlev|Yakovlev, Vadim]], Russian soldier
*[[Yakub of Alexandria]], (819-830), Coptic Pope
*[[Yakubu Gowon]], (born 1934), Nigeria soldier & politician
*[[Alexander Yakushev|Yakushev, Alexander]], hockey player
*[[Elihu Yale|Yale, Elihu]], (1649-1721), American philanthropist
*[[Linus Yale, Jr.|Yale, Linus Jr.]], (1821-1868), American innovator of locks
*[[Irvin Yalom|Yalom, Irvin]], psychologist
*[[Takayuki Yamada|Yamada, Takayuki]] (born 1983), Japanese actor
*[[Yamagata Hiro]], (born 1964), author
*[[Yamamoto Isoroku]], (1884-1943), Japanese sailor
*[[Yamamoto Tsunetomo]], (1659-1719), Japanese author
*[[Akira Yamaoka|Yamaoka, Akira]], (born 1968), Japanese composer
*[[Minoru Yamasaki|Yamasaki, Minoru]], (1912-1986), American architect
*[[Tomoyuki Yamashita|Yamashita, Tomoyuki]], (1885-1946), Japanese soldier
*[[Maurice Yaméogo|Yaméogo, Maurice]], (1921-1993)
== Yan - Yas ==
*[[Yan Chia-kan]], (1905-1993), Chinese politician
*[[Romina Yan|Yan, Romina]], (born 1974), Argentine actress
*[[Jimmy Yancey|Yancey, James Edwards "Jimmy"]], (c. 1898-1951), American musician
*[[Yang Ch'eng-fu]], (1883-1936), martial arts teacher
*[[Yang Yang (A)]] (born 1976), Chinese short track speed skater
*[[Yang Yang (S)]] (born 1977), Chinese short track speed skater
*[[Bosa Yankovich|Yankovich, Bosa]], Serbian soldier <!-- general -->
*[["Weird Al" Yankovic|Yankovic, "Weird Al"]], (born 1959), American musician
*[[Zal Yanovsky|Yanovsky, Zal]], (1945-2002), Canadian musician
*[[Yao Ming]], (born 1980), basketball player
*[[Yao Wenyuan]], (born 1931)
*[[Akram Yari|Yari, Akram]], founder of the Communist movement of Afghanistan
*[[Ralph Yarborough | Yarborough, Ralph]], American politician
*[[Chelsea Quinn Yarbro|Yarbro, Chelsea Quinn]], (born 1942), American author
*[[Yury Yaremenko|Yaremenko, Yury]], (died 1996), Soviet economist
*[[Yury Yarov|Yarov, Yury]], (born 1942), Russian politician
*[[Mike Yarwood|Yarwood, Mike]], (born 1941), British comedian
*[[Lev Yashin|Yashin, Lev]], (1929-1990), Russian football player
*[[Yasmah-Adad]], Assyrian King
*[[Carl Yastrzemski|Yastrzemski, Carl]], (born 1939), baseball player
*[[Yasunori Mitsuda|Yasunori, Mitsuda]], (born 1972), Japanese composer
== Yat - Yaz ==
*[[Abraham Yates|Yates, Abraham]], (1724-1796), American politician
*[[Andrea Pia Yates|Yates, Andrea Pia]], American murderer of her own children
*[[Dornford Yates|Yates, Dornford]], (1885-1960), British novelist
*[[Frank Yates|Yates, Frank]], (1902-1994), statistician
*[[Joseph C. Yates|Yates, Joseph C.]], (1768-1837), American jurist & politician
*[[Peter W. Yates|Yates, Peter W.]], (1747-1826), American politician
*[[Richard Yates (governor)|Yates, Richard]], (1818-1873), American politician
*[[Richard Yates (novelist)|Yates, Richard]], (1926-1992), American novelist
*[[Simon Yates|Yates, Simon]], (born 1963), British mountaineer
*[[John Yau|Yau, John]], (b. 1950), American poet
*[[Shing-Tung Yau|Yau, Shing-Tung]], Chinese mathematician
*[[Grigory Yavlinsky|Yavlinsky, Grigory]], (born 1952), Russian economist & politician
*[[Yazdegerd I of Persia]], (fl. early 5th century)
*[[Yazdegerd II of Persia]], (fl. mid-5th century)
*[[Yazdegerd III of Persia]], (fl. mid-7th century)
= Ye =
*[[Chuck Yeager|Yeager, Chuck]], (b. 1923), American test-pilot
*[[Trisha Yearwood|Yearwood, Trisha]], (born 1964), musician
*[[Jack Butler Yeats|Yeats, Jack Butler]], (1871-1957), painter
*[[William Butler Yeats|Yeats, William Butler]], (1865-1939), Irish writer
*[[Tony Yeboah|Yeboah, Anthony]], (born 1964), Ghanaian footballer
*[[Boris Yegorov|Yegorov, Boris Borisovich]], (1937-1994), Russian astronaut
*[ |
ny polynomial ''p''(''z'') of degree ''d'' can be written in the form
:<math> p(z) = \sum_{k=0}^{d} a_k {z\choose k} </math>
This is important in the theory of [[difference equation]]s and [[finite difference]]s, and can be seen as a discrete analog of [[Taylor's theorem]]. It is closely related to [[Newton's polynomial]]. Alternating sums of this form may be expressed as the [[Nörlund-Rice integral]].
== Newton's binomial series ==
Newton's binomial series, named after [[Sir Isaac Newton]], is one of the simplest [[Newton series]]:
:<math> (1+z)^{\alpha} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty}{\alpha\choose n}z^n = 1+{\alpha\choose1}z+{\alpha\choose 2}z^2+\cdots.</math>
The radius of convergence of this series is 1. An alternative expression is
:<math>\frac{1}{(1-z)^{\alpha+1}} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty}{\alpha+n\choose \alpha}z^n</math>
where the identity
:<math>{n \choose k} = (-1)^k {k-n-1 \choose k}</math>
is applied.
The formula for the binomial series was etched onto Newton's gravestone in [[Westminster Abbey]] in [[1727]].
== Generalization to ''q''-series ==
The binomial coefficient has a [[q-analog]] generalization known as the [[Gaussian binomial]].
==See also==
* [[Central binomial coefficient]]
* [[Binomial transform]]
* [[Table of Newtonian series]]
* [[List of factorial and binomial topics]]
== References ==
* ''This article incorporates material from the following [[PlanetMath]] articles, which are licensed under the [[Wikipedia:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]]: [http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&amp;from=objects&amp;id=273 Binomial Coefficient], [http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&amp;from=objects&amp;id=4074 Bounds for binomial coefficients], [http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&amp;from=objects&amp;id=6744 Proof that C(n,k) is an integer], [http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&amp;from=objects&amp;id=6309 Generalized binomial coefficients].''
* [[Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 1: ''Fundamental Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 1.2.6: Binomial Coefficients, pp.52&ndash;74.
* David Singmaster, Notes on binomial coefficients. III. Any integer divides almost all binomial coefficients. ''J. London Math. Soc. (2),'' volume 8 (1974), 555&ndash;560.
[[Category:Factorial and binomial topics]]
[[Category:Integer sequences]]
[[bn:দ্বিপদী সহগ]]
[[cs:Kombinační číslo]]
[[de:Binomialkoeffizient]]
[[es:Coeficiente binomial]]
[[fi:Binomikerroin]]
[[fr:Coefficient binomial]]
[[it:Coefficiente binomiale]]
[[ko:이항계수]]
[[lt:Deriniai]]
[[nl:Binomiaalcoëfficiënt]]
[[pl:Symbol Newtona]]
[[ru:Биномиальный коэффициент]]
[[sl:Binomski koeficient]]
[[sr:Биномни коефицијент]]
[[zh:二項式係數]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bill Holbrook</title>
<id>4669</id>
<revision>
<id>37786330</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T03:21:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CyberSkull</username>
<id>123609</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bill Holbrook''' is a prolific American [[comic strip]] writer and artist.
Holbrook draws three strips:
* ''[[On the Fastrack]] ''(see [http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/fastrack/about.htm Info about ''On the Fastrack'']).
* ''[[Safe Havens]]'', syndicated nationally in the USA (see [http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/safehavn/about.htm Info about ''Safe Havens'']).
* ''[[Kevin and Kell]]'', originally an [[webcomic|online-only strip]] but now also published in the [[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]].
His online biography (found on the ''Kevin and Kell'' [http://kevinandkell.com/ web page]) says that every week he writes the story line for the next three weeks for one of his strips and draws the next three weeks' worth of strips for another.
