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ke their minds off ethanol and abortion").
In 2005, Alda published his first round of memoirs, ''Never Have Your Dog Stuffed: and Other Things I've Learned'', published by [[Random House]] (ISBN 1400064090). Among other stories, he recalls his [[intestine]]s becoming strangulated while on location in [[Chile]] for his PBS show ''[[Scientific American Frontiers]]''. He also talks about his mother's battle with [[schizophrenia]].
==Filmography==
*''[[Gone Are the Days!]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[Paper Lion]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[The Extraordinary Seaman]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[Jenny (TV movie)|Jenny]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[The Moonshine War]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[The Mephisto Waltz]]'' ([[1971]])
*''[[To Kill a Clown]]'' ([[1972]])
*''[[The Glass House]]'' ([[1972]])
*''[[Kill Me If You Can(TV)]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Same Time, Next Year]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[California Suite]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[The Seduction of Joe Tynan]]'' ([[1979]]) (also writer)
*''[[The Four Seasons (movie)]]'' ([[1981]]) (also director and writer)
*''[[Sweet Liberty]]'' ([[1986]]) (also director and writer)
*''[[A New Life (1988 film)|A New Life]]'' ([[1988]]) (also director and writer)
*''[[Crimes and Misdemeanors]]'' ([[1989]])
*''[[Betsy's Wedding]]'' ([[1990]]) (also director and writer)
*''[[Whispers in the Dark]]'' ([[1992]])
*''[[Manhattan Murder Mystery]]'' ([[1993]])
*''[[Canadian Bacon]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[Flirting with Disaster]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Everyone Says I Love You]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Murder at 1600]]'' ([[1997]])
*''[[Mad City]]'' ([[1997]])
*''[[The Object of My Affection]]'' ([[1998]])
*''[[Keepers of the Frame]]'' ([[1999]]) (documentary)
*''[[What Women Want]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[The Aviator]]'' (2004)
==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/saf/alan_bio2.htm Bio on ''Scientific American Frontiers'']
*[http://helmi.home.pages.at/mash/english/cast/AlanAlda.html Comprehensive bio]
*[http://www.military.com/Careers/Content1?file=trans_alan_alda.htm&area=Content Military Service]
*[http://www.geocities.com/TelevisionCity/5576/Alda.htm GeoCities fan site page]
* {{imdb name|id=0000257|name=Alan Alda}}
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/rundowns/rundown.php?prgId=13&prgDate=21-Sep-05 Interview with Alda] on [[National Public Radio|NPR]]'s ''[[Fresh Air]]'' (September 21, 2005)
*[http://www.alanaldabook.com/ Never Have Your Dog Stuffed] web site
*[http://www.celebritypro.com/news/alan_alda Daily Alan Alda News]
[[Category:1936 births|Alda, Alan]]
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<page>
<title>American football</title>
<id>770</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:44:51Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Revert to revision 42048568 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- NOTE TO EDITORS -- Remember, this is an *introductory* article to American football. It exists to give people who know little or nothing about the sport a basic understanding of the game. Information that does not fall under that description should go under [[American-football strategy]], [[American football rules]], etc. -->
[[Image:Wilson American football.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The ball used in American football has a pointed [[oval]] or [[vesica piscis]] shape, and usually has a large set of stitches along one side.]]
{{about|the sport|the indie rock band|[[American Football (band)]]}}
'''American football''', known in the [[United States]] <!--but not Canada; what they call "football"is actually the similar (but NOT identical) sport of Canadian football--> simply as '''football''', is a competitive team [[sport]]. The object of the game is to advance the football towards the opposing team's [[end zone]] and score points. The ball can be advanced by carrying the ball, or by throwing or handing it from one teammate to the other. Points can be scored in a variety of ways, including carrying the ball over the goal line, throwing the ball to another player past the goal line or [[placekicker|kicking]] it through the goal posts. The winner is the team with the most points when the time expires.
Outside of the [[United States]] and a few other countries such as [[American Samoa]], the sport is usually referred to as ''American football'' (or sometimes as [[gridiron]]) to differentiate it from other football games, especially [[football (soccer)|association football (soccer)]] and [[rugby football]]. American football evolved as a separate sport from rugby football in the late 19th century. [[Arena football]] is a variant of American football. In [[Canada]], the unqualified term "football" typically refers to [[Canadian football]], a game which is a close relative of American football but different in several respects.
==Popularity==
Since the 1960s, football has surpassed [[baseball]] as the most popular [[spectator sport]] in the United States. The 32-team [[National Football League]] (NFL) is the most popular and only [[major professional sports league|major]] professional American football [[Sports league|league]]. Its championship game, the [[Super Bowl]], is watched by nearly half of US television households, and is also televised in over 150 other countries. ''[[Super Bowl Sunday]]'' has become an annual ritual in late January or early February. Football is also the most watched sport on [[television]] in the US.
The NFL also operates a developmental league, [[NFL Europe]], with 6 teams based in European cities.
[[Image:College_Football_CSU_AF.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A [[Colorado State University]] player runs with the ball as an [[United States Air Force Academy|Air Force Academy]] player lines up a tackle.]]
<!-- Possible image copyright issue
[[Image:American football tackle.jpg|thumb|250px|American football is a physically demanding sport.]]
-->
[[College football]] is also extremely popular throughout the U.S., especially in markets not served by an NFL team. Several college football stadiums seat more than 100,000 fans -- which regularly sell out. Even [[high school]] football games can attract five-figure crowds, especially in [[hotbed]]s like Western [[Pennsylvania]], [[Nebraska]], [[Florida]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and most especially [[Texas]], [[Ohio]], and [[California]]. The weekly autumn ritual of college and high-school football -- which includes [[marching band]]s, [[cheerleading|cheerleaders]] and parties (including the ubiquitous [[tailgate party]]) -- is an important part of the culture in much of [[small-town|smalltown America]]. It is a long-standing tradition in the United States (though not universally observed) that high school football games are played on [[Friday]], college games on [[Saturday]], and professional games on [[Sunday]] (with an additional professional game on [[Monday]] nights--see ''[[Monday Night Football]]''). It is often said of an outstanding college football player that he is likely to "be playing on Sundays one day", meaning that he is a good pro prospect.
Certain fall and winter [[holiday]]s--most notably [[Thanksgiving]], [[Christmas]], and [[New Years' Day]]--have traditional football games associated with them.
Football is also played recreationally by amateur club and youth teams (e.g., the [[Pop Warner]] little-league programs). There are also many "semi-pro" teams in leagues where the players are paid to play, but at a small enough salary that they generally must also hold a full-time job.
Pro football is played only in the United States and in the above-mentioned NFL Europe league. The sport is popular as an amateur activity in [[Mexico]] and [[American Samoa]] and to a lesser extent in [[Japan]], [[Europe]] and [[Australia]].
A very similar sport, [[Canadian football]], is widely played in [[Canada]].
Organized football is played almost exclusively by men and boys, although a few amateur and semi-professional women's leagues have begun play in recent years.
==The rules of American football==
{{See also|American football rules}}
<!--This section should only be a basic tutorial. Lengthy content should go to [[American football rules]]-->
The object of American football is to score more points than the opposing team within a set time limit.
===Field and players===
[[Image:AmFBfield.png|right|frame|The numbers on the field indicate the number of [[yard]]s to the nearest end zone.]]
The field is often called the ''gridiron'' because the markings on the field resemble a [[Grill (cooking)|grill]]. The game is played on a rectangular field 120 [[yard]]s (110 [[metre]]s) long by 53 1/3 yards (49 metres) wide. The longer boundary lines are ''sidelines'', while the shorter boundary lines are ''end lines''. Near each end of the field is a ''goal line''; they are 100 yards apart. A scoring area called an ''[[end zone]]'' extends 10 yards beyond each goal line to each end line.
''Yard lines'' cross the field every 5 yards, and are numbered from each goal line to the 50-yard line, or midfield (si |
from ''H'' to the complex numbers '''C''', defined by:
:<math>\langle\psi|\rho\rangle = \bigg( |\psi\rangle \;,\; |\rho\rangle \bigg)</math> for all kets <math>|\rho\rangle</math>
where ( , ) denotes the [[inner product]] defined on the Hilbert space. The bra is simply the [[conjugate transpose]] (also called the [[Hermitian conjugate]]) of the ket and vice versa. The notation is justified by the [[Riesz representation theorem]], which states that a Hilbert space and its [[dual space]] are isometrically isomorphic. Thus, each bra corresponds to exactly one ket, and vice versa. This is not always the case; on page 111 of Quantum Mechanics by Cohen-Tannoudji ''et al.'' it is clarified that there is such a relationship between bras and kets, so long as the defining functions used are [[square integrable]]. Consider a [[continuum|continuous]] basis and a [[Dirac delta function]] or a sine or cosine wave as a wave function. Such functions are not square integrable and therefore it arises that there are bras that exist with no corresponding ket. This does not hinder quantum mechanics because all physically realistic wave functions are square integrable.
Bra-ket notation can be used even if the vector space is not a Hilbert space. In any [[Banach space]] ''B'', the vectors may be notated by kets and the continuous [[linear functional]]s by bras. Over any vector space without topology, we may also notate the vectors by kets and the linear functionals by bras. In these more general contexts, the bracket does not have the meaning of an inner product, because the Riesz representation theorem does not apply.
Applying the bra <math>\langle\phi|</math> to the ket <math>|\psi\rangle</math> results in a complex number, called a "bra-ket" or "bracket", which is written as
:<math>\langle\phi|\psi\rangle</math>.
In quantum mechanics, this is the [[probability amplitude]] for the state <math>\psi\!</math> to collapse into the state <math>\phi\!</math>.
==Properties==
Bras and kets can be manipulated in the following ways:
* Given any bra <math>\langle\phi|</math>, kets <math>|\psi_1\rangle</math> and <math>|\psi_2\rangle</math>, and [[complex number]]s ''c''<sub>1</sub> and ''c''<sub>2</sub>, then, since bras are ''linear'' functionals,
::<math>\langle\phi| \; \bigg( c_1|\psi_1\rangle + c_2|\psi_2\rangle \bigg) = c_1\langle\phi|\psi_1\rangle + c_2\langle\phi|\psi_2\rangle. </math>
* Given any ket <math>|\psi\rangle</math>, bras <math>\langle\phi_1|</math> and <math>\langle\phi_2|</math>, and complex numbers ''c''<sub>1</sub> and ''c''<sub>2</sub>, then, by the definition of addition and scalar multiplication of linear functionals,
::<math>\bigg(c_1 \langle\phi_1| + c_2 \langle\phi_2|\bigg) \; |\psi\rangle = c_1 \langle\phi_1|\psi\rangle + c_2\langle\phi_2|\psi\rangle. </math>
* Given any kets <math>|\psi_1\rangle</math> and <math>|\psi_2\rangle</math>, and [[complex number]]s ''c''<sub>1</sub> and ''c''<sub>2</sub>, from the properties of the inner product (with c* denoting the [[complex conjugate]] of c),
::<math>
c_1|\psi_1\rangle + c_2|\psi_2\rangle</math> is dual to <math> c_1^* \langle\psi_1| + c_2^* \langle\psi_2|.
</math>
* Given any bra <math>\langle\phi|</math> and ket <math>|\psi\rangle</math>, an axiomatic property of the inner product gives
::<math>\langle\phi|\psi\rangle = \langle\psi|\phi\rangle^*</math>.
==Linear operators==
If ''A'' : ''H'' &rarr; ''H'' is a [[linear operator]], we can apply ''A'' to the ket <math>|\psi\rangle</math> to obtain the ket <math>(A|\psi\rangle)</math>. Linear operators are ubiquitous in the theory of quantum mechanics. For example, [[self-adjoint operator|hermitian operators]] are used to represent observable physical quantities, such as [[energy]] or [[momentum]], whereas [[unitary operator|unitary]] linear operators represent transformative processes such as rotation or the progression of time.
Operators can also be viewed as acting on bras ''from the right hand side''. Composing the bra <math>\langle\phi|</math> with the operator ''A'' results in the bra <math>(\langle\phi|A)</math>, defined as a linear functional on ''H'' by the rule
:<math>\bigg(\langle\phi|A\bigg) \; |\psi\rangle = \langle\phi| \; \bigg(A|\psi\rangle\bigg)</math>.
This expression is commonly written as
:<math>\langle\phi|A|\psi\rangle.</math>
A convenient way to define linear operators on ''H'' is given by the [[outer product]]: if <math>\langle\phi|</math> is a bra and <math>|\psi\rangle</math> is a ket, the outer product
:<math> |\phi\rang \lang \psi| </math>
denotes the rank one operator that maps the ket <math>|\rho\rangle</math> to the ket <math>|\phi\rangle\langle\psi|\rho\rangle</math> (where <math>\langle\psi|\rho\rangle</math> is a scalar multiplying the vector <math>|\phi\rangle</math>). One of the uses of the outer product is to construct [[projection operator]]s. Given a ket <math>|\psi\rangle</math> of norm 1, the orthogonal projection onto the [[Linear subspace|subspace]] spanned by <math>|\psi\rangle</math> is
:<math>|\psi\rangle\langle\psi|</math>
==Composite bras and kets==
Two Hilbert spaces ''V'' and ''W'' may form a third space <math>V \otimes W</math> by a [[tensor product]]. In quantum mechanics, this is used for describing composite systems. If a system is composed of two subsystems described by ''V'' and ''W'' respectively, then the Hilbert space of the entire system is the tensor product of the two spaces. (The exception to this is if the subsystems are actually [[identical particles]]. In that case, the situation is a little more complicated.)
If <math>|\psi\rangle</math> is a ket in V and <math>|\phi\rangle</math> is a ket in W, the tensor product of the two kets is a ket in <math>V \otimes W</math>. This is written variously as
:<math>|\psi\rangle|\phi\rangle</math> or <math>|\psi\rangle \otimes |\phi\rangle</math> or <math>|\psi \phi\rangle</math> or <math>|\psi ,\phi\rangle</math>.
==Representations in terms of bras and kets==
In quantum mechanics, it is often convenient to work with the projections of state vectors onto a particular basis, rather than the vectors themselves. The reason is that the former are simply [[complex number]]s, and can be formulated in terms of [[partial differential equation]]s (see, for example, the derivation of the position-basis [[Schrödinger equation]]). This process is very similar to the use of [[coordinates vector|coordinate vectors]] in [[linear algebra]].
For instance, the Hilbert space of a [[spin (physics)|zero-spin]] point particle is spanned by a position basis <math>\lbrace|\mathbf{x}\rangle\rbrace</math>, where the label '''x''' extends over the set of position vectors. Starting from any ket <math>|\psi\rangle</math> in this Hilbert space, we can ''define'' a complex scalar function of '''x''', known as a [[wavefunction]]:
:<math>\psi(\mathbf{x}) \equiv \lang \mathbf{x}|\psi\rang</math>.
It is then customary to define linear operators acting on wavefunctions in terms of linear operators acting on kets, by
:<math>A \psi(\mathbf{x}) \equiv \lang \mathbf{x}|A|\psi\rang</math>.
Although the operator '''A''' on the left hand side of this equation is, by convention, labelled in the same way as the operator on the right hand side, it should be borne in mind that the two are conceptually different entities: the first acts on wavefunctions, and the second acts on kets. For instance, the [[momentum]] operator '''p''' has the following form:
:<math>\mathbf{p} \psi(\mathbf{x}) \equiv \lang \mathbf{x} |\mathbf{p}|\psi\rang = - i \hbar \nabla \psi(x) </math>.
One occasionally encounters an expression like
:<math> - i \hbar \nabla |\psi\rang</math>.
This is something of an [[abuse of notation]], though a fairly common one. The differential operator must be understood to be an abstract operator, acting on kets, that has the effect of differentiating wavefunctions once the expression is projected into the position basis:
:<math> - i \hbar \nabla \lang\mathbf{x}|\psi\rang</math>.
''For further details, see [[rigged Hilbert space]].''
== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|author=Feynman, Leighton and Sands|title=The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. III|publisher= Addison-Wesley|year=1965|id=ISBN 0201021153}}
[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]
[[Category:Information theory]]
[[Category:Quantum information science]]
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[[sl:Diracov zapis]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Blue</title>
<id>4543</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:00:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Georgia guy</username>
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<comment>Revert vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{infobox color|title=Blue|hex=0000FF|textcolor=white|
r=0|g=0|b=255|
c=100|m=100|y= 0|k= 0|
h=240|s=100|v=100
}}'''Blue''' is any of a number of similar colors. When it is a pure color from a single source, it corresponds with a [[wavelength]] range of about 420–490 [[nanometre|nanometers]]. It is considered to be one of the three primary additive [[ |
pt (a.k.a. the "[[Nowell Codex]]"). There is also speculation that Oxford was taught Latin by his maternal uncle, [[Arthur Golding]], who published the first English translation of [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' while living at Burghley House.
On [[23 July]] [[1567]], de Vere killed an unarmed under-cook by the name of Thomas Brincknell while practicing fencing with Edward Baynam, a merchant tailor, in the backyard of Cecil's house in the Strand. In the ensuing trial it was decided the victim had "committed suicide" and his widow and child were consequently stripped of their possessions. (Interestingly, the English chronicler [[Raphael Holinshed]] was one of the jurors at this trial.) Oxford is said to have obtained a bachelor's degree from [[Queens College, Cambridge]], a master's degree from the [[University of Oxford]], and legal training at [[Gray's Inn]]. However, he matriculated at Queen's College at the age of 8 1/2, but remained less than a year, and no evidence exists that he ever returned to a university as an active student; his degrees may have been honorary [http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~ahnelson/oxposit.html]. He entered the Royal Court in the late [[1560s]], and went on to become a tilting champion in several Elizabethan tournaments.
On [[19 December]] [[1571]] de Vere married Lord Burghley's fifteen-year-old daughter, Anne Cecil &mdash; a controversial choice, not so much because they had grown up together, but because Oxford was of the oldest nobility in the kingdom, whereas Anne was parvenu, her father having only been raised to the peerage that year. At the age of twenty-one, Oxford regained control of most of his lands. His marriage produced five children, including three daughters who survived infancy. He toured [[France]], [[Holy Roman Empire|Germany]] and [[Italy]] in [[1575]], and was briefly [[Catholic]].
(It is of this period that [[John Aubrey]] wrote, in his ''Brief Lives'', that Edward "[[fart|broke wind]]" "while making low obeisance" to Queen Elizabeth and went into voluntary exile. On his return seven years later, it is alleged that the Queen's first words to him were "My Lord, I had quite forgotten the fart." The apocryphal story must be taken with a grain of salt, however, as Oxford was only on the Continent for fourteen months.)
On his return across the [[English Channel]], Oxford's ship was hijacked by [[pirate]]s, who planned to hold him for [[ransom]] until he informed them of his royal connections. Furthermore, he found that his wife had given birth to a daughter during his journey, and separated from her on grounds of [[adultery]], complaining that she had become "the fable of the world". Confusing the eldest daughter (Elizabeth) with the youngest (Susan), [[Francis Osborne]] ([[1593]]-1659) included a bed-trick anecdote about her birth, or, as he termed it, “Pembrok’s ''Wives'' descent”, in his ''Historical Memoires on the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James'' (1658). According to Osborne (who had been a servant to the Herberts), Philip Herbert, then earl of Montgomery (and later Pembroke), was struck in the face by a Scottish courtier named Ramsey at a horse race at Croydon. Herbert, who did not strike back, “was left nothing to testifie his Manhood but a Beard and Children, by that ''Daughter'' of the last great ''Earl of Oxford'', whose ''Lady'' was brought to his Bed under the notion of his ''Mistress'', and from such a vertuous deceit she [i.e., Pembroke’s wife] is said to proceed.”
In [[1580]], Oxford accused several of his Catholic friends of [[treason]], and denounced them to the Queen, asking mercy for his own Catholicism, which he repudiated.
He fathered an illegitimate child by [[Anne Vavasour]], Sir [[Edward Vere]], in [[1581]], and was briefly imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]]. The illicit congress with Vavasour led to a prolonged quarrel with Sir [[Thomas Knyvett]], her uncle, which resulted in three deaths and several other injuries. Oxford himself was lamed in the encounter. The feud was put to an end when the Queen threatened to jail all those involved. By Christmas of 1581, Oxford had reconciled with Anne Cecil and once again cohabitated with her.
In [[1585]] Lord Oxford was given a military command in the [[Netherlands]], and served during the Battle of the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]]. His first wife Anne Cecil died in 1588 at the age of 32. In [[1591]], Oxford married [[Elizabeth Trentham]], one of the Queen's Maids of Honour. This marriage produced his heir, Henry, the 18th Earl of Oxford. The Earl's three daughters, with whom it seems he was never close, all married into the [[peerage]]: Elizabeth married [[William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby|Lord Derby]]; Bridget married [[Francis Norris, 1st Earl of Berkshire|Lord Berkshire]]; Susan married [[Philip Herbert, 5th Earl of Pembroke|Lord Montgomery]], one of the “INCOMPARABLE PAIRE OF BRETHREN” to whom [[William Shakespeare]]'s [[First Folio]] would later be dedicated. (Oxford had died six months prior to this marriage, however; and a couplet regarding Susan recorded in John Manningham's diary circa 1602-03 has been interpreted by some to imply that Oxford was a "deadbeat Dad"[http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~ahnelson/oxdad.html], yet by others to be "an echo of King Lear."[http://www.jmucci.com/ER/articles/lear.htm])
Oxford maintained both adult and children's theater companies, and was a patron of several writers; those who dedicated works to him include [[Edmund Spenser]], [[Arthur Golding]], [[Robert Greene]], [[John Hester]], [[John Brooke]], [[John Lyly]], [[Anthony Munday]], and [[Thomas Churchyard]]. His patronage (and mismanaged estates) reduced him to [[penury]], and he was granted an annual pension of £1,000 by the Queen, which continued to be paid by her successor, [[James I of England|King James I]].
In [[1603]], Lord Oxford was granted his decades-long suit for the Stewardship of [[Waltham Forest]] and [[Havering-atte-Bower]], but enjoyed the privilege for less than a year. He died in [[1604]] of unknown causes at [[King's Hold]], [[Hackney]], [[Middlesex]], England, and was apparently buried at Hackney, although his cousin, Percival Golding (son of [[Arthur Golding]]), reported a few years later that he was buried at Westminster Abbey.
==Shakespeare controversy==
In [[1920]], [[J. Thomas Looney]] advanced the hypothesis that Oxford was the actual author of Shakespeare's plays, due to what Looney perceived as an advanced education, a knowledge of aristocratic life, an interest in the theatre, the praise accorded Oxford's works, and various similarities between Oxford's life and the plays. According to his hypothesis, Oxford had no choice but to publish under a pseudonym, since it would have been considered disgraceful for an aristocrat to be writing for the public theater, a claim generally considered by [[Renaissance]] scholars, including [[Steven W. May]], to be incongruous with Elizabethan print histories. [http://shakespeareauthorship.com/stigma.html] Author Diana Price has presented a counter-point to May’s thesis. [http://www.shakespeare-authorship.com/resources/stigma.asp]
Looney's beliefs constitute the core of the [[Oxfordian theory]] of [[Shakespearean authorship]], and the debate over it remains contentious. Evidentiary gaps within and problems with the Oxfordian hypothesis have prevented many academics from considering its viability. For example, Oxford's [[1604]] death prevents him from witnessing certain events (e.g., [[the Gunpowder Plot]] of [[1605]] and the wreck of the [[Sea Venture]] in [[Bermuda]] in [[1609]]) thought to be alluded to in Shakespearean dramas such as ''[[Macbeth]]'' and ''[[The Tempest]]'', respectively. Contemporary poetic tributes to Shakespeare from writers such as [[Ben Jonson]] and [[Leonard Digges]] (who refer to Shakespeare as "''Sweet swan of'' Avon!" and mention his "Stratford ''Moniment''" in the [[First Folio]]), and [[William Basse]] (who explicitly mentions Shakespeare dying in [[1616]]), seem to provide some of the clearest evidence for the Stratford Shakespeare's status as a reputed poet.
On the other hand, the publication of SHAKE-SPEARES SONNETS in [[1609]], with its dedicatory expression "OVR.EVER-LIVING.POET.", would seem to imply the author was dead by that time. Although some scholars (such as [[Donald Foster]]) have disputed the meaning of this phrase, when applied to a person rather than a deity, "ever-living" was usually understood to mean that person was deceased. Nevertheless, it remains debatable whether the phrase, in this context, refers to Shakespeare, the dedicatee, or to God or a muse; the "Mr. W.H." in the dedication is indeed a controversial point.
Other candidates who have been put forward as the actual author of the Shakespeare works include [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], [[Christopher Marlowe]], and [[William Stanley]], 6th [[earl of Derby]], among others, all of whom are universally rejected by the academic establishment. Further insights and debating points from the Stratfordian perspective may be viewed at The Shakespeare Authorship website [http://shakespeareauthorship.com/] and from the Oxfordian perspective at The Shakespeare Fellowship website [http://www.shakespearefellowship.org/virtualclassroom/State%20of%20the%20Debate.htm].
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Great Chamberlain]] | before=[[John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford|The Earl of Oxford]] | after=[[Henry de Vere, 18th Earl of Oxford|The Earl of Oxford]] | years=1562&ndash;1604}}
{{succession box | title=[[Earl of Oxford]] | before=[[John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford|John de Vere]] | after=[[Henry de Vere, 18th Earl of Oxford|Henry de Vere]] | years= }}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1550 births|Oxford, Edward de Vere, 17th E |
shows.
On September 19, [[2005]] Gloria was honored twice when her and her music were inducted into the [[Dance Music Hall of Fame]]. She was inducted in the Artist Inductees category along with fellow disco legends [[Chic]] and [[Sylvester]] and her classic anthem, "I Will Survive", was inducted under the Records Inductees category.
==See also==
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart]]
*[[List of number-one dance hits (United States)]]
*[[List of number-one hits (United States)]]
==External links==
* [http://www.gloriagaynor.com/ Official web site]
* http://www.dmhof.com Official site of the Dance Music Hall Of Fame
[[Category:1949 births|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:Living people|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:African American musicians|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:American female singers|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:Disco musicians|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:Former Scientologists|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:Gay icons|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:House musicians|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[de:Gloria Gaynor]]
[[fr:Gloria Gaynor]]
[[it:Gloria Gaynor]]
[[nl:Gloria Gaynor]]
[[pt:Gloria Gaynor]]
[[sv:Gloria Gaynor]]
[[fa:گلوریا گینور]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Go Fish</title>
<id>12510</id>
<revision>
<id>41079390</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:41:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Go Fish''', also called '''Fish''', is a simple [[card game]] popular among children. It is best played by two to four players, although theoretically it can be played with up to ten.
== The basic game ==
Five cards are dealt to each player, or seven if there are only two players.
The player whose turn it is to play asks another player for his/her cards of a particular rank. For example, "Jill, give me your fours". A player may only ask for a rank of which he/she already holds at least one card. The recipient of the request must then hand over all cards of that rank. If the call was successful, the same player has another turn. If the player who was asked has no cards of that rank, he/she says "Go fish" (or simply "Fish"), and the asking player draws the top card from the pack. The turn then passes to the player who was asked.
When one player has all four cards of a given rank, they form a ''book'', and the cards are placed face up on the table. The game ends when all thirteen books are formed, and the player who won the most books wins.
If the player whose turn it is has no cards left in hand, the game is not over, but he/she simply draws the top card from the pack and the turn passes. <!-- To whom? -->
== Variations ==
There are a number of variations of these basic rules:
* Players form pairs instead of books of four. It follows that only one card is ever handed over in each call, and every successful call completes a pair.
* Extra conditions are added under which a player's turn continues. For example, if the card fished from the pack matches the rank that was asked for, or if it completes a book.
* With three or more players, all players must respond to each call. A player draws a card from the pack only if no opponent has a card of the requested rank, and then the turn passes clockwise.
* Players ask for a specific card instead of a rank. A player must still have at least one card of the named rank in order to ask, and must expose that card when asking. This is similar to [[Happy Families]].
* Another variation is that, if playing for books of four all cards of the associated rank must be given to the caller not just a single card meaning if a player has one card of a book it is feasible that he can complete the book in a single call.
* In the event that a player runs out of cards he should draw a new hand from the top of the pack.
* Another variation is that if a player runs out of cards he must wait untill the game is over and cannot gain any more cards or books
== Strategy ==
The strategy is pretty straightforward. If, when fishing, you draw a rank you don't have, you should ask for it on your next turn. Otherwise, rotate among the ranks you already hold. In the harder variants, proper strategy requires remembering who has what. Unlike many card games, Go Fish is very much dependent on the [[honor system]]; lying about the contents of one's hand is hard to prevent.
[[Category:Matching card ]]
[[de:Quartett (Kartenspiel)]]
[[sv:Finns i sjön]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gerald Schroeder</title>
<id>12511</id>
<revision>
<id>33540370</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T01:29:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fangz</username>
<id>57409</id>
</contributor>
<comment>categorise properly</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Dr. '''Gerald Schroeder''' is a former professor of [[nuclear physics]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] and former member of the [[U.S. Atomic Energy Commission]]. He is the author of ''Genesis and the Big Bang'', ''The Science of God: The Convergence of Scientific and Biblical Wisdom'', and ''The Hidden Face of God''.
Schroeder attempts to reconcile the Biblical account of the age of the universe and of Creation by the hand of God with modern science's claim that the world is billions of years old and that the process of evolution led to the existence of life. He is closely affiliated with [[Aish HaTorah]], a Jerusalem-based organization promoting [[Orthodox Judaism]].
In his article [http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft9811/johnson.html "What Would Newton Do?"], Intelligent Design advocate [[Phillip E. Johnson]] summarizes Schroeder's article [http://www.geraldschroeder.com/age.html "The Age of the Universe"]:
:Schroeder starts by noting that the generations of humans starting with [[Adam and Eve]] adds up to 5757 years. The biblical "clock" for this purpose starts after the initial six days, a mysterious preliminary period which ancient commentators said contains "all the secrets and ages of the universe." Before Adam, and especially before the creation of the earth, the [[Bible]] speaks of time from the viewpoint of the universe as a whole, which Schroeder interprets to mean at the moment of "[[quark]] [[confinement]]," when stable matter formed from energy early in the first second of the [[big bang]].
:[[Theory of relativity|Relativity theory]] teaches that time passes much more slowly in conditions of great gravitational pressure than it does on earth. Using these familiar principles, Schroeder calculates that a period of six days under the conditions of quark confinement, when the universe was approximately a million million times smaller and hotter than it is today, is equal to fifteen billion years of earth time. Genesis and modern physics are reconciled.
Critics argue that by choosing a frame of reference in this way using a different moment, and so a different gravitational environment, the six days may in fact be expanded into 100 billion years, a million years, or indeed any other period of time. Further, they argue that the formulation of the argument in fact requires the existence of [[absolute time]], in direct violation of the Theory of Relativity.[http://www.talkreason.org/articles/schroeder.cfm#six] Other serious factual errors have also been pointed out in his works, including assertions that:
*[[Maser]]s fire [[atom]]s
*[[Kinetic energy]] is proportional to [[velocity]]
*[[Diffraction]] does not occur if the opening is larger than the [[wavelength]]
*[[Mass]] and [[weight]] are the same
*[[Heat]] may be diluted by expansion
*hf = mc^2 (The left hand side is a [[variable]], dependent on the particle's [[velocity]], while the right is a [[constant]])
==Bibliography==
* ''Genesis and the Big Bang'', Bantam Books [[1990]], ISBN 0553354132
* ''The Science of God: The Convergence of Scientific and Biblical Wisdom'', [[1997]], ISBN 076790303X
* ''The Hidden Face of God'', Free Press [[May 9]], [[2002]], ISBN 0743203259.
== See also ==
* [[creationism]]
* [[cosmology]]
* [[age of the Earth]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.geraldschroeder.com/ Official homepage]
* [http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2005/11/confronted_with.html Confronted with critique, Schroeder lost voice] (Critical viewpoint)
[[Category:Intelligent design advocates|Schroeder, Gerald]]
[[Category:Nuclear physicists|Schroeder, Gerald]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gray coding</title>
<id>12512</id>
<revision>
<id>15910197</id>
<timestamp>2003-02-26T15:28:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to better article at Gray_code (contents moved to Talk:Gray_code)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gray code]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grand Prix Motorcycles</title>
<id>12513</id>
<revision>
<id>15910198</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-30T16:51:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[grand Prix motorcycle racing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ghost</title>
<id>12514</id>
<revision>
<id>42143544</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:42:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mr Chuckles</username>
<id>999422</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 42058248 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</c |
s landscape of the [[Swabian Alb]]. After the [[Upper Rhine Valley]] had been eroded, most waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today's upper Danube is but a meek reflection of the ancient one.
Since the [[Swabian Alb]] is largely shaped of porous [[limestone]], and since the Rhine's level is much lower than the Danube's, today subsurface rivers carry much water from the Danube to the Rhine. On many days in the summer, when the Danube carries little water, it completely oozes away noisily into these underground channels at two locations in the Swabian Alp, which are referred to as the ''Donauversickerung'' (Danube Sink). Most of this water resurfaces only 12 km south at the [[Aachtopf]], Germany's wellspring with the highest flow, an average of 8,000 liters per second, north of [[Lake Constance]] - thus feeding the Rhine. The European Water Divide thus in fact only applies for those waters that pass beyond this point, and only during the days of the year when the Danube carries enough water to survive the sink holes in the Donauversickerung.
Since this enormous amount of underground water erodes much of its surrounding limestone, it is estimated that the Danube upper course will one day disappear entirely in favor of the Rhine, an event called [[Stream capture|stream capturing]].
==Human history==
[[Image:Ulm2-midsize.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Danube in Ulm, where it separates Ulm in [[Baden-Württemberg]] and [[Neu-Ulm]] in [[Bavaria]].]]
The Danube basin contains sites of the earliest human cultures: the [[Danubian|Danubian Neolithic]] cultures include the [[Linear Pottery Culture]]s of the mid-Danube basin (see also [[Linear Ceramic culture]]) The [[Vucedol culture]] of the third millennium BC is famous for their ceramics. Later, many sites of the [[Vinca culture]] are sited along the Danube. The river was part of the Roman empire's [[Limes Germanicus]].
Of importance for the Danube is also the [[International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River]] (ICPDR). The ICPDR is an international organisation consisting of 13 member states (Germany, Austria, [[Czech Republic]], Slovakia, [[Slovenia]], Hungary, Croatia, [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], Serbia and Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine) and the [[European Union]]. ICPDR, established in 1998, deals not only with the Danube itself, but with the whole Danube River Basin, which includes also its tributaries and the ground water resources. The goal of the ICPDR is to implement the Danube River Protection Convention, promoting and coordinating sustainable and equitable water management, including conservation, improvement and rational use of waters for the benefit of the Danube River Basin countries and their people.
==Cultural significance==
[[Image:MariaValeriaBridge.jpg|thumb|left|At [[Esztergom]] and [[Štúrovo]], the Danube separates [[Hungary]] from [[Slovakia]].]]
The Danube is mentioned in the title of a famous [[waltz]] by [[Austria]]n [[composer]] [[Johann Strauss II|Johann Strauss]], ''[[The Blue Danube|An der schönen, blauen Donau]]'' (''By the Beautiful Blue Danube'').
Another famous [[waltz]] about the Danube is ''[[The Waves of the Danube]]'' ([[Romanian]]: ''Valurile Dunării'') by the Romanian composer [[Ion Ivanovici]] (1845-1902), and the work took the audience by storm when performed at the 1889 [[Paris Exposition]].
The German tradition of landscape painting, the [[Danube school]], was developed in the Danube valley in the [[16th century]].
The most famous book describing the Danube ought to be Claudio Magris's masterpiece ''Danube'' (ISBN 1860468233).
==Economics of the Danube==
===Drinking water===
[[Image:danube_bratislava.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Danube at Bratislava.]]
Along its path, the Danube is a source of drinking water for about ten million people. In [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Germany]], almost thirty percent (''[[As of 2004]]'') of the water for the area between [[Stuttgart]], [[Bad Mergentheim]], [[Aalen]] and the [[Alb-Donau-Kreis]] comes from purified water of the Danube. Other cities like [[Ulm]] and [[Passau]] also use some water from the Danube.
In [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], most water comes from ground and spring sources, and only in rare cases is water from the Danube used. Most states also find it too difficult to clean the water because of extensive pollution; only parts of [[Romania]] where the water is cleaner still use a lot of drinking water from the Danube.
===Navigation and transport===
As "Corridor VII" of the [[European Union]], the Danube is an important transport route. Since the opening of the [[Rhine-Main-Danube Canal]], the river connects the Black Sea with the industrial centers of Western Europe and with the Port of [[Rotterdam]]. The waterway is designed for large scale inland vessels (110 by 11,45 meters) but it can carry much larger vessels on most of it's course. The Danube has been partly canalized in Germany (5 locks) and Austria (10 Locks). Further plans to build a number of new locks in order to improve navigation have been blocked by environmentalists, in spite of the general consensus about the positive effects of inland waterway transport in comparison with road and rail.
[[Image:Frozen_Danube_Reichsbrücke.JPG|thumb|250px|A look upstream from the [[Donauinsel]] in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]] during an unusually cold winter ([[February 2006]]). A frozen Danube is a phenomenon experienced only once or twice in a lifetime. ([[:Image:Frozen_Danube_Reichsbrücke.JPG|Details]])]]
Downstream from the Freudenau Locks in Vienna, canalization of the Danube was limited to the Gabcikovo dam and locks near Bratislava and the two double Iron Gate locks in the border stretch of the Danube between Serbia and Romania. These locks have larger dimensions (similar to the locks in the Russian [[Volga]] river, some 300 by over 30 meters). Downstream of the Iron Gate, the river is free flowing all the way to the Black Sea, a distance of more than 860 kilometers.
The Danube connects with the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal at Kelheim, and with the Wiener Donaukanal in Vienna. Apart from a couple of secundary navigable branches, the only major navigable rivers linked to the Danube are the Drava, Sava and Tisza. In Serbia, a canal network also connects to the river; the network, known as the Duna-Tisza-Duna canals, links sections downstream and upstream of the Tisza mouth with this tributary of the Danube. (Source: [http://www.noordersoft.com/indexen.html NoorderSoft Waterways Database)]
===Fishing===
The importance of fishing on the Danube, which used to be critical in the [[Middle Ages]], has declined dramatically. Some fishermen are still active at certain points on the river, and the [[Danube Delta]] still has an important industry.
==Tourism==
There are many important tourist and natural spots along the Danube, including the [[Wachau]] valley, the [[Nationalpark Donau-Auen]] in Austria, the [[Naturpark Obere Donau]] in [[Germany]],[[Kopacki rit]] in [[Croatia]], [[Iron Gates]] (Danube [[Gorge]]) and [[Danube Delta]] in [[Romania]].
==Notes==
¹ Length from the source of the [[Breg]].
² Source of the [[Breg]].
==External links==
{{Commons|Danube}}
* [http://danubepanorama.net/en/ Dun.AV - The Danube Panorama Project]
* [http://www.showcaves.com/english/de/karst/Donauversickerung.html Danube Sink]
* [http://www.showcaves.com/english/de/springs/Aach.html Aachtopf spring]
* [http://www.deltadunarii.ro The Danube Delta]
* Danube Basin [http://www.panda.org/graphics/fw-rivers/maps/DANUBE%20MAP.gif Map (GIF - 257 KB)], [http://pdf.wri.org/watersheds_2000/watersheds_europe_p2_38.pdf Map+info, PDF]
* [http://www.danubecooperation.org Danube Portal]
* [http://www.icpdr.org International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River]
* [http://www.theister.com 'The Ister': A 2840km documentary film journey up the Danube]
* [http://www.dpc-belgrade.co.yu Danube Project Centre / Inland Waterway Transport on the Danube river]
* [http://www.danube-river.org The Danube / Danube Tourist Commission | A River's lure]
* [http://dbridges.fw.hu DANUBE-BRIDGES | Hungarian]
* [http://orsova.xhost.ro/ Historical images of Orsova and Danube river]
[[Category:Bačka]]
[[Category:Banat]]
[[Category:Danube]]
[[Category:Geography of Serbia]]
[[Category:Geography of Vojvodina]]
[[Category:Rivers of Austria]]
[[Category:Rivers of Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Rivers of Croatia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Germany]]
[[Category:Rivers of Hungary]]
[[Category:Rivers of Romania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Serbia and Montenegro]]
[[Category:Rivers of Slovakia]]
[[Category:Srem/Srijem]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[als:Donau]]
[[ar:دانوب]]
[[ast:Danubiu]]
[[be:Дунай]]
[[bg:Дунав]]
[[bs:Dunav]]
[[ca:Danubi]]
[[cv:Дунай (юханшыв)]]
[[cs:Dunaj]]
[[cy:Afon Donaw]]
[[da:Donau]]
[[de:Donau]]
[[et:Doonau]]
[[es:Danubio]]
[[eo:Danubo]]
[[fa:دانوب]]
[[fr:Danube]]
[[ga:An Danóib]]
[[gl:Río Danubio]]
[[ko:다뉴브 강]]
[[hr:Dunav]]
[[id:Donau]]
[[is:Dóná]]
[[it:Danubio]]
[[he:דנובה]]
[[la:Danubius]]
[[lv:Donava]]
[[lt:Dunojus]]
[[hu:Duna]]
[[mk:Дунав]]
[[nl:Donau]]
[[nds:Donau]]
[[ja:ドナウ川]]
[[no:Donau]]
[[os:Дунай (цæугæдон)]]
[[pl:Dunaj]]
[[pt:Rio Danúbio]]
[[ro:Dunăre]]
[[ru:Дунай (река)]]
[[sh:Dunav]]
[[simple:Danube]]
[[sk:Dunaj]]
[[sl:Donava]]
[[sr:Река Дунав]]
[[fi:Tonava]]
[[sv:Donau]]
[[tr:Tuna nehri]]
[[uk:Дунай]]
[[zh:多瑙河]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Darwin</title>
<id>7970</id>
<revision>
<id>40886706</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T17:48:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ieuan Friend</username>
<id>980633</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Various places, things, and persons are associated with '''Darwin'''. The word "Darwin", when used alone, has several possible meanings in the [[English language]], many of which are associated with the pre-eminent naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] who became famous as a result |
irst begins ''Deutschland, Deutschland über alles'', 'Germany, Germany above all'. The anthem is still known in most of the English-speaking world by its first line, even though only the third stanza constitutes the official anthem for reasons that are explained below.
In its historical context, the line "Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, über alles in der Welt" ("Germany, Germany above all, above anything in the world") can be understood as an appeal to the German [[monarch|sovereigns]] to put aside all other projects and concentrate their efforts on creating a united Germany. In Hoffmann's time, this text had a distinctly revolutionary, [[liberalism|liberal]] connotation, since the demand for a united Germany was most often uttered in connection with demands for freedom of press and other liberal rights (see [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states]]). It can also imply that loyalty to a larger Germany should replace loyalty to one's sovereign personally. This in itself is a revolutionary idea.
===Use in unified Germany===
''Das Lied der Deutschen'' was not played at an official ceremony until Germany and Britain swapped the islands of [[Zanzibar]] and [[Heligoland]] in [[1890]], when it appeared only appropriate to sing it at the ceremony on Heligoland. It became very popular after the [[Battle of Langemark]] during [[World War I]], when several German regiments consisting mostly of students no older than 16 attacked the British lines singing this song and suffered heavy casualties. The official report of the army described the attack as one of young German soldiers heroically sacrificing their lives for the fatherland (in reality the untrained troops attacked the British lines side by side and were mowed down by machine guns). This report, also known as the "Langemark Myth", was printed on the first page in newspapers all over Germany.
After [[World War I]], President [[Friedrich Ebert]] made all three stanzas the German national anthem on [[August 11]], [[1922]].
In [[1921]], [[Albert Matthai]] wrote a fourth stanza, which was popular at that time, but never became part of the official anthem. It reflects the situation after Germany's defeat in [[World War I]]. The text is also given below with an approximate translation. Today this stanza is largely forgotten.
In [[1945]], at the end of World War II, ''Das Lied der Deutschen'' was banned by the victors, and for a time [[West Germany]] simply did not have an official national anthem. Though the colours of the national flag were taken into Article 22 of the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany|(West) German constitution]], the national anthem is not part of the constitution. On [[April 29]], [[1952]], Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] asked President [[Theodor Heuss]] in a letter to accept ''Das Lied der Deutschen'' as the national anthem, with only the third stanza sung on official occasions. President Heuss agreed to this on [[May 2]] [[1952]], but the decision was never formalised. Thus, West Germany officially continued to have no national anthem, but used the third stanza at occasions where a national anthem was needed. On 7 March [[1990]], the Constitutional Court declared only the third stanza of von Fallersleben's poem to be protected as a national anthem under criminal law; Section 90a of the Criminal Code (''[[Strafgesetzbuch]]'') makes defamation of the national anthem a crime, but does not specify what the national anthem is.
The [[GDR]] adopted its own national anthem, ''[[Auferstanden aus Ruinen]]'', which was written to fit the same melody, but later got its own.
Following [[German reunification|reunification]], in November [[1991]], President [[Richard von Weizsäcker]] and Chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] agreed in an exchange of letters to declare the third stanza alone (still with Haydn's music) the national anthem of the reunited republic. However, this has not been formally ratified as a law yet. On official occasions, only the third stanza is used. Privately some may use all stanzas. Singing the first two stanzas may however by some be considered an expression of right-wing or nationalist political views.
''Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit'' ("unity and justice and freedom") from the third stanza is also the state's motto and is engraved into the rim of former 5-[[Deutsche Mark|mark]] and current 2-[[euro]] coins minted in Germany; it also appears on soldiers' belts and in similar places.
==Lyrics and translation==
The following provides the lyrics of the Deutschlandlied as written by [[August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben|von Fallersleben]]. The third verse is Germany's National Anthem.
<BR>
{|class="toccolours" cellpadding="10" rules="cols"
!German lyrics !! Approximate translation
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="lightsteelblue" |First stanza
|-
|
Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, <BR>
Über alles in der Welt, <BR>
Wenn es stets zu Schutz und Trutze <BR>
Brüderlich zusammenhält. <BR>
Von der Maas bis an die Memel, <BR>
Von der Etsch bis an den Belt, <BR>
&nbsp; |: Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, <BR>
&nbsp; Über alles in der Welt! :|
|
Germany, Germany above all, <BR>
Above all else in the world, <BR>
When always, for protection and defiance, <BR>
It stands together brotherly. <BR>
From the [[Meuse River|Meuse]] to the [[Neman River|Neman]], <BR>
From the [[Adige]] to the [[Little Belt|Belt]], <BR>
&nbsp; |: Germany, Germany above all, <BR>
&nbsp; Above anything in the world. :|
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="lightsteelblue"|Second stanza
|-
|
Deutsche Frauen, deutsche Treue, <BR>
Deutscher Wein und deutscher Sang <BR>
Sollen in der Welt behalten <BR>
Ihren alten schönen Klang, <BR>
Uns zu edler Tat begeistern <BR>
Unser ganzes Leben lang. <BR>
&nbsp; |: Deutsche Frauen, deutsche Treue, <BR>
&nbsp; Deutscher Wein und deutscher Sang! :|
|
German women, German loyalty, <BR>
German wine and German song <BR>
Shall retain in all the world <BR>
Their old beautiful ring <BR>
And inspire us to noble deeds <BR>
All our lives. <BR>
&nbsp; |: German women, German loyalty, <BR>
&nbsp; German wine and German song! :|
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="coral"|Third stanza<br>(Germany's National Anthem)
|-
|
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit <BR>
Für das deutsche Vaterland! <BR>
Danach lasst uns alle streben <BR>
Brüderlich mit Herz und Hand! <BR>
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit <BR>
Sind des Glückes Unterpfand; <BR>
&nbsp; |: Blüh' im Glanze dieses Glückes, <BR>
&nbsp; Blühe, deutsches Vaterland. :|
|
Unity and justice and freedom <BR>
For the German fatherland; <BR>
This let us all pursue, <BR>
Brotherly with heart and hand. <BR>
Unity and justice and freedom <BR>
Are the pledge of happiness. <BR>
&nbsp; |: Prosper in this blessing's fortune, <BR>
&nbsp; Prosper, German fatherland. :| <BR>
|}
The first line of the first stanza is easy to misunderstand for those who do not have German as a first language. "Deutschland über alles" means "Germany above all", expressing the desire to aim for a unified German national state. The text does not express a universal territorial claim (indeed, it aims to do the opposite), and does not mean "Germany everywhere" (which would be the proper translation of "Deutschland überall"), nor does it elate Germany to a higher position than other countries, which would be the proper translation of "Deutschland über alle" ("Germany over all").
===Variants and additions===
Von Fallersleben also wanted the text to be used as a [[drinking song]]; the second stanza's [[toast]] to German women and wine are typical of this genre. The original Heligoland manuscript includes a variant ending of the third stanza for such occasions:
<!--Is this true? I never heard of that before -->
{|class="toccolours" cellpadding="10" rules="cols"
!colspan="2" bgcolor="lightsteelblue"|Third stanza drinking song variant (von Fallersleben)
|-
|
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit <BR>
Für das deutsche Vaterland! <BR>
Danach lasst uns alle streben <BR>
Brüderlich mit Herz und Hand! <BR>
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit <BR>
Sind des Glückes Unterpfand; <BR>
&nbsp; |: Stoßet and und ruft einstimmig, <BR>
&nbsp; Hoch, das deutsche Vaterland. :|
|
Unity and justice and freedom <BR>
For the German fatherland; <BR>
This let us all pursue, <BR>
Brotherly with heart and hand. <BR>
Unity and justice and freedom <BR>
Are the pledge of happiness. <BR>
&nbsp; |: Lift your glasses and cry with one voice, <BR>
&nbsp; Prosper, German fatherland. :| <BR>
|}
A fourth stanza was written in 1921 by Albert Matthai in reaction to Germany's loss of [[World War I]]. This stanza was never used as a national anthem and not part of the Deutschlandlied.
{|class="toccolours" cellpadding="10" rules="cols"
!colspan="2" bgcolor="lightsteelblue"|Fourth stanza (1921, Matthai)
|-
|
Deutschland, Deutschland über alles <BR>
Und im Unglück nun erst recht. <BR>
Nur im Unglück kann die Liebe <BR>
Zeigen ob sie stark und echt. <BR>
Und so soll es weiterklingen <BR>
Von Geschlechte zu Geschlecht: <BR>
&nbsp; |: Deutschland, Deutschland über alles <BR>
&nbsp; Und im Unglück nun erst recht. :|
|
Germany, Germany above all, <BR>
And in times of misfortune more than ever, <BR>
Only through misfortune can |
, and ''Tetris DX'' were re-releases of gray cartridge games with additional content and in full color. Roughly one quarter of Game Boy Color releases were black cart games. A small number of these games also had [[Super Game Boy]] enhancements.
*'''Clear cartridges''' can only be played on Game Boy Color and beyond. They do not physically fit in the Game Boy micro or DS due to their design. Roughly three quarters of Game Boy Color releases were clear cart games.
*'''Advance cartridges''' are half the size of all earlier cartridges and can only be played on Game Boy Advance and beyond and on the Nintendo DS. However, the DS cannot use the multiplayer modes of some Game Boy Advance titles due to its lack of a link-cable port.
==Popularity==
Most game consoles become obsolete as newer systems become available. The Game Boy is unique in its stamina. 2004 brought about its 15th anniversary and in that time it has seen off many (often technically superior) rivals; most notably the [[Sega Game Gear]] and the [[Atari Lynx]].
Thousands of games are available for the Game Boy, which can be attributed in part to its sales in the amounts of millions, a well-documented design, and a typically short development cycle.
The [[Nintendo DS]] is able to play the large library of Game Boy Advance games. However, it cannot play multiplayer GBA games or link to the [[Nintendo GameCube]], and it is not backward-compatible at all with the original Game Boy or the Game Boy Color due to the lack of a [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] processor.
== Popular culture==
*The short-lived 1980s cartoon series ''[[Captain N: The Game Master]]'' featured a life-sized Game Boy character, who communicated via faces on its screen.
*Television commercials in the early [[1990s]] for the [[Sega Game Gear]] often mocked the Game Boy, at one point alleging it had a "creamed spinach color" in contrast to its own full-color graphics. However, many saw these commercials as petulant admissions that the Game Boy was thrashing the Game Gear in sales (as indeed it was).
*[[Thomas Ian Nicholas]]' character plays "Tetris" for Game Boy in the 1993 film ''[[Rookie of the Year (film)|Rookie of the Year]]''.
*Numerous musical acts have appropriated the Game Boy as a musical instrument. Notably: [http://www.robotandproud.com/6955/ 6955], [http://www.bitshifter.cc/ Bit Shifter], [http://www.bubblyfish.com/ Bubblyfish], [http://www.covox.net/ Covox], [http://www.19-t.com/comb/ Cow'P], [http://www.dotmatrix.at/ dot.matrix], [http://www.firestarter-music.de/ FirestARTer], [http://www.gameboymusicclub.org/ Gameboy Music Club], [http://gameboyzz.com/ Gameboyzz Orchestra], [http://www.glomag.com/ Glomag], [http://www.lo-bat.be/ Lo-bat], [http://www.budmelvin.com/ Bud Melvin], [http://www.nullsleep.com/ Nullsleep], [http://www.webhole.com/omac OMAC], [http://pianobusters.com/saitone/ Saitone], etc.
==Emulation==
Some [[firmware]] has been released for the [[GBA Movie Player]] to allow ROM images for old Game Boy games to be used on the GBA, as well as the [[Nintendo DS]]. The ROM images are stored on [[CompactFlash]] cards used in the GBA Movie Player.
== Screenshots ==
<center>
<gallery>
Image:GB_Tetris.png|''[[Tetris]]''<br />[[Nintendo]] ([[1989]])
Image:GB_Super_Mario_Land_2.png|''[[Super Mario Land 2]]''<br />Nintendo ([[1992]])
Image:GB_Pokemon_Yellow.png|''[[Pokémon Yellow]]''<br />[[Game Freak]]/Nintendo ([[1999]])(Japanese Edition[[1998]])
Image:GB_V-Rally.png|''V-Rally''<br />[[Infogrames]] (1998)
</gallery>
</center>
==See also==
{{commons|Game Boy and variants}}
* [[List of Game Boy games]]
* [[List of Game Boy Color games]]
* [[List of Game Boy Advance games]]
* [[List of Super Game Boy games]]
* [[List of Game Boy colors and styles]]
* [[Game &amp; Watch]]
* [[Virtual Boy]]
* [[Nintendo DS]]
* [[Nintendo DS Lite]]
* [[Comparison of handheld gaming consoles]]
==External links==
* [http://www.portablegamingworld.com Portable Gaming World] - English community news and posts for all handhelds
*[http://www.gameboy.nu Game Boy Database] - A Swedish gameboy database
*[http://www.gameboyland.ch.vu Game Boy Land]
*[http://www.gameboy-advance.net/emulated/gb_roms_on_gba.htm GB on GBA Flash Cards] - emulators for playing GB games on GBA flash cartridges
*[http://www.elook.org/games/cheats/gbc/ eLook Game Boy Color Cheats]
*[http://system.tideblue.com/ Game Boy Family Hardware Product Numbers]
*[http://members.chello.at/herbert_weixelbaum/gb_links.html Game Boy Music Links]
{{Nintendo hardware|Game Boy}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geologic age</title>
<id>11980</id>
<revision>
<id>15909689</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-13T01:16:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dragons flight</username>
<id>16980</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>remove double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geologic time scale]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Green alga</title>
<id>11981</id>
<revision>
<id>41990856</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:05:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josh Grosse</username>
<id>517</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Green algae
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| subdivision_ranks = Divisions
| subdivision =
*[[Chlorophyta]] <BR>
*[[Charophyta]] <BR>
**[[Streptophytina]] (Subdivision)<BR>
}}
The '''green algae''' are the large group of [[alga]]e from which the [[embryophyte]]s (higher plants) emerged. As such they form a [[paraphyletic]] group, variously included among the [[Plantae]] or with the [[Protist]]a. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. In the [[Charales]], the closest relatives of higher plants, full differentiation of tissues occurs.
Almost all forms have [[chloroplast]]s. These contain [[chlorophyll]]s ''a'' and ''b'', giving them a bright green colour (as well as the accessory pigments [[beta carotene]] and [[xanthophyll]]s), and have stacked [[thylakoid]]s. They are bound by a double membrane, so presumably were acquired by direct [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiosis]] of [[cyanobacteria]]. A number of cyanobacteria show similar pigmentation, but this appears to have arisen more than once, and the chloroplasts of green algae are no longer considered closely related to such forms. Instead, the green algae probably share a common origin with the red algae; the two are grouped as the [[Archaeplastida]] or Plantae ''sensu lato''.
[[Image:Intertidal greenalgae.jpg|400px|thumb|right|A growth of the green seaweed, ''[[Enteromorpha]]'' on rock substratum at the ocean shore. Some green seaweeds, such as ''Enteromorpha'' and ''[[Sea lettuce|Ulva]]'', are quick to utilize inorganic [[nutrient]]s from land runoff, and thus can be indicators of nutrient pollution.]]
All green algae have [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] with flat cristae. When present [[flagellum|flagella]] are typically anchored by a cross-shaped system of [[microtubule]]s, but these are absent among the higher plants and charophytes. They usually have cell walls containing [[cellulose]], and undergo open [[mitosis]] without centrioles. Sexual reproduction varies from fusion of identical cells (isogamy) to fertilization of a large non-motile cell by a smaller motile one (oogamy). However, these traits show some variation, most notably among the basal green algae, called [[prasinophyte]]s. The remaining forms are usually classified as follows:
* Chlorophyta
** [[Chlorophyceae]]
** [[Ulvophyceae]]
** [[Trebouxiophyceae]]
* [[Chlorokybales]]
* [[Klebsormidiales]]
* [[Zygnematales]]
* [[Desmid]]ales
* [[Coleochaetales]]
* [[Charales]] (stoneworts)
The orders outside the Chlorophyta are often grouped as the division Charophyta, which is [[paraphyletic]] to higher plants, together comprising the Streptophyta. Sometimes the Charophyta is restricted to the Charales, and a division Gamophyta is introduced for the Zygnematales and Desmidales. In older systems the Chlorophyta may be taken to include all the green algae, but taken as above they appear to form a monophyletic group.
A few other organisms rely on green algae to conduct photosynthesis for them. The chloroplasts in [[euglenid]]s and [[chlorarachniophyte]]s were presumably acquired from ingested green algae, and in the latter retain a vestigial nucleus (nucleomorph). Some species of green algae, particularly of genera ''[[Trebouxia]]'' or ''[[Pseudotrebouxia]]'' (Trebouxiophyceae), can be found in symbiotic associations with [[fungus]] to form [[lichen]]s. In general the fungal species that partner in lichens cannot live on their own, while the algal species is often found living in nature without the fungus.
'''See also: [[Red alga]]e [[Brown alga]]e'''
== References ==
Lewis, L.A, McCourt, R.M. (2004) Green algae and the origin of land plants. ''AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 91'' (10): 1535-1556 OCT.
[[Category:Algae]]
[[Category:Green algae|*]]
[[Category:Non-vascular plants]]
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[[et:Rohevetikad]]
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[[fr:Algue verte]]
[[ja:緑藻類]]
[[lb:Gréngalgen]]
[[mk:Зелени алги]]
[[pl:Zielenice]]
[[uk:Водорості (підцарство)]]</text>
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</pa |
led basslines are often taken from [[double bass]] recordings or from publicly available loops. Synthesized basslines are very common and have sprouted a classic sound known as the ''Hoover'' or ''Reese''.
====Tempo====
Drum and bass is usually between 160-180 BPM, in contrast to other forms of [[Breakbeat]] such as [[Nu skool breaks]] which maintain a slower pace at around 130-140 BPM. A general upward trend in tempo has been observed during the evolution of drum and bass. The earliest Old School rave and breakbeat-descended jungle was around 155-165 BPM, whilst [[21st Century]] material rarely falls below 170BPM, and often hits 180BPM.
====Importance of drum and bassline elements====
The name "drum and bass" should not lead to the assumption that tracks are constructed solely from these elements. Nevertheless, they are by far and away the most critical features, and usually dominate the mix of a track. The genre places great importance on deep [[sub-bass|sub-bass]] which is felt physically as much as it is heard, the "bassline". There has also been considerable exploration of different [[timbre]]s in the bassline region, particularly within [[techstep]].
Despite the apparent simplicity, to the untrained ear, of drum & bass productions, an inordinate amount of time is spent on preparing tracks by the more experienced producers.
In drum & bass productions, the basslines are subjected to many and varied [[sound effect]]s, including standard techniques such as echo, flanger, chorus, over-drive, equalization, etc. and drum & bass specific techniques such as the [[Reece Bass]]. These techniques are fully appreciated in a club or rave environment as only high grade bass speakers can fully reproduce the sounds of the eponymous bassline, whose frequences are sometimes lower than audible (they can however be felt on the body). This has led to the creation of of very large and intensely loud [[soundsystems]] by producers wishing to show off their tracks in a true high fidelity environment, such as [[Dillinja]]'s [[Valve Soundsystem]]. This however does not mean that the music cannot be appreciated on personal equipment.
The drum element, that is the syncopated break, is another that producers spend a very large amount of time on. A drum fragment lasting seconds may often take a day or more to prepare, depending on the dedication of the producer, here [[Remarc]] is an acknowledged master.
===Context===
For the most part, drum and bass is a form of [[dance music]], mostly designed to be heard in [[Nightclub|clubs]]. It exhibits a [[full frequency response]] and physicality which often simply cannot be fully appreciated on home listening equipment. As befits its name, the bass element of the music is particularly pronounced, with the comparatively sparse arrangements of drum and bass tracks allowing room for basslines that are deeper than most other forms of dance music. Consequently, drum and bass parties are often advertised as featuring uncommonly loud and bass-heavy sound systems.
Drum and bass is often heard via a [[DJ]]. Because most tracks are designed to be mixed by a DJ, their structure typically reflects this, with intro and outro sections designed for a DJ to use while beat-matching, rather than being designed to be heard in entirety by the listener. The DJ typically mixes between records so as not to lose the continuous beat. In addition, the DJ may employ hip-hop style "[[scratching]]", "double-drops" (where two tracks are synchronized such that both tracks [[drop (music)|drop]] at the same time), and "rewinds."
Most mixing points begin or end with the "[[drop (music)|drop]]". The drop is the point in a track where a switch of rhythm or bassline occurs and usually follows a recognisable build section and "[[breakdown (music)|breakdown]]". Sometimes the drop is used to switch between tracks, layering components of different tunes, though as the two records may be simply ambient breakdowns at this point, this could be considered lazier than blending the music where breakbeats play together. Some drops are so popular that the DJ will "rewind" or "reload" by spinning the record back and restarting it at the build. This is a technique which can easily be overused as it breaks the continuity of a set. "The drop" is a key point from the point of view of the dancefloor, since the drumbreaks often fade out to leave an ambient intro playing. When the beats re-commence they are often more complex and accompanied by a heavier bassline, encouraging the crowd to dance. "Jump up" initially referred to the urge for those seated to dance at this point, though it came later to refer more specifically to a style of the music. A "rewind" would be popular here as the crowd could dance from the start of the record, and to the change in music they hadn't anticipated.
DJs are typically accompanied by one or more [[Master of Ceremonies|MC]]s, drawing on the genre's roots in [[hip hop music|hip hop]] and [[Reggae]]/[[Ragga]].
There are however many albums specifically designed for personal listening. The mix cd is a particularly popular form of release, with a big name dj/producer mixing live, or on a computer, a variety of tracks for personal listening. Additionally, there are many albums containing unmixed tracks, suited for home or car listening.
===Relationship to other electronic music styles===
Recently, smaller scenes within the drum and bass community have developed and the scene as a whole has become much more fractured into specific sub-genres. Some major sub-genres of drum and bass include:
* [[Breakcore]]
* [[Clownstep]]
* [[Darkstep]]
* [[Drumfunk]] (or "Choppage", "Edits")
* [[Dubstep]]
* [[Hardstep]]
* [[Intelligent drum and bass]] (or "Atmospheric DnB")
* [[Jazzstep]] ("Jazz and Bass")
* [[Jump-Up]]
* [[Jungle music|Jungle]]
* [[Liquid funk]]
* [[Neurofunk]]
* [[Techmospheric]]
* [[Techstep]]
* [[Wobble]]
As with all attempts to classify and categorize music, the above should not be treated as gospel. Many producers release albums which touch into many of the above styles.
[[Drill and bass]], a sub-genre of [[Intelligent dance music]] (also known as "IDM"), popularized by [[Aphex Twin]], features many of the same types of rhythms used in drum and bass and is generally focused on complexity in programming and instrumentation. Amongst its main proponents include [[Squarepusher]], [[Amon Tobin]] and [[Venetian Snares]], amongst others.
====Jungle vs Drum and Bass====
The difference between jungle and drum and bass is one of the most common debates within the community. There is no universally accepted semantic distinction between the terms "jungle" and "drum and bass". Some associate "jungle" with older material from the first half of the 1990s (sometimes referred to as "jungle techno"), and see drum and bass as essentially succeeding jungle. Others use jungle as a shorthand for ragga jungle, a specific sub-genre within the broader realm of drum and bass. In the [[USA]], the combined term "Jungle Drum and Bass" (JDB) has some popularity, but is not widespread elsewhere. Probably the widest held viewpoint is that the terms are simply synonymous and interchangeable: drum and bass is jungle, and jungle is drum and bass.
[[DJ Hype]]: "At the end of the day I am a ambassador for Drum and Bass the world over and have been playing for 16 years under the name Hype... To most of you out there Drum and Bass will be a important part of your lives, but for me Drum and Bass/Jungle is my life and always has been... We all have a part to play and believe me when I say I am no fucking bandwagon jumper, just a hard working Hackney man doing this thing called Drum and Bass/Jungle" [http://www.realplayaz.co.uk/forum/showthread.php?t=13411]
==Appearances in the mainstream==
Certain drum and bass releases have found mainstream popularity in their own right, almost always material prominently featuring vocals. Perhaps the earliest example was [[Goldie]]'s ''[[Timeless (Goldie album)|Timeless]]'' album of 1995, along with Reprazent's ''New Forms'' in 1997. More recently, tracks such as [[Shy FX]] and [[T-Power]]'s "Shake UR Body" gained a UK Top 40 Chart placing. [[Hive (record producer)|Hive's]] "Ultrasonic Sound" was also used in ''[[The Matrix]]'' soundtrack. More recently, video game tracks, specifically [[Rockstar Games]] releases, have contained many drum and bass tracks, i.e. the [[MSX]]/[[Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories soundtrack#MSX 98|MSX 98]] radio station in ''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'' and ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories]]''.
On the other hand, [[pop music]] has also occasionally co-opted elements of drum and bass, albeit in watered-down fashion. Examples include [[Puretone]] and [[Girls Aloud]]. Drum and bass also often appears in advertising and TV.
==Record labels==
:''Main article: [[List of jungle and drum'n'bass record labels]]''
==Accessing drum and bass==
===Purchasing===
Drum and bass is mostly sold in 12-inch [[vinyl record|vinyl]] single format, although some albums, compilations and DJ mixes are sold on [[CD]]. File downloads are also becoming increasingly available. Purchasing drum and bass can involve searching specialized record shops or using one of many online vinyl, CD and mp3 retailers, see [[List of drum & bass on-line purchasing sites]].
===Media===
The best known drum and bass publication is ''[[Knowledge (magazine)|Knowledge]]''. Other publications include the longest running drum and bass magazine worldwide ''[[ATM Magazine]]'', [[Canada|Canadian]]-based ''[[Rinse Magazine]]'' and [[Austrian]]-based ''[[Resident (magazine)|Resident]]''.
The highest profile drum and bass radi |
5</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T12:14:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>147.122.5.51</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT)''' is a [[decision problem]] considered in [[computational complexity theory|complexity theory]]. An instance of the problem is a Boolean expression written using only AND, OR, NOT, variables, and parentheses. The question is: given the expression, is there some assignment of ''TRUE'' and ''FALSE'' values to the variables that will make the entire expression true?
In [[mathematics]], a formula of [[propositional calculus|propositional logic]] is said to be '''satisfiable''' if [[truth-value]]s can be assigned to its [[variable]]s in a way that makes the formula true. The class of satisfiable propositional formulas is [[NP-complete]]. The propositional satisfiability problem (SAT), which decides whether a given propositional formula is satisfiable, is of central importance in various areas of [[computer science]], including [[theoretical computer science]], [[algorithmics]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[hardware design]] and [[hardware verification|verification]].
The problem can be significantly restricted while still remaining NP-complete. By applying [[De Morgan's laws]], we can assume that NOT operators are only applied directly to variables, not expressions; we refer to either a variable or its negation as a ''literal''. For example, both ''x''<sub>1</sub> and not(''x''<sub>2</sub>) are literals, the first a ''positive'' literal and the second a ''negative'' literal. If we OR together a group of literals, we get a ''clause'', such as (''x''<sub>1</sub> ''or'' not(''x''<sub>2</sub>)). Finally, let us consider formulas that are a conjunction (AND) of clauses. We call this form [[conjunctive normal form]]. Determining whether a formula in this form is satisfiable is still NP-complete, even if each clause is limited to at most three literals. This last problem is called 3CNFSAT, 3SAT, or 3-satisfiability.
On the other hand, if we restrict each clause to at most two literals, the resulting problem, 2SAT, is in [[P_(complexity)|P]]. The same holds if every clause is a [[Horn clause]]; that is, it contains at most one positive literal.
A highly technical [[proof that Boolean satisfiability problem is NP-complete]] is available.
== Complexity ==
SAT is [[NP-complete]]. In fact, it was the first known '''NP'''-complete problem, as proved by [[Stephen Cook]] in 1971 (see [[Cook's theorem]] for the proof). Until that time, it was not known that NP-complete problems even existed. The problem remains '''NP'''-complete even if all expressions are written in ''[[conjunctive normal form]]'' with 3 variables per clause (3-CNF), yielding the '''3SAT''' problem. This means the expression has the form:
:(''x''<sub>11</sub> OR ''x''<sub>12</sub> OR ''x''<sub>13</sub>) AND
:(''x''<sub>21</sub> OR ''x''<sub>22</sub> OR ''x''<sub>23</sub>) AND
:(''x''<sub>31</sub> OR ''x''<sub>32</sub> OR ''x''<sub>33</sub>) AND ...
where each ''x'' is a variable or a negation of a variable, and each variable can appear multiple times in the expression.
A useful property of Cook's reduction is that it preserves the number of accepting answers. For example, if a graph has 17 valid 3-colorings, the SAT formula produced by the reduction will have 17 satisfying assignments.
== Restrictions of SAT ==
SAT is easier if the formulas are restricted to those in [[disjunctive normal form]], that is, they are disjunction (OR) of terms, where each term is a conjunction (AND) of literals (possibly negated variables). Such a formula is indeed satisfiable if and only if some of its terms are satisfiable, and a term is satisfiable iff it does not contain both ''x'' and NOT ''x'' for some variable ''x''. This can be checked in polynomial time.
SAT is also easier if the number of literals in a clause is limited to 2, in which case the problem is called 2SAT. This problem can also be solved in polynomial time, and in fact is complete for the class [[NL (complexity)|NL]]. Similarly, if we limit the number of literals per clause to 2 and change the AND operations to [[XOR]] operations, the result is ''exclusive-or 2-satisfiability'', a problem complete for [[SL (complexity)|SL]] = [[L (complexity)|L]].
One of the most important restrictions of SAT is HORNSAT, where the formula is a conjunction of [[Horn clause]]s. This problem is solved by the polynomial-time [[Horn-satisfiability]] algorithm, and is in fact [[P-complete]]. It can be seen as [[P (complexity)|P]]'s version of the boolean satisfiability problem.
Provided that the [[complexity classes P and NP]] are not equal, none of these restrictions are NP-complete, unlike SAT. The assumption that P and NP are not equal is not currently proved.
=== 3-satisfiability ===
3-satisfiability is a special case of ''k''-satisfiability (''k''-SAT) or simply satisfiability (SAT), when each clause contains at most ''k'' = 3 literals. It was one of [[Karp's 21 NP-complete problems]].
Here is an example, where ~ indicates NOT:
: E = (''x''<sub>1</sub> or ~''x''<sub>2</sub> or ~''x''<sub>3</sub>) and (''x''<sub>1</sub> or ''x''<sub>2</sub> or ''x''<sub>4</sub>)
E has two clauses (denoted by parentheses), four literals (''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>, ''x''<sub>3</sub>, ''x''<sub>4</sub>), and ''k''=3 (three literals per clause).
To solve this instance of the decision problem we must determine whether there is a truth value (TRUE or FALSE) we can assign to each of the literals (''x''<sub>1</sub> through ''x''<sub>4</sub>) such that the entire expression is TRUE. In this instance, there is such an assignment (''x''<sub>1</sub> = TRUE, ''x''<sub>2</sub> = TRUE, ''x''<sub>3</sub>=TRUE, ''x''<sub>4</sub>=TRUE), so the answer to this instance is YES. This is one of many possible assignments, with for instance, any set of assignments including ''x''<sub>1</sub> = TRUE being sufficient. If there were no such assignment(s), the answer would be NO.
Since k-SAT (the general case) reduces to 3-SAT, and 3-SAT [http://cs482.elliottback.com/archives/2005/03/16/lecture-23-3-sat/ can be proven] to be [[NP-complete]], it can be used to prove that other problems are also NP-complete. This is done by showing how a solution to another problem could be used to solve 3-SAT. An example of a problem where this method has been used is "[[Clique problem|Clique]]". It's often easier to use reductions from 3-SAT than SAT to problems which researchers are attempting to prove NP-complete.
== Extensions of SAT ==
The satisfiability problem seems to become more difficult if we allow ''[[quantifier]]s'' such as "for all" and "there exists" that bind the boolean variables. An example of such an expression would be:
: <math>\forall x, \exists y,\exists z; (x \lor y \lor z) \land (\lnot x \lor \lnot y \lor \lnot z)</math>
If we use only <math>\exists</math> quantifiers, this is still the SAT problem. If we allow only <math>\forall</math> quantifiers, it becomes the [[Co-NP-complete]] [[TAUTOLOGY problem]]. If we allow both, the problem is called the [[quantified boolean formula problem]] (QBF), which can be shown to be [[PSPACE-complete]]. It is widely believed that PSPACE-complete problems are strictly harder than any problem in NP, although this has not yet been proved.
A number of variants deal with the number of variable assignments making the formula true. Ordinary SAT asks if there is at least one such assignment. MAJSAT, which asks if the majority of all assignments make the formula true, is complete for [[PP (complexity)|PP]], a probabilistic class. The problem of how many variable assignments satisfy a formula, not a decision problem, is in [[Sharp-P|#P]]. UNIQUE-SAT or USAT is the problem of determining whether a formula known to have either zero or one satisfying assignments has zero or has one. Although this problem seems easier, it has been shown that if there is a practical ([[BPP|randomized polynomial-time]]) algorithm to solve this problem, then all problems in [[NP (complexity class)|NP]] can be solved just as easily.
The [[maximum satisfiability problem]], an [[FNP (complexity)|FNP]] generalization of SAT, asks for the maximum number of clauses which can be satisfied by any assignment. It has efficient [[approximation algorithm]]s, but is NP-hard to solve exactly. Worse still, it is [[APX]]-complete, meaning there is no [[polynomial-time approximation scheme]] (PTAS) for this problem unless P=NP.
== Algorithms for solving SAT ==
There are two classes of high-performance [[algorithms]] for solving instances of SAT in practice: modern variants of the [[DPLL algorithm]], such as [[Chaff algorithm|Chaff]], and [[stochastic local search algorithm]]s,
such as [[WalkSAT]]. [[Genetic algorithm]]s are increasingly being used to solve SAT problems, especially when there is no or limited knowledge of the problem domain. Large random instances of SAT can be solved by [[Survey Propagation]] (SP). Particularly in [[hardware design]] and [[hardware verification|verification]] applications, satisfiability and other logical properties of a given propositional formula are often decided based on a representation of the formula as a [[binary decision diagram]] (BDD).
Propositional satisfiability has various generalisations, including satisfiability for [[quantified boolean formula problem]], for [[first-order predicate calculus|first]]- and [[second-order logic]], [[co |
g to the large class of gastropods ([[Gastropoda]]). There is only one genus in the family Haliotidae, and about four to seven subgenera. The taxonomy is somewhat confused. The number of species range from about 100 to about 130 species (due to the occurrence of [[hybrid]]s), characterized by a richly coloured (on the inside&mdash;the outside is rough and mostly brown) shell yielding [[mother-of-pearl]]. This is also commonly called ''ear-shell,'' in [[Guernsey]] ''ormer'' (Fr. ''ormier'', for ''oreille de mer''), ''perlemoen'' in [[South Africa]] and ''pāua'' in [[New Zealand]]. Abalone is also prevalent in [[Australia]]n and [[South Africa]]n coastal waters and is highly valued. The meat of an abalone is also considered an expensive delicacy in certain parts of South-East and East Asia, especially in [[Japan]], although it has a high cholesterol content.
==Distribution and characteristics==
The Haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except South America and the eastern coast of the USA. Most abalones are found off the Southern Hemisphere coasts of New Zealand, South Africa and Australia, and Western North America and Japan in the Northern Hemisphere.
The family has unmistakable characteristics : the shell is rounded to oval, with two to three whorls, and the last one [[auriform]] (= grown into a large ‘ear’), giving rise to the common name ‘ear-shell’. The [[body whorl]] has a series of holes (four to ten depending on the species), near the anterior margin.
There is no [[Operculum (gastropod)|operculum]]. The back is convex, ranging from highly arched to very flattened. These shells cling solidly with their muscular foot to rocky surfaces at [[sublittoral]] depths. The color is very variable from species to species. The inside of the shell consists of iridiscent, silvery white to greenred [[mother-of-pearl]] through to ''Haliotis Iris'' which can comprise of; pinks and reds with predominant deep blues, greens and purples.
Abalones reach maturity at a small size. Their fertility is high and increases with size (from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time).
The larvae feed on plankton. The adults are herbivores and feed on macroalgae, preferring red algae. Sizes vary from 20 mm (''Haliotis pulcherrima'') to 200 mm (or even more) (''Haliotis rufescens'').
==Abalone diving in California==
Sport harvesting of Red Abalone is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. Abalone may only be taken while free diving (as opposed to scuba diving). Taking of abalone is not permited south of the mouth of the San Francisco Bay. There is a size minimum of seven inches measured across the shell and a quantity limit of three per day and 24 per year. Abalone may only be taken in season. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still in the shell. Sale of sport obtained abalone is illegal (including the shell). Only Red Abalone may be taken; black, white, pink, and flat abalone are protected by law.
An abalone diver is normally equipped with a very thick wetsuit, including a hood, booties, and gloves. He or she would also wear a mask, snorkel, weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. It is common to dive for abalone in water six to 20+ feet deep. Abalone are normally found on rocks in kelp beds (they eat kelp). The abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it can fully clamp down. Visibility is normally five to ten feet. Divers commonly dive out of boats, kayaks, tube floats, and directly off shore. An eight inch abalone is considered a good catch, nine inches extremely good, and a ten inch plus (250 mm) abalone would be a trophy catch. Rock picking is a separate method from diving where the rock picker feels underneath rocks at low tides for abalone.
There has been a trade in [[diving]] to catch abalones off parts of the USA coast from before 1939. In [[World War II]], many of these abalone divers were recruited into the USA [[armed forces]] and trained as [[frogman|frogmen]].
==Abalone diving in New Zealand==
[[Image:Abalone-farm1web.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Abalone farm]]
There is an extensive global [[black market]] in the collection and export of abalone meat. In New Zealand, where abalone is called '''pāua''' in the [[Māori language]], this can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest pāua can be granted legally under [[Māori]] customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 pāua per diver with a minimum shell length of 125 mm. The limit is strictly enforced by roving Ministry of Fisheries officers with the backing of the Police force. Pāua 'poaching' is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats and motor vehicles as well as fines and in rare cases; imprisonment. The Ministry of Fisheries expects in the year 2004/05, nearly 1000 tons of pāua will be poached, with 75% of that being
undersized.[http://www.fish.govt.nz/information/corp-docs/soi-04-08/pau2-industry-association.pdf]
Highly polished [[New Zealand]] pāua shells are extremely popular as souvenirs with their striking blue, green and purple iridescence. The [[muscle]] tissue of the [[mollusk]] is often eaten, and the [[gonad]]s of the abalone are delicacies in [[China]] and [[Japan]].
==Ormers in the Channel Islands==
Ormers (''Haliotis tuberculata'') are considered a delicacy in the Channel Islands and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. Unfortunately, this has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and 'ormering' is now strictly regulated in order to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from the [[January 1]] to [[April 30]], which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under 8 cm in shell length. Diving is strictly prohibited. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to a heavy fine. The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when a Mr Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.
==Abalone shell==
In addition, material scientists at the [[University of California, San Diego]] are studying abalone's strong [[calcium carbonate]] tiled structure for insight into a new wave of bullet-proof [[body armor]].
==List of species with common name==
[[Image:Pinkabalone 300.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Pink Abalone (''Haliotis corrugata'')]]
*''Haliotis ancile '' : [[Shield Abalone]].
*''Haliotis aquatilis'' : [[Japanese Abalone]].
*''Haliotis asinina'' : [[Ass’s ear Abalone]].
*''Haliotis assimilis'' : [[Threaded Abalone]].
*''Haliotis australis'' : [[Australian Abalone]], Austral Abalone.
*''Haliotis brazieri '': [[Brazier’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis coccoradiata '' : [[Reddish-rayed Abalone]].
*''Haliotis conicopora '' : [[Conical Pore Abalone]], Brownlip Abalone
*''Haliotis corrugata '' : [[Pink Abalone]].
*''Haliotis crachedorii'' : [[Black Abalone]].
[[Image:Whiteabalone 300.jpg|thumb|right|250px|White Abalone (''Haliotis sorenseni'')]]
*''Haliotis crebrisculpta '' : [[Close Sculptures Abalone]].
*''Haliotis cyclobates '' : [[Whirling Abalone]].
*''Haliotis dalli'' : [[Dall’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis discus'' : [[Disk Abalone]].
*''Haliotis diversicolor '' : [[Variously Coloured Abalone]].
*''Haliotis dohrniana '' : [[Dhorn’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis elegans'' : [[Elegant Abalone]].
*''Haliotis emmae'' : [[Emma’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis ethologus'' : [[Mimic Abalone]].
*''Haliotis fulgens'' : [[Green Abalone]].
*''Haliotis gigantea'' : [[Giant Abalone]].
*''Haliotis glabra'' : [[Glistening Abalone]].
*''Haliotis hargravesi'' : [[Hargraves’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis howensis'' : [[Lord Howe Abalone]].
*''Haliotis iris'' : [[Blackfoot Abalone]].
*''Haliotis iris'' : [[Rainbow Abalone]], Paua Abalone.
*''Haliotis jacnensis '' : [[Jacna Abalone]].
*''Haliotis kamschatkana'' : [[Pinto Abalone]].
*''Haliotis laevigata smooth'' : [[Australian Abalone]], Greenlip Abalone.
*''Haliotis melculus'' : [[Honey Abalone]].
*''Haliotis midae'' : [[Midas Ear Abalone]], Perlemoen Abalone.
*''Haliotis multiperforata'' : [[Many-holed Abalone]].
*''Haliotis ovina'' : [[Oval Abalone]], Sheep's Ear Abalone
*''Haliotis parva'' : [[Canaliculate Abalone]].
*''Haliotis planata'' : [[Planate Abalone]].
*''Haliotis pourtalesii'' : [[Pourtale’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis pulcherrima'' : [[Most Beautiful Abalone]].
*''Haliotis queketti'' : [[Quekett’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis roei'' : [[Roe's Abalone]]
*''Haliotis rosacea'': [[Rosy Abalone]].
*''Haliotis rubra'' : [[Ruber Abalone]].
*''Haliotis rufescens'': [[Red Abalone]].
*''Haliotis scalaris'' : [[Staircase Abalone]], Ridged Ear Abalone.
*''Haliotis semiplicata'' : [[Semiplicate Abalone]].
*''Haliotis sorenseni'' : [[White Abalone]].
*''Haliotis spadicea'' : [[Blood-spotted Abalone]].
*''Haliotis speciosa'' : [[Splendid Abalone]].
*''Haliotis squamata'' : [[Scaly Australian Abalone]].
*''Haliotis squamosa'' : [[Squamose Abalone]].
*''Haliotis tuberculata '': [[European Edible Abalone]], Tube Abalone, Tuberculate Ormer.
*''Haliotis varia'' : [[Variable Abalone]].
*''Haliotis venusta'' : [[Lovely Abalone]].
*''Haliotis virginea'' : [[Virgin Abalone]].
*''Haliotis walallensis'' : [[Northern Green Abalone]], [[Flat Abalone]].
'''Other species :'''
''Haliotis clathrata, Haliotis barbouri, Haliotis crebrisculpta, Haliotis dissona, Haliotis exigua, Haliotis fatui, Haliotis kamtschatkana assimilis, Haliotis kamtschatkana kamtschatkana, Haliotis madaka, Haliotis mariae, Haliotis patamakanthini, Haliotis pustulata, Haliotis roberti, Haliotis rubiginosa, Haliotis rubra, Haliotis rugosa, Haliotis thailandis, Hali |
in]], [[American Civil War|Civil War]] hero for the Union on [[Little Round Top]] at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]]
*[[1925]] - [[Hjalmar Branting]], [[Prime Minister of Sweden]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1860]])
*[[1970]] - [[Conrad Nagel]], American actor (b. [[1897]])
*[[1975]] - [[Nikolai Bulganin]], [[Premier of the Soviet Union]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1984]] - [[Helmut Schelsky]], German sociologist (b. [[1912]])
*[[1990]] - [[Tony Conigliaro]], baseball player (b. [[1945]])
*1990 - [[Malcolm Forbes]], American publisher (b. [[1917]])
*1990 - [[Sandro Pertini]], Italian politician (b. [[1896]])
*1990 - [[Johnnie Ray]], American singer (b. [[1927]])
*[[1991]] - [[John Charles Daly|John Daly]], South African game show host (b. [[1914]])
*1991 - [[George Gobel]], American comedian (b. [[1919]])
*[[1993]] - [[Bobby Moore]], English footballer (b. [[1941]])
*[[1994]] - [[Dinah Shore]], American actress and singer (b. [[1916]])
*[[1998]] - [[Antonio Prohias]], Cuban-born cartoonist (b. [[1921]])
*1998 - [[Henny Youngman]], English-born comedian (b. [[1906]])
*[[1999]] - [[Andre Dubus]], American writer (b. [[1936]])
*[[2001]] - [[Claude E. Shannon]], American information theorist (b. [[1916]])
*[[2002]] - [[Leo Ornstein]], Russian-born composer and pianist (b. [[1912]])
*[[2003]] - [[John Edward Christopher Hill]], English historian (b. [[1912]])
*2003 - [[Bernard Loiseau]], French chef (b. [[1951]])
*[[2004]] - [[John Randolph (actor)|John Randolph]], American actor (b. [[1915]])
*[[2006]] - [[Don Knotts]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[2006]] - [[John Martin (Canadian broadcaster)|John Martin]], Canadian broadcaster (b. [[1947]])
*[[2006]] - [[Dennis Weaver]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Regifugium]], in the [[Roman calendar]].
*[[Independence Day]] in [[Estonia]] ([[1918]]).
*[[Flag_Day_in_Mexico|Flag Day]] in [[México]].
*[[Dragobete]] in [[Romania]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/24 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060224.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=24 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[February 23]] - [[February 25]] - [[January 24]] - [[March 24]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:24 Februarie]]
[[an:24 de frebero]]
[[ar:24 فبراير]]
[[ast:24 de febreru]]
[[be:24 лютага]]
[[bg:24 февруари]]
[[bs:24. februar]]
[[ca:24 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 24]]
[[co:24 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:24. únor]]
[[csb:24 gromicznika]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 24]]
[[cy:24 Chwefror]]
[[da:24. februar]]
[[de:24. Februar]]
[[el:24 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:24-a de februaro]]
[[es:24 de febrero]]
[[et:24. veebruar]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 24]]
[[fi:24. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:24. februar]]
[[fr:24 février]]
[[fy:24 febrewaris]]
[[ga:24 Feabhra]]
[[gl:24 de febreiro]]
[[he:24 בפברואר]]
[[hr:24. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 24]]
[[ia:24 de februario]]
[[id:24 Februari]]
[[ie:24 februar]]
[[ilo:Febrero 24]]
[[io:24 di februaro]]
[[is:24. febrúar]]
[[it:24 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月24日]]
[[jv:24 Februari]]
[[ka:24 თებერვალი]]
[[ko:2월 24일]]
[[ku:24'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:24. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 24]]
[[mk:24 февруари]]
[[ms:24 Februari]]
[[nap:24 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:24 februari]]
[[nn:24. februar]]
[[no:24. februar]]
[[oc:24 de febrièr]]
[[pam:Pebreru 24]]
[[pl:24 lutego]]
[[pt:24 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:24 februarie]]
[[ru:24 февраля]]
[[scn:24 di frivaru]]
[[sco:24 Februar]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 24.]]
[[simple:February 24]]
[[sk:24. február]]
[[sl:24. februar]]
[[sq:24 Shkurt]]
[[sr:24. фебруар]]
[[sv:24 februari]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 24]]
[[th:24 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 24]]
[[tr:24 Şubat]]
[[tt:24. Febräl]]
[[uk:24 лютого]]
[[vi:24 tháng 2]]
[[wa:24 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 24]]
[[zh:2月24日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 23</title>
<id>11008</id>
<revision>
<id>41874898</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:45:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Calton</username>
<id>128887</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ del "[[1983]] - [[ Karunanidhi Madhumitha]] , Software Engineeer HP", who is, in fact, still non-notable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=23}}
|}
'''February 23''' is the 54th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 311 days remaining, 312 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[1455]] - Traditional date for the publication of the [[Gutenberg Bible]], the first [[Western]] [[book]] printed from [[movable type]].
* [[1660]] - [[Charles XI of Sweden|Charles XI]] becomes [[Monarch of Sweden|King of Sweden]].
* [[1778]] - [[American Revolution]]: [[Baron von Steuben]] arrives at [[Valley Forge]], [[Pennsylvania]] to help to train the [[Continental Army]].
* [[1820]] - [[Cato Street Conspiracy]]: A plot to murder all the [[United Kingdom|British]] cabinet ministers is exposed.
* [[1836]] - The [[Battle of the Alamo|Siege of the Alamo]] begins in [[San Antonio, Texas]].
* [[1847]] - [[Mexican-American War]]: [[Battle of Buena Vista]] - In [[Mexico]], [[United States|American]] troops defeat [[Mexican]] [[general]] [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]].
* [[1854]] - The official [[independence]] of the [[Orange Free State]] is declared.
* [[1861]] - [[President]]-elect [[Abraham Lincoln]] arrives secretly in [[Washington, DC]] after an [[assassination]] attempt in [[Baltimore, Maryland]].
* [[1870]] - Military control of [[Mississippi]] ends and it is readmitted to the [[Union]].
* [[1874]] - [[Walter Winfield]] patents a game called "[[sphairistike]]", now more commonly called [[lawn tennis]].
* [[1883]] - [[Alabama]] becomes the first [[U.S. state]] to enact an [[antitrust law]].
* [[1887]] - The [[French Riviera]] is hit by a large [[earthquake]], killing around 2,000.
* [[1893]] - [[Rudolf Diesel]] receives a patent for the [[diesel engine]].
* [[1898]] - [[Émile Zola]] is imprisoned in [[France]] after writing "[[J'accuse]]", a letter accusing the [[Government_of_France|French government]] of [[anti-Semitism]] and wrongfully placing [[Captain]] [[Alfred Dreyfus]] in jail.
* [[1900]] - In [[South Africa]] the [[Boer]]s and [[United Kingdom|British]] troops fight in the [[Battle of Hart's Hill]].
* [[1903]] - [[Cuba]] leases [[Guantanamo Bay]] to the [[United States]] "in perpetuity".
* [[1904]] - For $10 million the [[United States]] gains control of the [[Panama Canal]] Zone.
* [[1905]] - [[Chicago, Illinois]] attorney [[Paul Harris]] and three other businessmen meet for lunch to form the [[Rotary Club]], the world's first [[service club]].
* [[1909]] - The [[Silver Dart]] makes the first powered flight in [[Canada]] and the [[British Empire]].
* [[1919]] - [[Benito Mussolini]] forms the [[Fascist Party]] in [[Italy]].
* [[1927]] - The [[Federal Radio Commission]] (later renamed the [[Federal Communications Commission]]) begins to regulate the use of [[radio]] frequencies.
* [[1934]] - [[Léopold III of Belgium|Léopold III]] becomes [[King]] of [[Belgium]].
* [[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Soviet Union]] troops conquer [[Lasi Island]].
* 1940 - The animated [[film|movie]] ''[[Pinocchio (1940 movie)|Pinocchio]]'' is released.
* [[1941]] - [[Plutonium]] was first produced and isolated by Dr. [[Glenn T. Seaborg]].
* [[1945]] - [[World War II]]: During the [[Battle of Iwo Jima]], a group of [[United States Marine]]s reach the top of [[Mount Surabachi]] on the island and are [[Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima|photographed raising the American flag]]. The photo would later win a [[Pulitzer Prize]].
* 1945 - [[World War II]]: The capital of the [[Philippines]], [[Manila]], is liberated by [[United States|American]] forces.
* 1945 - [[World War II]]: Capitulation of [[Germany|German]] garrison in [[Poznan]], city is liberated by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and [[Poland|Polish]] forces.
* 1945 - [[World War II]]: The [[Germany|German]] town of [[Pforzheim]] is completely destroyed by a raid of 379 [[British]] bombers.
* [[1947]] - [[International Organization for Standardization]](ISO) is founded.
* [[1954]] - The first mass [[vaccination]] of children against [[polio]] begins in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].
* [[1955]] - First meeting of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] ([[SEATO]]).
* 1955 - [[Edgar Faure]] becomes [[Prime Minister]] of [[France]].
* [[1956]] - In a cosmic event known as [[the great flare]], the Earth was bombarded with a burst of protons and other nuclei from a [[solar flare]].
* [[1957]] - The founding congress of the [[Senegalese Popular Bloc]] is opened in [[Dakar]].
* [[1958]] - [[Cuba]]n rebels kidnap 5-time world driving champion [[Juan Manuel Fangio]].
* [[1966]] - A military [[coup]] in [[Syria]] replaces the previous [[government]].
* [[1974]] - The [[Symbionese Liberation Army]] demands $4 million more to release kidnap victim [[Patty Hearst]].
* [[1975]] - In response to the [[1973 energy crisis|energy crisis]], [[daylight saving time]] commences nearly two months early in the [[United States]].
* [[1980]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] states that [[Iran]]'s [[parliament]] would decide the fate of the [[United States|American]] [[embassy]] hostages.
* [[1981]] - [[23-F]], [[Antonio Tejero]] attempts a [[coup d'état]] by capturing the [[Spanish Congress of Deputies]].
* [[1983]] - The [[Spanish]] [[PSOE|Socialist]] [[government]] of [[Felipe González]] and [[Miguel Boyer]] nationalizes [[Rumasa]], a holding of [[José María Ruiz Mateos]].
* 1983 - The [[Environmental Protection Agency]] announces its intent to buy out and evacuate the [[dioxin]]-contaminated community of [[Times Beach, Missouri]].
* [[1987]] - A [[supernova]] is seen in the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]] (see [[Supernova 1987a]]).
* |
rmuda dollar]] which is pegged to the [[US dollar]].
==Demographics==
More than half of the population is black and less than a third is white. A significant segment of the population is of Portuguese heritage, having emigrated from the [[Azores]] over the past century.
{{main|Demographics of Bermuda}}
==Miscellaneous topics==
Bermuda is one of the three vertices bordering the [[Bermuda Triangle]], an allegedly paranormal region of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
*[[Places of interest in Bermuda]]
*[[Communications in Bermuda]]
*[[Transportation in Bermuda]]
*[[Military of Bermuda]]
==Holidays==
{{main|Holidays in Bermuda}}
<center>
{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="90%" style="border-collapse:collapse; border:1px solid #aaa; text-align:left"
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" width="15%" | Date
! style="background:#efefef;" width="20%" | Holiday
! style="background:#efefef;" | Remarks
|-
| [[24 May]]
| Bermuda Day
|
|-
|}
</center>
==Famous residents==
This list includes residents both current and past, and also seasonal.
*[[Clarence Hill (boxer)|Clarence Hill]] (Boxing - Olympic Bronze Medal Winner)
*[[Clarence "Nicky" Saunders]] (High Jump - Commonwealth Games Gold Medal Winner)
*[[Johnny Barnes]]
*[[Clyde Best]]
*[[Heather Nova]]
*[[Gina Swainson]] (former [[Miss World]] 1979-1980)
*[[Shaun Goater]] (Former Manchester City striker)
*[[Mark Twain]]
*[[John Lennon]] [http://www.theroyalgazette.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051206/NEWS/112060146] [http://www.theroyalgazette.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051207/LIFESTYLE/112070095]
*[[Georgia O'Keefe]]
*[[Ross Perot]]
*[[Silvio Berlusconi]] Italian Prime Minister
*[[Michael Bloomberg]] Mayor of New York City
*[[Michael Douglas]] and [[Catherine Zeta-Jones]]
*[[David Bowie]] and [[Iman Abdulmajid|Iman]]
*[[Twiggy]]
*[[Patrick Rafter]]
*[[David Lee]]
*[[William Stephenson|Sir William Stephenson]] (Famous WWll Canadian Spymaster "Intrepid")
*[[Ian Fleming]] creator of James Bond
*[[Frederick Buechner]] (as a child)
*[[Noël Coward]] - playwright and actor/singer.
*[[Kenneth Amis]] - notable tuba player, born in Bermuda
As a sidenote, most famous people live on [[Tucker's Peninsula, Bermuda|Tucker's Peninsula]], part of Tucker's Town, an exclusive residential neighbourhood. Michael Bloomberg, Silvio Berlusconi, and Ross Perot are among homeowners there.