{{webcomic-author-stub}}
[[Category:American cartoonists|Holbrook, Bill]]
[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists|Holbrook, Bill]]
[[Category:Webcomic authors|Holbrook, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Holbrook, Bill]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bruce Campbell</title>
<id>4670</id>
<revision>
<id>41734741</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:47:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.75.132.179</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Videogame credits */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brucecampbellsiu.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bruce Campbell lectures on his life as a B Movie actor.]]'''Bruce Campbell''' (born [[June 22]], [[1958]], [[Royal Oak, Michigan]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]] of [[Scottish people|Scottish]] descent. Campbell is best known for his starring role as [[Ash Williams|Ash]] in the ''[[Evil Dead]]'' trilogy of [[horror film|horror]]/slapstick [[film|movies]].
Campbell began acting as a teenager and soon began making small [[Super 8mm film|Super 8]] movies with friends. After meeting [[Sam Raimi]] in high school the two became good friends and started making movies together. Campbell would go on to attend [[Western Michigan University]] while he continued to work on his acting career. A few years and at least fifty movies later, they got together with other family and friends and began work on ''[[The Evil Dead]].'' Campbell starred and worked behind the camera, receiving a "co-executive producer" credit; Raimi directed. Four years later the movie became a [[cult film|cult]] hit in [[England]], leading to American success and two [[sequel]]s: Evil Dead II and the Army of Darkness.
[[Image:Bruce-Campbell-G4-Jun72005.jpg|thumb|left|260px|Campbell during a [[G4_(TV channel)|G4]] television interview]]
Campbell has appeared in many of Raimi's films outside of the ''Evil Dead'' series, usually in small roles. He was supposed to star in ''[[Darkman]]'' but the studio reportedly insisted on [[Liam Neeson]]. Campbell stayed on behind the scenes, credited as "additional voice recording," and appears in the film's final shot. He has also had several small parts in the movies of [[Joel and Ethan Coen]] (Joel was an editor on ''The Evil Dead''). Many people consider him to be the greatest "[[B-movie]]" star of all time. He often appears in films that go [[Direct-to-video|straight to video]] or cable TV. Over the years Bruce has developed a huge fanbase and he is a favorite at film conventions. Campbell has a reputation as being one of the nicest people in the business, and offers advice about getting into the film industry on his website.
Campbell is referred to in the [[2002]] film ''[[Dog Soldiers]]'' in which one of the characters is named after him.
Outside of film, Campbell has appeared in a number of television series. While he starred in ''[[The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.]]'' and ''[[Jack of All Trades]],'' he is better known for his supporting role as the [[recurring character]] [[Autolycus]] ("the King of Thieves") on the fantasy series ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]'' and ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]].'' He also directed a number of episodes of ''Hercules'' and ''Xena.''
Campbell's [[autobiography]], ''If Chins Could Kill: Confessions of a B Movie Actor'' traces his career as an actor in low-budget movies and television. The paperback adds a chapter about the reaction of fans at book signings. Campbell has also finished a new book entitled "Make Love the Bruce Campbell Way." It is comedic novel featuring himself as the main character, struggling to make it into the world of [[A-list]] movies, and the ensuing chaos that results.
Campbell wrote an ongoing column for X Ray Magazine in Cincinnati, Ohio called "Off the Chin."
Campbell lives in Oregon with his wife, Ida Gearon.
== Film credits ==
* ''[[Spider-Man 3]]'' (rumored [[2007]])
* ''[[The Ant Bully]]'' ([[2006]])
* ''[[They Call Me Bruce]]'' ([[2006]])
* ''[[Man with the Screaming Brain]]'' ([[2005]])
* ''[[Sky High (2005 film)|Sky High]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Alien Apocalypse]]'' (2005)
* ''[[The Woods]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Spider-Man 2]]'' ([[2004]]) (Cameo)
* ''[[The Ladykillers]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Intolerable Cruelty]]'' ([[2003]]) (Cameo)
* ''[[Drugs (film)|Drugs]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Terminal Invasion]]'' ([[2002]])
* ''[[Timequest]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Hatred of a Minute]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Serving Sara]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Bubba Ho-Tep]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Spider-Man (film)|Spider-Man]]'' (2002) (Cameo)
* ''[[The Majestic]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[Running Time]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[McHale's Navy]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Escape From L.A.]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Congo (movie)|Congo]]'' ([[1995]])
* ''[[The Hudsucker Proxy]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[Army of Darkness]]'' (a.k.a. ''Evil Dead 3'') ([[1993]])
* ''[[Maniac Cop]]'' ([[1988]])
* ''[[Evil Dead II|Evil Dead 2: Dead by Dawn]]'' ([[1987]])
* ''[[Crimewave]]'' ([[1985]])
* ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' ([[1982]])
== Television credits ==
* ''[[My Life As A Teenage Robot]]'' (As the voice of Himcules)
* ''[[Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman]]''
* ''[[The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.]]''
* ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]''
* ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]''
* ''[[Jack of All Trades]]''
* ''[[Ellen_DeGeneres|Ellen]]''
* ''[[Homicide:_Life_on_the_Street|Homicide: Life on the Street]]''
* ''[[The X-Files]]'' ([[The X-Files (season 6)|season 6]], episode 7: ''Terms of Endearment'')
* ''[[Megas XLR]]'' (Guest starring as Magnanimous in two episodes)
* ''[[Charmed]]'' - as [[Agent Jackman]]
* ''[[V.I.P._(TV_series)|V.I.P.]]'' (Director)
==Videogame credits==
*[[Evil Dead: Hail to the King]]
*[[Evil Dead: Fistful of Boomstick]]
*[[Evil Dead: Regeneration]]
*[[Spider-Man: The Movie]]
*[[Spider-Man 2]]
*[[Tachyon: The Fringe]]
==Sources==
* ''If Chins Could Kill: Confessions of a B Movie Actor'' (ISBN 0312242646),
* ''Make Love the Bruce Campbell Way''
==External links==
* [http://www.bruce-campbell.c |
lkai Estasan]]
== [[Norse mythology|Norse]] ==
*[[Ægir]]
*[[Balder]]
*[[Bragi]]
*[[Freyr]]
*[[Freya]] (ON Freyja)
*[[Frigg]]
*[[Heimdall]] (ON Heimdallr)
*[[Hel (goddess)|Hel]]
*[[Hodur]] (ON Hǫðr)
*[[Iðunn]]
*[[Loki]]
*[[Niord]] (ON Njǫrðr)
*[[Odin]] (ON Óðinn)
*[[Sif]]
*[[Thor]] (ON Þórr)
*[[Tyr]] (ON Týr)
*[[Vali (Norse mythology)|Vali]] (ON Váli)
== [[Pawnee mythology|Pawnee]] ==
*[[Pah]]
*[[Shakuru]]
*[[Tirawa]]
== [[Persian mythology|Persian]] ==
* See the article: [[Persian deities]]
== [[Polynesian mythology|Polynesian]] ==
*[[Atea]]
*[[Ina (goddess)|Ina]]
*[[Kane Milohai]]
*[[Maui (mythology)|Maui]]
*[[Papa]]
*[[Pele (mythology)|Pele]]
*[[Rangi]]
*[[Rongo]]
*[[Lono]]
see also [[Menehune]]
== [[Prussian people|Prussian]] and [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] ==
*[[Bangputtis]]
*[[Melletele]]
*[[Occupirn]]
*[[Perkunatete]]
*[[Perkunos]]
*[[Pikullos]]
*[[Potrimpos]]
*[[Swaigstigr]]
== [[Pygmy mythology|Pygmy]] ==
*[[Arebati]]
*[[Khonvoum]]
*[[Tore]]
== [[Roman mythology|Roman]] ==
*[[Apollo]] - god of the sun, poetry, music (Same for Greeks)
*[[Dionysus|Bacchus]] - god of wine (Greek Bacchus or Dionysus)
*[[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]] - goddess of the harvest (Greek Demeter)
*[[Cupid]] - god of love (Greek Eros)
*[[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] - goddess of the hunt (Greek Artemis)
*[[Janus (mythology)|Janus]] - two-headed god of beginnings and endings
*[[Juno (mythology)|Juno]] - chief goddess, marriage (Greek Hera)
*[[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] - chief god, sky (Greek Zeus)
*[[Maia (mythology)|Maia]] - the "good goddess", spring
*[[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] - god of war (Greek Ares, but characterized more positively)
*[[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] - messenger of the gods (Greek Hermes)
*[[Minerva]] - goddess of wisdom, civilization (Greek Athena)
*[[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]] - god of the sea (Greek Poseidon)
*[[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]] - god of the underworld (Greek Hades)
*[[Plutus]] - god of wealth
*[[Proserpina]] - queen of the underworld (Greek Persephone)
*[[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]] - father of Jupiter (Greek Cronus)
*[[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] - father of Saturn (Greek Oranos - ''a titan'')
*[[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] - goddess of beauty (Greek Aphrodite)
*[[Vesta (mythology)|Vesta]] - goddess of the hearth (Greek Hestia)
*[[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]] - god of the forge (Greek Hephestus)
== [[Salish mythology|Salish]] ==
*[[Amotken]]
== [[Sardinia]]n ==
Sardinian deities, mainly referred to in the age of [[Nuragici people]], are partly derived from [[Phoenicia]]n ones.
*[[Janas]] Goddesses of death
*[[Maymon]] God of [[Hades]]
*[[Panas]] Goddesses of reproduction (women dead in childbirth)
*[[Thanit]] Goddess of Earth and fertility
== [[Semitic gods|Semitic pagan]] ==
{{Semitic deities}}
*[[Adonis]]
*[[Anat]]
*[[Asherah]]
*[[Astarte]]
*[[Hadad|Baʿal/Hadad]]
*[[Dagon]]
*[[El (god)|El]]
*[[Mot]]
*[[Yaw (god)|Yaw]]
*[[Adad]]
*[[Amurru]]
*[[An (mythology)|An]]/[[Anu]]
*[[Anshar]] | [[Asshur]]
*[[Apsu|Abzu/Apsu]]
*[[Enki|Enki/Ea]]
*[[Enlil]]
*[[Ereshkigal]]
*[[Inanna]]/[[Ishtar]]
*[[Kingu]] | [[Kishar]]
*[[Lahmu]] & [[Lahamu]]
*[[Marduk]]
*[[Mummu]]
*[[Nabu]]
*[[Nammu]]
*[[Nanna (Sumerian deity)|Nanna]]/[[Sin (mythology)|Sin]]
*[[Nergal]]
*[[Ninhursag|Ninhursag/Damkina]]
*[[Ninlil]]
*[[Tiamat]]
*[[Utu]]/[[Shamash]]
*[[Beelzebub]]
''See also:'' [[Judaism and Islam]] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Levantine_mythology Levantine mythology]
== [[Seneca mythology|Seneca]] ==
*[[Eagentci]]
*[[Hagones]]
*[[Hawenniyo]]
*[[Kaakwha]]
== [[Sikhism]] ==
*[[Waheguru]]
==[[Slavic mythology|Slavic]]==
*[[Belobog]]
*[[Berstuk]]
*[[Cislobog]]
*[[Crnobog]]
*[[Dajbog]]
*[[Dziewona]]
*[[Flins]]
*[[Hors]]
*[[Jarilo]]
*[[Juthrbog]]
*[[Karewit]]
*[[Koleda]]
*[[Lada and Lado]]
*[[Marowit]]
*[[Perun]]
*[[Podaga]]
*[[Porewit]]
*[[Radegast]]
*[[Rugiwit]]
*[[Simargl]]
*[[Siwa (mythology)|Sieba]]
*[[Siebog]]
*[[Stribog]]
*[[Svarog]]
*[[Svetovid]]
*[[Triglav (mythology)|Triglav]]
*[[Veles (god)|Veles]]
*[[Zirnitra]]
== [[Sumerian mythology|Sumerian]] ==
*[[An (mythology)|An]]
*[[Enki]]
*[[Enlil]]
*[[Inanna]]
*[[Nammu]]
*[[Nanna]]
*[[Ninhursag]]
*[[Ninlil]]
*[[Sin (mythology)|Sin]]
*[[Utu]]
See also [[Annuna]] and [[List of deities#Mesopotamian|Mesopotamian deities]] for a more complete list.
== [[Thracian mythology|Thracian]] ==
*[[Zibelthiurdos]]
== [[Tumbuka mythology|Tumbuka]] ==
*[[Chiuta]]
== [[Ugarit]] ==
*[[El (god)|El]], the father god and head
*[[Hadad|Haddu]], commonly titled [[Baal|Ba‘l]], a rain god and storm god.
*[[Dagan|Dagon]], god of earth
*[[Asherah|Athirat]], mother goddess
*[[`Anat|‘Anat]], war goddess
*[[`Ashtart|‘Athtart]], goddess of fertility
*[[Yaw (god)|Yaw]], the god of the sea
*[[Mot]], the god of death
''Note: Ugarit gives us our earliest and fullest snapshot of Canaanite religion and northwest Semitic religion.''
== [[Yoruba mythology|Yoruba]] ==
*[[Aja (Yoruba mythology)|Aja]]
*[[Aje]]
*[[Egungun-oya]]
*[[Eshu]]
*[[Oba]]
*[[Obatala]]
*[[Odùduwà]]
*[[Oloddumare]]
*[[Olokun]]
*[[Olorun]]
*[[Orunmila]]
*[[Oshun]]
*[[Oshunmare]]
*[[Oya]]
*[[Shakpana]]
*[[Shango]]
*[[Yansan]]
*[[Yemaja]]
== [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] ==
{{verify}}
Like [[List of deities#Christianity|Christianity]], Zoroastrianism is a [[revealed religion]] with [[monotheism|one God]] in a form resembling a trinity presiding over a heavenly hierarchy of [[archangels]] ([[Amesha Spenta]]s) and [[angels]].
*[[Ahura Mazda]] (Wise Lord), the head of a trinity and heptad of emanations or [[Yazata|aspects of God's mind]]
:*[[Mithra]], light, "Judge of Souls," the son, the savior, birth celebrated during [[Yule]], called ''[[Yalda]].''
:*[[Atar]]/[[Agni]], fire, [[Spenta Mainyu]], "Good Spirit" (analogous to the [[Holy Spirit]])
*([[Angra Mainyu]], the [[Devil|Evil Spirit]] -opposite of the 'Good Spirit')
== [[Zulu mythology|Zulu]] ==
*[[Mamlambo]]
*[[Mbaba Mwana Waresa]]
*[[uKqili]]
*[[Umvelinqangi]]
*[[Unkulunkulu]]
== [[Zuni mythology|Zuni]] ==
*[[Achiyalatopa]]
*[[Apoyan Tachi]]
*[[Awitelin Tsta]]
*[[Awonawilona]]
*[[Kokopelli]]
== External links ==
* [http://templezagduku.org Temple Zagduku] - religious organization honoring Sumerian deities
* [http://www.godchecker.com Godchecker] - searchable encyclopedia of over 2,000 gods and goddesses from all cultures of the world
[[Category:Deities]]
[[Category:Religion-related lists|Deities]]
[[et:Jumalate loend]]
[[es:Lista de dioses]]
[[it:Lista di divinità]]
[[he:אלים בתולדות העמים]]
[[ja:神の一覧]]
[[pt:Lista de mitologias]]
[[scn:Lista di divinitati]]
[[sv:Lista över mytologiska gestalter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deep England</title>
<id>9028</id>
<revision>
<id>15906953</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-18T17:52:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to [[Merry England]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Merry England]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Della Thelma Duck</title>
<id>9029</id>
<revision>
<id>39249280</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T21:14:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.75.238.206</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>ooh, it all comes together now</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Della Thelma Duck''' (nicknamed '''Dumbella''') is a [[fictional character]] created as an [[unseen character]] by [[Ted Osborne]] and [[Al Taliaferro]]. She was first mentioned in a [[newspaper]] [[comic strip]] on [[October 17]], [[1937]].
She was the daughter of [[Hortense McDuck]] and [[Quackmore Duck]]. According to comics writer [[Don Rosa]], Della was "born" around [[1920]]. Her twin brother is [[Donald Duck]]; she is also the mother of [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]] Duck.
Her husband's identity is something of a mystery, as he is hidden by a bird and several branches on Disney comics artist [[Don Rosa]]'s [[family tree]]. While Rosa revealed that Della's husband is the brother of [[Daisy Duck]], little else is known about him. It was revealed in an early comic strip that Mr. Duck was sent to the [[hospital]] because Huey, Dewey and Louie placed a [[firecracker]] under his armchair as a prank, with disastrous results. It was because of this incident that Della (or "Dumbella" as she was called in the theatrical cartoon that introduced the nephews) sent her sons to her brother, Donald Duck. While originally meant to be a one-month stay, the nephews wound up staying with Donald permanently; the reasons for this are unknown.
In one Donald adventure, Donald Duck dresses up in a long, red wig and notes how much he looks like his sister. Several stories written by Rosa also show Della as a child, alongside her brother Donald. Donald also went to Africa to look for his sister in the Dutch version of the 'Donald Duck' magazine but found a long-lost aunt instead, [[Matilda McDuck]].
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Della Thelma]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Della Thelma]]
[[Category:Donald Duck|Duck, Della Thelma]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|Duck, Della Thelma]]
[[da:Della And]]
[[fi:Della Ankka]]
[[fr:Della Duck]]
[[it:Della Duck]]
[[nl:Dumbella Duck]]
[[sv:Della Thelma Anka]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dachau</title>
<id>9030</id>
<revision>
<id>40667739</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T04:20:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BenFrantzDale</username>
<id>41799</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>indent</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about '''Dachau''' town. For the [[concentration camp]], see [[Dachau concentration camp]]. For the massacre committed by Americans, see [[Dachau Massacre]]''.<br>
[[Image:DachauAutumn20021025.JPG|thumbnail|right|250px|Dachau in autumn 2002.]]