==References==
*{{note|UN_decolonisation}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust3.htm
| title = Non-Self-Governing Territories listed by General Assembly in 2002
| work = United Nations Special Committee of 24 on Decolonization
| accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = March 10
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The New American Desk Encyclopedia
| edition = edition 3
| year = 1993
| chapter = Bermuda
| id = ISBN 0-451-17566-2
}}
==External links==
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.gov.bm Bermuda Government] The official Bermuda Government website
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1032111344299
| publisher = Foreign and Commonwealth Office
| title = Bermuda
}}
{{North America}}
{{Caricom}}
{{British dependencies}}
[[Category:Bermuda]]
[[Category:Current British colonies]]
[[Category:North Atlantic Islands]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[ca:Bermudes]]
[[cs:Bermudy]]
[[da:Bermuda]]
[[de:Bermuda]]
[[eo:Bermudo]]
[[es:Bermudas]]
[[et:Bermuda]]
[[fi:Bermuda]]
[[fr:Bermudes]]
[[gl:Bermuda]]
[[he:ברמודה]]
[[hu:Bermuda]]
[[id:Bermuda]]
[[is:Bermúda]]
[[it:Bermuda]]
[[ja:バミューダ諸島]]
[[ko:버뮤다]]
[[lt:Bermuda]]
[[lv:Bermudu salas]]
[[nl:Bermuda]]
[[no:Bermuda]]
[[pl:Bermudy]]
[[pt:Bermudas]]
[[ro:Insulele Bermude]]
[[ru:Бермуды]]
[[sk:Bermudy]]
[[sl:Bermuda]]
[[sv:Bermuda]]
[[tr:Bermuda]]
[[uk:Бермудські острови]]
[[zh:百慕大]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bermuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bolivia</title>
<id>3462</id>
<revision>
<id>42105613</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:36:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>147.9.203.193</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy (1993) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country |
native_name = República de Bolivia |
common_name = Bolivia |
image_flag = Flag of Bolivia.svg |
image_coat = BoliviaArms.gif |
image_map = LocationBolivia.png |
national_motto = ''Morir antes que esclavos vivir''<br>[[English language|English]]: ''To die before living as slaves''
|national_anthem = ''[[Bolivianos, el hado propicio]]'' |
official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]] |
capital = [[La Paz]], [[Sucre]]<sup>1</sup> |
latd=17|latm=00|latNS=S|longd=65|longm=00|longEW=W|
government_type = [[Unitary republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Bolivia|President]] |
leader_names = [[Evo Morales]] |
largest_city = [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra|Santa Cruz]] |
most important person = [[Jannett]] |
area = 1,098,581 |
areami² = 421,075 | <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
area_rank = 27th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
percent_water = 1.29% |
population_estimate = 8,857,870 |
population_estimate_year = July 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 86th |
population_census = 8.274.325 |
population_census_year = 2001 |
population_density = 8 |
population_densitymi² = 21 | <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
population_density_rank = 177th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2006 |
GDP_PPP = $25,892 million |
GDP_PPP_rank = 103rd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $3,049 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 126th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.687 |
HDI_rank = 113th |
HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[History of Bolivia|Independence]] |
established_events = &nbsp;&bull; Date |
established_dates = From [[Spain]]<br>[[August 6]], [[1825]] |
currency = [[Boliviano]] |
currency_code = BOB |
time_zone = &mdash; |
utc_offset = -4 |
time_zone_DST = &mdash; |
utc_offset_DST = ? |
cctld = [[.bo]] |
calling_code = 591 |
footnotes = <sup>1</sup> La Paz is the seat of government; Sucre, the legal capital
}}The '''Republic of Bolivia''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de Bolivia'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe bo'liβi̯a]}}) is a [[landlocked]] [[country]] in central [[South America]]. It is bordered by [[Brazil]] on the north and east, [[Paraguay]] and [[Argentina]] on the south, and [[Chile]] and [[Peru]] on the west.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Bolivia]]''
===Pre-colonial period===
The [[Andes Mountains|Andean region]] probably has been inhabited for some 5,000 years. Beginning about the 2nd century [[Anno Domini|B.C.]], the [[Tiwanaku]] culture developed at the southern end of [[Lake Titicaca]]. This culture, centered around and named for the great city of Tiwanaku, developed advanced [[architecture|architectural]] and [[agriculture|agricultural]] techniques before it disappeared around [[Anno Domini|A.D.]] [[1200]], probably because of extended [[drought]] (some legends of the Aymará, who claim descendance from the inhabitants of Tiwanaku, indicate that Lake Titikaka rose and flooded the city, causing dispersal of the survivors). Roughly contemporaneous with the Tiwanakan culture, the [[Moxos]] in the eastern lowlands and the [[Mollos]] north of present-day [[La Paz]] also developed advanced agricultural societies that had dissipated by the 13th century A.D. In about [[1450]], the [[Quechua language|Quechua]]-speaking [[Incas]] entered the area of modern highland Bolivia and added it to their empire. They controlled the area until the [[Spain|Spanish]] conquest in [[1535]].
===Colonial period===
During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called "Upper Peru" or "Charcas" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of [[Lima]]. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata &mdash; modern Sucre). Bolivian [[silver]] mines produced much of the Spanish empire's wealth, and Potosí, site of the famed Cerro Rico &mdash; "Rich Hill" &mdash; was, for many years, the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. A steady stream of enslaved Indians served as labor force. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic wars]], sentiment against colonial rule grew.
===The Republic and economic instability (1809)===
Independence was proclaimed in [[1809]], but 16 years of struggle followed before the establishment of the republic, named for [[Simón Bolívar]], on [[August 6]], [[1825]] (see [[Bolivian War of Independence]]).
During the presidency of Mariscal Andres de Santa Cruz Bolivia enjoyed the most glorious period of her history with great social and economic advancement. Different wars against almost all it's neighbors were fought during this period with sound victories against its enemies but maybe the turning point took place on the fields of Paucarpata where the [[Confederacion Peru-Boliviana]] lead by the glorious [[Mariscal Santa Cruz]] defeated the Chilean and Peruvian rebel armies, on the same field a peace treaty know as the Paucarpata Treaty was signed with the unconditional surrender of the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army, allowing them to go back to Chile with all their arms and equipment intact; later this treaty was discarded by the Chilean parliament. The rebel Peruvians and the Chilean army set of to a new war against Santa Cruz, defeating the Confederation on the fields of Yungay. Using the same arms and equipment Santa Cruz allowed them to carry back home and the later defeat, is at this moment that the Bolivian history will change for ever, after th |
<id>39956422</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T02:03:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RudyB</username>
<id>934842</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This is an article about climbing and safety hardware. For an article about the weapon, see [[Karabiner 43]].''
A '''carabiner''' or '''karabiner''' (colloquially: ''crab'', ''krab'', or ''<nowiki>'</nowiki>biner'') is a metal loop with a sprung or screwed gate. It can quickly and reversibly [[connection|connect]] components in safety-critical systems; for example, a common use is to attach a [[rope]] to a fixed anchor.
[[image:Carabiner2.jpg|right]]
Carabiners are widely used in sports requiring ropework, such [[climbing]], [[caving]], [[canyoning]], and [[sailing]], and in [[industrial rope access]] work, such as construction or window cleaning.
Carabiners used in climbing tend to be lighter and faster to use than carabiners used in industry. For recreational climbing, almost all carabiners are made from [[aluminium]]. For [[rope rescue]]s and industrial uses, where the weight of the carabiner is not an important factor and larger working loads are encountered, steel carabiners are commonly used. Some carabiners used in industry do not have a sprung swinging gate but have a screw shut gate that generally can only be opened and closed using a special tool. In climbing, most karabiners do not have any locking device, due to the necessity to cut down on weight, and be able to quickly open and close one's karabiners with one hand. Karabiners used for belaying climbers as they climb, however, will tend to be locking, or "screwgate" karabiners (see below).
The word comes from the German expression "Karabinerhaken". Yet German climbers would always call it shortly "Karabiner". Note that, in [[German Language|German]], "Karabiner" also means "[[carbine]]" (a short rifle).
==Mountaineering==
''See also: [[Mountaineering]]''
When sold for use in climbing in [[Europe]], karabiners must conform to standard EN 12275:1998
"Mountaineering equipment - Connectors - Safety requirements and test methods" which governs testing protocols, rated strengths, and markings.
There are broadly two sorts of karabiner used in climbing, with some subdivision within those: '''non-locking karabiners''' and '''locking karabiners'''. Non-locking karabiners are the simplest, there is a sprung swinging gate that can be opened to insert or remove a rope, webbing sling, or other climbing hardware. The gate will snap shut under pressure of the spring. Locking karabiners have the same general shape as non-locking karabiners, but have an additional sleeve around the gate. The sleeve can be released along the gate and when it is at one end of the gate the gate cannot be opened (except by releasing the sleeve and moving it to the other end of the gate). This provides security against the karabiner opening accidentally, for example if struck against the rock or if caught in a loop of rope. The sleeve can either be mounted on a screw thread or by a more complicated auto-lock system, which snaps back into place when the gate shuts. Mountaineers also frequently use a short sling to connect two non-locking carabineers to each other, creating a [[quickdraw]].
Karabiners with one particular shape are known as '''HMS karabiners'''. These are intended for [[belay|belaying]] with a [[Munter hitch]] (sometimes known as an Italian Hitch).
==Fashion==
Carabiners are also useful in everyday life, as [[keychain]]s and to connect items of luggage, for instance, low-quality carabiners are available to those wishing to follow the trends set by climbers without investing in genuine safety equipment. They vaguely resemble mountaineering carabiners, but are generally thinner, more colorful, and have an extremely simplified latching mechanism, without even a pin to allow the gate to carry load.
<gallery>
Image:screwgate_D_carabiner.saa.jpeg|Screwgate D-shaped carabiner
Image:screwgate_pear_carabiner.saa.jpeg|Screwgate pear-shaped carabiner
Image:Carabiner.png|Auto-lock carabiner
Image:Cheap carabiners.JPG|Inexpensive carabiners, entirely unsuitable for climbing
</gallery>
[[Category:Climbing equipment]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[cs:Karabina]]
[[da:Karabinhage]]
[[de:Karabinerhaken]]
[[es:Mosquetón (escalada)]]
[[fr:Mousqueton]]
[[pl:Karabinek (wspinaczka)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Continuity (fiction)</title>
<id>5899</id>
<revision>
<id>40361396</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the word '' '''continuity''''', see [[Continuity]].''
In [[fiction]], '''continuity''' is consistency of the characteristics of persons, [[plot]], objects, places and events seen by the reader or viewer. It is of relevance to several [[media]].
Continuity is particularly a concern in the production of [[film]] and [[television]] due to the difficulty of rectifying an error in continuity after shooting has completed, although it also applies to other art forms, including [[novel]]s, [[comic]]s and [[animation]], though usually on a much broader scale. Most productions have a [[script supervisor]] (formerly "script girl") on hand whose job is solely to pay attention to and attempt to maintain continuity across the chaotic and typically non-linear production shoot. This takes the form of a large amount of paperwork, photographs, and attention to and memory of large quantities of detail. It usually regards factors both within the scene and often even technical details including meticulous records of camera positioning and equipment settings. The use of a [[Polaroid camera]] was standard but has since been replaced by the advent of [[digital camera]]s. All of this is done so that ideally all related shots can match, despite perhaps parts being shot thousands of miles and several months apart. It is a less conspicuous job, though, because if done perfectly, no one will ever notice.
In [[comic books]], '''continuity''' has also come to mean a set of contiguous events, sometimes said to be "set in the same universe" (see [[fictional crossover]]) or "separate universes" (see [[intercompany crossover]]).
Today, maintaining strong plot and character continuity is also a high priority for many writers of long-running television series.
==Continuity errors==
While most continuity errors are subtle, such as changes in the level of drink in a character's glass or the length of a cigarette, others can be more noticeable, such as sudden drastic changes in appearance of a character, or the unexplained appearance of a character believed to be dead. Such errors in continuity can ruin the illusion of realism, and affect [[suspension of disbelief]]. In [[Film|cinema]] special attention must be paid to continuity because films are rarely shot in the order in which they are presented: that is, a crew may film a scene from the end of a movie first, followed by one from the middle, and so on. The shooting schedule is often dictated by location permit issues. A character may return to [[Times Square]] in [[New York City]] several times throughout a movie, but as it is extraordinarily expensive to close off Times Square, those scenes will likely be filmed all at once in order to reduce permit costs. Weather, the ambience of natural light, cast and crew availability, or any number of other circumstances can also influence a shooting schedule. There are three main types of continuity errors.
===Editing errors===
Editing errors can occur when a character in a scene references a scene or incident that has not occurred yet.
An example of an editing error can be seen in the film [[It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World]] (1963), where a scene of people climbing a slope at the start is seen from below and then replayed from above.
===Visual errors===
Visual errors are instant ''discontinuities'' occurring in visual media such as [[film]] and [[television]]. Items of clothing change colors, shadows get longer or shorter, items within a scene change place or disappear.
One example of a ''visual error'' occurs in the [[1998 in film|1998]] film ''[[Waking Ned Devine]]'', when two of the film's characters, Jackie and Michael, are walking through a storm towards Ned's house. The umbrella they are under is black during their conversation as they walk towards the house (filmed from slightly above and to the front); yet after cutting to a lower shot (filmed from behind Jackie), Michael walks onscreen from the right holding an umbrella that is not black but beige, with a brown band at the rim.
(Though visual continuity errors are logically confined to visual media, parallel mistakes can occur in text. In "[[The Miller's Prologue and Tale|The Miller's Tale]]" in [[Chaucer]]'s ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' a door is ripped off its hinges only to be slowly closed again in the next scene.)
===Plot errors===
Plot errors reflect a failure in the consistency of the created fictional world. For example, a character might state he was an only child, yet later mention having a sister. In the TV show ''[[Cheers]]'', the character Frasier Crane's wife Lilith mentions Frasier's parents are both dead, but when the character was spun off and given his own show (''[[Frasier]]''), his father became a central character.
==Dealing with errors==
When continuity mistakes have been made, explanations are often proposed by either writers or fans to smooth over discrepancies. Fans sometimes make up explanations for such errors that may or may not be integrated into [[canon (fiction)|canon]]; this is k |
on the country. In all but a few cases, these forms directly correspond with the form of the first name used in that country. For example, the English version is generally spelled Alexander, the Italian version of the surname is spelled Alessandro, and so on.
==Monarchs==
<!-- redlinks out per Mos
*[[Aleksander|Alexander]] (* [[1338]], † before [[1386]]) prince of Podolia
*[[Alexandru Lapusneanu|Alexandru Lăpuşneanu]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1552]]-[[1561]] and [[1564]] - [[1568]])
*[[Alexandru Movila|Alexandru Movilă]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1615]]-[[1616]])
*[[Alexandru Coconul]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1629]]-[[1630]])
-->
===Antiquity===
*[[Alaksandu]], ca. 1280 BC
*[[Alexander of Pherae]] despot of Pherae between [[369 BC|369]] and [[358 BC]]
*[[Alexander I of Epirus]] king of Epirus about 342 B.C.
*[[Alexander II of Epirus]] king of Epirus 272 B.C.
*[[Alexander I of Macedon]]
*[[Alexander II of Macedon]]
*[[Alexander the Great|Alexander III of Macedon]] (Alexander the Great), King of Macedon, 336–323 BC
*[[Alexander IV of Macedon]]
*[[Alexander Balas]], ruler of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria between [[150 BC|150]] and [[146 BC]]
*[[Alexander III of Byzantium|Alexander III]], Byzantine Emperor
*[[Alexander Severus]], ([[208]]-[[235]]), Roman Empire
===Middle Ages===
*[[Alexander I of Scotland]], (c. [[1078]] - April, [[1124]])
*[[Alexander II of Scotland]], ([[1198]] - [[July 6]], [[1249]])
*[[Alexander III of Scotland]], ([[September 4]], [[1241]] - March, [[1286]])
*[[Alexandru cel Bun]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1400]]-[[1432]])
*[[Skenderbeg]], ([[1405]]-[[1468]]), prince of Albania
*[[Eskander]] or Alexander, Emperor of Ethiopia ([[1472]] - [[1494]])
*[[Alexander of Poland]] (1461-1506), king of Poland
===Modern===
*[[Alexander I of Russia]], ([[1777]]-[[1825]]), emperor of Russia
*[[Alexander II of Russia]], ([[1818]]-[[1881]]), emperor of Russia
*[[Alexander III of Russia]], ([[1845]] - [[November 1]], [[1894]]), emperor of Russia
*[[Alexander Karadjordjevic, Prince of Serbia|Alexander Karadjordjevic]], ([[1842]]-[[1858]]), Serbian prince
*[[Alexander of Bulgaria]], ([[1857]]-[[1893]]), first prince of Bulgaria
*[[Alexander John Cuza]], prince of Romania ([[1859]]-[[1866]])
*[[Alexander Obrenovich]], (1876-1903), king of Serbia
*[[Alexander of Yugoslavia]] ([[1888]]-[[1934]]), first king of Yugoslavia
*[[Zog I]] a.k.a. Skenderbeg III,([[1895]]-[[1961]]), king of Albanians
*[[Alexander of Greece (king)]], ([[1917]]-[[1920]]), king of Greece
*[[Leka I]], ([[1939]]-), king of Albanians (throne pretender)
*[[Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange]]
==Religious leaders==
*[[Pope Alexander I|Alexander I, Pope]], (pope [[97]]-[[105]])
*[[Pope Alexander II|Alexander II, Pope]], (pope [[1058]]-[[1061]])
*[[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III, Pope]], (pope [[1164]]-[[1168]])
*[[Pope Alexander IV|Alexander IV, Pope]], (pope [[1243]]-[[1254]])
*[[Pope Alexander V|Alexander V, Pope]], (''Peter Philarges'' ca. [[1339]]-[[May 3]], [[1410]])
*[[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI, Pope]], ([[1431]]-[[1503]]), Roman pope
*[[Pope Alexander VII|Alexander VII, Pope]], ([[1599]]-[[1667]])
*[[Pope Alexander VIII|Alexander VIII, Pope]], (pope [[1689]]-[[1691]]),
*[[Alexander of Constantinople]], bishop of Constantinople (314-337)
*[[Alexander of Alexandria|Alexander (I) of Alexandria]], Coptic Pope, Patriarch of Alexandria between [[313]] and [[328]]
*[[Alexander II of Alexandria]], Coptic Pope ([[702]]-[[729]])
<!-- commented out, add back in when article exists
*[[Alexander of Antioch]]
*[[Alexander of Jerusalem]]
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01285b.htm Alexander (Early Bishops)] - Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia
-->
<!-- Left dates wiki-linnked on purpose. -->
==Others named Alexander==
===Surname===
*[[Christopher Alexander]], architect.
*[[Edward Porter Alexander]], (1835-1910), officer in the U.S. Army and Confederate States Army.
*[[F. Matthias Alexander]], Australian actor/orator, founder of [[Alexander Technique]].
*[[Harold Alexander]], British Second World War general.
*[[Jason Alexander]], stage name of American actor Jason Scott Greenspan.
*[[Jason Allen Alexander]], ex-husband of Britney Spears.
*[[John White Alexander]], (1856 - 1915), American artist.
*[[Manny Alexander]], Major League Baseball infielder
*[[Samuel Alexander]], (1859 - 1938) philosopher and essayist
*[[Sarah Alexander]], British actress
*[[Shaun Alexander]], NFL running back
===First name===
*[[Alexander (general)]], son of Polyperchon, the regent of Macedonia
*[[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] Greek commentator and philosopher
*[[Alexander of Greece (rhetorician)]], Greek rhetorician
*[[Alexander of Hales]] 13th century Medieval theologian
*[[Paris (mythology)]], otherwise known as Alex, the Trojan prince who kidnapped Helen
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01285a.htm Alexander, name of seven men] Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia
==Places==
A number of places are also associated with Alexander:
<!-- add back in when no red-linked per MoS
*[[Alexander, Manitoba]], [[Canada]]
*[[Alexander Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador]], Canada
*[[Alexander Township, McKenzie County, North Dakota]], United States
*[[Alexander Township, Pierce County, North Dakota]], United States
*[[Alexander Township, Stutsman County, North Dakota]], United States
*[[Alexander Township, Ohio]], United States
-->
*[[Alexander (town), New York]], United States
*[[Alexander (village), New York]], United States
*[[Alexander City, Alabama]], United States
*[[Alexander River]], New Zealand
*[[Alexander, Arkansas]], United States
*[[Alexander, Iowa]], United States
*[[Alexander, Kansas]], United States
*[[Alexander, Maine]], United States
*[[Alexander, North Dakota]], United States
*[[Alexanderplatz, (central square), Berlin]], Germany
==Other==
*[[Alexander (film)]] 2004 film directed by Oliver Stone
*[[Alexander the great (film)]] 1956 film directed by [[Robert Rossen]].
*[[Alexander Aircraft Company]], an aircraft manufacturer in [[Colorado]] in the 1920s and 1930s, named for its founder, J. Don Alexander
*''[[Alexander (ship)]]'', a convict transport ship in the First Fleet to Australia in 1787
*[[Alexander (game)]] is a PC game Published by UBISOFT based on the life of Alexander the Great
<!-- This one's a bit of a stretch, isn't it?
* [[Isaac Asimov]]'s short story "Alexander the God" ([[1984]]), reprinted in the anthology ''[[Gold (Asimov)|Gold]]'' ([[1995]])
-->
==See also==
*[[List of people by name: Al]]
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Given names|Alexander]]
[[da:Alexander]]
[[de:Alexander]]
[[el:Αλέξανδρος]]
[[fr:Alexandre]]
[[ko:알렉산더]]
[[he:אלכסנדר (פירושונים)]]
[[hr:Aleksandar]]
[[lt:Aleksandras]]
[[hu:Alexander]]
[[nl:Alexander]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12524;&#12463;&#12469;&#12531;&#12480;&#12540;]]
[[pl:Aleksander]]
[[ru:Александр]]
[[sk:Alexander]]
[[sl:Aleksander]]
[[sv:Alexander]]
[[zh:亞歷山大]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander I</title>
<id>1602</id>
<revision>
<id>41941945</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:58:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<comment>title => bold text + clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A number of historical people were named '''Alexander I''':
*[[Alexander I of Macedon]], king of [[Macedon]] 495-450 BC
*[[Alexander I of Epirus]] King of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] about [[342 BC|342 B.C.]]
*[[Pope Alexander I]], [[Pope]] from [[106]] to [[115]]
*[[Alexander I of Scotland]] (c. [[1078]]-[[1124]]), King of [[Scotland]]
*[[Alexander I of Georgia]] ([[1412]]-[[1442]]), King of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
*[[Alexander I of Russia]] ([[1777]]-[[1825]]), Tsar of [[Russia]]
*[[Alexander of Bulgaria|Alexander I of Bulgaria]] ([[1857]]-[[1893]]), Prince of [[Bulgaria]]
*[[Alexander I of Greece]] ([[1917]]-[[1920]]), King of [[Greece]]
*[[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]] ([[1929]]-[[1934]]), King of [[Yugoslavia]]
{{hndis}}
[[el:Αλέξανδρος Α']]
[[fr:Alexandre Ier]]
[[it:Alessandro I]]
[[nn:Aleksander I]]
[[pl:Aleksander I]]
[[sv:Alexander I]]
[[zh:亚历山大一世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander II</title>
<id>1603</id>
<revision>
<id>40205476</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:19:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deville</username>
<id>364144</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Epirus (region)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A number of historical people were named '''Alexander II''':
* [[Alexander II of Macedon]] was King of [[Macedon]] from [[370 BC|370]] to [[368 BC|368 B.C.]]
* [[Alexander II of Epirus]] was the King of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] in [[272 BC|272 B.C.]]
* [[Pope Alexander II]] was Pope from [[1061]] to [[1073]].
* [[Alexander II of Scotland]] ([[1198]]&ndash;[[1249]]) was the King of [[Scotland]].
* [[Alexander II of Russia]] ([[1818]]&ndash;[[1881]]) was the Emperor of [[Russia]].
{{hndis}}
<!-- Localization -->
[[fr:Alexandre II]]
[[es:Alejandro II]]
[[it:Alessandro II]]
[[pl:Aleksander II]]
[[ru:Александр II (значения)]]
[[sv:Alexander II]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander III</title>
<id>1604</id>
<revision>
<id>37179312</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T06:17:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander III''' may refer to any of the following;
*[[Alexander III (emperor)]], [[Byzantine emperor]] (912-913)
*[[Pope Alexander III]] [[pope]] from 1159 to 1181
*[[Alexander III of Russia]] (1845-1894), emperor of [[Russia]]
*[[Alexander III of Scotla |
forcing tens of thousands of Jews to later seek refuge in Israel and the west.
*[[1909]] - [[Robert Edwin Peary|Robert Peary]] allegedly reaches the [[North Pole]].
*[[1911]] - Dedë Gjon Luli Dedvukaj, Leader of the Malësori Albanians raises the Albanian flag in the town of [[Tuzi]], [[Montenegro]] for the first time after [[Gjergj Kastrioti]] (Skenderbeg).
*[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: [[United States]] declares war on [[Germany]] (see [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_declares_war_on_Germany Wilson's address to Congress]).
*[[1926]] - [[Walter Varney]] Airlines makes first commercial flight from [[Pasco, Washington]], to [[Elko, Nevada]]. Varney is the root company of [[United Airlines]].
*[[1930]] - Gandhi raised a lump of mud and salt (some say just a pinch, some say just a grain) and declared, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire." Thus he started Salt Satyagraha.
*1930 - Hostess [[Twinkie]]s are invented.
*1930 - [[Will Rogers]] starts broadcasting ''[[The Will Rogers Program]]'' on [[radio]].
*[[1931]] - ''[[Little Orphan Annie]]'' debuts on the Blue Network of [[NBC]].
*[[1936]] - [[Tupelo-Gainesville Outbreak]]: Another tornado from the same storm system as the Tupelo tornado hits [[Gainesville, Georgia]], killing 203.
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Castigo]] begins - [[Germany]] invades [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] and [[Greece]].
*[[1965]] - [[Early Bird]], the first communications [[satellite]] to be placed in synchronous orbit, is launched.
*[[1968]] - In [[London, United Kingdom]], [[Massiel]] wins the thirteenth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Spain]] singing "La, la, la."
*[[1970]] - Four [[California Highway Patrol]] officers die in one of the worst cop killings in the CHP's history; this is known as the [[Newhall Incident]].
*[[1972]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Easter Offensive]] - The first day of clear weather in three days allows [[United States|American]] forces to start sustained air strikes and naval bombardments.
*[[1973]] - Launch of ''[[Pioneer 11]]'' [[spacecraft]].
*[[1974]] - The [[California Jam]] Rock concert begins.
*1974 - In [[Brighton|Brighton, United Kingdom]], [[ABBA]] wins the nineteenth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Sweden]] singing "Waterloo."
*[[1984]] - Members of [[Cameroon]]'s Republican Guard from country's northern region attack various government buildings in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the government headed by [[Paul Biya]].
*[[1987]] - [[Sugar Ray Leonard]] takes the middleweight [[boxing]] title from [[Marvin Hagler]].
*[[1993]] - Russian [[nuclear accident]] at [[Tomsk 7]].
*[[1994]] - The [[Rwandan Genocide]] begins when the aircraft carrying Rwandan president [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] and Burundian president [[Cyprien Ntaryamira]] is shot down by extremists.
*[[1998]] - [[Pakistan]] tests medium-range missiles capable of hitting [[India]].
*1998 - The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] gains 49.82 to close at 9,033.23 -- its first-ever close above 9,000.
*[[2001]] - [[Miller Park]] opens in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]].
*[[2004]] - [[Rolandas Paksas]] becomes the first president of [[Lithuania]] to be peacefully removed from the post by [[impeachment]].
==Births==
*[[1483]] - [[Raphael]], Italian painter and architect (d. [[1520]])
*[[1651]] - [[André Dacier]], French classical scholar (d. [[1722]])
*[[1664]] - [[Arvid Horn]], Swedish statesman (d. [[1742]])
*[[1671]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Rousseau]], French poet (d. [[1741]])
*[[1725]] - [[Pasquale Paoli]], Corsican patriot and military leader (d. [[1807]])
*[[1812]] - [[Alexander Herzen]], Russian writer (d. [[1870]])
*[[1815]] - [[Robert Volkmann]], German composer (d. [[1883]])
*[[1818]] - [[Aasmund Olavsson Vinje]], Norwegian poet (d. [[1870]])
*[[1820]] - [[Nadar]], French photographer (d. [[1910]])
*[[1823]] - [[Joseph Medill]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1899]])
*[[1826]] - [[Gustave Moreau]], French painter (d. [[1898]])
*[[1849]] - [[John William Waterhouse]], British painter (d. [[1917]])
*[[1866]] - [[Butch Cassidy]], American outlaw (d. [[1909]])
*[[1878]] - [[Erich Mühsam]], German author (d. [[1934]])
*[[1884]] - [[Walter Huston]], Canadian-born actor (d. [[1950]])
*[[1890]] - [[Anthony Fokker]], Dutch designer of aircraft (d. [[1939]])
*[[1892]] - [[Donald Wills Douglas, Sr.]], American industrialist (d. [[1981]])
*1892 - [[Lowell Thomas]], American travel writer (d. [[1981]])
*[[1902]] - [[Veniamin Kaverin]], Russian writer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1903]] - [[Mickey Cochrane]], baseball player (d. [[1962]])
*1903 - [[Doc Edgerton]], American electrical engineer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1911]] - [[Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen]], German biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1979]])
*[[1920]] - [[Edmond H. Fischer]], Swiss-American biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1926]] - [[Sergio Franchi]], Italian-born singer and actor (d. [[1990]])
*1926 - [[Gil Kane]], Latvian-born cartoonist (d. [[2000]])
*1926 - [[Ian Paisley]], Northern Irish politician
*[[1927]] - [[Gerry Mulligan]], American musician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1928]] - [[James D. Watson]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1929]] - [[André Previn]], German-born composer and conductor
*[[1931]] - [[Ivan Dixon]], American actor and director
*[[1933]] - [[Roy Goode]], British lawyer
*[[1934]] - [[Anton Geesink]], Dutch judoka
*[[1937]] - [[Merle Haggard]], American musician
*1937 - [[Billy Dee Williams]], American actor
*[[1938]] - [[Paul Daniels]], English magician
*1938 - [[Roy Thinnes]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Phil Austin]], American comedian
*1941 - [[Zamfir]], Romanian musician
*[[1942]] - [[Barry Levinson]], American film producer and director
*[[1944]] - [[Felicity Palmer]], English soprano
*[[1947]] - [[John Ratzenberger]], American actor
*[[1949]] - [[Horst Ludwig Störmer]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1951]] - [[Bert Blyleven]], Dutch [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1952]] - [[Udo Dirkschneider]], German singer ([[Accept]] and [[U.D.O.]])
*1952 - [[Marilu Henner]], American actress
*[[1954]] - [[Thom Bray]], American actor
*[[1955]] - [[Michael Rooker]], American actor
*[[1965]] - [[Frank Black]], American singer and songwriter ([[Pixies]])
*[[1969]] - [[Bison Dele]], American basketball player (disappeared [[2002]])
*1969 - [[Ari Meyers]], Puerto Rican-born American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Olaf Kölzig]], South African hockey player
*[[1973]] - [[Donnie Edwards]], American football player
*1973 - [[Rie Miyazawa]], Japanese actress and singer
*[[1975]] - [[Zach Braff]], American actor
*[[1976]] - [[Candace Cameron]], American actress
*[[1985]] - [[Garrett Zablocki]], American guitarist ([[Senses Fail]])
==Deaths==
*[[1199]] - King [[Richard I of England]] (killed in battle) (b. [[1157]])
*[[1362]] - [[James I, Count of La Marche]], French soldier (b. [[1319]])
*[[1490]] - King [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary]]
*[[1520]] - [[Raphael]], Italian painter and architect (b. [[1483]])
*[[1528]] - [[Albrecht Dürer]], German artist (b. [[1471]])
*[[1551]] - [[Joachim Vadian]], Swiss humanist (b. [[1484]])
*[[1571]] - [[John Hamilton (of Scotland)|John Hamilton]], Scottish prelate and politician
*[[1590]] - [[Francis Walsingham]], English spymaster
*[[1605]] - [[John Stow]], English historian
*[[1655]] - [[David Blondel]], French protestant clergyman (b. [[1591]])
*[[1686]] - [[Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey]], English royalist statesman (b. [[1614]])
*[[1707]] - [[Willem van de Velde, the younger]], Dutch painter (b. [[1633]])
*[[1755]] - [[Richard Rawlinson]], English minister and antiquarian (b. [[1690]])
*[[1829]] - [[Niels Henrik Abel]], Norwegian mathematician (b. [[1802]])
*[[1838]] - [[José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva]], Brazilian statesman and geologist (b. [[1763]])
*[[1862]] - [[Albert Sidney Johnston]], American Confederate general (b. [[1803]])
*[[1883]] - [[Benjamin Wright Raymond|Benjamin Raymond]], Mayor of Chicago (b. [[1801]])
*[[1906]] - [[Alexander Kielland]], Norwegian author (b. [[1849]])
*[[1935]] - [[Edwin Arlington Robinson]], American poet (b. [[1869]])
*[[1961]] - [[Jules Bordet]], Belgian immunologist and microbiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1870]])
*[[1963]] - [[Otto Struve]], Russian-born astronomer (b. [[1897]])
*[[1970]] - [[Sam Sheppard]], American accused murderer (b. [[1923]])
*[[1971]] - [[Igor Stravinsky]], Russian composer (b. [[1882]])
*[[1974]] - [[Willem Marinus Dudok]], Dutch architect (b. [[1884]])
*[[1986]] - [[Raimundo Orsi]], Argentine-Italian footballer
*[[1992]] - [[Isaac Asimov]], Russian-born author (b. [[1920]])
*[[1994]] - [[Juvénal Habyarimana]], [[President of Rwanda]] (b. [[1937]])
*1994 - [[Cyprien Ntaryamira]], [[President of Burundi]] (b. [[1956]])
*[[1996]] - [[Greer Garson]], Irish actress (b. [[1904]])
*[[1998]] - [[Wendy O. Williams]], American musician ([[Plasmatics]]) (b. [[1949]])
*1998 - [[Tammy Wynette]], American musician (b. [[1942]])
*[[2000]] - [[Habib Bourguiba]], [[President of Tunisia]] (b. [[1903]])
*[[2003]] - [[David Bloom]], American reporter (pulmonary embolism) (b. [[1963]])
*2003 - [[Babatunde Olatunji]], Nigerian drummer (b. [[1927]])
*[[2004]] - [[Larisa Bogoraz]], Soviet dissident (b. [[1929]])
*[[2005]] - [[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco]] (b. [[1923]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Feast day]] of St. Sixtus and [[Marcellinus of Carthage]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
* The start of the [[tax year]] in the [[United Kingdom]] (arising from the 11 day correction to [[March 25]] at the adoption of the [[Gregorian calendar]] in [[1752]]).
*[[Tartan Day]], a day set aside for the celebration of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] influence on [[United States|America]].
*The date of organization of the [[Church of Christ (Mormonism)|Church of Christ]], and the start of the Restorati |
ews reference |firstname= |lastname= |pages= |title= |date= |org= |url= }}
-->
# {{note|Friedman}} {{News reference |firstname=Milton |lastname=Friedman |pages= |title=The Social Responsibilty of Business is to Increase Its Profits |date=September 13, 1970 |org=The New York Times Magazine |url=http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/dunnweb/rprnts.friedman.html }}
# {{note|Enron}} e.g. [[Enron Code of Ethics]]
# {{note|hare}} {{cite journal | author=R.M.Hare | title="What is wrong with slavery" | journal=Philosophy and Public Affairs | year=1979 | volume=8 | issue= | pages= 103&ndash;121 | url= }}
# {{note|Enderle}} {{cite book | first=Georges | last=Enderle | year=1999 | title=International Business Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Univ. of Notre Dame Press | id=ISBN 0268012148 | url= | authorlink= }}, p.1
# {{note|george1}} The view that business ethics encompasses the ethics of economic systems is taken in (e.g.) {{cite book | first=Richard | last=de George | year=1999 | title=Business Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=| id=| url= | authorlink= }}; chapters 6 and 7 give a wide overview of the area.
==See also==
*[[Business law]]
*[[Corporate behaviour]]
*[[Corporate crime]]
*[[Corporate social responsibility]]
*[[Ethics]]
*[[Ethical code]]
*[[Fiduciary]]
*[[List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics]]
*[[Management]]
*[[Political economy]]
== References ==
===General references===
*''Essays on Ethics in Business and the Professions'', Jack N. Behrman, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988
*''Business Ethics, A Kantian Perspective'', [[Norman E. Bowie]], Blackwell, 1999.
*''Ethical Dilemmas in the Modern Corporation'' Gerald F. Cavanagh, Prentice-Hall, 1988
*''Perspectives in Business Ethics'', [[Laura Hartman]], Burr Ridge, IL: McGraw-Hill, 2004
*''Business as Ethical and Business as Usual'', [[Sterling Harwood]], Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1996.
*''Ethics and the Management of Computer Technology: Proceedings of the Fourth National Conference on Business Ethics'' National Conference on Business Ethics (4th: 1981: Bentley College) Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain, 1981
*''The Right Thing: Conscience, Profit and Personal Responsibility in Today's Business'', [[Jeffrey L. Seglin]], Spiro Press, 2003
*''Above the Bottom Line: An Introduction to Business Ethics'' [[Robert C. Solomon]], Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983
*''The excellence of the efficiency of the learning organisation that is the Hellenic features of current economics moral''. Lea B. Virághalmy, Budapest, 2003 ([http://www.kgk.bmf.hu/meb/arch2003/proceeding/bvlea.doc Abstract])
*"Companies With A Conscience, 3rd Edition", [[Howard Rothman and Mary Scott]], Denver, CO: MyersTempleton, 2004
* {{cite book | first=Frank | last=Knight | year=1935/1980 | title=The Ethics of Competition and Other Essays| chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press| id=ISBN 0226446875 | url= | authorlink= }}
* {{cite book | first=Richard T. | last=de George | year=1999| title=Business Ethics| chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Prentice Hall| id=ISBN 0130797723 | url= | authorlink= }}
=== Jewish references ===
*''You Shall Strengthen Them: A Rabbinic Letter on the Poor'' [[Elliot N. Dorff]] with Lee Paskind, The Rabbinical Assembly, NY
*''Free Enterprise and Jewish Law: Aspects of Jewish Business Ethics'' Aaron Levine, Ktav Publishing House, 1980. ISBN 0870687026
*''Case Studies in Jewish Business Ethics'' Aaron Levine, Ktav Publishing House, 1999. ISBN 0881256641
*''The Jewish Ethicist'' Asher Meir, Ktav Publishing House, 2005. ISBN 0881258091
*''Business Ethics: A Jewish Perspective'' Moses L. Pava, Ktav Publishing House, 1997. ISBN 0881255823
*''The Challenge of Wealth'', Meir Tamari, Jason Aronson Inc., 1995. ISBN 1568212801
*''With All Your Possessions: Jewish Ethics and Economic Life'', Meir Tamari, Free Press, 1987. ISBN 0029321506
*''Al Chet: Sins in the marketplace'', Meir Tamari, Jason Aronson, 1986. ISBN 1568219067
*''Torah Guide for the Businessman'', S. Wagschal, Philipp Feldheim Inc, 1990. ISBN 1583301399
=== Christian references ===
*''Biblical Business Ethics: Exploring Secular Ethical Values & Alternative Christian Approaches'', David Bertch, Terry Martin, Dyna Martin, Works Press, 1994. ISBN 0963447238
*''Business By The Book: The Complete Guide Of Biblical Principles For The Workplace'', Larry Burkett, Nelson Reference; Updated edition 1998, ISBN 0785271414
*''God is my CEO: Following God's Principles in a Bottom-Line World'', Larry S. Julian, Adams Media Corporation, 2001, ISBN 1580624774
*''Full value: Cases in Christian business ethics'' O.F. Williams and J. W. Houck, San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row, 1978
=== Muslim references ===
*''Islamic Business Ethics'' Rafik Issa Beekun, The International Institute of Islamic Thought
*''Islam and the Economic Challenge'' M.Umer Chapra
*''The Problem With Interest'' Tarek El Diwany
*''Distributive Justice And Need Fulfilment in an Islamic Economy'' Munawar Iqbal, The Islamic Foundation, Leicester, U.K.
*''Islamic Commercial Law: An Analysis of Futures and Options'' [[Mohammad Hashim Kamali]], 2000, ISBN 0-946621-80-2
*''Banking Without Interest'' Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi
==External links==
===General===
*[http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/business Business ethics section] from the website of the [[Markkula Center for Applied Ethics]]
* [http://www.csr-news.net csr-news.net]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/economic-justice Economics and Economic Justice] in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* Hasnas, John. "[http://mason.gmu.edu/~jhasnas/Beqrevex.htm The normative theories of business ethics: a guide for the perplexed.]" Originally published in Business Ethics Quarterly 19 (1998)
*[http://www.businessethics.ca/blog The Business Ethics Blog]
*[http://www.valuequotes.net Famous Quotations on Business Ethics]
*[http://www.ceo-ethics.info/ Weblog about Business Ethics]
===Journals===
* [http://www.kluweronline.com/issn/0167-4544 Journal of Business Ethics] (since 1981)
* [http://www.societyforbusinessethics.org/beq.htm Business Ethics Quarterly] (journal of the [http://www.societyforbusinessethics.org Society for Business Ethics]; since 1991)
* [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journals/beer Business Ethics: A European Review] (since 1991)
* [http://ejbo.jyu.fi Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies] (based in Finland; since 1996)
* [http://www.senatehall.com/journals.php?journal=5 Journal of Business Ethics Education] (since 2004)
===External links with religious perspectives===
*[http://www.besr.org/ Center for Business Ethics and Social Responsibility]
*[http://www.jabe.org/ Jewish Association for Business Ethics]
*[http://www.jlaw.com/LawPolicy/EthicsCourse.html A Model Course in Jewish Business Ethics]
*[[Aryeh Kaplan]]: [http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/Jewish_View_of_Money.asp The Torah view of Money]
*[http://www.dinarstandard.com/management/EthicsBookReview051505.htm Islamic Business Ethics: Book Review]
*[http://www.islamist.org/images/ethicshm.pdf Excerpt from Islamic Business Ethics (PDF)]
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=69943 The Jewish view of money]
[[Category:Business ethics]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[de:Wirtschaftsethik]]
[[hu:Üzleti etika]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BBS</title>
<id>4772</id>
<revision>
<id>36035667</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T02:08:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mangojuice</username>
<id>178098</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Blum Blum Shub was moved to Blum-Blum-Shub pseudorandom number generator.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BBS''' is an [[abbreviation]] of:
* [[Bulletin board system]]
* [[Bardet-Biedl syndrome]]
* [[Baton Broadcasting System]]
* "Be back soon" ([[Internet slang]])
* [[Bhutan Broadcasting Service]]
* [[BIOS Boot Sequence]]
* [[Black Beauty Sisters]], two of the characters of the anime [[Mermaid Melody Pichi Pichi Pitch]] ([[fan (aficionado)|fan]] [[lingo]])
* [[Blum-Blum-Shub pseudorandom number generator]]
* [[Breeding Bird Survey]]
* [[Brittle Bone Society]]
* [[Box-ball system]], a [[cellular automaton]] introduced by Daisuke Takahashi and Junkichi Satsuma
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[fr:BBS]]
[[ja:BBS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balfour declaration</title>
<id>4773</id>
<revision>
<id>15903026</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-10T20:32:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timrollpickering</username>
<id>32005</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Link to disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Balfour Declaration]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Standards</title>
<id>4775</id>
<revision>
<id>42045065</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:26:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kcordina</username>
<id>643099</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remove tag following merge</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kitemark.png|right|150px|thumb|BSI Kite Mark Logo - Made up of the letters 'B' & 'S']]
'''British Standards''' is the new name of the '''British Standards Institution''' and is part of '''BSI Group''' which also includes a testing organisation. '''British Standards''' has a [[Royal Charter]] to act as the [[standards organisation]] for the [[United Kingdom|UK]].
The standards produced are titled '''British Standard XXXX''' where XXXX is the number of the standard. '''British Standards''' currently has over 17,000 active standards. Products are commonly specified as meeting a particular British Standard, and in general this can be done without any certification or independent t |
t be. Therefore, although the priest (or minister) says, "The body of Christ", when administering the host, and, "The blood of Christ", when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire.
The mysterious change of the reality of the bread and wine used in the Eucharist, a change to which patristic writers had given other equivalent names, began to be called "[[transubstantiation]]" in the [[twelfth century]]. In the judgement of the Catholic Church, this term, with its accompanying unambiguous distinction between "[[substance]]" or underlying reality, and "[[Accident (philosophy)| accidents]]" or humanly perceptible appearances, still best safeguards against the opposite extremes of a cannibalistic interpretation (the accidents remain real, not an illusion) or of a merely symbolic interpretation (the substance is changed from that of bread and wine to that of the body and blood of Christ) of the Eucharist.
The definition of the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which concerns ''what'' is changed, not ''how'' the change occurs, is given in the following words of the Council of Trent, quoted in [http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt1art3.htm#1376 paragraph 1376] of the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again, that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation."
The Eucharist is given to Catholics who wish to receive either at Mass or outside of Mass. This is called the administration of [[Holy Communion]]. When it is given at Mass, it may be given under one kind (usually the host), or under both kinds (both the host and the consecrated wine, referred to by Catholics as the Precious Blood). Regular use of Communion under both kinds requires the permission of the bishop, but bishops in some countries have given blanket permission to administer Holy Communion in this way. The ordinary ministers of Holy Communion are Bishops, Priests and [[Deacons]], the latter traditionally ministering the [[chalice]]. Members of the [[laity]] can also be commissioned as Extraordinary Ministers of Holy Communion, where there is a necessity. This is, in a way, a return to a very early practice, whereby the ordinary faithful took Communion to the sick and to others unable to come to the Eucharistic celebration.
The hosts are kept in a [[Church tabernacle|tabernacle]] after the celebration of the Mass, so that they can be brought to the sick and dying outside the time of Mass, and also so that the Eucharistic presence may be worshipped and adored. On occasions, the Eucharist is exposed in a [[monstrance]], in order for it to be the focus of prayer and [[Eucharistic adoration|adoration]].
===Eastern Christianity: True Sacrifice and Objective Presence but Pious Silence on the Particulars=== <!-- Changed to clarify what is being modified by the adjectives; I worry that this makes it sound like Christ is being re-sacrificed, however? ~Edonovan -->
{{Main|Divine Liturgy}}
The [[Eastern Orthodox]] and the [[Oriental Orthodox]] Churches and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] agree with the Roman Catholic Church that Christ is really, fully, uniquely, and permanently present in the Eucharistic elements, and that, in the [[Divine Liturgy]], the one sacrifice of Christ is made present; and that the exact means by which the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, through the work of the Holy Spirit, is a mystery. <!-- they can indeed be said to agree with the Roman Catholics on all of this, for Catholics describe WHAT is changed, but say of HOW the change is wrought only that "It's a mystery" --> They are not particularly interested in the precise moment the change occurs, although this "change" or "fulfillment" of the bread and wine is usually identified with the [[Epiklesis]]. As in the Roman Catholic Church, the change is regarded as permanent, and any of the consecrated elements, or "gifts," that remain at the end of the [[Divine Liturgy]] are normally consumed by a priest or deacon.
Gifts reserved for the communion of the sick are specially consecrated on [[Holy Thursday]], or at other times as needed, and are not simply leftovers from the previous Divine Liturgy. Since the Eucharistic gifts are regarded primarily as food, Eucharistic adoration is unknown outside the Liturgy itself, except among those Orthodox Christians who worship according to a [[Western Orthodoxy|Western Rite]].
===Anglicans/Episcopalians: Real Presence with Opinion===
The historical position of the [[Anglican Communion]] is found in the ''[[Thirty-Nine Articles]]'' of 1571, which state "the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ"; and likewise that "the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ" (Articles of Religion, Article XXVIII: Of the Lord's Supper). The fact that the terms "Bread" and "Wine" and the corresponding words "Body" and "Blood" are all capitalized may reflect the wide range of theological beliefs regarding the Eucharist among Anglicans. However, the Articles also state that adoration, or worship ''per se'', of the consecrated elements was not commanded by Christ and that those who receive unworthily do not actually receive Christ but rather their own condemnation. <!-- could they receive Christ unto condemnation? ~Edonovan -->
Anglicans generally and officially believe in the [[Real Presence]] of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from transubstantiation, sometimes with Eucharistic adoration (mainly [[Anglo-Catholics]]), to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence, which may or may not be tied to the Eucharistic elements themselves (almost always "Low Church" or [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Anglicans). The normal range of Anglican belief ranges from Objective Reality to Pious Silence, depending on the individual Anglican's theology. A small minority, as in any church, reject the doctrine of the Real Presence altogether. The classic Anglican aphorism with regard to this debate is found in a poem by [[John Donne]]: "He was the Word that spake it; He took the bread and brake it; And what that Word did make it; I do believe and take it." <!-- Does this poem have a name? -->
Anglican belief in the Eucharistic Sacrifice ("Sacrifice of the Mass") is set forth in the response [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgbmxd/saepius.htm ''Saepius officio''] of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s Papal Encyclical [http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Leo13/l13curae.htm ''Apostolicae curae''].
Anglicans and Roman Catholics declared that they had "substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist" in the [http://www.prounione.urbe.it/dia-int/arcic/doc/e_arcic_eucharist.html Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine from the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation] and the [http://www.prounione.urbe.it/dia-int/arcic/doc/e_arcic_elucid_euch.html Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement].
===Lutherans - the Sacramental Union: "in, with, and under the forms"===
Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink both the elements and the true Body and Blood of Christ Himself (cf. [[Augsburg Confession]], Article 10) in the Sacrament of Holy Communion. The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as "the [[Sacramental Union]]." This theology was first developed in the [[Wittenberg Concord]]. It has been called "[[consubstantiation]]" by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.
For Lutherans, there is no sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christ's institution (consecration, distribution, and reception). This was first formulated in the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 in the formula: ''Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum'' ("Nothing has the character of a sacrament apart from the use instituted by Christ"). As a consequence of their belief in this principle, some Lutherans have opposed in the Christian Church the reservation of the consecrated elements, private masses, the practice of Corpus Christi, and the belief that the presence of Christ's body and blood continue in the reliquæ (what remains of the consecrated elements after all have communed in the worship service). This interpretation is not universal among Lutherans. The consecrated elements are treated with respect, and in some areas are reserved as in Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Anglican practice, but Eucharistic adoration is not typically practiced. To remove any scruple of doubt or superstition the reliquæ traditionally are either consumed or poured into the earth, except that a small amount may be kept for delivery to those too ill or infirm to attend the service. In this case, the consecrated elements are to be delivered quickly, preserving the connection between the communion experienced by the ill person, and the communion of the rest of the congregation.
Lutherans use the terms "in, with and under the forms of [consecrated] bread and wine&qu |
all>'''
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|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>40</small>'''
|'''<small>1.20</small>'''
|'''<small>96</small>'''
|'''<small>68</small>'''
|'''<small>51</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0.301</small>'''
|'''<small>0.643</small>'''
|'''<small>0.402</small>'''
|'''<small>1.045</small>'''
|'''<small>103</small>'''
|'''<small>47</small>'''
|'''<small>36</small>'''
|'''<small>0.751</small>'''
|'''<small>9.72</small>'''
|'''<small>252</small>'''
|'''<small>53</small>'''
|'''<small>0.342</small>'''
|'''<small>0.515</small>'''
|'''<small>0.675</small>'''
|'''<small>13</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>4</small>'''
|'''<small>7</small>'''
|'''<small>286</small>'''
|'''<small>465</small>'''
|'''<small>LF</small>'''
|- align="center"
|'''<small>1974</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>40</small>'''
|'''<small>112</small>'''
|'''<small>340</small>'''
|'''<small>47</small>'''
|'''<small>91</small>'''
|'''<small>16</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>20</small>'''
|'''<small>5.88</small>'''
|'''<small>69</small>'''
|'''<small>39</small>'''
|'''<small>29</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>0.268</small>'''
|'''<small>0.491</small>'''
|'''<small>0.341</small>'''
|'''<small>0.832</small>'''
|'''<small>57</small>'''
|'''<small>14</small>'''
|'''<small>8</small>'''
|'''<small>0.616</small>'''
|'''<small>5.97</small>'''
|'''<small>167</small>'''
|'''<small>36</small>'''
|'''<small>0.224</small>'''
|'''<small>0.341</small>'''
|'''<small>0.528</small>'''
|'''<small>6</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>6</small>'''
|'''<small>258</small>'''
|'''<small>382</small>'''
|'''<small>LF</small>'''
|- align="center" bgcolor="silver"
|'''<small>1975</small>'''
|'''<small>Brewers</small>'''
|'''<small>41</small>'''
|'''<small>137</small>'''
|'''<small>465</small>'''
|'''<small>45</small>'''
|'''<small>109</small>'''
|'''<small>16</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>12</small>'''
|'''<small>2.58</small>'''
|'''<small>60</small>'''
|'''<small>70</small>'''
|'''<small>51</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0.234</small>'''
|'''<small>0.355</small>'''
|'''<small>0.332</small>'''
|'''<small>0.687</small>'''
|'''<small>55</small>'''
|'''<font size="1" color="red">-6</font>'''
|'''<font size="1" color="red">-8</font>'''
|'''<small>0.450</small>'''
|'''<small>3.92</small>'''
|'''<small>165</small>'''
|'''<small>30</small>'''
|'''<small>0.120</small>'''
|'''<small>0.269</small>'''
|'''<small>0.406</small>'''
|'''<small>3</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>6</small>'''
|'''<small>15</small>'''
|'''<small>379</small>'''
|'''<small>543</small>'''
|'''<small>DH</small>'''
|- align="center"
|'''<small>1976</small>'''
|'''<small>Brewers</small>'''
|'''<small>42</small>'''
|'''<small>85</small>'''
|'''<small>271</small>'''
|'''<small>22</small>'''
|'''<small>62</small>'''
|'''<small>8</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>10</small>'''
|'''<small>3.69</small>'''
|'''<small>35</small>'''
|'''<small>35</small>'''
|'''<small>38</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0.229</small>'''
|'''<small>0.369</small>'''
|'''<small>0.315</small>'''
|'''<small>0.684</small>'''
|'''<small>31</small>'''
|'''<font size="1" color="red">-1</font>'''
|'''<font size="1" color="red">-4</font>'''
|'''<small>0.481</small>'''
|'''<small>3.8</small>'''
|'''<small>100</small>'''
|'''<small>18</small>'''
|'''<small>0.140</small>'''
|'''<small>0.266</small>'''
|'''<small>0.409</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>8</small>'''
|'''<small>220</small>'''
|'''<small>308</small>'''
|'''<small>DH</small>'''
|-
|colspan="38" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|
|- align="center"
|colspan="2"|'''<small>TOTALS</small>'''
|&nbsp;
|'''<small>3298</small>'''
|'''<small>12364</small>'''
|'''<small>2174</small>'''
|'''<small>3771</small>'''
|'''<small>624</small>'''
|'''<small>98</small>'''
|'''<small>755</small>'''
|'''<small>6.11</small>'''
|'''<small>2297</small>'''
|'''<small>1402</small>'''
|'''<small>1383</small>'''
|'''<small>240</small>'''
|'''<small>73</small>'''
|'''<small>0.305</small>'''
|'''<small>0.555</small>'''
|'''<small>0.374</small>'''
|'''<small>0.928</small>'''
|'''<small>2533</small>'''
|'''<small>1032</small>'''
|'''<small>822</small>'''
|'''<small>0.719</small>'''
|'''<small>7.49</small>'''
|'''<small>6856</small>'''
|'''<small>1477</small>'''
|'''<small>0.25</small>'''
|'''<small>0.376</small>'''
|'''<small>0.584</small>'''
|'''<small>293</small>'''
|'''<small>32</small>'''
|'''<small>21</small>'''
|'''<small>121</small>'''
|'''<small>328</small>'''
|'''<small>9136</small>'''
|'''<small>13940</small>'''
|&nbsp;
|- align="center"
|colspan="2"|'''<small>LG AVG</small>'''
|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|'''<small>11637</small>'''
|'''<small>1479</small>'''
|'''<small>3062</small>'''
|'''<small>477</small>'''
|'''<small>96</small>'''
|'''<small>298</small>'''
|'''<small>2.56</small>'''
|'''<small>1380</small>'''
|'''<small>1116</small>'''
|'''<small>1665</small>'''
|'''<small>158</small>'''
|'''<small>97</small>'''
|'''<small>0.263</small>'''
|'''<small>0.397</small>'''
|'''<small>0.329</small>'''
|'''<small>0.727</small>'''
|'''<small>1533</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>0.500</small>'''
|'''<small>4.53</small>'''
|'''<small>4625</small>'''
|'''<small>871</small>'''
|'''<small>0.134</small>'''
|'''<small>0.235</small>'''
|'''<small>0.434</small>'''
|'''<small>130</small>'''
|'''<small>72</small>'''
|'''<small>109</small>'''
|'''<small>91</small>'''
|'''<small>264</small>'''
|'''<small>9136</small>'''
|'''<small>13026</small>'''
|&nbsp;
|- align="center"
|colspan="2"|'''<small>POS AVG</small>'''
|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|'''<small>11844</small>'''
|'''<small>1634</small>'''
|'''<small>3238</small>'''
|'''<small>519</small>'''
|'''<small>104</small>'''
|'''<small>389</small>'''
|'''<small>3.28</small>'''
|'''<small>1592</small>'''
|'''<small>1144</small>'''
|'''<small>1768</small>'''
|'''<small>160</small>'''
|'''<small>92</small>'''
|'''<small>0.273</small>'''
|'''<small>0.433</small>'''
|'''<small>0.338</small>'''
|'''<small>0.772</small>'''
|'''<small>1736</small>'''
|'''<small>202</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>0.551</small>'''
|'''<small>5.13</small>'''
|'''<small>5132</small>'''
|'''<small>1012</small>'''
|'''<small>0.16</small>'''
|'''<small>0.262</small>'''
|'''<small>0.467</small>'''
|'''<small>147</small>'''
|'''<small>68</small>'''
|'''<small>69</small>'''
|'''<small>96</small>'''
|'''< |
eloped by [[Ernst Stueckelberg]], and has been called the '''Feynman-Stueckelberg interpretation''' of antiparticles.
== See also ==
* [[Gravitational interaction of antimatter]]
* [[Parity (physics)|Parity]], [[charge conjugation]] and [[time reversal symmetry]].
* [[CP violation]]s and the [[baryon asymmetry of the universe]].
* [[Quantum field theory]] and the [[list of particles]]
* [[Baryogenesis]]
== References ==
*Feynman, Richard P. "The reason for antiparticles", in ''The 1986 Dirac memorial lectures'', R.P. Feynman and S. Weinberg. Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 0521340004.
*Weinberg, Steven. ''The quantum theory of fields, Volume 1: Foundations''. Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0521550017.
[[Category:Antimatter|Antimatter]]
[[ca:Antipartícula]]
[[cs:Antičástice]]
[[de:Antiteilchen]]
[[fr:Antiparticule]]
[[he:אנטי-חלקיק]]
[[hu:Antirészecske]]
[[ja:反粒子]]
[[ru:Античастицы]]
[[uk:Античастинка]]
[[zh:反粒子]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A.D.</title>
<id>1328</id>
<revision>
<id>37356754</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T13:41:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"AD" +"Anno Domini"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anno Domini]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Art nouveau</title>
<id>1330</id>
<revision>
<id>15899819</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-26T09:56:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.99.105.223</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>making redirection</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Art Nouveau]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arabian Prince</title>
<id>1331</id>
<revision>
<id>40884082</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T17:28:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Urthogie</username>
<id>106482</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Arabian Prince''' (born '''Mik Lezan''') is an [[electro hop]] and [[hip hop music|hip hop]] [[rapping|rapper]] from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. He started his career at [[RapSur Records]], a label setup by Russ Parr, and released some electro classics like "Innovator" & "Strange Life". A couple of years later he joined the Compton, CA, rap group [[Niggaz with Attitude]] (N.W.A.). The Arabian Prince found the going tough when he departed the group for a solo career in 1988. His debut Brother Arab on Orpheus barely scraped the bottom of the R&B and pop charts in 1989. His first solo releases are in high demand nowadays. His credit albums include ''[[Brother Arab]]'' and ''[[Where's My Bytches]]'', as well as work on [[N.W.A.]]'s ''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'' and [[record producer|production]] for various other [[West Coast rap|West Coast hip hop]] artists.
Arabian Prince has reappeared testing [[Computer and video games|video games]] for [[FOX Interactive]] around the year [[2000]] and currently runs a [[3d animation]] studio.
==External links==
*[http://www.compton.8m.com/arab The Underworld of the Arabian Prince]
[[Category:American rappers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 7</title>
<id>1332</id>
<revision>
<id>40864386</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T14:44:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Doesitbetter</username>
<id>966706</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=7}}
|}
'''August 7''' is the 219th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (220th in [[leap year]]s), with 146 days remaining. There are 94 days in North Hemisphere summer, South Hemisphere winter. The Northern Hemisphere is considered to be halfway through the [[summer]] on [[August 7]].
==Events==
*[[1679]] - The [[brigantine]] [[Le Griffon]], commissioned by [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle]], is towed to the southern end of the [[Niagara River]], to become the first ship to sail the upper [[Great Lakes]] of [[North America]].
*[[1782]] - [[George Washington]] orders the creation of the [[Badge of Military Merit]] to honor soldiers wounded in battle. It is later renamed to the more poetic [[Purple Heart]].
*[[1789]] - The [[United States War Department]] is established.
*[[1794]] - [[Whiskey Rebellion]] begins: Farmers in the [[Monongahela Valley]] of [[Pennsylvania]] rebel against the federal tax on [[liquor]] and distilled drinks.
*[[1819]] - [[Simón Bolívar]] triumphs over [[Spain]] in the [[Battle of Boyacá]].
*[[1879]] - The opening of the [[Poor Man's Palace]] in [[Manchester]].
*[[1927]] - The [[Peace Bridge]] opens, between [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] and [[Buffalo, New York]].
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Guadalcanal]] begins - [[U.S. Marines]] initiate the first American offensive of the war with a landing on [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] in the [[Solomon Islands]].
*[[1944]] - [[IBM]] dedicates the first program-controlled [[calculator]], the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (known best as the [[Harvard Mark I]]).
*[[1945]] - President [[Harry Truman]] announces the successful bombing of [[Hiroshima]] with an [[nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]] while returning from the [[Potsdam Conference]] aboard the heavy cruiser [[USS Augusta (CA-31)]] in the middle of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
*[[1947]] - [[Thor Heyerdahl]]'s [[balsa wood]] raft the [[Kon-Tiki]], smashes into the [[reef]] at [[Raroia]] in the [[Tuamotu Islands]] after a 101-day, 7000-km (4375-mile) journey across the [[Pacific Ocean]] proving that pre-historic peoples could have traveled from [[South America]].
*1947 - The [[Bombay Municipal Corporation]] formally takes over the [[Bombay Electric Supply and Transport]] (BEST).
*[[1955]] - Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering, the precursor to [[Sony]], begins selling its first [[Transistor radio|transistor radios]] in [[Japan]].
*[[1959]] - [[Explorer program]]: The [[United States]] launches [[Explorer 6]] from the Atlantic Missile Range in [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]].
*[[1960]] - [[Côte d'Ivoire]] becomes independent.
*[[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Gulf of Tonkin Resolution]] giving US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] broad war powers to deal with [[North Vietnam]]ese attacks on American forces.
*[[1965]] - [[Singapore]] is expelled and separated from the [[Federation of Malaysia]].
*[[1966]] - [[Race riot]]s occur in [[Lansing, Michigan]].
*[[1967]] - Vietnam War: The [[People's Republic of China]] agrees to give [[North Vietnam]] an undisclosed amount of aid in the form of a grant.
*[[1970]] - California Judge [[Harold Haley]] is taken hostage in his courtroom and killed during in an effort to free [[George Jackson (Black Panther)|George Jackson]] from police custody.
*[[1973]] - [[NBC]] airs the final day of the [[Watergate hearings]] on U.S. daytime television.
*[[1976]] - [[Viking program]]: [[Viking 2]] enters into orbit around [[Mars (planet)|Mars]].
*[[1978]] - United States [[President]] [[Jimmy Carter]] declares a federal emergency at [[Love Canal]].
*[[1981]] -''[[The Washington Star]]'' ceases all operations after 128 years of publication.
*[[1985]] - [[Takao Doi]], [[Mamoru Mohri]] and [[Chiaki Mukai]] are chosen to be [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[astronaut|astronauts]].
*[[1988]] - Rioting in [[New York City]]'s [[Tompkins Square Park]]
*[[1989]] - [[U.S. Congress|U.S. Congressman]] [[Mickey Leland]] (D-[[Texas|TX]]) and 15 others die in a [[plane crash]] in [[Ethiopia]].
*[[1990]] - At 12:34:56 (both AM and PM) the time and date by British reckoning was 12:34:56 7/8/90 i.e. 1234567890.
*[[1995]] - [[Operation Storm]] is officialy declared over in [[Croatia]], resulting in total Croat victory over rebel Serb forces.
*[[1997]] - [[Fine Air]] Flight 101, a cargo flight from Miami to Santo Domingo crashes onto NW 72nd Ave near [[Miami International Airport]], killing five people.
*[[1998]] - [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]]: Bombing of the United States embassies in [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], and [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]], kill 224 people and injure over 4,500.
*[[1999]] - A group of [[India]]n army veterans launch the [[political party]] [[Rashtriya Raksha Dal]].
*[[2000]] - [[deviantART]].com is created by [[Scott Jarkoff]], Matteo Stevens, and Angelo Sortia.
*[[2005]] - [[Russia]]n [[Priz class]] mini-submarine [[AS-28]] and its seven crewmembers are rescued off the Pacific coast
* 2005 - Singer [[Marc Cohn]] is shot in the head during a [[carjacking]] attempt in [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]]; he survives.
==Births==
*[[1400]] - [[Guillaume Dufay]], French composer (d. [[1474]])
*[[1533]] - [[Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga]], Basque soldier and poet (d. [[1595]])
*[[1560]] - [[Elizabeth Báthory]], Hungarian serial killer (d. [[1614]])
*[[1574]] - [[Robert Dudley, styled Earl of Warwick]], English writer (d. [[1649]])
*[[1598]] - [[Georg Stiernhielm]], Swedish poet (d. [[1672]])
*[[1726]] - [[James Bowdoin]], American Revolutionary leader and politician (d. [[1790]])
*[[1742]] - [[Nathanael Greene]], American Revolutionary general (d. [[1786]])
*[[1779]] - [[Louis de Freycinet]], French explorer (d. [[1842]])
*1779 - [[Carl Ritter]], German geographer (d. [[1859]])
*[[1844]] - [[Auguste Michel-Lévy]], French geologist (d. [[191]])
*[[1860]] - [[Alan Leo]], British astrologer (d. [[1917]])
*[[1867]] - [[Emil Nolde]], German painter (d. [[1956]])
*[[1876]] - [[Mata Hari]], Dutch spy (d. [[1917]])
*[[1877]] - [[Ulrich Salchow]], Swedish figure skater (d. [[1949]])
*[[1885]] - [[Billie Burke]], American actress (d. [[1970]])
*[[1904]] - [[Ralph Bunche]], American diplomat, re |
deen]] and [[Walter Brattain]] opened the door for more compact devices and led to the development of the [[integrated circuit]] in 1958 by [[Jack Kilby]] and independently in 1959 by [[Robert Noyce]].{{ref|transistor}} In 1968 [[Marcian Hoff]] invented the first [[microprocessor]] at [[Intel]] and thus ignited the development of the [[personal computer]]. The first realization of the microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], a 4-bit processor developed in 1971, but only in 1973 did the [[Intel 8080]], an 8-bit processor, make the building of the first personal computer, the [[Altair 8800]], possible.{{ref|hoff}}
== Education ==
Electrical engineers typically possess an [[academic degree]] with a major in electrical engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three or four years and the completed degree may be designated as a [[Bachelor of Engineering]], [[Bachelor of Science]] or [[Bachelor of Applied Science]] depending upon the university. The degree generally includes units covering [[physics]], [[mathematics]], [[project management]] and [[list of electrical engineering topics|specific topics in electrical engineering]]. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub-disciplines of electrical engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.
Some electrical engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a [[Master of Engineering]]/[[Master of Science]], a [[Doctor of Philosophy]] in Engineering or an [[Engineer's degree]]. The Master and Engineer's degree may consist of either [[research]], [[coursework]] or a mixture of the two. The [[Doctor of Philosophy]] consists of a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to [[academia]]. In the United Kingdom and various other European countries, the [[Master of Engineering]] is often considered an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the [[Bachelor of Engineering]].{{ref|education}}
== Practicing engineers ==
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards [[professional certification]] and the degree program itself is certified by a [[professional body]]. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of [[Professional Engineer]] (in the United States and Canada), [[Chartered Engineer]] (in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[India]], [[South Africa]] and [[Zimbabwe]]), [[Chartered Professional Engineer]] (in [[Australia]]) or [[European Engineer]] (in much of the [[European Union]]).
The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may... seal engineering work for public and private clients".{{ref|nspe}} This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as [[Quebec|Quebec's]] Engineers Act.{{ref|qea}} In other countries, such as Australia, no such legislation exists. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a [[code of ethics]] that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.{{ref|ethics}} In this way these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to [[contract law]]. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the [[negligence|tort of negligence]] and, in extreme cases, the charge of [[criminal negligence]].{{ref|shuman}} An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as [[building codes]] and legislation pertaining to [[environmental law]].
Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE) and the [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]] (IEE). The IEEE claims to produce 30 percent of the world's literature in electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 300 conferences anually. {{ref|IEEE}} The IEE publishes 14 journals, has a worldwide membership of 120,000, certifies Chartered Engineers in the United Kingdom and claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe. {{ref|IEE1}} {{ref|IEE2}} Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. {{ref|DoL2}}
In countries such as [[Australia]], [[Canada]] and the [[United States]] electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labour force (see <span id="demographics_back">[[#demographics|note]]</span>). Outside of these countries, it is difficult to gauge the demographics of the profession due to less meticulous reporting on labour statistics. However, in terms of electrical engineering graduates per-capita, electrical engineering graduates would probably be most numerous in countries such as [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]].{{ref|NSF-foreign}}
== Tools and work ==
From the [[global positioning system]] to [[electricity generation|electric power generation]], electrical engineers are responsible for a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test and supervise the deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of [[telecommunication|telecommunication systems]], the operation of [[power station|electric power station]]s, the [[lighting]] and [[electrical wiring|wiring]] of [[building]]s, the design of [[appliance|household appliances]] or the electrical [[control theory|control]] of industrial machinery.{{ref|DoL1}}
[[Image:Navy-Radome.jpg|thumb|left|260px|[[Radar]] is one of many projects an electrical engineer might work on]]
Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of [[physics]] and [[mathematics]] as these help to obtain both a [[qualitative]] and [[quantitative]] description of how such systems will work. Today most [[engineering]] work involves the use of [[computers]] and it is commonplace to use [[computer-aided design]] programs when designing electrical systems. Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others.
Although most electrical engineers will understand basic [[circuit theory]] (that is the interactions of elements such as [[resistors]], [[capacitors]], [[diodes]], [[transistors]] and [[inductors]] in a circuit), the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example, [[quantum mechanics]] and [[solid state physics]] might be relevant to an engineer working on [[VLSI]] (the design of integrated circuits), but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with macroscopic electrical systems. Even [[circuit theory]] may not be relevant to a person designing telecommunication systems that use [[commercial off-the-shelf|off-the-shelf]] components. Perhaps the most important technical skills for electrical engineers are reflected in university programs, which emphasize [[numeracy|strong numerical skills]], [[computer literacy]] and the ability to understand the [[technical terminology|technical language and concepts]] that relate to electrical engineering.
For most engineers technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time is also spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing [[budget]]s and determining [[schedule (project management)|project schedules]].{{ref|trevelyan}} Many senior engineers manage a team of [[technician]]s or other engineers and for this reason [[project management]] skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and [[technical writing|strong written communication]] skills are therefore very important.
The [[workplace]]s of electrical engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electrical engineers may be found in the pristine lab environment of a [[fabrication plant]], the offices of a [[consulting firm]] or on site at a [[mining|mine]]. During their working life, electrical engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including [[scientist]]s, [[electrician]]s, [[computer programmers]] and other engineers.
== Sub-disciplines ==
Electrical engineering has many sub-disciplines, the most popular of which are listed below. Although there are electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these sub-disciplines, many deal with a combination of them. Sometimes certain fields, such as electronics engineering and computer engineering, are considered separate disciplines in their own right.
===Power===
''Main article [[Power engineering]]''
[[Image:Power pole.jpg|right|150 px]]
[[Power engineering]] deals with the [[electricity generation|generation]], [[electric power transmission|transmission]] and [[electricity distribution|distribution]] of [[electricity]] as well as the design of a range of related devices. These include [[transformer]]s, [[electric generator]]s, [[electric motor]]s and [[power electronics]]. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical network called a [[power grid]] that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy. Users purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it. Such systems are called ''on-grid'' power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the grid or do both. Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called ''off-grid'' power systems, which in some cases |
r-used resources and skills of the furniture industry at a time of great pressure on the conventional aircraft industry, and shortages of steel and aluminium. The Air Ministry was not interested; de Havilland designed the Mosquito on a speculative basis, only interesting the Ministry when they saw the performance of the prototype.
The original Mosquito design dated from [[1938 in aviation|1938]] but it was not until March [[1940 in aviation|1940]] that there was sufficient interest in the aircraft for construction to commence. Three prototypes were built, each with a different configuration. The first to fly was the bomber prototype ''W4050'' on [[November 25]], 1940 followed by the night fighter model on [[May 15]], [[1941 in aviation|1941]] and the photo-reconnaissance model on [[June 10]], 1941.
The outstanding feature of the Mosquito was its speed, faster than any other aircraft of the time&mdash;so much so that defensive armament was rarely fitted as the Mosquito could outrun any pursuer.
The photo-reconnaissance model became the basis for the '''PR Mk.I''' Mosquito while the bomber model became the '''B Mk.IV''', of which 273 were built. The first operational [[sortie]] by a Mosquito was made by a PR Mk.I on [[September 20]], 1941. The Mk.IV entered service in May [[1942 in aviation|1942]] with [[No. 105 Squadron RAF|No. 105 Squadron]]. The '''B Mk.IV''' could accommodate 4× 500 lb bombs in the bomb bay, and either two drop tanks or two additional 500 lb bombs on wing hardpoints.
[[Image:4000LB High Capacity Bomb With Mosquito.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A Mosquito BXVI prior to being loaded with a 4000lb ''[[Blockbuster bomb|Blockbuster]]'' or "Cookie"]]
The '''Mk.IX''' was a high altitude bomber variant but the most numerous bomber version was the '''Mk.XVI''' of which about 1,200 were built. The Mosquito bombers could carry a 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) "[[Blockbuster bomb|block-buster]]" bomb in their internal bomb bay. This required a bulged bomb bay which could alternatively accommodate up to 6× 500 lb bombs on a Avro carrier. Mosquitos were widely used by the [[Pathfinder (RAF)|RAF Pathfinder Force]] which marked targets for night-time [[strategic bombing]]. Despite an initially high loss rate the Mosquito ended the war with the lowest loss rate of any aircraft in [[RAF Bomber Command]] service. The RAF found that when finally applied to bombing, it had proved 4.5 times cheaper than the Lancaster in terms of useful damage done, and they have never specified a defensive gun on a bomber since. Special Luftwaffe units formed to fight the Mosquito attacks were rather unsuccessful, and the Luftwaffe considered the Mosquito a superior implementation of their own "[[Schnellbomber]]" concept.
The first production [[night fighter]] Mosquitos were designated the '''NF Mk.II''' and 466 were built with the first entering service with [[No. 157 Squadron RAF|No. 157 Squadron]] in January 1942, replacing the Douglas [[A-20 Havoc]]. They were armed with four 20 mm Hispano [[cannon]]s mounted in the lower front fuselage and four [[.303]] in (7.7 mm) Browning [[machine gun]]s in the nose as well as an AI Mk.IV [[radar]]. The success of these night fighters, and the need to conceal the existence of radar, resulted in a degree of notoriety for pilot [[John Cunningham (Royal Air Force)|John "Cat's Eyes" Cunningham]]; he and other pilots were said untruly to have phenomenally acute night vision due to eating carrots.
Ninety-seven NF Mk.IIs were upgraded with a centrimetric AI Mk.VIII radar and these were designated the '''NF Mk.XII'''. The '''NF Mk.XIII''', of which 270 were built, was the production equivalent of the Mk.XII conversions. They also dispensed with the machine guns in the nose. The other night fighter variants were the '''Mk.XV''', '''Mk.XVII''' (converted Mk.IIs), '''Mk.XIX''' and '''Mk.30'''. The latter three marks mounted the [[United States|US]]-built AI Mk.X radar. Post-war, two more night fighter versions were developed, the '''NF Mk.36''', powered by the Merlin 113/114 engine, and the '''NF Mk.38''' using the British-built AI Mk.IX radar. To warn German night fighters that they were being tracked by these radars, the Germans introduced [[Naxos radar detector|Naxos ZR]] radar detectors.
Mosquito night intruders were also fitted with a device called "[[Serrate radar detector|Serrate]]" to allow them to track down German night fighters from their [[Lichtenstein radar|Lichtenstein]] B/C and SN2 radar emissions, as well as a device named "Perfectos" that tracked German IFF.
== Variants ==
The most numerous Mosquito variant was the '''FB Mk.VI''' fighter-bomber of which 2,718 were built. Originally converted from a Mk.II, the Mk.VI first flew in February [[1943 in aviation|1943]]. Designed for a fighter-bomber role, the Mk.VI could carry two 250 lb (110 kg) or 500 lb (230 kg) bombs in the internal bomb bay as well as two more bombs under the wings. From early [[1944 in aviation|1944]], [[Coastal Command]] operated Mk.VIs armed with eight 60 lb (27 kg) [[rocket]]s to carry out anti-shipping strikes.
[[Image:De Havilland Mosquito - Australian war memorial.jpg|thumb|350px|Reconstructed model at the Australian War Memorial]]
Other fighter-bomber variants were the '''FB Mk.XVIII''' (Tsetse) of which 27 were made by converting Mk.VIs. These were fitted with a Molins 57 mm cannon, a [[QF 6 pdr|6 pounder]] (2.7 kg), 7 cwt (356 kg) anti-tank gun modified with an auto-loader to allow both semi- or fully-automatic fire, in the nose, along with two .303 in (7.7 mm) sighting machine guns. The '''FB Mk.26''' and '''FB Mk.40''', based on the Mk.VI, were built in [[Canada]] and [[Australia]] and were powered by [[Packard]]-built Merlin engines.
The Mosquito was also built as a [[trainer]]; 348 of the '''T Mk.III''' were built for the RAF and [[Fleet Air Arm]]. [[de Havilland Australia]] built 22 '''T Mk.43''' trainers, similar to the Mk.III.
de Havilland produced a [[aircraft carrier|carrier-borne]] variant to meet the [[Royal Navy]]'s specification N.15/44. This resulted in 50 of the '''TR Mk.33''' which featured folding wings, a nose thimble radome and fuselage hardpoints for mounting [[torpedo]]es. The navy also operated the '''TT Mk.39''' for target towing. The RAF's target tug version was the '''TT Mk.35''' which were in fact the last aircraft to remain in operational service, finally being retired in [[1956 in aviation|1956]].
== Numbers produced ==
Total Mosquito production was 7,781 of which 6,710 were built during the war. [[de Havilland]] accounted for 5,007 aircraft built in three factories in the United Kingdom. Mosquitos were also built by [[Airspeed Ltd]], [[Percival Aircraft Company]] and [[Standard Motors]]. The Canadian and Australian arms of de Havilland produced 1,134 and 212 aircraft respectively. Mosquito movement from Canada to the war front was unreliable, as a small fraction of the aircraft would mysteriously explode in transit over the mid-Atlantic. The cause for this auto-explosion was never found.
The last Mosquito was completed in November [[1950 in aviation|1950]]; a NF Mk.38 built at [[Chester]].
The [[Canadian Historical Aircraft Association]] based out of [[Windsor, Ontario]] is building a Mosquito from scratch. Glyn Powell located in [[Papakura]], [[New Zealand]] has built a mould for the wooden fuselage and CHAA bought the very first one ever sold. They have two unused engines still in the crates and some parts retrieved from a crash up in the arctic.
[[Image:DE HAVILLAND 1943 Advertisement s.jpg|thumb|left|A 1943 advertisement for DE HAVILLAND taken from 'Flight & Aircraft Engineer' magazine]]
== Operations ==
One of the most daring uses of the Mosquito was ''[[Operation Jericho]]'', the mission to destroy the walls and guard's quarters of [[Amiens]] prison to allow the escape of members of the [[French resistance]]. It also raided a Nazi rally in Berlin, giving the lie to the speaker's (Reichmarschall Herman Goering's) claim that such a mission was impossible. Another spectacular raid involved a very low altitude bombing raid on the Gestapo headquarters in Copenhagen, Denmark, destroying their records and freeing a large number of prisoners.
Mosquitos took part in many bombing missions as [[Pathfinder (RAF)|pathfinders]], marking targets very accurately with flares for attack by massive formations of less accurate heavy bombers.
A Mosquito also holds the record for the most missions flown by an Allied bomber in World War II. '''F for Freddie''', first with 109 and subsequently 105 Squadron, flew 213 sorties during the war, only to crash on May 10, 1945, two days after VE Day at the Calgary airport, likely due to pilot error.
Mosquitos flying with the [[Israeli Air Force]] saw action during the [[Suez Crisis]] of [[1956]].
== Notable pilots ==
* [[Sidney Cotton]] &ndash; Australian spy and photographic reconnaissance pioneer
* [[John Cunningham (Royal Air Force)|John Cunningham]] &ndash; British night-fighter pilot
* [[Guy Gibson]] &ndash; British [[No. 617 Squadron RAF|617 Sqn]] commander; killed when his Mosquito crashed in the Netherlands during a mission. (It has been speculated that this was the result of overstressing of the spar, during a dive-bombing run, to mark a target.)
* [[Keith Miller]] &ndash; Australian international [[cricket]]er, regarded by many as the greatest Australian [[all-rounder]]. In later life when asked how he dealt with pressure on the cricket field, Miller replied: "Pressure is [having] a [[Messerschmitt 109|Messerschmitt]] up your arse, playing cricket is not."
== Preservation ==
There are believed to be around 30 preserved examples at various collections including the [[Royal Air Force Museum]] at Hendon. The wooden construction makes restoration difficult.
[[As of 2004]] the original ''W4050'' aircraft was undergo |
rchomenus'', when the [[Thespiae | Thespian]]s ravaged Ascra, the villagers sought refuge at Orchomenus, where, following the advice of an oracle, they collected the ashes of Hesiod and placed them in a place of honour in their ''[[agora]]'', beside the tomb of [[Minyas]], their eponymous founder, and in the end came to regard Hesiod too as their "hearth-founder" (οἰκιστής / ''oikistês'').
Later writers attempted to harmonize these two accounts.
Legends that accumulated about Hesiod came from several sources: a treatise "The poetic contest (Ἀγών / Agôn) of Homer and Hesiod"; a ''[[vita]]'' of Hesiod by the Byzantine grammarian [[John Tzetzes]]; the entry for Hesiod in the ''[[Suda]]''; two passages and some scattered remarks in [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (IX, 31.3–6 and 38.3–4); a passage in [[Plutarch]] ''Moralia'' (162b).
==Works==
Hesiod wrote a poem of some 800 verses, the ''[[Works and Days]]'', which revolves around two general truths: labour is the universal lot of Man, but he who is willing to work will get by. Scholars have seen this work against a background of agrarian crisis in mainland Greece, which inspired a wave of documented [[Greek colonies | colonisation]]s in search of new land.
This work lays out the five [[Ages of Man]], as well as containing advice and wisdom, prescribing a life of honest labour and attacking idleness and unjust [[judge]]s (like those who decided in favour of Perses) as well as the practice of usury. It describes immortals who roam the earth watching over justice and injustice.{{rf|3|Hesiod1}} The poem regards labor as the source of all good, in that both gods and men hate the idle, who resemble drones in a hive.{{rf|4|Hesiod2}}
Tradition also attributes the ''[[Theogony]]'', a poem which uses the same epic verse-form as the "[[Works and Days]]" (and Homer's as "[[Iliad]]" and "[[Odyssey]]") to Hesiod. The ''[[Theogony]]'', which in its surviving form has over 1000 verses, resembles ''Works and Days'' very closely in style and substance considering the different subject-matter.
The ''[[Theogony]]'' concerns the [[cosmogony | origins of the world]] (cosmogony) and of the gods (theogony), beginning with [[Gaia]], [[Nyx]] and [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]], and shows a special interest in [[genealogy]]. Embedded in Greek myth there remain fragments of quite variant tales, hinting at the rich variety of myth that once existed, city by city; but Hesiod's retelling of the old stories became, according to the 5th-century historian [[Herodotos]], the accepted version that linked all [[Hellenes]].
* Classical authors also attributed to Hesiod later genealogical poems -- known as ''[[Catalogues of Women]]'' or as ''Eoiae'' (because sections began with the Greek words ''e oie'' 'or like her'). Only fragments of these have survived. They deal with the genealogies of kings and [[hero]]es of the legendary heroic period. Scholars generally classify them as later examples of the poetic tradition to which Hesiod belonged, not as genuine poems of Hesiod himself.
* A final poem traditionally attributed to Hesiod, ''The Shield of Heracles'' (Ἀσπὶς Ἡρακλέους / Aspis Hêrakleous), apparently forms a late expansion of one of these genealogical poems, taking its cue from Homer's description of the [[Shield of Achilles]].
Hesiod's works survive in [[Alexandria]]n [[papyrus|papyri]], some dating from as early as the 1st century BCE. [[Demetrius Chalcondyles]] issued the first printed edition (''[[editio princeps]]'') of ''Works and Days'', possibly at Milan, probably in 1493. In [[1495]] [[Aldus Manutius]] published the complete works at Venice.
==Notes==
*{{ent|1|Symonds1}} J. A. Symonds, ''Studies of the Greek Poets'', p. 166
*{{ent|2|Symonds2}} J. A. Symonds, p. 167
*{{ent|3|Hesiod1}} Hesiod, ''Works and Days'', Canto III, [250]: "Verily upon the earth are thrice ten thousand immortals of the host of Zeus, guardians of mortal man. They watch both justice and injustice, robed in mist, roaming abroad upon the earth". (cf. also, J. A. Symonds, p. 179)
*{{ent|4|Hesiod2}} Hesiod, ''Works and Days'', [300]: "Both gods and men are angry with a man who lives idle, for in nature he is like the stingless drones who waste the labor of the bees, eating without working"
==References==
*Philip Wentworth Buckham, ''Theatre of the Greeks'', 1827.
*Erwin Rohde, ''Psyche'', 1925.
*J. A. Symonds, ''Studies of the Greek Poets'', 1873.
*Thomas Taylor, ''A Dissertation on the Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries'', 1791.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Hesiod | name=Hesiod}}
* Web texts taken from ''Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns and Homerica'', edited and translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, published as [[Loeb Classical Library]] #57, 1914, ISBN 0674990633:
** [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin//perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Perseus%3Acollection%3AGreco-Roman&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Hesiod Perseus Classics Collection: Greek and Roman Materials: Text: Hesiod] (Greek texts and English translations for ''Works and Days'', ''[[Theogony]]'', and ''Shield of Heracles'' with additional notes and cross links.)
** Versions of the electronic edition of Evelyn-White's English translation edited by Douglas B. Killings, June 1995:
*** [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/348 Project Gutenberg plain text].
*** [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Hesiod Berkeley Digital Library SunSITE: The Online Medieval and Classical Library: Hesiod]
*** [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hesiod/index.htm Sacred Texts: Classics: The Works of Hesiod] (''Theogony'' and ''Works and Days'' only)
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
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[[lt:Hesiodas]]
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[[nl:Hesiodus]]
[[ja:ヘシオドス]]
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[[uk:Гесіод]]
[[zh:赫西奥德]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hebrew numerals</title>
<id>13702</id>
<revision>
<id>41755333</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:42:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Noe</username>
<id>57569</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Numeral_Systems}}
The system of '''Hebrew numerals''' is a quasi-decimal alphabetic [[numeral system]] using the letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]].
In this system, there was no notation for [[0 (number)|zero]], and the numeric values for individual letters are added together. Each unit (1, 2, ..., 9) is assigned a separate letter, each tens (10, 20, ..., 90) a separate letter, and each hundreds (100, 200, ..., 900) a separate letter. [[Gematria]] (Jewish numerology) uses these transformations extensively.
{| border
|-
!Decimal
!Hebrew
!Glyph
|-
|[[1 (number)|1]]
|''Aleph''
| &#1488;
|-
|[[2 (number)|2]]
|''Bet''
| &#1489;
|-
|[[3 (number)|3]]
|''Gimmel''
| &#1490;
|-
|[[ 4 (number)| 4]]
|''Dalet''
| &#1491;
|-
|[[ 5 (number)| 5]]
|''Hay''
| &#1492;
|-
|[[6 (number)|6]]
|''Vav''
| &#1493;
|-
|[[7 (number)|7]]
|''Zayin''
| &#1494;
|-
|[[8 (number)|8]]
|''Het''
| &#1495;
|-
|[[9 (number)|9]]
|''Tet''
| &#1496;
|-
|[[10 (number)|10]]
|''Yod''
| &#1497;
|-
|[[20 (number)|20]]
|''Kaf''
| &#1499;
|-
|[[30 (number)|30]]
|''Lamed''
| &#1500;
|-
|[[40 (number)|40]]
|''Mem''
| &#1502;
|-
|[[50 (number)|50]]
|''Nun''
| &#1504;
|-
|[[60 (number)|60]]
|''Samekh''
| &#1505;
|-
|[[70 (number)|70]]
|''Ayin''
| &#1506;</td>
|-
|[[80 (number)|80]]
|''Pe''
| &#1508;</td>
|-
|[[90 (number)|90]]
|''Tsadik''
| &#1510;
|-
|[[100 (number)|100]]
|''Kof''
| &#1511;
|-
|[[200 (number)|200]]
|''Resh''
| &#1512;
|-
|[[300 (number)|300]]
|''Shin''
| &#1513;
|-
|[[400 (number)|400]]
|''Tav''
| &#1514;
|-
|[[500 (number)|500]]
|''Tav Kof'' or ''Kaf Sofit''
| &#1514;"&#1511; or &#1498;
|-
|[[600 (number)|600]]
|''Tav Resh'' or ''Mem Sofit''
| &#1514;"&#1512; or &#1501;
|-
|[[700 (number)|700]]
|''Tav Shin'' or ''Nun Sofit''
| &#1514;"&#1513; or &#1503;
|-
|[[800 (number)|800]]
|''Tav Tav'' or ''Pe Sofit''
| &#1514;"&#1514; or &#1507;
|-
|[[900 (number)|900]]
|''Tav Tav Kof'' or ''Tsadik Sofit''
| &#1514;&#1514;"&#1511; or &#1509;
|}
The alphabetic system operates on the additive principle in which the numeric values of the letters are added together to form the total. For example, 177 is represented as &#1511;&#1506;&#1494; which corresponds to 100 + 70 + 7 = 177.
The numbers 15 and 16 are represented as &#1496;&#1493; &#x200e;(9+6) and &#1496;&#1494; &#x200e;(9+7) respectively, instead of &#1497;&#1492; and &#1497;&#1493;. This is done in order to refrain from using the sacred combinations that are a part of [[the name of God in Judaism]].
This system requires 27 letters, so the 22-letter Hebrew alphabet is sometimes extended to 27 by using 5 ''sofeet'' (final) forms of the Hebrew letters. Alternatively (and more often), the last letter, ''tav'' (which has the value 400) is used in combination with itself and/or other letters from ''kof'' (100) onwards, to generate numbers from 500 and above.
A ''gershayim'' mark (similar to a [[double quote]] mark) is often inserted before the last (leftmost) letter to indicate that the sequence of letters represents a number rather than a word. When only one letter is used (as for the numbers 1-9, 10, 20, etc.), a ''geresh'' mark (similar to a [[single quote]] mark) follows the letter.
Thousands are counted separately, and the thousand |
[[Wana]].
== Political and social environment ==
The region is only nominally controlled by the central government of Pakistan. The mainly [[Pashtun]] tribes that inhabit the areas are fiercely independent, but until friction following the fall of the [[Taliban]] in neighboring Afghanistan the tribes had mostly had friendly relations with Pakistan's central government.
After negotiating with tribal '''[[maliks]]''', regular Pakistani [[Pakistan Army|army troops]] entered the tribal areas for the first time in Pakistani history - [[as of 2004]], there are about 70,000 troops there. With foreign financial assistance, Pakistan has been involved in improving local infrastructure including the building of roads in the tribal areas. It is believed by some that [[Osama bin Laden]] is hiding with some sympathetic tribes in the FATA, but the validity of these claims remains unknown. Due to the capture of various [[Taliban]] leaders, many believe that various officials have sought refuge in the FATA and that possibly [[al-Qaeda]] fighters have also established a presence in the region following the collapse of the Taliban in Afghanistan. Pakistani troops and U.S. forces have carried out "coordinated operations" in the border region{{ref|operations}}} that has further antagonized some local tribes. In 2004, Army attacks on local militant groups resulted in civilian casualties, fuelling an insurgency by some Waziri tribal groups{{ref|insurgency}}. However, some local tribal leaders in the Waziristan area have rejected attempts to politically exploit the casualties{{ref|casualties}}.
== Economy ==
Due to the FATA's tribal organization, the economy is chiefly pastoral, with some agriculture practiced in the region's few fertile valleys. Historically, the region has been a major center for [[opium]] production and trafficking. Although attempts have been made to significantly suppress drug-related activity by the Pakistani government, opium smuggling from Afghanistan continues to be a problem.
== See also ==
* [[List of capitals of subnational entities]]
* [[Politics of Pakistan]]
* [[North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan|North-West Frontier Province]]
* [[Waziristan War]]
== References ==
* {{note|operations}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3738888.stm BBC article on US operations]
* {{note|insurgency}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3645114.stm BBC article on the tribal insurgency]
* {{note|casualties}} [http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_10-4-2004_pg7_32 Daily Times article]
{{Territorial_Capitals_in_Pakistan}}
[[Category:Subdivisions of Pakistan]]
[[de:Stammesgebiete unter Bundesverwaltung]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Father Christmas</title>
<id>11561</id>
<revision>
<id>35260688</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T11:21:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.92.168.167</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jolly-old-saint-nick.gif|right|200px]]
'''Father Christmas''' is a name used in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and several other [[Commonwealth]] Countries, as well as Ireland, for the gift bringing figure of [[Christmas]] or [[yuletide]]. Although Father Christmas, [[Saint Nicholas]] and [[Santa Claus]] (the latter deriving from the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] for [[Saint Nicholas]]: ''Sinterklaas''), are now used interchangeably, the origins of Father Christmas are quite different.
Dating back to Norse mythology, Father Christmas has his roots in Paganism. Before Christianity came to British shores, it was customary for an elder man from the community to dress in furs and visit each dwelling {{Fact}}. At each house, in the guise of "Old Winter" he would be plied with food and drink before moving on to the next. It was thought he carried the spirit of the winter with him, and that the winter would be kind to anyone hospitable to Old Winter. The custom was still kept in [[Medieval England]], and after a decline during the Commonwealth, became widespread again during the Restoration period. Father Christmas was also a significant character in Christmas [[mummers' play]]s.
A book dating from the time of the Commonwealth,
[http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlibrary/controller/subjectidsearch?id=11675&startid=32953&width=4&height=2&idx=2 ''The Vindication of CHRISTMAS or, His Twelve Yeares' Observations upon the Times''] involved Father Christmas advocating a merry, alcoholic Christmas and casting aspersions on the charitable motives of the ruling [[Puritans]].
He was neither a gift bringer, nor was he associated with children. During the Victorian era, when Santa Claus arrived from America he was merged with "Old Winter", "Old Christmas" or "Old Father Christmas" to create Father Christmas, the British Santa which survives today.
The Ghost of Christmas Present in [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' is based on Father Christmas.
==References==
*[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=-2t-7Dn6oGYC&dq=%22father+christmas%22+pagan&prev=http://books.google.com/books%3Fq%3D%2522father%2Bchristmas%2522%2Bpagan&lpg=PA207&pg=PA207 Google Book, excerpt from ""The Life Story of Father Christmas""] The English Illustrated Magazine, October 1905
*"Father Christmas" is also a song recorded by the rock band [[The Kinks]] about Father Christmas.
== See also ==
* [[Christmas]]
* [[Saint Nicholas]]
* [[Santa Claus]]
* [[Christmas customs in Germany]]
* [[Christmas worldwide]]
== External links ==
[[Category:Superstitions]]
[[Category:Christmas characters]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fossil record</title>
<id>11562</id>
<revision>
<id>32386767</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-22T18:45:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heron</username>
<id>2954</id>
</contributor>
<comment>artifacts -> objects</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Ever since recorded [[history]] began, and probably before, people have found pieces of [[Rock (geology)|rock]] and other hard material with indentations from the remains of dead organisms. These are called [[fossil]]s, and the totality of these objects and their placement in rock formations is referred to as the '''fossil record'''.
The fossil record is one of the primary sources of data relevant to the study of [[evolution]]. Scientists examine fossils in order to understand the process of evolution and the way particular [[species]] have evolved.
[[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith (1769-1839)]], an English canal engineer, observed that rocks of different ages (based on the [[law of superposition]]) preserved different assemblages of fossils, and that these assemblages succeeded one another in a regular and determinable order. He observed that rocks from distant locations could be correlated based on the fossils they contained. He termed this the principle of faunal succession.
Smith, who preceded [[Charles Darwin]], was unaware of biological evolution and did not know why faunal succession occurred. Biological evolution explains why faunal succession exists: as different organisms evolve, change and go extinct, they leave behind fossils. Faunal succession was one of the chief pieces of evidence cited by Darwin that biological evolution had occurred.
The fossil record and faunal succession form the basis of the science of [[biostratigraphy]] or determining the age of rocks based on the fossils they contain. For the first 150 years of geology, biostratigraphy and superposition were the only means for determining the relative age of rocks.
Some observers are perplexed by the rarity of [[Transitional fossil|transitional species]]. The conventional explanation for this rarity was given by [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], who stated that "the extreme imperfection of the geological record," combined with the short duration and narrow geographical range of transitional species, made it unlikely that many such fossils would be found. Simply put, the conditions under which fossilization takes place are quite rare; and it is highly unlikely that any given organism will leave behind a fossil. [[Stephen J. Gould]] developed his theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]] in part to explain the pattern of stasis and sudden appearance in the fossil record.
Since the latter half of the twentieth century, absolute dating methods, such as [[radiometric dating]] (including [[potassium-argon dating|potassium/argon]], [[argon-argon dating|argon/argon]], [[uranium-lead dating|uranium series]], and [[carbon-14 dating]] which works only for the very recent past, the last 50,000 years before the present), show that the earliest known fossils are over 3.5 billion years old. Various dating methods have been used and are used today depending on local geology and context, and while there is some variance in the results from these [[dating methods]], nearly all of them provide evidence for a very old Earth, approximately 4.6 billion years. (See [[geologic time scale]]).
[[Category:Paleontology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federal jurisdiction</title>
<id>11563</id>
<revision>
<id>15909304</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-21T07:28:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Key concepts in general [[federal law]] in the USA (other countries using a federal system differ), at all [[court]] levels, include [[standing (law)|standing]] and the Case or [[Controversy]] Requirement. These apply as strongly to constitutional cases as to any others, and often a seemingly [[civil rights|"civil rights"]] related issue is rejected by the courts for these reasons. They flow from Article III, Section 2 of th |
eir word by taking any part in the second war. So the victors in the Second Civil War were not merciful to those who had brought war into the land again. On the evening of the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles Lucas and Sir [[George Lisle]] were shot. The leaders of the Welsh rebels Major-General [[Rowland Laugharne]], Colonel [[John Poyer]] and Colonel [[Rice Powel]]<!--Some sources use Powell--> were sentenced to death, but Poyer alone was executed on [[April 25]] [[1649]], being the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist peers who had fallen into the hands of Parliament, three, the Duke of Hamilton, the [[Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland|Earl of Holland]], and [[Arthur Capell, 1st Baron Capell|Lord Capel]], one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character, were beheaded at Westminster on [[March 9]].
==Trial of Charles I for treason==
The betrayal by Charles caused Parliament to debate whether Charles should be returned to power at all. Those who still supported Charles's place on the throne tried once more to negotiate with him.
Furious that Parliament continued to countenance Charles as a ruler, the army marched on parliament and conducted "[[Pride's Purge]]" (named after the commanding officer of the operation, [[Thomas Pride]]) in December 1648. 45 Members of Parliament (MPs) were arrested; 146 were kept out of parliament. Only 75 were allowed in, and then only at the army's bidding. This [[Rump Parliament]] was ordered to set up a high court of justice in order to try Charles I for treason in the name of the people of England.
The trial reached its forgone conclusion. [[List of regicides of Charles I|59 Commissioners]] (judges) found Charles I guilty of [[high treason]], being a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". He was [[Decapitation|beheaded]] on a scaffold in front of the [[Banqueting House]] of the [[Palace of Whitehall]] on [[January 30]], 1649. At the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] the [[regicide]]s who were still alive and not living in exile were either executed or sentenced to life imprisonment.
==The Third English Civil War==
:''Main article [[Third English Civil War]].''
===Ireland===
:''See also the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]].''
Ireland had known continuous war since the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|rebellion of 1641]], with most of the island controlled by the [[Confederate Ireland|Irish Confederates]]. Increasingly threatened by the armies of the English Parliament after Charles I's arrest in 1648, the Confederates signed a treaty of alliance with the English Royalists. The joint Royalist and Confederate forces under [[James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde|Ormonde]] attempted to eliminate the Parliamentary army holding [[Dublin]], but were routed at the [[Battle of Rathmines]]. As the former Member of Parliament [[Admiral Robert Blake]] blockaded [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]]'s fleet in [[Kinsale]], Oliver Cromwell was able to land at [[Dublin]] on August 15, 1649 with the army to quell Royalist alliance in [[Ireland]]. Cromwell's suppression of the Royalists in [[Ireland]] during 1649 still has a strong resonance for many Irish people. The massacre of nearly 3,500 people in [[Drogheda]] after its [[siege of Drogheda|capture]]&mdash;comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including civilians, prisoners, and Catholic priests&mdash;is one of the historical memories that has driven Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife during the last three centuries. However, the massacre is significant mainly as a symbol of the Irish perception of Cromwellian cruelty, as far more people died in the subsequent [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] and scorched earth fighting in the country than at infamous massacres such as Drogheda and [[Wexford]]. The [[Parliamentarian]] conquest of Ireland ground on for another four years until 1653, when the last [[Confederate Ireland|Irish Confederate]] and Royalist troops surrendered. It has been estimated that up to 30% of Ireland's population either died or were exiled by the end of the wars. Almost all Irish Catholic owned land was confiscated in the wake of the conquest and distributed to the Parliament's creditors, to the Parliamentary soldiers who served in Ireland, and to English people who had settled there before the war.
===Scotland===
The execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] altered the dynamics of the [[Scottish Civil War]], which had been raging between Royalists and [[Covenanters]] since 1644. By 1649, the Royalists there were in dissaray and their erstwhile leader, Montrose, was in exile. At first, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] encouraged the [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|Earl of Montrose]] to raise a Highland army to fight on the Royalist side. However, when the Scottish Covenanters (who did not agree with the execution of Charles I and who feared for the future of [[Presbyterianism]] and Scottish independence under the new [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]]) offered him the crown of Scotland, Charles abandoned Montrose to his enemies. However, Montrose, who had raised a [[mercenary]] force in [[Norway]], had already landed was unable to abandon the fight. He was unable to raise many Highland clans and his army was defeated at Carbisdale in [[Ross-shire]] on [[April 27]], [[1650]]. Montrose was captured shortly afterwards and taken to Edinburgh, where on [[May 20]] he was sentenced to death by the Scottish parliament and was hanged the next day. Charles landed in Scotland at [[Garmouth]] in [[Morayshire]] on [[June 23]] 1650 and signed the [[1638]] [[National Covenant]] and the [[1643]] [[Solemn League and Covenant]] immediately after coming ashore.
[[Image:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|275px|right|"Cromwell at Dunbar", Andrew Carrick Gow.]]
With his original Scottish Royalist followers and his new Covenanter allies, King Charles II was considered to be the greatest threat facing the new English Republic. In response to the threat, Cromwell left some of his lieutenants in Ireland to continue the suppression of the Irish Royalists and crossed the Irish channel to Scotland. He arrived in Scotland on [[July 22]] 1650 and proceeded to lay siege to Edinburgh. By the end of August, his army was reduced by disease and a shortage of supplies, and he was forced to order a retreat towards England. A Scottish army, assembled under the command of [[David Leslie]], tried to block the retreat, but the Scotts were defeated at the [[Battle of Dunbar (1650)|Battle of Dunbar]] on [[September 3]]. Cromwell's army then took Edinburgh, and by the end of the year, his army had occupied much of southern Scotland.
In July 1651, Cromwell's forces crossed the [[Firth of Forth]] into [[Fife]] and defeated the Scots at the [[Battle of Inverkeithing]]. The New Model Army advanced towards [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], which allowed Charles at the head of the Scottish army to move south into England. Cromwell followed Charles into England leaving [[George Monck]] to finish the campaign in Scotland. Monck took [[Stirling]] on the [[August 14]] and [[Dundee]] on [[September 1]]. The next year, 1652, the remnants of Royalist resistance were mopped up and under the terms of the "[[Tender of Union]]", the Scots were given 30 seats in a united Parliament in London, with General Monck appointed as the military governor of Scotland.
===England===
Although Cromwell's New Model Army had defeated a Scottish army at Dunbar, Cromwell was unable to prevent Charles II from marching from Scotland deep into England at the head of another Royalist army. The Royalist army marched to the west of England because it was in that area that English Royalist sympathies were strongest, but although some English Royalists joined the army, they came in far fewer numbers than Charles and his Scottish supporters had hoped. Cromwell finally engaged the new king at [[Battle of Worcester|Worcester]] on [[September 3]], 1651, and defeated him. [[Escape of Charles II|Charles II escaped]], via safe houses and a famous [[Royal Oak (tree)|oak tree]] to France, ending the civil wars.
==Political control==
During the course of the Wars, a number of successive committees were established by the Parliamentarians to oversee the war effort. The first of these was the [[English Committee of Safety|Committee of Safety]], created in July 1642, which comprised 15 Members of Parliament.
Following the [[England|Anglo]]-[[Scotland|Scottish]] alliance against the [[Cavaliers|Royalist]]s, it was replaced by the [[Committee of Both Kingdoms]] between 1644 and 1648, when it was dissolved as the alliance ended. The English members of the former Committee for Both Kingdoms continued to meet and became known as the [[Derby House Committee]]. This in turn was replaced by a second Committee of Safety.
==Aftermath==
Estimates suggest that around 10 percent of the three kingdoms' population may have died during the civil wars. As usual in wars of this era, disease caused more deaths than combat did.
The wars left England, Ireland and Scotland as three of the few countries in Europe without a monarch. In the wake of victory, many of the ideals (and many of the idealists) became sidelined. The republican government of the [[Commonwealth of England]] ruled England (and later all of Scotland and Ireland) during 1649 — 1653 and 1659 — [[1660]]. Between the two periods, and due to in-fighting amongst various factions in Parliament, [[Oliver Cromwell]] ruled over [[The Protectorate]] as [[Lord Protector]] (effectively a military [[dictator]]) until his death in 1658.
Upon his death, Oliver Cromwell's son, [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]], became Lord Protector. But the Army had little confidence in him. After seven months the Army removed Richard and in May 1659 it reinstalled the Rump. However, this too was dissolved shortly afterwards, |
!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=32003R1435&model=guichett Council Regulation (EC) No 1435/2003 of [[22 July]] [[2003]] on the Statute for a European Cooperative Society (SCE)]
*[http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/04/1195&format=HTML&aged=0 EU press release: Company law: European Company Statute in force, but national delays stop companies using it]
*[http://www.seeurope-network.org SEEurope] - NGO researching European Companies
[[Category:European Union laws]]
[[Category:Types of companies]]
[[cs:Evropská společnost]]
[[de:Europäische Aktiengesellschaft]]
[[fi:Eurooppayhtiö]]
[[nl:Europese Vennootschap]]
[[pl:Spółka europejska]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>3rd dynasty</title>
<id>9923</id>
<revision>
<id>15907776</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-05T21:23:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.149.37.238</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to third dynasty of Egypt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Third dynasty of Egypt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic mixer</title>
<id>9924</id>
<revision>
<id>28164481</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-13T01:31:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Freestyle</username>
<id>463706</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[da:Mixer]]
[[pl:Mieszacz]]
An '''electronic mixer''' is a device for mixing two or more [[electronics|electronic]] [[Signal (information theory)|signal]]s. There are two basic types of mixer. Additive mixers add two signals together, and are used for such applications as [[audio mixer|audio mixing]]. Multiplying mixers multiply the signals together, and produce an output containing both original signals, and new signals that have the sum and difference of the [[frequency]] of the original signals.
Additive mixers are usually [[resistor]] networks, surrounded by [[impedance match]]ing and amplification stages.
Multiplying mixers have been done in a wide variety of ways. The most popular are diode mixers, gilbert cell mixers, diode ring mixers and switching mixers.
A [[diode]] mixer has two or more signals going into a diode. Whenever any signal pushes the voltage above the threshold of the diode, current will flow to the other side, but not back. If the inputs are the right voltages, the result is that the peaks of the new signal occur whenever either signal peaks, and the diode supplies the troughs by refusing to conduct backwards. The classic crystal set radio is a diode mixer, with a simple [[electronic filter]] between the antenna and mixer to eliminate unwanted radio stations. Cheap AM radios still use diode mixers.
Gilbert cell mixers are just an arrangement of transistors that multiplies the two signals. Surprisingly, the switching mixers (below) pass more power and usually insert less distortion.
Diode ring mixers are the original switching mixer. They have two transformers and an array of diodes in a ring. Basically, the transformers are arranged so that one signal switches the diodes to conduct in one direction, or the other direction. The other transformer pushes its signal through the diodes. Diode ring mixers are popular because the on/off mechanism injects less noise, and loses less signal power than other methods. Also, the [[transformer]]s can be wound to match the impedances into and out of the mixer stage to the rest of the electroic system.
Switching mixers use an array of [[Field effect transistor]]s or (in older days) [[vacuum tube]]s. These are used as electronic switches, to permit the other signal to go one direction, then the other. They are controlled by the signal being mixed. They are especially popular with digitally-controlled radios.
[[Category:Electronic circuits]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eubulides of Miletus</title>
<id>9925</id>
<revision>
<id>23063653</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-11T22:26:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy</username>
<id>20318</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>stub sort</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eubulides of [[Miletus]]''' was a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] who formulated the [[liar paradox]] in the [[4th century BC]].
He was the successor of [[Euclid of Megara]], the founder of the [[Megarian school of philosophy]]. Besides paradoxes, Megarian logic focused on the logic of whole propositions, in contrast to [[Aristotle|Aristotle's]] logic of predicates.
Another paradox attributed to Eubulides is ''falakros'' or The Bald Man. A man with one hair is bald, or two hairs, but where do you draw the line as to how many hairs there can be before the man is not bald? This is the same as the [[Paradox of the heap|Sorites paradox]].
{{philosopher-stub}}
[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[de:Eubulides]]
[[ru:Евбулид]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ETA</title>
<id>9926</id>
<revision>
<id>41725278</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:38:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gbinal</username>
<id>709873</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Social support */ the to in</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|ETA}}
{{POV-intro}}
[[Image:ETA.jpg|right|thumb|ETA symbol]]
'''Euskadi Ta Askatasuna''', or '''ETA''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: [&#712;&#603;&#720;ta]), is an illegal armed [[Basque nationalist|Basque separatist]] organization that seeks to create, through violence, an [[independence|independent]] [[socialist]] state for the [[Basque people]], separate from [[Spain]] and [[France]], the states with Basque population. ETA is considered by Spain, France, the [[European Union]] and the [[United States]] to be a [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization. The name ''Euskadi Ta Askatasuna'' is in the [[Basque language]], and translates as "Basque Country and Freedom".
ETA's motto is ''Bietan jarrai'' ("Keep up on both"). This refers to the two figures in the ETA symbol, the snake (symbolising secrecy and astuteness) wrapped around an axe (representing strength). <!-- ("until translate"; Snake=politics and Axe=figth; Likinianok egindako irudi hau sugea=politika eta aizkora=borroka irudikatzen dute.) -->
The organization was founded in [[1959]]. It evolved rapidly from a group advocating traditional cultural ways to an armed separatist group.
==Aims==
ETA's focus has been on two demands:
* That an independent [[socialist]] government be created in the Basque-inhabited areas of Spain and France
* That imprisoned ETA members currently awaiting trial or serving prison sentences in Spain and France be released.
However, during the 1980s, the goals of the organisation started to shift. Four decades after the creation of ETA, the idea of creating a socialist state in the Basque Country had begun to seem utopian and impractical, and ETA moved to a more pragmatic stance. This was reflected in the [[1995]] manifesto "[[Democratic Alternative]]", which offered the cessation of all armed ETA activity if the Spanish-government would recognize the Basque people as having sovereignty over Basque territories and the right to [[self-determination]]. Self-determination would be achieved through a referendum on whether to remain a part of Spain.
The organization has adopted other tactical causes such as fighting against:
* Alleged [[illegal drug trade|drug traffic]]kers as corruptors of Basque youth and police collaborators. However, the French Independent NGO L'Observatoire Géopolitique des Drogues pointed their finger at ETA for their alleged drug trafficking in 2000 [http://www.lavanguardia.es/cgi-bin/notilvd_print.pl?noticia=drogues200400&seccion=noticias].
* The [[nuclear power plant]] project at [[Lemoiz]]
* The [[Leizaran]] highway
The methods used by ETA include [[assassination]], bombing, blackmailing and kidnap (see below). [[As of 2003|As of the end of 2003]], ETA had killed 817 people in the name of their political struggle, 339 of which were not members of any armed or police service. [http://www.guardiacivil.org/terrorismo/acciones/estadistica07.jsp]
==Context==
ETA forms part of what is known as the [[Basque National Liberation Movement]] (''Movimiento de Liberación Nacional Vasco'', MLNV in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]). This comprises several distinct organizations promoting a type of [[left-wing politics|left]] Basque nationalism often referred to by the Basque-language term ''ezker [[abertzale]]'' or by the mixed Spanish and Basque ''izquierda abertzale'' (''abertzale'' stands for ''patriot'' in Basque). These include ETA, [[Batasuna]]/Herri Batasuna/Euskal Herritarrok, and the associated youth group [[Haika]] (formed by [[Jarrai]], [[Gazteriak]], and [[Segi]]), the union [[Langile Abertzaleen Batzordeak]] (LAB), [[Gestoras pro Amnistía]] and others.
There are also some left-wing nationalist groups seeking Basque independence but clearly disapproving of violent methods, such as [[Aralar]] [http://www.aralar.net] (as of 2005, with a representative in the Basque Parliament, Aintzane Ezenarro) or the [[Navarra]]n coalition [[Nafarroa Bai]] [http://www.nafarroabai.org] ([[as of 2005]], with a Spanish M.P., Uxue Barkos). In Basque, they could be called ''abertzale'', but that wouldn't mean they support violence. In mainstream [[Spanish media]], though, this term is generally applied only to ETA supporters.
===Social support===
The roots of ETA's support lie in attempts of the [[Spain under Franco|Spanish state under Francisco Franco]] to destroy Basque nationalism.
Since Basque nationalism had sided with the Republican government in the [[Span |
Era==
However, rivalry between [[Hadjerai]], [[Zaghawa]] and [[Gorane]] groups within the government grew in the late 1980s. In April 1989, [[Idriss Déby]], one of Habre's leading generals and a Zaghawa, defected and fled to [[Darfur]] in Sudan, from which he mounted a Zaghawa-supported series of attacks on Habré (a Gorane). In December 1990, with Libyan assistance and no opposition from French troops stationed in Chad, Déby&rsquo;s forces successfully marched on N&rsquo;Djamena. After 3 months of provisional government, Déby&rsquo;s [[Patriotic Salvation Movement]] (MPS) approved a national charter on [[February 28]], [[1991]], with Déby as president.
During the next two years, Déby faced at least two coup attempts. Government forces clashed violently with rebel forces (including the Movement for Democracy and Development, MDD, National Revival Committee for Peace and Democracy (CSNPD), Chadian National Front (FNT) and the Western Armed Forces, FAO) near [[Lake Chad]] and in southern regions of the country. Earlier French demands for the country to hold a National Conference resulted in the gathering of 750 delegates representing political parties (legalized in 1992), the government, trade unions and the army to discuss the creation of a pluralist democratic regime.
However, unrest continued, sparked in part by large-scale killings of civilians in southern Chad. The CSNPD, led by [[Kette Moise]] and other southern groups entered into a peace agreement with government forces in 1994, which later broke down. Two new groups, the Armed Forces for a Federal Republic (FARF) led by former Kette ally [[Laokein Barde]] and the Democratic Front for Renewal (FDR), and a reformulated MDD clashed with government forces from 1994 to 1995.
Talks with political opponents in early 1996 did not go well, but Déby announced his intent to hold presidential elections in June. Déby won the country&rsquo;s first multi-party presidential elections with support in the second round from opposition leader Kebzabo, defeating General Kamougue (leader of the 1975 coup against Tombalbaye). Déby&rsquo;s MPS party won 63 of 125 seats in the January 1997 legislative elections. International observers noted numerous serious irregularities in presidential and legislative election proceedings.
By mid-1997 the government signed peace deals with FARF and the MDD leadership and succeeded in cutting off the groups from their rear bases in the Central African Republic and Cameroon. Agreements also were struck with rebels from the National Front of Chad (FNT) and Movement for Social Justice and Democracy in October 1997. However, peace was short-lived, as FARF rebels clashed with government soldiers, finally surrendering to government forces in May 1998. Barde was killed in the fighting, as were hundreds of other southerners, most civilians.
Since October 1998, Chadian Movement for Justice and Democracy (MDJT) rebels, led by [[Youssuf Togoimi]] until his death in September 2002, have skirmished with government troops in the Tibesti region, resulting in hundreds of civilian, government, and rebel casualties, but little ground won or lost. No active armed opposition has emerged in other parts of Chad, although Kette Moise, following senior postings at the Ministry of Interior, mounted a smallscale local operation near [[Moundou]] which was quickly and violently suppressed by government forces in late 2000.
Déby, in the mid-1990s, gradually restored basic functions of government and entered into agreements with the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] to carry out substantial economic reforms. Oil exploitation in the southern Doba region began in June 2000, with World Bank Board approval to finance a small portion of a project aimed at transport of Chadian crude through a 1000-km. buried pipeline through Cameroon to the [[Gulf of Guinea]]. The project establishes unique mechanisms for World Bank, private sector, government, and civil society collaboration to guarantee that future oil revenues benefit local populations and result in poverty alleviation. Success of the project will depend on intensive monitoring efforts to ensure that all parties keep their commitments. Debt relief was accorded to Chad in May 2001.
Déby won a flawed 63% first-round victory in May 2001 presidential elections after legislative elections were postponed until spring 2002. Having accused the government of fraud, six opposition leaders were arrested (twice) and one opposition party activist was killed following the announcement of election results. However, despite claims of government corruption, favoritism of Zaghawas, and abuses by the security forces, opposition party and labor union calls for general strikes and more active demonstrations against the government have been unsuccessful. Despite movement toward democratic reform, power remains in the hands of a northern ethnic oligarchy.
In 2003, Chad began receiving refugees from the [[Darfur]] region of western Sudan. More than 200,000 refugees fled the fighting between two rebel groups and government-supported militias known as [[Janjaweed]]. A number of border incidents led to the [[Chadian-Sudanese War]].
==Chadian-Sudanese War==
{{main|Chadian-Sudanese War}}
The [[Chadian-Sudanese War]] officially started on [[December 23]], [[2005]], when the [[Politics of Chad|government of Chad]] declared a [[state of war]] with [[Sudan]] and called for the citizens of [[Chad]] to mobilize themselves against the [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4556576.stm "common enemy,"]
which the Chadian government sees as the [[Rally for Democracy and Liberty]] (RDL) militants, Chadian rebels, backed by the [[Sudanese]] government, and Sudanese militiamen. Militants have attacked villages and towns in eastern Chad, stealing cattle, murdering citizens, and burning houses. Over 200,000 refugees from the [[Darfur]] region of northwestern Sudan currently claim asylum in eastern Chad. Chadian president [[Idriss Déby]] accuses Sudanese President [[Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir]] of trying to "destabilize our country, to drive our people into misery, to create disorder and export the war from Darfur to Chad."
An attack on the Chadian town of [[Adre, Chad|Adre]] near the Sudanese border led to the deaths of either one hundred rebels, as every news source other than [[CNN]] has reported, or three hundred rebels. The Sudanese government was blamed for the attack, which was the [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4544352.stm second in the region in three days], but Sudanese foreign ministry spokesman [[Jamal Mohammed Ibrahim]] denies any Sudanese involvement, "We are not for any escalation with Chad. We technically deny involvement in Chadian internal affairs." This attack was the final straw that led to the declaration of war by Chad and the alleged deployment of the [http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/AB24F0A9-8145-4E1E-96C7-3D8FC9641CC6.htm Chadian airforce into Sudanese airspace, which the Chadian government denies].
==References==
*{{loc}}
==See also==
*[[Chad]]
*[[Politics of Chad]]
*[[History of Africa]]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
{{Former French colonies}}
[[Category:History by country|Chad]]
[[Category:History of Chad| ]]
[[es:Historia de Chad]]
[[fr:Histoire du Tchad]]
[[ja:チャドの歴史]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Tsjaad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Chad</title>
<id>5330</id>
<revision>
<id>41079174</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:39:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brian0918</username>
<id>90640</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.6.156.230|64.6.156.230]] ([[User talk:64.6.156.230|talk]]) to last version by Lupo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chad Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of Chad]]
[[Chad]] is a land-locked country in north central [[Africa]] measuring 1,284,000 square kilometers (496,000 sq. mi.), roughly three times the size of [[California]]. Most of its ethnically and linguistically diverse population lives in the south, with densities ranging from 54 persons per square kilometers in the Logone River basin to 0.1 persons in the northern B.E.T. desert region, which is larger than France. The capital city of [[N'Djaména]], situated at the confluence of the [[Chari River|Chari]] and [[Logone River]]s, is cosmopolitan in nature, with a current population in excess of 700,000 persons.
Chad has four bioclimatic zones. The northernmost Saharan zone averages less than 200 mm (8 inches) of rainfall annually. The sparse human population is largely nomadic, with some livestock, mostly small ruminants and camels. The central Sahelian zone receives between 200 and 600 mm (24 inches) rainfall and has vegetation ranging from grass/shrub [[steppe]] to thorny, open savanna. The southern zone, often referred to as the Sudanian zone, receives between 600 and 1,000 mm (39 inches), with woodland [[savanna]] and deciduous forests for vegetation. Rainfall in the Guinea zone, located in Chad's southwestern tip, ranges between 1,000 and 1,200 mm (47 inches).
The country's topography is generally flat, with the elevation gradually rising as one moves north and east away from [[Lake Chad]]. The highest point in Chad is [[Emi Koussi]], a mountain that rises 3,100 meters (10,200 ft.) in the northern [[Tibesti Mountains]]. The [[Ennedi Plateau]] and the [[Ouaddaï highlands]] in the east complete the image of a gradually sloping basin, which descends towards Lake Chad. There are also central highlands in the Guera region rising to 1,500 meters (4,900 ft.).
[[Lake Chad]] is the second-largest lake in west Africa and is one of the most important wetlands on the continent. Home to 120 species of fish and at least that many species of birds, the lake has shrunk dramatically in the last four decades due to the |
ar on long-range trunk routes, such as transoceanic flights and the [[Kangaroo route]]s between Europe and Oceania. The largest fleet of 747s today belongs to [[Japan Airlines]], at approximately 73 (series -200s, -300s and 44 -400s). [[British Airways]] has the largest fleet of 747-400s at 57.
===Future of the 747 ===
Many different stretching schemes for the 747 have been proposed, but the only design to be adopted is 2005's [[747-8]].
The 747-X program was launched in 1996 as Boeing's response to the [[Airbus]] [[Airbus A380|A3XX]] proposal. The 747-X would have consisted of the 747-500X and 747-600X, seating up to 800 passengers. General Electric and P&amp;W formed the [[Engine Alliance]] and designed the [[Engine Alliance GP7200|GP7200]] turbofan to power the stretched 747. Airlines, however, would have preferred Boeing to develop an all-new design instead of an updated 747, and the plan was dropped after a few months.
After the [[Airbus A380]] was formally launched in 2000, Boeing reexamined its 747-X studies but instead devoted its energies to the [[Boeing Sonic Cruiser|Sonic Cruiser]], and then later on the [[Boeing 787|787]] after the Sonic Cruiser program was put on hold for an undefined period. Some of the ideas developed for the 747-X were, however, used in the production of the 747-400ER.
In early 2004, Boeing rolled out tentative plans for what it called the '''747 Advanced'''. Similar in nature to the 747-X plans, the stretched 747 Advanced uses advanced technology from the [[Boeing 787|787]] to modernize the design and its systems. On [[November 14]] [[2005]], Boeing announced it was launching the 747 Advanced as the [[747-8]]. [http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2005/q4/nr_051114h.html]
Eventually, the 747 (in all forms) will be replaced by a clean-sheet aircraft dubbed "[[Boeing Y3|Y3]]".
==Variants==
The 747 exists as several models:
===747-100===
[[Image:Pan_Am_747_LAX.jpg|thumb|right|250px|747-100 in livery of launch customer Pan Am]]
The first model of the jet, the '''747-100''', rolled out of the new Everett facility on [[2 September]] 1968. The prototype, named "City of Everett", first flew on [[February 9]] [[1969]], and on [[January 1]] [[1970]] the 747-100 entered service with launch customer [[Pan American World Airways]]. It was later replaced by the '''747-100B''', a very similar aircraft with a stronger airframe and [[undercarriage]] design. The basic 100 has a range of about 4,500 miles (7,200 km) with full load. The US military designation for 747-100 is [[C-19]].
The very first 747-100s off the line were built with three upper-deck windows to accommodate upstairs lounge areas. A little later, as airlines began to use the upper-deck for premium passenger seating instead of lounge space, Boeing offered a ten window upper deck as an option, and it quickly became the standard. Some 100s were even retrofitted with the new configuration.
Some 747-100 aircraft were converted into freighters and designated '''747-100SF'''.
===747SR===
Boeing developed the '''747SR''' as a 'Short Range' variant of the -100. The SR has a lower fuel capacity, but can carry more passengers--up to 498 passengers in early versions and more than 550 passengers in later models. The 747SR has a modified body structure to accommodate a greater number of take-offs and landings. Later on, short range versions were developed also of the -100B and the -300. The SR aircraft are primarily used on domestic flights in [[Japan]].
A few 747-100B/SRs were delivered to [[Japan Airlines]] (JAL) with a stretched upper deck to accommodate more passengers. This is known as the "SUD" (stretched upper deck) modification.
Currently [[ANA|All Nippon Airlines]] (ANA) is operating 747SR on domestic Japanese routes with 455-456 seats but will retire the aircraft on [[10 March]] [[2006]]. JAL operates its 747-100B/SR/SUD aircraft with 563 seats on domestic routes and has not announced plans for retirement. JAL and [[JALways]] have also been operating the -300SRs on leisure routes domestically as well as to other parts of [[Asia]] and [[Australia]].
One ex-JAL '''747SR-46''', registered N911NA, is currently being operated by [[NASA]] as a [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft|Space Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]]. (It joined an ex-[[American Airlines]] '''747-123''' in 1988 due to a recommendation from the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Challenger]] [[Rogers Commission Report|inquiry board]] to have two SCAs, and the aircraft first carried a shuttle in 1991.)
===747-200===
Introduced in 1971, and further improved over successive years, the '''747-200''' had more powerful engines and higher takeoff weights than the -100, allowing it to fly further. A few early build -200s retained the three window configuration of the -100, but most were built with a ten window configuration. As on the -100, a stretched upper deck modification was offered much later. [[KLM]] remains the only airline to retrofit their -200s with the SUD option. The last models of the 200, the 200B, built in the late 1980s, have a full load range of about 6,700 miles (10,800 km). The US military designation for 747-200B is [[C-25]]. The USAF only operates two [[C-25]], in VIP configuration ([[VC-25A]]). These two aircraft, tail numbers 28000 and 29000 are better known as [[Air Force One]] when the [[President of the United States]] is onboard.
The '''747-200C Convertible''' and '''747-200F Freighter''' variants were designed to carry [[air freight]]. The 747-200F is a pure freighter, while the 747-200C is a "convertible" aircraft that can carry either passengers or freight. A sub-variant is unofficially called the '''747-200M''' and is a "combi" aircraft that can carry both at the same time. Like the 100, many 200s have been given a new lease on life as freight aircraft.
The '''747-200B''' is an improved version of the 747-200, with increased fuel capacity and more powerful engines. It comes in a combi version as well.
===747SP===
[[Image:SOFIA.jpg|thumb|right|250px|747SP refitted as the [[SOFIA]] astronomical observatory]]
The '''747SP''', or "Special Performance," was first delivered in 1976. The SP was largely a stop-gap model to compete with the [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] and [[Lockheed L-1011]]. The 747 was simply too big for many routes, and Boeing did not have a mid-sized widebody to compete in the segment of the market that the DC-10 and L-1011 had created. Crippled by the huge costs it had incurred in developing both the 737 and 747 in the late 1960s, Boeing could not afford to develop an all-new design, so instead it shortened the 747 and re-optimized it for speed and range at the expense of capacity.
Apart from having a shorter fuselage, the 747SP differs from other 747 variants in having a larger tail surface and larger single-piece [[flap (aircraft)|flaps]] on the [[trailing edge]]s (other 747s use triple flaps). The SP could typically only accommodate 220 passengers in a 3-class cabin, but could fly over 6,500 miles (10,500 km) at speeds of up to 610 [[Miles per hour|mph]] (980 km/h). Some airline insiders call it the "74 Short" or "Baby Jumbo" because of its shortened fuselage, and stubby appearance. Originally designated '''747SB''' (standing for Short Body), by Boeing, the airlines had Boeing change the production designation to 747SP.
The 747SP was the longest-range airliner available until the [[Airbus A340]], and found its way into the fleets of [[American Airlines]], [[Qantas]], and [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]], airlines that needed its range for trans-South Pacific routes (American later used its 747SPs for services to [[Tokyo]]). Pan Am also used their 747SPs on their trans-pacific flights to and from Hong Kong. Prior to the 1979 Islamic revolution, [[Iran Air]] used the type on their daily Tehran-New York flight, at the time the longest non-stop airline route in the world. The 747SP was also used [[South African Airways]] on flights from [[Johannesburg]] to [[London]], during the [[Apartheid]] years, when that airline's aircraft were not allowed to fly over African countries and had to fly around the Bulge of Africa. The extra range allowed aircraft to cover the additional distance. With [[seven]] of these jets, [[South African Airways|SAA]] had the largest fleet of 747SP's in the world at the time.
For all its technical achievements, the SP never sold as well as Boeing hoped. Only 45 were ever built and most that are still in service are used by operators in the [[Middle East]].
One special 747SP is the [[SOFIA]] astronomical observatory, where the airframe was modified to carry a 2.5-meter-diameter [[infrared]] [[reflecting telescope]] to high-altitude, the limit to which infrared penetrates the atmosphere. Originally delivered to Pan Am and titled "Clipper Lindbergh", [[NASA]] has displayed the name in Pan Am script on the plane. It will fly again in late 2005.
The 747SP was originally intended to be known as the 747SB (the SB logically standing for "Short Body", before it was nicknamed "Sutter's Balloon" by Boeing employees, being named after 747 chief engineer Joe Sutter). Eventually the name "Special Performance" was used instead.
===747-300===
[[image:pia.b747.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Pakistan International]] (PIA) Boeing 747-300 landing at [[London Heathrow Airport]].]]
The first incarnation of the 747-300 would have been a trijet version of the 747SP, intended to compete with the [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10|DC-10]] and [[Lockheed L-1011|L-1011 TriStar]]. This plan was scrapped due to insufficient demand.
The '''747-300''' name was revived for a new aircraft, which was introduced in 1980, and was the first 747 model to feature a "stretched upper deck," which increased its capacity over earlier models. Combi ('''747-300M''') and short range ('''747-300SR''') models (m |
lgebra]] ''A'' of linear operators on a [[complex number|complex]] [[Hilbert space]] with two additional properties:
* ''A'' is a topologically [[closed set]] in the [[norm topology]] of operators.
* ''A'' is closed under the operation taking [[adjoint of an operator|adjoint]]s of operators.
It is generally believed that C*-algebras were first considered primarily for their use in [[quantum mechanics]] to [[model_(abstract)|model]] algebras of physical [[observable]]s. This line of research began in an extremely rudimentary form with [[Werner Heisenberg]]'s [[matrix mechanics]] and in a more mathematically developed form with [[Pascual Jordan]] around [[1933]]. Subsequently [[John von Neumann]] attempted to establish a general framework for these algebras which culminated in a series of papers on rings of operators. These papers considered a special class of C*-algebras which are now known as [[von Neumann algebra]]s.
Around [[1943]], the work of [[Israel Gelfand]], [[Mark Naimark]] and [[Irving Segal]] yielded an abstract characterisation of C*-algebras making no reference to operators.
C*-algebras are now an important tool in the theory of unitary representations of locally compact groups, and are also used in algebraic formulations of quantum mechanics.
== Abstract characterization ==
We begin with the abstract characterization of C*-algebras given in the 1943 paper by Gel'fand and Naimark.
A C*-algebra ''A'' is a [[Banach algebra]] over the field of [[complex number|complex numbers]], together with a map * : ''A'' &rarr; ''A'' called [[involution]]. The image of an element ''x'' of ''A'' under involution is written ''x''*. Involution has the following properties:
* For all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A'':
::<math> (x + y)^* = x^* + y^* \quad </math>
::<math> (x y)^* = y^* x^*. \quad </math>
* For every &lambda; in '''C''' and every ''x'' in ''A'':
::<math> (\lambda x)^* = \overline{\lambda} x^*. </math>
* For all ''x'' in ''A''
::<math> (x^*)^* = x. \quad </math>
* The '''C* condition''' holds for all ''x'' in ''A'':
::<math> \|x x^* \| = \|x\|^2. </math>
Any C*-algebra is automatically a [[B-star-algebra|'''B*-algebra''']], since
the C* condition implies that
::<math> \|x \| = \|x^*\| </math>
for all ''x'' in ''A''. However, not every B*-algebra is a C*-algebra.
A [[bounded linear map]] &pi; : ''A'' &rarr; ''B'' between B*-algebras ''A'' and ''B'' is called a '''*-homomorphism''' if
* For ''x'' and ''y'' in ''A''
::<math> \pi(x y) = \pi(x) \pi(y). \quad </math>
* For ''x'' in ''A''
::<math> \pi(x^*) = \pi(x)^*. \quad </math>
In the case of C*-algebras, the boundedness condition is superfluous. In fact, any *-homomorphism between C*-algebras is [[contraction mapping|contractive]]. If &pi; is [[bijective]], then its inverse is also a *-homomorphism and &pi; is called a '''*-isomorphism''' and ''A'' and ''B'' are said to be '''*-isomorphic'''.
== Examples ==
=== Finite-dimensional C*-algebras ===
The algebra M<sub>n</sub>('''C''') of ''n''-by-''n'' [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] over '''C''' becomes a C*-algebra if we consider matrices as operators on the Euclidean space '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup> and use the operator norm ||.|| on matrices. The involution is given by the [[conjugate transpose]]. More generally, one can consider finite [[direct sum]]s of matrix algebras.
'''Theorem'''. A finite-dimensional C*-algebra ''A'' is [[canonical]]ly isomorphic to a finite direct sum
:<math> A = \bigoplus_{e \in \min A } A e</math>
where min ''A'' is the set of minimal nonzero self-adjoint central projections of ''A''. Each C*-algebra ''Ae'' is isomorphic (in a noncanonical way) to the full matrix algebra M<sub>dim(e)</sub>('''C'''). The
finite family indexed on min ''A'' given by {dim(e)}<sub>e</sub>
is called the ''dimension vector'' of ''A''. This vector uniquely determines the isomorphism class of a finite-dimensional C*-algebra.
===C*-algebras of operators ===
The prototypical example of a C*-algebra is the algebra ''L(H)'' of continuous [[linear operator]]s defined on a complex [[Hilbert space]] ''H''; here ''x''* denotes the [[adjoint operator]] of the operator ''x'' : ''H'' &rarr; ''H''. In fact, every C*-algebra ''A'' is *-isomorphic to a norm-closed adjoint closed subalgebra of ''L(H)'' for a suitable Hilbert space ''H''; this is the content of the [[Gelfand–Naimark theorem]].
=== Commutative C*-algebras ===
Let ''X'' be a [[locally compact]] Hausdorff space. The space C<sub>0</sub>(''X'') of complex-valued continuous functions on ''X'' that ''vanish at infinity'' (defined in the article on [[locally compact|local compactness]]) form a commutative C*-algebra C<sub>0</sub>(''X'') under pointwise multiplication and addition. The involution is pointwise conjugation. C<sub>0</sub>(''X'') has a multiplicative unit element iff ''X'' is compact. As does any C*-algebra, C<sub>0</sub>(''X'') has an [[approximate identity]].
In the case of C<sub>0</sub>(''X'') this is immediate: consider the directed set of compact subsets of ''X'', and for each compact ''K'' let ''f<sub>K</sub>'' be a function of compact support which is identically 1 on ''K''. Such functions exist by the [[Tietze-Urysohn theorem]] which applies to locally compact Hausdorff spaces. ''{f<sub>K</sub>}<sub>K</sub>'' is an approximate identity.
The [[Gelfand representation]] states that every commutative C*-algebra is *-isomorphic to the algebra C<sub>0</sub>(''X''), where ''X'' is the space of [[Character (mathematics)|characters]] equipped with the [[Weak topology|weak* topology]]. Furthermore if C<sub>0</sub>(''X'') is [[isomorphism|isomorphic]] to C<sub>0</sub>(''Y'') as C*-algebras, it follows that ''X'' and ''Y'' are [[homeomorphism|homeomorphic]]. This characterization is one of the motivations for the [[noncommutative topology]] and [[noncommutative geometry]] programs.
=== The C*-algebra of compact operators ===
Let ''H'' be a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. The algebra ''K''(''H'') of [[compact operator]]s on ''H'' is a [[norm closed]] subalgebra of ''L''(''H''). It is also closed under involution; hence it is a C*-algebra.
Though ''K''(''H'') does not have an identity element; an [[approximate identity]] for ''K''(''H'') can be easily displayed. To be specific, ''H'' is isomorphic to the space of square summable sequences ''l''<sup>2</sup>; we may assume that
:<math> H = \ell^2. \quad </math>
For each natural number ''n'' let ''H''<sub>''n''</sub> be the subspace of sequences of ''l''<sup>2</sup> which vanish for indices
:<math> k \geq n </math>
and let
:<math> e_n \quad </math>
be the orthogonal projection onto ''H''<sub>''n''</sub>. The sequence {''e''<sub>''n''</sub>}<sub>''n''</sub> is an approximate identity for ''K''(''H'').
The [[quotient]] of ''L''(''H'') by ''K''(''H'') is the [[Calkin algebra]].
=== C*-enveloping algebra ===
Given a B*-algebra ''A'' with an [[approximate identity]], there is a unique (up to C*-isomorphism) C*-algebra '''E'''(''A'') and *-morphism &pi; from ''A'' into '''E'''(''A'') which is [[universal object|universal]], that is every other B*-morphism &pi;': ''A'' &rarr; ''B'' factors uniquely through &pi;. '''E'''(''A'') is called the [[C*-enveloping algebra]] of the B*-algebra ''A''.
Of particular importance is the C*-algebra of a [[locally compact group]] ''G''. This is defined as the enveloping C*-algebra enveloping algebra of the [[group algebra]] of ''G''. The C*-algebra of ''G'' provides context for general [[harmonic analysis]] of ''G'' in the case ''G'' is non-abelian. In particular, the dual of locally compact group is defined to the primitive ideal space of the group C*-algebra. See [[spectrum of a C*-algebra]].
=== von Neumann algebras ===
[[W-star-algebra|von Neumann algebras]], known as W* algebras before the 1960s, are a special kind of C*-algebra. They are required to be closed in a topology which is weaker than the norm topology. Their study is a specialized area of functional analysis in itself.
== C*-algebras and quantum field theory ==
In [[quantum field theory]], one typically describes a physical system with a C*-algebra ''A'' with unit element; the self-adjoint elements of ''A'' (elements ''x'' with ''x''* = ''x'') are thought of as the ''observables'', the measurable quantities, of the system. A ''state'' of the system is defined as a positive functional on ''A'' (a '''C'''-linear map &phi; : ''A'' &rarr; '''C''' with &phi;(''u'' ''u''*) > 0 for all ''u''&isin;''A'') such that &phi;(1) = 1. The expected value of the observable ''x'', if the system is in state &phi;, is then &phi;(''x'').
See [[Local quantum physics]].
== Properties of C*-algebras ==
C*-algebras have a large number of properties which are technically convenient. These properties can be established by use the [[continuous functional calculus]] or by reduction to commutative C*-algebras. In the latter case, we can use the fact that the structure of these is completely determined by the [[Gelfand isomorphism]].
* Any *-morphism between C*-algebras has norm &le; 1.
* An [[injective]] *-morphism between C*-algebras is [[isometry|isometric]].
* The algebraic [[quotient]] of a C*-algebra by a closed proper two-sided [[ideal]] is a C*-algebra in a unique way.
* The set of elements of a C*-algebra ''A'' of the form ''x''*''x'' forms a closed [[convex cone]]. This cone is identical to the elements of the form ''x'' ''x''*. Elements of this cone are called ''n |
888, Ford supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had a single child: [[Edsel Bryant Ford]] (1893-1943).
[[Image:Henry Ford - Quadricycle, 1905.jpg|thumb|150px|Henry Ford in the Quadricycle, 1905]]
In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the [[Edison Illuminating Company]], and after his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on gasoline engines. These experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of his own self-propelled vehicle named the [[Quadricycle]], which he test-drove on [[June 4]] of that year. After various test-drives, Henry Ford brainstormed ways to improve the Quadricycle.
==Detroit Automobile Company==
After this initial success, Ford came to Edison Illuminating in 1899 and, with other investors, formed the [[Detroit Automobile Company]]. The Detroit Automobile Company went bankrupt soon afterward because Ford continued to improve the design, instead of selling cars. Ford raced his vehicles against those of other manufacturers to show the superiority of his designs. With his interest in race cars, he formed a second company, the [[Henry Ford Company]]. During this period, he personally drove his Quadricycle to victory in a race against [[Alexander Winton]], a well-known driver and the heavy favorite on October 10, 1901. Ford was forced out of the company by the investors, including [[Henry M. Leland]] in 1902, and the company was reorganized as [[Cadillac (automobile)|Cadillac]].
== Ford Motor Company ==
Henry Ford, with eleven other investors and $28,000 in capital, incorporated the [[Ford Motor Company]] in 1903. In a newly-designed car, Ford drove an exhibition in which the car covered the distance of a mile on the ice of Lake St. Clair in 39.4 seconds, which was a new [[land speed record]]. Convinced by this success, the famous race driver [[Barney Oldfield]], who named this new Ford model "999" in honor of a racing locomotive of the day, took the car around the country and thereby made the Ford brand known throughout the United States. Henry Ford was also one of the early backers of the [[Indianapolis 500]]. Henry Ford shocked his fellow capitalists by more than doubling the daily wage of most of his workers in 1914, eleven years after he established his first automobile factory. He knew what he was doing. The buying power of his workers was increased, and their raised consumption stimulated buying elsewhere. Ford called it 'wage motive.'
=== The Model T ===
[[Image:Model T Ford, 1913.jpg|thumb|250px|Model T Ford, 1913 (being used for fishing)]]
In 1908, the Ford company released the [[Ford Model T|Model T]] designed by the [[Hungary|Hungarian]], [[Jozsef Galamb]]. From 1909 to 1913, Ford entered stripped-down Model Ts in races, finishing first (although later disqualified) in an "ocean-to-ocean" (across the [[United States|USA]]) race in 1909, and setting a one-mile oval speed record at Detroit Fairgrounds in 1911 with driver Frank Kulick. In 1913, Ford attempted to enter a reworked Model T in the Indianapolis 500, but was told rules required the addition of another 1,000 pounds (450 kg) to the car before it could qualify. Ford dropped out of the race, and soon thereafter dropped out of racing permanently, citing dissatisfaction with the sport's rules and the demands on his time by the now-booming production of the Model Ts.
Racing was, by 1913, no longer necessary from a publicity standpoint because the Model T was already famous and ubiquitous on American roads. It was in this year that Henry Ford introduced the moving assembly belts into his plants, which enabled an enormous increase in production. Although Ford is often credited with the idea, contemporary sources indicate that the concept and its development came from employees Clarence Avery, [[Peter E. Martin]], [[Charles E. Sorensen]], and C.H. Wills. (See [[Piquette Plant]])
[[Image:Ford assembly line - 1913.jpg|thumb|150px|Ford Assembly Line, 1913]]
By 1918, half of all cars in [[United States|America]] were Model Ts. The design, fervently promoted and defended by Henry Ford, would continue through 1927 (well after its popularity had faded), with a final total production of fifteen million vehicles. This was a record which would stand for the next 45 years. Ford is rumored to have said, "Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black," though the story is probably apocryphal.{{ref|Black}} Until the development of the assembly line which mandated black because of its quicker drying time, Model T's were available in other colors including red.
On [[January 1]], [[1919]], after unsuccessfully seeking a seat in the [[United States Senate]],{{ref|Senate}} Henry Ford turned the presidency of Ford Motor Company over to his son [[Edsel Ford|Edsel]], although still maintaining a firm hand in its management&mdash; few company decisions under Edsel's presidency were made without approval by Henry, and those few that were, Henry often reversed. Also at this time, Henry and Edsel purchased all remaining stock from other investors, thus becoming sole owners of the company. (The company remained privately held by the family until 1956, when the family allowed a public offering of a portion of the company without ceding control.)
By the mid 1920's, sales of the Model T began to decline due to rising competition. Other auto makers offered payment plans through which consumers could buy their cars, which usually included more modern mechanical features and styling not available with the Model T. Despite urgings from Edsel, Henry steadfastly refused to incorporate new features into the Model T or to form a customer credit plan.
The Model T's key to success was the fact that it had been made in the assembly line, which allowed for many different cars to be made consecutively, identically and much faster than other hand made vehicles. The cars sales triggered the modern era of vehicles. For the first time everyone could own a car, the downside was that every Model T produced after 1913, (the year the assembly line was created) was painted black because the paint dried a lot faster than any other color. The Model T was a very simple car, as simple as it could be made. But that's what made it unique. Henry Ford's assembly line turned the Ford Motor Company into a giant (and eventually became a tool for every other industry). By 1928, there were about 30 million cars world wide. Half of these were Ford Model Ts.
=== The Model A and later ===
By 1926, flagging sales of the Model T convinced Henry of what Edsel had been suggesting for some time: a new model was necessary. The elder Ford pursued the project with a great deal of technical expertise in design of the engine, chassis, and other mechanical necessities, while leaving it to his son to develop the body design. Edsel also managed to prevail over his father's initial objections in the inclusion of a sliding-shift transmission. The result was the highly successful [[Ford Model A]], introduced December, 1927 and produced through 1931, with a total output of over four million automobiles. Subsequently, the company adopted an annual model change system similar to that in use by automakers today.
During the thirties, Ford also overcame his objection to finance companies, and the Ford-owned Universal Credit Company became a major car financing operation.
Henry Ford long had an interest in [[plastic]]s developed from agricultural products, especially [[soybean]]s. Soybean-based plastics were used in Ford automobiles throughout the 1930s in plastic parts such as car horns, in paint, etc. This project culminated in 1942, when, on [[January 13]], Ford patented an automobile made almost entirely of plastic, attached to a tubular welded frame. It weighed 30% less than a standard car of the same size, and was said to be able to withstand blows ten times greater than could steel. Furthermore, it ran on grain alcohol ([[ethanol]]) instead of gasoline. Unfortunately, the design never caught on.
===Death of Edsel===
On [[May 26]], [[1943]], Edsel Ford died, leaving a vacancy in the company presidency. Henry Ford advocated long-time associate [[Harry Bennett]] to take the spot. Edsel's widow Eleanor, who had inherited Edsel's voting stock, wanted her son [[Henry Ford II]] to take over the position. The issue was settled for a period when Henry himself, at the age of 79, took over the presidency personally. Henry Ford II was released from the Navy and became an executive vice president, while Harry Bennett had a seat on the board and was responsible for personnel, labor relations, and public relations.
The company saw hard times during the next two years, losing $10 million a month. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] considered a federal bailout for Ford Motor Company so that wartime production could continue. By 1945, Henry Ford's senility was quite evident, and his wife and daughter-in-law forced his resignation in favor of his grandson, Henry Ford II.
=== Ford's labor philosophy ===
Henry Ford had very specific thoughts on relations with his employees. On [[January 5]], [[1914]] Ford announced his five-dollar a day program. The program called for a reduction in length of the workday from 9 to 8 hours and a raise in minimum daily pay from $2.34 to $5 for qualifying workers. Ford labeled the increased compensation as profit sharing rather than wages. The wage was offered to men over the age of 22, who had worked at the company for 6 months or more, and, importantly, conducted their lives in a manner of which Ford approved. The company established a Sociological Department complete with 150 investigators and support staff in order to verify this last point. Even with these requirements, a large percentage of workers were able to qualify for the profit sharing.
In 1926, Ford instituted the five-day, forty-hour work-week, effectively |
ing a conversion cannot give you any more precise results than what you started with. While many of the conversion factors given in the tables below are exact, and others while not exact contain many significant digits, all the numbers you get after performing calculations on a calculator or with pencil and paper are not meaningful.
After using these conversion factors, ''be sure to round off the results appropriately.''
=== See also ===
*[[False precision]]
*[[Accuracy and precision]]
*[[Significant figures]]
==Tables of conversion factors ==
'''Key:'''<br>
≡ &mdash; definition<br>
= &mdash; exactly equal to<br>
≈ &mdash; approximately equal to<br>
(digits) &mdash; indicates the digits repeat infinitely
===Length===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Length]], l
|-----
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[metre]] ([[SI base unit]]) || m
| ≡ m
| = m
|-----
| [[fermi]] || fm
| ≡ 1.000×10<sup>-15</sup> m
| = 1.000×10<sup>-15</sup> m
|-----
| [[x unit]]; [[siegbahn]] || xu
|
| ≈ 1.0021×10<sup>-13</sup> m
|-----
| [[stigma]]; pm|| &nbsp;
| ≡ 1.000×10<sup>-12</sup> m
| ≡ 1.000×10<sup>-12</sup> m
|-----
| [[Bohr radius]] || a<sub>0</sub>; b
| ≡ [[fine structure constant|α]]/(4π[[Rydberg constant|''R''<sub>∞</sub>]])
| ≈ 5.291 772 083×10<sup>-11</sup> ± 19×10<sup>-20</sup> m
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of length]] || au
| ≡ a<sub>0</sub>
| ≈ 5.291 772 083×10<sup>-11</sup> ± 19×10<sup>-20</sup> m
|-----
| [[angstrom|ångström]] || Å
|
| ≡ 1.000×10<sup>-10</sup>m = 0.1 nm
|-----
| [[micrometre|micron]]|| µ, µm
|
| ≡ 1.000×10<sup>-6</sup>m
|-----
| [[twip]] || twp
| ≡ 1/1440 in
| ≈ 1.763 889×10<sup>-5</sup> m
|-----
| [[mil]]; thou || mil
| ≡ 1.000×10<sup>-3</sup> in
| = 2.54×10<sup>-5</sup> m
|-----
| mickey || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/200 in
| = 1.27×10<sup>-4</sup> m
|-----
| point ([[American Typefounders Association|ATA]]) || pt
| ≡ 0.013837 in
| = 0.351 459 8 mm
|-----
| point ([[PostScript]])|| pt
| ≡ 1/72 in
| ≈ 0.352 778 mm
|-----
| point (metric) || pt
| ≡ 3/8 mm
| = 0.375 mm
|-----
| point (Didot; European) || pt
|
| ≡ 0.376 065 mm
|-----
| line || ln
| ≡ 1/12 in
| ≈ 2.116 667 mm
|-----
| barley corn || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/3 in
| ≈ 8.466 667 mm
|-----
| finger || &nbsp;
| ≡ 7/8 in
| = 22.225 mm
|-----
| [[inch]] || in
| ≡ 1/36 yd
| = 25.4 mm
|-----
| calibre || cal
| ≡ 1 in
| = 25.4 mm
|-----
| stick || &nbsp;
| ≡ 2 in
| = 50.8 mm
|-----
| nail (cloth) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 2 ¼ in
| = 57.15 mm
|-----
| palm || &nbsp;
| ≡ 3 in
| = 76.2 mm
|-----
| hand || &nbsp;
| ≡ 4 in
| = 0.1016 m
|-----
| finger (cloth) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 4 ½ in
| = 0.1143 m
|-----
| span || &nbsp;
| ≡ 6 in
| = 0.1524 m
|-----
| link (Gunter's; Surveyor's) || lnk
| ≡ 1/100 ch
| = 0.201 168 m
|-----
| span (cloth) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 9 in
| = 0.2286 m
|-----
| quarter || &nbsp;
| ≡ ¼ yd
| = 0.2286 m
|-----
| link (Ramsden's; Engineer's) || lnk
| ≡ 1 ft
| = 0.3048 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] (Clarke's; Cape) || ft (Cla)
|
| ≈ 0.304 797 265 4 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] (Sear's) || ft (Sear)
|
| ≈ 0.304 799 47 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] (Indian) || ft Ind
|
| ≈ 0.304 799 514 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] (Benoît) || ft (Ben)
|
| ≈ 0.304 799 735 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || ft
| ≡ 12 in
| = 0.3048 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] (American; U.S. Survey) || ft (US)
| ≡ 1200/3937 m
| ≈ 0.304 800 610 m
|-----
| cubit || &nbsp;
| ≡ 18 in
| = 0.4572 m
|-----
| pace || &nbsp;
| ≡ 2.5 ft
| = 0.762 m
|-----
| [[yard]] || yd
| ≡ 3 ft
| = 0.9144 m
|-----
| ell || ell
| ≡ 45 in
| = 1.143 m
|-----
|rowspan="2"| [[fathom]] ||rowspan="2"| fm
| ≡ 6 ft
| = 1.8288 m
|-
| ≈ 1/1000 NM
| = 1.852 m
|-----
| [[rod (unit)|rod]]; pole; perch || rd
| ≡ 16 ½ ft
| = 5.0292 m
|-----
| rope || rope
| ≡ 20 ft
| = 6.096 m
|-----
| [[chain (unit)|chain]] ([[Edmund Gunter|Gunter]]'s; Surveyor's) || ch
| ≡ 66 ft
| = 20.1168 m
|-----
| [[chain]] ([[Jesse Ramsden|Ramsden]]'s<!--- Ramsden: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10280167&wwwflag=2&imagepos=6 Ramden: [http://aurora.rg.iupui.edu/~schadow/units/UCUM/ucum.html The Unified Code for Units of Measures] --->; Engineer's) || ch
| ≡ 100 ft
| = 30.48 m
|-----
| [[cable length]] (International) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/10 NM
| = 185.2 m
|-----
| cable length (Imperial) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 608 ft
| = 185.3184 m
|-----
| [[furlong]] || fur
| ≡ 660 ft
| = 201.168 m
|-----
| cable length (U.S.) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 720 ft
| = 219.456 m
|-----
| [[mile]] || mi
| ≡ 1760 yd = 5280 ft
| = 1609.344 m
|-----
| [[mile]] (U.S. Survey) || mi
| ≡ 5280 ft (US)
| = 5280×1200/3937 m ≈ 1609.347 219 m
|-----
| [[nautical mile]] || NM; nm
|
| ≡ 1852 m
|-----
| [[nautical mile]] (Admiralty) || NM (Adm); nm (Adm)
| ≡ 6080 ft
| = 1853.184 m
|-----
| [[geographical mile]] || mi
| ≡ 6082 ft
| = 1853.7936 m
|-----
| telegraph [[mile]] || mi
| ≡ 6087 ft
| = 1855.3176 m
|-----
| [[league (unit)|league]] || lea
| ≡ 3 mi
| = 4828.032 m
|-----
| nautical league || NL; nl
| ≡ 3 NM
| = 5556 m
|-----
| [[light second|light-second]] || &nbsp;
|
| ≡ 2.997 924 58×10<sup>8</sup> m
|-----
| [[light-minute]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 60 light-seconds
| = 1.798 754 748×10<sup>10</sup> m
|-----
| [[astronomical unit]] || AU
|
| = 149 597 870.691 ± 0.030 km
|-----
| spat || S
| ≡ 10<sup>12</sup> m
| = 1 Tm
|-----
| [[light-hour]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 60 light-minutes
| = 1.079 252 848 8×10<sup>12</sup> m
|-----
| [[light-day]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 24 light-hours
| = 2.590 206 837 12×10<sup>13</sup> m
|-----
| [[light year|light-year]] || l.y.
| ≡ ''c''<sub>0</sub>×86 400×365.25
| = 9.460 730 472 580 8×10<sup>15</sup> m
|-----
| [[parsec]] || pc
| ≈ 180×60×60/π AU<br>
≈ 206 264.806 25 AU<br>
= 3.261 563 776 9 ± 6×10<sup>-10</sup> light-years
| = 3.085 677 581 3×10<sup>16</sup> ± 6×10<sup>6</sup> m
|}
===Area===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Surface area|Area]], A
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[square metre]] (SI unit) || m²
| ≡ 1 m × 1 m
|
|-----
| [[barn (unit)|barn]] || b
|
| ≡ 10<sup>-28</sup> m²
|-----
| circular mil; circular thou || circ mil
| ≡ π/4 mil²
| ≈ 5.067 075×10<sup>-10</sup> m²
|-----
| square mil; square thou || sq mil
| ≡ 1 mil²
| = 6.4516×10<sup>-10</sup> m²
|-----
| circular [[inch]] || circ in
| ≡ π/4 in²
| ≈ 5.067 075×10<sup>-4</sup> m²
|-----
| [[square inch]] || sq in
| ≡ 1 in²
| = 6.4516×10<sup>-4</sup> m²
|-----
| board || bd
| ≡ 1 in × 1 ft
| = 7.741 92×10<sup>-3</sup> m²
|-----
| square link || sq lnk
| ≡ 1 lnk²
| = 4.046 856 422 4×10<sup>-2</sup> m²
|-----
| [[square foot]] || sq ft
| ≡ 1 ft²
| = 9.290 304×10<sup>-2</sup> m²
|-----
| [[square yard]] || sq yd
| ≡ 1 yd²
| = 0.836 127 36 m²
|-----
| cord || &nbsp;
| ≡ 192 bd
| = 1.486 448 64 m²
|-----
| boiler horsepower equivalent direct radiation || bhp EDR
| ≡ (1 ft²) (1 bhp) / (240 BTU<sub>IT</sub>/h)
| ≈ 12.958 174 m²
|-----
| square rod/pole/perch || sq rd
| ≡ 1 rd²
| = 25.292 852 64 m²
|-----
| [[are]] || a
|
| ≡ 100 m²
|-----
| square chain || sq ch
| ≡ 1 ch²
| = 404.685 642 24 m²
|-----
| [[dunam]] || &nbsp;
|
| ≡ 1000 m²
|-----
| rood || ro
| ≡ ¼ ac
| = 1011.714 105 6 m²
|-----
| [[acre]] || ac
| ≡ 10 sq ch = 4840 sq yd
| = 4046.856 422 4 m²
|-----
| [[hectare]] || ha
| ≡ 10 000 m²
| = 0.01 km²
|-----
| yardland || &nbsp;
| ≡ 30 ac
| = 1.214 056 926 72×10<sup>5</sup> m²
|-----
| [[hide (unit)|hide]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 100 ac<!-- Definition is "amount of land required to support one peasant family" -->
| = 4.046 856 422 4×10<sup>5</sup> m²
|-----
| [[square kilometre]] || km²
| ≡ 1 km²
| = 10<sup>6</sup> m²
|-----
| square [[mile]]; section || sq mi
| ≡ 1 mi²
| = 2.589 988 110 336×10<sup>6</sup> m²
|-----
| square U.S. Survey [[mile]] || sq mi
| ≡ 1 mi (US)²
| ≈ 2.589 998×10<sup>6</sup> m²
|-----
| [[survey township|township]] || &nbsp;
| ≡ 36 sq mi (US)
| ≈ 9.323 994×10<sup>7</sup> m²
|-----
| barony || &nbsp;
| ≡ 4000 ac
| = 1.618 742 568 96×10<sup>7</sup> m²
|}
===Volume===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Volume]], V
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[cubic metre]] (SI unit) || m³
| ≡ 1 m × 1 m × 1 m
|
|-----
| [[litre]] || L
|
| ≡ 1 dm³
|-----
| [[lambda (unit)|lambda]] || λ
| ≡ 1 mm³
| = 1 μL
|-----
| [[drop (unit)|drop]] (metric) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/20 mL
| = 0.05 mL
|-----
| [[minim (unit)|minim]] (Imperial) || min
| ≡ 1/480 fl oz (Imp) = 1/60 fl dr (Imp)
| ≈ 0.059 193 880 208 333 mL
|-----
| minim (U.S.) || min
| ≡ 1/480 US fl oz = 1/60 US fl dr
| = 0.061 611 519 921 875 mL
|-----
| drop (U.S.) (alt) || gtt
| ≡ 1/456 US fl oz
| ≈ 0.064 854 231 mL
|-----
| drop (Imperial) (alt) || gtt
| ≡ 1/1824 gi (Imp)
| ≈ 0.077 886 684 mL
|-----
| drop (U.S.) || gtt
| ≡ 1/360 US fl oz
| = 0.082 148 693 229 1(6) mL
|-----
| drop (medical) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/12 mL
| = 0.08(3) mL
|-----
| drop (Imperial) || gtt
| ≡ 1/288 fl oz (Imp)
| = 0.098 656 467 013 (8) mL
|-----
| dash (U.S.) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/96 US fl oz = ½ US pinch
| = 0.308 057 599 609 375 mL
|-----
| dash (Imperial) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/384 gi (Imp) = ½ pinch (Imp)
| = 0.369 961 751 302 08(3) mL
|-----
| pinch (U.S.) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/48 US fl oz = 1/8 US tsp ||= 0.616 115 199 218 75 mL
|-----
| pinch (Imperial) || &nbsp;
| ≡ 1/192 gi (Imp) = 1/8 tsp (Imp)
| = 0.739 |
ut of this table; if you want to add an item, do it this way..." or "Someone included this example here, but I think it's better on this other page, so I moved it there", and so on.
** Why permanent? What would be the point of that?
*** I mean "permanent" only in the sense of "saved with the rest of the text"--of course, it's just as editable as the rest of the text as well.
**Yes please! This is something that I've been wanting several times. --[[User:Pinkunicorn|Pinkunicorn]], [[User:Lee Daniel Crocker]]
* Anchors and internal links <code>[[like#this]]</code>.
** Anchors within a single page would be great, but inter-page anchors are probably not a good idea. One possible implementation could be: <code>[#foo] ... [$foo]</code>, where the hash is the reference and the dollar is the target. I'd really like to have that on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] page.
**Redirects to anchors would be wonderful! For example, there was disagreement on whether there should be a separate [[Anarchist]] page or whether it should redirect to [[Anarchism]]. Instead, we could redirect to <code>[[Anarchism#Anarchists]]</code>. The reader gets the proper information and full context, and the writers don't have to summarize [[Anarchism]] and [[Anarchist]] in each other for context.
** I second the request for anchors. Why not use the power of the medium some more, eh?--branko
** Ewww - do we have to use # for anchors? I would use it to begin lines for comments.
* InsertPagesIntoOtherPages
** Not likely to happen soon. Opens too many new issues for minimal gain. --CliffordAdams
** The KeheiWiki has an include functionality. If you ever wish to explore this let me know and I can give pointers. -- BryceHarrington
** I'm quite interested in having templates. -- TheCunctator
* Currently ISBNs appear in a page as: <nowiki>"ISBN 123456789X (Amazon, Pricescan)"</nowiki> and this is hard-coded into the wiki.pl script. The link to Barnes and Noble is not explicit in the displayed text. I'd like to see this changed as follows (not just for Wikipedia, but for vanilla UseMod as well):
:An ISBN link on a page simply appears as: <nowiki>"ISBN 123456789X"</nowiki>, and links to an external script, for example:
:href=/cgi-bin/isbn.pl?123456789X
:The isbn.pl script could present a standard page that looks roughly like this, where the vendor name itself links to the book's page on the vendor site:
:Some standard copy here, blah blah ....
:Amazon - blah blah ....
:Barnes and Noble - blah blah ....
:Pricescan - blah blah ...
:With the ISBN code decoupled from the main script, it's easier for a site to implement their own policy regarding book linkages without messing with the vanilla wiki script. UseModWiki upgrades would no longer impact vendor selection. Unlike the current version, all links are explicit and there is room to explain why those vendors were chosen (or why some were left out), and room for a brief description of the vendor. --[[User:Hornlo]]
* Misspelling redirects. It's useful for searchers and browsers to have misspelled entries which just redirect to the correct spelling, but we want to discourage misspellings in the actual entries, which simply using #REDIRECT doesn't do. Thus the nomenclature: <nowiki>#MISSPELLING_OF [[Correct spelling]]</nowiki> would allow us to mark any pages which link to a misspelling, and correct them. See also [[talk:Page titles to be deleted]]
Seconded! This would be a great feature to have. Common misspellings ought to be redirected to their correct entry, but I have severe doubts about whether it's a good idea to make redirects for them... ~[[user:Karen Johnson|KJ]] Mon 13 May 2002
:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 26</title>
<id>11141</id>
<revision>
<id>42109615</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:04:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.91.204.179</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=26}}
|}
'''February 26''' is the 57th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 308 days remaining, 309 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
*[[740s BC|747 BC]] - [[Epoch (reference date)|Epoch]] (origin) of [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Nabonassar]] Era.
*[[364]] - [[Valentinian I]] is proclaimed [[Roman Emperor]].
*[[1266]] - [[Battle of Benevento]]: An army led by [[Charles I of Sicily|Charles]], [[Count]] of [[Anjou]], defeats a combined [[Germany|German]] and [[Sicily|Sicilian]] force led by [[King]] [[Manfred of Sicily]]. [[Manfred]] is killed in the battle and [[Pope Clement IV]] invests [[Charles]] as [[king]] of [[Sicily]] and [[Naples]].
*[[1794]] - [[Christiansborg Castle]], [[Copenhagen]] burns down.
*[[1797]] - The [[Bank of England]] issues the first one-pound note.
*[[1815]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] escapes from [[Elba]].
*[[1848]] - The second [[French Republic]] is proclaimed.
*[[1863]] - [[U.S. President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]] signs the [[National Currency Act]] into law.
*[[1870]] - In [[New York City]], the first [[pneumatics|pneumatic]]-[[metro|subway]] opens.
*[[1887]] - At the [[Sydney Cricket Ground|SCG]], [[George Lohmann]] becomes the first [[bowler (cricket)|bowler]] to take eight wickets in a [[Test cricket|Test]] innings.
*[[1919]] - An act of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] establishes most of the [[Grand Canyon]] as a [[United States National Park]] (see [[Grand Canyon National Park]]).
*[[1929]] - The [[Grand Teton National Park]] is created.
*[[1935]] - The [[Luftwaffe]] is reformed.
*1935 - [[Robert Watson-Watt]] carried out a demonstration which led directly to the development of [[radar|RADAR]] in [[Britain]].
*[[1936]] - In the [[February 26 Incident]], young [[Japan]]ese military officers attempt to stage a [[coup]] against the [[government]].
*[[1944]] - Shooting begins of the [[Nazi]] propaganda film, "[[The Fuhrer Gives a Village to the Jews]]" in [[Concentration camp Theresienstadt|Theresienstadt]].
*[[1952]] - [[United Kingdom]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] announces that his nation has an [[atomic bomb]].
*[[1966]] - [[Apollo Program]]: Launch of [[AS-201]], the first flight of the [[Saturn IB]] rocket
*[[1970]] - [[National Public Radio]] incorporates as a [[non-profit organization|non-profit corporation]].
*[[1971]] - [[Secretary-General]] [[U Thant]] signs [[United Nations]] proclamation of the vernal equinox as [[Earth Day]].
*[[1972]] - [[Buffalo Creek Flood]] caused by a burst dam kills 125 in [[West Virginia]].
*[[1986]] - [[Robert Penn Warren]] is named ''[[poet laureate]]'' of the [[United States]].
*[[1987]] - [[Iran-Contra affair]]: The [[Tower Commission]] rebukes [[United States|American]] [[President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] for not controlling his national security staff.
*[[1990]] - The [[Sandinista]]s are defeated in [[Nicaragua]]n elections.
*[[1991]] - [[Tim Berners-Lee]] introduces [[WorldWideWeb]], the first [[web browser]].
*1991 - [[Gulf War]]: On [[Baghdad]] Radio [[Iraq]]i leader [[Saddam Hussein]] announces the withdrawal of [[Iraqi]] troops from [[Kuwait]].
*[[1993]] - [[World Trade Center bombing]]: In [[New York City]], a truck bomb parked below the [[North Tower]] of the [[World Trade Center]] goes off, killing 6 and injuring over a thousand. The buildings would be destroyed in a [[September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks|subsequent attack on September 11, 2001]].
*[[1995]] - The [[United Kingdom]]'s oldest investment banking firm, [[Barings Bank]] collapses after a securities broker, [[Nick Leeson]], loses $1.4 billion by speculating on the [[Singapore International Monetary Exchange]] using [[futures contract]]s.
*[[2001]] - The [[Taliban]] destroy two giant [[Buddhas of Bamiyan|Buddha statues]] in [[Bamiyan]], [[Afghanistan]].
*[[2004]] - The [[United States]] lifts a ban on travel to [[Libya]], ending travel restrictions to the nation that had lasted for 23 years.
*2004 - [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonian]] [[President]] [[Boris Trajkovski]] is killed in a plane crash near [[Mostar]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].
*[[2005]] - [[Hosni Mubarak]] the president of [[Egypt]] orders the [[constitution]] changed to allow multi-candidate [[presidential elections]] before [[September]] [[2005]] by asking [[Egyptian]] [[parliament]] to amend [[Article 76]] of the [[constitution]].
* [[2006]] - The [[2006 Olympic Winter Games]] offically closed in [[Turin]], [[Italy]].
==Births==
*[[1361]] - [[Wenceslaus, Holy Roman Emperor]], King of Bohemia (d. [[1419]])
*[[1564]] - [[Christopher Marlowe]], English dramatist (d. [[1593]])
*[[1587]] - [[Stefano Landi]], Italian composer (d. [[1639]])
*[[1671]] - [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury]], English politician and philosopher (d. [[1713]])
*[[1672]] - [[Antoine Augustine Calmet]], French theologian (d. [[1757]])
*[[1714]] - [[James Hervey]], English clergyman and writer (d. [[1758]])
*[[1715]] - [[Claude Adrien Helvétius]], French philosopher (d. [[1771]])
*[[1720]] - [[Gian Francesco Albani]], Italian Catholic cardinal (d. [[1803]])
*[[1786]] - [[François Arago]], French mathematician (d. [[1853]])
*[[1799]] - [[Émile Clapeyron]], French engineer and physicist (d. [[1864]])
*[[1802]] - [[Victor Hugo]], French writer (d. [[1885]])
*[[1808]] - [[Honoré Daumier]], French painter, illustrator, and sculptor (d. [[1879]])
*[[1814]] - [[Charles Joseph Sainte-Claire Deville]], French geologist (d. [[1876]])
*[[1829]] - [[Levi Strauss]], German-born clothing designer (d. [[1902]])
*[[1846]] - [[Buffalo Bill]], American pioneer, officer, and hunter (d. [[1917]])
*[[1857]] - [[Émile Coué]], French psychologist (d. [[1926]])
*[[1861]] - King [[Fe |
ith [[corporate law]].
==Marriage and children==
Meanwhile he had become engaged to Eleanor, despite the fierce resistance of Sara Delano Roosevelt, who was terrified of losing control of Franklin. They were married on [[March 17]], [[1905]], and moved into a house bought for them by Sara, who became a frequent house-guest, much to Eleanor's mortification. Eleanor was painfully shy and hated social life, and at first she desired nothing more than to stay at home and raise Franklin's children, of which they had six in rapid succession:
*[[Anna E. Roosevelt|Anna Eleanor]] (1906&ndash;1975).
*[[James Roosevelt|James]] (1907&ndash;1991).
*Franklin Delano, Jr. (March to November 1909).
*[[Elliott Roosevelt|Elliott]] (1910&ndash;1990),
*a second [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr.|Franklin Delano, Jr.]] (1914&ndash;1988),
*[[John Aspinwall Roosevelt|John Aspinwall]] (1916&ndash;1981).
The five surviving Roosevelt children all led tumultuous lives overshadowed by their famous parents. They had among them fifteen marriages, ten divorces and twenty-nine children. All four sons were officers in [[World War II]] and were decorated, on merit, for bravery. Their postwar careers, whether in business or politics, were disappointing. Two of them were elected briefly to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] but none attained higher office despite several attempts. One even became a Republican.
==Political career==
[[Image:Franklin Roosevelt Secretary of the Navy 1913.jpg|thumb|right|200px|FDR as Assistant Secretary for the Navy]]
In 1910 Roosevelt ran for the [[New York State Senate]] from the district around Hyde Park, which had not elected a Democrat since 1884. The Roosevelt name, Roosevelt money and the Democratic landslide that year carried him to the state capital [[Albany, New York|Albany]], where he became a leader of a group of reformers who opposed Manhattan's [[Tammany Hall]] machine which dominated the state Democratic Party. Roosevelt was young, tall, handsome, and well spoken, and soon became a popular figure among New York Democrats. When [[Woodrow Wilson]] was elected President in 1912, Roosevelt took the major position of Assistant Secretary of the Navy. In 1914 he ran for the Democratic nomination for the [[United States Senate]], but was handily defeated in the primary by Tammany Hall-backed [[James W. Gerard]].
Between 1913 and 1917 Roosevelt worked to expand the Navy (in the face of considerable opposition from pacifists in the administration such as the Secretary of State [[William Jennings Bryan]]), and founded the [[United States Navy Reserve]] to provide a pool of trained men who could be mobilized in wartime. Wilson sent the Navy and Marines to intervene in [[Central America]]n and [[Caribbean]] countries. Roosevelt personally wrote the constitution which the U.S. imposed on [[Haiti]] in 1915. When the U.S. entered [[World War I]] in April 1917, Roosevelt became the effective administrative head of the [[United States Navy]], since the [[Secretary of the Navy]], [[Josephus Daniels]], had been appointed mainly for political reasons and handled symbolic duties.
Roosevelt developed a life-long affection for the Navy. He showed great administrative talent, and quickly learned to negotiate with Congressional leaders and other government departments to get budgets approved and achieve a rapid expansion of the Navy. He became an enthusiastic advocate of the [[submarine]], and also of means to combat the German submarine menace to Allied shipping: he proposed building a mine barrage across the [[North Sea]] from [[Norway]] to [[Scotland]]. In 1918 he visited Britain and France to inspect American naval facilities &mdash; during this visit he met [[Winston Churchill]] for the first time. With the end of the war in November 1918, he was in charge of [[demobilization]], although he opposed plans to completely dismantle the Navy.
The 1920 [[Democratic National Convention]] chose Roosevelt as the candidate for [[Vice-President of the United States]] on the ticket headed by Governor [[James M. Cox]] of Ohio. Republican opponents denounced eight years of Democratic "mismanagement" and called for a "[[Return to Normalcy]]." The Cox-Roosevelt ticket was heavily defeated by Republican [[Warren Harding]]. Roosevelt then retired to a New York legal practice, but few doubted that he would soon run for public office again.
==Private crisis==
[[Image:FDR Wheel Chair.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Statue of FDR in his wheelchair at the [[FDR Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
Roosevelt was a charismatic, handsome and socially active man, while his wife Eleanor was shy and retiring, and furthermore was almost constantly pregnant during the decade after 1906. Roosevelt soon found romantic outlets outside his marriage. One of these was Eleanor's social secretary [[Lucy Mercer]], with whom Roosevelt began an affair soon after she was hired in early 1914. In September 1918, Eleanor found letters in Franklin's luggage which revealed the affair. Eleanor was both mortified and angry, and confronted him with the letters, demanding a divorce. Franklin's mother Sara Roosevelt soon learned of the crisis, and decisively intervened. She argued that a divorce would ruin Roosevelt's political career, and pointed out that Eleanor would have to raise five children on her own if she divorced him. Since Sara was financially supporting the Roosevelts, this was a strong incentive to preserve the marriage.
Eventually a deal was struck. The facade of the marriage would be preserved, but sexual relations would cease. Sara would pay for a separate home at Hyde Park for Eleanor, and she would also fund Eleanor's philanthropic interests. When Franklin became President&mdash;as Sara was always convinced he would&mdash;Eleanor would be able to use her position to support her causes. Eleanor accepted these terms, and in time Franklin and Eleanor developed a new relationship as friends and political colleagues, while living separate lives. Franklin continued to see various women, including his secretary [[Missy LeHand]].
In August 1921, while the Roosevelts were vacationing at [[Campobello Island, New Brunswick]], Roosevelt was stricken with [[poliomyelitis]], a [[viral infection]] of the [[nerve]] fibers of the [[spinal cord]], probably contracted while swimming in the stagnant water of a nearby lake. The result was that Roosevelt was totally and permanently paralyzed from the waist down. At first the muscles of his abdomen and lower back were also affected, but these eventually recovered. Thus he could sit up and, with aid of leg braces, stand upright, but he could not walk. Unlike in other forms of [[paraplegia]], his bowels, bladder and sexual functions were not affected.
Although the paralysis resulting from polio had no cure (and still does not, although the disease is now very rare in developed countries), for the rest of his life Roosevelt refused to accept that he was permanently paralyzed. He tried a wide range of therapies, but none had any effect. Nevertheless, he became convinced of the benefits of [[hydrotherapy]], and in 1926 he bought a resort at [[Warm Springs, Georgia]], where he founded a hydrotherapy center for the treatment of polio patients which still operates as the [[Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation]] (with an expanded mission), and spent a lot of time there in the 1920s. This was in part to escape from his mother, who tried to resume control of his life following his illness.
At a time when media intrusion in the private lives of public figures was much less intense than it is today, Roosevelt was able to convince many people that he was in fact getting better, which he believed was essential if he was to run for public office again. (The [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], for example, says that "by careful exercises and treatments at Warm Springs he gradually recovered", although this is quite untrue.) Fitting his hips and legs with iron braces, he laboriously taught himself to walk a short distance by swiveling his torso while supporting himself with a cane. In private he used a wheelchair, but he was careful never to be seen in it in public, although he sometimes appeared on crutches. He usually appeared in public standing upright, while being supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons. For major speaking occasions an especially solid lectern was placed on the stage so that he could support himself from it; as a result if one watches documentary films of him speaking one can observe him using his head to make gestures because his hands were gripping the lectern. Despite his known dislike of being seen in a wheelchair, a statue of him in a wheelchair has been placed at the [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]
==Governor of New York, 1928-1932==
By 1928 Roosevelt believed he had recovered sufficiently to resume his political career. He had been careful to maintain his contacts in the Democratic Party. In 1924 he had attended the Democratic Convention and made a presidential nomination speech for the Governor of New York, [[Alfred E. Smith]]. Although Smith was not nominated, in 1928 he ran again, and Roosevelt again supported him. This time he became the Democratic candidate, and he urged Roosevelt to run for Governor of New York. To gain the Democratic nomination, Roosevelt had to make his peace with [[Tammany Hall]], which he did with some reluctance. At the November election, Smith was heavily defeated by the Republican [[Herbert Hoover]], but Roosevelt was elected Governor by a margin of 25,000 votes out of 2.2 million. As a native of upstate New York he was able to appeal to voters outside New York City in a way other Democrats could not.
Roosevelt came to office in 1929 as a reform Democrat, but with no overall plan for his administration. He tackled official corruption by |
the other. For example, an unconscious patient treated by a doctor at the scene of an accident has not agreed (either expressly or by implication) to pay the doctor for emergency services, but the patient would be unjustly enriched by the doctor's services were the patient not required to compensate the doctor.
==Incorporation of terms==
===Course of dealing===
If two parties have regularly conducted business on certain terms, it may be reasonable to presume that in future dealings where there is no contract, the parties wish to incorporate the terms of the previous contracts. However, if a party wishes to incorporate terms by course of dealing, the original document must have been contractual in nature, and delivery receipts may not fit this description. In Australia, there is a further requirement that the document was procured after formation.
==Express and implied terms==
===Different types of statements===
Whether a statement is a term of a contract is important because only if a promise is a term of the contract can a party sue for the breach of the contract. Statements can be split into the following types:
* '''Puff (sales talk):''' If no reasonable person hearing this statement would take it seriously, it is a puff, and no action in contract is available if the statement proves to be wrong.
* '''Representation:''' A representation is a statement of fact made to induce another person to enter into a contract and which does induce them to enter into a contract, but it is one that the maker of the statement does not guarantee its truth. If the statement proves to be incorrect, it cannot be enforced, as it is not a term of the contract, but it may prove to be a [[misrepresentation]], whereupon other remedies are available.
* '''Term:''' A term is similar to a representation, but the truth of the statement is guaranteed by the person who made the statement. The test is an objective test.
Factors that a court may take into account in determining the nature of a statement include:
* '''Timing:''' If the contract was concluded soon after the statement was made, this is a strong indication that the statement induced the person to enter into the contract.
* '''Content of statement:''' It is necessary to consider what was said in the given context, which has nothing to do with the importance of a statement.
* '''Knowledge and expertise:''' In ''Oscar Chess Ltd v. Williams'' [1957] 1 WLR 370, a person selling a car to a second-hand car dealer stated that it was a 1948 Morris, when in fact it was a 1939 model car. It was held that the statement did not become a term because a reasonable person in the position of the car dealer would not have thought that an inexperienced person would have guaranteed the truth of the statement.
===Terms implied in fact===
The Privy Council proposed a five stage test in ''BP Refinery Western Port v. Shire of Hastings'':
# '''Reasonableness and equitableness:''' The implied term must be reasonable and equitable.
# '''Business efficacy:''' The implied term must be necessary for the business efficacy of the contract. For instance, if the term simply causes the contract to operate better, that does not fit this criterion.
# '''Obviousness:''' The term is so obvious that it goes without saying. Furthermore, there must be one and only one thing that would be implied by the parties. For example, in ''Codelfa Construction Pty Ltd v. State Rail Authority of New South Wales'' (1982) 149 CLR 337, a term regarding the inability of construction company to work three shifts a day could not be implied because it was unclear what form it would have taken.
# '''Clear expression:''' The term must be capable of clear expression. No specific technical knowledge should be required.
# '''Consistency:''' The implied term may not contradict an express term.
In Australia, the High Court has ruled that the test in BP Refinery applies only to [[formal contract]]s, while the test in ''Byrne and Frew v. Australian Airlines Ltd'' (1995) 185 CLR 410 shall apply to [[informal contract]]s:
* '''Necessity:''' The term must be necessary to ensure ''reasonable'' or ''effective'' operation of a contract of the nature before the court.
* '''Consistency:''' The implied term may not contradict an express term (same as for formal contracts).
* '''Clear expression:''' The term must be capable of clear expression (same as for formal contracts).
* '''Obvious:''' McHugh and Gummow JJ have stated that it must also be obvious.
===Terms implied in law===
These are terms that have been implied into standardised relationships. The other difference between this and terms implied in fact is that the test is one of necessity (''Liverpool City Council v. Irwin'' [1976] 2 WLR 562); a necessary term is one where the contract is rendered worthless or nugatory if it is without it.
===Terms implied by custom or trade===
You are generally bound by the custom of the industry that you are in. To imply a term due to custom or trade, you must prove the existence of the custom, which must be notorious, certain, legal and reasonable (''Con-stan Industries of Australia Pty Ltd v. Norwich Winterthur Insurance (Australia) Ltd'' (1986) 160 CLR 226). See also ''Frigaliment Importing Co., Ltd., v. B.N.S. International Sales Corp.'', 190 F. Supp. 116 (S.D.N.Y. 1960) (plaintiff failed to prove what he meant by "chicken") and U.C.C. § 1-205.
==Agreements to negotiate==
It is common for lengthy negotiations to be written into a heads of agreement document that includes a clause to the effect that the rest of the agreement is to be negotiated. Although these cases may appear to fall into the category of agreement to agree, courts nowadays (at least in Australia) will imply an obligation to negotiate in [[good faith]] provided that certain conditions are satisfied (''Coal Cliff Collieries Pty Ltd v. Sijehama Pty Ltd'' (1991) 24 NSWLR 1):
* Negotiations were well-advanced and the large proportion of terms have been worked out; and
* There exists some mechanism to resolve disputes if the negotiations broke down.
The test of whether one has acted in good faith is a subjective one; the cases suggest honesty, and possibly also reasonably.
=="Subject to" contracts==
If a contract specifies "subject to contract", it may fall into one of three categories (''Masters v. Cameron'' (1954) 91 CLR 353):
# The parties are immediately bound to the bargain, but they intend to restate the deal in a formalised contract that will not have a different effect; or
# The parties have completely agreed to the terms, but have made the execution of some terms in the contract conditional on the creation of a formalised contract; or
# It is merely an agreement to agree, and the deal will not be concluded until the formalised contract has been drawn up.
If a contract specifies "subject to finance", it imposes obligations on the purchaser (''Meehan v. Jones'' (1982) 149 CLR 571):
* The purchaser must seek finance; and
* When offers of finance arrive, the purchaser must make a decision as to whether the offers of finance are suitable.
Once again, there is an element of good faith involved.
This may also refer to contingent conditions, which come under two categories: condition precedent and condition subsequent.
Conditions precedent are conditions that have to be complied with before performance of a contract.
With conditions subsequent, parties have to perform until the condition is not met.
Failure of a condition does not void the contract, it is just regarded as voidable.
==Statutory law applicable to contracts==
The rules by which many contracts are governed are provided in specialized statutes that deal with particular subjects. Most countries, for example, have statutes which deal directly with [[contract of sale|sale of goods]], [[lease]] transactions and [[trade practices]]. For example, most American states have adopted Article 2 of the [[Uniform Commercial Code]], which regulates contracts for the sale of goods.
There are also many acts around the world which deal with specific types of transactions and businesses. For example, the states of [[California]] and [[New York]] in the [[United States|U.S.]] have statutes that govern the provision of services to customers by health studios, and the UK has the Sale of Goods Act 1979 which governs the contracts between sellers and buyers.
==Remedies==
===Damages===
Typically, the remedy for [[breach of contract]] is an award of money [[damages]]. Courts usually adopt one of three ways of calculating the value of damages.
The most common is to assess the sum which would restore the injured party to the economic position that he or she expected from performance of the promise or promises (known as an "[[expectation measure]]" or "benefit-of-the-bargain" measure of damages).
When it is either not possible or desirable to award damages measured in that way, a court may award money damages designed to restore the injured party to the economic position that he or she had occupied at the time the contract was entered (known as the "reliance measure"), or designed to prevent the breaching party from being unjustly enriched ("[[restitution]]").
===Specific perfomance===
There may be circumstances in which it would be unjust to permit the defaulting party simply to buy out the injured party with damages. For example where an art collector purchases a rare painting and the vendor refuses to deliver, the collector's damages would be equal to the sum paid.
The court may make an order of what is called "[[specific performance]]", requiring that the contract be performed. In some circumstances a court will order a party to perform his or her promise (an order of "[[specific performance]]") or issue an order, known as an "injunction," that a party refrain from doing something that would breach the contract.
|
] for the [[Neo-fascism|neo-fascist]] alliance [[Alternativa Sociale]].
==References==
* ''The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution'', [[Zeev Sternhell]], with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri, trans. by David Maisel, Princeton University Press, NJ, 1994. pg 214.
* <I>Mussolini</I>, [[Renzo De Felice]], Torino : Einaudi, 1995.
* <I>Mussolini: A New Life</I>, Nicholas Farrell, London: Phoenix Press, 2003.
* <I>Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of <B>Il Duce</B>,</I> Ray Moseley, Dallas: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2004.
==Writings of Mussolini==
*''Giovanni Hus ([[Jan Hus]]), il verdico'' Rome (1913) Published in America under ''John Hus'' (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, l929) Republished by the Italian Book Co., NY (1939) under ''John Hus, the Veracious''.
*''The Cardinal's Mistress'' (trans. Hiram Motherwell, New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1928)
*There is an essay on "The Doctrine of Fascism" credited to Benito Mussolini that appeared in the 1932 edition of the [[Enciclopedia Italiana]], and excerpts can be read at [[Doctrine of Fascism]]. There are also links to the complete text.
* ''La Mia Vita'' ("My Life"), Mussolini's autobiography written upon request of the American Ambassador in Rome (Child). Mussolini, at first not interested, decided to dictate the story of his life to Armando Mussolini, his brother. The story covers the period up to 1929, includes Mussolini's personal thoughts on Italian Politics and the reasons that motivated his new revolutionary idea. It covers the march on Rome and the beginning of the dictatorship and includes some of his most famous speeches in the Italian Parliament (Oct 1924, Jan 1925).
==See also==
* [[Military history of Italy during World War II]]
* [[Revolutionary minded Italians of the inter-war period]]
* [[The Italian Economy under Fascism, 1922-1939]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Benito Mussolini}}
* [http://home.comcast.net/~lowe9101/mussolini/ Mussolini In Pictures]
* [http://www.comandosupremo.com/Mussolini.html Comando Supremo: Benito Mussolini]
* [http://www.snopes.com/history/govern/trains.htm Did Mussolini really make the trains run on time?]
* [http://www.phpsolvent.com/images/mussolini.jpg Photograph of Mussolini's corpse and article about the theft of his body]
* [http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html Is Mussolini quote on corporatism accurate?]
*[http://books.google.com/books?q=mussolini+%22my+autobiography%22& 2 Mussolini autobiographies in one book. English. Searchable.] Click on the result titled "My Rise and Fall" (usually the top result). Then use the search form in the left column titled "search within this book."
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99690246 The 1928 autobiography of Benito Mussolini. Online.] ''My Autobiography''. Book by Benito Mussolini; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928.
*[http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/murder-michael-schirru Michael Schirru's failed attempt on Mussolini's life]
*[http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/mussolini-assassination-attempt-1926/index.php 1926: The attempted assassination of Mussolini in Rome] by [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/1900-1943-gino-lucetti/index.php Gino Lucetti]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Italy]]|before=[[Luigi Facta]]|after=[[Pietro Badoglio]]|years=1922–1943}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|before=[[Carlo Schanzer]]|after=[[Dino Grandi]]|years=1922–1929}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of the Interior]]|before=[[Paolino Taddei]]|after=[[Luigi Federzoni]]|years=1922–1924}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of the Interior]]|before=[[Luigi Federzoni]]|after=[[Bruno Fornaciari]]|years=1926–1943}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|before=[[Dino Grandi]]|after=[[Galeazzo Ciano]]|years=1932–1936}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|before=[[Galeazzo Ciano]]|after=[[Raffaele Guariglia]]|years=1943}}
{{succession box|title=[[Head of State]] of the [[Italian Social Republic]]|before=—|after=—|years=1943–1945}}
{{succession box|title=[[Minister of Foreign Affairs]] of the [[Italian Social Republic]]|before=—|after=—|years=1943–1945}}
{{succession box|title=Head of the [[Fascist Grand Council]]|before=—|after=[[Pietro Badoglio]]|years=1928–1944}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1883 births|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Anti-communism|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Emergency laws|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Field Marshals|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Italian Ministers of the Interior|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Italian fascists|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Italian World War II people|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Murdered politicians|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Natives of Emilia-Romagna|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Italy|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Mussolini, Benito]]
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<page>
<title>Brussels</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:22:21Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:{{otheruses|Brussels}}
[[Image:BelgiumBrussels.png|thumb|right|150px|]]
[[Image:Belgium brussels iris.png|thumb|right|150px|Emblem of the Brussels-Capital Region]]
[[Image:Flag_-_city_of_brussels_(municipality).png|thumb|150px|Flag of The City of Brussels]]
'''Brussels''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Bruxelles'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/bʁysɛl/}} in [[Belgian French]] and {{IPA|/bʁyksɛl/}} in International French; [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Brussel''; [[German language|German]]: ''Brüssel'') is the capital of [[Belgium]], the [[French community of Belgium]], the [[Flemish community]] and one of the three capitals of the [[European Union]].
Brussels is, first of all, a city located in the center of Belgium and is its capital, but it sometimes also refers to the largest municipality of the [[Brussels-Capital Region]]. This municipality inside Brussels is correctly named [[The City of Brussels]] (French: ''Bruxelles-Ville'' or ''Ville de Bruxelles'', Dutch: ''Stad Brussel''), which is one of 19 [[municipality|municipalities]] that make up the Brussels-Capital Region (''see also'': [[Municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region]]). The municipality has a population of about 140,000 while the Brussels-Capital Region has more than a million inhabitants. {{coor dms|50|50|37|N|4|21|27|E|}}. [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]
The Brussels-Capital Region is a region of Belgium in its own right, alongside [[Wallonia]] and the [[Flemish Region]]. Geographically, it is an [[enclave]] in the Flemish Region. Regions are one component of Belgium's complex institutions, the three communities being "the" other component: the Brussels inhabitants must deal with either the [[French community of Belgium|French (speaking) community]] or the [[Flemish Community]] for matters such as culture and education.
Brussels is also the capital of both the [[French Community of Belgium]] (''Communauté française Wallonie-Bruxelles'' in French) and of [[Flanders]] (''Vlaanderen''); all Flemish capital institutions are established here: [[Flemish Parliament]], [[Flemish government]] and its administration.
Two of the three main institutions of the [[European Union]] - the [[European Commission]] and the [[Council of the European Union]] - have their headquarters in Brussels: the Commission in the [[Berlaymont building]] and the Council in the [[Justus Lipsius building]] facing it. The third main institution of the European Union, the [[European Parliament]], also has a parliamentary chamber in Brussels in which its committee meet and some of its plenary sessions are held (the other plenary sessions are held in [[Strasbourg]], and its administrative headquarters are in [[Luxembourg]]).
Brussels is also the political seat of [[NATO]], the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, the [[Western European Union]] (WEU) and [[EUROCONTROL]], the European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation
Due to this, some countries have three ambassadors pr |
ent information and links
*[http://www.senat.ga/ Le Sénat de la République Gabonaise] official site (in French)
===News===
* [http://allafrica.com/gabon/ AllAfrica.com - ''Gabon''] news headline links
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023203.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Gabon'']
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gb.html CIA World Factbook - ''Gabon'']
===Ethnic Groups===
* [http://www.pygmies.info/ Baka Pygmies of Cameroon and Gabon] Culture and music of the first inhabitants of Gabon
===Directories===
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Gabon/ Open Directory Project - ''Gabon''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/gabon.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Gabon''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Gabon.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Gabon''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Gabon/ Yahoo! - ''Gabon''] directory category
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
{{Africa}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Peace and Security Council]]
[[Category:Gabon|*]]
[[af:Gaboen]]
[[am:ጋቦን]]
[[ar:الغابون]]
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<page>
<title>History of Gabon</title>
<id>12028</id>
<revision>
<id>40601603</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:24:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bastin8</username>
<id>154626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Kingdom of England</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">During the last seven centuries, Bantu ethnic groups arrived in the area from several directions to escape enemies or find new land. Little is known of tribal life before [[Europe|European]] contact, but tribal art suggests rich cultural heritages. Gabon's first confirmed European visitors were [[Portugal|Portuguese]] traders who arrived in the [[15th century]] and named the country after the Portuguese word "gabao," a coat with sleeve and hood resembling the shape of the Komo River estuary. The coast became center of the slave trade. [[Netherlands|Dutch]], [[Kingdom of England|English]], and [[France|French]] traders came in the [[16th century]]. The authority on Germanic history, Professor Heinar Schilling, stated in his book ''Germanisches Leben'' (Koehler & Amelang, Leipzig, 1937, second imprint at pp. 189): "The high point of Nordic seafaring was reached around the year 1000, at which time the Vikings penetrated as far south as the Congo estuary." Professor Schilling made no further statement in this regard.
France assumed the status of protector by signing treaties with Gabonese coastal chiefs in [[1839]] and [[1841]]. [[United States|American]] missionaries from [[New England]] established a mission at Baraka (now [[Libreville]]) in [[1842]]. In [[1849]], the French captured a slave ship and released the passengers at the mouth of the [[Komo River]]. The slaves named their settlement Libreville-"free town."
French explorers penetrated Gabon's dense jungles between [[1862]] and [[1887]]. The most famous, [[Savorgnan de Brazza]], used Gabonese bearers and guides in his search for the headwaters of the Congo River. France occupied Gabon in [[1885]] but did not administer it until [[1903]]. In [[1910]], Gabon became one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa, a federation that survived until [[1959]]. The territories became independent on [[August 17]], [[1960]] as the [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Congo-Brazzaville]], and Gabon.
==See also==
* [[Gabon]]
* [[Politics of Gabon]]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
{{Former French colonies}}
[[Category:Gabon]]
[[Category:History by country|Gabon]]
[[es:Historia de Gabón]]
[[fr:Histoire du Gabon]]
[[pt:história do Gabão]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Gabon</title>
<id>12029</id>
<revision>
<id>40699443</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T11:29:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Shaded relief map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''République Gabonaise'''</big></big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |
[[Image:Gabon Map.jpg|none|300px|Shaded relief map of Gabon]]
|-
| '''Continent''' || [[Africa]]
|-
| '''[[Geographic coordinates]]''' || {{coor dm|1|00|S|11|45|E|type:country}}
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 74th]]<br>[[1 E11 m²|267,667 km&sup2;]] <br> 3.7 % (10,000 km&sup2;)
|-'''my dick is twice the size of Japan and is extremely hairy''' ||
| '''Coastline''' || 885 km
|-
| '''Highest point''' || Mont Bengoué, 1070m at 00°57'21"N, 13°41'09"E, NOT [[Mont Iboundji]], which is less than 1,000m, NOT 1575 m
|-
| '''Lowest point''' || [[Atlantic Ocean]], 0 m
|-
| '''Longest river''' || [[Ogooué River]]
|-
| '''Largest inland body of water''' || ??
|-
| '''Land Use'''<br>&nbsp;- Arable land<br>&nbsp;- Permanent<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;crops<br>&nbsp;- Permanent<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;pastures<br>&nbsp;- Forests and<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;woodlands<br>&nbsp;- Other ||<br>1 %<br><br>1 %<br><br>18 %<br><br>77 %<br>3 % (1993 est.)
|-
| '''[[Climate]]''': || [[Tropics|Tropical]]
|-
| '''add more''' || need ideas
|-
| '''Natural resources''' || [[Petroleum]], [[manganese]], [[uranium]], [[gold]], [[timber]], [[iron ore]], [[hydropower]]
|-
| '''Environmental issues''' || [[deforestation]], [[poaching]]
|}
'''[[Gabon]]''' is a country in [[West Africa]], lying along the [[Atlantic Ocean]], just south of the [[Bight of Biafra]].
== Borders ==
Gabon has a total of 2,251 km of international boundaries. It borders [[Equatorial Guinea]] (350 km) and [[Cameroon]] (298 km) to the north and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (1,903 km) to the west and south. Gabon lies on the [[equator]].
; Maritime claims:
:* Contiguous zone: 24 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm
==Climate==
Always hot and humid. Very hot.
==Terrain==
Narrow coastal plain; hilly interior; [[savanna]] in east and south
Irrigated land: 40 km&sup2; (1993 est.)
== Environment ==
'''International agreements:'''
'''Party to:''' [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Ship Pollution]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]]
'''Signed, but not ratified:''' None of the selected agreements
==Other==
; Natural hazards:
: NA
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Gabon| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country]]
[[pt:Geografia do Gabão]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Gabon</title>
<id>12030</id>
<revision>
<id>40323520</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T20:42:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Fang]] to [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Almost all [[Gabon]]ese are of [[Bantu]] origin. Gabon has at least 40 [[ethnic group]]s with separate languages and cultures. The largest is the [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]]. Others include the [[Myene]], [[Bandjabi]], [[Eshira]], [[Bapounou]], and [[Okande]]. Ethnic group boundaries are less sharply drawn in Gabon than elsewhere in [[Africa]]. [[French language|French]], the [[official language]], is a unifying force. More than 10,000 French people live in Gabon, and France predominates foreign cultural and commercial influences. Historical and environmental factors caused Gabon's population to decline between [[1900]] and [[1940]]. It is one of the least-densely inhabited countries in Africa, and a labor shortage is a major obstacle to development and a draw for foreign workers. The population is generally accepted to be just over 1 million but remains in dispute.