'''Dachau''' is an attractive city in southern [[Germany] |
l as a religious choice. Some Dianics have suggested that monotheistic worship of a male god (like [[God]] in [[Christianity]], [[Islam]] and [[Judaism]]) is particularly harmful to girls and women because if the models for perfection and goodness and authority are male, then half of the population will always be perceived as inadequate.
Some Dianic Wiccans as "positive path" practitioners do neither manipulative spellwork nor hexing; other Dianic witches (notably Zsuzsanna Budapest) do not consider hexing or binding of those who attack women to be wrong.
== History ==
This religion draws on pre-[[Christianity|Christian]] Roman cults of [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]], on all Goddess-centered, matrifocal traditions worldwide, on wise women and women's mysteries traditions, and on [[Gardnerian Wicca]], but the re-birth of this religion can also be traced back to the feminist movement of the late [[1960s]]. In 1968 a group of radical political women formed a protest organization called [[W.I.T.C.H. (organisation)|W.I.T.C.H.]] which stood for "Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy From Hell" and called themselves a coven. Although W.I.T.C.H. was almost purely a political organization, it inspired covens around the country, some of which became spiritual as well as political in nature. Soon after, Z. Budapest a [[hereditary witch]] from [[Hungary]] formed the [[Susan B. Anthony]] Coven No. 1 in California and opened the first Women's Spirituality book and magic shop called the "Feminist Wicca". Women's cultural festivals began in 1973 and became a networking organization for women interested in Dianic Wicca.
== Important figures ==
*[[Zsuzsanna Budapest]]
*[[Mary Daly]]
*[[Starhawk]]
*[[Ruth Barrett]]
*[[Doreen Valiente]]
*[[Diane Stein]]
*[[Jade River]]
*[[Marija Gimbutas]]
*[[Deanne Quarrie - Bendis]]
*[[Leilani Birely]]
== Differences between Dianic Feminist Wicca and Mainstream [[Wicca]] ==
Like other Wiccans, Dianic Wiccans may form covens, attend festivals, celebrate the eight major Wiccan holidays, [[Samhain]], [[Beltane]], [[Imbolc]] (or Imbolg), [[Lammas]], the [[solstice]]s and [[equinox]]es (see [[Wheel of the Year]]) and the [[Esbat|Esbats]], which are rituals held at the [[full moon]]. They use many of the same altar tools, rituals and vocabulary as other Wiccans.
The most noticeable differences between the two are that most Dianic Wiccans form female-only covens while other Wiccans usually try to form covens with equal numbers of men and women (though they rarely achieve this); and that most Wiccans worship the God and Goddess, while Dianic Wiccans worship the Goddess as Whole Unto Herself.
Other differences are less remarkable and may not be noticeable to an outsider. These include how power is handled within the circle or coven. Traditional Wiccan covens ( particularly Gardnerian and Alexandrian) are led by a High Priest and a High Priestess who are often married to each other, and have either founded the Coven themselves after attaining second or third degree initiation in another Coven, or have been in the coven the longest. They usually lead every ritual and make all decisions regarding coven management. In most Dianic Wiccan covens, equality and personal empowerment of all is the rule; often the position of High Priestess or ritual leader(s) rotates among the woman for each Sabbat, so that every woman in the coven gets a chance to lead. Often the word 'High' is dropped within the Coven, and the word Priestess may be used more as a verb than a noun - so each woman takes turns to Priestess, rather than to 'be' Priestess. Group decision making will often be consensual rather than hierarchical.
While several Dianic groups do offer initiations into their tradition, some Dianic Wiccan covens do not offer initiation rituals in general or "degrees", preferring a less hierarchical group practice. In traditional Wicca there is often a period of initiation (sometimes for a year or more), before advancement to more full practice, and there can be systems of 3, 5 or more degrees of rank within a coven or tradition. A person is often only considered to be Wiccan once they have undergone this initiation, and may not start their own Coven until they have reached second or third degree. Whereas, in Dianic Wicca, initiation is not required in order to be considered part of the Tradition, and women are able to found their own Covens. In the [[drawing down the Moon (ritual)|drawing down the moon]] ritual in traditional Wiccan covens a man usually draws down the moon on a woman who assumes the role of the goddess; in Dianic Wiccan covens, a woman draws down the moon on herself and shares it with all of the members of the group.
Openness to outsiders is another large difference between the two groups. For many years Wiccans have been very secretive about their religion, (sometimes as a safety issue as there is still much controversy about Wicca). With the formation of Dianic Wicca in 1960s, Wicca in general was thrust into the public's view. Dianic Wiccans held public rallies, protests and even were involved in court cases. Zsuzsanna Budapest took on the State of [[California]] and got the law against fortune telling overturned. These actions helped to bring Wicca in general out into the open and helped to make it more of a mainstream religion. Despite this, there has been friction between some traditional Wiccans and Dianics; some Wiccans have expressed their concern about "imbalance" in Dianic practice by invading women's groups, shutting down rituals, and denouncing Dianic practitioners. Most pagans are now much more respectful of each other, and consider such behavior extremely inappropriate.
Because of the political stance of many Dianic Witches, their celebrations often include Goddesses and traditions from Third World countries or underpriviliged groups in industrialised nations, whereas mainstream Wicca has a tendency toward Euro-centrism, e.g. Celtic, Classical and Asatru deities. [[Mawu]], [[Yemaya]] and Ix-Chel (from Mayan mythology) are examples of non-European Goddesses popular with Dianics.
==References==
*Interview with Starhawk in Modern Pagans: An Investigation of Contemporary Pagan Practices, ed. V. Vale and John Sulak, Re/Search, San Francisco, 2001, ISBN 1-889307-10-6.
==See also==
[[Goddess movement]]
==External links==
*[http://www.circleofaradia.org/ Circle of Aradia]
*[http://www.paganet.org/pnn/v07/i1/feature_sample2.html Dianic Cosmology]
*[http://www.witchvox.com/trads/trad_dianicwiccan.html Dianic Wiccan Tradition]
*[http://www.rcgi.org Re-Formed Congregation of the Goddess, International]
*[http://www.templeofdiana.org Temple of Diana]
*[http://www.zbudapest.com Z Budapest]
*[http://www.flashsilvermoon.com Flash Silvermoon]
*[http://kbs.mahost.org/hgc/fpw.html House of the Goddess (Center for Pagan Wombyn)]
*[http://www.blueroebuck.com/ The Blue Roebuck]
*[http://www.applebranch.org/ The Apple Branch - A Dianic Tradition]
*[http://www.daughtersofthegoddess.com Daughters of the Goddess]
*[http://members.cox.net/hotgoddesscenter/fpw House of the Goddess (Center for Pagan Wombyn) mirror]
*[http://meghan.mrks.org/witch.html Of Witches, Moons and Sacred Places]
*[http://www.belili.org/legacy.html Debate on Marija Gimbutus]
*[http://kisstheviolets.org/padma/ The Lotus Garden]
*[http://www.aeclectic.net/tarot/cards/daughters-of-the-moon/ Daughters of the Moon, a feminist tarot deck]
[[Category:Religious feminism]]
[[Category:Wiccan traditions]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol</title>
<id>8622</id>
<revision>
<id>41977403</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:22:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pedant17</username>
<id>16702</id>
</contributor>
<comment>copyediting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}
In the context of [[computer networking]], '''Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol''' ('''DHCP''', [[as of 2006 | currently]] implemented as DHCPv6) is a [[client-server]] [[network protocol|networking protocol]]. A DHCP [[server]] provides configuration parameters specific to the DHCP client host requesting, generally, information required by the client host to participate on an [[Internet Protocol | IP]] network. DHCP also provides a mechanism for allocation of [[IP address]]es to client hosts.
DHCP emerged as a [[standardization|standard protocol]] in October 1993. RFC 2131 provides the latest ([[as of 2003|March 1997]]) DHCP definition. DHCP functionally became a successor to the older [[BOOTP]] protocol. Due to the backward-compatibility of DHCP, very few networks continue to use pure BOOTP.
The latest standard of the protocol, describing [[DHCPv6]] (DHCP in a [[IPv6]] environment), appeared in [[as of 2004|July 2003]] as RFC 3315.
==IP address allocation==
Depending on implementation, the DHCP server has three methods of IP-address allocation:
* '''manual allocation''', where the DHCP server performs the allocation based on a table with [[MAC address]] - IP address pairs manually filled by the [[server administrator]]. Only requesting clients with a MAC address listed in this table get the IP address according to the table.
* '''automatic allocation''', where the DHCP server permanently assigns to a requesting client a free IP-address from a range given by the administrator.
* '''dynamic allocation''', the only method which provides dynamic re-use of IP addresses. A [[network administrator]] assigns a range of IP addresses to DHCP, and each client computer on the LAN has its [[TCP/IP]] software configured to request an IP address from the DHCP [[server]] when that client computer's [[network interface card]] starts up. The request-and-grant process uses a lease concept with a controllable time period. This eases the network installation procedure on the client computer side considerably.
This dec |
co-starred [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] who played a character called "Hakim." On two other separate occasions, Spike also mentions ''[[Enter the Dragon]]'' and ''[[Way of the Dragon]]'', two more Bruce Lee movies.
* Spike's lanky and laid-back character was heavily influenced by the charismatic thief Lupin the 3rd, from the anime and manga ''[[Lupin III]]'', and they have similar characteristics. Likewise, Jet was influenced by Lupin's partner Jigen. Tributes to Lupin are peppered throughout the show, including characters wearing clothing worn by the cast in the ''Lupin'' series, and some of Lupin's cars, especially the famous yellow [[Fiat 500]] from the movie ''[[The Castle of Cagliostro]]'', appearing in scenes or in the background.
* Spike's character had mainly been attributed by creators to the Japanese actor [[Yusaku Matsuda]] from the Japanese TV series and movie entitled ''[[Tantei Monogatari]]''. It is from Matsuda that Spike is credited for receiving his unique hair style and other physical features.
* As suggested by the series' title, [[Western]]s play a major influence on ''Cowboy Bebop''. Like most Westerns, the main characters are nomadic, self reliant individuals with personal moral codes, the weapon of choice for most dramatic scenes is a handgun, and episodes often revolve around codes of honor and themes of morality. There are also more explicit western influences such as Spike Spiegel's character's influence from the [[Man With No Name]], a cowboy bounty hunter played by [[Clint Eastwood]] in the [[Dollars Trilogy]] by [[Sergio Leone]], and one of the funniest antagonists in anime, Cowboy Andy, the naive poseur cowboy/bounty hunter with steed who contrasts with Spike's darker antihero cowboy.
* According to mechanical designer Kimitoshi Yamane's notes, Spike's ''Swordfish II'' MONO racer was inspired by Britain's [[Fairey Swordfish]] torpedo-bomber of World War II. The ''Cowboy Bebop'' movie includes a cameo of the Fairey Swordfish along with a dialogue reference to the sinking of the Bismarck battleship (Fairey Swordfish bombers were crucial to the sinking of the Bismarck). There is also fan speculation that the ''Swordfish II'' is based on the ''Swordfish'', an experimental airplane in [[Edgar P. Jacobs]]' comic series ''[[Blake and Mortimer]]'', although the creators have not stated this.
* The eponymous character from the episode "Pierrot Le Fou" was influenced by [[Alan Moore]]'s ''[[V for Vendetta]]''. The villain of the episode is a creation of a government laboratory project that involves physical and mental torture and which ultimately goes horrifically wrong, producing an uncontrollable and unmatchable killer who slays the staff working on him and escapes. Although this character shares physical appearance (itself based on [[Great Britain|British]] revolutionary [[Guy Fawkes]]) and dominating combat competence with the protagonist of ''V for Vendetta'', he has neither his mental prowess nor his political motivation as a basis for his homicidal activities. The episode's name is also a reference to the [[Jean-Luc Godard]] crime film ''[[Pierrot le fou]]'' (1965), in which the assassin Tompu is brainwashed. Many fans thought that the episode was a tribute to [[Joker (comics)|The Joker]], [[Penguin (comics)|The Penguin]], and ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''.
* Many of the stories of ''Cowboy Bebop'' and even cinematic stylings were lifted from other movies. These include influences from or homages to ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', ''[[The Crow]]'', [[John Woo]], ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'', [[blaxploitation]] movies, ''[[Star Trek]]'','' [[Desperado]]'', and ''[[Dirty Harry]]''.
* In the episode "Ganymede Elegy", Jet's past relationship with Alisa is similar to that of the husband's and wife's from [[Henrik Ibsen]]'s play ''The Doll House''. Alisa's lover even borrows money from a loan shark just like the wife from "The Doll's House".
* Allusions to external works are often made to hint at some of the darker themes. In part one of episode 26, Jet makes reference to the [[Ernest Hemingway]] classic ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]''. Spike also recites the Japanese tale ''Hyakumankai-kai Ikita Neko'' ("The cat that lived a million times") in the final episode as an explanation of his life, although he claims to hate the story because he hates cats.
== Controversial episodes ==
* Shortly after the terrorist attacks on [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]], [[Cartoon Network]] decided not to air episode 6, "Sympathy for the Devil" (due to the depiction of a gun wielding 'minor' who also gets shot in the wake of the [[Columbine High School massacre]]), episode 8, "Waltz for Venus" (which features criminals hijacking an airplane), and episode 22, "Cowboy Funk" (which features a terrorist who blows up tall buildings, including one that looks remarkably similar to the [[World Trade Center]]). Eventually, the episodes were put back into the regular rotation. The terror attacks and subsequent [[anthrax disease|anthrax]] scare were also credited with delaying the release of the ''Cowboy Bebop'' movie in the United States by [[Sony Pictures]], which featured a terrorist who used biological agents. (Oddly enough, the 9/11 attacks happened exactly one day after the Japanese release of the film.)
* Following the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]] in 2003, Cartoon Network decided not to air episode 19, "Wild Horses", in which the [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]] shuttle is featured as a prominent plot point in the story. The episode had been shown in previous airings of the series, and has since been put back into the rotation.
== Content ratings ==
The certifications for Cowboy Bebop are '''TV-14''' in the USA, '''M''' and '''MA''' in Australia, '''PG''' in Singapore, '''13+''' and '''G''' in Quebec, Canada (different episodes on video received different ratings), and '''12+''','''15+''', and '''PG''' in Britain (different episodes received different ratings).
Cowboy Bebop contains adult language, violence, and brief nudity. The language (anything past ''damn'', ''hell'' and ''bastard'') and nudity has been edited out of the English translation aired on Cartoon Network, but not on [[CNX]]. It is retained in the DVD releases.
== Licensing, authors, and publishers ==
*''Cowboy Bebop'' is licensed by [[Bandai]] in the United States.
*The following [[manga]] series were published by [[Kadokawa Shoten]] in Japanese and [[TOKYOPOP]] in English:
**''Cowboy Bebop'' by [[Hajime Yatate]] and [[Yutaka Nanten]]
**''Cowboy Bebop Shooting Star'' by [[Cain Kuga]]
*[[Bandai]] plans to release the Cowboy Bebop game for [[PlayStation 2]] in the United States in March 2006. The game is already released in Japan.
== See also ==
* ''[[Cowboy Bebop: The Movie]]''
* [[List of Cowboy Bebop media|Soundtracks and manga releases]]
* [[Cowboy Bebop (PS2)|Cowboy Bebop PlayStation 2 Game]]
* [[Red Eye (drug)]]
* [[Space Western]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.cowboybebop.org/ Mirror of ''Cowboy Bebop'' official site]
* [http://www.sonypictures.com/cthe/cowboybebop/ Official U.S. ''Cowboy Bebop: The Movie'' web site]
* {{imdb title|id=0213338|title=Cowboy Bebop}}
* [http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=13 ''Cowboy Bebop''] at the Anime News Network Encyclopedia
* [http://www.adultswim.com/shows/cowboybebop/index.html Adult Swim - Cowboy Bebop]
* [http://www.big-big-truck.com/bebop/ Cowboy Bebop - Somewhere Down The Crazy River]
* [http://cb-sc.com Cowboy Bebop: Space Cowboy]- Bebop Wiki and Open Source [[MUD]]
* [http://rfblues.aaanime.net/ Cowboy Bebop: The Real Folk Blues] A comprehensive fan site.
* [http://www.jazzmess.com/ The Jazz Messengers] A fan site including video and audio from the series.
* [http://bebop.ru/ Bebop.Ru] Everything about Cowboy Bebop in Russian.
[[Category:Anime series]]
[[Category:Cowboy Bebop]]
[[Category:Fictional bounty hunters]]
[[Category:Science fiction Westerns]]
[[Category:Shows on Adult Swim]]
[[ca:Cowboy Bebop]]
[[de:Cowboy Bebop]]
[[es:Cowboy Bebop]]
[[fr:Cowboy Bebop]]
[[it:Cowboy bebop]]
[[he:Cowboy bebop]]
[[ja:カウボーイビバップ]]
[[pl:Cowboy Bebop]]
[[pt:Cowboy Bebop]]
[[zh:星際牛仔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clement of Alexandria</title>
<id>7342</id>
<revision>
<id>41564625</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T04:30:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haiduc</username>
<id>80885</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Literary work */ expanded on his message and balanced the enthusiastic presentation - please do not make this sound like a church document</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ClemensVonAlexandrien.jpg|right|240px]]
'''Clement of Alexandria''' (Titus Flavius Clemens), was the first member of the [[Christianity|Church]] of [[Alexandria]] to be more than a name, and one of its most distinguished teachers. He was born about the middle of the [[2nd century]], and died between [[211]] and [[216]].