'''[[Population]]:'''
1,208,436
<br>''note:''
Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower [[life expectancy]], higher [[infant mortality]] and [[death]] rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
33% (male 201,737; female 200,764)
<br>''15-64 years:''
61% (male 371,359; female 364,982)
<br>''65 years and over:''
6% (male 34,478; female 35,116) |
elte-Mignon]] [[reproducing piano]] of ''[[M. Welte & Sons, Inc.]]'' of [[New York City]], the inventor and first producer of [[reproducing piano|reproducing pianos]].
In [[1924]], George and Ira collaborated on a musical comedy, ''[[Lady Be Good]]''. It included such future [[Jazz standards|standards]] as "Fascinating Rhythm" and "The Man I Love."
This was followed by ''[[Oh, Kay!]]'' ([[1926]]); ''Funny Face'' in ([[1927]]); ''Strike Up the Band'' ([[1927]] & [[1930]]); ''Girl Crazy'' ([[1930]]), which introduced the standard "[[I Got Rhythm]]"; and ''[[Of Thee I Sing]]'' ([[1931]]), the first musical comedy to win a [[Pulitzer Prize]]. "[[I Got Rhythm]],' interestingly, was accepted as a [[Jazz Standard]], and its [[chord progression]] has incredible significance in [[Jazz]]. These chord changes known as "[[Rhythm changes]]" have been frequently adopted in Jazz literature.
Gershwin stayed in Paris for a short period of time where he wrote "An American in Paris". This work received mixed reviews. Eventually he found the music scene in Paris too supercilious and left for America to do more work.
It was in Hollywood, while working on the score of The Goldwyn Follies, that George Gershwin collapsed and, on [[July 11]], [[1937]], died of a brain tumour at the age of 38. He was interred in the [[Westchester Hills Cemetery]], [[Hastings-on-Hudson, New York]].
Gershwin had a ten-year affair with composer [[Kay Swift]]. Swift was a frequent consult of Gershwin; he named the musical ''Oh, Kay'' after her. Posthumously, Swift arranged some of his music, transcribed some of his recordings, and collaborated with Ira on several projects. He had also had an affair with [[Simone Simon]].
Gershwin died [[intestacy|intestate]], and all his property passed to his mother. The Gershwin estate continues to bring in significant royalties from licensing the [[copyright]]s on Gershwin's work. The estate supported the [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] because its [[1923]] cutoff date was shortly before Gershwin had begun to create his most popular works. The copyrights on those works expire in 2007 in the [[European Union]] and between 2019 and 2027 in the [[United States|United States of America]].
==Music==
===Musical style and influence===
Gershwin was influenced very much by French composers of the early twentieth century. Upon meeting composer [[Maurice Ravel]], Gershwin asked him of the possibility of becoming a student of composition under the master. Ravel is said to have replied, "Why should you be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?" Ravel was already quite impressed with the ability of Gershwin, commenting, "Personally I find jazz most interesting: the rhythms, the way the melodies are handled, the melodies themselves. I have heard of George Gershwin's works and I find them intriguing." (Mawer 42) The orchestrations in Gershwin's symphonic works often seem similar to those of Ravel; likewise, Ravel's two piano concertos evince an influence of Gershwin. He also asked [[Igor Stravinsky]] for lessons; when Stravinsky heard how much Gershwin earned, he replied "How about you give ''me'' some lessons?"
Gershwin's own Concerto in F was criticised as being strongly rooted in the work of [[Claude Debussy]], more so than in the jazz style which was expected. The comparison didn't deter Gershwin from continuing to explore French styles. The title of ''An American in Paris'' reflects the very journey that he had consciously taken as a composer: "The opening part will be developed in typical French style, in the manner of Debussy and the Six, though the tunes are original." (Hyland 126)
Gershwin was intrigued by the works of [[Alban Berg]], [[Dmitri Shostakovich]], [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Darius Milhaud]] and [[Arnold Schoenberg]]. Russian [[Joseph Schillinger]]'s influence as his teacher of composition was substantial in providing him with a method to his composition. After the posthumous success of ''Porgy and Bess'', Schillinger claimed he had a large and direct influence in overseeing the creation of the opera; Ira completely denied that his brother had any such assistance for this work. In analysis, Schillinger's student [[Vernon Duke]] found that while many of Gershwin's works certainly were reviewed by Schillinger, ''Porgy'' does not seem to be one of them. The indirect influence of his study with the teacher was apparent in the opera's even more clear orchestrations but it is characteristically Gershwin in ways that Schillinger would not have approved of. (Hyland 167)
What set Gershwin aside was his ability to manipulate forms of music into his own unique voice. He took the jazz he discovered on Tin Pan Alley into the mainstream by splicing its rhythms and tonality with that of the popular songs of his era.
===Classical works===
Note: All orchestral/operatic pieces are [[orchestration|orchestrated]] by Gershwin unless otherwise specified.
*''[[Lullaby]]'' ([[1919]]), a meditative piece for string quartet.
*''[[Blue Monday (opera)|Blue Monday]]'', a one-act opera featured in ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1922]]'', orchestrated by Will Vodery.
**Reorchestrated by [[Ferde Grofé]] and retitled ''135th Street'' in 1925.
*''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]'', ([[1924]]), his most famous work, a symphonic jazz composition for jazz band & piano, better known in the form orchestrated by [[Ferde Grofe]]. Featured in numerous films and commercials. This piece opens Woody Allen's classic movie "[[Manhattan]]"
*''[[Short Story]]'', ([[1925]]), for violin and piano, an arrangement of two other short pieces originally intended to be included with the [[Three Preludes]].
*''[[Concerto in F (Gershwin)|Concerto in F]]'', ([[1925]]), three movements, for piano and orchestra
*''[[Three Preludes]]'', ([[1926]]), for piano
*''[[An American In Paris]]'' ([[1928]]), a symphonic tone poem with elements of jazz and realistic Parisian sound effects
*''[[Second Rhapsody]]'' ([[1932]]), for Piano and Orchestra, based on the score for a musical sequence from [[Delicious]]. Working title for the work was ''Rhapsody in Rivets''.
** The form most commonly heard today is a re-orchestrated version by Robert McBride; most of Gershwin's orchestrations have been simplified. Also, eight measures not by the composer were added to the recapitulation. [[Michael Tilson Thomas]] has been a promulgator of Gershwin's original version.
*''[[Cuban Overture]]'' ([[1932]]), originally titled [[Rumba]], a tone poem featuring elements of native Cuban dance and folk music; score specifies usage of native Cuban instruments
*''Piano Transcriptions of Eight Songs'' ([[1932]])
*''[[I Got Rhythm Variations]]'' ([[1934]]), a set of interesting variations on his famous song, for piano and orchestra
** Includes a waltz, an atonal fugue, and experimentation with Asian and jazz influences
*''[[Porgy And Bess]]'', a folk [[opera]] ([[1935]]) (from the book by [[DuBose Heyward]]) about African-American life, now considered a definitive work of the American [[theater]].
** Contains the famous [[aria]] "[[Summertime (song)|Summertime]]", in addition to hits like "I Got Plenty of Nothin'" and "It Ain't Necessarily So".
** [[Porgy and Bess]] has also been heard in the concert hall, mostly in two orchestral suites, one by [[Gershwin]] himself entitled [[Catfish Row]]; another suite by Robert Russell Bennett, [[Porgy and Bess: A Symphonic Picture]] is also relatively popular.
*''[[Walking the Dog]]'', ([[1937]]), a humorous piece for orchestra featuring the clarinet. Originally a musical sequence from the movie [[Shall We Dance (film)|Shall We Dance]].
** Many other incidental sequences from [[Shall We Dance]] were written and (for the most part) orchestrated by [[Gershwin]], among them: ''Waltz of the Red Balloons'' and a final extended 8-minute orchestral passage based on the title song with an intruiging [[coda (music)|coda]] hinting at [[Gershwin]] forging a new musical path. It is unknown why any of these compositions have not seen the light of day in the concert hall.
** Most of the musicals [[Gershwin]] wrote are also known for their instrumental music, among them the March from [[Strike Up The Band]] and [[overtures]] to many of his later shows.
*''[[Impromptu in Two Keys]]'', published posthumously in ([[1973]]), for piano
*''[[Two Waltzes in C]]'', published posthumously in ([[1975]]), for piano
===[[Musical theater]] credits===
Note: All works are musicals produced on [[Broadway theater|Broadway]] unless specified otherwise.
*1919 - ''Half Past Eight'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin and Edward B. Perkins). Premiered in [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]].
*1919 - ''La La Lucille'' (lyrics by [[Arthur Jackson]] and [[B. G. DeSylva]])
*1919 - ''Morris Gest "Midnight Whirl"'' (lyrics by [[B. G. DeSylva]] and John Henry Mears)
*1920 - ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1920]]'' (lyrics by Arthur Jackson)
*1921 - ''A Dangerous Maid'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin). Premiered in [[Atlantic City]].
*1921 - ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1921]]'' (lyrics by Arthur Jackson)
*1922 - ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1922]]'' (lyrics by [[E. Ray Goetz]] and B. G. DeSylva)
**The premiere performance featured the one-act opera ''[[Blue Monday (opera)|Blue Monday - 135th Street Blues]]'' with libretto and lyrics by [[B. G. DeSylva]], set in Harlem in a jazz idiom. However, after only one performance, the opera was withdrawn from the show.
*1922 - ''Our Nell'' (co-composed [[William Daly]], lyrics co-written by Gershwin and Daly
*1923 - ''[[The Rainbow Revue|The Rainbow]]'' (lyrics by [[Clifford Grey]]). Premiered in [[West End|London]].
*1923 - ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1923]]'' (lyrics by [[E. |
* [[Irish place names in other countries]]
* [[Irish immigration to Puerto Rico]]
==External links==
* [http://netsoc.ucd.ie/~kobrien/Irish_in_Argentina.html The Irish in Argentina]
* [http://shop.store.yahoo.com/4crests/irsurinar.html Irish Surnames in Argentina]
*[http://www.irishdiaspora.net/vp01.cfm?outfit=ids&requesttimeout=500&folder=158&paper=159 Newfoundland: The Most Irish Place Outside of Ireland]
*[http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/diaspora/misc/intro.shtml Irish Diaspora Studies Dept, Bradford University UK]
*[http://www.irishargentine.org/argentina.pdf Ireland and Argentina]
*[http://www.irishargentine.org/dresden.htm City of Dresden] scandal.
* The Irish in New Jersey by Dermot Quinn http://rutgerspress.rutgers.edu/acatalog/__The_Irish_in_New_Jersey_1167.html
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08132b.htm The Irish (In Countries Other Than Ireland)] - Article in the Catholic Encyclopedia
==References==
* Gerard Ronan - ''The Irish Zorro: The Extraordinary Adventures of William Lamport (1615-1659)''
*The Story of the Irish in Argentina, by Thomas Murray (1919)
[[Category:Celts]]
[[Category:Diasporas]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Ireland]]
[[Category:Irish emigrants]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ISO</title>
<id>14562</id>
<revision>
<id>29395171</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-27T17:49:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kusma</username>
<id>145855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[International Organization for Standardization]] (that's where all links to this page want to end up)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Organization for Standardization]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Integer</title>
<id>14563</id>
<revision>
<id>41337843</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:11:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ciphergoth</username>
<id>9493</id>
</contributor>
<comment>snap redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''integers''' consist of the positive [[natural numbers]] ([[1 (number)|1]], [[2 (number)|2]], [[3 (number)|3]], &hellip;), their [[negative and non-negative numbers|negative]]s (&minus;1, &minus;2, &minus;3, ...) and the number [[0 (number)|zero]]. Like the natural numbers, the integers form a [[countably infinite]] set. The [[set]] of all integers is usually denoted in [[mathematics]] by a boldface '''Z''' (or [[blackboard bold]], <math>\mathbb{Z}</math>), which stands for ''Zahlen'' ([[German language|German]] for "numbers").
The term '''rational integer''' is used, in [[algebraic number theory]], to distinguish these 'ordinary' integers, in the [[rational number]]s, from other concepts such as the [[Gaussian integer]]s.
== Algebraic properties ==
Like the natural numbers, '''Z''' is [[closure (mathematics)|closed]] under the [[binary operation|operations]] of [[addition]] and [[multiplication]], that is, the sum and product of any two integers is an integer. However, with the inclusion of the negative natural numbers, and, importantly, [[0 (number)|zero]], '''Z''' (unlike the natural numbers) is also closed under [[subtraction]]. '''Z''' is not closed under the operation of [[division (mathematics)|division]], since the quotient of two integers (''e.g.'', 1 divided by 2), need not be an integer.
The following table lists some of the basic properties of addition and multiplication for any integers ''a'', ''b'' and ''c''.
{| class="wikitable"
| || addition || multiplication
|-
| [[Closure (mathematics)|closure]]: || ''a''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''b''&nbsp;&nbsp; is an integer || ''a''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''b''&nbsp;&nbsp; is an integer
|-
| [[associativity]]: || ''a''&nbsp;+&nbsp;(''b''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''c'')&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;(''a''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''b'')&nbsp;+&nbsp;''c'' || ''a''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;(''b''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''c'')&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;(''a''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''b'')&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''c''
|-
| [[commutativity]]: || ''a''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''b''&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;''b''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''a'' || ''a''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''b''&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;''b''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''a''
|-
| existence of an [[identity element]]: || ''a''&nbsp;+&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;''a'' || ''a''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;1&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;''a''
|-
| existence of [[inverse element]]s: || ''a''&nbsp;+&nbsp;(&minus;''a'')&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;0 ||
|-
| [[distributivity]]: || colspan=2 align=center| ''a''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;(''b''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''c'')&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;(''a''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''b'')&nbsp;+&nbsp;(''a''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''c'')
|}
In the language of [[abstract algebra]], the first five properties listed above for addition say that '''Z''' under addition is an [[abelian group]]. As a group under addition, '''Z''' is a [[cyclic group]], since every nonzero integer can be written as a finite sum 1 + 1 + ... 1 or (&minus;1) + (&minus;1) + ... + (&minus;1). In fact, '''Z''' under addition is the ''only'' infinite cyclic group, in the sense that any infinite cyclic group is [[group isomorphism|isomorphic]] to '''Z'''.
The first four properties listed above for multiplication say that '''Z''' under multiplication is a [[commutative monoid]]. However, note that not every integer has a multiplicative inverse; e.g. there is no integer ''x'' such that 2''x'' = 1, because the left hand side is even, while the right hand side is odd. This means that '''Z''' under multiplication is not a group.
All the properties from the above table taken together say that '''Z''' together with addition and multiplication is a commutative [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] with unity. In fact, '''Z''' provides the motivation for defining such a structure. The lack of multiplicative inverses, which is equivalent to the fact that '''Z''' is not closed under division, means that '''Z''' is not a [[field (mathematics)|field]]. The smallest field containing the integers is the field of [[rational number]]s. This process can be mimicked to form the [[field of fractions]] of any [[integral domain]], where an integral domain is a [[commutative ring]] with unity such that whenever ''ab'' = 0, either ''a'' = 0 or ''b'' = 0.
Although ordinary division is not defined on '''Z''', it does possess an important property called the [[division algorithm]]: that is, given two integers ''a'' and ''b'' with ''b''&nbsp;&ne;&nbsp;0, there exist unique integers ''q'' and ''r'' such that ''a''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''q'' &times; ''b''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''r'' and 0 &le; ''r'' < |''b''|, where |''b''| denotes the [[absolute value]] of ''b''. The integer ''q'' is called the ''quotient'' and ''r'' is called the ''[[remainder]]'', resulting from division of ''a'' by ''b''. This is the basis for the [[Euclidean algorithm]] for computing [[greatest common divisor]]s.
Again, in the language of abstract algebra, the above says that '''Z''' is a [[Euclidean domain]]. This implies that '''Z''' is a [[principal ideal domain]] and any positive integer can be written as the products of [[prime number|primes]] in an essentially unique way. This is the [[fundamental theorem of arithmetic]].
==Order-theoretic properties ==
'''Z''' is a [[total order|totally ordered set]] without upper or lower bound. The ordering of '''Z''' is given by
: ... < &minus;2 < &minus;1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < ...
An integer is ''positive'' if it is greater than zero and ''negative'' if it is less than zero. Zero is defined as neither negative nor positive.
The ordering of integers is compatible with the algebraic operations in the following way:
# if ''a'' < ''b'' and ''c'' < ''d'', then ''a'' + ''c'' < ''b'' + ''d''
# if ''a'' < ''b'' and 0 < ''c'', then ''ac'' < ''bc''. (From this fact, one can show that if ''c'' < 0, then ''ac'' > ''bc''.)
==Integers in computing==
{{Main|Integer (computer science)}}
An integer (sometimes known as an "<tt>int</tt>", from the name of a datatype in the [[C programming language]]) is often a primitive [[datatype]] in [[computer language]]s. However, integer datatypes can only represent a [[subset]] of all integers, since practical computers are of finite capacity.
Variable-length representations of integers, such as [[bignum]]s, can store any integer that fits in the computers memory. Other integer datatypes are implemented with a fixed size, usually a number of bits which is a power of 2 (4, 8, 16, ''etc.'') or a memorable number of decimal digits (''e.g.'', 9 or 10).
In contrast, theoretical models of [[digital computer]]s, such as [[Turing machine]]s, typically do have infinite (but only [[countable]]) capacity.
==Quotation==
''God invented the integers, all else is the work of man.'' [[Leopold Kronecker|Kronecker]]
==External links==
* [http://www.positiveintegers.org The Positive Integers - divisor tables and numeral representation tools]
[[Category:Elementary mathematics]]
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Integers]]
[[Category:Elementary number theory]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[af:Heelgetal]]
[[ar:أعداد صحيحة]]
[[bg:Цяло число]]
[[ca:Nombre enter]]
[[cs:Celé číslo]]
[[da:Heltal]]
[[de:Ganze Zahl]]
[[et:Täisarv]]
[[es:Número entero]]
[[eo:Entjero]]
[[fa:اعداد صحیح]]
[[fr:Entier relatif]]
[[gl:Número enteiro]]
[[ko:정수]]
[[hr:Cijeli broj]]
[[io:Integro]]
[[id:Bilangan bulat]]
[[is:Heiltölur]]
[[it:Numero intero]]
[[he:מספר שלם]]
[[lt:Sveikieji skaičiai]]
[[hu:E |
s of Mystery and Imagination]]'' - based on stories by the writer [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. The later reissue on CD (in 1987) was remixed from the original master tapes, enhancing some of the tracks and restoring the [[Orson Welles]] narration (recorded a few weeks before his death) that was left off the original due to record company 'concerns'.
* [[1977 in music|1977]] ''[[I Robot (album)|I Robot]]'' - The title quotes [[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[I, Robot|work]], "a view of tomorrow through the eyes of today". Includes minor hits "I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You" and "Breakdown."
* [[1978 in music|1978]] ''[[Pyramid (album)|Pyramid]]'' - [[Ancient Egypt]] surfaces repeatedly, the album is called "a view of yesterday through the eyes of today".
* [[1979 in music|1979]] ''[[Eve (album)|Eve]]'' - about [[woman|women]]; this is the only Project album to feature female lead vocalists - and even then only on two tracks.
* [[1980 in music|1980]] ''[[The Turn of a Friendly Card]]'' - about [[gambling]], literally and figuratively. Includes their hits "Time" and "Games People Play."
* [[1982 in music|1982]] ''[[Eye in the Sky]]'' - presumably about surveillance, [[Life]] and the [[Universe]], but some insist it is about "forgotten and lost values". Album contains their most famous single, "Eye in the Sky."
* [[1984 in music|1984]] ''[[Ammonia Avenue]]'' - although this album has no discernable theme, it is their most "radio-friendly" album. Includes "Don't Answer Me" and "You Don't Believe" (the latter first appeared on a 1983 "best of" collection).
* [[1984 in music|1984]] ''[[Vulture Culture]]'' - a critique of consumerism and, in particular, American popular culture. Includes "Let's Talk About Me."
* [[1985 in music|1985]] ''[[Stereotomy]]'' - The effect of fame and fortune on various people - singers, actors, etc.
* [[1987 in music|1987]] ''[[Gaudi (album)|Gaudi]]'' - songs inspired by the life of Catalan architect [[Antoni Gaudí]], with a song named after his most famous work, [[Sagrada familia|La Sagrada Familia]].
After those albums, Parsons released other titles under his name (''[[Try Anything Once]]'', ''[[On Air]]'', ''[[The Time Machine (album)|The Time Machine]]'', and ''[[A Valid Path]]''), while Woolfson made [[concept albums]] named ''Freudiana'' (about [[Sigmund Freud]]'s work on [[psychology]]) and ''[[Poe - More Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'' (continuing from the Alan Parsons Project's first album about [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s literature).
Although the studio version of ''Freudiana'' was produced by Alan Parsons (and featured the regular Project backing musicians, making it an 'unofficial' Project album), it was primarily Eric Woolfson's idea to turn it into a musical. This eventually led to a rift between the two artists. While Alan Parsons pursued his own solo career and took many members of the Project on the road for the first time in a successful worldwide tour, Eric Woolfson went on to produce musical plays influenced by the Project's music. ''Freudiana'', ''Gaudi'' and ''Gambler'' were three musicals that included some Project songs like "Eye in the Sky", "Time", "Inside Looking Out," and "Limelight." The live music from ''Gambler'' was only distributed at the performance site (in [[Cologne]], Germany).
A collection called ''The Instrumental Works'' (1990; now out of print) includes many of the Project's instrumental tracks.
[[Category:English musical groups|Alan Parsons Project, The]]
[[Category:Progressive rock groups|Alan Parsons Project, The]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alan Parsons</title>
<id>1308</id>
<revision>
<id>41423702</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T05:37:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Folkor</username>
<id>244426</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alan Parsons''' (born [[December 20]], [[1949]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] musician.
He began his musical career as a staff engineer at EMI Studios, and first garnered significant industry exposure via his work on the [[Beatles]]' 1969 masterpiece ''[[Abbey Road (album)|Abbey Road]]''. Parsons subsequently worked with [[Paul McCartney]] on several of [[Wings (band)|Wings]]' earliest albums; he also oversaw recordings from [[Al Stewart]], [[Cockney Rebel]], [[Pilot]], [[Ambrosia (band)|Ambrosia]], and the [[Hollies]], but solidified his reputation by working on [[Pink Floyd]]'s ''[[Dark Side of the Moon]]''.
Alan Parsons was known for going beyond what one would consider the normal scope of a recording engineer. He considered himself to be a recording [[Film director|director]] and was known to compare what he did with albums to what [[Stanley Kubrick]] did on film. This is obvious in his work with Al Stewart's "[[Year of the Cat]]", where Parsons added the [[saxophone]] part and transformed the original folk concept into the [[jazz]] influenced [[ballad]] that put Al Stewart onto the charts. It is also seen in Parson's influence on the Hollies "[[He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother]]" and "[[The Air That I Breathe]]", sharp departures from their 60s pop "Stay", "Just One Look", "Stop, Stop, Stop", [[Bus Stop (song)|"Bus Stop"]], or [[Betty Everett|"It's in His Kiss"]].
Although an accomplished [[vocalist]] and [[flutist]], Parsons only sang infrequent and incidental parts on his albums. Recordings featuring his [[flute]] are virtually unknown.
Influenced by his work on Stewart's concept album ''[[Time Passages]]'', Parsons decided to begin creating his own thematic records; along with songwriter [[Eric Woolfson]], he soon founded [[The Alan Parsons Project]]. Although Parsons played keyboards and infrequently sang on his records, the Project was designed primarily as a forum for a revolving collection of vocalists and session players — among them [[Arthur Brown]], ex-Zombie [[Colin Blunstone]], [[Cockney Rebel]]'s [[Steve Harley]], the [[Hollies]]' [[Allan Clarke]] and guitarist [[Ian Bairnson]] — to interpret and perform Parsons and Woolfson's conceptually-linked, lushly-synthesized music.
The Project debuted in 1976 with ''[[Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'', a collection inspired by the work of [[Edgar Allen Poe]]. The album was remixed for release on CD and includes narration by [[Orson Wells]] which was left off the vinyl version. Similarly, the science fiction of [[Isaac Asimov]] served as the raw material for 1977's follow-up ''[[I Robot (album)|I Robot]]''. With 1980s ''[[The Turn of a Friendly Card]]'', a meditation on gambling, the [[Alan Parsons Project]] scored a Top 20 hit, "[[Games People Play]]". 1982's ''[[Eye in the Sky]]'' was their most successful effort, and notched a Top Three hit with its title track. While 1984's ''[[Ammonia Avenue]]'' went gold, the Project's subsequent LPs earned little notice, although records like 1985's ''[[Vulture Culture]]'' and 1987's ''[[Gaudi]]'' found favor with longtime fans.
Following the breakup of The Project, he went on to create several solo albums:
*[[1993]] ''[[Try Anything Once]]'',
*[[1996]] ''[[On Air]]'' - includes CD-ROM containing some history of [[aviation]],
*[[1999]] ''[[The Time Machine (album)|The Time Machine]]'',
*2004 ''[[A Valid Path]]'', with [[David Gilmour]] on "Return to [[Tunguska]]".
==External links==
*[http://www.alanparsonsmusic.com/ Official Site]
[[Category:1949 births|Parsons, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Parsons, Alan]]
[[Category:British record producers|Parsons, Alan]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Almost all</title>
<id>1309</id>
<revision>
<id>38589079</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T08:07:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Scott Ritchie</username>
<id>105861</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Note there are an infinite number of primes (to contrast with usage of "all but finitely many")</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the phrase '''almost all''' has a number of specialised uses.
"Almost all" is sometimes used synonymously with "all but [[finite]]ly many"; see [[almost]].
In [[number theory]], if ''P''(''n'') is a property of positive [[integer]]s, and if ''p''(''N'') denotes the number of positive integers ''n'' less than ''N'' for which ''P''(''n'') holds, and if
:''p''(''N'')/''N'' &rarr; 1 as ''N'' &rarr; &infin;
(see [[limit]]), then we say that "''P''(''n'') holds for almost all positive integers ''n''" and write
:<math>(\forall^\infty n) P(n)</math>.
For example, the [[prime number theorem]] states that the number of [[prime numbers]] less than or equal to ''N'' is asymptotically equal to ''N''/ln ''N''. Therefore the proportion of prime integers is roughly 1/ln ''N'', which tends to 0. Thus, ''almost all'' positive integers are composite, however there are still an infinite number of primes.
Occasionally, "almost all" is used in the sense of "[[almost everywhere]]" in [[measure theory]], or in the closely related sense of "[[almost surely]]" in [[probability theory]].
==See also==
*[[Sufficiently large]]
[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]
[[Category:Mathematical notation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine</title>
<id |
owever, unless one can read Homeric Greek -- different than other Ancient Greek writers because of its amalgamation of Greek dialects -- one needs to choose a translation. The quality of the translation is probably the single biggest factor in determining whether or not one finishes the text.
==The ''Iliad'' as oral tradition==
The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' were considered by Greeks of the classical age and after as the most important works in [[Ancient Greek literature]], and were the basis of Greek [[pedagogy]] in antiquity. As the center of the [[rhapsode]]'s repertoire, their recitation was a central part of Greek religious festivals. The book would be spoken or sung all night (modern readings last around 20 hours), with audiences coming and going for parts they particularly enjoyed.
Throughout much of their reception, the Iliad and Odyssey were assumed considered to be literary poems. However in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, scholars began to question this assumption. [[Milman Parry]], a classical scholar, was intrigued by peculiar features of Homeric style: in particular the stock epithets and the often extensive repetition of words, phrase and even whole chunks of text. He argued that these features were artifacts of oral composition. The poet employs stock phrases because of the ease with which they could be applied to a hexameter line. Taking this theory, Parry travelled in Yugoslavia, studying the local oral poetry. In his reasearch he observed oral poets employing stock phrases and repetition to assist with the challenge of composing a poem orally and improvisationally.
The written ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' are based on older, orally transmitted works and, consequently, are full of [[metaphor]]s and [[simile]]s which were used to communicate the stories to a mostly illiterate population in a manner they would understand. Specifically, the similes used in The ''Iliad'' can be divided into several categories: the descriptions of battles, people, and gods. Each type of simile aided understanding in Greek oral tradition and allowed the first listeners of the story to adequately picture what was being sung to them.
==The relationship of Achilles and Patroclus==
{{main|Achilles and Patroclus}}
[[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Achilles and Patroclus.]]
The precise nature of the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus has been the subject of some dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the ''Iliad'', it is clear that the two heroes have a deep and extremely meaningful friendship, but the evidence of a romantic or sexual element is equivocal. Commentators from the classical period to today have tended to interpret the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. Thus, in fifth-century Athens the relationship was commonly interpreted as [[pederasty|pederastic]], since pederasty was an accepted part of Athenian society. Contemporary readers are more likely to interpret the two heroes either as non-sexual "war buddies" or as an egalitarian [[homosexual]] couple.
The Ancient Mediterranean world had vastly different attitudes toward gender and sexuality than those found in twenty-first century America or Europe. There was no term or concept of homosexuality. In addition, much of what is known about ancient Greek sexual practices and beliefs is based on writers and artists who lived at least 200 years after Homer's epics were created; it is unknown how much these practices and attitudes changed from the time Homer's epics were originally sung and the time that these later writers and artists recorded their work.
It is impossible to designate the roles found in the ''Iliad'' between Achilles and Patroclus along pederastic lines. Achilles is the most dominant. Among the warriors in the [[Trojan War]] he has the most fame. Patroclus performs duties such as cooking, feeding and grooming the horses, and nursing yet is older than Achilles. Both also sleep with women. Nonetheless the emotion between the two is obviously intense love. Achilles is tender to Patroclus, callous and arrogant towards others. Although most warriors fought for personal fame or their [[city-state]] (including Achilles), at certain junctures in the ''Iliad'', Achilles emphasizes his relationship with Patroclus above all else. He dreams that all Greeks would die so that he and Patroclus might gain the fame of conquering [[Troy]] alone. After Patroclus dies he agonizes touching his dead body, smearing himself with ash, and fasting. It was not until his desire for revenge to kill Hector who had killed Patroclus that he would fight again; fully aware that the gods warned him it would cost him his life.
==The ''Iliad'' in subsequent arts and literature==
Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. [[Aeschylus]]' trilogy ''Agamemnon'', ''The Libation Bearers'', and ''The Eumenides'' follow the story of Agamemnon following his return from the war.
A loose film adaptation of the ''Iliad'', ''[[Troy (movie)|Troy]]'', was released in [[2004]], starring [[Brad Pitt]] as Achilles, [[Orlando Bloom]] as Paris, [[Eric Bana]] as Hector, [[Sean Bean]] as [[Odysseus]] and [[Brian Cox]] as [[Agamemnon]]. It was directed by German-born [[Wolfgang Petersen]]. Despite its popularity &mdash; largely a result of a huge marketing campaign by the studio &mdash; the film was a critical flop in the U.S., though not internationally. Several critics voted it the worst film of 2004. In addition, it only loosely resembles the Homeric version as it was presented as if it were history instead of mythology. The supernatural elements of the story were deliberately expunged, except for one scene that included Achilles' sea nymph mother, [[Thetis]].
An epic science fiction adaptation/tribute by acclaimed author [[Dan Simmons]] titled ''Ilium'' was released in 2003. The novel received a [[Locus Award]] for best science fiction novel of [[2003]].
== English translations ==
*[[George Chapman]], 1598 - verse
*[[John Ogilby]], 1660
*[[Thomas Hobbes]], 1676 - verse: [http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0256.php full text]
*[[John Ozell]], [[William Broome]], and [[William Oldisworth]], 1712
*[[Alexander Pope]], 1713 - verse: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6130 full text]
*[[James Macpherson]], 1773
*[[William Cowper]], 1791
*[[Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Edward Earl of Derby]], 1864 - verse: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6150 full text]
*[[William Cullen Bryant]], 1870
*[[Walter Leaf]], [[Andrew Lang]], and [[Ernest Myers]], 1873 - prose: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/3059 full text]
*[[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]], 1898 - prose: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2199 full text]
*[[Alexander Falconer]], 1933
*[[Sir William Marris]], 1934 - verse
*[[E V Rieu]], 1950 - prose
*[[Alston Hurd Chase]] and [[William G. Perry]], 1950 - prose
*[[Richmond Lattimore]], 1951 - verse
*[[Ennis Rees]], 1963 - verse
*[[W. H. D. Rouse]], 1966
*[[Martin Hammond]], 1987
*[[Robert Fagles]], 1990
*[[Stanley Lombardo]], 1997
*[[Ian Johnston]], 2002 - verse: [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/homer/iliad_title.htm full text]
== References ==
* {{cite book | authorlink = Milan Budimir | first = Milan | last = Budimir | year = 1940 | title = On the Iliad and Its Poet }}
* {{cite book | last = Mueller | first = Martin | title = The Iliad | location = London | publisher = Allen & Unwin | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0048000272 }}
* {{cite book | last = Nagy | first = Gregory | title = The Best of the Achaeans | location = Baltimore | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 1979 | id = ISBN 0801823889 }}
* {{cite book | author = Seaford, Richard | title = Reciprocity and Ritual | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1994 | id = ISBN 0198150369 }}
* {{cite book | author = West, Martin | title = The East Face of Helicon | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0198152213 }}
== External links ==
{{wikisourcepar|The Iliad}}
* [http://www.uark.edu/campus-resources/achilles/iliad/iliad.html Classical images illustrating the ''Iliad''.] Repertory of outstanding painted vases, wall paintings and other ancient iconography of the War of Troy.
* [http://rss.duchs.com/homer/iliad/ Iliad via RSS]
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/iliad/ SparkNotes]
* [http://www.textedge.com/ HTML Text of Iliad]
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0133 Iliad in Ancient Greek from the Perseus Project]
* {{gutenberg|no=2199|name=The Iliad ''translated by Samuel Butler'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=3059|name=The Iliad ''translated by Andrew Lang'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=6130|name=The Iliad ''translated by Alexander Pope'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=6150|name=The Iliad ''translated by Edward, Earl of Derby'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=16452|name=The Iliad ''translated by William Cowper'}}
{{Trojan War Cycle}}
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{{Link FA|pt}}
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[[gl:A Ilíada]]
[[ko:일리아스]]
[[id:Iliad]]
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[[zh:伊利亚特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indiana Jones</title>
<id>14814</id>
<revision>
<id>42008203</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:42:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Wookieepedian</username>
<id>425277</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:In |
to the ITU-T Recommendations T.30 and T.3. Group 2 faxes take three minutes to transmit a single page, with a vertical resolution of 100 scan lines per inch. Group 2 fax machines are almost obsolete, and not manufactured. Group 3 fax machines can interoperate with Group 2 fax machines.
* Group 3 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.30 and T.4. Group 3 faxes take between six and fifteen seconds to transmit a single page (not including the initial time for the fax machines to handshake and synchronise). The horizontal and vertical resolutions are allowed by the T.4 standard to vary among a set of fixed resolutions:
**Horizontal: 100 scan lines per inch
***Vertical: 100 scan lines per inch
**Horizontal: 200 or 204 scan lines per inch
***Vertical: 100 or 98 scan lines per inch ('Standard')
***Vertical: 200 or 196 scan lines per inch ('Fine')
***Vertical: 400 or 391 (note not 392) scan lines per inch ('Superfine')
**Horizontal: 300 scan lines per inch
***Vertical: 300 scan lines per inch
**Horizontal: 400 or 408 scan lines per inch
***Vertical: 400 or 391 scan lines per inch
* Group 4 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.563, T.503, T.521, T.6, T.62, T.70, T.72, T.411 to T.417. They are designed to operate over 64 kbit/s digital ISDN circuits. Their resolution is determined by the T.6 recommendation, which is a superset of the T.4 recommendation.
===Class===
Computer modems are often designated by a particular fax class, which indicates how much processing is offloaded from the computer's cpu to the fax modem.
*Class 1 fax devices do fax data transfer where the T.4/T.6 data compression and T.30 session management are performed by software on a controlling computer. This is described in ITU-T recommendation T.31.
*Class 2 fax devices perform T.30 session management themselves, but the T.4/T.6 data compression is performed by software on a controlling computer. The relevant ITU-T recommendation T.32.
===Data transmission rate===
Several different telephone line modulation techniques are used by fax machines. They are negotiated during the fax-[[modem]] [[handshaking|handshake]], and the fax devices will use the highest data rate that both fax devices support, usually a minimum of 14.4 kbit/s for Group 3 fax.
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
!ITU Standard
!Released Date
!Data Rates (bit/s)
!Modulation Method
|-
|V.27
|1988
|4800, 2400
|[[phase-shift keying|PSK]]
|-
|V.29
|1988
|9600, 7200, 4800
|[[quadrature amplitude modulation|QAM]]
|-
|V.17
|1991
|14400, 12000, 9600, 7200
|[[trellis modulation|TCM]]
|-
|V.34
|1994
|28800
|[[quadrature amplitude modulation|QAM]]
|}
Note that 'Super Group 3' faxes use [[V.34bis]] modulation that allows a data rate of up to 33.6 kbit/s.
===Compression===
As well as specifying the resolution (and allowable physical size of the image being faxed), the ITU-T T.4 recommendation specifies two compression methods for decreasing the amount of data that needs to be transmitted between the fax machines to transfer the image. The two methods are:
*[[Modified Huffman coding|Modified Huffman]] (MH), and
*[[Modified READ]] (MR)
====Modified Huffman====
Modified Huffman (MH) is a codebook-based run-length encoding scheme optimised to efficiently compress whitespace. As most faxes consists mostly of white space, this minimises the transmission time of most faxes. Each scanned line is compressed independently of its predecessor and successor.
====Modified Read====
Modified Read (MR) encodes the first scanned line using MH. The next line is compared to the first, the differences determined, and then the differences are encoded and transmitted. This is effective as most lines differ little from their predecessor. This is not continued to the end of the fax transmission, but only for a limited number of lines until the process is reset and a new 'first line' encoded with MH is produced. This limited number of lines is to prevent errors propagating throughout the whole fax, as the standard does not provide for error-correction. MR is an optional facility, and some fax machines do not use MR in order to minimise the amount of computation required by the machine. The limited number of lines is two for 'Standard' resolution faxes, and four for 'Fine' resolution faxes.
The ITU-T T.6 recommendation adds a further compression type of [[Modified Modified READ]] (MMR), which simply allows for a greater number of lines to be coded by MR than in T.4. This is because T.6 makes the assumption that the transmission is over a circuit with a low number of line errors such as digital ISDN. In this case, there is no maximum number of lines for which the differences are encoded.
===Typical characteristics===
Group 3 fax machines transfer one or a few printed or handwritten pages per minute in black-and-white (bitonal) at a [[resolution]] of 100x200 or 200x200 dots per inch. The transfer rate is 14.4 kilo[[bit]]s per second (kbit/s) or higher (but fax machines support speeds beginning with 2400 bit/s). The transferred image formats are called [[ITU-T]] (formerly CCITT) fax group 3 or 4.
The most basic fax mode transfers black and white only. The original page is scanned in a resolution of 1728 [[pixel]]s/line and 1145 lines/page (for [[A4 paper size|A4]]). The resulting raw data is [[data compression|compressed]] using a modified [[Huffman coding|Huffman code]] optimized for written text, achieving average compression factors of around 20. Typically a page needs 10 s for transmission, instead of about 3 minutes for the same uncompressed raw data of 1728×1145 bits at a speed of 9600 bit/s. The compression method uses a Huffman codebook for run lengths of black and white runs in a single scanned line, and it can also uses the fact that two adjacent scanlines are usually quite similar, saving bandwidth by encoding only the differences.
There are different fax classes, including Class 1, Class 2 and Intel CAS.
Fax machines from the 1970s to the 1990s often used direct [[thermal printer]]s as their printing technology, but since the mid-1990s there has been a transition towards [[thermal transfer printer]]s and [[inkjet printer]]s.
One of the advantages of inkjet printing is that inkjets can affordably print in [[color]]; therefore, many of the inkjet-based fax machines claim to have color fax capability. There is a standard called ITU-T30e for faxing in color; unfortunately, it is not yet widely supported, so many of the color fax machines can only fax in color to machines from the same manufacturer.
==Alternatives==
A modern alternative for sending a fax is sending an [[email]] with one or more [[image]] [[Computer file|file]]s as [[attachment]]s. This allows color and is more versatile with respect to resolution. See [[Internet fax]]
At the receiving end, much research has occurred into how to more efficiently process incoming faxes, now that digital storage is much cheaper than it was in the 1970s, and [[junk fax]]es have become a common problem (and an enormous waste of paper).
Some high-end communications servers do not automatically print out all incoming faxes, but instead integrate them into a single in-box along with other forms of [[store and forward]] communications like email and [[voice mail]] (see [[Unified Messaging|unified messaging]]).
==History==
Scottish inventor [[Alexander Bain (inventor)|Alexander Bain]] is often credited with the first fax patent in [[1843]]. He used his knowledge of electric [[clock]] [[pendulum]]s to produce a back-and-forth line-by-line scanning mechanism.
In [[1861]] the first fax machine, [[Pantelegraph]], was sold by [[Giovanni Caselli]] - before even the invention of workable [[telephone|telephones]].
As a designer for the [[Radio Corporation of America]] (RCA), in 1924, [[Richard H. Ranger]] invented the wireless photoradiogram, or transoceanic [[radiofax|radio facsimile]], the forerunner of today’s "Fax" machines. A photograph of President [[Calvin Coolidge]] sent from New York to London on November 29th 1924 became the first photo picture reproduced by transoceanic radio facsimile. Commercial use of Ranger’s product began two years later. Radio fax is still in common use today for transmitting weather charts and information.
An early method for facsimile transmission, the [[Hellschreiber]], was invented in [[1929]] by [[Rudolf Hell]], a pioneer in mechanical image scanning and transmission.
In [[1985]] Dr [[Hank Magnuski]], founder of [[GammaLink]], produced the first computer fax board, called [[GammaFax]].
==See also==
*[[error correction mode]] (ECM)
*[[telautograph]]
*[[WinFax]]
*[[Faxmail for windows]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhistory.htm A Brief History of Facsimile]
* [http://www.worldfax.com/fax_history.shtml What is Fax and History of Fax]
* [http://www.savetz.com/fax/ FAQ: How can I send a fax from the Internet?]
* [http://www.duxcw.com/digest/editorial/fax.htm Death of the Fax Machine!]
*[http://www.blacktable.com/leitch050803.htm Stupidity of Faxing][[category: Telecommunications_equipment]]
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
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</revision>
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<page>
<title>Film crew</title>
<id>10827</id>
<revision>
<id>40694970</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T10:19:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Solipsist</username>
<id>49943</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Move new image to more appropriate place at [[Camera operator]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FilmCrew.jpg|thumb|right|Film crew and equipment on a location shoot.]]
A '''film crew''' is a group of people hired b |
occupation that elections would be postponed until the resolution of the conflict with Ethiopia. Local elections have continued in free Eritrea. The most recent round of local government elections were held in May 2003. On further elections, the President's Chief of Staff, Yemane Ghebremeskel said,
:"''The electoral commission is handling these elections this time round so that may be the new element in this process. The national assembly has also mandated the electoral commission to set the date for national elections, so whenever the electoral commission sets the date there will be national elections. It’s not dependent on regional elections, although that might be a very helpful process.''
:''Multipartyism, in general principle yes, it is there but the law on political parties has to be approved by the national assembly. It was not approved the last time. The view from the beginning was that you don’t necessarily need a party law to hold national elections. You can have national elections and the party law can be adopted at any time. So in terms of commitment it’s very clear, in terms of the process it has its own pace, its own characteristics.''"[http://www.shaebia.org/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive=9&num=2618&printer=1 shaebia.org]
== Regions ==
[[Image:Eritrea regions numbered.png|thumb|[[Regions of Eritrea]]]]
''Main article: [[Regions of Eritrea]]''
Eritrea is divided into 6 regions:
# [[Central Region, Eritrea|Central]] (Maekel)
# [[Southern Region, Eritrea|Southern]] (Debub)
# [[Gash-Barka Region, Eritrea|Gash-Barka]]
# [[Anseba Region, Eritrea|Anseba]]
# [[Northern Red Sea Region, Eritrea|Northern Red Sea]] (Semienawi-Keih-Bahri)
# [[Southern Red Sea Region, Eritrea|Southern Red Sea]] (Debubawi-Keih-Bahri)
== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of Eritrea]]''
[[Image:Er-map.gif|right]]
Eritrea is located in the [[Horn of Africa]] and is bordered on the northeast and east by the [[Red Sea]]. The country is virtually bisected by the world's longest mountain range, the [[Great Rift Valley]], with fertile lands to the west and the descent to desert in the East. Off the sandy and arid coastline is situated the [[Dahlak Archipelago]] and its fishing grounds. The land to the south, in the highlands, is slightly less dry and cooler. Eritrea at the southern end of the Red Sea is the home of the fork in the rift. The [[Afar Triangle]] or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a [[triple junction]] where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift Zone (USGS). The highest point of the country, [[Soira]], is located in the centre of Eritrea, at 3018 m above sea level.
The main cities of the country are the capital city of [[Asmara]] and the port town of [[Assab]] in the southeast, as well as the towns of [[Massawa]] and [[Keren]].
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Eritrea]]''
Since independence from [[Ethiopia]], Eritrea has faced the economic problems of a small, desperately poor country. Like the economies of many [[Africa]]n nations, the economy is largely based on subsistence [[agriculture]], with 80% of the population involved in farming and herding.
The Ethiopia-Eritrea war severely hurt Eritrea's economy. [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] growth in [[1999]] fell to less than 1%, and GDP decreased by 8.2% in [[2000]]. The May 2000 Ethiopian offensive into northern Eritrea caused some $600 million in property damage and loss, including losses of $225 million in [[livestock]] and 55,000 homes. The attack prevented planting of crops in Eritrea's most productive region, causing food production to drop by 62%.
Even during the war, Eritrea developed its transportation [[infrastructure]], asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war-damaged roads and bridges. Eritrea's economic future remains mixed. The cessation of Ethiopian trade, which mainly used Eritrean ports before the war, leaves Eritrea with a large economic hole to fill. Eritrea's economic future depends upon its ability to master fundamental social problems like [[illiteracy]], [[unemployment]], and low skills, and to convert its diaspora money and expertise into economic growth.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Eritrea]]''
[[Image:Eritrea demography.png|thumb|Population 1993-2003]]
Eritrea's two main ethnic groups are the [[Tigrigna]], who represent about half of the population, and the [[Tigre language|Tigre]], who are about 40%. The remaining people are the [[Kunama]], [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]], [[Bilen]], [[Hidareb]], [[Nara]], [[Rashaida]], and [[Saho]]. The local [[Tigrigna]] and the wider [[Arabic language|Arabic]] language are the two predominant languages for official purposes, but [[English language|English]] and [[Italian language|Italian]] are also spoken.
[[Dahlik language|Dahlik]] is a newly discovered language spoken on the [[Dahlak Archipelago]].
==Religion==
The dominant religions are [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], each group representing roughly 50% of the population. The Christians consist primarily of the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church]], which is the local [[Oriental Orthodox]] church, but small groups of [[Roman Catholic]]s, [[Protestant]]s, and other religions also exist.
Members of the Eritrean Orthodox Church are sometimes described as [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Christians]] because the hierarchy of that church was formerly subject to that of the Tawahido Church of [[Ethiopia]], which was in turn formerly (before [[1950]]) subject to the Coptic Pope. However, the word ''Coptic'' in modern usage refers primarily to the [[Coptic Christian|Egyptian Orthodox]] branch of Christianity. The Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox churches are still in [[full communion]] with the Coptic Church in Egypt. In 1993 the [[Eritrean Orthodox Church]] was granted [[autocephaly]], and in 1998 the Archbishopric of [[Asmara]], the young nation's capital, was elevated to the rank of patriarchate, within the Oriental Orthodox church.
The vast majority of Muslims in Eritrea are [[Sunni]].
Since May [[2002]], the government of Eritrea only officially recognizes the Eritrean Orthodox Church, [[Islam]], [[Catholic]] and Evangelical [[Lutheran]] churches. All other faiths have been banned and harsh measures have been taken against their adherents. Other religions like [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] are not registered and cannot worship freely. Several Orthodox priests, dozens of Protestant pastors and thousands of church members have been arrested.
The government's registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information in order to be allowed to [[worship]]. As of 2005, a number of [[refugee]]s have been fleeing the country to [[Kenya]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Sudan]] and [[Northeast Africa|beyond]] because of this lack of freedom and given the large number of [[Political prisoner|prisoner]]s of [[conscience]].
See also [[Eritrean Orthodox Church]].
== Culture ==
[[Image:Alicha 1.jpg|thumb|Cuisine of Eritrea is very rich. Here, the typical ''Alicha Begie'' and chicken on injera, the local bread]]
:''Main article: [[Culture]] of Eritrea''<!--Please be mindful of the talk page discussions that have determined this template's appearance.--><noinclude></noinclude>
*[[Cuisine of Eritrea]]
*[[Music of Eritrea]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Eritrea]]
* [[Foreign relations of Eritrea]]
* [[List of Eritreans]]
* [[Military of Eritrea]]
* [[Music of Eritrea]]
* [[Transportation in Eritrea]]
** [[Eritrean Railway]]
* [[Zula]]
==Further reading==
* [http://eri24.com/Article_10045.htm Student-centered education is the best way of learning]
* [http://eri24.com/Article_10043.htm Response to remarks by Mr. David Triesman, Britain's parliamentary under-secretary of state with responsibility for Africa]
* [http://eri24.com/Article_10031.htm Eritrea-Ethiopia versus western nations]
* Conversations with Eritrean Political Prisoners by Dan Connell (Paperback - January 15, 2004)
* Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution With a New Afterword on the Postwar Transiton by Dan Connell (Paperback - January 15, 2004)
* The Eritrean Struggle for Independence : Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941-1993 by Ruth Iyob, et al (Paperback - May 13, 1997)
* James Firebrace & Stuart Holand, ''Never Kneel Down: Drought, Development and Liberation in Eritrea''
* Jordan Gebre-Medhin, ''Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea''
* Lionel Cliffe & Basil Davidson, ''The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace''
* Michela Wrong (2005), ''I Didn't Do It For You: how the world betrayed a small African nation'', Fourth Estate
* Roy Pateman, ''Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning''
* Rethinking Revolution: New Strategies for Democracy & Social Justice : The Experiences of Eritrea, South Africa, Palestine & Nicaragua, by Dan Connell (Paperback - October 2001)
* Building a New Nation: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1983-2002)by Dan Connell (Hardcover - May 30, 2005)
* Taking on the Superpowers: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1976-1982)by Dan Connell, et al (Hardcover - April 30, 2005)
* Unfinished Business: Ethiopia and Eritrea at war. Dominique Jacquin-Berdal and Martin Plaut, eds. (Red Sea Press, Paperback 2005)
==External links==
===Human Rights===
{{sisterlinks|Eritrea}}
* [http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-eri/news Amnesty International] Eritrea
===Government===
*[http://shabait.com/ Shabait] The State of Eritrea Ministry of Information
*[http://www.shaebia.org Shaebia:] PFDJ's Official party website.
*[http://eritrea.embassyhomepage.com/ Eritrean Embassy in London] government information and links
===Eritrean Websites===
*[http://news.asmarino.net/ Asmarino News:] From California
*[http://beilul.com/ B |
*[[Dietrich Katzenstein]]
*[[Paul Kirchhof]]
*[[Hans Hugo Klein]]
*[[Konrad Kruis]]
*[[Jürgen Kühling]]
*[[Herbert Landau]]
*[[Gerhard Leibholz]]
*[[Jutta Limbach]]
*[[Gertrude Lübbe-Wolff]]
*[[Ernst Gottfried Mahrenholz]]
*[[Rudolf Mellinghoff]]
*[[Gebhard Müller]]
*[[Engelbert Niebler]]
*[[Gisela Niemeyer]]
*[[Lerke Osterloh]]
*[[Hans-Jürgen Papier]]
*[[Theodor Ritterspach]]
*[[Joachim Rottmann]]
*[[Wiltraut Rupp-von Brünneck]]
*[[Erna Scheffler]]
*[[Fabian von Schlabrendorff]]
*[[Helga Seibert]]
*[[Otto Seidl]]
*[[Walter Seuffert]]
*[[Helmut Simon]]
*[[Alfred Söllner]]
*[[Bertold Sommer]]
*[[Helmut Steinberger]]
*[[Udo Steiner]]
*[[Ernst Träger]]
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm Wagner]]
*[[Klaus Winter]]
*[[Wolfgang Zeidler]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/ www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de], the Court's website
* [http://bundesrecht.juris.de/bundesrecht/bverfgg/inhalt.html Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG)] in German
{{Supreme Courts of Germany}}
[[Category:German law]]
[[Category:National supreme courts|Germany]]
[[de:Bundesverfassungsgericht]]
[[fr:Bundesverfassungsgericht]]
[[ja:連邦憲法裁判所]]
[[pl:Federalny Trybunał Konstytucyjny]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Free Democratic Party (Germany)</title>
<id>10825</id>
<revision>
<id>41765153</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:09:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LARS</username>
<id>154979</id>
</contributor>
<comment>This is NPOV, since shown by example.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_German_Political_Party |
party_name = Freie Demokratische Partei |
party_logo = [[Image:FDP-logo.png|125px|FDP logo]] |
party_wikicolourid = FDP |
leader = [[Guido Westerwelle|Dr. Guido Westerwelle]] |
foundation = [[December 11th]], [[1948]] |
ideology = [[Liberal democracy]],<br>[[Liberalism]] |
international = [[Liberal International]] |
european = [[European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]] |
europarl = [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] |
colours = [[blue]]/[[yellow]]|
headquarters = Thomas-Dehler-Haus<br>Reinhardtstraße 14<br>10117 [[Berlin]] |
website = [http://www.fdp.de/ www.fdp.de]
}}
The '''Free Democratic Party''' (''Freie Demokratische Partei'' - FDP) is a [[liberalism|liberal]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. The party's ideology combines [[free market|free-market]] economics with broad [[individual rights|individual liberties]]. The FDP is currently the third-largest party in the [[Bundestag]].
The FDP was formed on [[December 11]], [[1948]], by local liberal parties. These were founded since 1945 by former members of the liberal [[German Democratic Party]] (DDP) and some from the center-right [[German People's Party]] (DVP). The FDP's first chairman, [[Theodor Heuss]], was a former leader of the DDP. The FDP has traditionally been composed mainly of [[middle class|middle-class]] and [[upper class|upper-class ]] [[Protestant|Protestants]] who consider themselves "independents" and heirs to the [[Liberalism in Europe|European liberal tradition]]. The party is a relatively weak institutional party, gaining between 5.8 and 12.8% of the votes in federal elections. However, it has participated as a junior partner in all but six postwar federal governments in coalition with either the [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democrats]] (CDU) or the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democrats]] (SPD). Thus it has spent only about 15 years out of government since [[1949]]. It has generally distinguished itself from the CDU and the SPD by advocating more market oriented policies.
The party became involved in controversy after ironically declaring itself to be the party of the "Besserverdienenden" ("better-earning people"), after the SPD had advocated a special tax for the "Besserverdienenden". Political adversaries say it opposes the interests of poorer people.
Over the course of its history the party's economic policies have shifted between [[social liberalism]] (in an European meaning) and [[market liberalism]]. However, since the [[1980s]] the FDP has maintained a for German standards consistent free-market stance. Many of it policies acknowledge that certain aims can not be reached by market mechanisms alone and would not be seen as free-market policies in America. Examples for this are a support of a minimum welfare eglibility for everybody and strong anti-trust policies.
Regarding social issues as e.g. civil rights, immigration, its attitude to religion in the public sphere or anti-discrimination of homosexuals the party has always been social-liberal (in the American usage of the word), especially more so than the CDU or the SPD. In contrast to SPD and CDU it is in favour of ending [[conscription in Germany]].
In foreign policy the FDP supports European integration and transatlantic partnership.
In all federal election campaigns since the 1980s, the party has sided with the CDU and CSU, the main conservative parties in Germany. Following German reunification in [[1990]], the FDP merged with the [[Association of Free Democrats]], a grouping of liberals from [[East Germany]]. During the [[1990s]], the FDP won between 6.2 and 11 percent of the vote in Bundestag elections. Between 1990 and 1998, it served as the junior partner in the government of Chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] of the CDU.
In the [[German federal election, 2005|2005 general election]] the party received 9.8 percent and 61 federal deputies, a unpredicted jump from prior opinion polls. This has been explained as [[tactical voting]] by those who support strong economic reforms. However, because the CDU did less well than predicted, the FDP and the CDU could not form a coalition government. Instead, the CDU formed a "[[Grand Coalition]]" with the SPD, and the FDP entered the [[opposition (parliamentary)|opposition]].
[[Image:FDPposter200508.jpg|thumb|right|Election placard of the Free Democratic Party (Germany) for the [[German federal election, 2005]].]]
The party's motto is "So viel Staat wie nötig, so wenig Staat wie möglich!", meaning "as much state as necessary, as little state as possible!"
===Chairmen of the Free Democratic Party, 1948-present===
*[[Theodor Heuss]] 1948-1949
*[[Franz Blücher]] 1949-1954
*[[Thomas Dehler]] 1954-1957
*[[Reinhold Maier]] 1957-1960
*[[Erich Mende]] 1960-1968
*[[Walter Scheel]] 1968-1974
*[[Hans-Dietrich Genscher]] 1974-1985
*[[Martin Bangemann]] 1985-1988
*[[Otto Graf Lambsdorff]] 1988-1993
*[[Klaus Kinkel]] 1993-1995
*[[Wolfgang Gerhardt]] 1995-2001
*[[Guido Westerwelle]] 2001-
==See also==
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Liberalism worldwide]]
*[[List of liberal parties]]
*[[Liberal democracy]]
*[[Liberalism in Germany]]
*[[Friedrich Naumann Foundation]]
*[[Young Liberals (Germany)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fdp.de/ Free Democratic Party (FDP)] official site
[[Category:Political parties in Germany]]
[[Category:Liberal parties]]
[[Category:1948 establishments]]
[[da:FDP]]
[[de:Freie Demokratische Partei]]
[[es:Freie Demokratische Partei]]
[[fr:Freie Demokratische Partei]]
[[nl:Freie Demokratische Partei (BRD)]]
[[no:Freie Demokratische Partei]]
[[pl:Partia Wolnych Demokratów]]
[[pt:Freie Demokratische Partei]]
[[ru:Свободная демократическая партия Германии]]
[[fi:Liberaalidemokraattinen puolue (Saksa)]]
[[sv:FDP]]
[[zh:自由民主黨 (德國)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fax</title>
<id>10826</id>
<revision>
<id>41921647</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:09:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.47.233.37</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fax''' (short for '''facsimile''' - from [[Latin]] "fac simile", "make similar", i.e. "make a copy" - or '''telefacsimile''') is a [[telecommunications]] technology used to transfer copies of documents, especially using affordable devices operating over the [[telephone]] network. The words '''telecopy''' and '''telefax''' are also used as [[synonym]]s.
==Overview==
A fax machine is essentially an [[image scanner]], a [[modem]], and a [[computer printer]] combined into a highly specialized package. The scanner converts the content of a physical document into a digital image, the modem sends the image data over a phone line, and the printer at the other end makes a duplicate of the original document.
Fax machines with additional electronic features can connect to computers, can be used to scan documents into a computer, and to print documents from the computer. Such high-end devices are called [[multifunction printer]]s and cost more than fax machines.
Modern fax technology became feasible only in the mid-[[1970s]] as the sophistication and cost of the three underlying technologies improved to a reasonable level. Fax machines first became popular in [[Japan]], where they had a clear advantage over competing technologies like the [[teleprinter]]; at the time, before the development of easy-to-use [[input method editor]]s, it was faster to handwrite [[kanji]] than to type the characters. Over time, faxing gradually became affordable, and by the mid-[[1980s]], fax machines were very popular around the world.
However, although most businesses still maintain some kind of fax capability, the technology appears increasingly dated in the world of the Internet.
==Capabilities==
There are several different indicators of fax capabilities: Group, class, data transmission rate, and conformance with ITU-T (formerly CCITT) recommendations.
===Group===
* Group 1 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendation T.2. Group 1 faxes take six minutes to transmit a single page, with a vertical resolution of 98 scan lines per inch. Group 1 fax machines are obsolete and no longer manufactured.
* Group 2 faxes conform |
nition of temperature ===
In thermodynamics, [[temperature|absolute temperature]] is ''defined'' in the following way. Suppose we have two [[heat reservoir]]s, which are systems sufficiently large that their [[temperature]]s do not change when energy flows into or out of them. A reversible cycle exchanges heat with the two heat reservoirs. If the cycle absorbs an amount of heat ''Q'' from the first reservoir and delivers an amount of heat ''Q&prime;'' to the second, then the respective reservoir temperatures ''T'' and ''T&prime;'' obey
:<math>\frac{Q}{T} = \frac{Q'}{T'} \,\!</math>
<div style=" width: 320px; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px; padding: 1em; font-size: 90%">
''Proof'': Introduce an additional heat reservoir at an arbitrary temperature ''T<sub>0</sub>'', as well as ''N'' cycles with the following property: the ''j''-th such cycle operates between the ''T<sub>0</sub>'' reservoir and the ''T<sub>j</sub>'' reservoir, transferring energy <math>\delta Q_j</math> to the latter. From the above definition of temperature, the energy extracted from the ''T<sub>0</sub>'' reservoir by the ''j''-th cycle is
:<math>\delta Q_{0,j} = T_0 \frac{\delta Q_j}{T_j} \,\!</math>
Now consider one cycle of the heat engine, accompanied by one cycle of each of the smaller cycles. At the end of this process, each of the ''N'' reservoirs have zero net energy loss (since the energy extracted by the engine is replaced by the smaller cycles), and the heat engine has done an amount of work equal to the energy extracted from the ''T<sub>0</sub>'' reservoir,
:<math>W = \sum_{j=1}^N \delta Q_{0,j} = T_0 \sum_{j=1}^N \frac{\delta Q_j}{T_j} \,\!</math>
If this quantity is positive, this process would be a [[perpetual motion machine|perpetual motion machine of the second kind]], which is impossible. Thus,
:<math>\sum_{i=1}^N \frac{\delta Q_i}{T_i} \le 0 \,\!</math>
Now repeat the above argument for the reverse cycle. The result is
:<math>\sum_{i=1}^N \frac{\delta Q_i}{T_i} = 0 \,\!</math> (reversible cycles)
</div>
Now consider a reversible cycle in which the engine exchanges heats <math>\delta Q_1,\delta Q_2,\cdots,\delta Q_N</math> with a sequence of ''N'' heat reservoirs with temperatures ''T<sub>1</sub>'', ..., ''T<sub>N</sub>''. A negative <math>\delta Q</math> means that energy flows from the reservoir to the engine, and a positive <math>\delta Q</math> means that energy flows from the engine to the reservoir. We can show (see the box on the right) that
:<math>\sum_{i=1}^N \frac{\delta Q_i}{T_i} = 0 \,\!</math>.
Since the cycle is reversible, the engine is always infinitesimally close to equilibrium, so its temperature is equal to any reservoir with which it is contact. In the limiting case of a reversible cycle consisting of a ''continuous'' sequence of transformations,
:<math>\oint \frac{\delta Q}{T} = 0 \,\!</math> (reversible cycles)
where the integral is taken over the entire cycle, and ''T'' is the temperature of the system at each point in the cycle.
=== Entropy as a state function ===
We can now deduce an important fact about the entropy change during ''any'' thermodynamic transformation, not just a cycle. First, consider a reversible transformation that brings a system from an equilibrium state ''A'' to another equilibrium state ''B''. If we follow this with ''any'' reversible transformation which returns that system to state ''A'', our above result says that the net entropy change is zero. This implies that the entropy change in the first transformation depends ''only on the initial and final states''.
This allows us to define the entropy of any ''equilibrium'' state of a system. Choose a reference state ''R'' and call its entropy ''S<sub>R</sub>''. The entropy of any equilibrium state ''X'' is
:<math>S_X = S_R + \int_R^X \frac{\delta Q}{T} \,\! </math>
Since the integral is independent of the particular transformation taken, this equation is well-defined.
=== Entropy change in irreversible transformations ===
We now consider irreversible transformations. It can be shown that the entropy change during any transformation between two ''equilibrium'' states is
:<math>\Delta S \ge \int \frac{\delta Q}{T} \,\!</math>
where the equality holds if the transformation is reversible.
Notice that if <math>\delta Q=0</math>, then &Delta;''S'' &ge; 0. This is the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which we have discussed earlier.
Suppose a system is thermally and mechanically isolated from the environment. For example, consider an insulating rigid box divided by a movable partition into two volumes, each filled with gas. If the pressure of one gas is higher, it will expand by moving the partition, thus performing work on the other gas. Also, if the gases are at different temperatures, heat can flow from one gas to the other provided the partition is an imperfect insulator. Our above result indicates that the entropy of the system ''as a whole'' will increase during these process (it could in principle remain constant, but this is unlikely.) Typically, there exists a maximum amount of entropy the system may possess under the circumstances. This entropy corresponds to a state of ''stable equilibrium'', since a transformation to any other equilibrium state would cause the entropy to decrease, which is forbidden. Once the system reaches this maximum-entropy state, no part of the system can perform work on any other part. It is in this sense that entropy is a measure of the energy in a system that "cannot be used to do work".
=== Measuring entropy ===
In real [[experiment]]s, it is quite difficult to [[measurement|measure]] the entropy of a system. The techniques for doing so are based on the thermodynamic definition of the entropy, and require extremely careful [[calorimetry]].
For simplicity, we will examine a mechanical system, whose thermodynamic state may be specified by its volume ''V'' and pressure ''P''. In order to measure the entropy of a specific state, we must first measure the [[heat capacity]] at constant volume and at constant pressure (denoted ''C<sub>V</sub>'' and ''C<sub>P</sub>'' respectively), for a successive set of states intermediate between a reference state and the desired state. The heat capacities are related to the entropy ''S'' and the temperature ''T'' by
:<math>C_X = T \left(\frac{\partial S}{\partial T}\right)_X \,\!</math>
where the ''X'' subscript refers to either constant volume or constant pressure. This may be [[numerical integration|integrated numerically]] to obtain a change in entropy:
:<math>\Delta S = \int \frac{C_X}{T} dT \,\!</math>
We can thus obtain the entropy of any state (''P'',''V'') with respect to a reference state (''P<sub>0</sub>'',''V<sub>0</sub>''). The exact formula depends on our choice of intermediate states. For example, if the reference state has the same pressure as the final state,
:<math> S(P,V) = S(P, V_0) + \int^{T(P,V)}_{T(P,V_0)} \frac{C_P(P,V(T,P))}{T} dT \,\!</math>
In addition, if the path between the reference and final states lies across any [[phase transition|first order phase transition]], the [[latent heat]] associated with the transition must be taken into account.
The entropy of the reference state must be determined independently. Ideally, one chooses a reference state at an extremely high temperature, at which the system exists as a gas. The entropy in such a state would be that of a classical ideal gas plus contributions from molecular rotations and vibrations, which may be determined [[spectroscopy|spectroscopically]]. Choosing a ''low'' temperature reference state is sometimes problematic since the entropy at low temperatures may behave in unexpected ways. For instance, a calculation of the entropy of [[ice]] by the latter method, assuming no entropy at zero temperature, falls short of the value obtained with a high-temperature reference state by 3.41 J/(mol&middot;K). This is due to the "zero-point" entropy of ice mentioned earlier.
== Statistical entropy ==
=== Entropy and ''disorder'' ===
As stated above, when discussing entropy, the term disorder does not necessarily mean disorganization. Many textbooks utilize a bedroom as an example of a hypothetical system in which disorganization is spontaneously increasing, and those textbooks say this is an example of entropy. A statement like this must be carefully made or else it can be misleading. For example, if all of the socks in the room were in perfect rows in a drawer, would that configuration have less entropy than if the socks were strewn about the room? The answer is to be found in the Shannon definition of entropy. One must ask "how many distinct ways can socks be folded in the drawers", and "how many different ways can they be strewn about the room"? If these questions can be answered objectively, then the configuration with the most possibilities (probably the socks strewn about the room) would have the highest entropy, although this entropy would not be true thermodynamic entropy, but it would qualify as a type of information entropy. It is only when the information entropy concept is applied to the individual particles of a thermodynamic system that the information entropy and the thermodynamic entropy become the same.
=== Mathematical description ===
The macroscopic state of the system is defined by a distribution on the [[microstate (statistical mechanics)|microstates]] that are accessible to a system in the course of its [[fluctuations|thermal fluctuations]]. So the entropy is defined over two differe |
, ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1936 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'' (1936), and ''[[Camille (movie)|Camille]]'' (1937).
By this time, Cukor had established a reputation as a director who could coax great performances from actresses and he became known as a "woman's director," a title which he resented. One of Cukor's first ingenues was actress [[Katharine Hepburn]], whose looks and personality left RKO officials at a loss as to how to use her. Cukor ended up directing her in her most successful films and they became close friends off the set.
Cukor was hired to direct ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' by David O. Selznick in 1937 and he spent one year with pre-production duties as well as spending long hours coaching [[Vivien Leigh]] and [[Olivia de Havilland]], the film's stars. Cukor was soon fired from the film, however, with rumors ranging from [[Clark Gable]] being uncomfortable with Cukor's [[homosexuality]] to Cukor quitting the film himself because of script changes affecting the quality of his work. Whatever the reason, Cukor continued to coach Leigh and De Havilland off the set.
Following the ''Gone with the Wind'' debacle, Cukor directed ''[[The Women]]'' (1939), a popular film notable for its all female cast and ''[[The Philadelphia Story]]'' (1940) starring Katharine Hepburn. He also directed another of his favorite actresses, [[Greta Garbo]], in ''Two Faced Woman'' (1941) before she retired from the screen.
The 1940s was a decade of hits and misses for Cukor. He was off track with ''Two Faced Woman'' as well as ''Her Cardboard Lover'' (1942) starring [[Norma Shearer]]. However, he did achieve more success with films such as ''A Woman's Face'' (1941) with [[Joan Crawford]], ''[[Gaslight (1944 film)|Gaslight]]'' (1944) with [[Ingrid Bergman]] and ''[[Adam's Rib]]'' (1949) with [[Katharine Hepburn]] and [[Spencer Tracy]].
Cukor's reputation as an actor's director continued as he helped several actors win [[Academy Awards]]. [[James Stewart (actor)|James Stewart]] won a [[Best Actor]] Oscar for ''The Philadelphia Story'', [[Ronald Colman]] won a [[Best Actor]] Oscar for ''[[A Double Life]]'' (1947) and [[Judy Holliday]] won for [[Best Actress]] in 1950 for ''[[Born Yesterday]]''. In 1954, Cukor made his first film in color, ''[[A Star Is Born (1954 film)|A Star Is Born]]'' which featured an impressive come-back performance by [[Judy Garland]]. A decade later, Cukor won an Academy Award himself, for [[Best Director]], for ''[[My Fair Lady]]'' (1964), for which [[Rex Harrison]] won a [[Best Actor]] Oscar too.
He continued to work into his 80s and directed his last film, ''Rich and Famous'', in 1981.
Cukor was well known in his personal life as a man having a good time. During the heyday of Hollywood, his celebrated home was the site of weekly Sunday parties and his guests knew that they would always find interesting company, good food, and a beautiful atmosphere when they visited. Cukor's friends were of paramount importance to him and he kept his home filled with their photographs. Regular attendees at his soirees included [[Katharine Hepburn]] and [[Spencer Tracy]], [[Joan Crawford]] and [[Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.]] , [[Lauren Bacall]] and [[Humphrey Bogart]], [[Claudette Colbert]], [[Marlene Dietrich]], [[Laurence Olivier]] and [[Vivien Leigh]], [[Richard Cromwell]], [[Noel Coward]], [[Cole Porter]], [[James Whale]], [[Edith Head]], and [[Norma Shearer]], especially after the death of her first husband, [[Irving Thalberg]]. Cukor, who was gay, did not come out as a spokesman for gay rights but worked behind the scenes to fight homophobia in Hollywood.
George Cukor died 1983 at the age of 83. He was interred in the [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Glendale, California]].
==Filmography==
*''[[Grumpy (film)]]'' (1930)
*''[[Virtuous Sin]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Royal Family of Broadway]]'' (1930)
*''[[Tarnished Lady]]'' (1931),
*''[[Girls About Town]]'' (1931),
*''[[A Bill of Divorcement]]'' (1932),
*''[[Rockabye]]'' (1932),
*''[[What Price Hollywood?]]'' (1932),
*''[[One Hour with You]]'' (1932)
*''[[Dinner At Eight]]'' (1933),
*''[[Our Betters]]'' (1933),
*''[[Little Women (1933 film)|Little Women]]'' (1933),
*''[[Personal History, Adventures, Experience, and Observation of David Copperfield the Younger|David Copperfield]]'' (1935),
*''[[No More Ladies]]'', (1935),
*''[[Sylvia Scarlett]]'' (1935),
*''[[Camille (film)|Camille]]'' (1936),
*''[[Romeo and Juliet (1936 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'' (1936),
*''[[Holiday (movie)|Holiday]]'' (1938),
*''[[Zaza (1939 film)|Zaza]]'' (1939),
*''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' (started, replaced by Victor Fleming and Sam Wood) (1939),
*''[[The Women]]'' (1939),
*''[[The Philadelphia Story]]'' (1940),
*''[[Susan and God]]'' (1940),
*''[[Two-Faced Woman]]'' (1941),
*''[[A Woman's Face]]'' (1941),
*''[[Her Cardboard Lover]]'' (1942),
*''[[Keeper of the Flame (film)|Keeper of the Flame]]'' (1942),
*''[[Gaslight (1944 film)|Gaslight]]'' (1944),
*''[[Winged Victory (film)|Winged Victory]]'' (1944),
*''[[A Double Life]]'' (1947),
*''[[Edward, My Son]]'' (1949),
*''[[Adam's Rib]]'' (1949),
*''[[Born Yesterday]]'' (1950),
*''[[A Life of Her Own]]'' (1950),
*''[[The Model and the Marriage Broker]]'' (1951),
*''[[The Marrying Kind]]'' (1952),
*''[[Pat and Mike]]'' (1952),
*''[[The Actress]]'' (1953),
*''[[A Star Is Born (1954 film)|A Star Is Born]]'' (1954),
*''[[It Should Happen to You]]'' (1954),
*''[[Bhowani Junction]]'' (1956),
*''[[Les Girls]]'' (1957),
*''[[Wild Is the Wind]]'' (1957),
*''[[Heller in Pink Tights]]'' (1960),
*''[[Let's Make Love]]'' (1960),
*''[[The Chapman Report]]'' (1962),
*''[[My Fair Lady]]'' (1964),
*''[[Justine]]'' (1969),
*''[[Travels With My Aunt]]'' (1972),
*''[[The Blue Bird (film)|The Blue Bird]]'' (1976),
*''[[Rich and Famous (film)|Rich and Famous]]'' (1981).
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0002030|name=George Cukor}}
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/04/cukor.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
==Bibliographies==
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/cukor.html George Cukor Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]
==References==
Wakeman, John. ''World Film Directors''. New York: H.W. Wilson Company, 1987. ISBN 0-8242-0757-2
Hillstrom, Laurie Collier. ''International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers''. Detroit: St. James Press, 1997. ISBN 1-55862-302-7
Katz, Ephraim. ''The Film Encyclopedia''. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. ISBN 0-06-273755-4
[[Category:1899 births|Cukor, George]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[geography]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of geography. For a comprehensive list, see |
rama, the Nationalists attempted another assault on Madrid, from the North-East this time. The objective was the town of [[Guadalajara, Spain|Guadalajara]], 50 kilometers from Madrid. The whole Italian expeditionary corps (35,000 men, with 80 battle tanks and 200 field artillery) was deployed, as [[Mussolini]] wanted the victory to be credited to Italy. On [[9 March]] [[1937]], the Italians made a breach in the Republican lines, but did not properly exploit the advance. However, the rest of the Nationalist army was advancing, and the situation appeared critical for the Republicans. A mixture of the best available units of the Republican army was quickly set up, among them the XIth and XIIth International Brigades.
At dawn on [[10 March]] [[1937]] the Nationalists closed in, and by noon, the ''Garibaldi'' Battalion made its move. Some confusion arose from the fact that the sides were not aware of each other's moves, and that both sides spoke Italian; this resulted in scouts from both sides exchanging information without realising they were enemies. The Republican lines advanced and made contact with the XIth International Brigade. Fascist battle tanks were shot at and infantry patrols came into action (there took place the incident in which a fascist officer asked why Italian soldiers were shooting at his party, and was responded ''Noi siamo Italiani di Garibaldi'', at which point the Fascists surrendered). The action went on as some sort of Italian civil war in foreign land. The common language was taken advantage of when the Republicans used loudspeakers to broadcast propaganda messages and airplanes to drop messages promising to pay Fascist deserters.
On the 11th, the Fascists broke the front of the Republican army. The ''Thälmann'' Brigade suffered heavy losses but succeeded in holding the [[Trijueque]]-[[Torija]] road. ''Garibaldi'' also held its positions. On the 12th, Republican planes and tanks attacked. The ''Thaelmann'' Brigade attacked [[Trijuete]] with bayonets and re-took the town, capturing numerous prisoners.
== Composition of International Brigade units ==
The first brigades to be formed were mostly composed from [[France|French]], [[Belgium|Belgian]], [[Italy|Italian]] and [[Germany|German]] volunteers, and were numbered as the XI, XII and XIII mixed brigades (according to the re-organisation of the Spanish army, which was consituted in ten ''mixed Brigades'' immediately after the failed ''coup''; these brigades mixed experienced soldiers with volunteers who had just joined but had no experience of combat).
There were nearly 40,000 volunteers, of whom 9,000 to 10,000 were French, for the defense of the Spanish Republic. Most of them were workers, and half of them were from Paris. They included a large number of veterans of the First World War, which made them efficient fighters. The first engagements fought by the International Brigades during the [[Battle of Madrid]] demonstrated their military value.
The International Brigades were mainly Communists, or under Communist authority. Some were involved in the fighting in [[Barcelona]] against Republican opponents of the Communists: the [[POUM]] (''Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista'', an anti-[[Stalinist]] Marxist party) and anarchists. However overseas volunteers from anarchist, socialist, liberal and other political positions also served with the brigades.
The battalions were often constituted by speakers of a particular nationality or language, so as to ease understanding of orders. They were named, formally at least, after heroes of the left among the predominant nationalities in each unit.
Later in the war, there was a tightening of military discipline amongst the Spanish Republican military, and learning Spanish became mandatory.
===Non-Spanish Battalions===
* [[Abraham Lincoln Battalion]] Predominantly volunteers from the [[United States]]. The battalion was the first American military unit to be racially-integrated and was at one point commanded by [[Oliver Law]], who became the first black man to lead white American combat troops.
* [[André Marty Battalion]]: Predominantly [[France|French]] and [[Belgium|Belgian]].
* [[Checo-Balcánico Battalion]]: [[Czechoslovakia]]n and [[Balkan]] volunteers.
* [[Commune de Paris Battalion]]: Predominantly French.
* [[Deba Blagoiev Battalion]]: Predominantly [[Bulgaria]]n unit, later merged into [[Dajakovich Battalion]].
* Dajakovich Battalion: Predominantly Bulgarian unit.
* [[Dimitrov Battalion]]: Volunteers from [[Greece]], [[Yugoslavia]], Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, [[Hungary]] and [[Romania]]. Named after [[Georgi Dimitrov]].
* [[Dombrowski Battalion]]: Mostly [[Poland|Polish]] and Hungarian volunteers. Also Czechoslovakian, [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]], Bulgarian and [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestinian Jews]].
* [[Edgar André Battalion]]: Mostly [[Germany|German]]. Also [[Austria]]n, Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, [[Albania]]n, Romanian, [[Denmark|Danish]], [[Sweden|Swedish]], [[Norway|Norwegian]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] volunteers.
* [[Español Battalion]]: [[Mexico|Mexicans]], [[Cuba|Cubans]], [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Ricans]], [[Chile]]ans, [[Argentina|Argentinians]] and [[Bolivia]]ns.
* [[Figlio Battalion]]: mostly [[Italy|Italian]] unit; later merged with [[Garibaldi Battalion]].
* Garibaldi Battalion: mostly Italian. Also some Albanians and Yugoslavs.
* [[George Washington Battalion]]: the second US battalion. After heavy casualties at Jarama and Brunete, it was merged with the Lincoln Battalion, to form the '''Lincoln-Washington Battalion'''.
* [[Hans Beimler Battalion]]: Mostly German unit; later merged with [[Thaelmann Battalion]].
* [[Henri Barbusse Battalion]]: Predominantly French unit.
* [[Henri Vuillemin Battalion]]: Predominantly French unit.
* [[Italoespañol Battalion]]: Italian and Spanish volunteers.
* [[Louise Michel Battalion]]: French and Belgian unit, named after [[Louise Michel]] a hero of the 1871 [[Paris Commune]])
* [[Louise Michel II Battalion]]: Predominantly French, later merged with Henri Vuillemin Battalion.
* [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion]]: Predominantly [[Canada|Canadian]] unit, named after two leaders of an 1837 revolt against the [[British Empire]]. Also known as the Canadian battalion and "the MacPaps".
* [[Marsellaise Battalion]]: Predominantly French, also some British.
* [[Mathis Rakosi Battalion]]: Predominantly Hungarian.
* [[Adam Mickiewicz Battalion]]: Predominantly voluneers from Poland.
* [[Palafox Battalion]]: Voluneers from Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and France.
* [[Pierre Brachet Battalion]]: Mostly French.
* [[Radford Battalion]]: Mostly British.
* [[Rakosi Battalion]]: Mainly Hungarian, also including volunteers from Czechoslovakia, Ukraine, Poland, [[China]], [[Mongolia]] and Palestinian Jews.
* [[Saklatava Battalion]]: Named after a British Communist MP of [[India]]n descent. The name was not widely used and the Battalion's banner identified it as the "'''British Battalion'''". However, a significant proportion of its personnel were actually from [[Ireland]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]] and other [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth countries]].
* [[Sans nons o Des Neuf Nationalités Battalion]]: French, Belgian, Italian, German, Austrian, Dutch, Danish, [[Switzerland|Swiss]] and Polish.
* [[Six Février Battalion]]: French, Belgian, [[Morocco|Moroccan]], [[Algeria|Algerian]], [[Libya|Libyan]], [[Syria|Syrian]], [[Iran|Iranian]], [[Iraq|Iraqi]], Chinese, [[Japan|Japanese]], [[India]]n and Palestinian Jewish volunteers.
* Thaelmann Battalion: predominantly German, named after German communist leader [[Ernst Thaelmann]], leader of the German Communist Party.
* [[Thomas Masaryk Battalion]]: Mostly Czechoslovakian.
* [[Tschapaiew Battalion]]: Personnel from Ukraine, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Yugoslavian, [[Turkey]], Italy, Germany, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, France, Greece, Albania, Netherlands, Switzerland and the [[Baltic countries]].
* [[Vaillant-Couturier Battalion]]: French, Belgian, Czechoslovakian, Bulgarian, Swedish, Norwegian and Danish volunteers.
* [[Veinte Battalion]]: Italian, Yugoslavian and Bulgarian volunteers.
* [[Henri Vuillemin Battalion]]: Mostly French.
* [[Zwölfte Februar Battalion]]: Mostly Austrian.
* ''Sub-battalion units''
** [[Connolly Column]]: a group of about 80 Irish volunteers, named after [[Irish republicanism|Irish republican]] hero, [[James Connolly]] and led by [[Frank Ryan (Irish republican)|Frank Ryan]].
== Status of the Brigades after the war ==
[[Image:International Brigades monument berlin.jpg|thumbnail|The monument which honours the German brigadists in Berlin]]
[[Image:25 anni int brigades.jpg|thumb|Czechoslovak poster celebrating the 25th anniversary of establishing the International Brigades.]]
[[Image:Perelachaise-BrigadesInternationales-p1000377.jpg|thumb|The monument honouring the French Brigadists in [[Père Lachaise]] cemetery.]]
Since the Civil War was eventually won by the Nationalists, the Brigadists were initially on the "wrong side" of History, especially since most of their home countries had a right-wing government (in France, for instance, the [[Popular Front]] was not in power anymore). However, since most of these countries found themselves at war with the very powers which had been fought in Spain, the Brigadists gained some prestige as the first guard of the democracies, having fought a prophetical combat. Retrospectively, it was clear that the war in Spain was as much a Spanish Civil war as a precursor of the coming [[Second World War]]. Some glory was therefore accredited to the volunteers (a great deal of the survivors having also fought gallantly during the World War), but this soon faded in the fear that it would promote (by association) communism. Also, the ambiguous stance viz. Germany of the Communist Parties in the West, during the period between the Hitler-Stalin |
Correspondence]] there was an undertaking to form an Arab state in exchange for the Great [[Arab Revolt]] and in the [[Balfour Declaration]] in 1917 to "favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people". McMahon's promises are seen by Arab nationalists as a pledge of immediate Arab independence, an undertaking violated by the region's subsequent partition into British and French [[League of Nations mandate]]s under the secret [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] of May 1916 which became the real cornerstone of the [[geopolitics]] structuring the entire region. Prior to the conference [[Emir Faisal]], British ally and son of the king of the [[Hijaz]], had agreed in the [[Faisal-Weizmann Agreement]] to support the immigration of Jews into Palestine as part of a larger Arab state. When the conference did not produce that Arab state, Faisal called instead for Palestine to become part of his new Arab Syrian kingdom.
In 1920 the new [[League of Nations]] established the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], which identified two territories of different administration, one to the west of the [[Jordan River]], the other to the east. Article 25 specified that the eastern area did not have to be subject to all parts of the Mandate, notably the provisions regarding a Jewish homeland. This was used by the British as one rationale to establish an Arab state, which it saw as at least partially fulfilling the undertakings in the [[Hussein-McMahon Correspondence]]. On [[11 April]] [[1921]] the British passed administration of the eastern region to the [[Hashemite]] Arab dynasty from the [[Hejaz]] what later became part of [[Saudi Arabia]] as the Emirate of [[Transjordan]] and on [[15 May]] [[1923]] recognized it as a state.
Under the Mandate, Jewish immigration to Palestine increased substantially. Between 1920 and 1945, Jews went from 11% to 31% of the rapidly expanding population, partly due to an influx of [[Jewish refugees]] from Nazism in Europe. [[Palestinian]] Arab leaders strongly opposed the immigration. In 1936 the British [[Peel Commission]] advised that the western part of Palestine be divided between Arabs and Jews. The Arabs then launched the [[Great Uprising]] against British rule in an effort to end the immigration. The Jews, for their part, organized the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]] to fight the British and the [[Haganah]] and [[Palmach]] to fight the Arabs. By the time order was restored in March of 1939, more than 3,000 Arabs, 2,000 Jews, and 600 Britons had been killed.
==Post-Mandate==
[[Image:UN Partition Plan For Palestine 1947.png|right|thumb|120px|The UN Partition Plan]]
Soon after [[World War II]], the British, under constant armed attack by Jews and Arabs, decided to leave Palestine. The [[United Nations]] attempted to solve the dispute by putting forward the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]], dividing the land area between the two populations, on [[November 29]], [[1947]]; the [[Jewish Agency]] accepted the plan, while the Palestinian Arabs, along with their allies elsewhere in the Arab world, rejected it as inadequate. The Arab-Jewish fighting within Palestine escalated to full-scale war right after the UN partition plan was approved, and on [[May 14]], [[1948]], the Jewish population declared independence as the state of [[Israel]]. The armies of [[Egypt]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Syria]] then invaded, but did not succeed even in holding onto much of the areas reserved in the UN partition plan for the Arab state. (For a more detailed account, see [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]). Large numbers of Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes during the fighting, in what is called in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] the ''[[Nakba]]'', or "Tragedy", and to this day have not been allowed to return (see [[Palestinian exodus]]). Israel managed to maintain its independence and even expand its borders, but a new refugee problem, this one of Palestinian Arabs, was created, and was compounded by [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]].
[[Image:We-map.png|left|thumb|120px|West Bank]]
[[Image:Gz-map.png|left|thumb|120px|Gaza Strip]]
What remained of the territories allotted to the Arab state in Palestine was [[Rule of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan|annexed]] by [[Jordan]] (the [[West Bank]]) or [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|occupied]] by [[Egypt]] (the [[Gaza Strip]]) from 1948 to 1967.
As a result of the 1967 [[Six Day War]], the [[Israel Defense Forces]] took control of the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza Strip]], [[Golan Heights]], and the [[Sinai Peninsula]] bringing them under [[military rule]]. The United Nation's [[Security Council]] passed [[Resolution 242]], promoting the "[[land for peace]]" formula, which called for Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency. Since that time, the Palestinians have struggled to assert their own independence, either in all the territories of Palestine or in the West Bank and Gaza Strip particularly. In the course of 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], the invading forces of Egypt and Syria were pushed back. Israel returned the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to [[Egypt]] as part of the [[1978 Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel]].
[[Image:Is-map.PNG|right|thumb|120px|Map of the [[Israel|State of Israel]] today]]
After the [[First Intifada]], attempts at the [[peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] were made at the [[Madrid Conference of 1991]]. As the process progressed, in 1993 the Israelis allowed Chairman and President of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] [[Yassir Arafat]] to return to the region.
Following the historic [[1993 Oslo Peace Accords between Palestinians and Israel]] (the "Oslo Accords"), which gave the Palestinians limited self-government through the [[Palestinian Authority]], and other detailed negotiations, [[proposals for a Palestinian state]] gained momentum. They were soon followed in 1994 by the [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace]]. An attempt was made to end the struggle at the [[Camp David 2000 Summit between Palestinians and Israel]] but no agreement was reached. To date, efforts to resolve the conflict have ended in deadlock, and the people of Palestine, Jews and Arabs, are engaged in a bloody conflict, the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].
==Intifada, Separation Barrier, Road Map==
From 1987 to 1993 the [[First Intifada]] by Palestinians against Israel took place. A fierce [[Intifada]] by the Palestinians then erupted in 2000 known as the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]] allegedly in response to a visit to the [[Temple Mount]] by [[Ariel Sharon]] (who subsequently became Israel's Prime Minister). The violence grew, particularly [[suicide bombings]] by [[Hamas]], [[Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades]], [[Islamic Jihad]], [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], [[Hezbollah]], and [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command]]. [[Israeli Security Forces]] responded with invasions, [[targeted killing]] of Palestinian military leaders and organizers and by building a complex [[separation barrier]] between Israel, including key Israeli settlements, and the large Palestinian populations in the West Bank.
In 2002 the [[Road map for peace]] calling for the resolution of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] was proposed by a "quartet": The [[United States]], [[European Union]], [[Russia]], and [[United Nations]]. [[President of the United States of America|U.S. President]] [[George W. Bush]] in a speech on [[June 24]], [[2002]] called for an [[independent Palestinian state]] living side by side with the [[Israel]]i [[state]] in peace. Bush was the first U.S. President to explicitly call for such a Palestinian state.
[[Image:BarrierMay2005.png|thumb|120px|The approved barrier route as of May 2005]]
According to [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan of 2004]], it withdrew from the Gaza strip and some areas in Northern West Bank. Palestinians have continued to fight using a variety of tactics and weapons, such as the [[Qassam rocket]]s, [[explosive belt]]s for more [[suicide bombing]]s, called [[martyrdom operation]]s by some [[Muslim]]s, [[car bomb]]s and [[smuggling tunnels]] to bring in additional weapons and ammunition from [[Egypt]]. In response the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]] is being built with the stated goal to stifle the movements of Palestinian terrorists. Areas of Israel protected by the barrier have experienced a sharp decrease in terror attacks, though it is not clear if the barrier alone is responsible for this. Yet [[violence against Israelis]] continues with a long [[list of massacres committed during the Al-Aqsa Intifada]] with simultaneous [[accusations against Israel of war crimes during the Al-Aqsa Intifada]].
==See also==
*[[History of ancient Israel and Judah]]
*[[History of Israel]]
*[[History of Levant]]
*[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]
*[[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan]]
*[[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt]]
<!--{{split}}[[Biblical Palestine]], [[Ancient history of Palestine]] & [[Modern history of Palestine]].-->
==External links==
*[http://www.zionism-israel.com/impact_of_zionism.htm Zionism and its impact] Article discussing the impact of Zionist Settlement in Palestine.
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/palpop.htm Population of Palestine in Ottoman and Mandate Times]
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/zionism_history.htm A History of Zionism and the Creation of Israel] Israeli-Arab relations during Ottoman and Mandatory times.
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/briefhistory.htm A brief history of Israel, Palestine and the Conflict] Balanced and comprehensive history of Palestine and Israel from earliest times.
* [http://libcom.org/library/21st-century-intifada-israel-palestine-aufheben History of the Israel-Palestine conflict from the point of view of the working class] on libcom.org library
[[Catego |
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|{{polytonic|ἄμορφος}}||amorphos||{{polytonic|ἄμορφ}}-||amorph-||shapeless||[[amorphous]], [[amorphism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμυλον}}||amylon||{{polytonic|ἄμυλ}}-||amyl-||starch||[[amylin]], [[amyloid]], [[amylose]], [[amylopectin]], [[amylase]], [[amyls]], [[amylophagia]], [[amyl]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμυγδαλή}}||amugdalē||{{polytonic|ἀμυγδ-<br>ἀλμ}}-||amygd-<br>alm-||almond tree||[[amygdala]], [[amygdaline]], [[amygdule]]<br>[[almond]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφί}}||amphi||{{polytonic|ἀμφι}}-||amphi-||on both sides||[[amphipoda]], [[amphioxus]], [[amphiglossus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφιβάλλειν}}||amphiballein||{{polytonic|ἀμφιβ}}-||amphib-||to throw on either side, to doubt||[[amphibole]], [[amphibology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφίβιος}}||amphibios||{{polytonic|ἀμφιβι}}-||amphibi-||living a double life||[[amphibious]], [[amphibians]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφίβολος}}||amphibolos||{{polytonic|ἀμφιβολ}}-||amphibol-||doubtful||[[amphibole]], [[amphibolite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφίβραχυς}}||amphibrakhus||{{polytonic|ἀμφιβραχ}}-||amphibrach-||short at both ends||[[amphibrach]], [[amphibolite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφιθέατρον}}||amphitheatron||{{polytonic|ἀμφιθέατ}}-||amphitheat-||theater||[[amphitheater]], [[amphitheatric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμφικτυονία}}||Amphiktyonia||{{polytonic|ἀμφικτυονι}}-||amphiktyoni-||theater||[[Amphictyony]], [[amphictyonic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφίμακρος}}||amphimakros||{{polytonic|ἀμφιμακ}}-||amphimac-||long at both ends||[[amphimacer]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφορεύς}}||amphoreus||{{polytonic|ἀμφορ}}-||amphor-||bearer||[[amphora]], [[ampulla]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφότερος}}||amphoteros||{{polytonic|ἀμφότερ}}-||amphoter-||each of two||[[amphoteric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνά}}||ana||{{polytonic|ἀνα}}-||ana-||again, backward, upward||[[anabolism]], [[anachronism]], [[anaplasia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναβαίνειν}}||anabainein||{{polytonic|ἀναβα}}-||anaba-||to go up||[[anabasis]], [[anabatic wind|anabatic]], [[anabantidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναβαπτίζειν}}||anabaptizein||{{polytonic|ἀναβαπτ}}-||anabapt-||to re-baptize||[[anabaptist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναβιώνειν}}||anabiōnein||{{polytonic|ἀναβιω}}-||anabio-||to return to life||[[anabiosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναβολή}}||anabolē||{{polytonic|ἀναβολ}}-||anabol-||putting off, delaying||[[anabolism]], [[anabolic steroid]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάγλυφος}}||anagluphos||{{polytonic|ἀνάγλυφ}}-||anaglyp-||putting wrought in low relief||[[anaglyph]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναγραμματισμός}}||anagrammatismos||{{polytonic|ἀναγραμ}}-||anagram-||transpose the letters of one word so as to form another||[[anagram]], [[anagrammatize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναγωγή}}||anagōgē||{{polytonic|ἀναγωγ}}-||anagog-||spiritual uplift, reference to a principle||[[anagoge]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάδρομος}}||anadromos||{{polytonic|ἀναδρομ}}-||anadrom-||running up||[[anadromous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάδειν}}||anadein||{{polytonic|ἀναδ}}-||anad-||to bind up||[[anadem]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναδίπλωσις}}||anadipōlsis||{{polytonic|ἀναδιπλο}}-||anadiplo-||to redouble||[[anadiplosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάδρομος}}||anadromos||{{polytonic|ἀναδρομ}}-||anadrom-||running up||[[anadromous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναθεματίζειν}}||anathematizein||{{polytonic|ἀναθεμα}}-||anathema-||ban, curse, or excommunication||[[anathema]], [[anathematize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναισθησία}}||anaisthēsia||{{polytonic|ἀναισθη}}-||anaesthe-||lack of sensation, insensibility under surgical treatment||[[anaesthesia]], [[anaesthesiologist]], [[anaesthetic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάκλισις}}||anaklisis||{{polytonic|ἀνακλι}}-||anakli-||to lean back||[[anaclitism]], [[anaclisis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνακολουθία}}||anakolouthia||{{polytonic|ἀνακολουθ}}-||anakolouth-||inconsequence||[[anacoluthon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάκρουσις}}||anacrousis||{{polytonic|ἀνακρου}}-||anacru-||push back, beginning of a tune||[[anacrusis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλγησία}}||analgesia||{{polytonic|ἀναλγησ}}-||analges-||painlessnes||[[analgesia]], [[analgetic]], [[analgesics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλέγειν}}||analegein||{{polytonic|ἀναλε}}-||anale-||to gather||[[analects]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάλειμμα}}||analēmma||{{polytonic|ἀνάλειμ}}-||analem-||support||[[analemma]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναληπτικός}}||analeptikos||{{polytonic|ἀναληπτ}}-||analept-||restorative||[[analeptic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάλκιμος}}||analkimos||{{polytonic|ἀνάλκιμ}}-||analcim-||weak||[[analcime]], [[analcite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλογία}}||analogia||{{polytonic|ἀναλογι}}-||analogy-||proportion [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%236927]||[[analogy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλογικός}}||analogikos||{{polytonic|ἀναλογ}}-||analog-||based on mathematical ratios [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%236929]||[[analog (disambiguation)|analog]], [[analogue]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάλογος}}||analogos||{{polytonic|ἀναλογ}}-||analog-||proportionate, conformable [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%236934]||[[analogous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλύειν}}||analuein||{{polytonic|ἀναλυ}}-||analy-||to loosen, to simplify||[[analysis]], [[analytical]], [[analyze]], [[analyst]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλφάβητος}}||analphabētos||{{polytonic|ἀναλφαβητ}}-||analphabet-||uneducated||[[analphabetic]], [[analphabetism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάμνησις}}||anamnēsis||{{polytonic|ἀναμνησ}}-||anamnes-||recollection, reminiscence||[[Anamnesis in Traumatic Incident Reduction|anamnesis]], [[anamnestic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναμορφώνειν}}||anamorfōnein||{{polytonic|ἀναμορφω}}-||anamorfο-||transform||[[anamorphosis]], [[anamorphoscope]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἂναξ}}||anax||{{polytonic|ἀναμορφω}}-||anamorfο-||lord, master, king||[[anax imperator|anax]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάπαιστος}}||anapaistos||{{polytonic|ἀναπαιστ}}-||anapaest-||anapaestic verse||[[anapest]], [[anapestic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάπλαστος}}||anaplastos||{{polytonic|ἀναπλαστ}}-||anaplast-||remolded||[[anaplasty]], [[anaplasia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναπληρωτικός}}||anaplērōtikos||{{polytonic|ἀναπληρωτικ}}-||anaplerotic-||filling up||[[Anaplerotic pathways|anaplerotic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναπνοή}}||anapnoē||{{polytonic|ἀναπνο}}-||anapno-||respiration, breathing||[[anapnoic]], [[anapnograph]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναπόδεικτος}}||anapodeiktos||{{polytonic|ἀναπόδεικ}}-||anapodeic-||not proved||[[anapodeictic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάπτυξις}}||anaptuksis||{{polytonic|ἀνάπτυξ}}-||anaptyx-||expansion, explanation||[[anaptyxis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄναρθρος}}||anarthros||{{polytonic|ἀναρθρ}}-||anarthr-||not articulated||[[anarthria]], [[anarthrous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄναρχος}}||anarkhos||{{polytonic|ἀναρχ}}-||anarch-||without a ruler||[[anarchy(word)|anarchy]], [[anarchism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναστομόω}}||anastomōo||{{polytonic|ἀναστομo}}-||anastomo-||furnish with a mouth, open up||[[anastomosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναστρέφειν}}||anastrephein||{{polytonic|ἀναστρ}}-||anastr-||to turn back||[[anastrophe]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνατείνειν}}||anateinein||{{polytonic|ἀνατ}}-||anat-||to stretch||[[anatase]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνατολή}}||anatolē||{{polytonic|ἀνατολ}}-||anatol-||East||[[Anatolia]], [[Anatolian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνατομία}}||anatomia||{{polytonic|ἀνατομι}}-||anatomi-||dissection||[[anatomical]], [[anatomist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνατρέπειν}}||anatrepein||{{polytonic|ἀνατρεπ}}-||anatrep-||to reverse||[[anatropous]], [[anatreptic]], [[anatropal]], [[anatropia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναφέρειν}}||anapherein||{{polytonic|ἀναφo}}-||anapho-||to bring back||[[anaphora]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναφυλάσσειν}}||anaphulassein||{{polytonic|ἀναφυλακ}}-||anaphulac-||to guard||[[anaphylaxis]], [[anaphylactic]], [[Anaphylactoid purpura|anaphylactoid]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναχρονισμός}}||anachronismos||{{polytonic|ἀναχρον}}-||anachron-||wrong time reference||[[anachronistic]], [[anachronism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναχωρείν}}||anachōrein||{{polytonic|ἀναχωρ}}-||anchor-||to go back, to retire||[[anchorite]], [[anchoress]], [[anchoretism]], [[anachorism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀνδρομέδα}}||Andromēda||{{polytonic|ἀνεμο}}-||anemo-||wife of Perseus||[[Andromeda (mythology)|Andromeda]], [[Andromeda polifolia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνεμος}}||anemos||{{polytonic|ἀνεμο}}-||anemo-||wind||[[anemometer]], [[anemoscopy]], [[anemography]], [[anemometry]], [[anemophilous]], [[anemochory]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνέκδοτος}}||anekdotos||{{polytonic|ἀνεκδοτ}}-||anecdot-||unpublished||[[anecdote]], [[anecdotal]], [[anecdotally]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνεμώνη}}||anemonē||{{polytonic|ἀνεμών}}-||anemone-||lit. daughter of the wind||[[anemone]], [[sea-anemone]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνεπίγραφος}}||anepigraphos||{{polytonic|ἀνεμών}}-||anemone-||without title or inscription||[[anepigraphic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνέργεια}}||anergia||{{polytonic|ἀνεργ}}-||anerg-||cessation from work||[[anergy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνεύρισμα}}||aneurusma||{{polytonic|ἀνεύρισμ}}-||aneurysm-||dilation||[[aneurysm]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνήρ}}||anēr||{{polytonic|ἀνδρο-<br>-ανδρι}}||andrο-<br>-andri||man (male human) || [[androcentrism]], [[androgen]], [[android]], [[andrologist]], [[andrology]], [[androstephium]], [[androsterone]]<br>[[misandry]], [[monandry]], [[polyandry]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνθολόγιον}}||antholōgion||{{polytonic|ἀνθολoγ}}-||antholog-||collection of extracts||[[anthology]], [[anthologist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνθος}}||anthos||{{polytonic|ἀνθο}}-||antho- ||flower||[[anthology]], [[anthophyta]], [[anthostema]], [[anthogonium]], [[Coral|Anthozoa]], [[anthocleista]], [[anthotype]], [[anthocyanin]], [[anthocerotophyta]], [[anthonomuschrysanthemum]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνθρακίτις}}||anthrakitēs||{{polytonic|ἀνθρακιτ}}-||anthracit-||kind of coal||[[anthracite]], [[anthracite iron]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνθραξ}}||anthrax||{{polytonic|ἀνθρακ}}-||anthrac-||coal||[[anthrax]], [[anthracotherium]], [[anthracosaurs]], [[anthracosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνισος}}||anisos||{{polytonic|ἀνισο}}-||aniso-||unequal, uneven||[[anisogamous]], [[anisometric]], [[anisotropic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνθρωπος}}||anthrōpos||{{polytonic|ἀνθρωπο}}-||anthrōpo-||human being||[[anthropology]], [[anthropomorphism]], [[ |
]. Descriptions of various beer [[recipe]]s can be found in [[Sumerian]] writings, some of the oldest known writing of any sort.
The [[brewing industry]] is part of most western economies.
== Brewing beer ==
All beers are brewed using a process based on a simple formula. Key to the process is [[malt]]ed [[cereal|grain]], traditionally [[barley]], but often also [[wheat]] and, less commonly [[rye]]. (When malting rye, due care must be taken to prevent [[ergot]] poisoning ([[ergotism]]), as rye is particularly prone to developing this toxic fungus during the malting process.)
[[malt|Malt]] is made by allowing a grain to [[germination|germinate]], after which it is then dried in a [[kiln]] and sometimes roasted. The germination process creates a number of [[enzymes]], notably &alpha;-amylase and &beta;-amylase, which will be used to convert the starch in the grain into sugar. Depending on the amount of roasting, the malt will take on dark colour and strongly influence the colour and flavour of the beer.
The malt is crushed to break apart the grain kernels, increase their surface area, and separate the smaller pieces from the husks. The resulting '''grist''' is mixed with heated [[water]] in a [[vat]] called a "mash tun" for a process known as "mashing". During this process, natural [[enzyme]]s within the malt break down much of the [[starch]] into [[sugar]]s which play a vital part in the [[fermentation]] process. Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours, and during this time various [[temperature]] rests (waiting periods) activate different enzymes depending upon the type of malt being used, its modification level, and the desires of the [[brewmaster]]. The activity of these enzymes convert the starches of the grains to [[dextrines]] and then to fermentable sugars such as [[maltose]]. The Mash Tun generally contains a slotted "false bottom" or other form of manifold which acts as a strainer allowing for the separation of the liquid from the grain.
A mash rest at 104 °F or 40 °C activates beta-[[glucanase]], which breaks down gummy beta-glucans in the mash, making the sugars flow out more freely later in the process. In the modern mashing process commercial fungal based beta-glucanase may be added as a supplement. A mash rest from 120 °F to 130 °F (49 °C to 55 °C) activates various [[proteinase]]s, which break down proteins that might otherwise cause the beer to be hazy. But care is of the essence since the head on beer is also composed primarily of proteins, so too aggressive a protein rest can result in a beer that cannot hold a head. This rest is generally used only with undermodified (i.e. undermalted) malts which are decreasingly popular in [[Germany]] and the [[Czech Republic]], or non-malted grains such as [[maize|corn]] and [[rice]], which are widely used in North American beers. Finally, a mash rest temperature of 149 to 160 °F (65 to 71 °C) is used to convert the starches in the malt to sugar, which is then usable by the yeast later in the brewing process. Doing the latter rest at the lower end of the range produces more low-order sugars which are more fermentable by the [[yeast]]. This in turn creates a beer lower in body and higher in [[ethanol|alcohol]]. A rest closer to the higher end of the range creates more higher-order sugars which are less fermentable by the yeast, so a fuller-bodied beer with less alcohol is the result.
After the mashing, the resulting [[liquid]] is strained from the grains in a process known as [[Lautering|lautering]]. Prior to lautering, the mash temperature may be raised to 165 °F to 170 °F (about 75 °C) (known as a ''mashout'') to deactivate enzymes. Additional water may be sprinkled on the grains to extract additional sugars (a process known as [[Sparging|sparging]]).
At this point the liquid is known as '''wort''' (rhymes with hurt). The wort is moved into a large tank known as a "copper" or [[kettle]] where it is boiled with [[hops]] and sometimes other ingredients such as [[herbs]] or sugars. The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes, [[precipitation|precipitate]] proteins, [[isomerization|isomerize]] hop [[resin]]s, concentrate and [[sterilization (microbiology) |sterilize]] the wort. Hops add flavour, [[odor|aroma]] and [[Bitter (taste)|bitterness]] to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort settles to clarify it in a vessel called a "whirl-pool" and the clarified wort is then cooled.
The wort is then moved into a "fermentation vessel" where [[yeast]] is added or "pitched" with it. The yeast converts the sugars from the malt into alcohol, [[carbon dioxide]] and other components through a process called ''[[Glycolysis]]''. After a week to three weeks, the fresh (or "green") beer is run off into [[conditioning tank]]s. After conditioning for a week to several months, the beer is often filtered to remove yeast and particulates. The "bright beer" is then ready for serving or packaging.
There are four main families of beer styles determined by the variety of yeast used in their brewing.
===Ale (top fermenting yeasts)===
[[Ale]] yeasts ferment at warmer temperatures between 15&deg;C and 20&deg;C (60&deg;F to 68&deg;F), and occasionally as high as 24&deg;C (75&deg;F). Pure ale yeasts form a foam on the surface of the fermenting beer, because of this they are often referred to as Top Fermenting yeast - though there are some British ale yeast strains that settle at the bottom. Ales are generally ready to drink within three weeks after the beginning of fermentation, however, some styles benefit from additional aging for several months or years. Ales range in color from very pale to black opaque. England is best known for its variety of Ales.
===Lager (bottom fermenting yeasts)===
While the nature of yeast was not fully understood until [[Emil Hansen]] of the [[Carlsberg brewery]] in [[Denmark]] isolated a single yeast cell in the 1800s, brewers in [[Bavaria]] had for centuries been selecting these cold-fermenting Lager yeasts by storing or "Lagern" their beers in cold alpine [[cave]]s. The process of natural selection meant that the wild yeasts that were most cold tolerant would be the ones that would remain actively fermenting in the beer that was stored in the caves. Some of these Bavarian yeasts were stolen and brought back to the Carlsberg brewery around the time that Hansen did his famous work.
Lager yeast tends to collect at the bottom of the fermenter and is often referred to as Bottom Fermenting yeast. Lager is fermented at much lower temperatures, around 10&deg;C (50&deg;F), compared to typical ale fermentation temperatures of 18&deg;C (65&deg;F). It is then stored for 30 days or longer close to the [[freezing]] point. During the storing or Lagering process, the beer mellows and flavours become smoother. [[Sulfur]] components developed during fermentation dissipate. The popularity of lager was a major factor that led to the rapid introduction of [[refrigeration]] in the early 1900s.
Today, lagers represent the vast majority of beers produced, the most famous being a light lager called [[Pilsner]] which originated in [[Pilsen]], [[Czech Republic]] ''(Plze&#328; in [[czech language]])''. It is a common misconception that all Lagers are light in color but lagers range from very light to black opaque just like Ales.
===Beers of Spontaneous Fermentation (wild yeasts)===
These beers are nowadays primarily only brewed around Brussels, Belgium. They are fermented by means of wild yeast strains that live in a part of the Zenne river which flows through Brussels. These beers are also called [[Lambic]] beers. However with the advent of yeast banks and the [http://www.ncyc.co.uk/ NCYC], brewing these beers, although not through spontaneous fermentation, is possible anywhere.
===Beers of mixed origin (blends of spontaneous fermentation beers and ales or lagers)===
These beers are blends of spontaneous fermentation beers and ales or lagers or they are ales/lagers which are also fermented by wild yeasts.
==The Brewing Process==
Work in the brewery is typically divided into 7 steps: Mashing, Lautering, Boiling, Fermenting, Conditioning, Filtering, and Filling.
===Mashing===
Mashing is the process of mixing milled grain (typically [[malt]]ed grain) with water, and heating this mixture up with rests at certain temperatures to allow [[enzyme]]s in the malt to break down the [[starch]] in the grain into [[sugar]]s, typically [[maltose]].
Large breweries usually employ a decoction mash method, in which the thickest part of the mash is boiled to extract more starch from the grain, then returned to the mash to achieve the next rest temperature. These can be classified into one-, two-, and three-step decoctions, depending on how many times part of the mash is drawn off to be boiled. Smaller breweries use infusion mashing, in which the mash is heated directly to go from rest temperature to rest temperature. Some infusion mashes achieve temperature changes by adding hot water, and there are also breweries that do single-step infusion, performing only one rest before lautering. It is important to note that fancy equipment and methods do not guarantee a good beer. Many wonderful beers are produced on inexpensive, bare-bones equipment, and some bad beers are produced in breweries that are state-of-the-art.
In large breweries, in which optimal utilization of the brewery equipment is economically necessary, there is at least one dedicated vessel for mashing. In decoction processes there must be at least two. The vessel has a good stirring mechanism to keep the temperature of the mash uniform, and a heating device which is efficient, but will not scorch the malt, and should be [[thermal insulation|insulated]] to maintain rest temperatures for up to one hour. A spray ba |
cept the first to toe loops and loops (which take off from the right back outside edge on which the basic six jumps are landed). In order to use other jumps on the back end of a combination, connecting jumps such as a half loop (which is actually a full rotation, but lands on a left back inside edge) can be used, enabling the skater to put a salchow or flip at the end of the combination.
Jump sequences are sets of jumps which may involve steps or changes of edge between the jumps.
==Spins==
There are also several types of spins, identified by the position of the arms, legs, and angle of the back. Spins are done on the round part of the blade, just behind the toe pick. The round part of the blade is called the ball of the foot. (Contrary to popular thought, spins are NOT done on the toe picks -- they're mainly for jumps.)
Spins may be performed on either foot. For skaters who rotate in a counterclockwise direction, a spin on the left foot is called a ''forward'' spin, while a spin on the right foot is called a ''back'' spin.
*[[Scratch spin]]
*[[Upright spin]] (or corkscrew spin), in which a skater maintains a vertical position, often with the free leg crossed in front of the skating leg. A fast spin in this position is known as a scratch spin.
*[[Camel spin]] (also known as a parallel spin), in which the skater assumes an "airplane" position (or spiral position) with the free leg extended behind at hip level, parallel to the ice surface.
*[[Sit spin]], in which the knee of the skating leg bent very low, and the free leg stretched out in front, parallel to the ice.
*[[Crossfoot spin]]s, an upright spin in which the free leg is crossed behind the skating foot.
*[[Layback spin]]s, in which the skater bends backward gracefully and positions arms artistically.
*[[Catch-the-foot]] spins
*[[Biellmann spin]]s, where the skater pulls free leg from behind her (or very rarely him), over the head. She (or he) usually holds onto the blade of the skate. (Obviously, this requires extreme flexibility.) Named after [[Denise Biellmann]], 1981 ladies' world champion from [[Switzerland]].
*[[Doughnut spin]]s, a variation of a back camel spin where the skater pulls the blade of the skate of the free leg backward with one or both arms while arching the back to create a horizontal circular shape with the body.
*[[Death drop spin]]s
*[[Butterfly spin]]s
*Other spins where the skater extends the free leg in front or to the side in a split or near-split position.
''Flying'' spins are spins that are initiated with a jump. These include the flying camel, flying sit spin, death drop, and butterfly spin. Usually, they go from a forward spin, to a back spin.
==Steps and turns==
Step sequences are a required element in competition programs. They involve a combination of turns, steps, hops and edge changes, performed in a straight line down the ice, in a circle, or in an S shape (serpentine step sequence).
The various turns which skaters can incorporate into step sequences include:
*[[3 turn|Three turns]], so called because the blade turns into the curve of the edge or lobe to leave a tracing resembling the numeral "3".
*[[Bracket turn]]s, in which the blade is turned counter to the curve of the lobe, making a tracing resembling a bracket ("}").
*[[Rocker turn|Rockers]] and [[counter turn|counters]], one-foot turns that involve a change of lobe as well as of direction.
*[[Mohawk turn|Mohawk]]s, the two-foot equivalents of three turns and brackets.
*[[Choctaw turn|Choctaw]]s, the two-foot equivalents of rockers and counters.
*[[Twizzle]]s, travelling multi-rotation turns on one foot
[[spiral (figure skating)|Spiral]] sequences are also required (in women's skating only), and involve lifting the free leg above the hip to a position equivalent of the arabesque in ballet, or the scale in gymnastics. Spirals can be performed while skating forwards or backwards, and are distinguished by the edge of the blade used and the foot they are skated on.
Other freeskating movements which can be incorporated into step sequences or used as connecting elements include lunges and [[spread eagle (figure skating)|spread eagles]]. An [[Ina Bauer (element)|Ina Bauer]] is similar to a spread eagle performed with one knee bent and typically an arched back. Hydroblading refers to a deep edge performed with the body as low as possible to the ice in a near-horizontal position.
== Competition format and scoring ==
The [[International Skating Union|International Skating Union]] (ISU) is the governing body for international competitions. The ISU oversees the World Championships and the figure skating events at the [[Winter Olympic Games]].
In singles and pairs figure skating competition, competitors must perform two routines, the "short program", in which the skater must complete a list of required elements consisting of jumps, spins and steps; and the "free skate" or "long program", in which the skaters have slightly more choice of elements. Ice dancing competitions usually consist of three phases: one or more "compulsory dances"; an "original dance" to a ballroom rhythm that is designated annually; and a "free dance" to music of the skaters' own choice.
Skating was formerly judged for "technical merit" (in the free skate), "required elements" (in the short program), and "presentation" (in both programs). The marks for each program ran from 0.0 to 6.0 and were used to determine a preference ranking, or "ordinal", separately for each judge; the judges' preferences were then combined to determine placements for each skater in each program. The placements for the two programs were then combined, with the free skate placement weighted more heavily than the short program. The lowest scoring individual (based on the sum of the weighted placements) was declared the winner.
In 2004, after the [[2002 Olympic Winter Games figure skating scandal|judging controversy]] during the [[2002 Winter Olympics]], the ISU adopted a new judging system called the New Judging System (NJS) or Code of Points which became mandatory at all international competitions in 2006, including the [[2006 Winter Olympics]].
Under the new system, technical marks are awarded individually for each skating element. Competitive programs are constrained to have a set number of elements. Each element is judged first by a technical specialist who identifies the specific element. The technical specialist uses instant replay video to verify things that distinguish different elements; e.g. the exact foot position at take-off and landing of a jump. The decision of the technical specialist determines the base value of the element. A panel of twelve judges then award a mark for grade of execution (GOE) that is an integer from -3 to +3. The GOE mark is then translated into a value by using the table of values in ISU rule 322. The GOE value from the twelve judges is then averaged by randomly selecting nine judges, discarding the high and low value, and averaging the remaining seven. This average value is then added (or subtracted) from the base value to get the value for the element.
The number and type of elements in a skating program depends on the event and on the level of competition. At the senior international level, single and pairs short programs contain eight technical elements. The actual eight elements are detailed for single skaters in ISU rule 310. Each skater must attempt one combination jump, two solo jumps, three spins, and two skating sequences. The eight elements required for a senior pairs short program include two lifts, two jumps, two spins, one step sequence, and one death spiral (ISU rule 313).
Free programs have 14 elements for pairs and men, and 13 elements for ladies. The details of the elements are given by ISU rules 320 and 321. Pairs do 4 lifts, 4 jumps, and 6 spins, steps, or spirals. Men do 8 jumps, and 6 spins or step sequences. Ladies do 7 jumps and 6 spins, steps or spirals.
Jumps done in combination are marked as a single element, with a base mark equal to the sum of the base marks for the individual jumps. However, a combination can be downgraded to a "sequence", in which case the base value is 0.8 times the sum of the individual jumps. The jumps normally executed at the senior level, and their base values, are quad toe loop (9), triple Axel (7.5), triple Lutz (6), triple flip (5.5), triple loop (5), triple Salchow (4.5), triple toe loop (4) and double Axel (3.3).
The former presentation mark has been replaced by five categories, called program components. The components are (1) skating skills, (2) transitions, (3) performance, (4) choreography, and (5) interpretation. A detailed description of each component is given in ISU rule 322.2. Each component is awarded a raw mark from 0 to 10, with a mark of 5 being defined as "average". The five raw marks are then translated into a program mark by multiplying by a factor that depends on the program and the level.
For senior ladies, the factor is 0.8 for the short program and 1.6 for the long program. The factors are set so that the total score from the artistic marks will be about equal to the total score from technical marks.
Judging in figure skating is inherently subjective. Although there may be general consensus that one skater "looks better" than another, it is difficult to get agreement on what it is that causes one skater to be marked as 5.5 and another to be 5.75 for a particular program component. As judges, coaches, and skaters get more experience with the new system, there may emerge more consensus. However, for the 2006 Olympics there were cases of 1 to 1.5 points differences in component marks from different judges. This range of difference implies that "observer bias" determines about 20% of the mark given b |
prosperity.
Chapter 28 of the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542|1535 Act of Henry VIII]], which provided that Monmouth, as [[county town]], should return one burgess to Parliament, further stated that other ancient Monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the payment of the member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny on various occasions shared in the election, the last instance being in [[1685]]. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a charter granted to the prior by William de Braose (d. [[1211]]). The right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly [[fair|fairs]], as held ever since, was confirmed in [[1657]]. Abergavenny was celebrated for the production of Welsh [[flannel]], and also for the manufacture, whilst the fashion prevailed, of goats' hair [[wigs|periwigs]].
The title of [[Baron Abergavenny]], in the Neville family, dates from Edward Neville (d. [[1476]]), who was the youngest son of the 1st Earl of Westmoreland by Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt. He married the heiress of Richard, Earl of Worcester, whose father had inherited the castle and estate of Abergavenny, and was summoned in [[1392]] to parliament as Lord Bergavenny. Edward Neville was summoned to parliament with this title in [[1450]]. His direct male descendants ended in [[1387]] in Henry Neville, but a cousin, Edward Neville (d. [[1622]]), was confirmed in the barony in [[1604]]. From him it has descended continuously, the title being increased to an earldom in 1784; and in [[1876]] [[William Nevill, 1st Marquess of Abergavenny|William Nevill]] (sic) 5th earl (b. [[1826]]), an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the conservative party, was created 1st [[Marquess of Abergavenny]].
Abergavenny is the home of Abergavenny Thursdays Football Club, which was formed in 1927 and is currently a member of the Gwent County League Division 3. The club's current position comes within 15 years of their being one of the top sides in Welsh football, winning the old format Welsh Football League in 1991 and 1992 but being relegated in 1993 after just one season in the newly formed League of Wales. The club suffered relegation from the Welsh Football League in 2001 and has since slipped through the next two divisions into its current position, although the future is now looking brighter.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abergavenny}}
==Trivia==
*Abergavenny hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1913]].
*The novelist [[Alexander Cordell]] is buried in the nearby [[village]] of [[Llanfoist]].
*Abergavenny is [[town twinning|twinned]] with [[Oestringen]] in [[Germany]], Beaupreau in France & Sarno in Italy.
*In 1968, the town was immortalised in the song "[http://lyricsplayground.com/alpha/songs/a/abergavenny.shtml Taking a trip down to Abergavenny]" by Marty Wilde.
*Each September, Abergavenny holds a very successful [http://www.abergavennyfoodfestival.co.uk Food Festival] throughout the town centre and castle.
*[[The Beatles]] played at the Borough Theatre in Abergavenny on Saturday June 22, 1963.
==See also==
*[[Abergavenny (hundred)]]
[[Category:Towns in Monmouthshire]]
[[Category:Towns of the Welsh Marches]]
[[Category:Welsh market towns]]
[[cy:Y Fenni]]
[[fr:Abergavenny]]
[[no:Abergavenny]]
[[sv:Abergavenny]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abersychan</title>
<id>2716</id>
<revision>
<id>39487486</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T18:38:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Welsh</username>
<id>310131</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Copyedit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abersychan''' is a town in [[Wales]], near [[Newport]].
It lies in the narrow upper valley of the [[Afon Llwyd]] on the eastern edge of the great coal and iron mining district of [[Glamorgan]] and [[Monmouthshire]], and its large industrial population was employed in the mines and ironworks. There are no longer any working coalmines in the area. Visitors can get a taste of what valley life was like by visiting the [[Big Pit]] mining museum in [[Blaenavon]], located 4 miles north. Here you can take underground tours in a perfectly preserved coalmine.
==References==
{{1911}}
{{Wales-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Towns in Torfaen]]
[[no:Abersychan]]
[[sv:Abersychan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abertillery</title>
<id>2717</id>
<revision>
<id>37583926</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T22:35:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.156.249.187</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox Wales place|
|Place= Abertillery
|Council= [[Blaenau Gwent]]
|Traditional= [[Monmouthshire]]
|Ceremonial= [[Gwent]]
|Constituency= [[Blaenau Gwent (UK Parliament constituency)|Blaenau Gwent]]
|PostalTown= ABERTILLERY
|PostCode= NP13
|DiallingCode= 01495
|GridReference= SO215045
|Population= 11,194
|Police= [[Gwent Police]]
}}
'''Abertillery''' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''Abertyleri'') is a town in the county borough of [[Blaenau Gwent]] and the traditional county of [[Monmouthshire]] in southern [[Wales]], 16 miles north-west of [[Newport]], originally on the [[Great Western Railway]]. Its population rose steeply during the period of mining development in the [[Rhondda]] valleys, being 10,846 in the [[1891]] census and 21,945 ten years later. It lies in the mountainous mining district of [[Monmouthshire]] and [[Glamorganshire]], in the valley of the [[Ebbw Fach]], and the population was traditionally employed in the numerous coalmines, ironworks and tinplate works, now mostly defunct. Farther up the same valley are the mining townships of [[Nantyglo]] and [[Blaina]].
Abertillery has a traditional-style town centre and several small schools. Today, its population numbers around 11,000. Noted for its unspoilt rural scenery, Abertillery neighbours the small districts of [[Aberbeeg]] and [[Cwmtillery]]. This is mainly down large amounts of EU funding which has helped the town transform itself from industrial relic into the clean, modernised area it is today.
A recent [[windfarm]] proposal above the community of [[Cwmtillery]] has been withdrawn, despite the offer of community-based incentives from the company. Opposition to the proposal generated support throughout the town which led to the it finally being withdrawn.
The town's name is pronounced with the emphasis on the penultimate syllable, ie. it rhymes with "Mary," as in a song made popular by Welsh entertainer [[Ryan Davies]]:
"''Blodwen and Mary'' from Abertillery..."
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Traditional county of Monmouthshire]]
[[Category:Towns in Blaenau Gwent]]
[[cy:Abertyleri]]
[[gl:Abertillery - Abertyleri]]
[[pl:Abertillery]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aberystwyth</title>
<id>2718</id>
<revision>
<id>41613425</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:49:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gurch</username>
<id>241822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>bankrupcy -> bankruptcy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox Wales place|
|Place= Aberystwyth
|Council= [[Ceredigion]]
|Traditional= [[Cardiganshire]]
|Ceremonial= [[Dyfed]]
|Constituency= [[Ceredigion (UK Parliament constituency)|Ceredigion]]
|PostalTown= ABERYSTWYTH
|PostCode= SY23
|DiallingCode= 01970
|GridReference= SN585815
|Population=
|Police= [[Dyfed-Powys Police]]
}}
'''Aberystwyth''' (from the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''Mouth of the Ystwyth'') is a historic [[market town]], and seaport of [[Ceredigion]] (Cardiganshire), [[Mid Wales]].
It is situated near the [[confluence]] of the rivers [[River Ystwyth|Ystwyth]] and [[River Rheidol|Rheidol]], about midway down the length of [[Cardigan Bay]]. Aberystwyth was a [[contributory parliamentary borough]] until the [[Representation of the People Act 1884|Third Reform Act]], which caused its representation to be merged into that of the county in [[1885]]. In modern times Aberystwyth has become a Welsh educational centre. The population is around 12,000, but is swelled by an additional 8000 students associated with the [[University of Wales, Aberystwyth]]. The world's first department in international politics was established in Aberystwyth in [[1919]].
==Geography==
[[Image:Aberystwyth 2.JPG|thumb|300px|Aberystwyth, viewed from the nature reserve on Penglais Hill]]
The [[Cambrian Line]] railway links Aberystwyth with [[Shrewsbury]], and the [[Vale of Rheidol Railway]], which is operated by [[steam locomotive]]s, can be taken to [[Devil's Bridge (Wales)|Devil's Bridge]]. Aberystwyth is a major tourist centre and a cultural link between the north and south of [[Wales]]. It has a [[pier]] and a fine sea-front which stretches from Constitution Hill at the north end of the Marine Terrace to the mouth of the harbour. Constitution Hill is scaled by the [[Aberystwyth Electric Cliff Railway]] giving access to fine views and other attractions at the top.
Although the town is relatively modern, it contains a number of historic buildings, including the remains of the castle and the "imposing but fantastic structure" of the old buildings of the University College of Wales near the Castle Hill. The new campus lies to the east of the town.
The architecture is a mix of Gothic, Classical reival and Victorian, and the town is sometimes reffered to as "the Oxford of Wales".
==Brief Information==
Much of the finest scenery in [[Mid Wales]] lies within easy reach of Aberystwyth including the wilderness of the [[Cambrian Mountains]], whose valleys contain forests and meadows which have little changed in centuries. The town is generally r |
line.jpg|thumb|250px|An MTR carriage during [[peak hours]].]]
[[Image:Hk tram jam.jpg|thumb|250px|A broken [[Hong Kong Tramways|tram]] may cause serious traffic congestion.]]
[[Image:peak tram.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Peak Tram]].]]
:''Main article: [[Rail transport in Hong Kong]]''
Hong Kong has an efficient [[train]] network. Public transport trains are operated by two companies, the [[MTR Corporation Limited]] (MTR) and the [[Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation]] (KCRC). The MTR operates the [[metro]] network within inner urban Hong Kong, [[Tsuen Wan New Town]], [[Tseung Kwan O|Tseung Kwan O New Town]], [[Tung Chung|North Lantau New Town]], [[Hong Kong Disneyland]] and the [[Hong Kong International Airport|Airport]], while the KCR network connects the northeastern and northwestern parts of the [[New Territories]] with the urban areas of Hong Kong. The [[Hong Kong Tramways]] operates a tram service exclusively on northern [[Hong Kong Island]]. The [[Peak Tram]] connects [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], Hong Kong's [[CBD]], with the [[Victoria Peak]].
There are four systems under the KCR, namely [[KCR East Rail|East Rail]], [[KCR West Rail|West Rail]], [[KCR Ma On Shan Rail|<font color=brown>Ma On Shan Rail</font>]] and [[KCR Light Rail|Light Rail]]. There are several extensions planned or under construction, including the [[Lok Ma Chau Spur line]], the [[Kowloon Southern Link]], and the [[Sha Tin to Central Link]]. Note that the Light Rail possesses many characteristics of a [[tram]]way, including running on streets with other traffics (at grades) on some of its tracks.
There are altogether seven lines in the MTR system, with a total of 53 [[List of Hong Kong MTR stations|stations]]. The seven lines are [[Kwun Tong Line (MTR)|Kwun Tong Line]], [[Tsuen Wan Line (MTR)|Tsuen Wan Line]], [[Island Line (MTR)|Island Line]], [[Tseung Kwan O Line (MTR)|Tseung Kwan O Line]], [[Tung Chung Line (MTR)|Tung Chung Line]], the [[Airport Express (MTR)|Airport Express]] and the [[Disneyland Resort Line (MTR)|Disneyland Resort Line]]. The former 5 lines provide ordinary metro services, whereas the Airport Express provides a direct link from the [[Hong Kong International Airport]] into the city centre, while the Disneyland Resort Line exclusively takes passengers to [[Hong Kong Disneyland]].
All trains and most KCR/MTR metro stations feature air conditioning which allows the visitor intimidated by Hong Kong's tropical heat to literally shop and work all day without having to experience outside temperatures.
The [[Hong Kong Tramways]] is the [[tram]] (streetcar) system run exclusively with [[double decker]]s. The electric tram system was proposed in [[1881]]; however nobody was willing to invest in a system at the time. In [[August]] [[1901]], the Second Tramway Bill was introduced and passed into law as the [[1902 Tramway Ordinance]]. Hong Kong Tramway Electric Company Limited, a [[United Kingdom|British]] company, was authorised to take the responsibilities in construction and daily operation. It was soon taken over by another company, Electric Tranction Company of Hong Kong Limited and then the name was changed to Hong Kong Tramways Company Limited in [[1910]].
The rail system is 13 kilometres (8 miles) long, with a total track length of 30 km (18.6 miles), and it runs together with other vehicles on the street. Its operation relies on the 550V [[direct current]] (d.c.) from the [[overhead cable]]s, on 3'6" gauge (1067 mm) [[rail gauge|tracks]]. The trams provide service to only part of [[Hong Kong Island]]: they run on a double track along the northern coast of [[Hong Kong Island]] from [[Kennedy Town]] to [[Shau Kei Wan]], with a single [[Clockwise and counterclockwise|clockwise]]-running track of about 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) around [[Happy Valley, Hong Kong|Happy Valley]] Racecourse.
The [[Peak Tram]] is a [[funicular|funicular railway]] in Hong Kong, which carries both tourists and residents to the upper levels of Hong Kong Island. It provides the most direct route and offers good views over the harbour and the skyscrapers of Hong Kong.
==Buses ==
[[image:KMB_3ASV44_68X.JPG|thumb|right|250px|KMB Volvo Super Olympian 12M with Walter Alexander ALX500 Body. One of the newer KMB buses.]]
Bus services have [[History of Bus transport in Hong Kong|a long history]] in Hong Kong. In [[2005]], five companies operate franchised public [[bus]] services. There are also a variety of non-franchised public buses services, including feeder bus services to railway stations operated by the railway companies, and residents' services for residential estates (particularly those in the New Territories).
The five franchised bus companies are:
* [[Kowloon Motor Bus|Kowloon Motor Bus Company (1933) Limited]];
* [[Citybus (Hong Kong)|Citybus Limited]];
* [[Long Win Bus|Long Win Bus Company Limited]];
* [[New World First Bus|New World First Bus Services Limited]]; and
* [[New Lantao Bus|New Lantao Bus Company (1973) Limited]].
Founded in 1933, the Kowloon Motor Bus Company (1933) Limited (KMB) is one of the largest privately-owned public [[bus]] operators in the world. KMB's fleet consist of about 4,300 buses on 420 routes and a staff of over 13,000. In 1979, [[Citybus (Hong Kong)|Citybus]] began its operation in Hong Kong with one double-decker, providing shuttle service for the Hong Kong dockyard. It later expanded into operating a residential bus route between City One, [[Shatin]] and [[Kowloon Tong]] MTR station. New World First Bus Services Limited was established in [[1998]], taking over [[China Motor Bus]]'s franchise to provide bus services on [[Hong Kong Island]] together with Citybus.
== Public light buses ==
[[Image:Hkgmb-lm8613.jpg|thumb|right|320px|Green minibus on [[Shun Tin]], [[Kwun Tong]], [[Kowloon Peninsula]], [[Hong Kong]], heading to [[Ping Shek Estate]],[[Choi Hung (MTR)]].]]
:''Main article: [[Public light bus]]''
Public light buses (小巴) (widely referred to as [[minibus]]es, or sometimes ''maxicabs'', a ''de facto'' [[jitney]]) run the length and breadth of Hong Kong, through areas which the standard bus lines cannot or do not reach as frequent, quick or direct. Minibuses carry a maximum of 16 passengers; no standees are allowed. Minibuses typically offer a faster and more efficient transportation solution due to their smaller capacity, higher frequencies and direct routing, although they are generally slightly more expensive than franchised buses. The popularity of public light bus services in Hong Kong can be accounted to the high population density which supports the extensive network of minibus services. There are two types of public light buses, green minibuses that have route numbers and stop at designated stops , and red minibuses that do not have regular routes and are unnumbered with no fixed stops. Since the red minibus drivers rely on fares for a living, they are noted for their speeding and large speedometers with alarms have been required by law on buses in the hope that the passengers can monitor the drivers' driving attributes.
== Taxis ==
[[Image:Time_square_HK_taxi_rank_in_rainyday.JPG|thumb|250px|A [[taxi stand]] on Russell Street outside [[Times Square (Hong Kong)|Times Square]] on a rainy day.]]
:''Main article: [[Taxis of Hong Kong]]''
Different coloured taxis serve different areas. Red taxis serve all areas, except most of [[Lantau Island]]. Green taxis only serve the [[New Territories]], including specified routes and destinations in Sha Tin, Tsuen Wan, Tsueng Kwan O and northern Lantau , and Blue taxis serve [[Lantau island]] only. All taxis are authorised to serve the [[Hong Kong International Airport|airport]] and the [[Hong Kong Disneyland|Disneyland Resort]].
Taxi fare is charged according to the taximeter; however, additional charges on the faretable may apply, such as road tolls and luggage fees. Red urban taxis are the most expensive, while blue Lantau taxis are the cheapest. The standard of services among different kinds of taxis are mostly the same.
[[As of 2005]], there are 18,138 taxis in Hong Kong, 15,250 of which are urban taxis, 2,838 New Territories taxis, and 50 Lantau taxis. Everyday they serve 1.1 million, 207,900, and 1,400 passengers respectively. Taxis carry an average of one million passengers each day, occupying about 12% of the daily patronage carried by all modes of public transport in Hong Kong.
Most of the taxis in Hong Kong run on [[liquified petroleum gas]] (LPG) for protection of the environment. In August 2000 an one-off cash grant was paid to taxi owners who replaced his diesel taxi with an LPG one. By the end of 2003, over 99.8% of the taxi fleet in Hong Kong ran on LPG. All newly purchased taxis runs on LPG since August 2001.
The reason for having three types of taxis is to ensure service availability in less populated regions, as running in the urban centre is considered to be more profitable.
For places served by more than one type of taxis, there are separate queues at the [[taxi stand]]s.
== Private cars ==
There are 517,000 cars licensed in Hong Kong, 64% of which are private cars. In terms of private car ownership, the number of cars per capita is half that of [[Singapore]] and one-third that of [[Republic of China|Taiwan]].
Most cars are [[rules of the road|right hand drive]] models from Japanese or European manufacturers. Some Hong Kong registered vehicles carry secondary [[mainland China|mainland Chinese]] registration plates and can be driven across the border to mainland China, likewise, some of the left hand drive cars seen in Hong Kong are primarily registered in mainland China and carry supplementary Hong Kong registration plates.
Hong Kong does not allow left hand drive vehicles to be primarily registered in Hong Kong.
The biggest problem facing drivers is the ability to find a parking spot. Additionally, traffic at times can be very heavy. To curb private vehicle ownership in Hong Kong |
])
[[Image:WesterkerkAmsterdam20041002 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|Westerkerk in [[Amsterdam]].]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.unitingprotestantchurches.nl/ Website Protestant Church of the Netherlands]
*http://www.godutch.com/windmill/newsItem.asp?id=571
*[http://www.hersteldhervormdekerk.nl/ HHK] (in Dutch)
*[http://www.voortzettinggkn.nl/ vGKN] (in Dutch)
[[nl:Protestantse Kerk in Nederland]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:United Uniting churches]]
[[Category:Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Religion in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:WARC Member Churches]]
[[Category:Churches in the Netherlands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)</title>
<id>8660</id>
<revision>
<id>42036221</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:23:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chalice.gif|thumb|150px|right|'''''The insignia of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).''''']]
The '''Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)''', often abbreviated as the '''Disciples of Christ''' or the '''Christian Church''', is a [[Christian denomination|denomination]] of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Protestantism]] that grew out of the [[Restoration Movement]] founded by [[Thomas Campbell (Restoration movement)|Thomas Campbell]] and [[Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement)|Alexander Campbell]] of [[West Virginia]] (then Virginia) and [[Barton W. Stone]] of [[Kentucky]]. Both families were originally [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]].
==History==
The roots of the [[Disciples]] of Christ lie in the [[Restoration Movement]] of the early [[1800s]], with a focus on Christian unity and lack of strict denominationalism. This focus came from a study of the [[New Testament]] by the movement's founders. Tolerance of other viewpoints that differed on non-essentials was key, as was inclusion based on the Lord's Table ([[Eucharist|Communion]]). It has been estimated that the indigenous movement that gave rise to the modern Disciples of Christ (and its associated offshoots) has been surpassed in size by only one other body of [[North America]]n origin, that of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].
The unity of this group was shaken by the formation of a missionary society in the late [[1840s]], a development looked upon with disfavor by many, especially among the smaller, more [[rural]], and [[Southern United States|Southern]] congregations, and by the adoption shortly after this by some congregations of instrumental music, predominantly (at first) [[piano]]s and [[Organ (music)|organ]]s. After the [[American Civil War]] the dispute became more strident, as many leftover regional animosities became a subtext. By the [[1870s]] and [[1880s]] there were essentially two groups within the Restoration Movement, although the break was not truly formalized until the Religious Census of [[1906]] in which the congregations that disagreed with instrumental music and the missionary society asked to be listed separately as the [[Church of Christ]].
Another group, perhaps nearly as conservative as the Church of Christ (but at variance with the ''Church of Christ'' mainly on Biblical interpretations concerning the use of musical instruments during worship), was disturbed by the [[liberalism]] that it perceived to be predominant at a church conference in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] in [[1926]], forming the [[North American Christian Convention]] the next year. Slowly over the next forty-five years, the split between these "Independents" and the Disciples became more or less complete; this group is now known as [[Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ]].
At the time of the 1906 division, the Disciples were by far the larger of the two bodies; now it would seem possible that they might be the smallest of the three current major divisions of the Restoration Movement. To this point, despite serious concerns over the direction of the denomination being expressed by some of the more conservative members, further open division has not occurred.
1963 saw the next wave of Disciples history. It began with the publication of essays from pastors and scholars that were charged with the task of reexaming the beliefs and doctrines of the Disciples. The essays were published as a three-volume series under the name of The Panel of Scholars Reports.
==Modern Disciples==
The Disciples of Christ declare only one essential tenet of the faith: belief in [[Jesus]] Christ as Lord and Savior. In addition, the Disciples affirm that Jesus is the son of God and that he offers saving grace to all, as all persons are God’s children. Beyond this, there are several central practices generally associated with the Disciples:
*[[Open communion|Open Communion]]: Communion is celebrated weekly during the worship service; no individual is ever refused Communion.
*[[Baptism|Baptism by immersion]]: Disciples practice [[Believers Baptism|"Believer's baptism"]] by immersion in the name of the Trinity, however, other baptism traditions are honored in converts. Re-baptism may be performed for converts or existing members if requested, but this practice is not normative of the denomination at large. Most Disciples ministers will not administer re-baptism.
*The unity of the church: Disciples believe that all Christians are called to be the Body of Christ; they deny that any denomination (including their own) is the "one Church." Disciples seek opportunities for common witness and service with other denominations. As early Disciples leader Barton Stone declared, "Unity is our polar star."
*Common ministry: Disciples ministers are ordained by their respective regional church, based on criteria established by the general church, and after an intensive in-care process with the region. They must have sponsorship by at least one local congregation, and normally the ordination service is hosted by that congregation. An ordained Disciples minister normatively holds a Master of Divinity degree from a theological seminary. Lay persons often lead worship, and lay elders and deacons preside at Communion.
*Freedom of belief: Individual members are free to follow their consciences; they are expected to extend that freedom to others. Members are encouraged to seek guidance from scripture, study, and prayer, but to develop their own opinions about most issues.
In addition, Disciples churches practice [[Congregationalist church governance|congregationalist church governance]] and utilize a "bottom-up" hierarchy. While other denominations utilize a top-down hierarchy where the senior church official or church council holds ultimate authority, the ultimate authority of the Disciples of Christ church lies in the individual, independent congregations. A General Assembly of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), a biannual gathering of congregations, expresses only the views of that particular assembly and holds little power to bind the denomination as a whole, although decisions may be made that affect the general manifestation of the church. The denomination is governed by [http://www.disciples.org/internal/vision/design.htm The Design of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).]
At the 2005 General Assembly, 3000+ delegates voted (almost) unanimously to elect Rev. Dr. Sharon Watkins, Senior pastor of Disciples Christian Church in Bartlesville, OK, to become the first female General Minister and President of this denomination.
==The Chalice==
The insignia of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) is a red [[chalice]] with a white [[St. Andrew's Cross]] in the upper left corner. The chalice recalls the central place of Communion to the life of every Christian. The cross of [[Saint Andrew]] is a reminder of the ministry of each person and the importance of evangelism, and recalls the denomination's [[Presbyterian]] ancestry.
==Churches Uniting in Christ==
The Disciples are part of [[Churches Uniting in Christ]], an [[ecumenism|ecumenical]] movement that many hope will result in one large mainline Protestant body in the U.S. similar to the role of the [[United Church of Canada|United Church]] in [[Canada]] and the [[Uniting Church in Australia]]; more conservative members tend to oppose this due to the liberalism of some of the other churches involved in the project. The Disciples were closely involved in the church union discussions between the [[United Church of Canada]] and the [[Anglican Church of Canada]] which would have resulted in a "Church of Christ in Canada," but which foundered at the 11th hour in 1974 when the Anglican bishops feared that their prerogatives would be compromised in a larger denomination dominated by non-episcopal liberal evangelical Protestants. The Disciples have continued to develop a close relationship in the USA with the the [[United Church of Christ]].
New Spirit Community Chuch in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[California]] grew out of the gay affirming [[Metropolitan Community Church]] movement and is triple affiliated with [[Metropolitan Community Church]], [[United Church of Christ]] and [[Disciples of Christ]].
==Peoples Temple and Jim Jones==
The [[Peoples Temple]] congregation led by [[Jim Jones]] was affiliated with the Disciples of Christ at the time of the [[mass suicide]] [http://www.religioustolerance.org/dc_jones.htm]of its members on [[18 November|18 November]] [[1978]] at its compound in [[Guyana]]. Jones was ordained by the Disciples of Christ.[http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~reli291/Jonestown/Jonestown.html] His fellowship and standing with the Disciples was under review at the time of the even |
ssing friends and relatives. These efforts became much less intense as the years went by. More recently, however, there has a been a resurgence of interest by descendants of Holocaust survivors in researching the fates of their lost relatives. [[Yad Vashem]] provides a searchable database of three million names, about half of the known direct Jewish victims. Yad Vashem's ''Central Database of Shoah Victims Names'' is searchable over the Internet at [http://www.yadvashem.org yadvashem.org] or in person at the Yad Vashem complex in [[Israel]].
Other databases and lists of victims' names, some searchable over the Web, are listed in [[Holocaust (resources)#External links|Holocaust (resources)]].
==Execution of the Holocaust==
===Concentration and Labor Camps (1933-1945)===
{{main2|Concentration camp | Nazi concentration camp badges}}
[[Image:MajorConcentrationCamps.gif|thumb|300px|right|Major [[concentration camps]] in Europe, 1944.]]
Starting in 1933, the Nazis set up concentration camps within Germany, many of which were established by local authorities, to hold political prisoners and "undesirables". These early concentration camps were eventually consolidated into centrally run camps, and by 1939, six large concentration camps had been established. After 1939, with the beginning of the Second World War, the concentration camps increasingly became places where the enemies of the Nazis, including Jews and POWs, were either killed or forced to act as slave laborers, and kept undernourished and tortured.
[[Image:Holocaust.jpg|thumb|left|[[Nazi concentration camps|Concentration camp]] inmates during the Holocaust]]
During the War, concentration camps for Jews and other "undesirables" were spread throughout Europe, with new camps being created near centers of dense "undesirable" populations, often focusing on areas with large Jewish, Polish intelligentsia, communist, or Roma populations. Most of the camps were located in the area of [[General Government]] in Poland, but there were camps in every country occupied by the Nazis. The transportation of prisoners was often carried out under horrifying conditions using rail freight cars, in which many died before they reached their destination. Concentration camps also existed in Germany itself, and while not specifically designed for systematic extermination, many concentration camp prisoners died because of harsh conditions or were executed.
===Pogroms (1938-1941)===
Many scholars date the beginning of the Holocaust itself to the anti-Jewish riots of the Night of Broken Glass ("[[Kristallnacht]]") of November 9, 1938, in which Jews were attacked and Jewish property was vandalized across Germany. Approximately 100 Jews were killed, and another 30,000 sent to concentration camps, while over 7,000 Jewish shops and 1,574 [[synagogues]] (almost every synagogue in Germany) were damaged or destroyed. Similar events took place in Vienna at the same time.
A number of deadly [[pogrom]]s by local, non-German populations occurred during the Second World War, some with German encouragement, and some spontaneously, such as the [[Iaşi pogrom]] in Romania on June 30, 1941 in which as many 14,000 Jews were killed by Romanian residents and police and the [[Jedwabne massacre|Jedwabne pogrom]] in which between 380 and 1,600 Jews were killed by their Polish neighbors.
===Euthanasia (1939-1941)===
{{main|T-4 Euthanasia Program}}
The [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]] was established to "maintain the genetic purity" of the German population by systematically killing citizens who were physically [[deformity|deformed]], [[disabled]], [[handicapped]], or suffering from [[mental illness]]. Between 1939 and 1941, over 200,000 people were killed.
===Ghettos (1940-1945)===
{{main3|Ghetto | Warsaw Ghetto | Vilna Ghetto}}
[[Image:Childwarsawghetto.jpg|thumb|150px|right|A child dying in the streets of the crowded [[Warsaw Ghetto]], where hunger and disease were endemic.]]
After the invasion of Poland, the Nazis created [[ghetto]]s to which Jews (and some Roma) were confined, until they were eventually shipped to death camps and killed. The [[Warsaw Ghetto]] was the largest, with 380,000 people and the [[Łódź Ghetto]], the second largest, holding about 160,000, but ghettos were instituted in many cities ([http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/ghettolist.htm list]). The ghettos were established throughout 1940 and 1941, and were immediately turned into immensely crowded prisons; though the Warsaw Ghetto contained 30% of the population of [[Warsaw]], it occupied only about 2.4% of city's area, averaging 9.2 people per room. From 1940 through 1942, disease (especially [[typhoid]]) and starvation killed hundreds of thousands of Jews confined in the ghettos.
On [[July 19]], 1942, [[Heinrich Himmler]] ordered the start of the deportations of Jews from the ghettos to the death camps. On [[July 22]], [[1942]], the deportations from the Warsaw Ghetto inhabitants began; in the next 52 days (until [[September 12]], [[1942]]) about 300,000 people were transported by train to the [[Treblinka extermination camp]] from Warsaw alone. Many other ghettos were completely depopulated. Though there were armed resistance attempts in the ghettos in 1943, such as the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]] and the [[Białystok Ghetto Uprising]], but in every case they failed against the Nazi military, and the remaining Jews were either slaughtered or sent to the extermination camps.
===Death squads (1941-1943)===
{{main|Einsatzgruppen}}
[[Image:Einsatz1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The 1941 massacre at [[Babi Yar]] was similar to many other mass killings of Jews. Over 33,000 Jews were shot in the course of two days by Nazi [[Einsatzgruppen]] and local Ukrainian forces.]]
As many as 1.6 million Jews were killed in open-air shootings by Nazis and their collaborators, especially in 1941 before the establishment of the concentration camps. During the invasion of the [[Soviet Union]], over 3,000 special killing units (organized into the four ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'') followed the [[Wehrmacht]], conducting mass killings of Poles, Communist officials, and the Jewish population that lived in Soviet territory.
Poles were an early target in the [[Außerordentliche Befriedungsaktion|AB Action]], in which 30,000 Polish intellectual and political figures were rounded up, and 7,000 eventually killed. By the summer of 1941, the Einsatzgruppen turned to targeting Jews, starting with the extermination of 2,200 Jews in [[Bialystock]] on June 21, 1941, and quickly increased in scale. From September to the end of 1942, a series of mass killings took place throughout Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Latvia: over 33,000 Jews were killed at [[Babi Yar]], 25,000 at [[Rumbula]], over 36,000 at [[Odessa Massacre|Odessa]] by Romanian forces, 9,000 at the [[Ninth Fort]], and 40,000 (up to 100,000 by 1944) at [[Paneriai]]. These, and similar slaughters throughout Europe, killed around 100,000 Jews per month for five months. By the end of 1943, another 900,000 Jews would be killed in this manner, but the pace was not fast enough for the Nazi leadership, who, at the end of 1941 and the beginning of 1942, began the implementation of the [[Final Solution]], the complete extermination of the Jews of Europe.
=== Extermination camps (1942-1945) ===
{{main|Extermination camp}}
[[Image:Holocaust-gas-hair.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Empty poison gas canisters and piles of hair shaved from the victims of Auschwitz-Birkenau.]]
In December, 1941, the Nazis opened [[Chelmno extermination camp|Celmno]], the first of what would soon be seven [[extermination camps]], dedicated entirely to mass extermination on an industrial scale, as opposed to the labor or concentration camps. Over three million Jews would die in these extermination camps.
The method of killing at these camps was by poison gas (Zyklon B), usually in "[[gas chambers]]", although many prisoners were killed in mass shootings and by other means. The bodies of those killed were destroyed in [[crematoriums|crematoria]] (except at [[Sobibór]] where they were cremated on outdoor pyres), and the ashes buried or scattered.
In 1942, the Nazis began this most destructive phase of the Holocaust, with [[Aktion Reinhard]], opening the extermination camps of [[Belzec]], [[Sobibor]], and [[Treblinka]]. More than 1.7 million Jews were killed at the three Aktion Reinhard camps by October 1943. The largest death camp built was [[Auschwitz-Birkenau]], which had both a labor camp ([[Auschwitz]]) and an extermination camp ([[Birkenau]]); the latter possessing four gas chambers and crematoria. This camp was responsible for the deaths of an estimated 1.6 million Jews (including about 438,000 Jews from Hungary in the course of a few months), 75,000 Poles and gay men, and some 19,000 Roma. At the peak of operations, Birkenau's gas chambers killed approximately eight thousand a day.
Upon arrival in these camps, prisoners were divided into two groups: those too weak for work were immediately executed in [[gas chamber]]s (which were sometimes disguised as showers) and their bodies burned, while others were first used for slave labor in factories or industrial enterprises located in the camp or nearby. The Nazis also forced some prisoners to work in the collection and disposal of corpses, and to mutilate them when required. Gold teeth were extracted from the corpses, and women's hair (shaved from the heads of victims before they entered the gas chambers) was recycled for use in products such as rugs and socks.
=== Death marches and liberation (1944-1945) ===
{{main|Death marches (Holocaust)}}
As the armies of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] closed in on the Reich at the end of 1944, the Germans decided to abandon the extermination camps, moving or destroying evidence of the atrocities they had committed there. The Nazis marched prisoners, already sick after months or years |
ess|process]].
The programming language [[Perl]] is often associated with CGI, but one of the aims of CGI is to be language-neutral. That is, CGI is not an actual LANGUAGE, it is a set of rules for communications. Specifically, a set of rules for communication between a Web server's interface and other software on the Web server (such as a database). The Web server does not need to know anything about the language in question.
In fact, CGI programs can be written in any [[scripting language]] or a full-fledged [[programming language]], as long as that language can be executed on the system. Besides Perl, examples include [[Unix shell|Unix]] [[shell script]]s, [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Ruby_programming_language | Ruby]], [[PHP]], [[Tcl]], and [[C programming language|C]]/[[C++]].
An example of a CGI program is the one implementing a [[wiki]]. The user agent requests the name of an entry; the server will retrieve the source of that entry's page (if one exists), transform it into [[HTML]], and send the result back to the browser or prompt the user to create it. All wiki operations are managed by this one program.
The way CGI works from the Web server's point of view is that certain locations (e.g. <nowiki>http://www.example.com/wiki.cgi</nowiki>) are defined to be served by a CGI program. Whenever a request to a matching [[URL]] is received, the corresponding program is called, with any data that the client sent as input. Output from the program is collected by the Web server, augmented with appropriate headers, and sent back to the client.
Because this technology generally requires a fresh copy of the program to be executed for every CGI request, the workload could quickly overwhelm web servers, inspiring more efficient technologies such as [[Mod perl|mod_perl]] or [[Active_Server_Pages|ASP]] that allow script interpreters to be integrated directly into web servers as modules, thus avoiding the overhead of repeatedly loading and initializing language interpreters.
==Workarounds for scripting languages==
The overhead of spawning new processes to compile the server code can be easily handled if the code is occasionally changed. One example is [[FastCGI]] while others include programming [[Accelerator_(computing)|accelerators]] that take a web script when initially called and store a [[Compiler|compiled]] version of the script in system location so that further requests for the file are automatically directed to the compiled code instead of invoking the script interpreter every time the script is called. When scripts are changed the temporary [[accelerator (computing)|accelerator]] cache can be emptied to ensure that the new script is called instead of the old one.
Thus for languages such as C or Pascal, which are usually compiled anyway, CGI programs are no different from other programs in this regard, and require no special processing.
Another approach used for scripting languages is to embed the interpreter directly into the web server so that it can be executed without creating a new process. The [[Apache web server]] has a number of modules such as [[mod_perl]], [[mod_php]], [[mod_python]], [[mod_ruby]], and [[mod_mono]] which do this.
==See also==
* [[CGI.pm]]
* [[Simple Common Gateway Interface]]
== External links ==
*The [http://www.w3.org/CGI/ CGI standard] at w3.org.
*The [http://hoohoo.ncsa.uiuc.edu/cgi/ CGI/1.1 specification].
*The complete list of CGI variables is at http://hoohoo.ncsa.uiuc.edu/cgi/env.html.
*The [http://www.mems-exchange.org/software/scgi/ SCGI] protocol is a replacement for the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) protocol.
* [http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/cgi.shtml Python CGI Scripts] protocol A set of CGI applications and modules for CGI programming with the Python language.
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<title>Computer-generated imagery</title>
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[[Image:Abyss.jpg|300px|thumb|The ''[[pseudopod]]'' in ''[[The Abyss]]'' marked CGI's acceptance in the visual effects industry.]]
'''Computer-generated imagery''' ('''CGI''') is the application of the field of [[computer graphics]] (or more specifically, [[3D computer graphics]]) to [[special effects]]. CGI is used in [[film|movie]]s, [[television program]]s and [[Television commercial|commercial]]s, and in printed media. [[Video games]] most often use real-time computer graphics (rarely referred to as CGI), but may also include pre-rendered "cut scenes" and intro movies that would be typical CGI applications. These are referred to as [[Full motion video|FMV]].
CGI is used because it is often cheaper than physical methods, such as constructing elaborate [[Miniature effect|miniature]]s for effects shots or hiring a great deal of [[extra (drama)|extra]]s for crowd scenes, and because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any other method. It can also allow a single artist to produce content without the use of actors or other contributors to the project.
==History==
2D CGI was first used in [[film|movie]]s in [[1973]]'s ''[[Westworld]]'', though the first use of 3D imagery was in its sequel, ''[[Futureworld]]'' ([[1976]]), which featured a computer-generated hand and face created by then [[University of Utah]] graduate students [[Edwin Catmull]] and [[Fred Parke]]. The first two films to make heavy investments in CGI, ''[[Tron (movie)|Tron]]'' ([[1982]]) and ''[[The Last Starfighter]]'' ([[1984]]), were commercial failures, causing most directors to relegate CGI to images that were supposed to look like they were created by a computer. The first real CGI character was created by Pixar for the film ''[[Young Sherlock Holmes]]'' in 1985 (not counting the simple polyhedron character Bit in ''Tron''). It took the form of a knight composed of elements from a stained glass window. Photorealistic CGI did not win over the motion picture industry until [[1989]], when ''[[The Abyss]]'' won the [[Academy Award for Visual Effects]]. [[Industrial Light and Magic]] produced photorealistic CGI visual effects, most notably a seawater creature dubbed the ''[[pseudopod]]'', featuring in one scene of the film. CGI then took a central role in ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' ([[1991]]), when the [[T-1000]] Terminator villain wowed audiences with liquid metal and [[morphing]] effects fully integrated into action sequences throughout the film. ''Terminator 2'' also won ILM an Oscar for its effects.
It was the 1993 film ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', however, where the dinosaurs appeared so life-like and the movie integrated CGI and live-action so flawlessly, it revolutionized the movie industry. It marked Hollywood’s transition from stop-motion animation and conventional optical effects to digital techniques.
2D CGI increasingly appeared in [[traditional animation|traditionally animated]] films, where it supplemented the use of hand-illustrated cels. Its uses ranged from digital [[tweening]] motion between frames, to eye-catching quasi-3D effects such as the ballroom scene in ''[[Beauty_and_the_Beast_(1991_film)|Beauty and the Beast]]''.
[[Image:Movie_poster_toy_story.jpg|left|thumb|200px|''[[Toy Story]]'' (1995) was the first fully computer-generated feature film.]]
In [[1995]], the first fully computer-generated feature film, [[Pixar]]'s ''[[Toy Story]]'', was a resounding commercial success. Additional digital animation studios such as [[Blue Sky Studios]] ([[20th Century Fox|Fox]]) and [[Pacific Data Images]] ([[Dreamworks SKG]]) went into production, and existing animation companies such as [[The Walt Disney Company]] began to make a transition from traditional animation to CGI.
Between 1995 and 2005 the average effects [[budget]] for a wide-release [[feature film]] skyrocketed from $5 million to $40 million. According to one studio executive, [[as of 2005]], more than half of feature films have significant effects. [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.02/fxgods.html]
In the early 2000s, computer-generated imagery became the dominant form of special effects. The technology progressed to the point that it became possible to include virtual stunt doubles that were nearly indistinguishable from the actors they replaced. Computer-generated extras also became used extensively in crowd scenes. The [[timeline of CGI in movies]] shows a detailed list of pioneering uses of computer-generated imagery in film and television.
CGI for films is usually rendered at about 1.4&ndash;6 [[megapixel]]s. ''Toy Story'', for example, was rendered at 1536&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;922 (1.42MP). The time to render one frame is typically around 2&ndash;3 hours, with ten times that for the most complex scenes. This time hasn't changed much in the last decade, as image quality has progressed at the same rate as improvements in hardware, since with faster machines, more and more complexity becomes feasible. Exponential increases in [[Graphics Processing Unit|GPUs]] processing power, as well as massive increases in parallel CPU power, storage and memory speed and size have greatly increased CGI's potential.
[[Image:Final_Fantasy_01.jpg|right|thumb|350px|''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'' (2001) was the first attempt t |
sm]]. This kind of [[tetraploid]] chimerism can also occur naturally, without in-vitro fertilization (see ''New England Journal of Medicine'', vol 346, p 1545).
Not all cases of Chimerism involve intersexuality, however. There have been about 40 known cases worldwide of humans reproducing naturally and producing offspring with absolutely no genetic similarities between mother and child. Discovery Health Channel has produced a documentary on two families and their issues in dealing with chimerism. It was called "[http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8905 I Am My Own Twin]."
== Treatment of intersexuals by society ==
Intersexual individuals are treated in different ways by different cultures. In some cultures intersexuals were included in larger "third gender" or gender-blending social roles along with other individuals. In most societies, intersexed individuals have been expected to select one sex, and conform to its [[gender role]].
Since the rise of modern medical science in Western societies, intersexuals with ambiguous external genitalia have had their genitalia surgically modified to resemble either male or female genitals. But there are increasing calls for recognition of the various degrees of intersexuality as healthy variations which should not be subject to correction. Some have attacked the common Western practice of performing corrective surgery on the genitals of intersexuals as a Western cultural equivalent of [[female genital mutilation]]. Despite the attacks on the practice, most of the medical profession still supports it. Others have claimed that the talk about third sexes represents an ideological agenda to deride gender as a social construct whereas they believe gender is a biological reality.
Corrective surgery is generally not necessary for protection of life or health, but purely for aesthetic or social purposes. It may lead to negative consequences for sexual functioning in later life, which would have been avoided without the surgery; in other cases negative consequences are avoided by surgery. Defenders of the practice argue that it is necessary for individuals to be clearly identified as male or female in order for them to function socially. However, many intersex individuals have resented the medical intervention, and some have been so discontented with their surgically assigned gender as to opt for [[sexual reassignment surgery]] later in life.
The writer [[Anne Fausto-Sterling]] [[neologism|coined]] the words ''herm'' (for hermaphrodite), ''merm'' (for an intersex person that most closely resembles a male), and ''ferm'' (for an intersex person that most closely resembles a female), and proposed that these be recognized as sexes along with male and female. However, her use was "tongue-in-cheek"; she no longer advocates these terms even as a rhetorical device.
==See also==
* [[Hermaphrodite]]
* [[Intersex Society of North America]]
* [[Erik Schinegger]]
Conditions:
* [[Androgen insensitivity syndrome]]
* [[Adrenal hyperplasia]]
** [[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]
** [[Late onset adrenal hyperplasia]]
* [[5 alpha reductase deficiency]]
* [[Gonadal dysgenesis]]
* [[Hypospadias]]
* [[Klinefelter syndrome]]
* [[Ovotestis]]
* [[Progestin induced virilization]]
* [[Vaginal agenesis]]
== References ==
*Blackless, Melanie, Anthony Charuvastra, Amanda Derryck, Anne Fausto-Sterling, Karl Lauzanne, and Ellen Lee. 2000. [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/issuetoc?ID=69504032 How sexually dimorphic are we? Review and synthesis]. ''American Journal of Human Biology'' 12:151-166.
*Dreifus, Claudia. "A Conversation with Anne Fausto-Sterling" ''The New York Times''. [[2 January]] [[2001]] (p. F3).
*Heard, Alex. "Out There: Everything But the Truth" ''The Washington Post Magazine''. [[4 September]] [[1988]] (p. W9).
*Musto, Michael. "La Dolce Musto". ''The Village Voice''. [[22 September]] [[1998]] (p. 12).
*Sax, Leonard. [http://articles.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_3_39/ai_94130313 How common is intersex? A response to Anne Fausto-Sterling.] ''J Sex Research 39:174-9, 2002''
* (2004) [http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030030 The Evolution of Self-Fertile Hermaphroditism: The Fog Is Clearing.] PLoS Biol 3(1): e30.
== External links ==
*[http://www.isna.org/ Intersex Society of North America]
*[http://www.bodieslikeours.org/ Bodies Like Ours]
*[http://intersexinitiative.org/ Intersex Initiative]
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6994580/ ''New guidelines for treating 'intersex' babies]'' ''Doctors urged not to operate on infants with unclear gender'' (Associated Press, Feb. 2005)
*[http://sfhrc.org/site/uploadedfiles/sfhumanrights/Committee_Meetings/Lesbian_Gay_Bisexual_Transgender/SFHRC%20Intersex%20Report.pdf A Human Rights Investigation into the medical "normalization" of intersex people] - a report of a hearing of the San Francisco Human Rights Commission - [[PDF]] format
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<page>
<title>In vivo</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''In vivo''' ([[Latin]] for ''(with)in the living''). ''In vivo'' is used to indicate the presence of a whole/living [[organism]], in distinction to a partial or dead organism, or a computer model.
For example, ''In vivo'' biological research differentiates whole organism research from ''[[in vitro]]'' research, which is performed on [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], [[Biological tissue|tissues]], [[Cell (biology)|cells]], cellular components, [[proteins]], or [[biomolecules]]. [[Clinical trials]] are a form of ''in vivo'' research, albeit on humans. ''In silico'' research refers to numerical simulation on a [[computer]] of, for example, a [[Protein-protein docking |reaction between two proteins]].
The ''in vivo''-''in vitro'' dichotomy is also frequently used in a medical context, ''e. g.'' ''in vivo''-''in vitro'' [[fertilization]].
==''In vivo'' Research==
''In vivo'' research is more suited to observe an overall effect than ''in vitro'' research, which is better suited to deduce mechanisms of action. ''In vitro'' research aims to describe and understand the effect of an experimental variable on a subset of an organism's components. ''In vitro'' research has the advantage over ''in vivo'' research that there are fewer variables which can confound an experiment, and that if an experimental effect is subtle the result will be more clearly visible.
''In vivo'' research has the advantage, over ''in vitro'' research, that the experimental system is a more complex biological system. This means that ''in vivo'' research will likely give a better indication of what will happen in a [[population]] when a [[Chemical compound|compound]] is administered to or a procedure is performed on an [[animal model]] of disease. This is why all new drugs must first undergo animal testing, followed by clinical trials, before they are released to the general population.
Christopher [[Lipinski's_Rule_of_Five|Lipinski]]'s rationale for this observation is:
<blockquote>
''Whether the aim is to discover drugs or to gain knowledge of biological systems, the nature and properties of a chemical tool cannot be considered independently of the system it is to be tested in. Compounds that bind to isolated recombinant proteins are one thing; chemical tools that can perturb cell function another; and pharmacological agents that can be tolerated by a live organism and perturb its systems are yet another. If it were simple to ascertain the properties required to develop a lead discovered in vitro to one that is active in vivo, drug discovery would be as reliable as drug manufacturing.'' (Lipinski 2004)
</blockquote>
The massive adoption of low-cost, ''in vitro'', [[molecular biology]] techniques has caused a move away from ''in vivo'' research, which is considered too idiosyncratic and, above all, expensive compared to its molecular counterpart. Currently, ''in vitro'' models and experiments are a vital and highly productive research tool.
The [[guinea pig]] was previously such a commonly used ''in vivo'' experimental model that they became part of idiomatic English: 'being a guinea-pig for someone/something'. Their use in research has been substantially replaced by the smaller, cheaper and faster breeding [[rat]]s and mice.
As the term is in Latin, it is written in italics.
''See also'': ''[[ex vivo]]'', ''[[in utero]]'', ''[[in situ]]'', ''[[in vitro]]'', ''[[in silico]]''.
==References==
Lipinski, C. & Hopkins, A. Navigating chemical space for biology and medicine. ''Nature''. 2004. 432: 855-861.
[[Category:Latin biological phrases]]
[[ca:In vivo]]
[[de:In vivo]]
[[fr:In vivo (biologie)]]
[[it:In vivo]]
[[nl:In vivo]]
[[ja:In vivo]]
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[[sv:In vivo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>In vitro</title>
<id>15188</id>
<revision>
<id>41171117</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T14:41:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Splette</username>
<id>288184</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
'''''In vitro''''' ([[Latin]]: "within glass") is an experimental technique where the experiment is performed in a [[test tube]], or generally outside a living [[organism]] or [[cell (biology)|cell]]. An example is [[in |
tup company|start-up companies]] selling products or services using or somehow related to the [[Internet]]. They proliferated in the late [[1990s]] '''dot-com boom''', a [[speculation|speculative]] frenzy of [[investment]] in Internet and Internet-related [[technology|technical]] [[stock]]s and enterprises. The name derives from the fact that many of them have the "'''[[.com]]'''" internet [[top-level domain]] <!--[[Domain Name System|DNS]]--> suffix built into their company name.
==Overview==
In [[1994]] the [[Internet]] came to the general public's attention with the public advent of the [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]] web browser and the nascent [[World Wide Web]], and by [[1996]] it became obvious to most publicly-traded companies that a public web presence was no longer optional. Though at first people saw mainly the possibilities of free publishing and instant worldwide information, increasing familiarity with two-way communication over the "web" led to the possibility of direct web-based commerce ([[e-commerce]]) and instantaneous group communications worldwide. These concepts in turn intrigued many bright young, often underemployed people (many of [[Generation X]]), who realized that new business models would soon arise based on these possibilities, and wanted to be among the first to profit from these new models.
The suddenly low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those people at the same moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established business dogma in [[advertising]], [[mail-order]] sales, [[customer relationship management]], and many more areas. The web was a new [[killer app]] -- it could instantaneously bring together unrelated buyers and sellers, or advertisers and clients, in seamless and low-cost ways. Visionaries around the world grabbed friends, developed new business models that would not have been possible just 3 years before, and ran to their nearest [[venture capital]]ist.
The venture capitalists saw the fast rise in valuation of other such companies, and therefore moved faster and with less caution than usual, choosing to hedge the risk by starting many contenders and letting the market decide which would succeed. The low interest rates in [[1998]] - [[1999]] helped increase the startup capital amounts. Although a number of these new entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, most of them lacked these characteristics but were able to sell their ideas to investors due to the novelty of the dot-com concept.
A canonical "dot-com" company's [[business model]] relied on harnessing [[network effect]]s by giving products away to build [[market share]] (or [[mind share]]). These companies expected that by operating at a loss they could build enough brand awareness to charge for their services later. ([[Yahoo!]] and a few other successful survivors of the era actually succeeded with this strategy.) Many raised cash through public offerings on the [[stock exchange]]s, with [[stock]] often soaring to dizzying heights and making the initial controllers of the company wildly rich on paper. Dot-com companies were stereotyped as having extremely young and inexperienced managers wearing polo shirts with lavish offices including [[foosball]], free food and [[soft drink]]s as well as [[Aeron chair]]s. Companies frequently held parties or expositions where free pens, t-shirts, stress balls, and other trinkets were given away emblazoned with the company's logo. The companies were also stereotyped as requiring extremely long work hours and high pressure.
An annual event started in [[1995]], the [[Webby Awards]], working to recognize the best websites on the Internet. The event was typically an extravaganza held annually in [[San Francisco, California]], near the heart of [[Silicon Valley]]. The ceremonies mirrored the flashy dot-com lifestyle with costumed guests, modern dancers, and [[faux-paparazzi]] to make guests feel important. The event peaked in 2001 with thousands in attendance. In [[2002]], it was a more somber event with only several hundred guests and little of the excess of the late 1990s. In [[2003]], the awards were reduced to a virtual event because many of the nominees couldn't fly to San Francisco due primarily to corporate belt-tightening and fear of losing their jobs. The [[2005]] edition was held in New York City.
Historically the dot-com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology inspired booms of the past including [[Railway mania|railroads]] in the [[1840s]], radio in the [[1920s]], transistor electronics in the [[1950s]], computer time-sharing in the [[1960s]], and [[home computers]] and [[biotechnology]] in the early [[1980s]].
==Soaring stocks==
A [[stock market bubble]] in financial markets is a term applied to a self-perpetuating rise or boom in the share prices of stocks of a particular industry. The term may be used with certainty only in retrospect when share prices have since crashed. A bubble occurs when speculators note the fast increase in value and decide to buy in anticipation of further rises, rather than because the shares are undervalued. Typically many companies thus become grossly overvalued. When the bubble "bursts", the share prices fall dramatically, and many companies go out of business.
The late [[1990s]] boom in technology dot-com company stocks is a good example of a bubble, which burst in late [[2000]] and through [[2001]].
The dot-com model was inherently flawed: a vast number of companies all had the same business plan of [[monopoly|monopolising]] their respective sectors through network effects, and it was clear that even if the plan was sound, there could only be at most one network-effects winner in each sector, and therefore that most companies with this business plan would fail. In fact, many sectors could not support even one company powered entirely by network effects.
In spite of this, vast fortunes were made by a few company founders whose companies were bought out at an early stage in the dot-com stock market bubble. These early successes made the bubble even more [[buoyancy|buoyant]]. An unprecedented amount of personal investing occurred during the boom. Stories of people quitting their jobs to become full-time [[day trading|day traders]], while not representative, were common in the press.
==Free spending==
According to dot-com theory, an internet company's survival depended on expanding its customer base as rapidly as possible, even if it produced large annual losses. The phrase "Get large or get lost" was the wisdom of the day. At the height of the boom it was possible for a promising dot-com to make an [[initial public offering]] of its stock and raise a substantial amount of money even though it had never made a profit, or even any revenues in some cases. But then the matter of [[burn rate]] came into play as capital was expended in operating a company with no income and no viable [[business model]].
Public awareness campaigns were one way that dot-coms sought to grow their customer base. These included television ads, print ads, and targeting of professional sporting events. The January 2000 Super Bowl featured seventeen dot-com companies (most memorably [[pets.com]]) that each paid over $2 million for a 30-second spot. In January 2001, just three dot-coms bought advertising spots. Iwon.com gave away $10 million to a lucky contestant on an April 2000 show that aired on CBS. Many dot-coms named themselves with [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]] nonsense words that they hoped would be memorable and not easily confused with a competitor.
Not surprisingly, the "growth over profits" mentality and the aura of "new economy" invincibility led some companies to engage in lavish internal spending, such as elaborate business facilities and luxury vacations for employees. Executives and employees who were paid with [[stock option]]s in lieu of cash became instant millionaires when the company made its initial public offering; many invested their new wealth into yet more dot-coms.
Cities all over the United States sought to become the "next Silicon Valley" by building network-enabled office space to attract internet entrepreneurs. Communication providers, convinced that the future economy would require ubiquitous [[broadband access]], went deeply into debt to improve their networks with high-speed equipment and [[fiber optic]] cables. A Worldcom executive famously remarked that internet traffic would double every hundred ''days'' for the foreseeable future. Companies that produced network equipment, such as [[Cisco Systems]], profited greatly from these projects.
Similarly, in [[Europe]] the vast amounts of cash the [[Mobile phone|mobile]] operators spent on [[3G]]-licences in [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom]] for example led them into deep debt. The investments were blown out of proportion regardless of whether seen in the context of their current or projected future [[cash flow]], but this fact was not publicly acknowledged until as late as [[2001]] and [[2002]]. Due to the highly networked nature of the [[Information technology|IT]] industry this quickly led into problems for small companies that were dependent on contracts from operators.
==Thinning the herd==
Over 1999 and early 2000, the [[Federal Reserve]] had increased interest rates six times, and the runaway economy was beginning to lose speed. The '''dot-com bubble''' burst, numerically, on [[March 10]], [[2000]], when the technology heavy [[NASDAQ Composite]] index [http://dynamic.nasdaq.com/dynamic/IndexChart.asp?symbol=IXIC&desc=NASDAQ+Composite&sec=nasdaq&site=nasdaq&months=84] peaked at 5048.62 (intra-day peak 5132.52), more than double its value just a year before. The NASDAQ fell slightly after that, but was attributed to correction; the a |
usic is the Key", [[Chip E.]]'s "Like This" and Fingers, Inc. "Mystery of Love" (1985) were amongst some of the defining songs that came off of DJ International. While Trax released "Jack the Bass" & "Funkin With the Drums Again" by [[Farley Jackmaster Funk]] in 1985 followed the next year by House Classic "Move your Body" by Marshall Jefferson and "No Way Back" by Adonis.
This was something of a double-edged sword. In its favour Trax was very fast to sign new artists and press their tunes, establishing a large catalogue of House tunes, but the label used recycled vinyl to speed the pressing process resulting in physically poor quality records. Also disappointing was that many artists signed contracts that were rather less favourable towards them than they hoped.
Trax became the dominant House label, releasing many classics including "No Way Back" by [[Adonis (artist)|Adonis]], [[Larry Heard]]'s "Can You Feel It" and the first so-called House anthem in [[1986]], "Move Your Body" by [[Marshall Jefferson]]. This latter tune gave a massive boost to House music, extending recognition of the genre out of Chicago. [[Steve 'Silk' Hurley]] became the first house artist to reach number one in the UK in 1987 with "Jack Your Body". This and other tracks such as "Music is the Key" and "Love Can't Turn Around" helped moved house from its spiritual home to its commercial birthplace - the [[United Kingdom]].
===The Detroit Connection: early 1980s - late 1980s ===
{{main|Detroit techno}}
A form of music was forming at the same time in Detroit, what became known as "Detroit Techno". A major influence to the fusion of eclectic sounds into the signature detroit techno sound was a radio program which ran in the mid 1970s until the 1980s by legendary disc jockey [[The Electrifying Mojo]]. Music heavily influenced by European Electronica (Kraftwerk, Art of Noise), early [[b-boy]] [[Hip-Hop]] (Man Parrish, Soul Sonic Force) and Italo Disco (Doctor's Cat, Ris, Klein M.B.O.) this music was pioneered by Juan Atkins, Derrick May and Kevin Saunderson. The first group of songs to be rotated heavy in Chicago House music circles were the 1985's releases of "NO UFO's" by Juan Atkin's group Model 500 on Metroplex Records, Let's Go by Trans X-Ray (Derrick "MAYDAY" May") and "Groovin' without a Doubt" by Inner City (Kevin Saunderson) on KMS Records.
Juan Atkins on his Label Metroplex Records followed the release of "NO UFO's" with 1986's "FUTURE", 1988's the "Sound of Stero / Off to Battle" and 1989's "The Chase".
KMS Followed with releases in 1986 of Blake Baxter's "When we Used to Play / Work your Body", 1987's "Bounce Your Body to the Box" and "Force Field", 1988's "Wiggin" by MAYDAY, "The Sound / How to Play our Music" and “the Goove that Won't Stop” and a remix of "Grooving Without a Doubt". In 1988 as House music began to go more commercial, Kevin Saunderson’s group with Paris Gray released the 1988 hits "Big Fun" and "Good Life" which eventually were picked up by Virgin Records. Each EP / 12 inch single sported remixes by Mike "Hitman" Wilson and Steve "Silk" Hurley of Chicago and Derrick "Mayday" May and Juan Atkins of Detroit. In 1989 KMS had another hit release of "Rock to the Beat" which was a hit overseas and in Chicago
Derrick "Mayday" May had a style that was similar to Chicago native Larry Heard (Mr. Fingers), but soon became distinct and unique and was received well in Chicago, with releases on his Transmat Label, between 1986-1989 Transmat released hits like "Nude Photo", "It is What it is" and "Beyond the Dance" by Rythim is Rythim, "The Groove" by Suburban Knights, and "Illusion" by R-Tyme. The biggest hit and most influential in the House Music scene was Rythim is Rythim's "Strings of Life" which became a cult classic in dance music clubs internationally. Derrick May also recorded with Kool Kat "Nude Photo 88" with the cult classic "Sinister".
Though Detroit Techno is a music form in its own right and part of the "Electronic" / "Techno" worldwide music, it and its pioneers were also instrumental in the forwarding of House Music internationally and especially in the UK.
===The British connection: late 1980s - early 1990s ===
In [[United Kingdom|Britain]] the growth of house can be divided around the "[[Second Summer of Love|Summer of Love]]" in [[1988]]. House had a presence in Britain almost as early as it appeared in Chicago; however there was a strong divide between the House music as part of the gay scene and "straight" music. House grew in northern England, the Midlands and the South East. Founded in 1982 by [[Factory Records]] [[Fac 51 Hacienda|the Hacienda]] in [[Manchester]] became an extension of the "[[Northern Soul]]" genre and was one of the early, key English dance music clubs. Until 1986 the club was a financial disaster, the crowds only started to grow when the resident DJs (Pickering, Park and Da Silva) started to play house music. Many underground venues and DJ nights also took place across the U.K. like for instance the private parties hosted by an early [[Miss Moneypenny's]] contingent in [[Birmingham]] and many [[London]] venues. House was boosted in the UK by the tour in the same year of Knuckles, Jefferson, Fingers Inc. (Heard) and Adonis as the DJ International Tour. Amusingly, one of the early anthemic tunes, "Promised Land" by Joe Smooth, was covered and charted within a week by the [[Style Council]]. The first English House tune came out in [[1986]] - "Carino" by [[T-Coy]]. Europeans embraced house music, and began booking legendary American House DJs to play at the big clubs, such as [[Ministry of Sound]], whose resident, [[DJ Harvey]] brought in [[Larry Levan]].
The underground house scene in cities such as [[Birmingham]], [[Manchester]] and [[London]] were also provided with many underground [[Pirate Radio]] stations and DJ's alike which helped bolster an already contagious, but otherwise ignored by the mainstream, music genre.
One of the earliest and most influential UK house and techno record labels was [[Network Records]] (otherwise known as cool cat records) who helped introduced Italian and U.S. dance music to Britain as well as promoting select UK dance music acts.
[[Image:Oakenfold@Nation.jpg|thumb|left|[[Paul Oakenfold]]]]
But house was also developing on [[Ibiza]]. In the 1970s Ibiza was a hippy stop-over and a site for the rich, but by the mid-[[1980s]] a distinct [[Balearic Beat|Balearic]] mix of house was discernible. Several clubs like Amnesia with DJ Alfredo were playing a mix of rock, pop, disco and house. These clubs fueled by their distinctive sound and [[ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]] began to have an influence on the British scene. By late 1987 DJs like [[Paul Oakenfold]] and [[Danny Rampling]] were bringing the Ibiza sound to UK clubs like Shoom in Southwark ([[London]]), Heaven, Future and Purple Raines Spectrum in [[Birmingham]]. But the "Summer of Love" needed an added ingredient that would again come from America.
In America the music was being developed to create a more sophisticated sound, moving beyond just drum loops and short samples. New York saw this maturity evidenced in the slick production of disco house crossover tracks from artists such as [[Mateo & Matos]]. In Chicago, Marshall Jefferson had formed the house 'super group' Ten City (from intensity), demonstrating the developments in "That's the Way Love Is". In [[Detroit]] there were the beginnings of what would be called [[techno music|techno]], with the emergence of Juan Atkins, Derrick May and Kevin Saunderson. Atkins had already scored in 1982 with [[Cybotron]] and in 1985 he released Model 500 "No UFOs" which became a big regional hit, followed by dozens of tracks on Transmat, Metroplex and Fragile. One of the most unusual was "Strings of Life" by [[Derrick May]]. The NME described it as "[[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]] and [[Kraftwerk]] stuck in an elevator". It was a darker, more intellectual strain of house that followed its own trajectory. "Techno-Scratch" was released by the [[Knights Of The Turntable]] in 1984 which had a similar techno sound to Cybotron and is possibly where the term ''techno'' originated, although this is generally credited to Atkins, who borrowed the term from the phrase "techno rebels" which appeared in writer [[Alvin Toffler]]'s book ''[[Future Shock]]'' (see Sicko 1998).
The records were completely independent of the major record labels and the parties at which the tracks were played avoided commercial music.
The combination of house and techno came to Britain and gave House a phenomenal boost. A few clubs began to feature specialist House nights - the Hacienda had "Hot" on Wednesday from July [[1988]], 2,500 people could enjoy the British take on the Ibiza scene, the classic "Voodoo Ray" by [[A Guy Called Gerald]] (Gerald Simpson) was designed for the Hacienda and [[Madchester|''Mad''chester]]. Factory boss Tony Wilson also promoted acid house culture on his weekly TV show. The Midlands also embraced the late 80s House scene with many underground venues such as multi storey car parks and more legal dance stations such as the [[Digbeth Institute]] (now the 'Sanctuary' and home to [[Sundissential]]).
====Social aspects of raves====
<!-- much of this could be transferred to [[rave party]], leaving a summary here, that article deals with the social aspects of rave more |
th century]] as a [[food dye|coloring agent]] in [[sweets]]. In the last half century, [[monosodium methyl arsenate]] (MSMA), a less toxic organic form of arsenic, has replaced lead arsenate's role in agriculture.
The application of most concern to the general public is probably that of [[wood]] which has been treated with [[chromated copper arsenate]] ("CCA", or "[[Tanalith]]", and the vast majority of older "[[lumber#Preservatives|pressure treated]]" wood). CCA timber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the [[20th century]] as a structural, and outdoor [[building material]], where there was a risk of [[rot]], or [[insect]] infestation in untreated timber. Although widespread bans followed the publication of studies which showed low-level leaching from in-situ timbers (such as children's [[playground]] equipment) into surrounding [[soil]], the most serious risk is presented by the burning of CCA timber. Recent years have seen fatal animal poisonings, and serious human poisonings resulting from the ingestion - directly or indirectly - of wood ash from CCA timber (the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash - roughly a tablespoon). Scrap CCA construction timber continues to be widely burnt through ignorance, in both commercial, and domestic fires. Safe disposal of CCA timber remains patchy, and little practiced, there is concern in some quarters about the widespread [[landfill]] disposal of such timber.
During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds have been used as medicines, including [[arsphenamine]] (by [[Paul Ehrlich]]) and [[arsenic trioxide]] (by Thomas Fowler).
Arsphenamine as well as [[Neosalvarsan]] was indicated for [[syphilis]] and [[trypanosomiasis]], but has been superseded by modern [[antibiotics]].
Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past 200 years, but most commonly in the treatment of cancer. The [[FDA]] in 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of patients with [[acute promyelocytic leukemia]] that is resistant to [[all-trans retinoic acid|ATRA]].{{an|ArsTriChemo}}
But arsenic isn't always good for [[cancer]]. Some studies show that if you use arsenic you have a high risk for cancer.
Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green [[pigment]] known under many different names, including [[Paris Green]] and Emerald Green. It caused numerous [[arsenic poisoning]]s.
Other uses;
* Various [[agriculture|agricultural]] insecticides and poisons.
* [[Gallium arsenide]] is an important [[semiconductor]] material, used in [[integrated circuit]]s. Circuits made using the compound are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made in [[silicon]]. Unlike silicon it is [[direct bandgap]], and so can be used in [[laser diode]]s and [[LED]]s to directly convert [[electricity]] into [[light]].
* Arsenic trioxide is used in [[Australia]] for treating [[termite]] infestations in houses.
* Also used in [[bronzing]] and [[pyrotechny]].
== History ==
The word ''arsenic'' is borrowed from the [[Persian language|Persian]] word زرنيخ ''Zarnikh'' meaning "yellow [[orpiment]]". ''Zarnikh'' was borrowed by [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''arsenikon''. Arsenic has been known and used in [[Iran|Persia]] and elsewhere since ancient times. As the symptoms of [[arsenic poisoning]] were somewhat ill-defined, it was frequently used for [[murder]] until the advent of the [[Marsh test]], a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the [[Reinsch test]].) Due to its use by the ruling class to bump each other off and its incredible potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the ''Poison of Kings and the King of Poisons''.
During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in the bronze (mostly as an impurity), which made the alloy harder.
[[Albertus Magnus]] is believed to have been the first to isolate the
element in [[1250]]. In [[1649]] [[Johann Schroeder]] published two ways of preparing arsenic.
[[image:arsenic-symbol.png|75px|right|Alchemical symbol for arsenic]]The [[alchemy|alchemical]] symbol for arsenic is shown opposite.
In Victorian times, arsenic was mixed with [[vinegar]] and [[chalk]] and eaten by women to improve the [[complexion]] of their faces, making their skin more fair to show they did not work in the fields. Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to improve their complexion.
There is a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in [[Bangladesh]]{{an|bangladesh}}, where it is estimated that approximately 57 million people are drinking [[groundwater]] with arsenic concentrations elevated above the [[World Health Organization]]'s standard of 50 [[Concentration#.22Parts-per.22 Notation|parts per billion]]. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater due to the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after western [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s instigated a massive tube [[Water well|well]] drinking-water program in the late [[twentieth century]]. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacterially-contaminated surface waters, but unfortunately failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater.(2) Many other countries in [[Southeast Asia|South East Asia]], such as [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Tibet]], are thought to have geological environments similarly conducive to generation of high-arsenic groundwaters.
== Occurrence ==
[[Image:Native arsenic.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Massive native arsenic]]
[[Arsenopyrite]] also called mispickel ([[iron|Fe]][[sulfur|S]]As) is the most common [[mineral]] from which, on heating, the arsenic sublimes leaving ferrous sulfide. Other arsenic minerals include [[realgar]], [[mimetite]], [[cobaltite]] and [[erythrite]].
The most important compounds of arsenic are [[white arsenic]], its [[arsenic sulfide|sulfide]], [[Paris Green]], [[calcium arsenate]], and [[lead hydrogen arsenate]]. Paris Green, calcium arsenate, and lead arsenate have been used as [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[insecticide]]s and [[poison]]s. It is sometimes found native, but usually combined with [[silver]], [[cobalt]], [[nickel]], [[iron]], [[antimony]], or [[sulfur]].
In addition to the inorganic forms mentioned above, arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment. Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the [[food chain]], are progressively metabolised to a less toxic form of arsenic through a process of [[methylation]].
== Precautions ==
Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Arsenic kills by [[allosteric inhibition]] of the metabolic [[enzyme]] [[lipothiamide pyrophosphate]], leading to death from multi-system [[organ failure]]. See [[arsenic poisoning]]. Arsenic and its compounds inhibit the , which is an important enzyme of metabolism. The [[post mortem]] reveals brick red colored [[mucosa]], due to severe [[haemorrhage]].
Elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as '''''[[toxic]]''''' and '''''dangerous for the environment''''' in the [[European Union]] under [[directive 67/548/EEC]].
<!-- INDEX 033-001-00-X (arsenic) R23/25-50/53; S1/2-20/21-28-45-60-61 -->
<!-- INDEX 033-002-00-5 (other compounds) pareil -->
The [[IARC]] recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|group 1 carcinogens]], and the EU lists [[arsenic trioxide]], [[arsenic pentoxide]] and [[arsenate]] salts as category 1 [[carcinogen]]s.
Growing the [[Brake (fern)]] [[Pteris vittata]] will remove arsenic from the soil.
== See also ==
* [[Aqua Tofana]]
* [[Fowler's solution]]
* [[Arsenicosis]]
== Compounds ==
*[[Arsenic acid]] (H<sub>3</sub>AsO<sub>4</sub>)
*[[Arsenous acid]] (H<sub>3</sub>AsO<sub>3</sub>)
*[[Arsenic trioxide]] (As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>)
*[[Arsine]] (Arsenic Trihydride AsH<sub>3</sub>)
*[[Cadmium arsenide]] (Cd<sub>3</sub>As<sub>2</sub>)
*[[Gallium arsenide]] (GaAs)
*[[Lead hydrogen arsenate]] (PbHAsO<sub>4</sub>)
;See also [[:Category:Arsenic compounds]]
== References ==
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/33.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Arsenic]
== Endnotes ==
# {{anb|ArsTriChemo}} Antman, Karen H. (2001). [http://theoncologist.alphamedpress.org/cgi/content/full/6/suppl_2/1 The History of Arsenic Trioxide in Cancer Therapy]. Introduction to a supplement to ''The Oncologist''. '''6''' (Suppl 2), 1-2. PMID 11331433.
# {{anb|bangladesh}} Andrew Meharg, Venomous Earth - How Arsenic Caused The World's Worst Mass Poisoning, [http://www.macmillanscience.com/1403944997.htm Macmillan Science], 2005.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Arsenic}}
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://www.asmalldoseof.org/ A Small Dose of Toxicology]
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/arsenic/ Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Arsenic Toxicity]
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/11.html National Pollutant Inventory - Arsenic]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/As/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Arsenic]
* [http://www.origen.net/arsenic.html origen.net &ndash; CCA wood and arsenic: toxicological effects of arsenic]
* [http://www.clu-in.org/contaminantfocus/default.focus/sec/arsenic/cat/Overview/ Contaminant Focus: Arsenic] by the [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]].
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc224.htm Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2001] by the [[World Health Organization|WHO]].
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/arsenic/arsenic-1.htm A summary of the above report] by [[GreenFacts]].
* [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol23/arsenic.html Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of arsenic and arsenic compounds] by the [[IARC]].
[[Catego |
es, reported worldwide. Ivan T. Sanderson is also credited for interviewing Roger Patterson and Bob Gimlin four months after the filming of the [[Patterson-Gimlin film]] in 1968 February issue of ''Argosy'' magazine. In his last year of life, Sanderson gave up on conventional explanations and adopted a paranormal view of Bigfoot. (''Pursuit Magazine,'' 1980)
==='''1970s===
Perhaps, the first mainstream scientific study of available evidence was by Napier. ''Bigfoot: The Yeti and Sasquatch in Myth and Reality'' (ISBN 0525066586) offers an even-handed and sympathetic examination. While giving high marks to some earlier researchers ("Ivan T. Sanderson and John Green and [[René Dahinden]]... have made a far better job of recording the major events of the sasquatch saga than I could ever hope to do." (Napier, 73)), Napier wrote that if we are to form a conclusion based on scant extant "'hard' evidence," science must declare "Bigfoot does not exist" (ibid, 197).
Yet this conclusion is qualified, as Napier seemed willing to leave the question unresolved. He found it difficult to entirely reject thousands of alleged tracks, "scattered over 125,000 square miles” or to dismiss all "the many hundreds" of eyewitnesses. He also adds that "if ''one'' track is genuine and ''one'' report is true-bill, then myth must be chucked out the window and reality admitted through the front door" (ibid, 203). In the end, Napier writes, "I am convinced that Sasquatch exists, but whether it is all it is cracked up to be is another matter altogether. There must be ''something'' in north-west America that needs explaining, and that something leaves man-like footprints." (ibid, 205) Decades later, Krantz suggests that Napier "stuck his neck out a lot further than most primatologists by writing a book about hairy bipeds in which he took the subject quite seriously" (Krantz, 240).
In 1974, the [[National Wildlife Federation]] funded a field study, seeking Bigfoot evidence. No formal federation members were involved, and the study made no notable discoveries (Bourne, 295).
The 1975’s ''The Gentle Giants: The Gorilla Story'' (ISBN B0006CJNPU) was co-authored by Geoffrey H. Bourne, another noted primatologist. Its final chapter is a brief summary of various mystery primate reports worldwide. Like Napier, he laments the dearth of physical evidence, but Bourne does not dismiss Sasquatch or Yeti as impossible.
From May 10-13, 1978, the [[University of British Columbia]] hosted a [[symposium]], ''Anthropology of the Unknown: Sasquatch and Similar Phenomena, a Conference on Humanoid Monsters''. Presented, were 35 papers (abstracts collected in Wasson, 141-154). Most attendees came from anthropology backgrounds, and Pyle writes that the conference "brought together twenty professors in various fields, along with several serious laymen, to consider the [[mythology]], [[ethnology]], [[ecology]], [[biogeography]], [[physiology]], [[psychology]], [[history]] and [[sociology]] of the subject. All took it seriously, and while few, if any, accepted the existence of Sasquatch outright, they jointly concluded 'that there are not reasonable grounds to dismiss all the evidence as misinterpretation or hoax'" (Pyle, 186).
Following this modest peak in interest in the late 1970s, there has been little formal academic interest in the subject; many experts see further study as a waste of time. In more recent years, Krantz achieved a degree of notoriety as probably the leading accredited expert to devote considerable effort to the subject, though a few professionals have followed in his footsteps. Few have endorsed Krantz’ conclusions that Sasquatch is a real creature, but at the very least, such supporters argue that serious studies on the subject deserve fair consideration.
===1980s===
Some papers presented at the symposium were collected in 1980 as ''Manlike Monsters on Trial: Early Records and Modern Evidence,'' edited by Marjorie Halpin and [[Michael Ames]].
===1990s===
It’s worth noting that Pyle's ''Where Bigfoot Walks: Crossing the Dark Divide'' (ISBN 0395857015), as much a survey of Bigfoot’s cultural impact as of the likelihood of the creature’s reality, was researched and written with a grant from the [[Guggenheim Foundation]]. Pyle, author of ''Wintergreen'', the acclaimed [[1987]] requiem for the forests of Washington's [[Willapa Hills]], had well established his credentials as a scientist and nature writer.
1997 - Italian mountaineer, [[Reinhold Messner]], claimed to have come face to face with a Yeti. He has since written a book, ''My Quest for the Yeti: Confronting the Himalayas' Deepest Mystery'' (ISBN 031227078X), in which he argues that the Yeti was actually an endangered [[Himalaya]]n [[brown bear]] that can walk upright or on all fours.
===2000s===
Reported sightings of three giant human-like creatures in the [[Endau Rompin National Park]] in late 2005 led to the formation of an official Bigfoot-tracking team, appointed by the state's Chief Minister, Abdul Ghani Othman in January of 2006. "Bigfoot" fever struck Johor after three fishermen reported seeing the creatures and took a photograph of a footprint, which was printed in Malaysian newspapers. [http://www.hamiltonspectator.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=hamilton/Layout/Article_Type1&c=Article&cid=1140824435846&call_pageid=1020420665036&col=1112188062620]
==Bigfoot in popular culture==
Whether it is a real creature or not, Bigfoot has had a demonstrable impact as a [[culture|cultural]] phenomenon.