==Life==
He was not born in [[Egypt]] (''Stromata'', i. 1). [[Athens]] is named as his birthplace by the sixth-century [[Epiphanius Scholasticus]], and this is supported by the classical quality of his Greek. His parents seem to have been wealthy [[paganism|pagans]] of some social standing. The thoroughness of his education is shown by his constant quotation of the [[Greek literature|Greek]] poets and philosophers. He travelled in [[Greece]], [[Italy]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and finally Egypt. He became the colleague of [[Pantaenus]], the head of the catechetical school of [[Alexandria]], and finally succeeded him in the direction of the school. One of his most popular pupils was [[Origen]]. During the persecution of [[Septimius Severus]] (202 or 203) he sought refuge with Alexander, then bishop [possibly of Flaviada] in [[Ca |
on sexual relations between adults and prepubescent minors in western society remains a deep controversy.
Critics disagree with labeling all [[child sexuality|child sexual activity]] involving adults as partners or observers as ''abuse'' based on the concept of [[informed consent]], arguing that simple consent should suffice to exclude consensual acts from the definition of child sexual abuse (CSA). Those critics, including some sociologists, psychologists, educators, and some [[pedophilia advocacy|pedophilia advocates]], also object to the use of the terms ''victim'' and ''perpetrator'' when describing consensual acts. Many doubt that there is scientific evidence that ''consensual'' sexual activity causes harm to minors and argue that some sexual activity of or with minors is considered a crime solely because of [[sexual morality]]. Some researchers contend that categorizing all sexual activity with minors as abuse makes it difficult to study the effects of abuse on children. Others claim that a distinction should be made between, on the one hand, severe sexual abuse that is often associated with severe symptoms such as suicidal tendencies, sexual aggression, and self-mutilation (Kisiel and Lyons, [[2001]]), and on the other hand, milder types of CSA that do not necessarily cause harm. [[Rind et al.]] ([[1998]]) argued that "CSA does not cause intense harm on a pervasive basis," although anecdotal evidence documents harmful effects of early sexual activity (see Bass, Ellen et al, The Courage to Heal, 3rd edition, 1994)
Some further argue that denying a child the right to give informed consent ignores his or her right to sexual self-determination.
However, due to conservative views on the nature of child sexuality in western society, these criticisms are highly controversial. The mainstream definition of child sexual abuse is predicated on whether children are developmentally able to give informed consent, not just consent based on their feelings and expectations. Informed consent requires full cognitive understanding of one's own mind and the mind of the other person. The scientific evidence from psychological experiments, such as the Sally-Anne test, clearly show that full understanding does not develop until the end of puberty.
Critics of the mainstream definition counter that the focus on informed consent is a [[red herring]]. They believe the issue should be whether sexual relations involving simple consent are harmful. They believe they are not. They point to a long tradition of older men marrying young girls that is common across time and cultures, and also to [[pederasty]] (man-boy sexual relations), which was deemed acceptable in Ancient Greece, New Guinea, and feudal Japan. It is not clear whether the absence of informed consent is a predictor of harm.
On the other hand, on the Isle of Alor, it was discovered that parents were masturbating their children and referring to it as a natural way of relieving their children's tensions. The Alorese exhibit a number of psychological symptoms many connect to the sexual abuse.{{fact}}
==See also==
* [[Incest]]
* [[Child grooming]]
* [[Commercial sexual exploitation of children]]
* [[Megan's Law]]
* [[Michael Jackson]]
* [[Reflex anal dilatation]]
* [[Roman Catholic Church sex abuse scandal]]
* [[Andrew Vachss]]
==References==
# Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect "American Academy of Pediatrics: Guidelines for the Evaluation of Sexual Abuse of Children: Subject Review" [http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/103/1/186 ''Pediatrics'' 103 (1) January 1999, pp. 186-191]
#Draucker , Claire. ''Counselling Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse''. SAGE Publications 1992 ISBN: 0803985711
# Herdt, Gilbert H. (ed.) "Fetish and fantasy in Sambia initiation". In ''Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea''. Pp. 44-98. Berkeley: University of California Press 1982. ISBN: 0520044487
# Smith D., Pearce L., Pringle M., Caplan R., "Adults with a history of child sexual abuse: evaluation of a pilot therapy service" [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/310/6988/1175 ''BMJ'' 1995;310:1175-1178]
# Kisiel, C. L. and Lyons, J. S., "Dissociation as a Mediator of Psychopathology Among Sexually Abused Children and Adolescents" [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/158/7/1034 ''Am. J. of Psychiatry'' 158:1034-1039, July 2001]
# Underwager, Ralph and Wakefield, Hollida, "Antisexuality and Child Sexual Abuse" [http://www.ipt-forensics.com/journal/volume5/j5_2_2.htm ''IPT'' Volume 5 - 1993]
# Eric Vern L. Bullough and Bonnie Bullough, "Problems of Research into Adult/Child Sexual Interaction" [http://www.ipt-forensics.com/journal/volume8/j8_2_1.htm ''IPT'' Volume 8 - 1996]
# ''Pedophilia: Biosocial Dimensions'' (). Edited by Feierman JR. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1990
# Juliette D. G. Goldman and Usha, K. Padayachi, "Some Methodological Problems in Estimating Incidence and Prevalence in Child Sexual Abuse Research". ''Journal of Sex Research'', Nov, 2000 [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_4_37/ai_72272302/pg_2]
# Fromuth, M.E. and Burkhart, B.R., "Childhood sexual victimization among college men: definitional and methodological issues". ''Violence and Victims'' 1987; 2:241-253
== External links ==
* [http://www.aacap.org/publications/factsfam/sexabuse.htm American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry on Child Sexual Abuse.]
* [http://www.childadvocate.net/child_sexual_abuse.htm Child Sexual Abuse: Evaluation and Outcomes - a review from the Penn State College of Medicine and the Child Advocate Network.]
* [http://www33.brinkster.com/ethical/ Ethical Treatment for All Youth] by Geoff Birky; a website which protests and documents trends in the area of "children who molest".
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/sexual.htm Child Sexual Abuse: What It Is and How To Prevent It.]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/sexual.htm The Role of Schools in Sexual Abuse Prevention and Intervention]
* [http://www.malesurvivor.org Male Survivor] - "Overcoming sexual victimization of boys and men"
* [http://www.nsopr.gov National Sex Offender Public Registry]
* [http://www.wethechildren.com When Are We Crossing A Child's Sexual Boundaries?]
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/parade_071402.html The Difference Between "Sick" and "Evil"] by [[Andrew Vachss]], originally published in ''Parade'' magazine, July 2002.
[[Category:Child sexual abuse|*]]
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[da:Seksuelt misbrug af børn]]
[[de:Sexueller Missbrauch von Kindern]]
[[es:Abusos sexuales a menores]]
[[fr:Abus sexuel sur mineur]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cantor Fitzgerald L.P.</title>
<id>6639</id>
<revision>
<id>22094892</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-29T12:12:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Euphrosyne</username>
<id>150628</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cantor Fitzgerald logo.gif|thunb|right|250px|Logo of Cantor Fitzgerald]]
'''Cantor Fitzgerald L.P.''' is an [[investment bank]] specializing in [[bond|bond trading]]. It was founded in [[1945]] by Bernie Cantor and John Fitzgerald as a [[limited partnership]], which it remains today. It created the [[eSpeed]] electronic trading network, a subsidiary it spun off in [[1999]]. On October 1st 2004 it spun off its inter-dealer voice brokerage business into a separate partnership [[BGC Partners]], named for Cantor founder Bertram Gerald Cantor.
Its former New York office, on the 101st-105th floors of One [[World Trade Center]], lost 685 employees in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], considerably more than any other employer, including the [[FDNY]]. This represented about two-thirds of its workforce. The company was able to bring its trading markets back online within a week, and chairman and CEO [[Howard Lutnick]], whose brother was among those killed in the attacks, vowed to keep the company viable.
Before the attacks, Cantor handled about one-quarter of the daily transactions in the multi-trillion dollar U.S. treasuries market. Cantor has since rebuilt its infrastructure and now has its headquarters in midtown Manhattan. The company's effort to regain its footing is the subject of a 2003 book titled ''On Top of the World: Cantor Fitzgerald, Howard Lutnick, and 9/11: A Story of Loss and Renewal'' (ISBN 0060510307) by Tom Barbash.
See also: [[One World Trade Center tenants]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cantor.com/ Cantor Fitzgerald Web site]
* [[sep11:Cantor Fitzgerald Securities|Memorial wiki tribute to Cantor Fitzgerald]]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/17/nyregion/17FUND.html Worst-Hit Firm Faults Fairness of Sept. 11 Aid], ''The New York Times'', September 17, 2002
* [http://www.rotten.com/library/crime/corporate/canter-fitzgerland/ Cantor-Fitzgerald], Rotten.com
[[Category:Banks of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in New York City]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cantor Fitzgerald</title>
<id>6640</id>
<revision>
<id>15904764</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-16T14:42:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Juntung</username>
<id>57194</id>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Cantor Fitzgerald L.P.]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cantor Fitzgerald L.P.]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Giant Neotropical Toad</title>
<id>6641</id>
<revision>
<id>42106380</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:42:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cavrdg</username>
<id>106670</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Category:Invasive species</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Giant Neotropical Toad
| image = CaneToad.jpeg
| image_width = 200px
| image_captio |
r before ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' was released, Ford was looking for a role with dramatic depth. After [[Steven Spielberg]] praised Ford and showed some ''Raiders'' rushes to [[Michael Deeley|Deeley]] and [[Ridley Scott|Scott]] they got Ford onboard. Due to the initially poor reception of ''Blade Runner'' and friction with Scott, Ford has usually avoided discussing the film.
*[[Rutger Hauer]] as Roy Batty. Hauer gave a brief but "effective"{{ref|ebert1}} performance as the violent yet complex leader of [[replicant]]s with nothing to lose; and was regarded by Philip K. Dick as the "perfect Batty &mdash; cold, Aryan, flawless."{{ref|brbible6}} Of the many films Hauer has done, Blade Runner is his favorite. As he explains:
::''Blade Runner needs no explanation. It just IZZ. All of the best. There is nothing like it. To be part of a real MASTERPIECE which changed the world's thinking. It's awesome.'' &ndash; [http://www.brmovie.com/Profiles/BR_Cast_Hauer.htm brmovie.com]
*[[Sean Young]] as Rachael. The picture of female "perfection" at 22 years old, Young still counts ''Blade Runner'' among her favorite films, despite friction with Ford and Scott as a result of her inexperience and young age.
*[[Edward James Olmos]] as Gaff. Olmos used his diverse ethnic background to help create the Cityspeak his character uses in the film. This helps, along with his cane, to create mystery around a character whose exact role isn't clarified while he observes and comments (through his [[origami]]) on Deckard.
*[[Daryl Hannah]] as Pris. Hannah managed to bring out the dangerous innocence of a replicant in love with Roy Batty. Pris also demonstrated the impressive physical ability of replicants with her combative gymnastics.
{|align="center" border="0"
|[[Image:BladeRunner Gaff.jpg|right|thumb|234px|Gaff with his cane.]]
|||||
|[[Image:BladeRunner Roy Tyrell.jpg|left|thumb|285px|Roy (left) meets his maker, Tyrell.]]
|}
Supporting roles:
*[[Morgan Paull]] as Holden. Holden didn't have much of a chance when going up against a Nexus-6 for the first time, but he did manage to draw his gun while being shot and warn Deckard about the replicants in a deleted hospital scene.
*[[Brion James]] as Leon. Although at first glance a dumb [[replicant]] used for muscle, Leon did have an undertone of intuitive intelligence that helped him nearly kill Holden, torture Chew and beat Deckard.
*[[M. Emmet Walsh]] as Captain Bryant. Walsh lived up to his reputation as a great character actor with the role of a hard drinking police veteran.
*[[Joe Turkel]] as Dr. Eldon Tyrell. With a confident penetrating voice and a panache for self-aggrandizement, this corporate mogul directed scientific progress to create a successful enterprise built on a gradual recreation of [[slavery]] with few sympathetic characteristics.
*[[James Hong]] as Hannibal Chew. An elder geneticist who loves his work, especially with synthesizing [[eye]]s.
*[[William Sanderson]] as J.F. Sebastian, a quiet and lonely genius who provides a compassionate yet compliant portrait of humanity. This led to more varied work for Sanderson.
*Unknown as Abdul Hassan. It remains a mystery as to who played the snake dealer Deckard interrogates.
*[[Hy Pyke]] as Taffey Lewis. Despite only having one scene, Pyke conveys Lewis' sleasiness with ease and apparently with one take; something unheard of with Scott's drive for perfection resulting at times in double digit takes.
*[[Joanna Cassidy]] as Zhora. In a limited time Cassidy conveys a strong woman who has seen the worst humanity has to offer, and her death upsets Deckard.
== Music ==
{{Main|Blade Runner (soundtracks)}}
The ''Blade Runner'' soundtrack by [[Vangelis]] is a dark melodic combination of classic composition and futuristic synthesizers which mirrors the film-noir retro-future envisioned by [[Ridley Scott]]. Vangelis, fresh off of his [[Academy Award]] winning score from [[Chariots of Fire]], composed and performed the music on his [[synthesizer]]s. The musicscape of the 2019 was created in Vangelis' "space" mode of [[new age music]], as heard on such albums of his as ''[[Heaven and Hell (Vangelis album)|Heaven and Hell]]''. He also made use of various chimes and the vocals of collaborator [[Demis Roussos]]. Ridley Scott also used "Memories of Green" from Vangelis' album ''[[See You Later]]'' (an orchestral version of which Scott would later use in his film ''[[Someone To Watch Over Me]]'').
:''"Both emotional and unsettling, the Blade Runner score plays off conflict (discord versus harmony, light against dark) for a rich, textured tapestry of sound."'' – [http://www.musicoutfitter.com/store/item/075678262326/bladerunner.html musicoutfitter.com]
Despite being well received by fans and critically acclaimed &ndash; nominated in 1983 for a [[BAFTA]] and [[Golden Globe]] as best original score &ndash; and the promise of a soundtrack album from Polydor Records in the end titles of the film, the release of the original soundtrack recording was delayed for over a decade. There are two official releases of the music from ''Blade Runner''. In light of the lack of a release of an album, The New American Orchestra recorded an orchestral adaptation in 1982 which bore little resemblance to the original. Some of the film tracks would in 1989 surface on the compilation ''Themes'', but it wasn't until the 1992 release of the Director's Cut version would a substantial amount of the film's score see the light of day. However, while most of the tracks on the album are from the film, there were a few that Vangelis composed but were ultimately not used and some new pieces. Many do not consider this to be a satisfying representation of the score.
These delays and poor reproductions led to the production of many [[bootleg recording]]s over the years. A bootleg tape surfaced in 1982 at science fiction conventions and became popular given the delay of an official release of the original recordings, and in 1993 "Off World Music, Ltd." created a bootleg [[compact disc|CD]] that would prove more comprehensive than Vangelis' official CD in 1994. A disc from "Gongo Records" features most of the same material, but with slightly better sound quality. In 2003, two other bootlegs surfaced, the "Esper Edition," closely preceded by "Los Angeles - November 2019." The double disc "Esper Edition" combined tracks from the official release, the Gongo boot and the film itself. Finally "2019" provided a single disc compilation almost wholly consisting of ambient sound from the film, padded out with some sounds from the Westwood game "Blade Runner." The Gongo release is considered the best presentation of the music, while Los Angeles - November 2019 and the Esper Edition are excellent mementos of the film.
:''"Dreamy, evocative, beautiful and essential."'' – [http://www.moviegrooves.co.uk/shop/bladerunner.htm moviegrooves.com]
== Reception ==
{{Infobox Film rating |
width = 21.0em |
Ratings = UK:15 (video rating) (1986) / Australia:M / Canada:14A (director's cut) / Ireland:15 / UK:AA (original rating) / USA:R / Iceland:16 |
for = violence |
}}
''Blade Runner'' was released in 1,290 theaters on [[June 25]] [[1982]]. That date was chosen by producer [[Alan Ladd, Jr.]] because his previous highest-grossing films (''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'' and ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'') had a similar opening date ([[May 25]]) in 1977 and 1979, making the date his "lucky day."{{ref|brbible3}} However, the gross for the opening weekend was a disappointing $6.15 million. A significant factor in the film's rather poor box office performance was that its release coincided with another science fiction film, "E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial," which was released in the U.S. on June 11, 1982, and dominated box office revenues at the time.
Film critics were polarized as some felt the story had taken a back seat to special effects and that it was not the action/adventure the studio had advertised. Others acclaimed its complexity and predicted it would stand the test of time.{{ref|brbible4}}
A general criticism was its slow pacing takes away from other elements;{{ref|hicks}} one film critic went so far as to call it "Blade Crawler."{{ref|flynn}} [[Roger Ebert]] praised ''Blade Runner's'' visuals, but found the human story a little thin. Ebert thought Tyrell's unconvincing character and the apparent lack of security measures allowing Roy to murder Tyrell are problems. Also he believed the relationship between Deckard and Rachael seems "to exist more for the plot than for them."{{ref|ebert}}
Other critics have countered that the strong visuals serve to create a dehumanized world where human elements stand out. Furthermore the relationship between Deckard and Rachael could be essential in reaffirming their respective humanity.{{ref|rutledge}} In a later episode of their show, Ebert and [[Gene Siskel]] admit they were wrong about their early negative reviews and that they consider the film to be a modern classic.