'''Advertising''':
The meanings of the words, "Bigfoot" or "Sasquatch", are quickly understood by most individuals (at least in North America) and have been used in [[advertising]] and applied to many products or services, such as pizzas, skateboards, skis, an Internet search engine, computer hard drive series, gas station, Kokanee beer, and a monster truck.
'''Movies and television''':
A number of feature length [[motion picture]]s have been produced featuring Bigfoot as a central character.
* ''Bigfoot'' (1970) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0065470/]
* ''Curse of Bigfoot'' (1976) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0074365/]
* ''Sasquatch, the Legend of Bigfoot'' (1977) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078203/]
* ''Snowbeast'' (1977) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0076731/]
* ''The Capture of Bigfoot'' (1979) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0124307/]
* ''Revenge of Bigfoot'' (1979) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0197820/]
* ''Bigfoot (1987)'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0092657/]
* ''[[Harry and the Hendersons]]'' (1987) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0093148/]
* ''Little Bigfoot'' (1997) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119544/]
* ''Little Bigfoot 2: The Journey Home'' (1997) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119545/]
* ''Sasquatch Hunters'' (1997) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0197851/]
* ''Ape Canyon'' (2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0398696/]
* ''The Untold'' (2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0265944/]
* ''Sasquatch Hunters'' (2005) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0339531/]
* ''The Unknown'' (2005) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0364616/]
* ''The Legend of Sasquatch'' (2006) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0491027/]
* ''The Sasquatch Dumpling Gang'' (2006) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0460925/]
* ''Bigfoot'' (nd) - an upcoming adaptation of the comic (see below)
''[[Harry and the Hendersons]]'' was followed by a short-lived television series. ''Bigfoot and Wildboy'' was a recurring segment in the 1970's children's program ''The Krofft Supershow'' produced by [[Sid and Marty Krofft]]. It has been suggested that the [[Wookiee]] race from ''[[Star Wars]]'' resembles Bigfoot and is probably inspired by the legendary creature. Wookiees, in particular the character [[Chewbacca]], have made cameo appearances on ''[[The Simpsons]]'' and ''[[South Park]]''. Sasquatch or Bigfoot appeared in three instances in the television series, ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]]'', in the form of an indigenous (Terran) life form that a friendly alien scientist enhanced with neosynthetic limbs (''i.e.'' bionics), and served as a guardian for their peaceful observations of the Earth. Sasquatch's ultimate disposition, after the aliens left the planet, was a gradual transition of his neosynthetics back to natural biology. See also the movie/documentary ''[[The Legend of Boggy Creek]]''.
'''Literature''':
Many have written on the subject, demonstrating a broad spectrum of approaches from lurid [[tabloid]]s to a small body of serious scholarly work. The ''[[Weekly World News]]'' occasionally runs a story on the mysterious creature. There have been several Bigfoot-related novels (such as ''[[Monster (novel)|Monster]]'', which describes the capture of a woman by a group of bigfoot, later revealed to be the products of a science experiment). In the [[comics]] world there has been a [[Marvel Comics]] character named [[Sasquatch (comics)|Sasquatch]] and a four issue series of comics by [[Steve Niles]] called ''Bigfoot'', which has now been optioned for a movie [http://www.fangoria.com/news_article.php?id=5429].
'''Conventions''':
There are annual Bigfoot-related conventions, and the creature plays a role in Pacific Northwest tourism, such as the annual "Sasquatch Daze" in [[Harrison Hot Springs, British Columbia]]. Napier writes, "Bigfoot in some quarters of [[North America]] has become big business ... It can no longer be considered simply as a natural phenomenon that can be studied with the techniques of a naturalist; the entrepreneurs have moved in and folklore has become fakelore" (Pyle, 160).
'''Law''':
Regarding Sasquatch, [[Skamania County, Washington]] passed a law in 1969 that "any wilful, wanton slaying of such creatures shall be deemed a felony", subject to substantial fine and/or imprisonment. The fact that this legislation was passed on Apri |
: 39 [http://www.iom.edu/CMS/2951/16476.aspx?ps=10&sb=LastName&sd=ASC&cp=5&filterby=C&browseby=Institution&scroll=2#ResultScroll2]
*[[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]: 143 [http://www.studentaffairs.columbia.edu/admissions/university/academic/faculty.php]
==Notable Columbia alumni==
Three current United States Senators, sixteen current Chief Executives of Fortune 500 companies, and thirty-seven Nobel Prize winners have degrees from Columbia. Three of the eleven richest Americans have a degree from Columbia. In culture and the arts, [[Rodgers and Hammerstein]], [[Lorenz Hart]], [[Jacques Barzun]], [[Lionel Trilling]], [[Robert Nozick]], [[Jack Kerouac]], [[Allen Ginsberg]] and [[Paul Auster]] are among Columbia's alumni.
See also [[List of Columbia University people]]
== In film, television and the arts ==
Movies featuring scenes shot on Morningside campus include:
* ''[[Altered States]]''
* ''[[Anger Management]]''
* ''[[Awakenings]]''
* ''[[Black and White (movie)|Black and White]]''
* ''[[Crimes and Misdemeanors]]''
* ''[[Everyone Says I Love You]]''
* ''[[Ghostbusters]]''
* ''[[Ghostbusters II]]''
* ''[[The Graduate]]''
* ''[[Hannah and Her Sisters]]''
* ''[[Hitch]]''
* ''[[K-PAX]]''
* ''[[Kinsey]]''
* ''[[The Last First Kiss]]''
* ''[[The Mirror Has Two Faces]]''
* ''[[Malcolm X]]''
* ''[[Manhattan]]''
* ''[[New York Minute (movie)|New York Minute]]''
* ''[[Porn 'n Chicken]]''
* ''[[The Producers: The Movie Musical]]''
* ''[[P.S.]]''
* ''[[Spider-Man (film)|Spider-Man]]''
* ''[[Spider-Man 2]]''
* ''[[The Sopranos]]''
* ''[[Stay]]''
* ''[[Thirteen Conversations About One Thing]]''
Movies or shows with significant portrayals of Columbia alumni or students:
* ''[[Finding Forrester]]'' -William Forrester bears a likeness to J.D. Salinger, a Columbia alumnus.
* ''[[Igby Goes Down]]''
* ''[[The Pride of the Yankees]]'' -Biopic of Lou Gehrig, who attended Columbia in the 1920s.
*''[[Quiz Show]]'' - Noted alum [[Charles Van Doren]] and the [[Twenty One (game show)|quiz show scandal]] of the 1950s.
* ''[[The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants]]'' - Eric, [[Mike Vogel]], is a student at Columbia
* ''[[The Rock (film)]]'' -Nicholas Cage's character, Stanley Goodspeed, is a Columbia alumnus.
Currently shooting on or around the University's campus:
* ''[[August Rush]]''
==See also==
* [[Ivy League]]
* [[Education in New York City]]
* [[Columbia Daily Spectator]]
* The [[Varsity Show]]
* [[The Philolexian Society]]
* [[Ivy League business schools]]
* [[List of Columbia University people]]
* [[Columbia University Tunnels]]
* [[Clubs and Organizations of Columbia University]]
* [[Frank Abagnale]], an [[impostor]] who [[forgery|forged]] a Columbia University [[academic degree]]
*[[Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize]]
==Notes==
<references/>
==External links==
* [http://www.columbia.edu/ Columbia's homepage]
*[http://www.college.columbia.edu/ Columbia College] - undergraduate school of arts and science
* [http://www.engineering.columbia.edu/ Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science] - undergraduate and graduate engineering school
* [http://www.barnard.edu/ Barnard College]
* [http://www.sipa.columbia.edu/ Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs]
* [http://www.gs.columbia.edu/ Columbia School of General Studies]
* [http://www.cuarts.com/ Columbia University Arts Initiative]
* [http://www.columbiaspectator.com/ Columbia Daily Spectator] - second oldest student newspaper in the nation
* [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/glee Columbia University Glee Club]
* [http://www.culpa.info/ CULPA: Columbia Underground Listing (of) Professor Ability]
* [http://cusj.columbia.edu/ The Columbia Undergraduate Science Journal]
* [http://www.law.columbia.edu/ Columbia Law School]
* [http://www.jrn.columbia.edu/ Columbia Graduate School of Journalism]
* [http://www.tc.columbia.edu/ Columbia Teachers College]
* [http://www.uts.columbia.edu/ Union Theological Seminary]
* [http://www.jtsa.edu/ Jewish Theological Seminary]
* [http://cusj.columbia.edu/columbiasciencereview.shtml The Columbia Science Review]
* [http://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/ Columbia Graduate School of Business]
* [http://www.arch.columbia.edu/ Graduate School of Architecture Planning and Preservation]
* [http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/ Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory]
* [http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/stand_columbia/f.html Timeline]
{{Mapit-US-buildingscale|40.808783|-73.962278}}
{{Ivy_League}}
{{New York City}}
[[Category:Association of American Universities]]
[[Category:Colonial colleges]]
[[Category:Columbia University|Columbia University]]
[[Category:Film schools]]
[[Category:Ivy League]]
[[Category:Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools]]
[[Category:Nursing schools in the United States]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 18th century]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City]]
[[Category:1754 establishments]]
[[de:Columbia University]]
[[es:Universidad de Columbia]]
[[eo:Universitato Kolumbio]]
[[fr:Université Columbia]]
[[ko:컬럼비아 대학교]]
[[id:Universitas Columbia]]
[[he:אוניברסיטת קולומביה]]
[[hu:Columbia Egyetem]]
[[nl:Columbia-universiteit]]
[[ja:コロンビア大学]]
[[ka:კოლუმბიის უნივერსიტეტი]]
[[pl:Columbia University]]
[[pt:Universidade de Columbia]]
[[ru:Колумбийский университет]]
[[fi:Columbian yliopisto]]
[[sv:Columbia University]]
[[zh:哥伦比亚大学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>College Football</title>
<id>6311</id>
<revision>
<id>15904465</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-20T07:50:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[College football]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cell wall</title>
<id>6312</id>
<revision>
<id>39792881</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T22:26:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Everyking</username>
<id>44020</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.217.8.30|203.217.8.30]] ([[User talk:203.217.8.30|talk]]) to last version by 62.42.86.177</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''cell wall''' is a more or less solid layer surrounding a [[cell (biology)|cell]]. They are found in [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], [[fungus|fungi]], [[plant]]s, and [[alga]]e. [[Animal]]s and most other [[protist]]s have [[cell membrane]]s without surrounding cell walls. When a cell wall is removed using cell wall degrading [[enzyme]]s, what is left of the cell and its surrounding plasma membrane is called a [[protoplast]]. The cell wall's main purpose is to actually protect the interior from any physical movement that may damage the cell.
== Plant cell walls ==
Plant cell walls have a number of functions: they provide rigidity to the cell for structural and mechanical support, maintaining cell shape, the direction of cell growth and ultimately the architecture of the plant. The cell wall also prevents expansion when water enters the cell. The term [[turgor]] is used to describe this pressure that is induced by excess water inside the plant cell. Cell walls protect against [[pathogen]]s and the environment and are a store of [[carbohydrate]]s for the plant. The cell wall is constructed primarily from a carbohydrate [[polymer]] called [[cellulose]].
The ''primary cell wall'', built by the plant first, is composed of cellulose [[microfibril]]s aligned at all angles. Microfibrils are held together by [[hydrogen bond]]s to provide a high tensile strength. Cell walls of neighbouring cells are held together by a shared gelatinous membrane called the ''middle lamella'', which contains [[magnesium]] and [[calcium]] [[pectate]]s (salts of [[pectic acid]]).Cells interact though [[plasmodesma]](ta), which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall.
In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a ''secondary wall'' is constructed below the primary wall. Unlike the primary wall, the microfibrils are aligned mostly in the same direction, and with each additional layer the orientation changes slightly. Cells with secondary cell walls are rigid. Cell to cell communication is possible through ''pits'' in the secondary cell wall that allow plasmodesma to connect cells through the secondary cell walls.
===Composition of plant cell walls===
The major carbohydrates making up the primary cell wall are [[cellulose]], [[pectin]] and [[hemicellulose]]. Insoluble cellulose fibers are meshed in to a matrix called pectin and ''hemicelluloses''; they give the plant strength and support.
Plant cells walls also incorporate a number of [[protein]]s; the most abundant include hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP), also called the extensins, the arabinogalactan proteins (AGP), the glycine-rich proteins (GRPs), and the proline-rich proteins (PRPs). With the exception of glycine-rich proteins, all the previously mentioned proteins are [[glycosylation|glycosylated]] and contain [[hydroxyproline]] (Hyp). Each class of glycoprotein is defined by a characteristic, highly repetitive protein sequence. Chimeric proteins contain two or more different domains, each with a sequence from a different class of glycoprotein. Most cell wall proteins are cross-linked to the cell wall and may have structural functions.
Secondary cell walls may contain [[lignin]] and [[suberin]], making the walls rigid.
The relative composition of carbohydrates, secondary compounds and protein varies between plants and between the cell type and age.
==Algal cell walls==
Like plants, algae have cell walls (Sendbusch, 2003). Algal cell walls contain cellulose and a variety of glycoproteins. The inclusion of additional polysaccharides in algal cells walls is used as a feature for algal taxonomy.
*[[Manos |
Both an order for specific performance and an injunction are discretionary remedies, originating for the most part in [[equity]]. Neither is available as of right and in most jurisdictions and most circumstances a court will not normally order specific performance. The one general exception to this rule is the contract of sale of real estate which, in most jurisdictions, is enforceable by specific performance as real property is considered unique. However, even in this case the defenses to an action in equity (such as [[laches]] or [[unclean hands]]) may act as a bar to specific performance.
==Procedure==
In the United States, in order to obtain damages for breach of contract or to obtain specific performance, the injured party may file a civil (non-criminal) lawsuit, usually in a state court, or petition a private arbitrator to decide the contract issues presented.
Many contracts provide that all contract disputes must be arbitrated by the parties to the contract, rather than litigated in courts. By law, some contracts, including most securities brokerage contracts, must be arbitrated; other contracts are referred by courts as a matter of local law or policy. Arbitrated judgements are generally enforced and appealed in the same manner as ordinary court judgements; a majority of states have adopted the [[Uniform Arbitration Act]] to facilitate the enforcement of arbitrated judgements.
In [[England and Wales]], a contract may be enforced by use of a [[claim]], or in urgent cases by applying for an [[interim injunction]] to prevent a breach.
==Theoretical considerations==
[[Contract theory]] is the body of legal theory that addresses normative and conceptual questions in contract law. One of the most important questions asked in contract theory is why contracts are enforced. One prominent answer to this question focuses on the economic benefits of enforcing bargains. Another approach, associated with Charles Fried, maintains that the purpose of contract law is to enforce promises. This theory is developed in Fried's book, ''Contract as Promise.'' Other approaches to contract theory are found in the writings of [[legal realism|legal realist]]s and [[critical legal studies]] theorists.
== See also ==
* [[Contract (conflict)]]
* [[Contract theory]]
* [[Force majeure]]
* [[Gentlemen's agreement]]
* [[Good faith]]
* [[Implicit contract]]
* [[Indenture]]
* [[Invitation to treat]]
* [[Memorandum of understanding]]
* [[Negotiation]]
* [[Option contract]]
* [[Promissory estoppel]]
* [[Quasi-contract]]
* [[Remedy]]
* [[Standard form contract]]
==External links==
* [http://www.4lawschool.com/contracts/contracts.htm Contracts Case Summaries]
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/contracts.html Cornell Law School] ''contracts: an overview''
* [http://www.jus.uio.no/lm/eu.contract.principles.part1.1995/ Principles of European Contract Law]
* [http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Behavioral_contracting Behavioral Contracting in the Classroom]
* [http://www.lawteacher.net/contract.htm Basics of contract law (England and Wales) at lawteacher.net]
* [http://law.titiland.com/q/united_nations_convention_contracts_international_sale_goods/all/doc.htm United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, Vienna, [[11 April]] [[1980]]]
[[Category:Contract law|*]]
[[Category:Legal documents]]
[[de:Vertrag]]
[[et:Leping]]
[[es:Contrato]]
[[eo:Kontrakto]]
[[fr:Contrat]]
[[io:Kontrato]]
[[it:Contratto]]
[[he:חוזה]]
[[hu:Szerződés]]
[[nl:Overeenkomst (België)]]
[[ja:契約]]
[[no:Avtale]]
[[pl:Umowa]]
[[pt:Contrato]]
[[simple:Contract]]
[[zh:契约]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ceylon</title>
<id>7569</id>
<revision>
<id>39755389</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T17:30:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.102.225.147</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sri Lanka]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyber sex</title>
<id>7570</id>
<revision>
<id>15905632</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-10T22:40:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Modemac</username>
<id>3552</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cybersex]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christian alternative rock</title>
<id>7572</id>
<revision>
<id>39736252</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T14:21:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Christian alternative music''' is a form of [[alternative rock]] music lyrically grounded in a [[Christianity|Christian]] worldview. The degree to which the faith appears in the music varies from artist to artist.
==History==
Christian alternative rock has its roots in the early [[1980s]], as the earliest efforts at [[Christian punk]] and [[new wave music]] were recorded by artists like [[Daniel Amos]], [[Andy McCarroll and Moral Support]], [[Undercover]], [[The 77s]], [[Adam Again]], [[Quickflight]], Youth Choir (later renamed [[The Choir]]), [[Lifesavers Underground]], [[The Altar Boys]], [[Steve Taylor]], [[David Edwards]], and [[Vector (band)|Vector]]. By the [[1990s]], many of these bands were being carried by independent labels, such as the growing [[Tooth & Nail Records]], because their music tended to be more lyrically complex (and often more controversial) than mainstream [[Contemporary Christian Music]].
==See also==
* [[List of Christian alternative bands]]
* [[Christian rock]]
==External links==
*[http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0122,sandler,25149,1.html God Save the Teens: Local Kids Seek a New Kind of Church Through Hardcore and Hip-Hop] by Lauren Sandler in the [[Village Voice]] [[30 May]] - [[5 June]] [[2001]]
*[http://www.hmmagazine.com/exclusive/as_i_lay_dying_norma_jean200504/index.php Review ''As I Lay Dying'' and ''Norma Jean''] by Ben Bishop in The Hard Music Magazine
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Entertainment/Music/Artists/By_Genre/Religious_and_Devotional/Christian/Rock_and_Pop/Punk_and_Hardcore/Christian Rock and Pop > Christian Punk and Hardcore in the Yahoo! Directory]
*[http://www.firestream.net Firestream.net - The Believer's Heavy Music Refuge]
*[http://www.godcore.com Godcore.com - Christian Music Database]
[[Category:Alternative music]]
[[Category:Christian music|Alternative]]
[[Category:Christian rock genres|Alternative]]
[[Category:Christian rock albums]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clive Barker</title>
<id>7573</id>
<revision>
<id>41020023</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T15:04:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Leatherfacette</username>
<id>932702</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Movies */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Clive Barker''' (born [[October 5]], [[1952]], [[Liverpool]], England) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] author, director and visual artist.
Before reaching college, he went to, as he has often boasted, all the same schools as [[John Lennon]]. He studied English and Philosophy at [[Liverpool University]].
Barker is one of the leading authors of contemporary [[horror fiction|horror]]/[[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], starting out with pure horror writing early in his career, mostly in the form of short stories (collected in ''[[Books of Blood]]'' 1 - 6), and the [[Faustian]] novel ''[[The Damnation Game (novel)|The Damnation Game]]''. Later he moved towards epic modern-day fantasy with some horror elements. Barker's distinctive style is characterized by the notion of hidden fantastical worlds existing side by side with our own (an idea he shares with contemporary [[Neil Gaiman]]), the role of sexuality in the [[supernatural]] and the construction of coherent, complex and detailed mythologies. Barker has referred to this style as "dark fantasy."
When the ''Books of Blood'' were first published in the [[United States]] in cheap [[paperback]] editions, the originality, intensity and overall quality of the stories led popular author [[Stephen King]] to say of Barker: "I have seen the future of horror and its name is Clive Barker." (This is a paraphrase of a famous quote said of [[Bruce Springsteen]] at the beginning of his career.)
A critical analysis of Barker's work appears in [[S. T. Joshi]]'s ''The Modern Weird Tale'' (2001).
==Movies==
Barker has a keen interest in movie production, although his movies have received varying acclaim. The most successful was [[1987]]'s ''[[Hellraiser]]'', based on his novella "[[The Hellbound Heart]]". His early movies, the shorts ''The Forbidden'' and ''Salome'' are experimental art movies with surrealist elements, now rereleased together, to moderate critical acclaim. After his film ''[[Nightbreed]]'', which was widely considered to be a flop, Barker returned to write and direct ''[[Lord of Illusions]]''. He is currently working on a series of movie adaptations of his ''The Abarat Quartet'' books, under Disney's management; about the creepily-universal supernatural myths homeless children tell one another; and a film based on his [[Tortured Souls]] line of toys from [[McFarlane Toys]].
He recently produced "Urban Myths: Bloody Mary" from a script based on a newspaper report from Miami, Florida [http://www.miaminewtimes.com/issues/1997-06-05/feature.html newspaper article].
A short story titled ''The Forbidden'' from Barker's ''In the Flesh'' provided the basis for the film ''[[Candyman]]'' and its two sequels.
He has also produced the film ''[[Gods and Monsters]]'' which received major critical acclaim.
==Visual art==
Barker is also a prolific and talented visual artist, working in a variety of media, often illustrating his own books. His paintings can be seen on the covers of |
'Love and War'' by [[Paul Cornell]].
The Doctor, in turn, has grown to be almost monomaniacal in his belief that the Daleks are completely evil and unworthy of trust or compassion. This contrasts with some of the Doctor's earlier dealings with the Daleks, for example, the Second Doctor's attempt to instill a "human factor" in Daleks in ''The Evil of the Daleks'' and the Fourth Doctor's hesitation when presented with the opportunity to destroy the Daleks at the point of their creation in ''Genesis of the Daleks''. Perhaps intensified by the events of the Time War, his conviction of the irredeemability of the Daleks motivated a venomous outburst by the Ninth Doctor in ''Dalek'', leading the lone mutant in that episode to observe that the Doctor "would make a good Dalek."
==Other appearances==
===Licensed media===
[[Image:dalekmovieposter.jpg|thumb|300px|The poster for ''Dr. Who and the Daleks''.]]
Two ''Doctor Who'' movies starring [[Peter Cushing]] featured the Daleks as the main villains: ''[[Dr. Who and the Daleks]]'', and ''[[Daleks - Invasion Earth 2150 AD]]'', based on the television serials ''The Daleks'' and ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'', respectively. However, the movies were not straight remakes. Cushing's Doctor is not an alien, but a human inventor, and is literally named "Doctor Who". The movies used brand new Dalek props, based closely on the original design but with a wider range of colours. Originally, the movie Daleks were supposed to shoot jets of flame, but this was thought to be too graphic for children, so their weapons emitted jets of deadly vapour instead.
Nation also authorised the publication of the comic strip [http://ganolan.users.btopenworld.com/Chronicles/chronicles.htm ''The Daleks''] in the comic ''[[TV Century 21]]'' in 1965. The one-page strip (written by [[David Whitaker]] but credited to Nation) featured the Daleks as protagonists and "heroes", and continued for two years, from their creation of the mechanised Daleks by the humanoid Dalek scientist, Yarvelling, to their eventual discovery in the ruins of a crashed space-liner of the co-ordinates for [[Earth]], which they proposed to invade. Although much of the material in these strips directly contradicted what was shown on television later, some concepts like the Daleks using humanoid duplicates and the design of the [[Dalek variants|Dalek Emperor]] did show up later on in the programme. In 1994, the [[Marvel UK|UK arm]] of [[Marvel Comics]] reprinted all the ''TV 21'' strips in a collected edition titled ''The Dalek Chronicles''.
At the same time, a ''Doctor Who'' strip was also being published in ''[[TV Comic]]''. Initially, the strip did not have the rights to use the Daleks, so the [[First Doctor]] battled the "Trods" instead, cone-shaped robotic creatures that ran on static electricity that were obviously based on the Daleks. By the time the [[Second Doctor]] appeared in the strip in 1967 the rights issues had been resolved, and the Daleks began making appearances starting in ''The Trodos Ambush'' (TVC #788-#791), where they massacred the Trods.
In the 1980s, [[Marvel UK]] was publishing ''[[Doctor Who Magazine]]'', which included comic strip stories in its pages. Aside from meeting up with the Doctor in them, the DWM strips also introduced a new nemesis for the Daleks, the Dalek Killer named [[Abslom Daak]]. Daak was a convicted criminal in the 25th Century who was given the choice between execution and being sent on a suicide mission against the Daleks. He chose the latter and, when the woman he loved was killed by the Daleks, made it his life's purpose to kill every one of the creatures he came across.
The Daleks have also appeared in the ''Dalek Empire'' series of audio plays by [[Big Finish Productions]], of which three mini-series, totalling 14 CDs, have so far been produced and saw the return of the original Dalek Emperor. They have also returned to bedevil the Doctor in Big Finish's ''Doctor Who'' line of audio plays.
===Parodies===
Daleks have been the subject of many [[parody|parodies]], including [[Spike Milligan]]'s "Pakistani Dalek" sketch in his comedy series ''[[Q (Spike Milligan series)|Q]]'', and [[Victor Lewis-Smith]]'s [[gay]] Daleks. To an extent, ''Doctor Who'' itself has also parodied the Daleks from time to time. In 2002, [[BBC Worldwide]] published ''The Dalek Survival Guide'', a parody of [[The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook]]s.
In the [[Red Dwarf]] A-Z (a collection of popular Red Dwarf gags, with commentaries by famous fans and the cast and crew), two Daleks are shown (in the Exterminate section, of course), arguing that all Earth television is human propaganda, and the works more commonly attributed to [[William Shakespeare]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] were actually written by Daleks. After this, one of them begins talking about past episodes of Red Dwarf, and is promptly exterminated for the crime of "not behaving like a true Dalek".
A second series episode of the [[BBC Radio 4]] [[science fiction]] [[comedy]] ''[[Nebulous]]'', ''Destiny of the Destinyod'', is similar to the title of the Dalek serial ''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]''. ''Nebulous'' is co-written by Dalek voice actor Nicholas Briggs and also features comedian and ''Doctor Who'' writer, [[Mark Gatiss]]. Also on BBC Radio 4, the Daleks made occasional appearances on the satirical impressionist show, ''[[Dead Ringers]]'', noting that the proliferation of wheelchair ramps would make it easier for Daleks to invade Earth, and included them trying to buy skin-care products for Davros' wrinkled skin.
A sketch in ''Last Laugh '05,'' a comedy programme by American cable network [[Comedy Central]], featured [[Andy Dick]] as a wedding planner working for [[Tom Cruise]] and [[Katie Holmes]]. In the course of his task, he is faced with a creature heavily based on a Dalek.
===Popular culture===
The Daleks' popularity extended to books, stage shows and television programmes. They have also become a common popular culture reference outside of ''Doctor Who''. For example, in [[The Clash]]'s song "[[Remote Control (song)|Remote Control]]" (from their [[The Clash (album)|self-titled 1977 album]]), the last verse includes the lines, "''Repression — gonna be a Dalek / Repression — I am a robot / Repression — I obey.''"
In the 2003 film ''[[Looney Tunes: Back In Action]],'' two Cushing movie-style Daleks made a cameo appearance in the "[[Area 51|Area 52]]" segment amidst many famous "old-time" movie monsters. A Dalek also appears (along with the ''[[Lost in Space]]'' robot) in a 2005 television advertisement for the Australian [[ANZ Bank]]. A recent British [[Kit Kat]] advertisement features a squad of Daleks who have joined a group of [[Hare Krishna]] devotees, rolling through a shopping centre while repeatedly chanting "Peace and love!" in their distinctive voices. In the ''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]'' animated series episode "Homecoming, Pt. 1", the supervillain the [[Brain (comics)|Brain]] is housed in a conical mobile casing, the lower half of which resembles a Dalek, complete with bumps.
[[Katy Manning]], who played the [[Third Doctor]]'s companion [[Jo Grant]], posed nude with a Dalek for an Australian men's magazine after she left the series. Daleks were recently featured in an unauthorized pornographic feature, ''Abducted by the Daloids'' (although the disc itself uses "Daleks"). In the film, the "Daloids" (portrayed by several Dalek models) molest three scantily-clad models and watch [[lesbian]] intercourse scenes. The BBC took action to prevent sale of the DVD when learning of it in [[November 2005]]. [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/11/28/dalek_film/].
==Merchandising==
[[Image:dalekattackgame.jpg|thumb|200px|''Dalek Attack'' (1992), from Admiral Software.]]
The BBC approached Roger Tuckwell, an [[Australia]]n entrepreneur who was handling product merchandising for other BBC shows, and asked him to do the same for the Daleks and ''Doctor Who''. Tuckwell created a glossy sales brochure that sparked off a Dalek craze, dubbed "Dalekmania" by the press, which peaked around the time ''The Chase'' aired in 1965.
===Toys===
The first Dalek toys from Louis Marx & Co. appeared that year, along with toys of the Mechanoids (robotic foes of the Daleks also introduced in ''The Chase''). The Mechanoids were created with the expectation that they would become as popular as Daleks, but they were not as successful. Other unsuccessful BBC attempts to create a "replacement" for the Daleks, or at least duplicate their popularity included the Voord (''[[The Keys of Marinus]]''), the Krotons (''[[The Krotons]]'') and the Quarks (''[[The Dominators]]''). Also unsuccessful were Dalek toys made of rubber.
At the height of the Daleks' popularity, apart from toy replicas, there were also Dalek construction kits, Dalek board games and activity sets, Dalek slide projectors for children and even Dalek playsuits made from PVC. There were collectible cards, stickers, toy guns, music singles, punching bags and many other items. Between 1963 and 1965, the BBC published three annuals with short stories and comic strips featuring the Daleks, written by Whitaker and Nation. The ''Dalek Annual'' was revived in 1976 and 1977, with stories and selected reprints from the ''TV 21'' comic strip.
In the 1970s, Palitoy released a Talking Dalek which could utter standard Dalek phrases such as "You will obey!" and "Exterminate!" Later, model kits of other Dalek-related characters like Davros, the Supreme Dalek and Gold Daleks were also released. In 2001 a new range of talking Daleks were produced, along with a talking [[Cyberman]] and a talking Davros.
In 2005, new Dalek toys, including a remote controlled, talking Dalek and a pair of battling D |
lt;br>
AFIPS<br>
AFJ<br>
AFK<br>
aflex<br>
AFNOR<br>
AFP<br>
AFS<br>
AFUU<br>
ag<br>
agent<br>
aggregate type<br>
aggregation<br>
AGL<br>
AGM Theory for Belief Revision<br>
AGORA<br>
AGP -- '''DONE'''<br>
AGP graphics<br>
A Hardware Programming Language<br>
AHDL<br>
AHPL<br>
AI<br>
ai<br>
AIA<br>
AI-complete<br>
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AIDS<br>
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AIFF<br>
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AI koan<br>
AIMACO<br>
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AIR<br>
AIr MAterial COmmand compiler<br>
airplane rule<br>
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AIX<br>
AKC<br>
AKCL<br>
A. K. Erlang<br>
AKL<br>
AL<br>
al<br>
Aladdin Systems<br>
ALADIN<br>
ALAM<br>
Alan F. Shugart<br>
A-language<br>
A Language Encouraging Program Hierarchy<br>
A Language for Attributed Definitions<br>
A Language with an Extensible Compiler<br>
Alan Kay<br>
Alan M. Turing<br>
Alan Shugart<br>
Alan Turing<br>
A-law<br>
ALC<br>
Alcool-90<br>
ALCOR<br>
Aldat<br>
ALDES<br>
ALDiSP<br>
ALEC<br>
ALEF<br>
ALEPH<br>
Aleph<br>
aleph 0<br>
alert<br>
Alex<br>
Alexis<br>
ALF<br>
Alfl<br>
algebra<br>
ALGEBRAIC<br>
algebraic<br>
[[algebraic data type]] '''DONE'''<br>
Algebraic Interpretive Dialogue<br>
Algebraic Logic Functional language<br>
Algebraic Manipulation Package<br>
Algebraic Specification Language<br>
algebraic structure<br>
Algebra of Communicating Processes<br>
ALGOL<br>
ALGOL 58<br>
ALGOL 60<br>
ALGOL 60 Modified<br>
ALGOL 60 Revised<br>
ALGOL 68<br>
ALGOL 68C<br>
ALGOL 68-R<br>
ALGOL 68 Revised<br>
ALGOL 68RS<br>
ALGOL 68S<br>
ALGOL C<br>
ALGOL D<br>
ALGOL N<br>
ALGOL W<br>
ALGOL X<br>
ALGOL Y<br>
algorithim<br>
algorithm<br>
ALgorithm DEScription<br>
ALgorIthmic ASsembly language<br>
Algorithmic Language<br>
Algorithmic Model<br>
Algorithmic Processor Description Language<br>
Algorithmic Test Case Generation<br>
ALGY<br>
ALIAS<br>
alias<br>
aliasing<br>
aliasing bug<br>
Alice<br>
alife<br>
A-Life<br>
ALJABR<br>
Allegro<br>
all-elbows<br>
ALLIANCE<br>
ALLOY<br>
ALM<br>
Aloha '''DONE''' (same as below)<br>
[[ALOHAnet|Aloha Net]] '''DONE'''<br>
Alonzo Church<br>
ALP<br>
ALPAK<br>
ALPHA<br>
Alpha<br>
Alpha AXP 21164<br>
alpha/beta pruning<br>
alpha conversion<br>
Alpha EV6<br>
Alpha Geek<br>
alphanumeric<br>
alpha particle<br>
Alphard<br>
alpha testing<br>
ALPS<br>
alt<br>
ALTAC<br>
Altair 8800<br>
Altair 9000<br>
Alta Vista<br>
alt bit<br>
Alternating bit protocol<br>
altmode<br>
ALTRAN<br>
alt.sources<br>
ALU<br>
Aluminum Book<br>
Alvey<br>
AM<br>
am<br>
Amanda<br>
A Manufacturing Language<br>
amateur packet radio<br>
Amber<br>
AMBIT<br>
AMBIT/G<br>
AMBIT/L<br>
AMBIT/S<br>
AMBUSH<br>
AMD<br>
AMD 29000<br>
AMD 29027<br>
Amdahl<br>
Amdahl Corporation<br>
Amdahl's Law<br>
AMD Am2901<br>
AMD Am2903<br>
AMD Am2910<br>
AMD K7<br>
American National Standard<br>
American National Standards Institute<br>
American Society of Mechanical Engineers<br>
American Standard Code for Information Interchange '''DONE''' -- redirects to ASCII<br>
American Telephone and Telegraph, Inc.<br>
American Wire Gauge<br>
America On-Line, Inc.<br>
America's Multimedia Online<br>
AMI<br>
Amiga<br>
Amiga E<br>
Aminet<br>
AML<br>
AML/E<br>
AMO<br>
Amoeba<br>
AMP<br>
amper<br>
ampersand<br>
AMPL<br>
[[AMPLE]] '''DONE'''<br>
Amplitude Modulation<br>
amp off<br>
AMPPL-II<br>
AMS<br>
AMTRAN<br>
Amulet<br>
an<br>
analog<br>
Analog Hardware Design Language<br>
analogue<br>
analogue computer<br>
Analogy Model<br>
Analytical Engine<br>
Analytical Machine<br>
anchor<br>
ANCP<br>
AND<br>
ANDF<br>
Andorra-I<br>
Andorra Kernel Language<br>
Andorra-Prolog<br>
Andrei Markov<br>
Andrew File System<br>
Andrew Fluegelman<br>
Andrew Message System<br>
Andrew Project<br>
Andrew S. Tanenbaum<br>
Andrew Tanenbaum<br>
Andrew Toolkit<br>
Andy Tanenbaum<br>
An Evolutionary System for On-line Programming<br>
Angel<br>
angle bracket<br>
angry fruit salad<br>
ANI<br>
Animated GIF<br>
animation<br>
Animus<br>
ANL<br>
Anna<br>
annealing<br>
annotate<br>
ANNotated Ada<br>
annotation<br>
annoybot<br>
annoyware<br>
Annual Change Traffic<br>
annulled branch<br>
anonymous FTP<br>
ANother Tool for Language Recognition<br>
ANR<br>
ANS<br>
ANSA<br>
ANSI<br>
ANSI C<br>
ANSI Minimal BASIC<br>
ANSI/SPARC<br>
ANSI/SPARC Architecture<br>
ANSI/SPARC model<br>
ANSI X12<br>
ANSI Z39.50<br>
Anthony Hoare<br>
anti-aliasing<br>
antichain<br>
antisymmetric<br>
antivirus software<br>
ANTLR<br>
ANU<br>
ANU ML<br>
anytime algorithm<br>
ao<br>
AOCE<br>
AOL<br>
AOP<br>
AOS<br>
APA<br>
Apache<br>
APAL<br>
APAREL<br>
A PArse REquest Language<br>
APC<br>
APDL<br>
apE<br>
API<br>
APIC<br>
APL<br>
APL2<br>
APLGOL<br>
APLWEB<br>
APM -- '''DONE'''<br>
Apollo Computer<br>
apostrophe<br>
app<br>
APPC<br>
AppKit<br>
APPLE<br>
Apple Attachment Unit Interface<br>
Apple Computer, Inc.<br>
Apple II<br>
Apple Macintosh<br>
Apple Newton<br>
Apple Open Collaboration Environment<br>
AppleScript<br>
Applesoft BASIC<br>
applet<br>
Appletalk<br>
AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol<br>
AppleTalk Filing Protocol<br>
application<br>
Application Binary Interface<br>
Application Configuration Access Protocol<br>
Application Control Architecture<br>
application enablement services<br>
Application environment specification<br>
Application Executive<br>
Application Integration Architecture<br>
application layer<br>
Application Portability Architecture<br>
application program<br>
Application Program Interface<br>
Application Programming Interface<br>
Application Protocol Data Unit<br>
application server<br>
Application Service Element<br>
application service provider<br>
applications language<br>
application software<br>
Application Software Installation Server<br>
Application-Specific Integrated Circuit<br>
Applications Programming Interface<br>
applications software<br>
Application Visualisation System<br>
applicative language<br>
Applicative Language for Digital Signal Processing<br>
applicative order reduction<br>
APPLOG<br>
APPN<br>
approximation algorithm<br>
April Fool's Joke<br>
A Programming Language<br>
APSE<br>
APT<br>
APX III<br>
aq<br>
AQL<br>
ar<br>
arbitrary precision calculator<br>
ARC<br>
arc<br>
Arcade<br>
ArchBSD<br>
Archie<br>
Archimedes<br>
architecture<br>
Architecture Neutral Distribution Format<br>
archive<br>
archive site<br>
[[ARCnet]] '''DONE'''<br>
ARCS<br>
Arctic<br>
arena<br>
ARES<br>
AREV<br>
AREXX<br>
arg<br>
argument<br>
Argus<br>
Ariel<br>
ARI Service<br>
ARITH-MATIC<br>
Arithmetic and Logic Unit<br>
arity<br>
arj<br>
Arjuna<br>
ARL<br>
[[ARM Ltd|ARM]] '''DONE'''<br>
ARM610<br>
ARM7<br>
ARM710<br>
ARM7500<br>
ARM8<br>
ARM800<br>
ARM Ltd<br>
ARMM<br>
armour-plated<br>
ARP<br>
ARPA<br>
ARPANET<br>
ARQ<br>
array<br>
array processor<br>
Array Processor Assembly Language<br>
Array Theory<br>
arrow key<br>
ART<br>
Artemis microkernel<br>
Artifex<br>
artificial intelligence<br>
Artificial Intelligence Lab<br>
Artificial Life<br>
artificial neural network<br>
Artisoft, Inc.<br>
Artistic license<br>
ARTSPEAK<br>
AS<br>
as<br>
as31<br>
AS400<br>
AS/400<br>
ASA<br>
asap<br>
asbestos<br>
asbestos cork award<br>
asbestos longjohns<br>
ascender<br>
ASCII<br>
ASCII art<br>
ASCIIbetical order<br>
ASCIIbonics<br>
ASCII character table<br>
ASCII graphics<br>
ASDIMPL<br>
ASDL<br>
ASDO IMPlementation Language<br>
ASE<br>
A* search<br>
ASF<br>
ash<br>
Ashmedai<br>
Ashton-Tate Corporation<br>
ASIC<br>
A Simulation Process-Oriented Language<br>
ASIS<br>
ASK<br>
ASL<br>
ASL+<br>
ASM<br>
ASME<br>
ASN<br>
ASN.1<br>
ASP<br>
ASPECT<br>
ASpecT<br>
aspect< |
ent is also called "''partial adjustment''." Rather than reflecting changing expectations of inflation, it may reflect the slow change in people's ability to ''act on'' changes in their expectations.
Alternatively, the theory of adaptive expectations implies that current inflationary expectations equal:
:: '''p<sup>e</sup>''' = (1 &ndash; '''&lambda;''')*&Sigma; ('''&lambda;<sup>j</sup>'''*'''p<sub>&ndash;j</sub>''')
where the summation (&Sigma;) is over all '''j''' from 0 to infinity and '''p<sub>&ndash;j</sub>''' equals actual inflation '''j''' years in the past. Thus, current expected inflation reflects a weighted average all past inflation, where the weights get smaller and smaller as we move further in the past.
An alternative theory of how expectations are formed is [[rational expectations]]. Though many macroeconomists saw the theory of rational expectations as a revolutionary improvement during the 1970s and 1980s, criticisms of that theory have encouraged a return to the adaptive expectations model.
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Business terms]]
[[zh:&#36866;&#24212;&#24615;&#39044;&#26399;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Broadcasting Corporation</title>
<id>3206</id>
<revision>
<id>24857777</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-06T01:07:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stillnotelf</username>
<id>134103</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed double redirect [[Special:DoubleRedirects]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American Broadcasting Company]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anti-depressant</title>
<id>3208</id>
<revision>
<id>15901569</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antidepressant]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Mexican tetra</title>
<id>3209</id>
<revision>
<id>40470185</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T20:15:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samsara</username>
<id>19527</id>
</contributor>
<comment>be more specific: in all likelihood, they are annelid worms</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Mexican Tetra
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Characiformes]]
| familia = [[Characidae]]
| genus = ''[[Astyanax (fish)|Astyanax]]''
| species = '''''A. mexicanus'''''
| binomial = ''Astyanax mexicanus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Filippo de' Filippi|De Filippi]], [[1853]])
}}
The '''Mexican tetra''' (''Astyanax mexicanus'') is a [[freshwater]] [[fish]]
of the [[characin]] [[family_(biology)|family]] (family [[Characidae]]) of
[[order_(biology)|order]] [[Characiformes]]. The [[type species]] of its [[genus]], it is native to the [[Nearctic]] [[ecozone]], originating in the lower [[Rio Grande]] and the [[Nueces River|Neueces]] and [[Pecos River]]s in [[Texas]] as well as the central and eastern parts of [[Mexico]].
Growing to a maximum overall length of 12&nbsp;[[centimeter|cm]] (4.7&nbsp;[[inch|in]]), the Mexican tetra is of typical characin shape, with unremarkable, drab coloration. Its blind cave form, however, is notable for having no eyes and being [[albino]], that is, completely devoid of pigmentation; it has a pinkish-white color to its body.
This fish is reasonably popular among [[aquarium|aquarists]]. This is especially true of the blind cave form.
''A. mexicanus'' is a peaceful species that spends most of its time in the mid-level of the water above the rocky and sandy bottoms of pools and backwaters of creeks and rivers of its native environment. Coming from a [[subtropical]] climate, it prefers water with 6.0&ndash;7.8 [[pH]], a hardness of up to 30 [[dGH]], and a temperature range of 20 to 58 [[degree Celsius|&deg;C]] (68 to 77 [[Fahrenheit|&deg;F]]). In the winter it migrates to warmer waters. Its natural diet consists of [[crustacean]]s, [[insect]]s, and [[annelid]]s, although in captivity it is [[omnivorous]].
The Mexican tetra is sometimes considered a subspecies of ''A. fasciatus,'' the [[banded tetra]]. The blind forms were once considered to constitute a separate genus, ''Anoptichthys.'' ''Anoptichthys jordani'' and ''Anoptichthys hubbsi'' are thus obsolete synonyms for ''Astyanax mexicanus.''
==Blind cave form==
''A. mexicanus'' is famous for its blind cave form, which is known by such names as '''blind cave tetra''', '''blind tetra''', and '''blind cavefish'''. Some thirty distinct populations of Mexican tetras live in deep [[cave]]s and have lost the power of [[sight]] and even their [[eye]]s. These fish can still, however, find their way around by means of their [[lateral line]]s, which are highly sensitive to fluctuating [[water pressure]].
The eyed and eyeless forms of ''A. mexicanus,'' being members of the same species, are closely related and can interbreed. A recent study (Dowling, Martasian, and Jeffery) suggests that there are at least two distinct genetic lineages among the blind populations, arguing that these represent a case of [[convergent evolution]].
In one experiment, scientists implanted into the eye of the blind ''A. mexicanus'' the eye lens from an eyed ''A. mexicanus''. Within eight days the blind ''A. mexicanus'' started to develop an eye. After two months it developed a working eye complete with an iris, cornea, and pupil.
The blind Mexican tetra is often held up as one of the proofs of the theory of [[evolution]]. However, opponents of evolutionary theory argue that the blind form is a ''loss of information'' (for sight), compatible with a deterioration of creation after the [[Fall of Man]], so cannot explain how the sight evolved in the first place.
== References ==
*{{FishBase_species|genus=Astyanax|species=mexicanus|year=2004|month=September}}
*{{ITIS|ID=162850|taxon=Astyanax mexicanus|year=2004|date=November 3}}
* Dowling, T.&nbsp;E., D.&nbsp;P. Martasian, and W.&nbsp;R. Jeffrey. "Evidence for Multiple Genetic Forms with Similar Eyeless Phenotypes in the Blind Cavefish, ''Astyanax mexicanus.''" ''Molecular Biology and Evolution'' 19 (April 2002): 446&#8211;55. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?holding=npg&cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11919286&dopt=Abstract Abstract on line]. [http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/4/446 Free fulltext].
* Sharpe, Shirlie. "[http://freshaquarium.about.com/cs/characins2/a/blindcavefish.htm Blind Cave Fish]". ''Your Guide to Freshwater Aquariums.'' Accessed on [[3 November]] [[2004]].
* Wieland, Carl. "[http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2/4361news8-9-2000.asp New Eyes for Blind Cave Fish?]". ''Answers in Genesis.'' Accessed on [[17 December]] [[2004]].
[[Category:Characins]]
[[Category:Tetras]]
[[Category:Fauna of Mexico]]
[[pl:Ślepczyk jaskiniowy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander Rutskoi</title>
<id>3210</id>
<revision>
<id>40761165</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:19:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fisenko</username>
<id>247056</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aleksandr Rutskoy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atom probe</title>
<id>3211</id>
<revision>
<id>30760584</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-09T22:18:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.170.3.194</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''atom probe''' is an atomic-resolution [[microscope]] used in [[materials science]] that was invented in [[1967]] by [[Erwin Müller]].
Müller's atom probe made one-dimensional compositional maps by combining [[time-of-flight]] [[Mass spectrometry|spectroscopy]] and [[field ion microscope|field ion microscopy]] (FIM). The instrument now allows the three-dimensional reconstruction of up-to hundreds-of-millions of [[atom|atoms]] from a sharp tip (corresponding to specimen volumes of 10,000-1,000,000 [[nanometer|nm]]<sup>3</sup>).
As in FIM, a sharp tip is made, placed in [[ultra high vacuum]] at cryogenic temperature (typically 20-100 K). Individual atoms at the surface of the tip are ionized, either by a positive pulsed voltage or a laser. These ions are repelled from the tip electrostatically. A fast timing circuit is used to measure the time taken between the pulse and the impact of the ion on a detector, thus allowing the mass-to-charge ratio of the ion to be calculated and, therefore, the element (or elements) of the ion. From the collection of many of these ions, a chemical profile of the sample can be made with relative position accuracy of less than one atomic spacing.
Atom-Probe Tomography (APT) uses a position-sensitive detector to deduce the lateral location of atoms. It was invented in [[1988]] by [[Alfred Cerezo]], [[Terence Godfrey]], and [[George D. W. Smith]].
==See also==
* [[Field ion microscope]]
* [[List of surface analysis methods]]
==External links==
* [http://arc.nucapt.northwestern.edu/ Northwestern University Center for Atom-Probe Tomography]
* [http://www.nims.go.jp/apfim/ Metallic Nanostructure group of the National Institute for Materials Science (Japan)]
* Imago Scientific Instruments [http://www.imago.com]
{{sci-stub}}
[[Category:Microscopes]]
[[Category:Nanotechnology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Al Capone</title>
<id>3212</id>
<revision>
<id>42078490</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:56:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<user |
]] with its Sandhills-2 borehole at Porchfield, but ceased operations in October that year after failing to find significant reserves.
===Tourism and heritage===
[[Image:Isle of Wight.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Compton Chine, looking east towards Blackgang]]
The heritage of the Island is a major asset which has for many years kept its economy going. Holidays focussed on natural heritage, including both wildlife and geology, are becoming a growing alternative to the traditional [[seaside resort]] holiday. The latter has been in decline in the UK domestic market due to the increased affordability of air travel to alternative destinations.
Tourism is still the largest industry on the Island, As well as more traditional tourist attractions, the island is often host to walking or cycling holidays through the attractive scenery. Almost every town and village on the Island plays host to hotels, hostels and camping sites. Out of the peak summer season, the island is still an important destination for coach tours from other parts of [[Britain]] and an annual walking festival has attracted considerable interest.
=== Transport and communications ===
[[Image:Wight map.png|right|thumb|300px|Ferry routes and main roads]]
There are three ferry companies which operate routes between the mainland and the Island:
* [[Red Funnel]] - operates a car and passenger service between [[Southampton]] and East [[Cowes]]. A high speed passenger only services operates from "West" [[Cowes]] under the name of "Red Jet".
* [[Wightlink]] - operates a car and passenger service between [[Portsmouth]] and [[Fishbourne, Isle of Wight|Fishbourne]] (near [[Ryde]]), and between [[Lymington]] and [[Yarmouth, Isle of Wight|Yarmouth]]. It also operates a passenger-only service between [[Portsmouth Harbour railway station|Portsmouth Harbour]] (train station) and [[Ryde Pier|Ryde Pier Head]] (train station) under the name "Fast Cat", so named because the boats used are [[Catamaran|catamarans]].
* [[Hovertravel]] - carries passengers between [[Southsea]] and [[Ryde]] aboard a [[hovercraft]].
There are regular proposals for further routes, and during [[Cowes Week]] additional services have been known to operate - notably a fast catamaran service between West Cowes and Lymington.
A [[Island Line, IOW|railway service]] operates from Ryde Pier Head to [[Shanklin]] using ex [[London Underground]] rolling stock.
A sign used to greet visitors to the Island disembarking from the car ferry at [[Fishbourne, Isle of Wight|Fishbourne]], stating 'Island roads are different, please drive carefully'. It is a joke amongst local residents that the reason Island roads are different is due to a lack of maintenance by the council. Nevertheless the lighter traffic, quieter roads and slower speeds are noticeable to the visitor and are one of the reasons the Island has remained attractive to tourists from the busier mainland.
There are two small airfields for General Aviation, at Sandown and Bembridge. These are busy with day-trippers in summer.
All of the Island telephone exchanges are broadband enabled and in addition, some urban areas such as [[Cowes]] and [[Newport]] are covered by cable lines.
The [[Isle of Wight County Press]] [http://www.iwcp.co.uk/] is the major local newspaper, published weekly each Friday or the last working day before a public holiday falls on that day. There is also a local radio station, [[Isle of Wight Radio]] [http://www.iwradio.co.uk], broadcasting on 107 and 102 FM (also available over the internet), and a regional television station which broadcasts from the Island, [[Solent TV]] [http://www.solent.tv].
==Prisons==
The island geography close to the densely populated south of England led to it gaining three prisons: [[Albany Prison UK|Albany]], [[Camphill Prison|Camphill]] and [[Parkhurst prison|Parkhurst]] located outside Newport on the main road to Cowes. Albany and Parkhurst were once among the few Category A prisons in the [[UK]] until they were downgraded in the 1990s. The downgrading of Parkhurst was precipitated by a major escape: three prisoners (known to be some of the most dangerous murderers in the prison system) made their way out of the prison on 3 January 1995 to enjoy four days of freedom before being recaptured. Parkhurst especially enjoyed notoriety as one of toughest jails in the British Isles and "hosted" many notable inmates, including the Yorkshire Ripper [[Peter Sutcliffe]] and the [[Kray twins]].
Camphill is located 1 mile (1.6Km) to the west of Albany and Parkhurst, on the very edge of [[Parkhurst Forest]]. Originally an army barracks with a small estate of tree-lined roads with well-proportioned officer's houses (with varying grandeur according to rank) to the South and East. Having been converted to a [[borstal]] and later a low category prison, it maintains its ties to the housing around it as although now most privately owned, clean water is still provided from the prison itself and residents pay only sewerage fees to the water authority (Southern Water). The estate is accessed by two, gated, private roads. These are closed for one day each year so as not to become a public right of way.
==Education==
{{Template:Main|Education on the Isle of Wight}}
==Settlements==
{{Main|List of places on the Isle of Wight}}
==Selected places of interest==
<div style="float:right;">
{{EngPlacesKey}}
</div>
*[[Alum Bay]]
*[[Appuldurcombe House]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[Blackgang Chine]]
*[[Carisbrooke Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[Dinosaur Isle]] [[Image:Museum icon (red).png|Museum]]
*[[Golden Hill Fort]] [[Image:CP icon.png|Country Park]]
*[[Fort Victoria (Isle of Wight)|Fort Victoria]] [[Image:CP icon.png|Country Park]]
*[[Isle of Wight Steam Railway]] [[Image:HR icon.png|Heritage Railway]]
*[[Osborne House]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[The Needles]] [[Image:NTE icon.png|National Trust]]
*[[Yarmouth Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[Quarr Abbey]]
==Notable literary and musical references==
*[[The Beatles]]' "When I'm Sixty-Four", written by [[Paul McCartney]], refers to a rented summer cottage on the Isle of Wight.
*[[Ticket to Ride]], the [[The Beatles|Beatles]] classic, is a pun on 'Ticket to Ryde', the ferry port to the North of the Island.
*Called ''The Island'' in some editions of [[Thomas Hardy]]'s novels in his fictional [[Wessex]].
*In a similar fashion the island, with fictionalized placenames, is the setting of [[Maxwell Gray]]'s [[1886]] novel, ''The Silence of Dean Maitland'' [http://www.sakoman.net/gutenberg/1/0/9/9/10993/10993.txt].
*The Isle of Wight is the setting of [[Julian Barnes|Julian Barnes's]] novel ''[[England, England]]''.
*The island also features in [[John Wyndham|John Wyndham's]] novel ''[[The Day of the Triffids]]'' and [[Simon Clark]]'s sequel to it, ''[[The Night of the Triffids]]''.
*[[Robert Rennick]] has written a series of detective thrillers set on the Island, including ''The Fallen''
*In radio series [[Nebulous]], the Isle of Wight has been accidently disintegrated by Professor Nebulous while he was trying to move it slightly to the left.
*In the game [http://www.warbirdart.demon.co.uk/treasure.html spirit of the stones] the talismans are hidden on the Isle of Wight. The computer game by commodore is also set on the Isle of Wight
*In the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' [[List of Doctor Who serials|episode]] [[Father's Day (Doctor Who)|Father's Day]], [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|the Doctor]] remarks ''The past is another country, 1987 is just the Isle of Wight''.
==References==
*[[Hansard]], Wednesday 14th November 2001 column 850
*[[Isle of Wight County Press]] [http://www.iwcp.co.uk/]
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Isle of Wight}}
* [http://www.iwight.com/ Isle of Wight Council]
* [http://www.wightindex.com/ Isle of Wight information & accommodation]
* [http://world.nycsubway.org/eu/uk/wight.html A page about Island Line]
* [http://www.iwcp.co.uk/ Isle Of Wight County Press]
* [http://www.wightphotos.co.uk/ The Island by local photographers]
* [http://www.aferry.co.uk/ukferry/ferry-to-isle-of-wight-uk.htm All Isle of Wight Ferries]
* [http://www.channel4.com/history/timeteam/archive/timeteamlive2001/feature_jutes.html The Jutes in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight]
* [http://www.channel4.com/history/timeteam/archive/timeteamlive2001/feature_ethnic.html Were the West Saxons guilty of ethnic cleansing?]
* [http://members.lycos.co.uk/bartie/ Old Isle of Wight Postcards and Pictures]
* [http://islandgamers.net Island Gamers Community]
* [http://members.lycos.co.uk/bartieshover/ Hovercraft of the 1960/1970s from the Isle of Wight area]
* [http://iw-paths.cjb.net/ Foot- and Cycle- Paths of the Isle of Wight, with other useful information]
{{Isle of Wight box}}
{{England_counties}}
{{SE_England}}
[[Category:Isle of Wight|*]]
[[Category:Islands in English Channel]]
[[Category:Unitary authorities in England]]
[[ang:Wiht]]
[[de:Isle of Wight]]
[[et:Wight]]
[[es:Isla de Wight]]
[[eo:Isle of Wight]]
[[fr:Île de Wight]]
[[it:Isola di Wight]]
[[ja:ワイト島]]
[[nl:Wight]]
[[no:Wight]]
[[pt:Ilha de Wight]]
[[simple:Isle of Wight]]
[[sk:Wight]]
[[fi:Wightsaari]]
[[sv:Isle of Wight]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Intlwiki-L</title>
<id>15103</id>
<revision>
<id>15912610</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-02T01:53:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angela</username>
<id>8551</id>
</contributor>
<comment>no longer exists. redirect Wikipedia:Mailing lists</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Wikipedia:Mailing lists]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irresistible Force (production identity)</title>
<id>15104</id>
<revision>
<id>15912611</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-04T11:47:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pab |
r the [[Lepcha language]] goes further than other abugidas in that each akshara is a full syllable: Not only the vowel, but any final consonant is indicated by a diacritic. For example, the syllable [sok] would written as something like {{IPA|s̥̽}}, here with an underring representing /o/ and an overcross representing the diacritic for final /k/. There are several abugidas of Indonesia which also indicate final consonants with diacritics, but usually these are restricted to one or two [[nasal consonant|nasals]] such as /ŋ/.
The [[Pahawh Hmong]] script represents both consonants and vowels with full letters. However, the graphic order is vowel-consonant even though they are pronounced as consonant-vowel. This is rather like the /o/ vowel in the Indic abugidas. Pahawh Hmong is unusual in that, while the inherent vowel /au/ is unwritten, so is the inherent consonant /k/. For the syllable /kau/, which requires one or the other of the inherent sounds to be overt, it is /au/ that is written. That is, a Pahawh akshara appears to be a vowel with an inherent consonant rather than the other way around.
It is difficult to draw a dividing line between abugidas and other [[segment (linguistics)|segmental]] scrips. For example, the [[Meroitic script]] of ancient [[Sudan]] did not indicate an inherent ''a'' (one symbol stood for both ''m'' and ''ma,'' for example), and is thus similar to Brahmic family abugidas. However, the other vowels were indicated with full letters, not diacritics or modification, so the system was essentially an alphabet that did not bother to write the most common vowel.
[[Thaana]] is also like an abugida in that vowels are marked with diacritics. However, all vowels are marked, as is the absence of a vowel; there is no inherent vowel. Normally no letter may occur without a diacritic. That is, it is equivalent to an [[abjad]] with obligatory vowel marking, like the [[Arabic alphabet]] as used for [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] in Iraq, as is thus essentially alphabetic. Note that it developed among a population that was already literate with an abugida for their language.
Several systems of [[shorthand]] use diacritics for vowels, but they do not have an inherent vowel, and are thus more similar to Thaana and Kurdish than to the Brahmic scripts. The [[Sam Pollard|Pollard]] script, which was based on shorthand, also uses diacritics for vowels; the placements of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates [[tone (linguistics)|tone]].
As the term ''alphasyllabary'' suggests, abugidas have been considered an intermediate step between [[alphabet]]s and [[syllabary|syllabaries]]. Historically, abugidas appear to have evolved from [[abjad|abjads]] (vowelless alphabets). They contrast with syllabaries, where there is a distinct symbol for each syllable or consonant-vowel combination, and where these have no systematic similarity to each other. Compare the Devanagari examples above to sets of syllables in the Japanese [[hiragana]] syllabary: か ''ka'', き ''ki'', く ''ku'', け ''ke'', こ ''ko'' have nothing in common to indicate ''k;'' while ら ''ra'', り ''ri'', る ''ru'', れ ''re'', ろ ''ro'' have neither anything in common for ''r'', nor anything do indicate that they have the same vowels as the ''k'' set.
The term ''abugida'' is taken from a conventional name for the Ge'ez script, derived from its first four letters (አቡጊዳ) as ordered
in some religious contexts. This order corresponds to the ancestral [[Semitic]] character order, ''aleph, beth, gimel, daleth,'' or A B C D.
Historically, abugidas appear to have first evolved from abjads (perhaps [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]]) with the [[Kharoṣṭhī]] and [[Brāhmī]] scripts. The Kharosthi family does not survive today, but Brahmi's descendents include most of the modern scripts of [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. Canadian Syllabics was derived from Devanagari, and is thus in the Brahmic family, or was at least influenced by Devanagari in its creation. Although Ge’ez derived from a different abjad, its evolution into an abugida may have been due to the influence of Christian missionaries from India.
== Partial list of abugidas ==
;True abugidas
*[[Brāhmī|Brahmic]] family, from the 4th (maybe 6th) century BC
**[[Balinese alphabet]]
**[[Bengali script|Bengali]]
**[[Burmese alphabet|Burmese]]
**[[Devanagari]] (used to write [[Sanskrit]], [[Pāli|Pali]], modern [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]] etc.)
**[[Gujarati script|Gujarati]]
**[[Gurmukhi script]]
**[[Kannada language|Kannada]]
**[[Khmer script|Khmer]]
**[[Lao alphabet|Lao]]
**[[Malayalam script|Malayalam]]
**[[Siddham]] used to write [[Sanskrit]]
**[[Sinhala script|Sinhala]]
**[[Tamil script|Tamil]]
**[[Telugu script|Telugu]]
**[[Thai alphabet|Thai]]
**[[Tibetan script|Tibetan]]
*[[Kharoṣṭhī]] (extinct), from the 3rd century BC
*[[Ge'ez language|Ge'ez]] (Ethiopic), from the 4th century AD
*[[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]]
*[[Baybayin]], pre-colonial script of [[Tagalog language | Tagalog]]
;Abugida-like scripts
*[[Meroitic script|Meroitic]] (extinct)
*[[Thaana]]
*[[Pitman shorthand]]
*[[Pollard script]]
==External links==
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/syllabaries.htm Syllabaries] - [http://www.omniglot.com/ Omniglot's] list of syllabaries and abugidas, including examples of various writing systems
[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[am:አቡጊዳ]]
[[br:Abugida]]
[[ca:Abugida]]
[[de:Abugida]]
[[es:Abugida]]
[[fr:Alphasyllabaire]]
[[gl:Alfasilabario]]
[[ko:아부기다]]
[[nl:Abugida]]
[[sl:Abugida]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AIDS</title>
<id>879</id>
<revision>
<id>42130717</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:47:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grcampbell</username>
<id>353882</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Origin of HIV/AIDS */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) |
ICD10 = B24 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|042}} |
}}
'''Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome''', or '''acquired immune deficiency syndrome''' (or [[Acronym and initialism|acronym]] '''AIDS''' or '''Aids'''), is a [[syndrome|collection of symptoms and infections]] resulting from the specific damage to the [[immune system]] caused by [[infection]] with the [[HIV|human immunodeficiency virus]] (HIV).<ref name=Marx>{{
cite journal |
author=Marx, J. L. | title=New disease baffles medical community |
journal=Science | year=1982 | pages=618-621 | volume=217 | issue=4560 | id={{PMID |7089584}}
}}</ref> It results from the latter stages of advanced HIV infection in [[human]]s, thereby leaving compromised individuals prone to [[opportunistic infection]]s and [[tumor]]s. Although treatments for both AIDS and HIV exist to slow the virus' progression in a human patient, there is no known cure.
Most researchers believe that HIV originated in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] <ref name=Gao>{{
cite journal |
author=Gao, F., Bailes, E., Robertson, D. L., Chen, Y., Rodenburg, C. M., Michael, S. F., Cummins, L. B., Arthur, L. O., Peeters, M., Shaw, G. M., Sharp, P. M. and Hahn, B. H. |
title=Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes |
journal=Nature | year=1999 | pages=436-441 | volume=397 | issue=6718 | id={{PMID |9989410}}
}}</ref> during the twentieth century; it is now a global epidemic. [[UNAIDS]] and the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized on [[December 1]], [[1981]], making it one of the most destructive pandemics in recorded history. In 2005 alone, AIDS claimed between an estimated 2.8 and 3.6 million, of which more than 570,000 were children.<ref name=UNAIDS>{{
cite web |
author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 |
url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf |
title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref> In countries where there is access to [[antiretroviral drug|antiretroviral]] treatment, both [[mortality]] and [[morbidity]] of HIV infection have been reduced <ref name=Palella>{{
cite journal |
author=Palella, F. J. Jr, Delaney, K. M., Moorman, A. C., Loveless, M. O., Fuhrer, J., Satten, G. A., Aschman and D. J., Holmberg, S. D. |
title=Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators |
journal=N. Engl. J. Med | year=1998 | pages=853-860 | volume=338 | issue=13 | id={{PMID |9516219}}
}}</ref>. However, side-effects of these antiretrovirals have also caused problems such as [[lipodystrophy]], [[dyslipidaemia]], [[insulin resistance]] and an increase in [[cardiovascular]] risks <ref name=Montessori>{{
cite journal |
author=Montessori, V., Press, N., Harris, M., Akagi, L., Montaner, J. S. |
title=Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection. |
journal=CMAJ | year=2004 | pages=229-238 | volume=170 | issue=2 | id={{PMID |14734438}}
}}</ref>. The difficulty of consistently taking the medicines has also contributed to the rise of [[viral escape]] and [[viral resistance|resistance]] to the medicines <ref name=Becker>{{
cite journal |
author=Becker, S., Dezii, C. M., Burtcel, B., Kawabata, H. and Hodder, S. |
title=Young HIV-infected adults are at greater risk for medication nonadherence |
journal=MedGenMed | year=2002 | pages=21 | volume=4 | issue=3 | id={{PMID |12466764}}
}}</ref>.
[[Image:Red_ribbon.png|right|thumbnail|120px|The Red Ribbon is the global symbol for solidarity with HIV-positive people and those living with AIDS.]]
==Infection by HIV==
[[Image:HIV-budding.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|[[Scanning electron microscope|Scanning electron micrograph]] of HIV-1 budding from cultured [[lymphocyte]].]]
AIDS is the mos |
/facts.php#PaintHowOften] [http://goldengatebridge.org/research/factsGGBIntOrngPaint.php]. [[Acrylic paint|Acrylic]] topcoats have been used instead since [[1990]] for air quality reasons. The program was completed in [[1995]], and there is now ongoing maintenance by 38 painters [http://goldengatebridge.org/research/facts.php#IronworkersPainters] to touch up the paintwork where it becomes seriously eroded.
== Suicides ==
The Golden Gate Bridge is notorious as a popular site for [[suicide]]. The official suicide count ended in [[1995]] when the number approached 1,000. Through the eight years to 2003, on average there was one suicide jump every two weeks, which brought the unofficial total to over 1,300 suicides {{fact}}. The 220-foot (67 m) fall takes four seconds and jumpers hit the water at 75 miles per hour (120 km/h). [[As of 2003]], only 26 people have survived the jump. The survivors all struck the water feet first and most suffered multiple internal injuries and broken bones. One young man supposedly jumped off the bridge in the 1980s, swam ashore and walked up on the beach. The doctor who examined him was then reported to have said that the man was in the best shape of anyone he had ever seen. {{fact}}
[[Image:suicidemessageggb01252006.JPG|250px|thumb|left|A suicide hotline phone located on the bridge.]]
Various methods have been discussed to reduce the number of suicides. One method introduced has been to close the bridge to pedestrians at night; bicyclists are still permitted across at nighttime, but they have to be buzzed in and out through the remotely controlled security gates during nighttime. [http://goldengatebridge.org/bikesbridge/bikes.php] Attempts to introduce a suicide barrier have been thwarted by engineering difficulties, high costs, and public opposition. On [[January 27]] [[2005]], Bridge District staff re-introduced for the eighth time the topic of a suicide barrier to the Bridge’s Building and Operations committee, citing "the high profile of this issue in recent press and community conversations." On [[March 11]] [[2005]], the Board of Directors of the Golden Gate Bridge voted 15-1 to approve a two-year, $2 million plan to explore the feasibility of a barrier. Proponents of the barrier cite the example of the [[Empire State Building]] and the [[Eiffel Tower]], where suicides dropped to zero after a barrier was put up. Those against the barrier argue that a barrier would be unsightly, too costly, and would simply move suicides elsewhere. [[Jump for Life]], a creative alternative to a suicide barrier, was proposed in late [[2005]].
Suicide on the Golden Gate Bridge is a theme of [[Jenni Olson]]'s experimental short film, [[The Joy of Life]] ([[2005)]]). Documentarian [[Eric Steel]] was accused by the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' in 2005 of misrepresenting the nature of a request to film the Golden Gate National Recreation Area when he filed a film permit application. Steel had stated that he was making a film about the Bridge as a beautiful landmark, but instead captured 19 suicides on tape. {{fact}}
[[Image:108972157_l.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Golden Gate Bridge on a foggy day in [[San Francisco]]]]
==In fiction and film==
'''Film'''
*''[[Bicentennial Man]]'' - takes place in San Francisco, the bridge is glimpsed several times across the future, including a view in which it has a double deck structure.
*''[[The Core]]'' - deadly [[microwaves]] from the [[sun]] break through the [[magnetic field]] and melt the bridge before frying half of San Francisco.
*''[[Dirty Harry]]'' - "Scorpio" hijacks a school bus full of children and forces the driver to head North across the bridge.
*''[[Herbie Rides Again]]''' - Herbie is chased by Hawk's lawyers along the main cables of the bridge
*''[[Hulk (movie)|Hulk]]'' - Hulk jumps off the bridge to save a fighter jet.
*''[[The Joy of Life (2005)|The Joy of Life]]'' - Jenni Olson's film offers a history of suicide and the Golden Gate Bridge and features gorgeously shot images of the bridge as well as a personal reflection on the production history of [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s film ''[[Vertigo (movie)|Vertigo]]'' ([[1958]]).
*''[[It Came From Beneath the Sea]]'' - A giant octopus terrorizes San Francisco. Although some stock footage was shot using the real bridge, the scenes where the octopus attempts to destroy the bridge by wrapping itself around the towers were accomplished by using highly-detailed miniatures and stop-motion animation created by special effects master [[Ray Harryhausen]].
*''[[Mothra]]'' - In this Japanese science fiction film, the bridge is destroyed by the collision of a large nuclear mutant monster.
*''[[The Rock (film)|The Rock]]'' - bridge can be regularly seen in the background as film was shot near [[Alcatraz Island|Alcatraz]] in [[San Francisco Bay]].
*''[[So I Married an Axe Murderer]]'' - newly married couple travel over the bridge en route to their [[honeymoon]].
*''[[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home]]'' - the [[Klingon]] [[Bird-of-prey (Star Trek)|bird-of-prey]] used by the crew of the [[Starship Enterprise]] flies under the Golden Gate Bridge on its way to crashing into the Bay.
*''[[Superman (movie)|Superman]]'' - Superman saves a school bus about to fall from the bridge.
*''[[Vertigo (movie)|Vertigo]]'' - In this [[Alfred Hitchcock]] film, the bridge is a prominent backdrop in a scene set just east (bayside) of [[Fort Point]].
*''[[A View to a Kill]]'' - In this [[James Bond]] film, Bond and [[Max Zorin]] fight on top of one of the bridge's towers .
*''[[X-Men 3 (film)|X3]]'' - the bridge is used in a prison break sequence from [[Alcatraz Island|Alcatraz]].
*''[[The Love Bug]]''- Herbie attempts to commit "[[suicide]]" by trying to drive over the barrier.
'''Television'''
*''[[10.5]]'' - bridge collapses during an earthquake.
*''[[Charmed]]'' - The series is set in San Francisco, and scenes of the bridge can regularly be seen.
*''[[Full House]]'' - The series is set in San Francisco. It's seen in the opening credits being traveled by a car full of the program's main characters.
*''[[Love is a Many Splendored Thing]]'' - bridge is seen prominently in the opening sequence of the [[soap opera]] , which was set in San Francisco.
*''[[Sliders|"Sliders"]] - in one of the alternate timelines the bridge is an electric blue, the sole factor distinguishing that San Francisco from ours.
*''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' - bridge is destroyed during the [[Dominion War]] in an attack by the [[Breen]].
*''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]'' - the original location of Starfleet Command is located NE of the bridge. Instead of a direct view of traffic lanes and whatever transportation technology is employed, there is an obscuring weatherproof glass arch cover.
*''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' - ''[[USS Voyager (NCC-74656)|Voyager]]'' is shown flying underneath the bridge upon finally returning to Earth
*''[[The Ted Knight Show]]'' - The series is set in San Francisco. The bridge is seen in the opening credits.
*''[[Too Close for Comfort (TV series)|Too Close for Comfort]]'' - The series is set in San Francisco. The bridge is seen in the opening credits.
*''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' - a terrorist attempt to blow up the Golden Gate Bridge sparks a plot line involving the US assassination of the Qumari intelligence minister (who masterminded the plot to blow up the bridge).
*''[[Nash Bridges]]'' - The series is set in San Francisco, and there are several shots of the bridge placed throughout the show. The series ran for 6 years and is now in syndication.
'''Books'''
*''[[The Golden Gate (MacLean novel)|The Golden Gate]]'' - [[Alistair MacLean]]'s novel is a kidnapping story set almost exclusively on the bridge.
'''Games'''
*''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' - a model of this bridge is featured in the city [[San Fierro, San Andreas]]. It is called Gant Bridge in the game.
*''[[Red Alert 2]] : Yuri's Revenge'' - had the bridge destroyed in some of the first missions by [[Soviet]] invaders.
*''[[Midtown Madness 2]]'' - in San Fransico city
'''Other'''
*''[[Star Trek| Star Trek universe]]'' - in both the 23rd and 24th Centuries, [[Starfleet]] Headquarters and [[Starfleet Academy]] are located in [[Presidio of San Francisco|San Francisco's Presidio]], with a view of the Golden Gate Bridge.
*''[[Voyager Golden Record]]'' - the bridge appears as one of the pictures on the record.
*''[[Disney's California Adventure]]'' - There is a smaller scale of the bridge at the entrance of Disney's California Adventure.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Golden Gate Bridge}}
* [http://www.goldengate.org/ The Official website of the Golden Gate Bridge]
* [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/?031013fa_fact The New Yorker: Fatal Grandeur of the Golden Gate Bridge]
* [http://www.sfmuseum.net/ The Museum of San Francisco]'s [http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist10/ggbridging.html Story Behind the Construction of the Span]
* [http://www.paperlandmarks.com/golden-gate-bridge.htm 3D scale model]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldengate/index.html PBS American Experience]
* [http://www.virtuar.com/ysf2/golden_gate_bridge.htm Golden Gate Bridge Virtual Tour]
* [http://www.cbsforum.com/cgi-bin/articles/partners/cbs/search.cgi?template=display&dbname=cbsarticles&key2=golden&action=searchdbdisplay The story of Golden Gate Bridge] - by [http://www.cbsforum.com/ CBS Forum]
* [http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/usa/goldengatebridge/ Photographs of the Golden Gate Bridge]
* [http://www.terragalleria.com/california/california.sf-golden-gate-bridge.html Photos of the Golden Gate Bridge]
* [http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile71/Golden-Gate-Bridge---3d.htm 3D plug-in of the Golden Gate Bridge for Google Earth]
* [http://cic.nist.gov/vrml/cis2.html VRML and Google Earth 3D Models of the Golden Gate Bridge] (Click on 'CIS/2 Models in Google Earth' in the What's New section)
{{geolinks-US-hoodscale|37.8197 |
[pun]]s so beloved of men of science of the early [[19th century]], after himself, as 'Lecoq' = the [[rooster]], and [[Latin]] for rooster is "gallus".
== Occurrence ==
Gallium does not exist in pure form in nature, nor are gallium compounds a primary source of extraction. It is rather found and extracted as a trace component in [[bauxite]], [[coal]], [[diaspore]], [[germanite]], and [[sphalerite]]. The [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] estimates gallium reserves based on 50 ppm by weight concentration in known reserves of bauxite and zinc ores. Some [[flue]] [[dust]]s from burning coal have been shown to contain as much 1.5 percent gallium.
Most of the gallium is extracted from the crude [[aluminium hydroxide]] solution of the [[Bayer process]]. A [[mercury (element)|mercury]] cell [[electrolysis]] and [[hydrolysis]] of the [[amalgam]] with [[sodium hydroxide]] leads to the sodium gallate. Electrolysis than gives pure gallium, for [[semiconductor]]s further purification is done similar to [[silicon]] like [[zone melting]] and with the [[Czochralski process]].
== Precautions ==
While not considered toxic, the data about gallium is inconclusive. Some sources suggest that it may cause [[dermatitis]] from prolonged exposure; other tests have not caused a positive reaction. It will however stain your skin if you hold it in your bare hands.
== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/31.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Gallium]
Since aluminum and gallium form a low-melting [[eutectic]] mixture, air transport of gallium poses a potential risk that the gallium could melt and leak from its container, possibly contacting the [[aluminum]] structure of the aircraft. If this were to occur, the gallium could attack the aluminum and weaken it, possibly with catastrophic results. For this reason, air transport regulations for gallium metal place stringent requirements on the packaging and maximum permissible quantities of the gallium.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Gallium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ga/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Gallium]
*[http://www.pniok.de/ga.htm Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Poor metals]]
[[Category:Coolants]]
[[af:Gallium]]
[[bs:Galijum]]
[[ca:Gal·li]]
[[cs:Gallium]]
[[de:Gallium]]
[[et:Gallium]]
[[es:Galio]]
[[eo:Galiumo]]
[[fr:Gallium]]
[[ko:갈륨]]
[[io:Galio]]
[[is:Gallín]]
[[it:Gallio (elemento)]]
[[he:גליום]]
[[ku:Galyûm]]
[[lv:Gallijs]]
[[lt:Galis]]
[[hu:Gallium]]
[[nl:Gallium]]
[[ja:ガリウム]]
[[no:Gallium]]
[[nn:Gallium]]
[[oc:Galli]]
[[pl:Gal]]
[[pt:Gálio]]
[[ru:Галлий]]
[[simple:Gallium]]
[[sk:Gálium]]
[[sl:Galij]]
[[sr:Галијум]]
[[fi:Gallium]]
[[sv:Gallium]]
[[th:แกลเลียม]]
[[tr:Galyum]]
[[uk:Галій]]
[[zh:镓]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Germanium</title>
<id>12242</id>
<revision>
<id>41645951</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:41:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Latinus</username>
<id>800894</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.239.28.226|216.239.28.226]] ([[User talk:216.239.28.226|talk]]) to last version by Paul August</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=32 | symbol=Ge | name=germanium | left=[[gallium]] | right=[[arsenic]] | above=[[silicon|Si]] | below=[[tin|Sn]] | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[metalloid]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=14 | period=4 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Germanium| grayish white }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|72.64]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[argon|Ar]]&#93; 3d<sup>10</sup> 4s<sup>2</sup> 4p<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 4 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 5.323 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 5.60 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1211.40 | c=938.25 | f=1720.85 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3106 | c=2833 | f=5131 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 36.94 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 334 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 23.222 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1644 | 1814 | 2023 | 2287 | 2633 | 3104 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic face centered }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 4<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.01 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 762 | 1537.5 | 3302.1 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|125]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|125]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|122]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 60.2 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 6.0 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 5400 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 6.0 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-56-4 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=germanium | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=68 | sym=Ge | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|270.8]] [[day|d]] | dm=[[electron capture|ε]] | de=- | pn=68 | ps=[[gallium|Ga]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=70 | sym=Ge | na=21.23% | n=38 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=71 | sym=Ge | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E5 s|11.26]] [[day|d]] | dm=[[electron capture|ε]] | de=- | pn=71 | ps=[[gallium|Ga]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=72 | sym=Ge | na=27.66% | n=40 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=73 | sym=Ge | na=7.73% | n=41 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=74 | sym=Ge | na=35.94% | n=42 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=76 | sym=Ge | na=7.44% | n=44 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
'''Germanium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ge''' and [[atomic number]] 32. This is a lustrous, hard, silver-white, [[metalloid]] that is chemically similar to [[tin]]. Germanium forms a large number of organometallic compounds and is an important [[semiconductor]] material used in [[transistor]]s.
== Notable characteristics ==
Germanium is a hard, grayish-white element that has a metallic luster and the same crystal structure as [[diamond]]. In addition, it is important to note that germanium is a semiconductor, with electrical properties between those of a [[metal]] and an [[insulator]]. In its pure state, this metalloid is [[crystal]]line, brittle and retains its [[luster]] in air at room temperature. [[Zone refining]] techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for [[semiconductor]]s that have an impurity of only one part in 10<sup>10</sup>.
== History ==
[[Image:GermaniumUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Germanium bowl]]
In [[1871]] germanium ([[Latin]] ''Germania'' for [[Germany]]) was one of the elements that [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] predicted to exist as a missing analogue of the [[silicon]] group (Mendeleev called it "[[Mendeleev's predicted elements|ekasilicon]]"). The existence of this element was proven by [[Clemens Winkler]] in [[1886]]. This discovery was an important confirmation of Mendeleev's idea of element periodicity.
<table>
<tr>
<th>Property</th>
<th>Ekasilicon</th>
<th>Germanium</th>
</tr><tr>
<td>atomic mass</td>
<td>72</td>
<td>72.59</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>density (g/cm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
<td>5.5</td>
<td>5.35</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>melting point (°C)</td>
<td>high</td>
<td>947</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>color</td>
<td>gray</td>
<td>gray</td>
</tr>
</table>
The development of the germanium transistor opened the door to countless applications of [[solid-state]] electronics. From [[1950]] through the early [[1970s]], this area provided an increasing market for germanium, but then high purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors, [[diode|diodes]], and rectifiers. Silicon has superior electrical properties, but requires much higher purity samples&mdash;a purity which could not be commercially achieved in the early days. Meanwhile, demand for germanium in [[fiber optics]] communication networks, infrared [[night vision]] systems, and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically. These end uses represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption for [[2000]].
== Applications ==
Unlike most semiconductors, germanium has a small [[band gap]], allowing it to efficiently respond to [[infrared]] light. It is therefore used in infrared [[spectroscope]]s and other optical equipment which require extremely sensitive infrared detectors. Its oxide's [[refractive index|index of refraction]] and dispersion properties make germanium useful in wide-angle [[camera]] lenses and in [[microscope]] objective lenses.
Germanium transistors are still used in some [[Stompbox|stompboxes]] by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the [[Fuzzbox|"fuzz"-tone]] from the early [[rock and roll]] era. Vintage [[Stompbox|stompboxes]] known to contain germanium transistors have shown marked increases in collector value for this reason alone.
The alloy Silicon germanide (commonly referred to as "silicon-germanium", or [[SiGe]]) is rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material, for use in high speed integrated circuits. Circuits utilising the properties of Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone.
Other uses:
* [[Alloy]]ing agent; |
al nuclear warning ads two years earlier) and another hard-faced, electronic backing, it went into the UK charts straight in at Number 1 and stayed there for a phenomenal nine weeks (the first to do so for seven years). Especially notable is the Joy Division/New Order and Gang of Four inspired dominance of repetitive bass lines in the soundscape coupled with a Western movie soundtrack inspired string symphony. This sound was exhausted on numerable 12 inch remixes of the song. Arguably this particular sound has inspired numerous English techno acts, including Underworld and Apollo 440.
There were no problems with the song this time, but again the video was not shown on British television, this time due to its overtly violent nature. Directed by the renowned duo of [[Kevin Godley]] and [[Lol Crème]] (half of '70s rock band [[10cc]]) it featured [[lookalike]]s of [[Cold War]] leaders [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[Chernenko|Konstantin Chernenko]] wrestling in a [[marquee]] while band members and others laid bets on the outcome. Ultimately, the [[globe]] was seen to [[explode]].
What made the reign of "Two Tribes" at the top even more notable was the continuing success of its predecessor. "Relax" had made a natural decline down the charts but on the release of "Two Tribes", sales of it began to rise again to the extent that FGTH held the top two spots in the UK charts, the first act to do so since the [[posthumous]] clamour for singles by [[John Lennon]] at the beginning of [[1981]].
==="The Power Of Love"===
FGTH released a third single, "[[The Power Of Love (Frankie Goes to Hollywood)|The Power Of Love]]", at the end of [[1984]]. A surprisingly thoughtful, well-arranged ballad, it went to Number 1 in [[December]] and gave the band the honour of being the first act for two decades (since [[Gerry and the Pacemakers]] in [[1964]]) to achieve chart-toppers with its first three releases. The video was not banned on this occasion but still caused strife for the group &mdash; it depicted a [[nativity]] scene, lumping it (wrongly) in the category of [[Christmas]]-only records. As a result, to this day [[radio]] stations seem to give it airplay only during the festive period. The lyrics are not directly concerned with Christmas, however.
The [[Band Aid (band)|Band Aid]] project, for which Johnson recorded a message for the B-side, meant that FGTH managed only one week at the top this time before it was replaced by "[[Do They Know It's Christmas?]]". 1984 also saw the release of their [[debut album|debut]] album, ''Welcome To The Pleasuredome'', but this was poorly received by the critics and didn't sell as well as expected. Along with the singles and title track, it featured a mixture of thrown-together covers (including "[[Born To Run]]" from [[Bruce Springsteen]], "[[San Jose]]", "[[Ferry Cross The Mersey]]") and humour-free Liverpudlian asides and skits.
The BBC lifted its ban on "Relax" at the end of 1984 to allow the band to perform it on the Christmas edition of ''Top Of The Pops'' (it was, aside from Band Aid, the biggest-selling single of the year).
The album's title track, "Welcome To The Pleasuredome", was released as a single at the beginning of [[1985]] and peaked at Number 2, leading to absurd claims that the band was on the decline. It turned out the snipers were correct, however, but not for the alleged 'failure' of a Number 2 hit. In fact, the demise of the band was more down to lack of material and skill. Contrary to popular belief, Frankie ''could'' play their instruments, as two world tours testified, but their attitude was in question after such immediate success.
===Decline and breakup===
In August [[1986]] the new single "Rage Hard" reached #4 in the UK. But the corresponding album ''Liverpool'', released in October, was panned by the music press, and chart results declined rapidly on the follow-up singles "Warriors of the Wasteland" (#19) and "Watching The Wildlife" (#28). In the midst of these diminishing returns, a backstage altercation between Johnson and Nash at [[Wembley Arena]] in January 1987 reflected the collapsing relationship between the lead singer and the rest of the band. FGTH completed the tour, but Johnson left the group immediately thereafter.
In the aftermath of the split, Johnson was offered a recording agreement with [[MCA]] Records. ZTT, which had invested heavily in ''Liverpool'' (to the point where the digital recording system used to record the album was very nearly treated as a sixth member of the band on the sleeve of the "Warriors of the Wasteland" single), had other ideas, and promptly sued Johnson in an attempt to hold him to his original contract with the label. Among other things, ZTT believed that as the departing member of FGTH, Johnson was required to release all solo material through the label until the band's original multiple-album agreement was fulfilled. The suit was bitterly fought, exposing the inner workings of the ZTT/Frankie machine to a giddy UK music press. After two weeks the High Court found in Johnson's favor, holding that the highly restrictive terms of the contract constituted an unreasonable restraint of trade.
===Later years===
Johnson's [[Solo (music)|solo]] career at MCA commenced in [[1989]], with a succession of high-placed singles and the reasonably successful album ''Blast''. The remix collection ''Hollelujah'' followed, trailed by a second studio album ''Dreams That Money Can't Buy''. He would later become a reclusive but successful painter after announcing in [[1993]] that he was living with the [[HIV]] virus. The following year, Johnson recounted his version of Frankie's history in his autobiography ''A Bone In My Flute''. His self-issued 1999 album ''Soulstream'' included a re-recording of "The Power Of Love", which was also released as a single. Rutherford, the other openly [[gay]] member of the band, released the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]-produced album ''Oh World'' and a handful of singles before retiring with his partner to a farm in New Zealand to raise a family. The 'other three', as pop [[magazine]] ''Smash Hits'' labelled them, continued to work behind the scenes in the [[studio]] on other people's projects. As "Nasher", Nash released a 2002 solo album entitled ''Ripe''.
The band's name lived on to the extent that re-issues of "Relax" and "The Power Of Love" both returned to the UK Top 10 in [[1993]]. [[Remix]]es of "The Power Of Love" (which became a dance anthem from its original lite-jazz ballad format) and "Two Tribes" were Top 20 hits in [[1997]], while "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" also got successful remix treatment to the extent of a Top 20 placing four years earlier. ZTT keeps the FGTH back-catalog alive into the new century with periodic reconfigurations, remasters, and further remixes by an ever-growing pool of dance producers, continuing the tradition that began with the multiple variations of the "Relax" 12" issued in 1983. "Two Tribes" was later played in the video game [[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]].
The group's first two singles appeared sixth and 22nd respectively in the official [[List of best selling singles (UK)|all-time UK best-selling singles list]] issued in [[2002]].
A band called "The New Frankie Goes To Hollywood" appeared<!-- when? -->, fronted by Davey Johnson, who claimed to be Holly Johnson's brother. The band plays a few Frankie tracks, but actually has nothing to do with FGTH. Likewise, "Davey Johnson" is no relative of Holly's. The band is also not to be confused with the FGTH conventions related to ''The [[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]''.
===Reunion and comeback===
In [[2003]], the [[VH-1]] program ''[[Bands Reunited]]'' brought Johnson, Rutherford, Gill, O'Toole and Nash together from the far corners of the world in hopes of their performing on the show. By all appearances the bandmates got on well enough and enjoyed seeing one another again, but none of them seemed particularly surprised when Johnson scuttled the envisioned mini-concert with his (literal) last-minute refusal to perform with the rest of the band.
To celebrate the 25th anniversary of Trevor Horn's involvement in the music industry, in [[2004]] a special concert took place at Wembley Arena in [[November]] which featured three of the FGTH personnel. Once again an exception was Johnson, who announced via the [[Internet]] that he would not be appearing, and who stuck to this decision despite much worldwide protest from fans yearning to see the five play together again. The band held an open audition for a new singer for the concert and recruited Ryan Molloy as a result. Nash also declined to take part in the concert for his own reasons.
The same lineup (with Molloy, and without Johnson or Nash) reunited for a tour in [[2005]]. They headlined at [[Faceparty]]'s [[Big Gay Out]] festival.
==Legacy==
Observers of FGTH's era state that despite the presence of openly gay members and suggestive lyrics and sleeves, the band's raw, aggressive sound avoided alienating a [[heterosexual]] male audience, leading some to change their attitudes towards [[homosexuality|homosexual]] people. Thus, even though ultimately many do not consider their music to be the best of the vibrant mid-1980s era, FGTH is considered by some to have been a very important band for reasons beyond music.
==Band members==
===FGTH 1980's members===
*[[Holly Johnson]] - Vocals (-1987)
*[[Mark O'Toole]] - Bass
*[[Brian Nash]] - Guitar
*[[Peter Gill]] - Drums
*[[Paul Rutherford]] - Backing vocals, dancing and [[merchandise]] modelling <i>("just for the smell of it")</i>
===FGTH Today members===
*[[Ryan Molloy]] - Vocals
*[[Mark O'Toole]] - Bass |
ment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], the '''Casimir effect''' is a weak [[Force (physics)|force]] exerted between separate objects, which is not due to [[electric charge|charge]], [[gravity]], or exchange of [[particles]], but instead is due to [[resonance]] in the intervening space between the objects, of [[Zero point energy|all-pervasive energy fields]]. The force is only measurable when the distance between the objects is extremely small, since it falls off rapidly with distance.
[[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[physicist]] [[Hendrik B. G. Casimir]] first proposed the existence of the force, and an experiment to detect it in [[1948]] while participating in research at [[Philips]] Research Labs. His classic form of the experiment uses a pair of [[electric charge|uncharged]] parallel metal plates in a vacuum, and has successfully demonstrated the force to within 15% of the predicted value according to Casimir's theory.
The [[van der Waals force]] between a pair of neutral [[atom]]s is a similar effect. In modern [[theoretical physics]], the Casimir effect plays an important role in the [[nucleon#Models of the nucleon|chiral bag model]] of the [[nucleon]], and in applied physics, it is becoming of increasing importance in development of the ever-smaller, miniaturised components of emerging [[microtechnology|micro-]] and [[nanotechnology|nano-]] technologies.
==Overview==
The Casimir effect can be understood by the idea that the presence of conducting metals and [[dielectric]]s alter the [[vacuum expectation value]] of the energy of the [[electromagnetic field]]. Since the value of this energy depends on the shapes and positions of the conductors and dielectrics, the Casimir effect manifests itself as a force between such objects.
==Vacuum energy==
The Casimir effect is an outcome of [[quantum field theory]], which states that all of the various fundamental [[field (physics)|fields]], such as the [[electromagnetic field]], must be quantized at each and every point in space. In a naïve sense, a field in physics may be envisioned as if space were filled with interconnected vibrating balls and springs, and the strength of the field can be visualized as the displacement of a ball from its rest position. Vibrations in this field propagate, and are governed by the appropriate [[wave equation]] for the particular field in question. The [[second quantization]] of quantum field theory requires that each such ball-spring combination be quantized, that is, that the strength of the field be quantized at each point in space. Canonically, the field at each point in space is a [[Harmonic oscillator|simple harmonic oscillator]], and its quantization places a [[quantum harmonic oscillator]] at each point. Excitations of the field correspond to the [[elementary particle]]s of [[particle physics]]. However, as this picture shows, even the [[vacuum]] has a vastly complex structure. All calculations of quantum field theory must be made in relation to this model of the vacuum.
The vacuum has, implicitly, all of the properties that a particle may have: [[spin (physics)|spin]], or [[polarization]] in the case of [[light]], [[energy]], and so on. On average, all of these properties cancel out: the vacuum is after all, "empty" in this sense. One important exception is the [[vacuum energy]] or the [[vacuum expectation value]] of the energy. The quantization of a simple harmonic oscillator states that the lowest possible energy or [[zero-point energy]] that such an oscillator may have is
:<math>{E} = \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \hbar \omega \ .</math>
Summing over all possible oscillators at all points in space gives an infinite quantity. The removal of this infinity presents a challenge for theoretical particle physics, and [[as of 2005]], there is no compelling explanation for how this infinity should be treated as essentially zero (as a non-zero value is essentially the [[cosmological constant]]; a large value causes trouble in [[cosmology]]).
==The Casimir effect==
[[Image:Casmir_plates.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Casmir forces on parallel plates.]]
Casimir's observation was that the [[second-quantized]], quantum electromagnetic field, in the presence of bulk bodies such as metals or [[dielectric]]s, must obey the same [[boundary condition]]s that the classical electromagnetic field must obey. In particular, this affects the calculation of the vacuum energy in the presence of a [[Conductor (material)|conductor]] or dielectric.
Consider, for example, the calculation of the vacuum expectation value of the electromagnetic field inside a metal cavity, such as, for example, a [[radar cavity]] or a [[microwave]] [[waveguide]]. In this case, the correct way to sum the zero point energy of the field is to sum the energies of the [[standing wave]]s of the cavity. To each and every possible standing wave corresponds an energy; say the energy of the ''n''th standing wave is <math>E_n</math>. The vacuum expectation value of the electromagnetic field in the cavity is then
:<math>\langle E \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n E_n</math>
with the sum running over all possible values of ''n'' enumerating the standing waves. The factor of 1/2 corresponds to the fact that the zero-point energies are being summed (it is the same 1/2 as appears in the equation <math>E=\hbar \omega/2</math>). Written in this way, this sum is clearly divergent; however, it can be used to create finite expressions.
In particular, one may ask how the zero point energy depends on the shape ''s'' of the cavity. Each energy level <math>E_n</math> depends on the shape, and so one should write <math>E_n(s)</math> for the energy level, and <math>\langle E(s) \rangle</math> for the vacuum expectation value. At this point comes an important observation: the force at point ''p'' on the wall of the cavity is equal to the change in the vacuum energy if the shape ''s'' of the wall is perturbed a little bit, say by <math>\delta s</math>, at point ''p''. That is, one has
:<math>F(p) = - \left. \frac{\delta \langle E(s) \rangle} {\delta s} \right\vert_p\,</math>
Amazingly, this value is finite in many practical calculations.
==Casimir's calculation==
In the original calculation done by Casimir, he considered the space between a pair of conducting metal plates a distance ''a'' apart. In this case, the standing waves are particularly easy to calculate, since the transverse component of the electric field and the normal component of the magnetic field must vanish on the surface of a conductor. Assuming the parallel plates lie in the x-y plane, the standing waves are
:<math>\psi_n(x,y,z,t) = e^{-i\omega_nt} e^{ik_xx+ik_yy} \sin \left( k_n z \right)</math>
where <math>\psi</math> stands for the electric component of the electromagnetic field, and, for brevity, the [[polarization]] and the magnetic components are ignored here. Here, <math>k_x</math> and <math>k_y</math> are the [[wave vector]]s in directions parallel to the plates, and
:<math>k_n = \frac{n\pi}{a}</math>
is the wave-vector perpendicular to the plates. Here, ''n'' is an integer, resulting from the requirement that &psi; vanish on the metal plates. The energy of this wave is
:<math>\omega_n = c \sqrt{{k_x}^2 + {k_y}^2 + \frac{n^2\pi^2}{a^2}}</math>
where ''c'' is the [[speed of light]]. The vacuum energy is then the sum over all possible excitation modes
:<math>\langle E \rangle = \frac{\hbar}{2} \cdot 2
\int \frac{dk_x dk_y}{(2\pi)^2} \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty A\omega_n </math>
where ''A'' is the area of the metal plates, and a factor of 2 is introduced for the two possible polarizations of the wave. This expression is clearly infinite, and to proceed with the calculation, it is convenient to introduce a [[regularization (physics)|regulator]] (discussed in greater detail below). The regulator will serve to make the expression finite, and in the end will be removed. The [[Zeta function regularization|zeta-regulated]] version of the energy per unit-area of the plate is
:<math>\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} = \hbar
\int \frac{dk_x dk_y}{(2\pi)^2} \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty \omega_n
\vert \omega_n\vert^{-s}</math>
In the end, the limit <math>s\to 0</math> is to be taken. Here ''s'' is just a [[complex number]], not to be confused with the shape discussed previously. This integral/sum is finite for ''s'' [[real number|real]] and larger than 3. The sum has a [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]] at ''s''=3, but may be [[analytic continuation|analytically continued]] to ''s''=0, where the expression is finite. Expanding this, one gets
:<math>\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} =
\frac{\hbar c^{1-s}}{4\pi^2} \sum_n \int_0^\infty 2\pi qdq
\left \vert q^2 + \frac{\pi^2 n^2}{a^2} \right\vert^{(1-s)/2}</math>
where [[polar coordinates]] <math>q^2 = k_x^2+k_y^2</math> were introduced to turn the [[double integral]] into a single integral. The integral is easily performed, resulting in
:<math>\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} =
-\frac {\hbar c^{1-s} \pi^{2-s}}{2a^{3-s}} \frac{1}{3-s}
\sum_n \vert n\vert ^{3-s}</math>
The sum may be understood to be the [[Riemann zeta function]], and so one has
:<math>\frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} =
\lim_{s\to 0} \frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} =
-\frac {\hbar c \pi^{2}}{6a^{3}} \zeta (-3)</math>
But <math>\zeta(-3)=1/120</math> and so one obtains
:<math>\frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} =
\frac {-\hbar c \pi^{2}}{3 \cdot 240 a^{3}}</math>
The Casimir force per unit area <math>F_c / A</math> for idealized, perfectly conducting plates with vacuum between them is
:<math>{F_c \over A} = -
\frac{d}{da} \frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} =
-\frac {\hbar c \pi^2} {240 a^4}& |
d States have replaced the formality of a grand jury with a procedure in which the prosecutor can issue charges by filing an ''information'' (also known as an ''accusation'') which is followed by a preliminary hearing before a [[Judge]] at which both the [[defendant]] and his or her counsel are present. New York State itself has changed procedures that define how grand juries are formed to no longer require jurors to have former jury experience.