== Awards and nominations ==
''Blade Runner'' has both won, and been nominated for, many awards.
It has won the following accolades:
{|border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
!Year
!Award
!Category - Recipient(s)
|-
|1982
|Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award
|Best Cinematography - [[Jordan Cronenweth]]
|-
| rowspan=3 |1983
| rowspan=3 |[[BAFTA]] Film Award
| Best Cinematography - Jordan Cronenweth
|-
| Best Costume Design - [[Charles Knode]], [[Michael Kaplan]]
|-
| Best Production Design/Art Direction - [[Lawrence G. Paull]]
|-
|1983
|[[Hugo Award]]
|B |
and microstructural features are preserved despite the total loss of original material.
''Compression fossils'' such as those of fossil ferns are the result of chemical reduction of the complex organic molecules composing the organism's tissues. In this case the fossil consists of original material, albeit in a geochemically altered state.
To sum up, fossilization processes proceed differently for different kinds of tissues and under different kinds of conditions.
==Trace fossils==
[[Trace fossil]]s are the remains of trackways, burrows, footprints, [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s and eggshells, nests, droppings and other types of impressions. Fossilized droppings, called [[coprolite]]s, can give insight into the feeding behavior of animals and can therefore be of great importance.
==Resin fossils==
Smaller animals, such as [[insect]]s, [[spider]]s and small [[lizard]]s, can be trapped in resin ([[amber]]), which is secreted from trees. These fossils can be found in sandstones or mudstones or washed up on beaches like those around the [[Baltic Sea]].
==Pseudofossils==
[[Image:Fossile_J_3.jpg|thumb|Example of a [[pseudofossil]]: this dendrite looks much like a plant]]
[[Pseudofossil]]s are visual patterns in rocks that are produced by naturally occurring geologic processes rather than biologic processes. They can easily be mistaken for real fossils. Some pseudofossils, such as [[Dendrite (crystal)|dendrite]]s, are formed by naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in iron ore) and [[Agate|moss agate]]s, which look like moss or plant leaves. [[Concretion]]s, round or oval-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to be [[dinosaur]] eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well.
==Living fossils==
[[Living fossil]] is a term used for any living species which closely resembles a species known from fossils, i.e., as if the fossil had "come to life". This can be a species known only from fossils until living representatives were discovered, such as the [[coelacanth]] and the [[ginkgo]] tree, or a single living species with no close relatives, such as the [[horseshoe crab]], that is the sole survivor of a once large and widespread group in the fossil record.
==See also==
* [[Compression fossil]]
* [[Collecting fossils]]
* [[Fossils and the geological timescale]]
* [[Fossil fuel]]s
* [[Prehistoric life]]
* [[Transitional fossil]]
==External links==
{{Commonscat|fossils}}
* [http://www.fossilmuseum.net/index.htm The Virtual Fossil Museum throughout Time and Evolution]
* http://www.english.fossiel.net/ - Fossil collecting locations in Europe
[[Category:Fossils| ]]
[[Category:Paleontology]]
[[ar:أحافير]]
[[ca:Fòssil]]
[[cs:Fosílie]]
[[da:Fossil]]
[[de:Fossil]]
[[et:Kivistis]]
[[es:Fósil]]
[[eo:Fosilio]]
[[fa:سنگواره]]
[[fr:Fossile]]
[[ko:화석]]
[[id:Fosil]]
[[it:Fossile]]
[[he:מאובן]]
[[lt:Fosilija]]
[[nl:Fossiel]]
[[ja:化石]]
[[pl:Skamielina]]
[[pt:Fóssil]]
[[ru:Окаменелости]]
[[simple:Fossil]]
[[fi:Fossiili]]
[[su:fosil]]
[[sv:Fossil (geologi)]]
[[ta:தொல்லுயிர் எச்சம்]]
[[th:ซากดึกดำบรรพ์]]
[[tr:Fosil]]
[[zh:化石]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act</title>
<id>10960</id>
<revision>
<id>33020679</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-28T18:35:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Markles</username>
<id>195596</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{USFedLaw|
|short title=FERPA
|long title=Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
|rep intro=Carl D. Perkins
|party=[[Republican Party (United States)|R]]
|rep state=Louisiana
|date house=January 3, 1973
|date senate=February 21, 1974
|date law=August 21, 1974
|amend=
|USC title=20
|USC sec=1232(g)
|CFR title=34
|CFR sec=99
|other leg=
|}}
The '''Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act ''' of 1974 ('''FERPA''' or the '''Buckley Amendment''') is a federal [[statute]] codified at {{UnitedStatesCode|20|1232g}}, with implementing regulations in title 34, part 99 of the [[United States]] [[Code of Federal Regulations]]. The regulations cover violations such as parent volunteers grading another child's work, school employees divulging information to someone other than the child's parents about a child's homelife, grades or behaviors, and school work posted on a bulletin board with a grade.
This privacy policy also governs how state agencies transmit testing data to federal agencies. For example see [[Education Data Network]].
Some [[World Wide Web|Web]] sites that supply access to the text of the regulations:
* http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_00/34cfr99_00.html
* http://www.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/ferpa/index.html
The act is also referred to as the ''Buckley Amendment'', named for one of its proponents, Senator [[James Buckley]] of [[New York]].
[[Category:1974 in law]]
[[Category:United States federal education legislation]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>FERPA</title>
<id>10961</id>
<revision>
<id>15908750</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Forgetting</title>
<id>10963</id>
<revision>
<id>42092953</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:58:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rfrisbie</username>
<id>896545</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ added one</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
'''Forgetting''' (retention loss) is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old [[memory|memories]] are deleted from the memory storage. It is subject to delicately balanced optimization that ensures that only the least relevant memories are deleted, as well as a security process ensuring that dangerous information will not harm us. Forgetting can be prevented by repetition and/or evaluation of the information. As we are examining this part of mind, this function of mind, we shouldn't forget that this is still not an exactly explained property of mind.
Forgetting can have very different causes than simply removal of stored content. Forgetting can mean access problems, availability problems, or can have other reasons such as [[amnesia]] caused by accident.
In addition, information that has been stored may be permanently lost. Any information, to be able to permanently access our [[nervous system]], needs a certain amount of time for [[biochemical]] changes to occur; if this amount of time is not given due to a disruption, the information is lost. Disruption can be caused by accidents, [[brain surgery]], certain drugs, etc.; long-term memory is lost during the disruption.
(Example: A football player involved in a major injury could remember exactly what had happened immediately after the incident, yet they could not remember it twenty minutes earlier.)
A debatable yet popular concept is "[[trace decay]]", which can occur in both short and [[long-term memory]]. This theory, applicable mostly to [[short-term memory]], is contradicted by the fact that one is able to ride a bike even after not having done so for decades. It is believed that certain memories "trace decay" while others don't. Nevertheless, one thing is certain: sleep right after the memorization process cannot stop trace decay totally, but it can at least diminish it (explaining why it can be good to study shortly before sleep).
== See also ==
* [[Amnesia]]
* [[Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Memory]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Free radical</title>
<id>10964</id>
<revision>
<id>25243709</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-11T01:55:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Home Row Keysplurge</username>
<id>45536</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Radical (chemistry)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fay Wray</title>
<id>10965</id>
<revision>
<id>40375218</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T03:27:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mayumashu</username>
<id>203494</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wray, Fay (King Kong) publicity photo.jpg|right|thumb|270px|Publicity photo for King Kong ca 1933]]
'''Fay Wray''' ([[September 15]], [[1907]] &ndash; [[August 8]], [[2004]]) was a [[Canada|Canadian]]-[[United States|American]] actress, who was born '''Vina Fay Wray''' on a ranch near [[Cardston]], [[Alberta, Canada]].
== Early Life ==
Her family moved to the [[United States]] when she was three. Although Wray's autobiography discusses her [[Mormon]] parentage and makes it clear that she was culturally Mormon, she was apparently never baptized as a member of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. Wray's family lived in predominantly Mormon communities in [[Alberta]], [[Arizona]] and [[Salt Lake City, Utah]] before settling in [[Los Angeles, California]], where she got her first film work in [[Hal Roach]] comedy shorts and in low-budget westerns in the early 1920s.
== Career ==
Wray gained media attention when she was selected as one of the [[WAMPAS Baby Stars]] in [[1926 in film|1926]], which landed her a contract at [[Paramount Pictures]].
In [[1928 in film|1928]], director [[Erich von Stroheim]] cast Wray as the main female lead in his troubled production of ''[[The Wedding March]]'', which sent Hollywood in a buzz for its high budget and production values. It was a massive failure (due to the fact that it was silent in a world of new talking pictures), b |
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