In some rare instances, the grand jury does break with the prosecutor. It can even exclude the prosecutor from its meetings and subpoena witnesses and issue indictments on its own. This is called a "runaway grand jury." Runaway grand juries sometimes happen in government corruption or organized crime cases, if the grand jury comes to believe that the prosecutor himself has been improperly influenced. They were common in the 19th century but have become rare since the 1930s. [http://www.udayton.edu/~grandjur/faq/faq8.htm]
In all U.S. jurisdictions retaining the grand jury, the defendant has the right under the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] not to give self-incriminating testimony. However, the prosecutor can call the defendant to testify and require the defendant to assert the right on a question-by-question basis, which is prohibited in jury trials unless the defendant has voluntarily testified on his own behalf. Other evidentiary rules applicable to trials (such as the [[hearsay]] rule) are generally not applicable to grand jury proceedings.
== See also ==
*[[CIA leak grand jury investigation]] - Current news event
==External links==
* [http://www.abanet.org/media/faqjury.html Grand Jury FAQ] from the [[American Bar Association]]
* [http://www.nvo.com/cgja The California Grand Jurors' Association]
* [http://www.udayton.edu/~grandjur/ "Federal Grand Jury"], a website from a professor at the [[University of Dayton]]
* [http://www.constitution.org/jury/gj/gj-us.htm An organization devoted to Grand Jury reform]
* [http://www.nacdl.org/public.nsf/freeform/grandjury?opendocument More on Grand Jury reform], from the [[National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4975837] [[National Public Radio]], "How Federal Grand Juries Work"
* Grand juror ''handbooks'' from the court system:
** [http://www.moed.uscourts.gov/Jury/FederalHandbookForGrandJurors.pdf Federal] (in [[pdf]] format)
** [http://www.courts.state.va.us/gjury/cover.htm Virginia]
** [http://www.courts.state.mn.us/districts/fourth/Jury/jogjbook.htm Hennepin County (Minnesota)]
** [http://www.state.il.us/court/CircuitCourts/grandjuror.asp Illinois]
* {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Gottlieb | given=Bruce | title=Who Is a Grand Jury?| date=5 August 1998| org=Slate (magazine)| url=http://www.slate.com/id/1001959/}}
[[Category:Court systems]]
[[he:חבר מושבעים גדול]]
[[no:Storjury]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gdanzk</title>
<id>12685</id>
<revision>
<id>17756094</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-28T12:34:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbenbenn</username>
<id>38020</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Gdańsk]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gdańsk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gun politics</title>
<id>12686</id>
<revision>
<id>42089538</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:31:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.199.25.142</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Statistics in the Public Policy Arena */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The phrase '''Gun politics''' refers to the views of different people within a particular country as to what degree of freedom or restriction (more '''gun rights''' or more '''gun control''') should be enforced upon the [[private ownership]] and usage of [[firearms]], and to what extent ownership influences [[crime]] and the balance of power between the individual and the [[State]].
==Specific locales==
This article discusses these policies in a general sense. For more specific discussion of policy in specific locales, see:
*[[Gun politics in Australia]]
*[[Gun politics in Canada]]
*[[Gun politics in Finland]]
*[[Gun politics in Mexico]]
*[[Gun politics in Switzerland]]
*[[Gun politics in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Gun politics in the United States]]
== Summary of Positions ==
'''''Those who favor greater restrictions on firearm ownership and availability believe all, or some subset of:'''''
* There is no fundamental right to own firearms
* Gun control legislation will reduce [[violent crime]]
* Guns are more dangerous to the owners than to intended targets because most gun related deaths are a result of [[domestic violence]], accidents, and [[suicide]]s
* Guns are of little use as self defense for the typical owner because in incidents where a hostile encounter with an armed criminal occurs, the criminal is usually more experienced and skilled with his/her weapon, also criminals may act in groups
* Even against unarmed criminals, the presence of a gun serves more often to escalate the likelihood and/or severity of violence
* Citizens have no need to own guns to protect themselves against crime because government is tasked with that obligation
* Citizens need to protect themselves against crime, but owning firearms is not a good way to accomplish this
* Citizens of First World countries today have no need to protect themselves against their governments if they are vigilant and confront government wrongdoing before violence is necessary, ''or'' that even if such a need should arise, it would be hopeless to take up individual small arms against the modern military technology that a government could bring to bear.
* Guns, being devices implicitly designed to kill, raise the level of violence in any disagreement between people.
* Gun control, properly and judiciously applied, can lessen (though not eradicate) the possibility that criminals will obtain firearms.
'''''Those who favor maintaining or extending the private ownership of firearms believe all, or some subset of:'''''
* Owning firearms is a fundamental right.
* Owning firearms is a Constitutional and Statutory right in some nations.
* We all have a fundamental human and natural right to protect ourselves and our families from predators, criminal, animal, or otherwise.
* That freedom from hunger is a fundamental human right and accordingly, in some parts of the world, a gun is, or can be reserved as, a survival tool to hunt or slaughter food.
* Government should not be empowered to interfere with an individual's right to own firearms as long as the individual is not harming or [[intimidating]] fellow citizens.
* Guns in the homes of the law-abiding populace have a chilling effect on the occurence of [[burglary]] and [[home-invasion]] crimes.
* While some consider a firearm in a family home to present a danger to a family, the risk of owning a gun is negligible compared to other hazards that exist at home and in our neighbourhoods,e.g., [[swimming pools]], [[automobiles]], [[bicycles]], [[suffocation]] hazards, and ingestable [[poisons]].
* Citizens have a demonstrable need to own guns for personal protection because although government is tasked with an obligation to protect citizens collectively, government is not tasked to protect any "particular" citizen without a special relationship established with that individual prior to her or his victimization.
* As actually articulated in U.S. [[case law]], courts have held that the police have no responsibility to protect Americans. -Warren vs. D.C.,44A.2d1(D.C.App.1981)
* The concept of government and [[police]] having absolute and total responsibility to protect its citizens can lead to government and police [[bureaucracies]] which can become a fortress of undemocratic political power. In addtion this task can divert legislative oversight and attention and can lead to a strain on [[public expenditure]] which might otherwise be invested in [[schools]], [[parks]], [[libraries]], social programs, [[transportation]] and other public infastructure.
* An armed populace decreases the overall occurence of [[violent crime]]; widespread ownership and discreet carry of handguns by the law-abiding advances [[civilization]] by creating deterrence to assault, [[bullying]], [[mayhem]], robbery, rape, and murder.
* Gun control laws have a disproportionate, chilling effect on the [[freedoms]] of the law-abiding as criminals are willing to break the law to acquire, possess, and use guns.
* Law-abiding citizens have an incumbent duty to provide for their own protection because governments cannot be held civily or criminally liable for failing to provide such protection.
* Carrying a firearm makes one more safe, not less safe.
* An armed populace is a deterrent to the excesses of government; the threat of violent [[revolution]] by the people is a check and balance against an abusive [[totalitarian]] government or coup de etat.
* Existing gun control laws and gun crime laws are sufficient if only government would enforce them.
''' ''These two lists are obviously not exhaustive. There may be other positions that are not represented here.'' '''
===Degrees of gun legislation===
There are many areas of debate into exactly what kinds of firearms should be allowed to be privately owned, if any, and how and where they may be used.
In the [[United States]], full-automatic weapons are legal in most states, but have extremely restrictive requirements under federal law. They must have been manufactured and registered before May 19, 1986; a $200 transfer tax must be paid; approval must be met in writing prior to purchase from the local [[sheriff]] or chief of police; fingerprints and a photograph must be submitted to the [[BATFE|ATF]]; a criminal background check must be performed; |
s his influence on Churchill, which has been discussed earlier in this article, Gibbon was also a model for [[Isaac Asimov]] in his writing of [[The Foundation Series|The Foundation Trilogy]].
The '''title''' of the Rise and Fall has been used by other writers:
*''Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'' (1959), [[William Shirer]]
*''The Rise and Fall of Adolf Hitler'' (1961), William Shirer
*''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers'' (1989), [[Paul Kennedy]]
*''The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism'' Paul Kennedy
*''The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery'' Paul Kennedy
==Works by Gibbon==
* ''[[Essai sur l’étude de la littérature]]'' ([[1761]]).
* ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' (Volume I, [[1776]]; Volumes II and III, [[1781]]; Volumes IV, V, and VI, [[1788]]).
* ''[[A vindication of some passages in the fifteenth and sixteenth chapters of the History of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire]]'' ([[1779]]).
* ''[[ Mémoire justificatif pour servir de réponse à l’exposé, &c de la cour de France]]'' (1779).
* ''[[Memoirs of My Life]]'' (1796, at the beginning of the posthumous ''Miscellaneous Works of Edward Gibbon, Esq.'' published two years after the author's death by his friend and [[literary executor]] [[John Holroyd, 1st Earl of Sheffield]]); cf. Georges A. Bonnard's critical edition (1966).
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://50.1911encyclopedia.org/G/GI/GIBBON_EDWARD.htm Extensive Biography in 1911 Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.alumni.caltech.edu/~zimm/gibho1.html Edward Gibbon, Historian of the Roman Empire - Part 1 : The Man and his Book]
*[http://www.alumni.caltech.edu/~zimm/gibho2.html Edward Gibbon, Historian of the Roman Empire - Part 2 : A closer look at The Decline and Fall]
*[http://members.aol.com/Feuillade/TomMoran28.index.html Tom Moran's Edward Gibbon page]
*{{gutenberg author| id=Edward+Gibbon | name=Edward Gibbon}}
[[Category:1737 births|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[Category:1794 deaths|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[Category:British historians|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[Category:British classical scholars|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[Category:Old Westminsters|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[da:Edward Gibbon]]
[[de:Edward Gibbon]]
[[es:Edward Gibbon]]
[[eo:Edward GIBBON]]
[[fr:Edward Gibbon]]
[[he:אדוארד גיבון]]
[[nl:Edward Gibbon]]
[[ja:エドワード・ギボン]]
[[pl:Edward Gibbon]]
[[pt:Edward Gibbon]]
[[fi:Edward Gibbon]]
[[sv:Edward Gibbon]]
[[zh:吉本]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Egyptian languages</title>
<id>10311</id>
<revision>
<id>41449920</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T11:30:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Klompje7</username>
<id>841177</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Egyptian languages''' are a subfamily of the [[Afro-Asiatic]] language family. The only members are the ancient [[Egyptian language]] (including [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]]) and its descendant, [[Coptic language|Coptic]]. They are extinct in regular usage, both written and spoken, though Coptic is preserved as a [[liturgical]] language in the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]].
The development of the group is divided into six major periods:
* Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC)
* Old Egyptian (2600 BC - 2000 BC)
* Middle Egyptian (2000 BC - 1300 BC)
* Late Egyptian (1300 BC - 700 BC)
* Demotic (seventh century BC - fifth century AD)
* Coptic (fourth - fourteenth century AD)
It should be noted that Egyptian writing in the form of label and signs has been dated to 3000 BC. These early texts are generally lumped together under the term "Archaic Egyptian."
Old Egyptian was spoken for some 500 years from 2600 BC onwards. Middle Egyptian was spoken from about 2000 BC for a further 700 years when Late Egyptian made its appearance; Middle Egyptian did, however, survive until the first few centuries AD as a written language, similar to the use of [[Latin]] during the Middle Ages. Demotic first appears about 650 BC and survived as a spoken language until fifth century AD. Coptic -- the Bohairic dialect is still used by the Egyptian Christian Churches -- appeared in the fourth century AD and survived as a written, living language until the fourteenth century AD; it probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that.
Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using [[hieroglyphs]] and [[hieratic]]. Demotic was written using a script derived from hieratic; its appearance is vaguely similar to modern [[Arabic script]] (although the two are not at all related). Coptic is written using the [[Coptic alphabet]], a modified form of the [[Greek alphabet]] with a number of symbols borrowed from Demotic for sounds that did not occur in [[Ancient Greek]].
[[Arabic language|Arabic]] gradually replaced spoken Coptic after the Arabian invasions in the seventh century, though Arabic was the language of the [[Islam|Muslim]] political administration soon thereafter.
[[Category:Egyptian languages]]
[[ar:لغات مصرية]]
[[de:Ägyptische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma egipcio]]
[[fr:Égyptien classique]]
[[he:שפות מצריות]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>East Pakistan</title>
<id>10312</id>
<revision>
<id>41854481</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:07:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shyamsunder</username>
<id>800815</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Historic Pakistan|
region_name=East Pakistan |
region_flag=Bangladesh1971Flag.png |
region_map=East Bengal Map.gif |
capital=[[Dhaka]] |
area=144,000 |
official_languages=[[Bengali language|Bengali]]|
established_date=14th October 1955|
abolished_date=25th March 1971 (declared)
16th December 1971 (official)|
footnotes = [http://www.bangladeshgov.org Government of Bangladesh]|
}}
<br>
'''East Pakistan''' was a former province of [[Pakistan]] which existed between 1955 and 1971. It replaced the former province of [[East Bengal (province)|East Bengal]] and occupied the area now known as [[Bangladesh]].
<!--== East Bengal from 1905-1912 ==
With the assumption of [[Lord Curzon]] to the office of [[Governor-General of India]], British India was finally put under the charge of a man who considered himself an expert in Indian affairs. Curzon, seeing the logistical problems of administering such a large province, proposed to divide [[Bengal]]. '''Bengal,''' henceforth, would encompass Calcutta and the western territories, roughly comprising modern [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]], and [[Orissa]]. '''East Bengal''', the new province, would roughly encompass modern Bangladesh and the northeastern states of India (then all grouped under the heading of [[Assam]]).
While Curzon claimed the action was one merely founded upon administrative principles, the growing nationalist movement, which originated with the educated elite of [[Calcutta]] and the Bengali aristocracy, took the action as an attempt to cut off Bengal's Hindu intellectual leaders (based in Calcutta) from the majority Muslim agriculturalists of the east, dividing the nationalist movement along lines of class and religion. The partition of Bengal, effected in [[July]] [[1905]], sparked a firestorm in the nationalist movement. The partition was revoked in [[1912]], but it was accompanied by slicing off the non-Bengali portions of the province -- creating separate provinces for [[Assam]] and [[Bihar]] and [[Orissa]] -- and the shifting of the capital from Calcutta to [[Delhi]]. \this section commented out because it has little to do with East Pakistan\ -->
== Post Independence ==
Bengal was split again in 1947 upon the partition of British India into the independent states of Pakistan and India, the eastern part becoming East Pakistan.
After independence from British rule, East Pakistan was dominated and neglected by the Pakistani government, which was dominated by the Pakistani military, which mostly belonged to [[West Pakistan]]. A major cause of resentment among the Bengalis was economic exploitation. For example, between [[1948]] and [[1960]], East Pakistan's export earnings had been 70% of national total, while it only received 25% of the earnings. Between 1950 and 1970, only 34% of the development expenditure was spent in East Pakistan despite having more than half the population {{ref|exploitation}}. Tensions peaked in [[1971]], following the cancellation by Pakistani President [[Yahya Khan]] of election results that gave the [[Awami League]] a majority in the parliament. The [[Awami League]] won almost all the seats in East Pakistan, but none in [[West Pakistan]]. East Pakistan had more than half the parliamentary seats because it was home to more than half the population. Although the [[Awami League]] was in a position to form a government without any coalition partner, it was forced to start negotiations with the [[Pakistan Peoples Party]] which had won most of the seats in [[West Pakistan]]. The negotiations failed and a 'military government' cancelled the results of the elections in 'East Pakistan'. Under the leadership of [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], Bangladesh began its struggle for independence. The official onset followed one of the bloodiest genocides of recent times carried out by the Pakistan army on Bengali civilians on 25th March, [[1971]], with an estimated 1-1.5 million Bengali deaths during the war {{ref|warstat}}.
== Independence of Bangladesh ==
[[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], being identified as a major influencer of the Bengalis, was arrested by the [[Pakistan]]i Government. [[Ziaur Rahman]], an army major then (later to be a President of Bangladesh) declared the Independence of Bangladesh, on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, using a makeshift radio transmitter from the port city of [[Chittagong]]. With the help of Bengali officers in the army, support of civilians and military/humanitarian aid from India, Bangladesh quickly put toget |
gives many state jobs to Denver.
Denver's position near the mineral-rich [[Rocky Mountains]], encouraged mining and energy companies to spring up in the area. In the early days of the city, gold and silver booms and busts played a large role in the economic success of the city. In the [[1970s]] and early [[1980s|'80s]], the energy crisis in America created an energy boom in Denver captured in the soap opera [[Dynasty (TV series)|Dynasty]]. During this time, Denver was built up considerably, with many new downtown [[skyscrapers]] built during this time. Eventually the oil prices dropped from $34 a barrel in 1981 to $9 a barrel in 1986, and the Denver economy dropped with it, leaving almost 15,000 oil industry workers in the area unemployed (including mayor [[John Hickenlooper]], a former geologist), and the highest office vacancy rate in the nation (30%). Energy and mining are still important in Denver's economy today, with companies such as [[Newmont Mining]], [[Patina Oil and Gas]], and [[Western Gas Resources]].
Denver's west-central geographic location in the Mountain Time Zone (UTC -7) also benefits the telecommunications industry by allowing communication with both North American coasts, South America, Europe, and Asia in the same business day. Denver's location on the 105th meridian at over 1 mile in elevation also enables it to be the largest city in the U.S. to offer a 'one-bounce' real-time satellite uplink to six continents in the same business day. [[Qwest Communications]], [[EchoStar Communications Corporation|EchoStar]], [[Starz-Encore]], and [[Comcast]] are just a few of the telecommunications companies with operations in the Denver area. These and other high-tech companies had a boom in Denver in the mid to late [[1990s]], but the technology bust in the new millennium caused Denver to lose many of those technology jobs. Recently the Denver area has started making a comeback, with the October 2005 unemployment at 4.7% the lowest since September of 2001 [http://www.metrodenver.org/DataCenter/DenverEconomy/MonthlyEconSummary.icm]. Denver government and industry leaders are attempting to diversify the Denver economy so that it is less susceptible to boom and bust cycles.
For a more comprehensive account of Denver companies see [[List of companies with Denver Area operations]].
==Politics==
[[Image:Denver City Hall 1941.jpg|thumb|250px|Denver's iconic City and County Building (seen here around 1941), is the center of political power for the city]]
Denver is a consolidated city-county with a non-partisan elected [[mayor]] (though they may belong to a particular political party), a 13-member [[city council]] and an [[auditor]]. The city council is elected from 11 districts with two at-large council-members and is responsible for passing and changing all laws, resolutions, and ordinances, usually after a public hearing. They can also call for misconduct investigations of Denver's departmental officials.
Denver has a strong mayor/weak city council government. The mayor can approve or [[veto]] any ordinances or resolutions approved by the council, makes sure all contracts with the city are kept and performed, signs all bonds and contracts, is responsible for the city budget, and can appoint people to various city departments, organizations, and commissions. However, the council can override the mayor's veto with a nine out of 13 member vote, and the city budget must be approved and can be changed by a simple majority vote of the council. The auditor checks all expenditures and may refuse to allow specific ones, usually based on financial reasons. [http://www.denvergov.org/Denver_Government/template2654.asp]
All elected officials have four year terms, with a maximum of two terms. While Denver elections are non-partisan, [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] have long held a virtual monopoly on Denver politics with all elected officials having Democratic Party affiliation. In federal elections, Denverites also tend to vote for Democratic candidates. The office of Denver's Mayor has been occupied by a Democrat since the municipal general election of 1963. The current Mayor, John Hickenlooper, has boasted some approval ratings in the 90% range in recent polls,
which could indicate that the Democratic Party will likely remain in control of the office, and Denver's image as a "progressive city" shall continue.
In recent years, Denver has famously taken a stance on helping Denverites who are or become [[homeless]]. The city has gained a great reputation from the works of Mayor [[John Hickenlooper]], and Mayor [[Wellington Webb]] particularly. Denver's population of homeless residents is considerably lower than many other major cities, but many residents of the city streets have suffered during Denver's infamous long cold [[winter]]s. As a result, the city has set a national precedent on homeless services, with the creations of a ten year plan to end homelessness (a plan now becoming popular in other cities as well), a task force and commission to end homelessness, and an expansion on human and civil services through the Denver area.
In [[2005]], Denver became the first major city in the U.S. to make the private use of less than an ounce of [[marijuana]] legal for adults 21 and older. The city voted 53.49%-46.51% in favor of the [[Cannabis rescheduling in the United States|marijuana legalization]] measure. It should be noted that this initiative does not usurp state law, which currently treats marijuana possession in much the same way as a speeding ticket, with fines of up to $100 and no jail time [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-11-03-pot_x.htm].
==Transportation==
[[Image:Colfaxatbroadway.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Colfax Ave at Broadway, where the downtown and the normal city grid meet]]
===Grid system===
Most of Denver has a straightforward [[street grid]] oriented to the four [[cardinal direction]]s. Blocks are usually identified in hundreds from the median streets, identified as "0", which are Broadway (the north-south median) and Ellsworth Avenue (the west-east median). [[Colfax Avenue]], the major east-west artery through Denver, is 15 blocks (1500 North) of the median. Avenues north of Ellsworth are numbered (with the exception of Colfax Avenue and a few others), while avenues south of Ellsworth are named.
There is also an older downtown grid system that was designed to be parallel to the confluence of the [[South Platte River]] and [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]]. Most of the streets downtown and in [[LoDo]] run northeast-southwest and northwest-southeast. This system also helps with snow removal; if the streets were in a normal N-S/E-W grid, only the N-S streets would get sun. With the grid pointed to the diagonal directions, the NW-SE streets get sun to melt snow in the morning and the NE-SW streets get it in the afternoon. The NW-SE streets are numbered, while the NE-SW streets are named. The named streets start at the intersection of Colfax Avenue and Broadway with the block-long Cheyenne Place. The numbered streets start underneath the Colfax and I-25 viaducts. There are 27 named and 44 numbered streets on this grid. There are also a few vestiges of the old grid system in the normal grid such as Park Avenue, Morrison Road, and Speer Boulevard.
Confusion may arise where the two grid systems meet. Fortunately, traffic in downtown Denver is calmer than in many other large cities, and the mountains to the west provide an easy navigational reference.
===Highways===
Denver is primarily served by the interstate highways [[I-25]] and [[I-70]]. I-25 runs north-south from the [[New Mexico]] border through Denver to the [[Wyoming]] border. Likewise, I-70 runs east-west from [[Utah]] to [[Kansas]]. The intersection of the two interstates in Denver has been locally termed "the mousetrap." Additionally, [[I-76 (west)|I-76]] begins from I-70 just west of the city in [[Arvada, Colorado|Arvada]]. It intersects I-25 north of the city and runs northeast to Nebraska where it ends at [[I-80]].
A highway expansion and transit project, dubbed "T-REX", is currently under construction. The project includes the addition of extra freeway lanes and a light rail line in the I-25 corridor between downtown Denver and the [[Denver Technological Center]]. The massive project is slated to be finished in fall of 2006.
===Mass Transportation===
[[Image:Denver-lightrail.jpg|thumb|right|Denver RTD Light Rail car at 16th & Stout]]
[[Public transport|Mass transportation]] throughout the [[Denver-Aurora metropolitan area]] is managed and coordinated by the [[Regional Transportation District]] (RTD). RTD currently operates more than 1,000 [[bus|buses]] serving 10,000 bus stops in 38 municipal jurisdictions. Additionally, RTD operates two [[Rail transit in Denver, Colorado|light rail]] lines (the [[C Line (RTD)|C Line]] and the [[D Line (RTD)|D Line]]) with a total of 15.8 miles of track and serving 24 stations. Current RTD local fare is $1.50. [[FasTracks]], an expansion project approved by voters in 2004, will allow light rail to serve cities such as [[Lakewood, Colorado|Lakewood]], [[Golden, Colorado|Golden]], and [[Aurora, Colorado|Aurora]]. Commuter rail lines will serve [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]], [[Longmont, Colorado|Longmont]] and the [[Denver International Airport]], while light rail is already under construction to the southeast as far as [[Lone Tree, Colorado|Lone Tree]] in the [[Interstate 25|I-25 corridor]] as part of a reconstruction of the highway. The new line will be completed in late [[2006]].
===Trains===
[[Train]] service to Denver is provided by the [[Amtrak]] [[California Zephyr]] which runs from [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] west through Denver to [[San Francisco]]. T Additionally, there is the [[Ski Train]] provided by the [[Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad]] which takes passengers between Denver and the [[Winter Park, Co |
Command (Comando General de las Fuerzas Militares) started a program to overhaul and improve the performance of the military branches (Army, Navy and Air Force) it was the result of an study (1998-1999) suggesting to improve the military mobility, personnel training and internal organization to allow more flexibility. It is also known that increasing use of [[Special Forces]] such as [[AFEUR]] (Urban Warfare/CounterTerrorism Units), [[Lancero]] units (Jungle Warfare/[[Ranger]] like) is suggested by the study.
In addition to its own domestic needs, Colombia also provides troops to international [[peacekeeping]] efforts, most notably the [[Multinational Force and Observers]], to whom it has provided a full [[infantry]] [[battalion]] since [[1982]].
'''Military branches:'''<br>
Army (Ejercito Nacional)<br>Navy (Armada Nacional, includes Marines and Coast Guard)<br>Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Colombiana)<br>National Police (Policia Nacional) (though it is controlled by the Ministry of Defense it is not a Military branch)
'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
10,599,704 (2000 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
7,093,676 (2000 est.)
'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
<br>''males:''
370,356 (2000 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$3.4 billion (FY99)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
3.7% (FY99)
==References and Links==
*[[Colombia]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ejercito.mil.co Ejército Nacional de Colombia] - Official Army site in Spanish
* [http://www.army.mil.co Ejército Nacional de Colombia] - Official Army site in English
* [http://www.armada.mil.co Armada Nacional de Colombia] - Official Navy site (in Spanish and English)
* [http://www.fac.mil.co Fuérza Aérea Colombiana] - Official Air Force site (in Spanish)
{{South America in topic|Military of}}
[[Category:Militaries|Colombia]]
[[Category:Military of Colombia| ]]
[[no:Colombias forsvar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Colombia</title>
<id>5844</id>
<revision>
<id>42069538</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:36:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Misza13</username>
<id>330574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.103.220.101|71.103.220.101]] to last version by Travb</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is the '''[[history]] of [[Colombia]]'''. See also [[history of South America]] and the [[history of present-day nations and states]].
== Pre-Colombian period ==
The two main linguistic groups that dominated the territory now known as Colombia during the pre-Colombian period were the [[Carib]] and the [[Chibcha]]. They possessed different organizational structures and distinct languages and cultures. In upper Magdalene region, from 5th to 8th century, many tumuli with scuptures were raised in [[San Agustin Archaeological Park|San Agustin]].The region now occupied by the city of [[Bogotá]] was inhabited by the [[Muisca]]. The Muisca based their social organization on trade. They exchanged [[salt]], [[emeralds]], [[beans]], [[maize]] and other crops with other [[Chibchan]] tribes such as the [[Chitareros]], [[Guanes]] and [[Laches]].
==Colonial times==
The [[Spain|Spanish]] sailed along the north coast of today's Colombia as early as [[1500]], but their first permanent settlement, at Santa Marta, was not established until [[1525]]. In [[1549]], the institution of the [[Audiencia]] in Santa Fe de [[Bogotá]], gave that city the status of capital of the [[New Granada]], it included most of the provinces of what makes up the territory of Colombia. In [[1717]] the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in [[1739]]. The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had been so far under jurisdiction of the [[New Spain|Viceroyalties of New Spain]] or [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Peru]] and correspond mainly to today's [[Venezuela]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Panama]]. So, [[Bogotá]] became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with [[Lima, Peru|Lima]] and [[Mexico City]], though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.
==Struggle for independence==
[[July 20]], [[1810]], the citizens of [[Bogotá]] created the first representative council to defy Spanish authority, with full independence being proclaimed in [[1810]]. A long Independency War, led mainly by [[Simón Bolívar]] and [[Francisco de Paula Santander]] in New Granada ended after the [[Battle of Boyaca]], on [[August 7]], [[1819]]. That year, the [[Congress of Angostura]] established the Republic of [[Greater Colombia]], which included all territories under jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. ''For more information, see [[Bolivar's War]]''
==The Republic==
Bolívar was elected first president of [[Greater Colombia]] and [[Francisco de Paula Santander]], vice president.
As the Federation of Greater Colombia was dissolved in [[1830]], the Department of Cundinamarca (as established in Angostura) became a new country, the Republic of New Granada.
In [[1863]] the name of the Republic was changed officially to "United States of Colombia", and in [[1886]] adopted its present day name: "Republic of Colombia".
Two political parties grew out of conflicts between the followers of Bolivar and Santander and their political visions -- the Conservatives and the Liberals -- and have since dominated Colombian politics. Bolívar's supporters, who later formed the nucleus of the Conservative Party, sought strong centralized government, alliance with the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and a limited franchise. Santander's followers, forerunners of the Liberals, wanted a decentralized government, state rather than church control over education and other civil matters, and a broadened suffrage.
Throughout the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]], each party held the presidency for roughly equal periods of time. Colombia maintained a tradition of civilian government and regular, free elections. The military has seized power three times in Colombia's history: in [[1830]], after the dissolution of Great Colombia; again in [[1854]], and [[1953]]-[[1957]]. Civilian rule was restored within one year in the first two instances.
Notwithstanding the country's commitment to democratic institutions, Colombia's history has also been characterized by widespread, violent conflict. Two civil wars resulted from bitter rivalry between the Conservative and Liberal parties. [[The War of a Thousand Days]] ([[1899]]-[[1902]]) cost an estimated 100,000 lives, and up to 300,000 people died during "[[La Violencia]]" (The Violence) of the late [[1940s]] and [[1950s]], a bipartisan confrontation which erupted after the assassination of Liberal popular candidate [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]].
A military coup in [[1953]] toppled the right-wing government of Conservative [[Laureano Gómez]] and brought Gen. [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]] to power. Initially, Rojas enjoyed considerable popular support, due largely to his success in reducing "[[La Violencia]]." When he did not restore democratic rule and occasionally engaged in open repression, however, he was overthrown by the military in 1957 with the backing of both political parties, and a provisional government was installed.
==The National Front==
In July 1957, former Conservative President Laureano Gomez ([[1950]]-[[1953]]) and former Liberal President [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]] ([[1945]]-[[1946]], [[1958]]-[[1962]]) issued the "Declaration of Sitges," in which they proposed a "National Front," whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly. The presidency would be determined by regular elections every 4 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective and appointive offices.
The National Front ended "[[La Violencia]]," and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political injustices continued.
It is usually argued that a [[Colombian Civil War]] would have started in [[1964]], which was when the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]] was founded and started their [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] insurgency. This point has been considered debatable by some, as another position held by several analysts would point out that the ensuing conflict's characteristics, scale and intensity have not reached those of a full blown [[civil war]].
The National Front system itself eventually began to be seen as a form of political repression by dissidents and even many mainstream voters, especially after what was apparently later confirmed as the supposedly fraudulent election of [[Misael Pastrana Borrero]] in [[1970]], which resulted in the defeat of the relatively populist candidate [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]]. The [[M-19]] guerrilla movement, "Movimiento 19 de Abril" (19th of April Movement), would eventually be founded in part as a response to this particular event.
Although the system established by the Sitges agreement was phased out by [[1974]], the [[1886]] Colombian constitution--in effect until [[1991]]--required that the losing political party be given adequate and equitable participation |
most effective means through which interest groups could state their case to the bureaucracy through the channel of the ruling party.
''See also:'' [[Industrial policy of Japan]]; [[Monetary and fiscal policy of Japan]]; [[Mass media and politics in Japan]]
== Post-war political development==
Political parties had begun to revive almost immediately after the [[Occupied Japan|occupation]] began. [[Left-wing]] organizations, such as the [[Japan Socialist Party]] and the [[Japanese Communist Party]], quickly reestablished themselves, as did various conservative parties. The old [[Seiyokai]] and [[Rikken Minseito]] came back as, respectively, the Liberal Party ([[Nihon Jiyuto]]) and the [[Japan Progressive Party]] (Nihon Shimpoto). The first postwar elections were held in 1946 (women were given the franchise for the first time), and the Liberal Party's vice president, [[Yoshida Shigeru]] (1878-1967), became prime minister. For the 1947 elections, anti-Yoshida forces left the Liberal Party and joined forces with the Progressive Party to establish the new [[Democratic Party of Japan|Democratic Party]] (Minshuto). This divisiveness in conservative ranks gave a plurality to the Japan Socialist Party, which was allowed to form a cabinet, which lasted less than a year. Thereafter, the socialist party steadily declined in its electoral successes. After a short period of Democratic Party administration, Yoshida returned in late 1948 and continued to serve as prime minister until 1954.
Even before Japan regained full sovereignty, the government had rehabilitated nearly 80,000 people who had been purged, many of whom returned to their former political and government positions. A debate over limitations on [[Defense budget of Japan|military spending]] and the [[Controversies regarding the role of the Emperor of Japan|sovereignty of the emperor]] ensued, contributing to the great reduction in the Liberal Party's majority in the first postoccupation elections (October 1952). After several reorganizations of the armed forces, in 1954 the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]] were established under a civilian director. [[Cold War]] realities and the hot [[Korean war|war]] in nearby Korea also contributed significantly to the United States-influenced economic redevelopment, the suppression of communism, and the discouragement of [[organized labor]] in Japan during this period.
Continual fragmentation of parties and a succession of [[minority government]]s led conservative forces to merge the Liberal Party (Jiyuto) with the Japan Democratic Party (Nihon Minshuto), an offshoot of the earlier Democratic Party, to form the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (Jiyu-Minshuto; LDP) in November 1955. This party continuously held power from 1955 through 1993, when it was replaced by a new minority government. LDP leadership was drawn from the elite who had seen Japan through the defeat and occupation; it attracted former bureaucrats, local politicians, businessmen, journalists, other professionals, farmers, and university graduates. In October 1955, socialist groups reunited under the [[Japan Socialist Party]], which emerged as the second most powerful political force. It was followed closely in popularity by the [[Komeito]] (Clean Government Party), founded in 1964 as the political arm of the [[Soka Gakkai International|Soka Gakkai]] (Value Creation Society), until 1991 a lay organization affiliated with the [[Nichiren Shoshu]] Buddhist sect. The Komeito emphasized traditional Japanese beliefs and attracted urban laborers, former rural residents, and many women. Like the [[Japan Socialist Party]], it favored the gradual modification and dissolution of the [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|Japan-United States Mutual Security Assistance Pact]].
== Recent political developments ==
LDP domination lasted until the Diet Lower House elections on [[July 18]], [[1993]], in which the LDP failed to win a majority.
A coalition of new parties and existing opposition parties formed a governing majority and elected a new prime minister, [[Morihiro Hosokawa]], in August [[1993]]. His government's major legislative objective was political reform, consisting of a package of new political financing restrictions and major changes in the electoral system. The coalition succeeded in passing landmark political reform legislation in January [[1994]].
In April [[1994]], Prime Minister Hosokawa resigned. Prime Minister [[Tsutomu Hata]] formed the successor coalition government, Japan's first minority government in almost 40 years. Prime Minister Hata resigned less than 2 months later.
Prime Minister [[Tomiichi Murayama]] formed the next government in June [[1994]], a coalition of his [[Japan Socialist Party]] (JSP), the LDP, and the small [[New Party Sakigake]]. The advent of a coalition containing the JSP and LDP shocked many observers because of their previously fierce rivalry.
Prime Minister Murayama served from June [[1994]] to January [[1996]]. He was succeeded by Prime Minister [[Ryutaro Hashimoto]], who served from January [[1996]] to July [[1998]]. Prime Minister Hashimoto headed a loose coalition of three parties until the July [[1998]] Upper House election, when the two smaller parties cut ties with the LDP.
Hashimoto resigned due to a poor electoral showing by the LDP in those Upper House elections. He was succeeded as party president of the LDP and prime minister by Keizo Obuchi, who took office on [[July 30]], [[1998]].
The LDP formed a governing coalition with the [[Liberal Party of Japan (1998)| Liberal Party]] in January [[1999]], and [[Keizo Obuchi]] remained prime minister. The LDP-Liberal coalition expanded to include the New Komeito Party in October [[1999]].
Prime Minister Obuchi suffered a stroke in April [[2000]] and was replaced by [[Yoshiro Mori]]. After the Liberal Party left the coalition in April [[2000]], Prime Minister Mori welcomed a Liberal Party splinter group, the [[New Conservative Party]], into the ruling coalition. The three-party coalition made up of the LDP, New Komeito, and the New Conservative Party maintained its majority in the Diet following the June [[2000]] Lower House elections.
After a turbulent year in office in which he saw his approval ratings plummet to the single digits, Prime Minister Mori agreed to hold early elections for the LDP presidency in order to improve his party's chances in crucial July [[2001]] Upper House elections. On [[April 24]], [[2001]], riding a wave of grassroots desire for change, maverick politician [[Junichiro Koizumi]] defeated former Prime Minister Hashimoto and other party stalwarts on a platform of economic and political reform. Koizumi was elected as Japan's 87th Prime Minister on [[April 26]], [[2001]].
On [[October 11]], [[2003]], the Prime Minister Koizumi dissolved the [[House of Representatives of Japan|lower house]] after he was re-elected as the president of the LDP. (See [[Japan general election, 2003]]) Likewise, that year, the LDP won the election, even though it suffered setbacks from the new opposition party, the [[Liberalism|liberal]] and [[social-democratic]] [[Democratic Party of Japan| Democrat Party]]. A similar event occurred during the 2004 Upper House Elections.
On August 8, 2005, [[Prime Minister]] [[Junichiro Koizumi]] called a [[Japan_general_election,_2005|snap election]] to the lower house, as threatened, after LDP stalwarts and opposition DPJ parliamentarians defeated his proposal for a large-scale reform and privatisation of [[Japan Post]], which besides being Japan's state-owned postal monopoly is arguably the world's largest financial institution, with nearly 331 trillion yen of assets. The election was scheduled for [[September 11]], [[2005]], and was won in a landslide by [[Junichiro Koizumi|Junichiro Koizumi's]] LDP.
== Political parties and elections ==
{{elect|List of political parties in Japan|Elections in Japan}}
===2005 General election===
{{Japanese general election, 2005}}
{{main|Japan general election, 2005}}
===2004 Upper House election===
{{Japan upper house election, 2004}}
{{main|Japan upper house election, 2004}}
=== [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)| Liberal Democratic Party]]===
The LDP is Japan's largest political party and the senior partner in the current governing coalition. Prime Minister [[Junichiro Koizumi]] is a member of this political party. It is a [[Conservatism|conservative]] party of the [[right-wing]] and is made up of various conservative and reformist factions. The LDP has been in power almost continuously since [[1955]], when it was formed as a merger of early postwar Japan's two conservative parties, the [[Liberal Party of Japan, Occupation]], and the [[Democrat Party of Japan, Occupation]]. The party is characterized as being very conservative on social and foreign matters.
=== [[Democratic Party of Japan]]===
The DPJ is Japan's second largest party and leads the opposition. It is a [[Liberalism|liberal]] and almost [[social-democratic]] party of the [[left-wing]]. It is the largest opposition party, and was formed in the late 1990s as a result of the merger of several anti-LDP parties. Quite [[Liberalism|liberal]] and oppositional on key issues, as well as moderately [[social-democratic]]. It is against the Iraq war, and is led by Seiji Maehara.
=== [[New Clean Government Party]] ===
The Shin Komeito Party (Japanese name for the New Clean Government Party) is Japan's third largest party and the governing party's junior partner. It was formerly known as the [[Clean Government Political Assembly]] and the [[Clean Government Party (Former)]]. The party is a [[conservative]] party of the [[right-wing]], but it is also the political wing of [[Soka Gakkai]], an almost militant sect of [[Nichiren Buddhism]]. Therefore, it is also considered a [[theocratic]] Buddhist party. It has moderated its stance however. Because it is partners with t |
nadian]] team from [[Regina, Saskatchewan]], skipped by [[Ernie Richardson]].
Curling has been an official sport in the [[Winter Olympics]] since the [[1998 Winter Olympic Games]]. In February 2006, the [[International Olympic Committee]] retroactively decided that the curling competition from the [[1924 Winter Olympic Games]] (originally called Semaine des Sports d'Hiver or International Winter Sports Week) would be considered official Olympic events and no longer be considered demonstration events. Thus, the [[Curling_at_the_1924_Winter_Olympics#Medals|first Olympic medals in curling]], which at the time was played outside, were awarded for the 1924 Winter Games with the gold medal won by Great Britain and Ireland, two silver medals by Sweden and the bronze by France.
== Basics of the game ==
Curling is played on a rectangular sheet of prepared ice into which two round, painted, archery-like targets (called the '''house''') have been embedded. The game involves two teams of four players. These teams are called ''rinks'' and named for the team’s captain, who is known as the “skip”. Each team has eight polished [[granite]] stones, called ''stones'' or ''rocks'', with which they try to score.
During each round of play, called an '''end''', each player slides two stones along the surface of the ice. Play alternates between teams, each throwing one stone on their turn. The person throwing the stone influences where the stone stops by the amount of force used, called the '''weight''', the spin ('''turn'''), and the direction of the throw. Additionally, the final position of the stone is changed by sweeping or brushing the path in front of the stone to reduce curl and increase distance. Once all the stones have been thrown during an end, the score is determined and the play reverses direction back to the other '''house'''.
The players are known as the '''lead''', '''second''', '''third''' and '''skip''', and traditionally throw stones in that order . The skip acts as the team’s captain, determining the position played by each player, strategy during the game, holding the broom in the house as a target for the shooters, and representing the rink. However, there is nothing in the rules to say where in the order the skip plays and in recent years the skip has thrown second or third stones on some teams.
The basic goal of each end is to have your curling stones nearer to the center of the target once all the stones from both teams have been thrown for that end. Therefore, the maximum number of points a team can earn per end is eight, though this is extremely rare because only the closest stones belonging to one of the two teams are counted. Strategies used during play, such as blocking ('''guard''') and hitting rocks to reposition them ('''bump''') or remove them from play ('''take-out''') lead to lower scores. The term '''draw''' is used to describe a shot that comes to rest in the house without making contact with another stone. To '''peel''' means to remove both the target stone and the shooter's stone from play. For more information, see '''Types of shots''' below.
To help ensure the stone lands where intended, the skip stands in the '''house''' and indicates to the player throwing where to aim given the desired effect of the shot. The other two players sweep in front of the rock. Once thrown, players may not touch a stone while it is moving, so sweeping is the only way to influence the stone once thrown. Games, called '''matches''', usually last eight ends, though in competitive curling there are usually ten ends and some recreational games last six ends.
== Playing surface ==
[[image:curlingsheet.jpg|thumb|The playing area in curling is shown here. Rocks must land between the ''hog line'' (bottom of photo) and the ''back line'' (behind the rings) and between the boards or out lines (on the sides).]]
The curling arena is a sheet of ice 146 feet (45.5 m) long by 15 feet 7 inches (4.75 m) wide, carefully prepared to be absolutely level so as to allow the rocks to glide with as little [[friction]] as possible. A key part of the preparation is the spraying of fine water droplets onto the ice, called pebble. Due to the friction between the stone and pebble, the stone turns to the inside or outside, causing the stone's path to 'curl'. The curl changes during a game as the pebble wears out.
Occasionally, small ice crystals, "ice picks", will bond on the bottom of the stone (called the "running surface"), which increase friction and change the stone's path. As the pebble wears down, more ice picks develop, especially if the water is not treated to remove excess minerals.
[[image:hack.jpg|thumb|left|Players must push out of the '''hack''' to deliver their stones. Which foot they use is determined by whether they are left- or right-handed.]]
On the sheet, a 12 foot (3.7 m) wide set of concentric rings, called the house, is painted near each end of the rink. The centre of the house is marked by the junction of two lines that divide the house into quarters and is known as the ''button.'' The two lines are the centre line, which is drawn lengthwise down the centre of the sheet, and the tee line, drawn 16 feet (4.9 m) from the backboard and parallel to it. Two other lines, the hoglines, are drawn parallel to each backboard and 37 feet (11.3 m) from it.
The rings that surround the button are defined by their diameter as the four-foot, eight-foot, and twelve-foot rings. They are usually distinguished by colour. The inner rings are merely a visual aid for judging which stone is closer to the centre; they do not affect scoring; however, a stone that is not at least touching the outside of the 12-foot ring (i.e. more than 6 feet from the centre) is not ''in the house'' and therefore does not score (see below).
Twelve feet behind the button (therefore 4 feet from the backboard), the centre line is crossed at right angles by the hack line. The ''hack'' is a device used to provide traction to the curler making a shot; the curler places the foot he or she will push off with in the hack. On indoor rinks there are usually two fixed hacks, rubber-lined holes, one each side of the centre line with the inside edge no more than three inches (7.6 cm) from the centre line and the front edge on the hack line. A single moveable hack may also be used.
<br clear="all" />
[[Image:Curlingrink.PNG|thumb|center|725px|Graphical depiction of a curling sheet.]]
<br clear="all" />
== Players ==
Curling is played between two teams of four curlers each, with team members named for the usual order in which they play. The ''lead'' plays first, then the ''second,'' the ''third,'' and finally the ''fourth''; the ''fourth'' is typically the skip (team captain) but not always. For example, [[Randy Ferbey]] throws third and [[Russ Howard]] throws second. The position at which the skip (team captain) throws will be renamed with ''skip''. For example, [[Randy Ferbey]]'s team will be lead, second, skip, fourth, while [[Russ Howard]]'s team will be lead, skip, third, fourth.
===Lead===
The lead, or first, throws the team's first two stones of an end, and sweeps for the other team members. Strategically, the lead usually has similar shots from end to end, usually throwing guards or draws.
Depending on the tradition, the lead may flip a coin with the opposing lead to determine who will have last rock advantage at the beginning of a game. The winner of the toss has the option to pick either last rock, or the colour of the rocks they wish to play with. In major tournaments, these decisions are usually made beforehand.
===Second===
The second throws the team's third and fourth stones and sweeps for all other players.
===Third===
Also called the vice-skip, vice or mate, the third throws the team's fifth and sixth stones, and usually sweeps for the second and the lead. The third usually assists the skip in his or her duties. When it is the skip's turn to throw, it is usually the third who holds the broom for the skip.
After each round of play (or "end"), the thirds for both teams must reach an agreement about which team scored and how many points. If there is a disagreement, or uncertainty, the thirds may measure the rocks to see which ones are closer. At this time, only the thirds are allowed in the house. In major tournaments, the scorekeeping is left to an official. Depending on the tradition, when the third's team scores, the third will record it on the score-board.
===Skip===
The skip is the captain of the team and determines strategy. Based on the strategy, the skip holds the broom indicating where the player throwing must aim ("calling the shot"). When it is the skip's turn to throw, the vice-skip (usually the third) holds the broom. The skip usually throws the last two rocks of the end, however some teams have the skip throwing in other positions.
The skip rarely does any sweeping, except in the house and behind the tee line. The skip is required to stay out of the playing area when it is the other team's turn, but he is allowed to sweep stones in motion behind the tee line as a result of their shot. (In International rules, the skip, when he or she is not throwing, is the only player allowed to sweep their opponent's stones behind the tee-line.)
===Fourth===
The "fourth" refers to the thrower of the last two stones in each end for a team if that player is not the skip. That is, if the skip does not play last rocks in each end, the last player to throw is known as Fourth.
===Team naming===
Except in international or some national and provincial events in Canada and the United States, a team will usually be identified by the last name of the skip. For example, [[Cassandra Johnson]]'s foursome is known as "Team Johnson," unless they are representing the United States in the World Championships or the Olympics, in which case th |
elonged to Russia, until that country [[Alaska Purchase|transferred]] all its possessions in North America to the United States in [[1867]].
The Russians were ruthless in their expansion, using technology and cruelty to demand tribute and labor from the Aleuts, especially for [[sea otter]] hunting. The Russians captured otter pelts from the Aleutian Islands, through the [[Gulf of Alaska]], along the Alaska Panhandle, and south, even to [[California]]. Some Aleuts were moved to the [[Pribilof Islands]] so that fur seals could be captured there as well.
By [[1760]], the Russian merchant [[Adriian Tolstykh]] had made a detailed census in the vicinity of [[Adak]] and extended Russian citizenship to the Aleuts.
Despite some attempts to eliminate slavery and reduce cruel treatment in the [[1790s]], the [[Shelikov company]] depended on the labor of Aleut hunters to collect sea otter pelts.
During his third and last voyage, in [[1778]], Captain [[James Cook]] surveyed the eastern portion of the Aleutian archipelago, accurately determined the position of some of the more important islands and corrected many errors of former navigators.
One of the first [[Christianity|Christian]] missionaries to arrive in the Aleutian Islands was a monk named Herman, who arrived in [[1793]] with nine other [[Russian Orthodox]] monks and priests. Within two years, he was the only survivor of that party. He settled on [[Spruce Island]], near [[Kodiak Island]], and often defended the rights of the Aleuts against the Russian trading companies. He is now known in the Orthodox Church as St. [[Herman of Alaska]].
Another early Christian missionary of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] was Father Veniaminov who arrived in Unalaska in [[1824]]. He was named Bishop Innokentii in 1840 and moved to [[Sitka]]. He is now known in the Orthodox Church as [[Saint Innocent of Alaska]].
In [[1906]] a new volcanic cone rose between the islets of Bogoslof and Grewingk, near Unalaska, followed by another in [[1907]]. These cones were nearly demolished by an explosive eruption on [[1 September]] [[1907]].
The principal settlements were on Unalaska Island. The oldest was Iliuliuk (also called Unalaska), settled in 1760-1775, with a customs house, an [[Orthodox]] church, and a [[Methodist]] mission and orphanage, and the headquarters for a considerable fleet of United States [[revenue cutter]]s which patrol the [[sealing]] grounds of the [[Pribilof Islands]]. The first public school in Unalaska opened in 1883. Adjacent is [[Dutch Harbor]] (so named, it is said, because a Dutch vessel was the first to enter it), which is an important port for [[Bering Sea]] commerce.
The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] extended American citizenship to all Indians (and this law has been held to include the indigenous peoples of Alaska) in [[1924]].
A hospital was built in Unalaska in [[1933]] by the US [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]].
During [[World War II]], small parts of the Aleutian islands were occupied by [[Japan]]ese forces when [[Attu Island|Attu]] and [[Kiska]] were invaded in order to divert American forces away from the main Japanese attack at [[Midway Atoll]]. The U.S. Navy, having broken the Japanese naval radio codes, knew that this was just a diversion, and it did not expend large amounts of effort in defending the islands. A few Americans were taken to Japan as prisoners of war. Most of the civilian population of the Aleutians were interned by the United States in camps in the [[Alaska Panhandle]]. American forces invaded Japanese-held Attu, defeated the Japanese there, and subsequently regained control of all the islands. See: [[Battle of the Aleutian Islands]].
Monday, [[June 3]], [[2002]] was celebrated as [[Dutch Harbor Remembrance Day]]. The governor of Alaska ordered state flags lowered to half-staff to honor the 78 soldiers who died during the two-day Japanese air attack in 1942. The [[Aleutians World War II Campaign National Historic Area]] Visitors Center opened in June 2002.
The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ([[ANCSA]]) became law in [[1971]]. In 1977, the [[Ounalashka Corporation]] (from Unalaska) declared a [[dividend]]. This was the first village corporation to declare and pay a dividend to its shareholders.
==Miscellaneous==
The Aleutian Islands would likely be an important part of the [[National Missile Defense]] system proposed to defend the United States from small ballistic missile attacks.
==See also==
*[[List of Aleutian Islands]]
*[[List of Aleutian Island Volcanoes]]
*[[Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska]]
*[[Aleutians East Borough, Alaska]]
*[[Peter the Aleut]]
<center>[[Image:AleutianIslands.jpeg]]<br /><small>Western Aleutian Islands, from a 1916 map of the Alaska Territory</small></center>
==References==
*{{1911}}
''Initial text from 1911 encyclopedia; has had some updating, revision, and Wikifying, but more is needed, especially on post-1945 history. Have added some civil history''
Total area of 6,821 sq mi from [http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-9272796 Encyclopædia Britannica Online]
{{region}}
[[Category:Islands of Alaska]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]
[[de:Alëuten]]
[[et:Aleuudid (saarestik)]]
[[es:Islas Aleutianas]]
[[eo:Aleutoj]]
[[fr:Îles Aléoutiennes]]
[[gl:Aleutianas]]
[[ko:알류샨 열도]]
[[is:Aleuteyjar]]
[[it:Isole Aleutine]]
[[lt:Aleutų salos]]
[[hu:Aleut-szigetek]]
[[nl:Aleoeten]]
[[ja:アリューシャン列島]]
[[pl:Aleuty]]
[[pt:Aleutas]]
[[fi:Aleutit (saaristo)]]
[[sv:Aleuterna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alderfly</title>
<id>1382</id>
<revision>
<id>41017083</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T14:39:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>132.236.75.81</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Sialidae
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| ordo = [[Megaloptera]]
| familia = '''Sialidae'''
| familia_authority = [[William Elford Leach|Leach]], 1815
}}
'''Alderfly''' is the name given to [[Neuroptera|neuropterous]] [[insect]]s of the family [[Sialidae]], related to the ant-lions, with long filamentous antennae and four large wings, of which the [[anterior]] pair is rather longer than the posterior.
The females lay a vast number of eggs upon grass stems near water. The larvae are aquatic, active, armed with strong sharp mandibles, and breathe by means of seven pairs of abdominal branchial filaments. When full sized they leave the water and spend a quiescent [[pupa]]l stage on the land before [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]] into the sexually mature insect.
''Sialis lutaria'' is a well-known British example. In America they are called Fishflies and there are two genera, ''Sialis'' and ''Chauliodes.''
[[Category:Megaloptera]]
[[Category:Insects]]
[[nl:Sialidae]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alder</title>
<id>1383</id>
<revision>
<id>41816746</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:03:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
<id>294180</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.155.32.10|205.155.32.10]] ([[User talk:205.155.32.10|talk]]) to last version by MPF</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|the common name of a plant genus}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Alder
| image = Tagalder8139.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Alnus serrulata'' (Tag Alder)<br />Male catkins on right,<br />mature female catkins left<br />[[Johnsonville, South Carolina]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Fagales]]
| familia = [[Betulaceae]]
| genus = '''''Alnus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Philip Miller|Mill.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
About 20-30 species, see text.
}}
'''Alder''' is the common name of a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]]s ('''''Alnus''''') belonging to the birch family (Family [[Betulaceae]]). The genus comprises about 30 [[species]] of [[Plant sexuality|monoecious]] [[tree]]s and [[shrub]]s, few reaching large size, distributed throughout the North Temperate zone, and in the [[New World]] also along the [[Andes]] southwards to [[Chile]]. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[deciduous]] ([[evergreen]] or nearly so in a few species), alternate, simple, and serrated. The [[flower]]s are [[catkin]]s with elongate male catkins on the same plant as shorter female catkins, often before leaves appear; they are mainly wind-pollinated, but also visited by [[bee]]s to a small extent. They differ from the [[birch]]es (''Betula'', the other genus in the family) in that the female catkins are woody and do not disintegrate at maturity, opening to release the seeds in a similar manner to many [[Conifer cone|conifer cones]].
The best-known species is the Common or [[Black Alder]] (''A. glutinosa''), native to most of [[Europe]] and widely introduced elsewhere. The largest species is [[Red Alder]] (''A. rubra''), reaching 35 m (the tallest is 32 m) on the west coast of [[North America]], with Black Alder and [[Italian Alder]] (''A. cordata'') both reaching about 30 m. By contrast, the widespread [[Green Alder]] (''A. viridis'') is rarely more than a 5 m shrub.
The common name ''alder'' is derived from an old [[Germanic_language|Germanic]] root. The botanic name ''Alnus'' is the original [[Latin]] name.
==Classification==
The genus is divided into three subgenera:
'''Subgenus ''Alnus''.''' Trees. Shoot buds stalked. Male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) but staying closed over winter, pollinating in late winter or early spring. About 15-25 species, including:
*''A. acuminata'' - [[Andean Alder]]. Andes Mountains, South America.
*''A. cordata'' - [[Italian Alder]]. Italy.
*''Alnus formosana'' -[[Formosan Alder]]
*''A. glutinosa' |
that an address assigned to one part of a network will not function in another part of the network.
A hierarchical structure, created by CIDR and overseen by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) and its [[Regional Internet Registry|Regional Internet Registries]] (RIRs), manages the assignment of Internet address worldwide.
Each RIR maintains a publically searchable [[WHOIS]] database that provides information about IP address assignments; information from these databases plays a central role in numerous tools which attempt to locate IP addresses geographically.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Reserved address blocks'''
|-
! [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] address block || Description || Reference
|-
| 0.0.0.0/8 || Current network (only valid as source address) || RFC 1700
|-
| 10.0.0.0/8 || [[Private network]] || RFC 1918
|-
| 14.0.0.0/8 || Public data network || RFC 1700
|-
| 39.0.0.0/8 || Reserved || RFC 1797
|-
| 127.0.0.0/8 || [[Localhost]] || RFC 1700
|-
| 128.0.0.0/16 || Reserved || &nbsp;
|-
| 169.254.0.0/16 || [[Private network]] || RFC 3927
|-
| 172.16.0.0/12 || [[Private network]] || RFC 1918
|-
| 191.255.0.0/16 || &nbsp; || &nbsp;
|-
| 192.0.0.0/24 || &nbsp; || &nbsp;
|-
| 192.0.2.0/24 || Test network || RFC 3330
|-
| 192.88.99.0/24 || [[IPv6]] to [[IPv4]] relay || RFC 3068
|-
| 192.168.0.0/16 || [[Private network]] || RFC 1918
|-
| 198.18.0.0/15 || Network benchmark tests || RFC 2544
|-
| 223.255.255.0/24 || Reserved || RFC 3330
|-
| 224.0.0.0/4 || [[Multicast|Multicasts]] (former Class D network) || RFC 3171
|-
| 240.0.0.0/4 || Reserved (former Class E network) || RFC 1700
|-
| 255.255.255.255 || Broadcast || &nbsp;
|-
|}
===Private networks===
Of the 4+ billion addresses allowed in IPv4, three ranges of address are reserved for [[private network]]ing use only.
These ranges are not routable outside of private network and private machines cannot directly communicate with public networks.
They can, however, do so through [[network address translation]].
The following are the three ranges reserved for private networks:
{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! IP address range !! number of IPs
! ''[[classful network|classful]]'' description !! largest [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] block
|-
| 24-bit block || 10.0.0.0 &ndash; 10.255.255.255 || 16,777,215 || single class A || 10.0.0.0/8
|-
| 20-bit block || 172.16.0.0 &ndash; 172.31.255.255 || 1,048,576 || 16 contiguous class Bs || 172.16.0.0/12
|-
| 16-bit block || 192.168.0.0 &ndash; 192.168.255.255 || 65,535 || 256 continguous class Cs || 192.168.0.0/16
|}
===Localhost===
{{main|localhost}}
In addition to private networking, the IP range 127.0.0.0 &ndash; 127.255.255.255 (or 127.0.0.0/8 in [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] notation) is reserved for [[localhost]] communication.
Any address within this range should never appear on an actual network and any packet sent to this address should loopback as an incoming packet to the same machine.
===Resolving===
{{main|Domain Name System}}
The [[internet]] is most publicly known not by IP addresses but by names (e.g., www.wikipedia.org, www.whitehouse.gov).
The routing of IP packets across the internet is oblivious to such names.
This requires translating (or resolving) names to IP address.
The [[Domain Name System]] (DNS) provides such a system to convert names to IP address(es) and IP addresses to names.
Much like CIDR addressing, the DNS naming is also hierarchial and allows for subdelegation of name spaces to other DNS servers.
===Exhaustion===
A concern that has spanned decades to the [[1980s]] is the exhaustion of available IP addresses.
This was the driving factor in [[classful network]]s and then later in the creation of [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] addressing.
Today, there are several driving forces to the next address allocation solution:
* mobile devices &mdash; [[laptop computer]]s, [[personal digital assistant|PDA]]s, [[mobile phone]]s
* always-on devices &mdash; [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]]s, [[cable modem]]s
* rapidly growing number of internet users
The most visible solution is to migrate to [[IPv6]] since the address size jumps dramatically from 32-bit to 128-bit which would allow about 18 [[quintillion]] people their own set of 18 quintillion addresses (3.4e18 total addresses). However, migration has proved to be a challenge in itself, and total internet adoption of IPv6 is unlikely to occur for many years.
Some things that can be done to mitigate the IPv4 address exhaustion are (not mutually exclusive):
* [[network address translation]]
* use of [[private network]]s
* [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
* [[virtual hosting]]
* tighter control by [[Regional Internet Registry|Regional Internet Registries]] on the allocation of addresses to Local Internet Registries
* network renumbering to reclaim large blocks of address space allocated in the early days of the internet
[[As of 2004]], predictions for the exhaustion of the IPv4 address space range from [[2016]] (for unallocated pool exhaustion) to [[2023]] (for complete exhaustion of the address space).
Historically, though, forward predictions for the date of address exhaustion have been unreliable; predictions from the late [[1980s]] have not been borne out in practice.
==Network address translation==
{{main|Network address translation}}
One method to increase both address utilization and security is to use [[network address translation]] (NAT).
By assigning one IP to a public machine as an [[internet]] [[Gateway (telecommunications)|gateway]] and using a [[private network]] for an organization's computers allows for considerable address savings.
This also increases security by making all of the computers on a private network not directly accessible to the public network.
==Virtual private networks==
{{main|Virtual private network}}
Since private address ranges are deliberately ignored by all public routers, it is not normally possible to connect two private networks (e.g., two branch offices) via the public Internet. [[Virtual private network]]s (VPNs) solve this problem.
VPNs work by inserting an IP packet (encapsulated packet) directly into the data field of another IP packet (encapsulating packet) and using a publicly routable address in the encapsulating packet. Once the VPN packet is routed across the public network and reaches the endpoint, the encapsulated packet is extracted and then transmitted on the private network just as if the two private networks were directly connected.
Optionally, the encapsulated packet can be encrypted to secure the data while over the public network (see VPN article for more details).
==Address Resolution Protocol==
{{main|Address Resolution Protocol}}
Since IP is an upper layer protocol to the [[data link layer]] there arises a problem of when a computer with IP address A wants to communicate with IP address B.
In order to send a packet from A to B then A needs to know the hardware address of B.
This discover is done through [[Address Resolution Protocol]] (ARP).
==Reverse Address Resolution Protocol/DHCP==
{{main articles|[[Reverse Address Resolution Protocol]], [[BOOTP]], [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]}}
Unlike the situation outlined for ARP, the case arises when a computer knows its [[data link layer]] address but not its IP address.
This is a common scenario in [[private network]]s and [[Digital Subscriber Line]] (DSL) connections when the IP address of the machines are irrelevant.
This is usually the case for [[work station]]s but not [[server (computing)|servers]].
RARP is an obsoleted method for answering this question: This is my hardware address, what is my IP address?
RARP was replaced by [[BOOTP]] which, in turn, was replaced by [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]] (DHCP).
In addition to sending the IP address, DHCP can also send the [[Network Time Protocol|NTP]] server, [[Domain Name System|DNS]] servers, and more.
==Packet structure==
An IP packet consists of two sections:
* header
* data
The header consists of 13 fields and, of which, only 12 are required. The 13<sup>th</sup> field is optional (red background in table) and aptly named: options.
===Header===
{| border="0" align="right"
|-
|
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto; text-align: center; width: 50em;"
|-
! colspan="1"|+
! colspan="4" width="13%"|Bits 0 - 3
! colspan="4" width="13%"|4 - 7
! colspan="8" width="25%"|8 - 15
! colspan="3" width="10%"|16 - 18
! colspan="13" width="39%"|19 - 31
|-
! colspan="1"|0
| colspan="4"|Version
| colspan="4"|Header length
| colspan="8"|Type of Service<br />(now [[Differentiated services|DiffServ]] and [[Explicit Congestion Notification|ECN]])
| colspan="16"|Total Length
|-
! colspan="1"|32
| colspan="16"|Identification
| colspan="3"|Flags
| colspan="13"|Fragment Offset
|-
! colspan="1"|64
| colspan="8"|Time to Live
| colspan="8"|Protocol
| colspan="16"|Header Checksum
|-
! colspan="1"|96
| colspan="32"|Source Address
|-
! colspan="1"|128
| colspan="32"|Destination Address
|-
! colspan="1"|160
| colspan="32" bgcolor="#FFDDDD"|Options
|-
! colspan="1"|160/192+
| colspan="32"|&nbsp;<br />Data<br />&nbsp;
|}
|}
; Version : The first header field in an IP [[packet]] is the 4-bit version field. For IPv4, this has a value of 4 (hence the name IPv4).
; Internet Header Length (IHL) : The second field is a 4-bit Internet Header Length (IHL) telling the number of 32-bit [[Word (computer science)|words]] in the header. Since an IPv4 he |
ntelligence. But some critics claim the system is also being used for large-scale commercial theft and invasion of [[privacy]].
In May [[2001]], the [[European Parliament]] produced a report on ECHELON [http://cryptome.org/echelon-ep.htm] which, amongst other things, recommended that citizens of member states routinely use [[cryptography]] in their communications to protect their privacy. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the government introduced the [[Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act]] which gives authorities the power to demand that citizens hand over their [[key (cryptography)|encryption keys]], without a judge-approved warrant. In April [[2004]], the European Union decided to spend 11 million EUR developing secure communication based on [[quantum cryptography]] &mdash; the [[SECOQC]] project &mdash; a system that would theoretically be unbreakable by ECHELON or any other espionage system.
ECHELON monitoring of mobile phones in [[Pakistan]] was reportedly used to track [[Khalid Shaikh Mohammed]] before he was arrested in [[Rawalpindi]] on [[March 1]], [[2003]].
Before the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] and the legislation which followed it, US intelligence agencies were generally prohibited from spying on people inside the US and other western countries' intelligence services generally faced similar restrictions within their own countries. There are allegations, however, that ECHELON and the UKUSA alliance were used to circumvent these restrictions by, for example, having the UK facilities spy on people inside the US and the US facilites spy on people in the UK, with the agencies exchanging data (perhaps even automatically through the ECHELON system without human intervention).
The proposed US-only "[[Total Information Awareness]]" program relied on technology similar to ECHELON, and was to integrate the extensive sources it is legally permitted to survey domestically, with the "taps" already compiled by ECHELON. It was cancelled by the U.S. Congress in [[2004]].
It has been alleged that in [[2002]] the [[George W. Bush administration|Bush Administration]] extended the ECHELON program to [[NSA warrantless surveillance controversy|domestic surveillance]]. This controversy was the subject of the [[New York Times]] eavesdropping exposé of [[December]], [[2005]]. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/16/politics/16program.html] [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/12/16/echelon_in_your_backyard] [http://www.redstate.org/story/2005/12/22/124426/39] [http://www.niagarafallsreporter.com/hanchette185.html]. Testimony by CIA director [[George Tenet]] during the late 1990s indicated that the use of ECHELON during the Clinton administration was authorized by the [[FISA Court]], as required by law [http://thinkprogress.org/2005/12/20/the-echelon-myth/].
==Organization==
The members of the [[English language|English-speaking]] alliance are part of the [[UKUSA]] intelligence alliance that has maintained ties in collecting and sharing intelligence since [[World War II]]. Various sources claim that these states have positioned electronic-intercept stations and space satellites to capture most [[radio]], [[satellite]], [[microwave]], [[mobile phone|cellular]] and [[fiber-optic]] communications traffic. The captured signals are then processed through a series of [[supercomputer]]s, known as ''dictionaries'', that are programmed to search each communication for targeted addresses, words, phrases or even individual voices.
Each member of the UKUSA alliance is assigned responsibilities for monitoring different parts of the globe. [[Canada|Canada's]] main task used to be monitoring northern portions of the former [[Soviet Union]] and conducting sweeps of all communications traffic that could be picked up from [[embassy|embassies]] around the world. In the post-[[Cold War]] era, a greater emphasis has been placed on monitoring satellite, radio and cellphone traffic originating from [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], primarily in an effort to track drugs and non-aligned paramilitary groups in the region. The [[United States]], with its vast array of spy satellites and listening posts, monitors most of [[Latin America]], [[Asia]], Asiatic [[Russia]] and northern [[China]]. Britain listens in on [[Europe]] and [[Russia]] west of the [[Urals]] as well as [[Africa]]. [[Australia]] hunts for communications originating in [[Indochina]], [[Indonesia]] and southern [[China]]. [[New Zealand]] sweeps the western [[Pacific ocean|Pacific]].
Supporters stress that ECHELON is simply a method of sorting captured signals and is just one of the many arrows in the intelligence community's quiver, along with increasingly sophisticated [[bugging]] and [[communications interception]] techniques, satellite tracking, through-clothing scanning, automated biometric recognition systems that can recognize faces, fingerprints & [[retina]] patterns.
The U.S. [[National Security Agency]], with headquarters at [[Fort Meade]] just outside [[Washington, DC]], has a global staff of 38,000 and a budget estimated at more than US$3.6-billion. The UK equivalent organisation is the Government Communications Headquarters [[GCHQ]] based near Cheltenham. Further, smaller organisations exist to provide communications technology and expertise (e.g. Her Majesty's Government Communication Centre [[HMGCC]]).
By comparison, [[Canada]]'s communications-intelligence operations are conducted by the [[Communications Security Establishment]] (CSE), a branch of the Canadian [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]]. It has a staff of 890 people and an annual budget of $110-million (Cdn). The CSE's headquarters is the Sir [[Samuel Leonard Tilley|Leonard Tilley]] Building on Heron Road in the nation's capital of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], and its main communications intercept site is located on an old armed-forces radio base in [[Leitrim, Ontario|Leitrim]], just south of Ottawa.
UKUSA member nations Australia and New Zealand have already confirmed that ECHELON exists (though not specifying any details of its capabilities or operations), and the Netherlands (which isn't an ECHELON participant) have also confirmed the spynet's existence (through a parliamentary hearing). Furthermore, former [[CIA]] Director [[R. James Woolsey]] has admitted using the system to uncover information about foreign companies using [[bribery|bribes]] to win contracts. The information was passed on to US companies and foreign governments were pressed to stop the bribes. Media coverage of a couple of such events tended to give the impression that ECHELON was being used to give the trade secrets of foreign companies to US companies. European aerospace company [[Airbus]] lost a $6 billion contract with Saudi Arabia after the NSA reported that Airbus officials had been bribing Saudi officials to secure the contract [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/820758.stm].
==Limits==
The limits of a large system such as ECHELON are defined by its very size. Though the system intercepts 3 billion communications daily, clients must know which intercepted communications to monitor before they can realize an intelligence advantage. For example, in the months before the [[September 11 attacks]] on the United States, [[signal intelligence]] produced by ECHELON developed considerable "chatter", or snippets of dialogue, that suggested some sort of attack was imminent. Analysts were unable to pin down the details of the attack, though, because operatives planning the attack relied largely on non-electronic communications. Even overt signals, such as a dramatic increase in trading activity of [[stock options]] on companies that were to be damaged in the attacks, failed to alert analysts, apparently because they did not know where within the daily deluge of electronic messages to look, much less how to connect the dots pointing to a specific attack.
==Hardware==
An [http://www.techworld.com/storage/news/index.cfm?NewsID=2430 article] by Chris Mellor claims that ECHELON is built by [[Raytheon]], [[Lockheed Martin]], and [[Zeta Associates]]. [[Margaret Newsham]] [http://www.agitprop.org.au/stopnato/20000221echelbladn.htm claims] that she designed the software for the system at [[Lockheed Martin]] in [[Sunnyvale, California|Sunnyvale]], [[California]], under the code name ''P415''. The two main programs are called SILKWORTH and SIRE.
==Ground stations==
Some of the known or suspected ground stations belonging to or participating in the ECHELON network include the following:
===The largest and best-attested ground stations===
* [[Fort Meade]] ([[Maryland]], US) (headquarters of [[NSA]])
* [[Geraldton, Western Australia|Geraldton]] ([[Western Australia]], Australia)
* [[Menwith Hill]] ([[Yorkshire]], UK)
* [[Misawa Air Base]] ([[Japan]])
* [[GCHQ CSO Morwenstow|Morwenstow]] ([[Cornwall]], UK)
* [[Pine Gap]] ([[Northern Territory]], Australia - close to [[Alice Springs]])
* [[Sabana Seca]] ([[Puerto Rico]] - US)
* [[Shoal Bay]] ([[Northern Territory]], Australia)
* [[Sugar Grove, West Virginia|Sugar Grove]] ([[West Virginia]], USA)
* [[Yakima]] ([[Washington]], US) [http://maps.google.com/?ll=46.68209,-120.356544&spn=0.003077,0.007317&t=k Map]
* [[Waihopai]] (New Zealand)
* [[West Cape, Western Australia]] ([[Exmouth Gulf]], Australia - US)
===Various other ground stations===
The following are various intelligence gathering stations of US intelligence agencies and armed forces or their allies.
* [[Alert]] ([[Ellesmere Island]], [[Nunavut]], Canada)
* [[Ayios Nikolaos (Cyprus)|Agios Nikolaos]] ([[Cyprus]] - UK)
* [[Bremerhaven]] ([[Germany]] - UK)
* [[Buckley Air Force Base]] ([[Colorado]], US)
* [[Chicksands]] ([[Bedfordshire]], UK)
* [[Diego Garcia]] ([[Indian Ocean]] - US-UK)
* [[Digby]] ([[Lincolnshire]], UK)
* [[Elmendorf Air Force Base]] ([[Alaska]] - US)
* [[Feltwell]] ([[Norfolk]], UK)
* [[Fort Gordon]] ([[G |
bs:Austrija]]
[[br:Aostria]]
[[ca:Àustria]]
[[cs:Rakousko]]
[[cy:Awstria]]
[[da:Østrig]]
[[de:Österreich]]
[[et:Austria]]
[[el:Αυστρία]]
[[es:Austria]]
[[eo:Aŭstrio]]
[[eu:Austria]]
[[fa:اتریش]]
[[fo:Eysturríki]]
[[fr:Autriche]]
[[fy:Eastenryk]]
[[fur:Austrie]]
[[ga:An Ostair]]
[[gd:An Ostair]]
[[gl:Austria - Österreich]]
[[ko:오스트리아]]
[[hi:ऑस्ट्रिया]]
[[hr:Austrija]]
[[io:Austria]]
[[id:Austria]]
[[ia:Austria]]
[[is:Austurríki]]
[[it:Austria]]
[[he:אוסטריה]]
[[ka:ავსტრია]]
[[kw:Estrych]]
[[ku:Avusturya]]
[[la:Austria]]
[[lv:Austrija]]
[[lt:Austrija]]
[[lb:Éisträich]]
[[li:Oosteriek]]
[[hu:Ausztria]]
[[mk:Австрија]]
[[mt:Awstrija]]
[[ms:Austria]]
[[na:Austria]]
[[nl:Oostenrijk]]
[[nds:Österriek]]
[[ja:オーストリア]]
[[no:Østerrike]]
[[nn:Austerrike]]
[[oc:Àustria]]
[[os:Австри]]
[[pl:Austria]]
[[pt:Áustria]]
[[ro:Austria]]
[[rm:Austria]]
[[ru:Австрия]]
[[se:Nuortariika]]
[[sa:आस्ट्रिया]]
[[sq:Austria]]
[[sh:Austrija]]
[[scn:Austria]]
[[simple:Austria]]
[[sk:Rakúsko]]
[[sl:Avstrija]]
[[sr:Аустрија]]
[[fi:Itävalta]]
[[sv:Österrike]]
[[tl:Austria]]
[[ta:ஆஸ்திரியா]]
[[th:ประเทศออสเตรีย]]
[[vi:Áo]]
[[tr:Avusturya]]
[[uk:Австрія]]
[[yi:עסטרייך]]
[[zh:奥地利]]
[[fiu-vro:Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Australia</title>
<id>577</id>
<restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42149638</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:38:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jackp</username>
<id>988990</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Geography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Country|the=|
native_name =Commonwealth of Australia|
common_name =Australia|
image_flag =Flag of Australia.svg|
image_coat =Aust Coat of Arms (large).jpg|
image_map =LocationAU.png|
national_motto =none (formerly ''Advance Australia'')|
national_anthem=''[[Advance Australia Fair]]''|
official_languages =[[English language|English]] (''de facto'')<sup>1</sup>|
capital =[[Canberra]]|
latd=35|latm=15|latNS=S|longd=149|longm=28|longEW=E|
largest_city =[[Sydney]]|
government_type=[[Constitutional monarchy|Const. monarchy]]|
leader_titles = &nbsp;• [[Queen of Australia|Queen]]<br>&nbsp;• [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]<br>&nbsp;• [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]<br>[[Michael Jeffery]]<br>[[John Howard]]|
area_rank=6th|
area_magnitude=1_E12|
area=7,686,850|
areami² = 2,967,909| <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
percent_water=1|
population_estimate = 20,502,900|
population_estimate_year = February 2006|
population_estimate_rank = 52nd |
population_census = 18,972,350 |
population_census_year = 2001|
population_density = 2|
population_densitymi² = 5.2|<!-- Do not remove -->
population_density_rank = 191st|
sovereignty_type=[[Independence]]|
established_events= &nbsp;• [[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900|Constitution Act]]<br> &nbsp;• [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]<br> &nbsp;• [[Australia Act]]|
established_dates=From the [[United Kingdom|UK]]:<br>[[1 January]] [[1901]]<br>[[11 December]] [[1931]]<br>[[3 March]] [[1986]]|
currency=[[Australian dollar|Dollar]]|
currency_code=AUD|
time_zone=[[States and territories of Australia|various]]<sup>2</sup>|
utc_offset=+8–+10|
time_zone_DST=[[States and territories of Australia|various]]<sup>2</sup>|
utc_offset_DST=+8–+11|
cctld= [[.au]] |
calling_code=61|
GDP_PPP_year=2006|
GDP_PPP=$674.97 billion|
GDP_PPP_rank=16th|
GDP_PPP_per_capita=$32,686|
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=13th|
HDI_year=2003|
HDI=0.955|
HDI_rank=3rd|
HDI_category=<font color="#009900">high</font>|
footnotes=<sup>1</sup>English does not have ''de jure'' official status ([http://www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/_inc/publications/confer/04/speech18b.htm source]) <br><sup>2</sup>There are some minor variations from these three timezones, see [[States and territories of Australia]]<div class="noprint" style="float:right;"> ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_Australia&action=edit edit] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_Australia&action=watch watch] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australia&action=purge purge]''</div>
}}
<!--PLEASE USE AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH THROUGHOUT THIS ARTICLE-->
The '''Commonwealth of Australia''' is a country in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] comprising the world's smallest [[continent]] and a number of islands in the [[Southern Ocean|Southern]], [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]s. Australia's neighbouring countries include [[Indonesia]], [[East Timor]] and [[Papua New Guinea]] to the north, the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]] and the [[France|French]] dependency of [[New Caledonia]] to the northeast, and [[New Zealand]] to the southeast.
The [[Australia (continent)|continent of Australia]] has been inhabited for over 40,000 years by [[Indigenous Australians]]. After sporadic visits by fishermen from the north and by [[Europe]]an explorers and merchants starting in the 17th century, the eastern half of the continent was claimed by the [[British]] in 1770 and officially settled as the [[penal colony]] of [[New South Wales]] on [[26 January]] [[1788]]. As the population grew and new areas were explored, another five largely self-governing [[British overseas territory|British Crown Colonies]] were successively established over the course of the 19th century.
On [[1 January]] [[1901]], the six colonies [[Federation of Australia|federated]] and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed. Since federation, Australia has maintained a stable [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] political system and remains a [[Commonwealth Realm]]. The current population of around 20.4 million is concentrated mainly in the large coastal cities of [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], and [[Adelaide]].
== Origin and history of the name ==
The name Australia is derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''australis'', meaning ''southern''. Legends of an "unknown southern land" (''[[Terra Australis|terra australis incognita]]'') date back to the Roman times and were commonplace in mediaeval geography, but they were not based on any actual knowledge of the continent. The Dutch adjectival form ''Australische'' ("Australian", in the sense of "southern") was used by Dutch officials in [[Jakarta|Batavia]] to refer to the newly discovered land to the south as early as 1638. The first use of the word "Australia" in [[English language|English]] was a 1693 translation of ''Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe'', a 1692 French novel by [[Gabriel de Foigny]] under the pen name Jacques Sadeur {{ref|Baker}}. <!-- there was a 1676 version, but it was suppressed --> [[Alexander Dalrymple]] then used it in ''An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean'', published in 1771. He used the term to refer to the entire South Pacific region, not specifically to the Australian continent. In 1793, [[George Shaw]] and [[James Edward Smith|Sir James Smith]] published ''Zoology and Botany of New Holland'', in which they wrote of "the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]]."
[[Image:Flinders View of Port Jackson taken from South Head.jpg|200px|thumb|left|View of [[Port Jackson]], taken from the South Head, from ''A Voyage to Terra Australis''. [[Sydney]] was established on this site.]]
The name "Australia" was popularised by the 1814 work ''A Voyage to Terra Australis'' by the navigator [[Matthew Flinders]]. Despite its title, which reflected the view of the Admiralty, Flinders used the word "Australia" in the book, which was widely read and gave the term general currency. Governor [[Lachlan Macquarie]] of [[New South Wales]] subsequently used the word in his dispatches to [[England]]. In 1817 he recommended that it be officially adopted. In 1824, the British Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia.
The word "Australia" in [[Australian English]] is [[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] as either {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.ljə/}}, {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.liː.ə/}} or {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.jə/}}.
== History ==
{{main|History of Australia}}
The first human habitation of Australia is estimated to have occurred between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago.{{ref|Gillespie2002}} The first Australians were the ancestors of the current [[Indigenous Australians]]; they arrived via land bridges and short sea-crossings from present-day [[Southeast Asia]]. Most of these people were [[hunter-gatherer]]s, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the [[Dreamtime (mythology)|Dreamtime]]. The [[Torres Strait Islanders]], ethnically [[Melanesia]]n, inhabited the [[Torres Strait Islands]] and parts of far-north [[Queensland]]; they possess distinct cultural practices from the Aborigines.
[[Image:Endeavour replica in Cooktown harbour.jpg|240px|left|thumb|Lieutenant [[James Cook]] charted the East coast of Australia on [[HM Bark Endeavour|HM Bark ''Endeavour'']], claiming the land for Britain in 1770. This replica was built in [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] in 1988 for Australia's bicentenary.]]
The first undisputed recorded European sighting of the Australian continent was made by the Dutch navigator [[Willem Jansz]], who sighted the coast of [[Cape York Peninsula]] in 1606. During the 17th century, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of what they called [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]], but made no |
de limited moves toward merging with the PFLP since the mid-1990s.
In 1999, at a meeting in [[Cairo]], the DFLP and the PFLP agreed to cooperate with the PLO leadership in final status negotiations with Israel. The DFLP was subsequently represented in the Palestinian delegation at the unsuccessful [[Camp David 2000 Summit|Camp David negotiations]] of July 2000.
=== Second Intifada (2000-) ===
The DFLP has been largely unable to make its presence felt during the al-Aqsa Intifada, which began in 2000. The leadership is stationed in Damascus, and most of the DFLP organization on the Occupied Territories unraveled in the FIDA split. Its military capacity has been fading fast since the 1993 [[cease-fire]] between the PLO and [[Israel]], which the DFLP respected despite its objections to the Oslo Accords.
Since the beginning of the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada|second Intifada]] the DFLP has carried out a number of shooting attacks against Israeli targets, such as the August 2001 attack that killed three Israeli soldiers[http://www.medea.be/?page=2&lang=en&doc=72]. However, its military capabilities in the Occupied Territories remain limited, and the refocusing on armed struggle during the Intifada has further weakened the organization.
The DFLP confines all its military activities to the Occupied Territories, and publicly argues against targeting anyone or anything inside the [[Green Line]], saying Palestinians must fight only the occupation, not Israeli civilians.
On [[September 11]], [[2001]], an anonymous caller claimed responsibility for the [[September 11 attacks]] in the [[United States]] on behalf of the DFLP. This was immediately denied by [[Niaf Hawatmeh]], who strongly condemned the attacks[http://www.progressiveaustin.org/iso_wtc.htm]. Although the accusations gained some attention in the days following the attacks, they are now universally regarded as false.[http://www.medea.be/?page=2&lang=en&doc=72]
== Political influence ==
The DFLP ran a candidate, [[Taysir Khalid]], in the Palestinian Authority [[Palestinian presidential election, 2005|presidential election]] in [[2005]]. He gained 3.35% of the vote. The party had initially participated in discussions with the PFLP and the [[Palestinian People's Party]] on running a joint left-wing candidate, but these were unsuccessful. It won one seat in the 2005 PA municipal elections.
In the 2006 elections to the [[Palestinian Legislative Council]], the Front formed a joint list called ''[[al-Badeel]]'' (The Alternative) with [[Palestine Democratic Union]] (FIDA), the [[Palestinian People's Party]] and independents.[http://www.dflp-palestine.org/english/news_&_reports/al-badil-list-kicks.htm] The list was led by the historic DFLP leader Qais Abd al-Karim (Abou Leila). It received 2.8% of the popular vote and won two of the Council's 132 seats.
The DFLP retains important influence within the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO). It was traditionally the third-largest group within the PLO, after [[Fatah]] and the PFLP, and since no new elections have been held to the [[Palestinian National Council|PNC]] or the [[PLO Executive Committee|Executive Committee]] since 1988, the DFLP still commands important sectors within the organization. The PLO's role has admittedly diminished in later years, in favor of the [[Palestinian National Authority]] (PNA), but it is still the recognized representative of the Palestinian people, and a reactivation of the PLO's constitutional supremacy over the PNA in connection with power struggles in Palestinian society is a distinct possibility.
== Area of operation ==
The DFLP is primarily active among Palestinians in [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]], with a smaller presence in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]. Its [[Jordan]] branch has been converted into a separate political party, the [[Jordanian Democratic People's Party]] (JDPP or Hashd), and the DFLP is no longer active on the political arena there.
The party publishes a weekly newspaper in several Arab countries, ''[[al-Hurriya (DFLP)|al-Hurriya]]'' (Liberty)[http://www.alhourriah.org/].
== External Relations==
The DFLP is believed to receive limited financial and military aid from Syria, where it is active in the [[Palestinian refugee|Palestinian]] [[refugee camps]]. The DFLP's leader, Niaf Hawatmeh lives in Syria.
The DFLP is not listed as a [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization by the [[United States]] government, on its [[U.S. State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations|list of Foreign Terrorist Organization]]s, or by the [[United Nations]].
==References==
* ''Patterns of Global Terrorism'', [[1998]]. [[United States Department of State]], April, [[1999]].
==See also==
* [[Jordanian Democratic People's Party]]
* [[Palestinian territories]]
* [[Palestine Democratic Union]]
==External links==
* [http://www.dflp-palestine.org/ Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine] - official [[English language]] web page.
* [http://www.badeel.ps/ Al-badeel electoral coalition]
* [http://www.alhourriah.org/ al-Hourriah Magazine] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]])
* [http://www.hashd-ahali.org.jo/ al-Ahali] - Newspaper of the Jordanian JDPP ([[Arabic language|Arabic]])
[[Category:Armed leftist groups]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Palestinian militant groups]]
[[Category:Political parties in Palestine]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
[[Category:Palestine]]
[[ar:جبهة ديمقراطية لتحرير فلسطين]]
[[eo:FDLP]]
[[he:החזית הדמוקרטית לשחרור פלסטין]]
[[no:Demokratisk Front for frigjøring av Palestina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DFLP</title>
<id>8428</id>
<revision>
<id>15906429</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Density</title>
<id>8429</id>
<revision>
<id>41817417</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:08:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.242.13.8</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:'' For other senses of "density", see [[density (disambiguation)]].''
'''Density''' (symbol: ''&rho;'' - [[Greek language|Greek]]: [[Rho (letter)|rho]]) is a measure of [[mass]] per unit of [[volume]]. The higher an object's density, the higher its mass per volume. The average density of an object equals its total mass [[division (mathematics)|divided]] by its total volume. A denser object (such as [[iron]]) will have less volume than an equal mass of some less dense substance (such as [[water]]).
The '''[[SI]] unit''' of density is the [[kilogram per cubic metre]] ('''[[kilogram|kg]]/[[cubic metre|m<sup>3</sup>]]''')
:<math>\rho = \frac{m}{V}</math>
where
:''&rho;'' is the object's density (measured in kilograms per cubic metre)
:''m'' is the object's total [[mass]] (measured in kilograms)
:''V'' is the object's total [[volume]] (measured in cubic metres)
Under specified conditions of temperature and pressure, density of a fluid is defined as described above. However, the density of a solid material can be different, depending on exactly how it is defined. Take [[sand]] for example. If you gently fill a container with sand, and divide the mass of sand by the container volume you get a value termed ''loose [[bulk density]]''. If you took this same container and tapped on it repeatedly, allowing the sand to settle and pack together, and then calculate the results, you get a value termed ''tapped'' or ''packed bulk density''. Tapped bulk density is always greater than or equal to loose bulk density. In both types of bulk density, some of the volume is taken up by the spaces between the grains of sand.
Also, in terms of [[candy]] making, density is affected by the melting and cooling processes. Loose granular [[sugar]], like sand, contains a lot of air and is not tightly packed, but when it has melted and starts to boil, the sugar loses its granularity and entrained air and becomes a fluid. When you mold it to make a smaller, compacted shape, the syrup tightens up and loses more air. As it cools, it contracts and gains moisture, making the already heavy candy even more dense.
==Other units==
'''Density''' in terms of the SI base units is expressed in terms of [[kilogram]]s per cubic [[metre]] (kg/m&sup3;). Other units fully within the SI include grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm&sup3;) and megagrams per cubic metre (Mg/m&sup3;). Since both the [[litre]] and the [[tonne]] or metric ton are also acceptable for use with the SI, a wide variety of units such as kilograms per litre (kg/L) are also used.
[[Imperial units]] or [[US customary units|U.S. customary units]], the units of density include [[pound (weight)|pound]]s per [[cubic foot]] (lb/ft&sup3;), pounds per cubic yard (lb/yd&sup3;), pounds per cubic inch (lb/in&sup3;), ounces per cubic inch (oz/in&sup3;), pounds per [[gallon]] (for U.S. or imperial gallons) (lb/gal), pounds per U.S. [[bushel]] (lb/bu), in some engineering calculations [[slug (mass)|slugs]] per cubic foot, and other less common units.
The maximum density of pure water at a pressure of one standard [[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]] is 999.972 kg/m&sup3;; this occurs at a temperature of about 3.98 &deg;C (277.13 K).
From [[1901]] to [[1964]], a litre was defined as exactly the volume of 1 kg of water at maximum density, and the maximum density of pure water was 1.000&nbsp;000 kg/L (now 0.999&nbsp;972 kg/L). However, while that definition of the litre was in effect, just as it is now, the maximum density of pure water was 0.999&nbsp;972 kg/dm<sup>3</sup>. During that period students had to learn the esoteric fact that a cubi |
982.2>Rothbard, Murray N. (1982) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp ''The Ethics of Liberty''] Humanities Press ISBN 0814775063:p162 Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]</ref> Some, such as Rothbard, accept the nonaggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or [[natural law]] basis. Others, such as Friedman, take a [[consequentialist]] or [[egoist]] approach; rather than maintaining that aggression is intrinsically immoral, they maintain that a law against aggression can only come about by contract between self-interested parties who agree to refrain from initiating coercion against each other. It is in terms of the non-aggression principle that Rothbard defined [[anarchism]]; he defined "anarchism as a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression ['against person and property']" and said that "what anarchism proposes to do, then, is to abolish the State, i.e. to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion." <ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1975) [http://www.mises.org/journals/lf/1975/1975_01.pdf ''Society Without A State (pdf)''] ''Libertarian Forum'' newsletter (January 1975)</ref> In an interview with ''New Banner'', Rothbard said that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism." <ref>[http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard103.html ''Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard''] The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal ([[25 February]] [[1972]])</ref>
===Original appropriation===
Central to anarcho-capitalism are the concepts of [[self-ownership]] and [[original appropriation]]:
<blockquote>Everyone is the proper owner of his own physical body as well as of all places and nature-given goods that he occupies and puts to use by means of his body, provided only that no one else has already occupied or used the same places and goods before him. This ownership of "originally appropriated" places and goods by a person implies his right to use and transform these places and goods in any way he sees fit, provided only that he does not change thereby uninvitedly the physical integrity of places and goods originally appropriated by another person. In particular, once a place or good has been first appropriated by, in [[John Locke]]'s phrase, 'mixing one's labor' with it, ownership in such places and goods can be acquired only by means of a voluntary — contractual — transfer of its property title from a previous to a later owner.<ref name=Hoppe-2002>Hoppe, Hans-Hermann (2002) [http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe7.html "Rothbardian Ethics"] Retrieved [[23 May]] [[2005]]</ref></blockquote>
{| align="left" class="box" style="margin-right: 15px; text-align: left; border: 3px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 4px; font-size: 85%; width: 240px;"
|bgcolor="#dbeaff"|
Anarcho-capitalism uses the following terms in ways that may differ from common usage or various anarchist movements::
*'''Anarchism:''' any philosophy that opposes all forms of initiatory coercion (includes opposition to the State)
*'''Contract:''' a voluntary binding agreement between persons
*'''Coercion:''' physical force or threat of such against persons or property
*'''Capitalism:''' economic system where the means of production are privately owned, and where investments, production, distribution, income, and prices are determined through the operation of a free market rather than by government
*'''Free market:''' a market where all decisions regarding transfer of money, goods (including capital goods), and services are voluntary
*'''Fraud:''' inducing one to part with something of value through the use of dishonesty
*'''State:''' an organization that taxes and engages in regularized and instutionalized aggressive coercion
*'''Voluntary:''' any action not influenced by coercion or fraud perpetrated by any human agency
{{see also|Anarcho-capitalist terminology and symbolism}}
|}
This is the root of anarcho-capitalist [[property rights]], and where they differ from [[collectivism|collectivist]] forms of anarchism. Original appropriation allows an individual to claim any "unused" property, including land, and by improving or otherwise using it, own it with the same absolute right as his own body. According to Rothbard, original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or building a fence around it; it is only by ''using'' land — by mixing one's labor with it — that original appropriation is legitimized: "Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be."<ref name=Rothbard-1962>Rothbard, Murray N. (1962) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes/chap2d.asp ''Man, Economy & State with Power and Market''] Ludwig von Mises Institute ISBN 0945466307 ch2 Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> As a practical matter, in terms of the ownership of land, anarcho-capitalists recognize that there are few (if any) parcels of land left on Earth whose ownership was not at some point in time transferred as the result of coercion, usually through seizure by some form of state. However, unless records and titles exist to confirm the theft and the rightful individual owner most do not believe that this history de-legitimizes current ownerships which are based on consensual transactions. They believe it is wrong to attempt to remedy past coercion by the use of present coercion (i.e., seizure or eviction).
By accepting an axiomatic definition of private property and property rights, anarcho-capitalists deny the legitimacy of a state on principle:
:"For, apart from ruling out as unjustified all activities such as murder, homicide, [[rape]], trespass, robbery, burglary, theft, and fraud, the [[ethics]] of private property is also incompatible with the existence of a state defined as an agency that possesses a compulsory territorial monopoly of ultimate decision-making (jurisdiction) and/or the right to tax."<ref name=Hoppe-2002/>
===The contractual society===
The society envisioned by anarcho-capitalists has been called the ''Contractual Society''; "[...] a society based purely on voluntary action, entirely unhampered by violence or threats of violence."<ref name=Rothbard-1962/> Because this system relies on voluntary agreements ([[contract]]s) between individuals as the only legal framework, it is difficult to predict precisely what the particulars of this society would look like. Those particulars are disputed both among anarcho-capitalists and between them and their critics.
One particular ramification is that transfer of property and services must be voluntary on the part of ''both'' parties. No external entities can force an individual to accept or deny a particular transaction. An employer might offer [[insurance]] and [[death benefits]] to [[same-sex marriage|same-sex couples]]; another might refuse to recognize any union outside his or her own faith. Individuals would be free to enter into contractual agreements as they saw fit, allowing discrimination or favoritism based on language, [[race]], [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]], or any other categorization. Anarcho-capitalists maintain that the social structure would be self-regulating, since any disenfranchised group can avail themselves of [[boycott]] or [[protest]], and other entrepreneurs will see their own interests (i.e., profit) in servicing the group.
Another important ramification is the fact that any social structure is permissible under anarcho-capitalism as long as it is formed by a contract between individuals. Therefore, radically different "governments" and subeconomies can form, creating a [[panarchism|panarchic]] society. Individuals could live in a privately owned [[democracy]], a [[republic]], or even a [[monarchy]] if they so choose.
One social structure that is not permissible under anarcho-capitalism is one that attempts to claim greater [[sovereignty]] than the individuals that form it. The state is a prime example, but another is the modern [[corporation]] — defined as a legal entity that exists under a different legal code than individuals as a means to shelter the individuals who own and run the corporation from possible legal consequences of acts by the corporation. It is worth noting that Rothbard allows a narrower definition of a corporation: "Corporations are not at all monopolistic privileges; they are free associations of individuals pooling their capital. On the purely free market, such men would simply announce to their creditors that their liability is limited to the capital specifically invested in the corporation [...]."<ref name=Rothbard-1962/> However, this is a very narrow definition that only shelters owners from debt by creditors that specifically agree to the arrangement; it also does not shelter other [[liability]], such as from malfeasance or other wrongdoing.
There are limits to the right to contract under some interpretations of anarcho-capitalism. Rothbard himself asserts that the right to contract is based in [[inalienable rights|inalienable human rights]],<ref name=Rothbard-1982.2/> and therefore any contract that implicitly violates those rights can be voided at will, which would, for instance, prevent a person from permanently selling himself into [[slavery]]. Other interpretations conclude that banning such contracts would in itself be an unacceptably invasive interference in the right to contract.<ref name=Nozick-1973>[[Robert Nozick|Nozick, Robert]] (1973) ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia''</ref>
===Private law and order===
Anarcho-capitalists only believe in collective defense of individual liberty (i.e., courts, military or police forces) insofar as such groups are formed and paid |
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<page>
<title>Indus Valley Civilisation</title>
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<page>
<title>Indigo</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the color. For other meanings, see [[Indigo (disambiguation)]].''
{{infobox color|
title=Indigo (closest in [[gamut]])|textcolor=white|
hex=4B0082|
r= 75|g= 0|b=130|
c= 42|m=100|y= 0|k= 49|
h=275|s=100|v= 51
}}
'''Indigo''' is the color of [[light]] between 440 to 420 [[nanometre]]s in [[wavelength]], placing it between [[blue]] and [[violet (color)|violet]]. Like many other colors ([[Orange (colour)|orange]] and [[violet (color)|violet]] are the most well-known), it gets its name from an object in the natural world - the plant named ''[[indigo plant|indigo]]'' once used for dyeing cloth (see also [[Indigo dye]]).
Indigo is neither an additive [[primary color]] nor a subtractive primary color. It was named and defined by [[Isaac Newton]] when he divided up the [[optical spectrum]] (which is a continuum of frequencies). He named [[seven]] colors specifically to link them with the (known) [[planet]]s, [[day]]s of the [[week]], and other lists that had seven items.
The [[human]] [[eye]] is relatively insensitive to indigo's frequencies, and some otherwise well-sighted people cannot distinguish indigo from blue and violet. For this reason some commentators including [[Isaac Asimov]] have suggested that indigo should not be regarded as a color in its own right but merely as a shade of blue or violet.
== See also ==
*[[List of colors]]
[[da:Indigo]]
[[de:Indigo (Farbton)]]
[[es:Añil]]
[[fr:indigo]]
[[he:אינדיגו]]
[[id:Indigo]]
[[ja:インディゴ]]
[[nl:indigo (kleur)]]
[[sl:Indigo]]
[[sv:Indigo]]
[[vi:Chàm]]
[[Category:Shades of violet]]
[[Category:Optical spectrum]]
{{EMSpectrum}}
{{color-stub}}</text>
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<page>
<title>International Monetary Fund</title>
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<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'' '''IMF''' redirects here. For other meanings of IMF see [[IMF (disambiguation)]] ''
[[Image:imf_logo.png|thumb|180px|right|The logo of the International Monetary Fund (IMF)]]
The '''International Monetary Fund''' ('''IMF''') is the [[international organization]] entrusted with overseeing the [[global financial system]] by monitoring [[exchange rate]]s and [[balance of payments]], as well as offering technical and financial assistance when asked.
== Organization and purpose ==
The IMF describes itself as "an organization of 184 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty". With the exception of [[North Korea]], [[Cuba]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Andorra]], [[Monaco]], [[Tuvalu]] and [[Nauru]], all UN member states either participate directly in the IMF or are represented by other member states.
In the 1930s, as economic activity in the major industrial countries dwindled, countries started adopting [[mercantilist]] practices, attempting to defend their economies by increasing restrictions on imports. To conserve dwindling reserves of gold and foreign exchange, some countries curtailed foreign imports, some devalued their currencies, and some introduced complicated restrictions on foreign exchange accounts held by their citizens. These measures were arguably detrimental to the countries themselves as the [[David Ricardo|Ricardian]] [[comparative advantage]] states that everyone gains from trade without restrictions. It is noteworthy to mention that, although the "size of the pie" is enhanced according to this theory of free trade, when distributional concerns are taken into account, there are always industries that benefit while others lose out. World trade declined sharply, as did [[employment]] and [[living standards]] in many countries.
As [[World War II]] came to a close, the leading allied countries considered various plans to restore order to international monetary relations, and at the [[Bretton Woods]] conference the IMF emerged. The founding members drafted a charter (or Articles of Agreement) of an international institution to oversee the international monetary system and to promote both the elimination of exchange restrictions relating to trade in goods and services, and the stability of exchange rates.
The IMF came into existence in December 1945, when the first 29 countries signed its Articles of Agreement. The statutory purposes of the IMF today are the same as when they were formulated in 1944 (see Box 2). From the end of World War II until the late-1970s, the capitalist world experienced unprecedented growth in [[real income]]s. (Since then, [[China]]'s integration into the capitalist system has added substantially to the growth of the system.) Within the capitalist system, the benefits of growth have not flowed equally to all (either within or among nations) but most capitalist countries have seen recent increases in prosperity that contrast starkly with the conditions within capitalist countries during the interwar period. The lack of a recurring global depression is likely due to improvements in the conduct of international economic policies that have encouraged the growth of international trade and helped smooth the economic cycle of boom and bust.
In the decades since World War II, apart from rising prosperity, the world economy and monetary system have undergone other major changes that have increased the importance and relevance of the purposes served by the IMF, but that has also required the IMF to adapt and reform. Rapid advances in technology and communications have contributed to the increasing international integration of markets and to closer linkages among national economies. As a result, financial crises, when they erupt, now tend to spread more rapidly among countries.
The IMF's influence in the global economy steadily increased as it accumulated more members. The number of IMF member countries has more than quadrupled from the 44 states involved in its establishment, reflecting in particular the attainment of political independence by many developing countries and more recently the collapse of the Soviet bloc. The expansion of the IMF's membership, together with the changes in the world economy, have required the IMF to adapt in a variety of ways to continue serving its purposes effectively.
== History ==
Agreement for the creation of the International Monetary Fund came at the [[United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference]]{{mn|footnote_1|1}} in [[Bretton Woods, New Hampshire]], [[United States]], on [[July 22]], [[1944]]. The principal architects of the IMF at the conference were British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]] and the chief international economist at the [[United States Department of the Treasury|US Treasury Department]], [[Harry Dexter White]]. The [[Articles of Agreement]]{{mn|footnote_2|2}} came into force on [[December 27]], [[1945]], the organization came into existence on [[May 1]], [[1946]], as part of a post-[[World War II|WWII]] reconstruction plan, and it began financial operations on [[March 1]], [[1947]].
It is sometimes referred to as "a Bretton Woods institution", along with the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (now part of the larger [[World Bank Group]]).
== Membership qualifications ==
A country may apply for membership of the IMF. The application will be considered, first, by the IMF's Executive Board. After its consideration, the Executive Board will submit a report to the Board of Governors of the IMF with recommendations in the form of a "Membership Resolution." These recommendations cover the amount of [[quota]] in the IMF, the form of payment of the [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/aa/aa03.htm#1 subscription], and other customary terms and conditions of membership. After the Board of Governors has adopted the "Membership Resolution," the applicant state needs to take the legal steps required under its own law to enable it to sign the IMF's Articles of Agreement and to fulfill the obligations of IMF membership.
A member's quota in the IMF determines the amount of its subscription, its voting weight, its access to IMF financing, and its allocation of [[Special Drawing Rights|SDR]]s.
== Assi |
lture in a non-metaphoric sense. If we communicate with one another in cyberspace in such a way for the purposes of conversation, value-sharing, feeling-expressing, or project-oriented cooperation, etc., then a cyber-community can be literally formed. A cyber-culture will then follow its own destiny of rise and fall.
The idea of a fully immersive cyberspace, such as that depicted in the matrix, is often used as a possible situation in [[epistemology]] intended to demonstrate the possibility of [[skepticism]] and present one argument for it. This is perhaps one of the most popular arguments in all of philosophy, for a discussion of it see [[brain-in-a-vat]]. It should be noticed however that the brain-in-a-vat argument is unlike cyberspace as conceived here as it talks about the sense organs being bypassed and the reality experience being fed into the brain directly. One difficulty with cyberspace as a philosophical tool to promote skepticism is that it requires the existence of a 'real world' outside of cyberspace whereas a hardline skeptic would say that it is possible for there to be no 'real world' at all.
==Cyberspace As an Augmented Habitat: Teleoperation==
Cyber-culture as discussed above is significant, but it is still non-consequential at the ontological level. The more exciting thing is that cyberspace and virtual reality can go even further. Combining it with the technology of teleoperation, we can enter into cyberspace and interact with artificial objects to manipulate the actual physical process. When I perform an act of picking a stone in cyberspace, for example, a robotic surrogate body of mine in the real world will pick up a real stone. Since all of our physical contact with the natural world for the sake of survival and prosperity is hardly more than asserting physical force to objects, robots can, in principle, perform all tasks of the same kind. So we can build the foundational part of the virtual world in which we are able to accomplish all agricultural and industrial works without ever leaving cyberspace.
Therefore, virtual reality with the capability of facilitating teleoperation will have all the necessary components of the actual world. Furthermore, if we were put into the immersive environment of cyberspace by our parents before we know anything about the actual world, and trained to do everything by teleoperation only, we will take cyberspace as the default habitat, and be unable to function well in the natural environment. As a result, we would develop a natural science about that unknown virtual world, if we are not the designer of its infrastructure and don’t know the design principles of this virtual world. Here is what Zhai wrote in his book:
"Let us imagine a nation in which everyone is hooked up to a network of VR infrastructure. They have been so hooked up since they left their mother's wombs. Immersed in cyberspace and maintaining their life by teleoperation, they have never imagined that life could be any different from that. The first person that thinks of the possibility of an alternative world like ours would be ridiculed by the majority of these citizens, just like the few enlightened ones in Plato's allegory of the cave. They cook or dine out, sleep or stay up all night, date or mate, take showers, travel for business or pleasure, conduct scientific research, philosophize, go to movies, read romances and science fiction, win contests or lose, get married or stay single, have children or have none, grow old, and die of accidents or diseases or whatever: the same life cycle as ours."
"Since they are totally immersed, and they do everything necessary for their survival and prosperity while they are immersed, they don't know that they are leading a kind of life that could be viewed as illusory or synthetic from outsiders such as us. They would have no way of knowing that, unless they were told and shown the undeniable evidence. Or they would have to wait for their philosophers to help them stretch their minds by demonstrating such a possibility through reasoning."
"A more interesting possibility is that their technology would lead to the invention of their own version of VR, which gives them an opportunity to reflect on the nature of 'reality' in a tangible way, just as we are now doing at this moment. Then they would possibly ask the same type of questions as we are asking now."
"If there were such a free kingdom, can we say they are in a state of 'collective hallucination'? No, if by calling it a hallucination we mean to know that ours is not the same. What if I ask you: 'How can you show me that this imagined nation is not the one we are in right now?' That is, how do we know that we are not exactly those citizens immersed in VR?
In order to separate ourselves from such a possibility, let us assume the basic laws of physics in that virtual world have been programmed to be different from ours. Suppose their gravity is twice as much as ours. So their 'physical' objects of the same molecular structure as ours will accelerate, say, twice as fast when they are in free fall, and twice as heavy when they try to lift them. At the same time, they can see lights such as infrared or ultraviolet, which we cannot see. Their scientists will formulate the law of gravity according to their observations. Due to a well-coordinated interface, they can teleoperate things in our actual world smoothly and thus run their basic economy well."
"Knowing all of these from our 'outside' point of view, can we thereby judge that their scientists are wrong while ours right? Of course not, because they would have as strong a reason to tell us that our scientists are wrong. Moreover, from their point of view, they are not doing any teleoperation, but are controlling the physical processes directly; we, not they, are in fact doing teleoperation. If we tell them that their VR outfit gives them distorted version of reality, they would tell us, by exactly the same logic, that our lack of such outfits disables us from seeing things as they are. They would ridicule us and say, 'You don't even know what ultraviolet and infrared look like!'"
When cyberspace reaches the stage of Teleoperation, cyber-cultures in every sense would be able to develop just in the same way traditional cultures do in the actual world. Therefore everything we can say about traditional cultures in general would apply to cyber-cultures, and there is no need to discuss every specific mode of cyber-culture in such a circumstance. After all, as Zhai pointed out in his book, the basic idea is simple: ontologically and functionally, the goggles are equivalent to our natural eyes, and the bodysuit is equivalent to our natural skin; there is no relevant difference between them that makes the natural real while the artificial unreal. But the significant difference lies in their relationship to human creativity: we were given one world, but make and choose the other.
==Cyberspace As an Arena of Artistic Creativity: Non-Consequential Re-Creation==
If we only had the foundational part of virtual reality serving our practical purposes, virtual reality would be no more than an efficient tool for manipulating physical processes. What will fascinate us more is the expansive part of virtual reality. This part of VR will unlock our inner energy of artistic creativity for building a synthetic world as a result of our free imagination.
This expansive part does not have the same ontological status as the foundational part since, first of all, virtual objects in it do not have their counterparts in the actual world based on physical causality. In this expansive part, we may encounter all kinds of virtual objects as a result of digital programming. We can perceive virtual rocks with or without weight, virtual stars that can disappear at any time, virtual wind that produces music, and so on. We can also have virtual animals like or unlike animals we have seen before in the actual world. Secondly, we can "meet" virtual "human beings" whose behavior is totally determined by the program. They are not agents, do not have a first-person perspective, and do not perceive or experience anything.
Therefore, in this expansive part, events are neither related to the causal process in the actual world nor initiated by an outside conscious agent. This is a world of pure simulation, or a world of ultimate re-creation. In such a world, cyberspace is a sea of meaning, and it’s so deep that any imaginable mode of artistic or recreational culture would have a chance to grow out of it.
==History==
===Early philosophical conceptions===
Before cyberspace became a technological possibility many philosophers suggested the posibility of a virtual reality similar to cyberspace. In [[The Republic]], [[Plato]] sets out his [[Plato's_allegory_of_the_cave|allegory of the cave]] which is widely cited as one of the first conceptual realities. He suggests that we are already in a form of virtual reality which we are deceived into thinking is true reality. True reality for Plato is only accesible through mental training and is the reality of the forms.
These ideas are central to [[Platonism]] and [[neo platonism]]. Perhaps the conception closest to our modern ideas of cyberspace is Descartes thought that people might be deceived by an evil demon which feeds them a false reality. This argument is the direct predesessor of the modern ideas of brain in a vat and many popular conceptions of cyberspace take Descartes ideas as their starting point.
Early philosophers also suggested the existence of a virtual cyberspace that was created by life like artistic representations. Some philosophers came to distrust art because it deceived people into entering a world which was not real and sited examples of artists whose paintings, sculptures and even literature could deceive people and animals. These ideas w |
an being largely self-directed.
In the United States, homeschooling is the focus of a substantial movement among parents who wish to provide their children with a custom or more complete education, which they feel is unattainable in most private schools or the government's public schools. While many families in the U.S. are educating their children at home, the vast majority still prefer an institutional setting for their children. Despite its popularity some people have concerns about the recent [[renaissance]] of this traditional method of educating children.
== History ==
The general historic foundations of home education originate with the informal education systems that existed in many parts of the world before the rise of publicly-run schools in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries. For example, famous figures such as [[Thomas Edison]] and [[Woodrow Wilson]] (the only U.S. President to hold a Ph.D.) might be considered to have been home-educated as they were self-educated or had [[mentor]]s or tutors growing up, but received little formal education.
In the United States, the "curriculum in a box", or [[#All-in-one curricula|All-in-one curriculum]], form of home education dates back to [[1906]], when the [[Calvert Day School]] of [[Baltimore, Maryland]] made such materials available through a downtown Baltimore bookstore and a ''[[National Geographic]]'' advertisement. Within five years, nearly 300 children were making use of materials from Calvert's Home Instruction Department. In less than a century the materials had become the basis for lessons for more than 350,000 children annually in more than 90 countries.
== Popularity ==
=== Australia & New Zealand ===
About 26,500 children in [[Australia]] & [[New Zealand]] are involved in home schooling.[http://www.hea.asn.au/hea/resources/disp_res.asp?type=4&id=60]
=== Canada ===
As of 2001, it was estimated that 80,000 children are educated at home in [[Canada]][http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:D9Zi6jimSpIJ:www.fraserinstitute.ca/admin/books/chapterfiles/The%2520Choices%2520Families%2520Make~~%2520Home%2520Schooling%2520in%2520Canada%2520Comes%2520of%2520Age-Mar04ffpelt.pdf+homeschooling+in+canada+demographics&hl=en]; however, that number continues to increase.
=== United Kingdom ===
An estimated 50,000 children are considered "home-educated" in the [[United Kingdom]].[http://www.home-education.org.uk/]
=== United States ===
In the United States, homeschooling is the focus of a substantial movement among parents who wish to provide their children with a custom or more complete education, which they feel is unattainable in most [[private school]]s or the state governments' [[public school]] systems. In many instances one motivation is to provide religious education along with education on traditional subjects; religious education would not be available in a public school setting, and the available private schools may be of different faiths than the family, thus making them unattractive. While a growing number of families in the U.S. are educating their children at home, the vast majority of families still prefer an [[institution]]al setting for their children.
In 2003 about 1.1 million children (up 29% from 850,000 in 1999) were home-educated on the United States[http://nces.ed.gov/nhes/homeschool/]. A desire to provide [[Religious education|religious]] or moral instruction, and a desire to provide a better learning environment are among the most common reasons for homeschooling. Other reasons include: more flexibility in adapting educational practices for children with [[learning disabilities]] or illnesses; allowing the introduction of more non-traditional studies, such as [[Latin]] and agriculture; and providing more hands-on methods of learning such as [[unschooling]].
As [[school choice|educational choices]] become abundant through a vast array of educational products and services available, computers, and the internet, the idea of homeschooling in the U.S. is expanding in popularity and acceptance. Some state governments, like those in Alaska, California, Pennsylvania, Utah, and Kansas, sponsor home-education "virtual" [[charter school]]s and/or reimburse parents who purchase curricula approved by the state. [http://www.k12.com/options/dlp_overview.html][http://www.k12.com/options/dlp_participating.html]
== Motivations ==
Individual motivations to home-educate, home education methods, and academic and social results of home education are varied, and are the source of vibrant debate. Proponents of this educational alternative invoke parental responsibility and the classical liberal arguments for personal freedom from government intrusion. Some proponents advocate that home education should be the dominant educational policy.
Most home education advocates are wary of the established educational institutions for various reasons. Some are religious conservatives who see non-religious education as contrary to their moral or religious systems. Others feel that they can more effectively tailor a curriculum to suit an individual student's academic strengths and weaknesses, especially children who are [[gifted]] or have [[learning disabilities]]. Still others feel that the negative social pressures of schools, such as [[Bully|bullying]], [[Recreational drug use|drugs]], [[school violence]], and other school-related problems, are detrimental to a child's development. Some parents simply like the idea of teaching their own children rather than letting someone else do so.
[[Image:1999 NCES Report reasons for homeschooling.gif|thumb|right|373px|Number and percentage of homeschooled students, by reason for homeschooling: 1999, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)]]
In the [[United States]], reasons for homeschooling vary; religious concerns are an important, though not overwhelming, factor. According to a 2003 [[United States Census|U.S. Census]] survey, the parents of 33% of homeschooled children cited religion as a factor in their choice, 30% felt the regular school had a poor learning environment, 14% objected to what the school teaches, 11% felt their children weren't being challenged at school, and 9% cited morality [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0053.html]. In 2003, the reasons most frequently reported by parents for homeschooling were: concerns about the school environment (85%); a desire to provide religious or moral instruction (72%); and dissatisfaction with academic instruction (68%)[http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=91].
Options which make home education attractive to some families also include:
*Allowing a longer exploratory play-oriented childhood, encouraging the development of rich imagination and pre-academic skills which can foster later academic success
*Allowing each student to work at their own pace, enjoy family vacations, and integrate outside activities or current events into subjects they are studying
*Incorporating religion, [[ethics]], and character topics not included in most school curricula
*Including non-traditional curricula and unusual subjects such as [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]
*Giving extra weight to subjects of particular family interest such as [[art]], [[music]], or [[business]]
*Adapting educational practices for children with learning disabilities or illnesses
*Providing a legal option for families who wish to abstain from mandatory [[immunization]]s.
*Providing consistency in education for families that travel or move frequently.
== Methods ==
[[Image:Braeden hacking.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Internet]] has made information more accessible than ever.]]
There is a wide variety of home education methods and materials. Many home education families base their work on a particular educational philosophy such as:
*[[Classical education]] (including [[Trivium]], [[Quadrivium]])
*[[Waldorf Education]]
*[[Charlotte Mason]] education
*[[Theory of multiple intelligences]]
*[[Montessori method]]
Others use a broad combination of ideas or allow the child to develop their own motivation, through what is known as [[#Unschooling|Unschooling]].
Because home education laws vary widely according to individual government statutes, official curriculum requirements vary. [http://www.hslda.org/hs/state/default.asp]
=== Unit studies ===
Unit studies teach most subjects in the context of a central theme. For example, a unit study of [[Native Americans (Americas)|Native Americans]] could combine age-appropriate lessons in: [[social studies]], like how different tribes lived; [[art]], such as making Native American clothing; [[history]] of [[Native Americans in the U.S.]]); [[Reading (activity)|reading]] from a special reading list; and the [[science]] of plants used by Native Americans. The following unit-study subject could change to some other broad topic of study.
Supporters say unit studies make excellent use of student time by combining several fields into one study time, and permit students to follow personal interests. Unit studies also permit children of different ages to study together. For example, in a Native American unit, a 10th-grade student might make a deer-skin coat for an art project, while a 1st-grade student might make construction-paper [[tipi]]s.
Home educators often purchase unit-study guides that suggest materials, projects and shopping lists, and supplement them with specialized curricula for math, and sometimes reading and writing.
=== Special materials ===
Special materials focus on skill-building. Individual subject materials usually consist of workbooks, sometimes with textbooks, and an instructional guide. Many specialized subjects are only available in this form. Special materials are frequently used for math and [[Primary education|primary reading]].
Critics say that some parents over-focus on skills while excluding [[social studies]], [[s |
rpose ==
The control characters were designed fall into a few groups: printing and display control, data structuring, transmission control, and miscellaneous.
=== Printing and Display control ===
Printing control characters were first used to control the physical mechanisim of a printers, the earliest output device.
The carriage return character, when sent to such a device, causes it to put the character at the edge of the paper at which writing begins (it may, or may not, also move the printing position to the next line).
The line feed character causes the device to put the printing position on the next line. It may (or may not), depending on the device and its configuration, also move the printing position to the start of the next line (whichever direction is first -- left in Western langauges and right in Hebrew and Arabic).
The vertical and horizontal tab characters cause the output device to move the printing position to the next tab stop in the direction of reading.
The form feed character starts a new sheet of paper.
The backspace character moves the printing position one character space backwards. On printers, this is most often used so the printer can overprint characters to make other, not normally available characters. On terminals and other electronic output devices there are often software (or hardware) configuration choices which will allow a destruct backspace (ie, a BS, SP, BS sequence) which erases, or a non-destructive one which does not.
The shift in and shift out characters selected alternate character sets, fonts, underlining or other printing modes. Escape sequences were often used to do the same thing.
With the advent of [[computer terminal]]s that did not physically print on paper and so offered more flexiblity regarding screen placement, erasure, and so forth, printing control codes were adapted. Form feeds, for example, usually cleared the screen, there being no new paper page to move to. More complex escape sequences were developed to take advantage of the flexibility of the new terminals, and indeed of newer printers. The concept of a control character had always been somewhat limiting, and was extremely so when used with new, much more flexible, hardware. Control sequences (sometimes implemented as escape sequences) could match the new flexibility and power and became the standard method. Though there were, and remain, a large variety of standard sequences to choose from.
=== Data structuring ===
The separators (group, record, etc) were made to structure data, usually on
a tape, in order to simulate [[punch cards]].
End of media warns that the tape (or whatever) is ending.
=== Transmission control ===
The transmission control characters were intended to structure a data stream and manage retransmission or graceful failure as needed in the face of transmission errors.
The start of header was to mark a non-data section of a data stream -- the part of a stream containing addresses and other housekeeping data. The start_of_text character marked the end of the header, and the start of the textual part of a stream. The end_of_text character marked the end of the data of a message. A widely used convention is to make the two characters preceding end_of_text a checksum or [[Cyclic redundancy check|CRC]] for error detection purposes.
The escape character was intended to be a marker of a binary (ie, non text character) value in a data stream that might otherwise be interpretable as a control character. For example, the value for binary 27 would be Escape Escape.
The substitute character was intended to request a translation of the next character from a printable character to another value, usually by setting bit 5 to zero. This is handy because some media (such as sheets of paper produced by typewriters) can only transmit printable characters.
The cancel character signalled that the previous element should be discarded. The negative acknowledge character is a definite flag for, usually, noting that reception was a problem, and often, that the current element should be sent again. The acknowledge characters is normally used as a flag to indicate no problem detected with current element.
When a transmission medium is half duplex (that is, it can only transmit in one direction at a time), there is usually a master station that can transmit at any time, and one or more slave stations that transmit when they have permission. The enquiry character is generally used by a master station to ask a slave station to send its next message. A slave station indicates that it has completed its transmission by sending the end_of_transmission character.
The device control codes were originally generic, to be implemented as necessary by each device. However, a universal need in data transmission is to request the sender to stop transmitting when a receiver can't take more data right now. [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] invented a convention which used 19, (the device control 3 character, also known as control S, or "X-OFF") to "S"top transmission, and 17, (the device control 1 character, aka control Q, or "X-ON") to start transmission. It has become so widely used that most don't realize it is not part of official ASCII. This technique, however implemented, avoids additional wires in the data cable devoted only to transmission management, which saves money. A sensible protocol for the use such transmission flow control signals must be used to avoid potential deadlock conditions, however.
The data link escape character was intended to be a signal to the other end of a data link to end the current session.
=== Miscellaneous ===
Many of the ASCII control characters were designed for devices of the time that are not often seen today. For example, code 22, "Synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send. (Modern systems typically use a start bit to announce the beginning of a transmitted word.)
Code 0, null, is a special case. In paper tape, it is the case when there are no holes. It's convenient to treat this as a ''fill'' character without meaning otherwise.
Code 127 is likewise a special case. Its code is ''all-bits-on'' in binary, which essentially erased a character cell on a [[punched tape|paper tape]] when overpunched. Paper tape was a common storage medium when ASCII was developed with a computing history dating back to WWII codebreaking equipment at [[Bletchley Park]]. Paper tape became obsolete in the [[1970s]], so this clever aspect of ASCII rarely saw any use. Some systems (such as the original Apples) converted it to a backspace. But because its code is in the range occupied by other printable characters, and because it had no official assigned glyph, many computer equipment vendors used it as an additional printable character (often an all-black "box" character useful for erasing text by overprinting with ink).
[[Category:Control characters| ]]
[[de:Steuerzeichen]]
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agob.cu/ingles/default.htm Republic of Cuba] &mdash; (in English)
*[http://www.cubapolidata.com/gpc/gpc_council_of_state.html List of members of the Council of State]
*[http://www.plenglish.com.mx Prensa Latina] &mdash; Cuban World News (in English)
*[http://www.ain.cubaweb.cu/idioma/ingles/principalingles.htm Cuban News Agency] &mdash; Cuban News (in English)
===General===
*[http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/cuba/cuba.htm Caribbean Net News] - (Daily Caribbean news -- Cuba.)
*[http://www.acus.org/docs/0503-U.S.-Cuban_Relations_Analytic_Compendium_Policies_Laws_Regulations.pdf U.S.-Cuban Relations: An Analytic Compendium of U.S. Policies, Laws & Regulations] - Occasional Paper (March 2005) by Dianne E. Rennack and Mark P. Sullivan from the Atlantic Council of the US.
*[http://cuba.alivepages.com Information about Cuba] &mdash; Culture, history, demography, geography, religion, etc.
*[http://www.onu.edu/cuba Center for Cuban Business Studies] &mdash; The Cuba Center at Ohio Northern University
*[http://www.cuba-solidarity.org/ Cuba Solidariry] &mdash; British campaign for the defence of Cuba and its peoples' right to self-determination and national sovereignty.
*[http://www.webhavana.com/CubaMaps/index.php Cuba Maps] &mdash; Maps of all the provinces of Cuba, and maps of the major cities.
*[http://www.cubamusic.com Cubamusic] &mdash; All about Cuban music
*[http://www.cubanet.org/cubanews.html CUBANET] &mdash; An anti-Castro site including news articles from Cuba's independent journalists and a digest of Cuban news by international newspapers
*[http://www.cubaencuentro.com Encuentro en la Red] &mdash; Independent news and cultural site on Cuban matters
*[http://www.antanlontan-antilles.com/caribbean-postcards/cuba.htm Discover Cuba through a collection of old Photos & Vintage Postcards.]
*[http://www.travel-impressions.de/cuba/cuba_mix/waves.htm Photos of people and Sights]
*[http://www.cuba-pictures.com/ Cuba Pictures] Photos from all 14 Cuban provinces, plus the city of Havana
*[http://www.paseosporlahabana.com/ Paseos por La Habana] Havana guide (in Spanish) and travel information. Details of culture, history, traditions, routes, hotels, restaurants and bars.
* [http://www.canadiancontent.net/profiles/Cuba.html#travelling Travel Advisories for Cuba] Updated section on travel dangers.
*[http://www.kuba-cuba.com/english.html Link guide to Cuba.] Discover Cuba through a collection of sorted links.
*[http://www.cubaaidsproject.com Cuba AIDS Project] HIV and AIDS in Cuba
*[http://www.cuba-linda.com] Cuba Linda French site
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/robert_ingersoll/spain_and_spaniard.html Spain and the Spaniard] A contemporary opinion of the Cuban uprising
*[http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CUB.html UN HDI] &mdash; Human Development Index for Cuba from UN
*[http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/1033/ IFEX] &mdash; Freedom of expression in Cuba from [[IFEX]]
*[http://www.quaylargo.com/Productions/McCelvey.html/ The Electoral process in Cuba] &mdash; Democracy in Cuba
*[http://www.cubaminrex.cu/English/61CDH/Complete%20texts/Cuba%B4s%20Political%20and%20Elections%20System.htm Cuba's Political and electoral system]
*[http://www.state.gov/p/wha/ci/c2461.htm U.S. Department of State] &mdash; Cuba, from the U.S. government's point of view
*[http://www.cuban-store.com Todo de Cuba] Many informations about Cuba
*[http://www.mi-cuba.de.to The Infoportal of Cuba] Information in English, French and German
*[http://www.cubanet.org/ref/dis/const_92_e.htm The Cuban Constitution]
*[http://www.military.com/Content/MoreContent?file=PRhemingway] Allinson, Sidney. Military History Undercover: Ernest Hemingway
*[http://www.netforcuba.org/InfoCuba-EN/CubainPictures/CubainPictures.htm Photos of the Other Cuba]
===Printed sources===
(very incomplete list please add [http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cubabooks.htm])
Alba, Víctor 1968 Politics and the labor movement in Latin America. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. ASIN B0006BNYGK
Álvarez Batista, Gerónimo 1983. III Frente a las puertas de Santiago. Editorial Letras Cubanas, Havana.
Ameringer, Charles D 1995 The Caribbean Legion Patriots, Politicians, Soldiers of Fortune, 1946-1950 Pennsylvania State University Press (December, 1995) (Paperback) ISBN 0271014520
Anderson, Jon Lee 1997. Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life, Bantam Press, ISBN 0553406647 or Grove Press, ISBN 0-8021-1600-0
Anton, Alex and Roger E. Hernandez 2002 Cubans in America: A Vibrant History of a People in Exile Kensington Publishing Corporation (May, 2002) ISBN 157566593X
Bonachea, Ramon L and Marta San Martin 1974. The Cuban insurrection 1952-1959. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswik, New Jersey ISBN 0878555765
Castro, Fidel 1972 (editors Bonachea, Rolando E. and Nelson P. Valdéz) Revolutionary Struggle. 1947-1958. MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts and London ISBN 0262020653
de la Cova 2006 The Moncada Attack: Birth of the Cuban Revolution. University of South Carolina Press (in press)
Duarte Oropesa, José 1989 Historiología Cubana. Ediciones Universal Miami Vol 1. ISBN 0897294904, All volumes ISBN 8439925808
El'Toro, John Demico Chicano 2005 Cuban Secrets: I look like a Jackson Tribunal Publishing Corporation (July, 2005) ISBN 0544235617
Enamorado, Calixto 1917 Tiempos. Heroicos Persecucion. Rambla, Bauza and Company, Havana.
Encinosa, Enrique G. l989 La Guerra Olvidada Un Libro Historico De Los Combatientes Anticastristas En Cuba (1960-1966). Editorial SIBI, Miami
Evans, Walker (Photographer), and Andrei Codrescu 2001 Walker Evans: Cuba (Hardcover) J. Paul Getty Trust Publications ISBN 0892366176
Fermoselle, Rafael 1992 Cuban leadership after Castro: Biographies of Cuba's top commanders. North-South Center, University of Miami, Research Institute for Cuban Studies; 2nd ed.
Fontova, Humberto 2005 Fidel: Hollywood's Favorite Tyrant. Regnery Publishing Company, Washington DC. ISBN 0895260433
Fuentes, Norberto 2004 La Autobiografia De Fidel Castro Editorial Planeta, Mexico D.F ISBN 8423336042, ISBN 9707490012
George, Edward 2005 The Cuban Intervention In Angola, 1965-1991: From Che Guevara To Cuito Cuanavale. Frank Cass Publishers, London & Portland, Oregon ISBN 0415350158
Gonzalez, Servando 2002 The Secret Fidel Castro: Deconstructing the Symbol. Spooks Books, U.S. ISBN 0971139105 ISBN 0971139113
Greene, Graham 1958 Our Man in Havana: Viking ISBN 067053141 laneta, Mexico D.F ISBN 8423336042, ISBN 9707490012
Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (and Waters, Mary Alice editor) 1996 Episodes of the Cuban Revolutionary War 1956-1958. Pathfinder New York (see reference to “El Viscaíno” on page 186). ISBN 0873488245.
Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara Guerrilla attack on the Barracks de la Plata. In: The Mammoth book of War Stories. Jon. E. Lewis, editor, Carroll & Graf Publishers, New York 1999 Edition Printed and bound in United Kingdom. ISBN 0786706295 pp. 507-512.
Gutiérrez, Pedro Juan 1998 (Translation 2001) Dirty Havana Trilogy, Faber and Faber, London ISBN 0571206263
Geyer, Georgie Anne 2002 Guerrilla Prince. Andrews McMeel Publishing Kansas City ISBN 0740720643
Kapcia A. 2002. The Siege of the Hotel Nacional, Cuba, 1933: A Reassessment. Journal of Latin American Studies, 34, 283-309.
Kelshall, Gaylord T. M. 1994 The U-Boat War in the Caribbean United States Naval Institute Annapolis Maryland ISBN 1557504520
Kissinger, Henry 2000 Years of renewal. Simon & Schuster ISBN 0684855720
Kost, William E. 2004 Cuban agriculture: to be or not to be organic. Cuba in Transition 14, 274-281.
Lagas, Jacques 1964 Memorias de un capitán rebelde. Editorial del Pácifico. Santiago, Chile.
Lazo, Mario 1968 Dagger in the heart: American policy failures in Cuba. Twin Circle. NewYork
Lazo, Rodrigo 2005 Writing to Cuba Filibustering and Cuban Exiles in the United States. University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0807855944
Loiret, F; Ortega, E; Kleiner, D; Ortega-Rodes, P; Rodes, R; Dong, Z 2004 A putative new endophytic nitrogen-fixing bacterium Pantoea sp. from sugarcane J. Appl. Microbiol., 97 (3) 504-511.
Márquez, Nicolás 2004 La otra parte de la verdad. Ediciones de Autor ISBN 9874382678
Márquez-Sterling, Carlos and Manuel 1975, Historia de la Isla de Cuba, Regents Publishing Co., NY, ISBN 0-88345-251-0
Márquez-Sterling, Carlos 1969, Historia de Cuba (desde Cristobal Colon a Fidel Castro), Las Americas Publishing Co., NY [revision of 1963 original edition]
Marmol, Jose G. 1993 Donato Marmol, Mayor General en la Revolucion del Separatismo Cubano. Editorial Arenas, Miami, pp. 171-174, 191,193-197, 200, 202, 218, 243 ISBN 0918454964
Martin, Lionel 1978 The Early Fidel: Roots of Castro's Communism Lyle Stuart, Secaucus New Jersey; 1st ed edition ISBN 0818402547
Martin, Paul Sidney George L. Quimby and Donald Collier 1947 Indians before Columbus;: Twenty thousand years of North American history revealed by archeology, The University of Chicago press, Chicago Illinois . ASIN B0006AR3AE pp. 40-46.
Matos, Huber, 2002. Como llego la Noche. Tusquet Editores, SA, Barcelona. ISBN 8483109441
Morán Arce, Lucas 1980 La revolución cubana, 1953-1959: Una versión rebelde Imprenta Universitaria, Universidad Católica; ISBN
Orro Fernandez, Roberto 2004 Education and labor skills in Socialist Cuba. Cuba in Transition-ASCE 10, 224-230.
Ortiz, Fernando 1995 edition, (translated from 1947 original by Harriet de Onís) Cuban counterpoint Tobacco and Sugar. Duke University Press, Durham, North Carolina and London ISBN 08223161161
de Paz-Sánchez, Manuel 1997. Zona Rebelde. La diplomacia Española ante la revolución cubana. Litografía Romero. S.A. Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain ISBN 847926263X
de Paz-Sánchez, Manuel 2001. Zona de Guerra. España ante la Revolución Cubana. Litografía Romero. S.A. Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain ISBN 8479263644
Pirala, Antonio (18 |
from [[peer-reviewed]] research that "(o)verall, the existing evidence supports the value of acupuncture for the treatment of idiopathic headaches. However, the quality and amount of evidence are not fully convincing. There is an urgent need for well-planned, large-scale studies to assess the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of acupuncture under real-life conditions." [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001218.html].
==Indications and research==
In 1979, an interregional seminar in [[Beijing]] sponsored by [[World Health Organization]] drew up the following provisional list of diseases that lend themselves to acupuncture treatment. The list is based on clinical experience, and not necessarily on controlled clinical research: furthermore, the inclusion of specific diseases are not meant to indicate the extent of acupuncture's efficacy in treating them [http://www.aaom.org/default.asp?pagenumber=47494].
:Upper Respiratory Tract
::* Acute sinusitis
::* Acute rhinitis
::* Common Cold
::* Acute tonsillitis
:Respiratory System
::* Acute bronchitis
::* Bronchial asthma (most effective in children and in patients without complicating diseases)
:Disorders of the Eye
::* Acute conjunctivitis
::* Central retinitis
::* Myopia (in children)
::* Cataract (without complications)
:Disorders of the Mouth
::* Toothache, post-extraction pain
::* Gingivitis
::* Acute and chronic pharyogitis
:Gastro-intestinal Disorders
::* Spasms of esophagus and cardia
::* Hiccough
::* Gastroptosis
::* Acute and chronic gastritis
::* Gastric hyperacidity
::* Chronic duodenal ulcer (pain relief)
::* Acute duodenal ulcer (without complications)
::* Acute and chronic colitis
::* Acute bacillary dysentery
::* Constipation
::* Diarrhea
::* Paralytic ileus
:Neurological and Musculo-skeletal Disorders
::* Headache and migraine
::* Trigeminal neuralgia
::* Facial palsy (early stage, i.e., within three to six months)
::* Pareses following a stroke
::* Peripheral neuropathies
::* Sequelae of poliomyelitis (early stage, i.e., within six months)
::* Meniere's disease
::* Neurogenic bladder dysfunction
::* Nocturnal enuresis
::* Intercosral neuralgia
::* Cervicobrachial syndrome
::* "Frozen shoulder,""tennis elbow"
::* Sciatica
::* Low back pain
::* Osteoarthritis
In [[1997]], the [[National Institutes of Health|NIH]] issued a [[Consensus (medical)|consensus statement]] on acupuncture that concluded that
:there is sufficient evidence of acupuncture's value to expand its use into conventional medicine and to encourage further studies of its physiology and clinical value[http://consensus.nih.gov/1997/1997Acupuncture107html.htm].
The NIH consensus statement noted that
: the data in support of acupuncture are as strong as those for many accepted Western medical therapies
and added that
:the incidence of adverse effects is substantially lower than that of many [[medication|drug]]s or other accepted medical procedures used for the same condition. For example, [[musculoskeletal]] conditions, such as [[fibromyalgia]], [[myofascial]] pain, and [[tennis elbow]]... are conditions for which acupuncture may be beneficial. These painful conditions are often treated with, among other things, [[Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory drug|anti-inflammatory medication]]s (aspirin, ibuprofen, etc.) or with [[steroid]] injections. Both medical interventions have a potential for deleterious side effects but are still widely used and are considered acceptable treatments.
Further,
: there is clear evidence that needle acupuncture is efficacious for adult postoperative and [[chemotherapy]] nausea and vomiting and probably for the nausea of pregnancy... There is reasonable evidence of efficacy for postoperative dental pain... reasonable studies (although sometimes only single studies) showing relief of pain with acupuncture on diverse pain conditions such as menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, and fibromyalgia...
However,
: acupuncture does not demonstrate efficacy for cessation of smoking and may not be efficacious for some other conditions.
In [[1999]], clinical researchers reported that inserting the fine needles into specific body points triggers the production of [[endorphin]]s [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s27924.htm].
In 2005, researchers at [[Hull York Medical School]] reported the effect of acupuncture on perception of pain, noting that acupuncture led to a decrease in activity of part of the [[brain]]'s [[limbic system]] that is responsible for the body's awareness of pain. [http://news.independent.co.uk/world/science_technology/article340079.ece]
The NIH consensus statement summarizes:
:Acupuncture as a therapeutic intervention is widely practiced in the United States. While there have been many studies of its potential usefulness, many of these studies provide equivocal results because of design, sample size, and other factors. The issue is further complicated by inherent difficulties in the use of appropriate controls, such as placebos and sham acupuncture groups. However, promising results have emerged, for example, showing efficacy of acupuncture in adult postoperative and chemotherapy nausea and vomiting and in postoperative dental pain. There are other situations such as addiction, stroke rehabilitation, headache, menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, osteoarthritis, low back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and asthma, in which acupuncture may be useful as an adjunct treatment or an acceptable alternative or be included in a comprehensive management program. Further research is likely to uncover additional areas where acupuncture interventions will be useful.
* [http://nccam.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/ NCCAM research summaries on acupuncture]
==Criticisms==
One of the major criticisms of studies which purport to find acupuncture is anything more than a placebo is that most such studies are not properly conducted. They are not double blinded and are not randomised. However, since acupuncture is a procedure and not a pill, it is difficult if not impossible to design studies in which the person providing treatment is blinded as to the treatment being given. The same problem arises in double-blinding procedures used in biomedicine, including virtually all surgical procedures, dentistry, physical therapy, etc.
The [[Cochrane Collaboration]] reports [http://www.cochrane.org/cochrane/revabstr/ab003527.htm] "(t)here is insufficient evidence to either support or refute the use of acupuncture (either needle or laser) in the treatment of lateral elbow pain." Oxford University reported [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/alternat/AT008.html] "There were no high quality trials of acupuncture for stroke that showed that it was beneficial." Using stricter criteria (e.g., double-blinding) than those used in formulating the NIH consensus statement, the [[Cochrane Collaboration]] evaluated studies on acupuncture's efficacy in treating a number of conditions, usually but not always finding evidence to be lacking or inconclusive [http://sun21.imbi.uni-freiburg.de/cc_bin/mno?q=acupuncture&ul=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cochrane.org%2F&m=all].
For the following conditions, the [[Cochrane Collaboration]] reports there is insufficient evidence that acupuncture is beneficial:
[http://www.cochrane.org/Cochrane/revabstr/AB000009.htm giving up smoking]
[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab000008.html chronic asthma]
[http://www.cochrane.org/cochrane/revabstr/AB002914.htm bell's palsy]
[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab005319.html shoulder pain]
[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003317.html acute stroke]
[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003788.html rheumatoid arthritis]
[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab004046.html depression]
[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001351.html low back pain]
[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001218.html ideopathic headache](although the review recommended more research be done)
[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab002962.html induction of labour]
However the Cochrane Collaboration reported some cases where acupuncture might be better than a placebo. For example: [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003281.html "P6 acupoint stimulation seems to reduce the risk of nausea but not vomiting after surgery."]
==Potential risks==
Some forms of acupuncture can be [[Invasive (medical)|invasive]], and therefore not without risk, although injuries are rare among patients treated by trained practitioners.
[[Hematoma]] may result from accidental puncture of any [[circulatory]] structure. [[Nerve]] injury can result from the accidental puncture of any nerve. [[Brain damage]] or [[stroke]] is possible with very deep needling at the base of the skull. Also rare but possible is [[pneumothorax]] from deep needling into the [[lung]], and [[kidney]] damage from deep needling in the low back. Needling over an occult sternal foramen (an undetectable hole in the breastbone which can occur in up to 10% of people) may result in a potentially fatal haemopericardium.
Certain acupuncture points have been shown to stimulate the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and oxytocin; these points are contraindicated for use on pregnant women to avoid inducing abortion or harming the fetus.
Needles that are not properly sterilized can transfer diseases such as [[HIV]] and [[hepatitis]].
Sometimes, when treating pain or using acupuncture as an anesthetic, a mild electrical current is applied to the needles. This stimulates the nerve cells in the area of the needles so that they become depleted of the chemicals needed to transmit signals. Prolonged stimulation of nerve cells in this way can cause irreversible damage.
Severe injury from acupuncture is extremely rare, but not unheard-of.
The NIH consensus panel made the following statement about the risks associated with acupuncture: “Adverse side effects of acupuncture |
on]] technologies, closely followed by the advent of [[airplane graffiti]], including the [[nose art]] made famous during World War II.
Starting with the large-scale urbanization of many areas in the post-war half of the 20th century, urban [[gang]]s would mark walls and other pieces of public property with the name of their gang (a "tag") in order to mark the gang's territory. Near the end of the 20th century, non-gang-related tagging became more common, practised for its own sake. Graffiti artists would sign their "tags" for the sake of doing so, or to increase their reputation and prestige as a "[[writer]]" or graffiti artist. The first documented cases of illegal markings created with a spray can were created by an artist named "Cornbread" from Philadelphia. The spray can became an important characteristic for the lettering styles which followed.
Taggers sometimes select tags, like [[screenname]]s, to reflect some personal qualities, but often a tag is chosen for how the word sounds when spoken aloud or how the letters sit with each other when written; usually referred to as how the tag "flows". The letters in a word can make doing pieces very difficult if the shapes of the letters don't sit next to each other in a visually pleasing way. Also some tags are humourous plays on common expressions, such as: Page3, 2Shae, 2Cold, In1 and many others. Tags can also contain subtle and often cryptic messages or in some cases the writer's initials or other letters become a part of the tag. The current year is often put up next to tags as well; the bomber Tox, from London, never writes just Tox; it is always Tox03, Tox04, etc. In some cases, "writers" dedicate or create tags or graffiti in memory of a deceased friend, for example, "DIVA Peekrevs R.I.P. JTL '99". Tags are usually between 3 to 5 letters long to make the process of doing them illegally faster, but can be any length at all.
Competition exists between writers as to who can put up the most, or the most visible or artistic tags (see [[Types_of_graffiti#Graffiti_art_battles|Graffiti art battle]]). Writers with the most tags, throw ups and pieces up tend to gain more respect among other graffiti artists, although they will also incur a greater risk if caught by authorities. As well as being prolific, writers are also expected to have "style", which means their work is artistic and accomplished, and the combination of the style of the work with the volume of work is what gets graffiti writers kudos from their peers.
In some cases, taggers have achieved such elaborate graffiti (especially those done in memory of a deceased person) on storefront gates that shopkeepers have hesitated to cover them up. In [[the Bronx]] after the death of [[rapping|rapper]] [[Big Pun]], several murals dedicated to his life appeared virtually overnight; similar outpourings occurred after the deaths of [[The Notorious B.I.G.]] and [[Tupac Shakur]].
Other works covering otherwise unadorned fences or walls may likewise become so highly elaborate that property-owners or the government may choose to keep them rather than cleaning them off. "Free walls" or commissioned walls are now a common part of the culture.
Some graffiti has local or regional resonance, such as wall and street sign tagging in [[Southern California]] by gangs such as the [[Bloods]] and the [[Crips]]. The name ''[[Cool "Disco" Dan]]'' (including the quotation marks) occurs commonly in the [[Washington, D.C.]] area. One famous graffito in the [[Washington Metro|DC Metro]] area appeared on the outer loop of the [[Capital Beltway|beltway]] on a railroad bridge near the [[Temple (Mormonism)|Mormon temple]] as seen [http://www.lds.org/multimedia/files//5310_WASHINGTONDC_hr.jpg here]. Its simple scrawl "Surrender Dorothy" summoned visions of the [[Emerald City]] of [[The Wizard of Oz (1939 movie)|Oz]] and has remained on the bridge for nearly 30 years off and on beginning in late [[1973]]. Pressure from the Temple saw it removed, only to reappear. This "[[Wiktionary:giraffiti|giraffiti]]" became so well known among the Mormon community that their newsletters often mentioned it as a specific example demonstrating misunderstanding. (See [http://www.mormonstoday.com/011207/D1WashDCTemple01.shtml "In View of Temple, Graffiti Again Seeks Dorothy's Surrender"] and [http://www.mormonstoday.com/991114/D1WashingtonTemple01.shtml "Landmark to most, temple is sanctuary for area's Mormons"] in ''Mormons Today''.)
Theories on and the use of graffiti by [[avant-garde]] artists have a history dating back at least to the [[Scandinavian Institute of Comparative Vandalism]] of [[1961]].
Most of those who practice graffiti art wish to distance themselves from gang graffiti. Differences in both form and intent exist: graffiti art aims at self-expression and creativity, and may involve highly stylized letterforms drawn with markers, or cryptic and colorful spray paint murals on walls, buildings, and even freight trains. Graffiti artists strive to improve their art, which constantly changes and progresses. Gang graffiti, on the other hand, functions to mark territorial boundaries, and therefore does not transcend a gang's neighborhood; in the eyes of lovers of graffiti-art, it does not presuppose artistic intent.
The designs, while chosen to appear distinctive and recognizable, are more likely to be influenced by the speed with which a tagger can execute them (thus minimizing the chance of that tagger being caught). Those who distinguish between [[tagging]] and graffiti generally accept tagging as [[gang]]-motivated or meant as vandalism (illegal) or viewed as too vulgar or controversial to have public value, while they can view graffiti as creative expression, whether charged with political meaning or not.
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of [[public art]]. According to many art researchers, particularly in the [[Netherlands]] and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social [[emancipation]] or in the achievement of a political goal.
The murals of Belfast and of Los Angeles [http://rpmurals.home.att.net/] offer another example of official recognition. In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically and/or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus of addressing cleavages in the long run.
[[Image:Graffiti.jpg|thumb|300px|A "tagged" construction scaffolding.]]
Computer generated "tags" of usernames are now increasingly popular on forums, one notable site being [[Gaia Online]].
===Terminology===
A number of words and phrases have come to describe different styles and aspects of graffiti. Like all slang and colloquialisms the phrases vary in different cities and countries. Below is a selection of terminology from the USA:
* '''tag''' - a stylized signature; the terms '''tagger''' and '''writer''' refer to a person who "tags". A tag can be distinguished from a piece by its relative simplicity. Tags are usually comprised of a single color that contrasts sharply with its background. Tag can also be used as a verb which means "to sign". Writers often tag their pieces following the tradition of signing masterpieces. Another type of tag is a "dust tag", done in dust by writers wishing to practice. Not commonly popular.
* '''piece''' (from "[[masterpiece]]") - a large image, often with [[stereogram|3-D]] effects, arrows giving flow and direction, many colors and color-transitions and various other effects. A piece needs more time than a throw-up. If placed in a difficult location and well executed it will earn the writer more respect. Piece can also be used as a verb that means: "to write". (See also:[[Super kool 223]])
* '''throw-up''' - defined by the short amount of time it takes to create, a throw-up is not a piece. It generally consists of an outline (like black) and one layer of fill-color (like silver). Easy-to-paint bubble-shapes often form the letters. Throw-ups are often utilized by writers who wish to achieve a large number of tags while competing with rival artists. The short amount of time it takes to complete a throw-up reduces the risk of getting "busted".
* '''sticky''' - a sticker (usually taken from a post office) and has the writer's tag on it.
* '''bombing''' (as in the phrases '''to bomb''' or '''to hit''') describes painting many surfaces. Throw-ups or tags are often utilized, since they don't require much time to execute.
* '''crew or cru''' has become the standard [[collective noun]] for a group of writers or graffiti-artists. Some crews are members of gangs, or are associated with gangs for art materials or protection during the process of creation, but many crews are unaffiliated with gangs.
* writers become '''up''' when their work becomes widespread and well-known. To "get up" in a city involves tagging, bombing and making good pieces (see the graffiti-themed video game ''[[Marc Ecko's Getting Up: Contents Under Pressure]]'')
* to '''slash''' somebody's tag (to put a line through, or tag over it) counts as a deep insult. This is also known as "capping", "marking", "buffing", and "dissing", which originates from disrespecting.
[[Image:Berlin Wall.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Graffiti on the Berlin Wall]]
* the phrase '''back to back''' refers to a graffiti that covers a wall from end to end, as seen on some parts of the West-Berlin side of the [[Berlin Wall]]. Similarly, trains sometimes receive '''end to end''' painting; which means a carriage has been paint |
be an order of magnitude speed-up {{ref|bhlm}}. The curves over <math>\mathbb{F}_p</math> for with pseudo-Mersenne <math>p</math> are recommended by NIST. Yet another advantage of the NIST curves is the fact that they use <math>a = -3</math> which improves addition in Jacobian coordinates.
===Side-channel attacks===
Unlike DLP systems (where it is possible to use the same procedure for squaring and multiplication) the EC addition is significantly different for doubling (<math>P = Q</math>) and general addition (<math>P \ne Q</math>). Consequently, it is important to counteract [[side channel attack]]s (e.g., timing and simple power analysis attacks) using, for example, fixed pattern window (aka. comb) methods {{ref|hpb}} (note that this does not increase the computation time).
===Patents===
Most of ECC (e.g., ECDH, ECIES, ECDSA) is not encumbered by patents whereas some other schemes (ECMQV) and some implementation techniques are covered. See [[ECC patents]] for details.
===Open-source implementations===
* [http://www.openssl.org/ OpenSSL: Open source library written in C with ECC library]
* [http://www.eskimo.com/~weidai/cryptlib.html Crypto++: Open source Crypto Package written in C++ with ECC library]
* [http://libecc.sourceforge.net/ libecc: Open source ECC library]
==References==
* {{note|koblitz}} N. Koblitz, ''Elliptic curve cryptosystems'', in ''Mathematics of Computation'' 48, 1987, pp. 203&ndash;209
* {{note|miller}} V. Miller, ''Use of elliptic curves in cryptography'', CRYPTO 85, 1985.
* {{note|cm}} G. Lay and H. Zimmer, ''Constructing elliptic curves with given group order over large finite fields,'' Algorithmic Number Theory Symposium, 1994.
* {{note|SP800-57}} NIST, [http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-57/SP800-57-Part1.pdf Recommendation for Key Management &mdash; Part 1: general], Special Publication 800-57, August 2005.
* {{note|hdcm}} Y. Hitchcock, E. Dawson, A. Clark, and P. Montague, [http://anziamj.austms.org.au/V44/CTAC2001/Hitc/Hitc.pdf Implementing an efficient elliptic curve cryptosystem over GF(p) on a smart card], 2002.
* {{note|gs}} S.D. Galbraith and N.P. Smart, ''A cryptographic application of the Weil descent,'' Cryptography and Coding, 1999.
* {{note|ghs}} P. Gaudry, F. Hess, and N.P. Smart, [http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/2000/HPL-2000-10.pdf Constructive and destructive facets of Weil descent on elliptic curves], Hewlett Packard Laboratories Technical Report, 2000.
* {{note|semaev}} I. Semaev, ''Evaluation of discrete logarithm in a group of P-torsion points of an elliptic curve in characteristic P,'' Mathematics of Computation, number 67, 1998.
* {{note|smart}} N. Smart, ''The discrete logarithm problem on elliptic curves of trace one,'' Journal of Cryptology, Volume 12, 1999.
* {{note|sa}} T. Satoh and K. Araki, ''Fermat quotients and the polynomial time discrete log algorithm for anomalous elliptic curves,'' Commentarii Mathematici Universitatis Sancti Pauli, Volume 47, 1998.
* {{note|mov}} A. Menezes, T. Okamoto, and S.A. Vanstone, ''Reducing elliptic curve logarithms to logarithms in a finite field,'' IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, Volume 39, 1993.
* {{note|cmo}} H. Cohen, A. Miyaji, T. Ono, [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/277895.html Efficient Elliptic Curve Exponentiation Using Mixed Coordinates], ASIACRYPT 1998.
* {{note|bhlm}} M. Brown, D. Hankerson, J. Lopez, and A. Menezes, [http://www.eng.auburn.edu/users/hamilton/security/pubs/Software_Implementation_of_the_NIST_Elliptic.pdf Software Implementation of the NIST Elliptic Curves Over Prime Fields].
* {{note|hpb}} M. Hedabou, P. Pinel, and L. Beneteau, [http://eprint.iacr.org/2004/342.pdf A comb method to render ECC resistant against Side Channel Attacks], 2004.
==See also==
* [[SECG|Standards for Efficient Cryptography Group (SECG)]], [http://www.secg.org/download/aid-385/sec1_final.pdf SEC 1: Elliptic Curve Cryptography], Version 1.0, September 20, 2000.
* D. Hankerson, A. Menezes, and S.A. Vanstone, ''Guide to Elliptic Curve Cryptography'', Springer-Verlag, 2004.
* I. Blake, G. Seroussi, and N. Smart, ''Elliptic Curves in Cryptography'', Cambridge University Press, 1999.
* L. Washington, ''Elliptic Curves: Number Theory and Cryptography'', Chapman & Hall / CRC, 2003.
{{Public-key cryptography}}
[[Category:Cryptography]]
[[Category:Asymmetric-key cryptosystems]]
[[de:Elliptische-Kurven-Kryptosystem]]
[[es:Criptografía de curva elíptica]]
[[fr:Cryptographie sur les courbes elliptiques]]
[[ko:타원곡선암호]]
[[ja:楕円曲線暗号]]
[[zh:椭圆曲线密码学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EDM</title>
<id>9967</id>
<revision>
<id>24889681</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-06T11:39:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">* [[Early day motion]]
* [[Earthquake disaster mitigation]]
* [[Electric dipole moment]]
* [[Electrical discharge machining]]
* [[Electronic dance music]]
* [[Electronic distance meter]]
* [[Electronic document management]]
* [[Engineering design management]]
* [[Engineering drawing management]]
* [[Environmental design and management]]
* [[Department of Essential Drugs and Medicines]] of the [[World Health Organization]]
* [[Enterprise Data Management]]
* In [[information technology]], EDM stands for [[Enterprise Decision Management]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[sl:EDM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Everly Brothers</title>
<id>9968</id>
<revision>
<id>15907817</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-12T23:16:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>HollyAm</username>
<id>4551</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to The Everly Brothers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Everly Brothers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eightfold Path</title>
<id>9970</id>
<revision>
<id>38946902</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T18:33:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.148.162.127</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Modifying for Buddha Eightfold path 3</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Eightfold Path''' is a method of [[policy analysis]] developed by Eugene Bardach, a professor at the [[Goldman School of Public Policy]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. It is outlined in his seminal work, ''A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem Solving'', which is now in its second edition. The book is a integral part of [[public policy]] and [[public administration]] programs around the world.
Bardach's procedure is as follows:
1. Define the Problem
2. Assemble Some Evidence
3. Construct the Alternatives
4. Select the Criteria
5. Project the Outcomes
6. Confront the Trade-offs
7. Decide!
8. Tell Your Story
A possible ninth-step, based on Bardach's own writing, might be "Repeat Steps 1 - 8 as Necessary."
The '''Eightfold Path''' is also the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], the essence of [[Gautama Buddha]]'s teachings of right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right meditation and right concentration.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eden Project</title>
<id>9971</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:27:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dogears</username>
<id>733091</id>
</contributor>
<comment>narrow and add categories, + see also</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EdenProject2005-07-30.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Eden Project]]
[[Image:Eden_project_tropical_biome.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Inside the tropical Biome]]
The '''Eden Project''' is a project conceived by [[Tim Smit]] and designed by the architects [[Nicholas Grimshaw|Grimshaw]] to construct and maintain a large-scale environmental complex on a property located about 8 km (5 mi) from [[St Austell]] in [[Bodelva]], [[Cornwall]], [[UK]]. Although relatively new, the project has quickly become one of the most popular [[visitor attraction]]s in the [[United Kingdom]]. The complex includes two giant, [[Transparency (optics)|transparent]] [[dome]]s, each emulating a natural [[biome]], that house [[plant]] [[species]] from around the world. The first emulates a tropical environment, the other a warm temperate, Mediterranean-type environment. The project took 2½ years to construct and opened to the public in [[March 2001]]. The project is ongoing, and part of its purpose is to see how the different [[biome]]s develop over time.
'''The Core''' is the latest addition to the site, opening in September 2005. It provides the Eden Project with a much-needed education facility, incorporating classrooms and exhibition spaces designed to help communicate Eden’s central message about the relationship between people and plants. Accordingly the building has taken its inspiration from plants, most noticeably in the form of the soaring timber roof, which gives the building its distinctive shape.
Grimshaw developed the geometry of the copper-clad roof in collaboration with a sculptor, Peter Randall-Page, and Mike Purvis of structural engineers SKM Anthony Hunts. It is derived from Phyllotaxis, which is the mathematical basis for nearly all plant growth; the ‘opposing spirals’ found in many plants such as the seeds in a sunflower’s head, pinecones and pineapples.
== Layout ==
The project is constructed in a disused [[china clay]] [[quarry]]. Visitors approach along roads to car parks at the top of the quarry and walk or bus to the entrance area, half-way down a gently sloping side. The entrance area includes the usual restaurant and gift shop, implemented in a more interesting way than is common. The entrance area also has some infor |
collegiate love Elektra. The art was provided by penciller Romita Jr. and inker Williamson.
====The Nineties====
''Daredevil'' left the spotlight in the mid-1990s, and the writing-art team of [[Dan Chichester]] (a.k.a. [[D.G. Chichester]]) and [[Scott McDaniel]] was instructed to revamp the hero for the "grim and gritty" era. In the story arc "Fall from Grace", Daredevil's secret identity became public knowledge. Forced to fake his own death and change his uniform to an armored "razor costume", Murdock underwent one of his numerous breakdowns. The change did not take, and Daredevil soon returned to his traditional red costume, while Murdock found a way to convince the world that he was not, in fact, secretly Daredevil (courtesy of a [[deus ex machina]] [[doppelganger]]).
Under writer [[Joe Kelly]] the book got a lighter tone, with Daredevil returning to the wisecracking, more lighthearted hero he had once been. Matt and [[Foggy Nelson|Foggy]] (who now knew of Matt's identity as Daredevil) joined a law firm run by Rosalind Sharpe (who would be revealed to be Foggy's biological mother). Additionally, [[Karen Page]] returned to the title as a late-night [[talk radio]] host.
===Volume 2: 1998 - Present===
====Marvel Knights and a Guardian Devil====
In 1998, ''Daredevil'''s numbering was rebooted, with the title "cancelled" and revived a month later as part of the ''Marvel Knights'' imprint. Editors [[Joe Quesada]] and [[Jimmy Palmiotti]] were tapped to run the imprint, for which they considered ''Daredevil'' the flagship title. Quesada drew the new series, written by filmmaker [[Kevin Smith]].
[[Image:DD01_COV.jpg|thumbnail|left|175px|Promotional art (cover minus trade dress), ''Daredevil'' Vol. 2, #1 (Nov. 1998). Art by [[Joe Quesada]] & [[Jimmy Palmiotti]].]]
Its first eight-issue story arc, "Guardian Devil", depicted Daredevil struggling to protect a child whom he is told could either be the [[Messiah]] or the [[Anti-Christ]]. Murdock experienced a crisis of faith exacerbated by the discovery that Karen Page has [[AIDS]] (later revealed to be a hoax), and her subsequent death. "Guardian Devil" reintroduced religion as a driving force behind Murdock, an option instituted by Miller but rarely used thereafter. It also killed a supporting character extant since the title's 1964 premiere, sparking debate in the fan press about the effectiveness of killing a title's mainstay as a means of achieving literary gravitas.{{fact}} Finally, Smith's example paved the way for other [[screenwriter]]s and [[novelist]]s, including [[J. Michael Straczynski]], [[Joss Whedon]], [[Greg Rucka]], [[Orson Scott Card]], and [[Stephen King]], to write comic books.
====Interregnum====
After "[[Guardian Devil]]," Smith was succeeded by cult-favorite writer-artist [[David Mack]], who contributed the seven-issue "Parts of a Hole"<!--seven issues spanned from (1999-2001)?--><!--changled "Whole" to "Hole", per http://www.silverbulletcomics.com/shop/product.php?a=51264 and http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0785108084/002-0748834-8152005?v=glance&n=283155-->. This arc introduced Maya Lopez a.k.a. [[Echo (comics)|Echo]], a [[deaf]] martial artist who encountered Daredevil in a manner reminiscent of Frank Miller's original Elektra storyline. For the next arc, "Wake Up" (2001), Mack did the art while [[Brian Michael Bendis]] wrote the story, which followed reporter [[Ben Urich]] as he investigates the aftereffects of a fight between Daredevil and a minor villain. Mack continued to illustrate the covers for the following storyline, "Playing to the Camera" (2001) by ''[[Back to the Future]]'' screenwriter [[Bob Gale]] and artists [[Phil Winslade]], and [[David Ross (artist)|David Ross]]. For unknown reasons, the numbering of the ''Daredevil'' [[trade paperback (comics)|trade-paperback]] reprints ignores this arc. <!--Note: This may well be for rights reasons negotiated by Gale, and have nothing to do with quality; Marvel reprints a lot of material, some high-quality, some not-->
====Bendis and Maleev====
Issue #26 (December 2001) brought back [[Brian Michael Bendis]], working this time with artist [[Alex Maleev]], for a four-year-run that became become one of the series' most acclaimed. Maleev's harsh and grainy look is in contrast to Quesada's more cartoony lines, and established a distinctive style that reads like a marriage of Frank Miller's [[film noir|noir]] style and that of [[Pulp magazine | pulp-magazine]] art of the 1920s and '30s.
In the first Bendis/Maleev story, "Underboss" (2001-2002), ambitious mobster [[Sammy Silke]] discovers that the Kingpin knows Daredevil is Matt Murdock yet has kept this secret. This anomaly enables Silke to enlist the Kingpin's captains and disgruntled son to stage a coup reminiscent of [[Julius Caesar (play) | ''Julius Caesar'']]. With the Kingpin thought dead, the group lays claim to the criminal empire of New York City. But then one by one, the co-conspirators are murdered on orders of Vanessa Fisk, the Kingpin’s wife. A terrified Silke strikes a plea with the FBI: His safety in exchange for Daredevil's identity. Within hours, Murdock's name is leaked to the press.
"Out" (2003) has Murdock dealing with his identity of Daredevil becoming public knowledge.
[[Image:Daredevil41.jpg|thumbnail|right|175px|Promotional art for ''Daredevil'' Vol. 2, #41 (March 2003), by [[Alex Maleev]].]]
"Lowlife" (2003) introduced the blind [[Milla Donovan]], with whom Murdock would have a relationship and eventually, off-screen, marry. As well, Murdock was, in quick succession, taken into custody as a murder suspect, subjected to a new investigation by the FBI,and compelled to contend with a new street drug created by the [[Owl (comics) | Owl]].
In "Hardcore" (2003), Murdock had to deal with a mostly healed and still [[Machiavellian]] Kingpin returning to New York. The Kingpin sent both Typhoid Mary and Bullseye after Matt to delay him. Typhoid Mary lit Matt on fire but was taken down by Luke Cage and Jessica Jones. Bullseye almost killed Milla Donovan, but was stopped by Daredevil. Furious, Daredevil hunted the Kingpin down and beat him into submission. Standing over the Kingpin's prostrate form in a bar full of witnesses and with his mask off, Daredevil declared himself the new Kingpin.
Following this arc's climax with issue #50, writer-artist David Mack took over ''Daredevil'' for five issues, bringing back his character Maya Lopez, who struggled to come to terms with her post-Murdock life in the arc "Echo: Vision Quest" (2003-2004).
The next arc, "The King of Hell's Kitchen" (2004) explored the aftermath of Daredevil's assumption of the role of Kingpin. Daredevil became increasingly violent, cleaning the streets with brutal efficiency. [[Peter Parker]] (Spider-Man) and other superhero friends attempted an intervention, to no avail. It was not until Murdock was nearly killed by the [[Yakuza]] that [[Ben Urich]] could confront his one-time friend, explaining that Daredevil's new taste for violence, his shunning of friends, and his sudden marriage were the product of a [[nervous breakdown]] brought on by unresolved feelings over the death of Karen Page. Donovan, in response, annulled the marriage.
The next three arcs were "The Widow", "Golden Age" and "Decalogue" which were mostly stand-alone stories. "The Widow" dealt with Matt's relationship with the Black Widow and an encounter with the Punisher villain Jigsaw. "Golden Age" was an epic story that compassed several time periods and featured [[Alexander Bont]], the Kingpin before Wilson Fisk. "Decalogue" was a story that took place between "Hardcore" and "The King of Hell's Kitchen." It was an anthology of sorts that dealt with a church group that shared stories about Daredevil.
Bendis and Maleev wrapped up their last story arc, "The Murdock Papers", in January 2006, with the Kingpin manipulating the FBI, Daredevil, the Black Widow, and Elektra over non-existent documents prooving the Murdock/Daredevil relationship. Many characters that have appeared over Bendis's run make appearences such as Bullseye and Milla. The Owl has a small role as well. Despite help and entreaties by [[Luke Cage]] and [[Iron Fist]], an unmasked Daredevil surrendered himself to the FBI. The Kingpin himself is betrayed by the FBI and is arrested himself. The arc ends with both Murdock and Fisk in jail, with the FBI hoping that the two will kill each other.
====Brubaker and Lark====
The creative team of writer [[Ed Brubaker]] and artist [[Michael Lark]], began in February 2006. Brubaker's previous experience includes both police drama (''[[Detective Comics]]'') and noir-espionage (''[[Sleeper (comic book)|Sleeper]]''). Brubaker and Lark have notably worked together on DC's ''[[Gotham Central]]''. It is the first Volume 2 Daredevil run to not be part of the [[Marvel Knights]] imprint.
The first arc is titled "The Devil in Cell-Block D" and deals with Matt Murdock in jail with some of his most heinous villains such as the Kingpin, Hammerhead and the Owl. Matt has to deal with cruel guards and prisoners who are out to kill him.
The first issue ended with Foggy Nelson apparently being killed under orders from the Kingpin.
==Character history==
===Origin===
[[Irish-American]] Matthew Murdock was raised by [[single father]] and fading [[Boxing|boxer]] "Battling Jack" Murdock in the [[Hell's Kitchen]] neighborhod of [[New York City]]. The elder Murdock instilled in Matt the virtues of education and non-violence in order to rise above the hard life they led. Matt, taunted by bullies who called the bookish youth "Daredevil", vented his frustration and anger by |
unctions to respect other religions. It also asks the followers to fight and subdue unbelievers in times of war and "evict them whence they evicted you" (Al-Qur'an 2:191). Some Muslims have respected Jews and Christians as fellow "peoples of the book" (monotheists following [[Abrahamic religions]]), while others have reviled them as having abandoned monotheism and corrupted their scriptures. At different times and places, Islamic communities have been both intolerant and tolerant.
The classical Islamic solution was a limited tolerance &mdash; Jews and Christians were to be allowed to privately practice their faith and follow their own family law. They were called [[Dhimmis]], and they had fewer though similar legal rights and obligations than Muslims.
The classic Islamic state was often more tolerant than many other states of the time, which insisted on complete conformity to a state religion. The record of contemporary Muslim-majority states is mixed. Some are generally regarded as tolerant, while others have been accused of intolerance and human rights violations. See the main article, [[Islam and other religions]], for further discussion.
==History==
{{main|History of Islam}}
Modern Islamic history begins in [[Arabia]] in the [[7th century]] with the emergence of the prophet [[Muhammad]]. Within a century of his death, an Islamic state stretched from the [[Atlantic ocean]] in the west to [[central Asia]] in the east, which, however, was soon torn by civil wars ([[fitna]]s). After this, there would always be rival dynasties claiming the [[caliphate]], or leadership of the Muslim world, and many Islamic states or empires offering only token obedience to an increasingly powerless [[caliph]].
Nonetheless, the later empires of the [[Abbasid]] caliphs and the [[Seljuk Turks]] were among the largest and most powerful in the world. After the disastrous defeat of the Byzantines at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in [[1071]], Christian Europe launched a series of [[Crusades]] and for a time captured Jerusalem. [[Saladin]], however, restored unity and defeated the [[Shiite]] [[Fatimid]]s.
From the 14th to the 17th centuries, one of the most important Muslim territories was the [[Mali Empire]], whose capital was [[Timbuktu]].
In the 18th century, there were three great Muslim empires: the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] in Turkey, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean; the [[Safavid]] in Iran; and the [[Mogul]] in India. By the [[19th century]], these realms had fallen under the sway of European political and economic power. Following [[WWI]], the remnants of the Ottoman empire were parceled out as European [[protectorate]]s or [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. Islam and Islamic political power have revived in the [[20th century]]. However, the relationship between the West and the Islamic world remains uneasy.
===Contemporary Islam===
[[Image:Islam by country.png|thumb|right|300px|Countries with Muslim populations over 10% of total (source - [[CIA]] [[World Factbook]], 2004). The darker green represents a [[Sunni]] majority and the light green represents a [[Shia]] majority.]]
Although the most prominent movement in Islam in recent times has been [[fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] [[Islamism]], there are a number of [[liberal movements within Islam]], which seek alternative ways to align the Islamic faith with contemporary questions.
Early [[Sharia]] had a much more flexible character than is currently associated with [[Islamic jurisprudence]], and many modern Muslim scholars believe that it should be renewed, and the classical jurists should lose their special status. This would require formulating a new [[fiqh]] suitable for the modern world, e.g. as proposed by advocates of the [[Islamization of knowledge]], and would deal with the modern context. One vehicle proposed for such a change has been the revival of the principle of [[ijtihad]], or independent reasoning by a qualified Islamic scholar, which has lain dormant for centuries.
This movement does not aim to challenge the fundamentals of Islam; rather, it seeks to clear away misinterpretations and to free the way for the renewal of the previous status of the Islamic world as a centre of modern thought and freedom. (See [[Modern Islamic philosophy]] for more on this subject.)
Many Muslims counter the claim that only "liberalization" of the Islamic Sharia law can lead to distinguishing between [[tradition]] and true Islam by saying that meaningful "fundamentalism", by definition, will eject non-Islamic cultural inventions &mdash; for instance, acknowledging and implementing Muhammad's insistence that women have God-given rights that no human being may legally infringe upon. Proponents of modern Islamic philosophy sometimes respond to this by arguing that, as a practical matter, "fundamentalism" in popular discourse about Islam may actually refer, not to core precepts of the faith, but to various systems of cultural traditionalism.
===The demographics of Islam today===
{{main articles|[[Islam by country]] and [[Demographics of Islam]]}}
Based on the percentages published in the [[2005]] [[CIA World Factbook]] ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html "World"]), Islam is the second largest religion in the world. According to the [http://www.wnrf.org/news/trends.html World Network of Religious Futurists], the [http://www.religioustolerance.org/growth_isl_chr.htm U.S. Center for World Mission], and the controversial [[Samuel P. Huntington|Samuel Huntington]], Islam is growing faster numerically than any of the other [[major world religions]]. [http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_numb.htm Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance] estimate that it is growing at about 2.9% annually, as opposed to 2.3% per year global population growth. Non-Muslim observers attribute this growth to the higher birth rates in many Islamic countries (six out of the top-ten countries in the world with the highest birth rates are majority Muslim[http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/peo_bir_rat&int=10]). A recent demographic study, however, has determined that some the birth rates of some Muslim countries are plummeting to the levels of western countries [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/GH23Aa01.html].
Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population today range between 900 million and 1.4 billion people (cf. [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html Adherents.com]); estimates of [[Islam by country]] based on U.S. State Department figures yield a total of 1.48 billion, while the Muslim delegation at the United Nations quoted 1.2 billion as the global Muslim population in September 2005.
Only 18% of [[Muslim|Muslims]] live in the [[Arab]] world; 20% are found in Sub-Saharan Africa, about 30% in the [[South Asia]]n region of [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]], and the world's largest single Muslim community (within the bounds of one nation) is in [[Indonesia]]. There are also significant Muslim populations in [[China]], [[Europe]], [[Central Asia]], and [[Russia]].
[[Islam in Austria|Austria]] was the first European country to recognize Islam as an official religion, while [[France]] has the highest Muslim population of any nation in Western Europe, with up to 6 million Muslims (10% of the population [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fr.html#People]). [[Albania]] is said to have the highest proportion of Muslims as part of its population in Europe (70%), although this figure is only an estimate (see [[Islam in Albania]]). The number of Muslims in [[North America]] is variously estimated as anywhere from 1.8 to 7 million.
==Symbols of Islam==
{{main|Islamic symbols}}
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Green Shahada crescent.png|150px|thumb|right| This green star and crescent are composed of [[Caligraphy#Middle_eastern_calligraphy|Arabic calligraphy]] representing the [[Basmala|''Basmala'']], the first verse of the Qur'an, and the [[shahadah|''Shahādah'']], the Muslim confession of faith.]] -->
Muslims do not accept any icon or color as sacred to Islam, as worshipping symbolic or material things is against the spirit of monotheism. Many people assume that the [[star and crescent]] symbolize Islam, but these were actually the insignia of the [[Ottoman Empire]], not of Islam as a whole. The color green is often associated with Islam as well; this is custom and not prescribed by religious scholars. However, Muslims will often use elaborately calligraphed verses from the [[Qur'an]] and pictures of the Ka'bah as decorations in mosques, homes, and public places. The Quranic verses are believed to be sacred.
==See also==
{{Further|[[:Category:Islam|List of Islamic and Muslim-related topics]]}}
{|
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
* [[Adhan]] (also called azan or aazan)
* [[Christo-Islamic]]
* [[Criticism of Islam]]
* [[Dawah]]
* [[Ihsan]]
* [[Jinns]]
* [[Islamic economics]]
* [[Islamic feminism]]
* [[Islamic literature]]
* [[List of converts to Islam]]
* [[List of Muslims]]
* [[Timeline of Islamic history]]
* [[Religion]]
* [[Sin]]
|}
==References==
* ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]''
* Arberry, A. J. ''The Koran Interpreted: a translation by A. J. Arberry''. Touchstone, ISBN 0684825074
* Kramer, Martin. ''The Islamism Debate''. University Press, (1997) ISBN 9652240249
* Kurzman, Charles. ''Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook''. Oxford University Press, (1998) ISBN 0195116224
* Rahman, Fazlur. ''Islam''. University of Chicago Press; 2nd edition, (1979) ISBN 0226702812
* Safi, Omid. ''Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism''. Oneworld Publications, (2003) ISBN 1-85168-316-X
* Tibi, Bassam. ''The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder''. Univ. of California Press, (1998) ISBN 0520088689
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
===Academic sources===
*[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/ |
have included multi-billion dollar investments by [[Intel]], [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[IBM]] and [[Abbott Laboratories]]. Currently, there are more than 600 U.S. subsidiaries operating in Ireland, employing in excess of 100,000 people and spanning activities from manufacturing of high-tech electronics, computer products, [[medical]] supplies, and pharmaceuticals to [[retailer|retailing]], [[banking]] and [[finance]], and other services. Many U.S. businesses find Ireland an attractive location to manufacture for the [[European Union|EU]] market, since it is inside the EU customs area. Government policies are generally formulated to facilitate trade and inward direct investment. The availability of an educated, well-trained, [[English language|English]]-speaking work force and relatively moderate wage costs have been important factors. Ireland offers good long-term growth prospects for U.S. companies under an innovative financial incentive programme, including capital grants and favourable [[tax]] treatment, such as a low [[corporation]] [[income tax]] rate for [[manufacturing]] firms and certain financial services firms.
[[Image:Cow.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Once a beneficiary of the EU &mdash; particularly of [[Common Agricultural Policy|CAP]] grant &mdash; Ireland is now a net contributor to the EU]]
===European Union===
Ireland has grown much closer to [[Europe]] in recent years &mdash; particularly since it joined the [[European Union]] (EU) in [[1973]]. It is also part of the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]] and thus has the [[euro]] as its currency. Many US companies have located their European headquarters in Ireland and this has led to increased Irish-European ties. Ireland regularly comes near the top in polls of the most enthusiastic Europeans [http://www.eubusiness.com/afp/031228021601.psvrd1gm] [http://futurum2004.eun.org/ww/en/pub/futurum2004/news/enlargement_news/new_year.htm] and spent some €60m during its presidency of the EU [http://www.nicva.org/policy_and_research/europe/article.asp?ArticleID=8810]. The EU now accounts for the bulk of Irish trade, with the [[United Kingdom]] being the largest trading partner. Ireland's main exports to Europe are [[beef]], [[computers]] ([[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]], [[EMC Corporation|EMC]], and [[Apple Computer]] all have manufacturing facilities in Ireland) and [[software]] ([[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] and [[Microsoft]] operate in Ireland). Ireland's major imports from Europe include [[automobile|car]]s, [[machinery]], [[truck]]s, [[steel]], oil and consumer goods.
A major economic bonus Ireland has received from EU membership has been agricultural subsidies from the [[Common Agricultural Policy|CAP]] and large amounts of EU investment in Irish road infrastructure. Even though Ireland is the second rishest Member State of the EU, following the latest EU budget talks, Ireland will remain a net beneficiary of the EU budget until 2012. Since the acceptance of the 10 new Eastern European nations in [[2004]], Ireland's ties with Europe further increased. Many workers from countries such as [[Latvia]], [[Poland]] and [[Estonia]], no longer requiring work permits, came to live and work in Ireland.
<br>
<br>
==Wealth distribution==
[[Image:Ireland income distribution chart.gif|thumb|left|230px|Disposable income per person as a percentage of the national average.]]
Ireland may somewhat aspire to be an [[egalitarian]] society &mdash; wealth is partially redistributed among the poorer segments of society through the [[progressive tax]] system &mdash; however large disparities in wealth still exist among the employed and unemployed, with one of the worst rich-poor gaps among Western nations. Wealth is more concentrated in the eastern region around [[Dublin]].
There are many spots in Dublin marked by poverty, particularly in the [[inner city]]. The poorest segments of society are foreign nationals working in manual jobs and people from some of the older social housing schemes in Dublin. The national [[minimum wage]] is €7.65 per hour for full time staff over the age of 18 &mdash; this is quite high by historic levels. However, this wage is taxable, and above the threshold for free healthcare. The [[unemployment benefit]] (''the dole'') in Ireland is €134.80 per week, as of [[2004]].
Ireland is also quite unique in [[Europe]] in that [[land ownership]] is still quite high. In particular [[house]] ownership (at approx 80%) is the norm. This contrasts with most of [[Continental Europe]], where [[renting]] is the norm, and the [[United Kingdom]]. [[Social housing]] schemes do exist but the government has not progressively invested in these schemes in recent years.
===Statistics===
*'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' ''lowest 10%:'' 2% ''highest 10%:'' 27.3% ([[As of 1997|1997]])
*'''GDP per capita ([[As of 2003|2003]]):''' $34,100
*'''Population below poverty line ([[As of 1997|1997]]):''' 10%
*'''Unemployment rate ([[As of 2004|2004]]):''' 4.3%
==References==
'''Print'''
* O'Kane, Brian. ''Starting a business in Ireland'' - Oak Tree Publishing, 1993, 1995, & 2001. ISBN 1872853943
* O'Grada, Cormac ''Rocky Road: Irish Economy Since Independence'' - Manchester University Press, 1997. ISBN 0719045843
* O'Hearn, Denis. ''The Atlantic Economy: Britain, the US and Ireland'' - Manchester University Press, 2001. ISBN 0719059747
* Burke, Andrew E. ''Enterprise and the Irish Economy'' - Oak Tree Press in association with Graduate School of Business, University College Dublin, 1995. ISBN 186076004X
'''Online'''
* CIA World Factbook (2004) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ei.html#top CIA World Factbook Entry on Ireland]. Retrieved [[November 11]], [[2004]]
* Business Access to State Information and Services [http://www.basis.ie/ Doing business in Ireland]. Retrieved [[November 11]], 2004
* [http://www.cso.ie/ Irish Central Statistics Office]. Retrieved [[November 11]], 2004
* [http://www.finfacts.com/irecon.htm Irish Economy News/Reports]. Retrieved [[November 11]], 2004
* [http://www.esri.ie/content.cfm?t=Irish%20Economy&mid=4 The Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI)]. Retrieved [[November 11]], 2004
* [http://www.oecd.org/ireland OECD Ireland country page]
* [http://economist.com/surveys/showsurvey.cfm?issue=20041016 The Economist Survey] [[16 October]] 2004
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4020523.stm BBC Article ''Ireland is named 'best country'' in the World to live] [[17 November]] 2004
==See also==
* [[Central Bank and Financial Services Authority of Ireland|Central Bank of Ireland]]
* [[Central Statistics Office of Ireland|Central Statistics Office]]
* [[Companies Registration Office, Ireland|Companies Registration Office]]
* [[Economy of Europe]]
* [[Economy of Northern Ireland]]
* [[IDA Ireland]]
* [[International Financial Services Centre]]
* [[Irish Property Bubble]]
* [[Irish Stock Exchange]]
* [[Irish topics]]
* [[List of Irish companies]]
* [[Republic of Ireland corporation tax]]
* [[Commemorative coins of Ireland]]
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Economy of Ireland| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Ireland]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]
[[es:Economía de Irlanda]]
[[he:כלכלת אירלנד]]
[[pt:Economia da República da Irlanda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in the Republic of Ireland</title>
<id>14679</id>
<revision>
<id>38751780</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T11:28:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ben W Bell</username>
<id>73920</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Communications in Ireland]] to [[Communications in the Republic of Ireland]]: This article is about Republic of Ireland, not Ireland as a whole (including Northern Ireland) so it should be named appropriately.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Communication]]s in the [[Republic of Ireland]]''', including [[postal]] services run by [[An Post]], are regulated to a large extent by the [[Commission for Communications Regulation]] (ComReg), the [[Irish Minister for Communications, Marine & Natural Resources|Minister for Communications, Marine & Natural Resources]] has overall responsibility for national policy and regulation. Much of Ireland's communications infrastructure is modern and digital, however in several sectors there are competitive disadvantages to overcome due to the uncompetitive nature of the [[economy of the Republic of Ireland]].
==Broadcasting==
'''[[Radio]]'''
*'''Stations:''' AM 9, FM 106, shortwave 0 (1998)
*'''Radios:''' 2.55 million (1997)
*See also: [[List of Irish radio stations]]
'''[[Television]]'''
*'''Stations''': 4 terrestrial stations, using 10 transmitters (plus 36 low-power repeaters) (1997)
*'''Televisions:''' 1.47 million (1997)
*See also: [[List of Irish television channels]]
See also: [[Radio Telefís Éireann]] and [[Broadcasting Commission of Ireland]]. For a more detailed discussion of the broadcasting landscape in Ireland, see [[Media in Ireland]].
==Internet==
*'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 14 (1999)
*'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (top-level domain):''' [[.ie|IE]]
**Domain registrar: [http://www.iedr.ie IE Domain Registry]
*'''Internet users:''' 1.26 million (2003)
*'''Broadband users:''' 208,500 ''(Q3 2005)''
** Broadband penetration: 4.3% ''(Q3 2005)''
** [[Digital Subscriber Line]]: 163,700 ''(Q3 2005)''
** [[Cable modem|Cable]]: 18,000 ''(Q3 2005)''
** Fixed wireless: 24,600 ''(Q3 2005)''
** Satellite: 2,200 ''(Q3 2005)''
*'''[[Leased line]]s:''' 26,522 ''(Q3 2005)''
*See also: [[HEAnet]], [[IEDR]], [[INEX]], [[ITnet]]
==Telephone==
'''Telephone system'''
*'''domestic:''' digital system using cable and microwave radio relay
*'''international:''' satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
'''Telephones - f |
her verification, the credit of what they had found out might be claimed by others. Thus [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] announced his discovery that [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] had [[Moon phase|phase]]s like the [[Moon]] in the form "Haec immatura a me iam frustra leguntur&mdash;oy" (Latin: ''This immature (feminine) one has already been read in vain by me&mdash;oy'' (with a subject-verb number agreement error)), that is, "Cynthiae figuras aemulatur Mater Amorum" (Latin: ''The Mother of Loves [= Venus] imitates the figures of [[Cynthia]] [= the moon]''). Similarly, when [[Robert Hooke]] discovered [[Hooke's law]] in 1660, he first published it in anagram form. One might think of this as a primitive example of a [[zero-knowledge proof]].
There are also a few "natural" anagrams, English words unconsciously created by switching letters around. The French ''chaise longue'' ("long chair") became the American "[[chaise lounge]]" by metathesis (transposition of letters and/or sounds). This is an example of [[folk etymology]]. It has also been speculated that the English "curd" comes from the Latin ''crudus'' ("raw").
==Methods==
Before the computer age, anagrams were constructed using a pen and paper or lettered tiles, by playing with letter combinations and experimenting with variations. (Some individuals with prodigious talent have also been known to ‘see’ anagrams in words, unaided by tools.)
Computers have enabled a new method of creating anagrams, the anagram server. An anagram server utilizes an exhaustive database of words. The anagrammist (one who creates anagrams) enters a word or phrase into the server’s search engine, and the server produces a list containing every possible combination of words or phrases from the input word or phrase. Anagram servers use advanced features to control the search results, by excluding or including certain words, limiting the number or length of words in each anagram, or limiting the number of results.
When sharing their newly discovered anagrams with other enthusiasts, some anagrammists indicate the method they used. Anagrams constructed without aid of a computer are noted as having been done ‘manually’ or ‘by hand’; those made by utilizing a computer may be noted ‘by machine’ or ‘by computer’, or may indicate the name of the computer program (using ‘Anagram Genius’).
Anagram servers are available on the Internet. Some examples are
*[http://www.wordsmith.org/anagram/index.html Internet Anagram Server]
*[http://www.anagramgenius.com/server.html Anagram Genius]
*[http://www.anagramlogic.com/ Anagram Logic Anagram Finder]
*[http://www.arrak.fi/ag/index_en.html Arrak Anagrams]
There is also software to download and run locally, such as
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/anagram/ Fourmilab Anagram Finder]
*[http://www.anagrammy.com/resources/anagram_artist.html Anagram Artist]
==Crosswords==
[[Cryptic crossword]] puzzles frequently use anagrammatic clues, usually indicating that they are anagrams by the inclusion of a word like "confused" or "in disarray". An example would be '''Businessman burst into tears (9 letters)'''; the solution, '''Stationer''' is an anagram of '''into tears''', the letters of which have '''burst''' out of their original arrangement to form the name of a type of '''businessman'''.
What is the most anagrammable name on record? There must be few names as deliciously workable as that of "[[Augustus de Morgan]]" who tells that a friend had constructed about 800 on his name (specimens of which are given in his ''Budget of Paradoxes'', p. 82)!
==See also==
*[[List of anagrams]]
*[[Anagram Indicators]]
*[[anagramatic poem]]
*the [[board game]] [[Anagrams]]
*[[ambigram]]
*[[blanagram]]
*''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'', a book by [[Dan Brown]]
*[[palindrome]]
*[[pangram]]
*[[constrained writing]]
*[[letter bank]]
*[[Dave Barry]]
===Literary===
*"To be or not to be: that is the question, whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune." = "In one of the [[William Shakespeare|Bard]]'s best-thought-of [[tragedy|tragedies]], our insistent hero, [[Hamlet]], queries on two fronts about how life turns rotten." (discovered by Cory Calhoun)
*Ivanhoe by Sir Walter Scott = A novel by a Scottish writer
*[[Rocket Boys]] = [[October Sky]]
*[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]] = Of [[Arthur Dent]], never the enthusiast, 'e eats ([http://www.thedavincigame.com])
*[[Tom Marvolo Riddle]] ([[Lord Voldemort]]'s real name) = I am Lord Voldemort (In the novel and the film of [[Harry Potter]] by [[J.K. Rowling]])
==References==
#{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}}
#{{note|Maddox1}} [http://maddox.xmission.com Anagram from Maddox's webpage].
==External links==
*[http://www.wineverygame.com/ Anagram oriented towards Scrabble]
*[http://users.aol.com/s6sj7gt/ana.htm Anagrams, Long and Short]
*[http://www.anagramgenius.com/ Anagram Genius software plus archive of thousands of example anagrams]
*[http://users.aol.com/s6sj7gt/anabible.htm The Anagrammed Bible : Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon], ISBN 0970214804
*[http://www.wordsmith.org/anagram/index.html Internet Anagram Server (= I, rearrangement servant)]
*[http://www.anagrammy.com The Anagrammy Awards]
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/anagram/ Anagram Finder (fourmilab.ch)]
*[http://www.anagramlogic.com/ Anagram Logic Anagram Finder]
*[http://www.anagramsite.com/ Anagram Site]
*[http://cl4.org/comp/anapad/ AnaPad is a special text editor for anagrammatists: people who make anagrams. It is particularly useful for anagramming long texts, such as poems]
[[Category:Puzzles]]
[[Category:Surrealist games]]
[[Category:Word games]]
[[Category:Word play]]
[[cs:Anagram]]
[[da:Anagram]]
[[de:Anagramm]]
[[eo:Anagramo]]
[[es:Anagrama]]
[[fr:Anagramme]]
[[he:אנגרמה]]
[[hu:Anagramma]]
[[ia:Anagramma]]
[[io:Anagramo]]
[[it:Anagramma]]
[[ja:アナグラム]]
[[lb:Anagramm]]
[[nl:Anagram]]
[[no:Anagram]]
[[pl:Anagram]]
[[ru:Анаграмма]]
[[sl:Anagram]]
[[sv:Anagram]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anadyr River</title>
<id>1362</id>
<revision>
<id>33469021</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-01T10:48:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tbonefin</username>
<id>222675</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anadyr''' (''Ана́дырь'') is a [[river]] in the extreme northeast of [[Siberia]], [[Russia]].
The river, taking its rise in the [[Stanovoi Mountains]] as the Ivashki or Ivachno, about 67°N latitude and 173°E longitude, flows through the [[Chukotka]], at first southwest and then east, and enters the Gulf of Anadyr after a course of about 500 miles. The country through which it passes is thinly populated, and is dominated by [[tundra]], which is rich with a variety of plant life. Much of the region is folded in rugged mountains, and is a beautiful landscape. For nine months of the year the ground is covered with snow, and the frozen rivers become navigable roads. [[Reindeer]], upon which the inhabitants subsist, were once found in considerable numbers, but the domestic reindeer population has collapsed dramatically since the reorganization and privatization of state-run collective farms beginning in [[1992]]. As herds of domestic reindeer have declined, herds of wild [[caribou]] have increased.
==See also==
* [[Anadyr, Russia|Anadyr]] (town)
*[[Operation Anadyr]]
==References==
* {{1911}}
[[Category:Rivers of Russia]]
[[de:Anadyr (Fluss)]]
[[pl:Anadyr (rzeka)]]
[[uk:Анадир (ріка)]]
[[fi:Anadyr (joki)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>André-Marie Ampère</title>
<id>1363</id>
<revision>
<id>41832394</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:03:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>158.158.240.230</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>deleted a random "hello" at the end of a paragraph</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name =André-Marie Ampère
| image = André Marie Ampère.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = [[January 20]], [[1775]]
| birth_place =
| death_date =[[June 10]], [[1836]]
| death_place = [[Marseille]],[[France]]
| occupation = [[Physicist]]
| salary =
| networth =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''André-Marie Ampère''' ([[January 20]] [[1775]] &ndash; [[June 10]] [[1836]]), was a French [[physicist]] who is generally credited as one of the main discoverers of [[electromagnetism]]. The [[ampere]] unit of measurement of [[Current (electricity)|electric current]] is named after him.
==Early days==
Ampère was born in [[Lyon]], near his father's country house in [[Poleymieux]] and, as a [[child prodigy]], took a passionate delight in the pursuit of knowledge from his very infancy, and is reported to have worked out long arithmetical sums by means of pebbles and biscuit crumbs before he knew the figures. His father began to teach him [[Latin]], but ceased on discovering the boy's greater inclination and aptitude for mathematical studies. The young Ampère, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, to enable him to master the works of [[Leonhard Euler|Euler]] and [[Daniel Bernoulli|Bernoulli]].
In later life he was accustomed to say that he knew as much about mathematics when he was eighteen as ever he knew; but, a [[polymath]], his reading embraced nearly the whole round of knowledge &mdash; history, travels, poetry, philosophy and the natural sciences.
In [[1796]] he met Julie Carron, and an attachment sprang up between them. In [[1799]] they were married. From about 1796 Ampère gave private lessons at Lyons in [[mathematics]], [[chemistry]] and languages; and in [[1801]] he removed to Bourg, as professor of [[physics]] and [[chemistry]], leaving his ailing wife and infant son ([[Jean Jacques Ampère]]) at Lyon. She died in 1804, and he never reco |
d and verbally abusive, through five months of grueling 14 hour workdays and several weeks of rehearsal shows before launch, on [[October 7]], [[1996]].
At launch, only ten million households were able to watch Fox News, with none in the major media markets of [[New York City]] and [[Los Angeles]]. According to published reports, many media reviewers had to watch the first day's programming at Fox News studios because it wasn't readily available. The rolling news coverage during the day consisted of 20 minute single topic shows like ''[[Fox on Crime]]'' or ''[[Fox on Politics]]'' surrounded by news [[headlines]]. Interviews had various interesting facts at the bottom of the screen about the topic or the guest. The flagship newscast at the time was called ''The Schenider Report'', with Mike Schneider giving a fast paced delivery of the news. During the evening, Fox had opinion shows: ''[[The O'Reilly Factor]]'' (then called ''[[The O'Reilly Report]]''), ''The Crier Report'' hosted by [[Catherine Crier]], and [[Hannity & Colmes]]. From the beginning, FNC has also had a number of different slogans it included in daily broadcasts including: "America's Newsroom", "The Most Powerful Name in News", "FOX Means Business", "[[Fair and Balanced]]", and "We Report, You Decide"
[[image:foxnewsalert.png|left|thumb|''Fox News'' Alert title card]]From the beginning, Fox News has had a heavy emphasis on the visual presentation of news. Graphics were designed to be colorful and attention grabbing, and to allow people to get the main points of what was being said even if they couldn't hear the host, through the use of on-screen text summarizing the position of the interviewer or speaker, and "bullet points" when a host was giving commentary. The network differentiated commentary from interviews with a constant graphic reading "COMMENTARY" during features such as Bill O'Reilly's ''Talking Points Memo''. Fox News also created the ''Fox News Alert'', which interrupted regular programming when a breaking news story occurred. Each ''News Alert'' was designed to be attention catching with a swooshing graphic filling the screen and a piercing chime instead of the regular news music. At the beginning of FNC, the ''Fox News Alert'' was used fairly rarely, giving the chime more cachet, but currently it is used regularly to announce scheduled events or repeat existing news instead of only breaking news stories, with ''Fox News Alerts'' sometimes several times each hour instead of just a few times a day. Fox News was also the first network to put up the American flag after the [[September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks]], a feature in the upper left hand corner that has persisted to this day.
To get cable systems to take Fox News, the channel paid systems up to $11 per subscriber in subsidy to take up the network, in a move common to newly launched cable channels. This contrasted with the normal practice, in which cable operators pay stations carriage fees for the programming of channels. When Time Warner bought out [[Ted Turner]]'s [[Turner Broadcasting]], a federal [[antitrust]] [[consent decree]] required Time Warner to carry a second all-news channel in addition to Time Warner's own [[CNN]]. Time Warner selected MSNBC as the secondary news network, instead of Fox News. Fox News claimed that this violated an agreement to carry Fox News, and Ailes used his connections to persuade Mayor Giuliani to carry Fox News and [[Bloomberg Television]] on two underutilized city-owned cable channels, which he did.
New York City also threatened to revoke Time Warner's cable [[exclusive right|franchise]] for not carrying Fox News. A lawsuit was filed by Time Warner against the City of New York claiming undue interference and for inappropriate use of the city's educational channels for commercial programming. News Corporation countered with an antitrust lawsuit against Time Warner for unfairly protecting CNN. This led to an acrominous battle between Murdoch and Turner, with Turner publicly comparing Murdoch to [[Adolf Hitler]] while Murdoch's ''[[New York Post]]'' ran an editorial questioning Turner's sanity. Giuliani's motives were also questioned, as his then-wife was a producer at Murdoch-owned [[WNYW-TV]]. In the end, Time Warner and News Corporation signed a [[settlement (law)|settlement]] agreement to permit Fox News to be carried on New York City cable system beginning in October [[1997]], and to all of Time Warner's cable systems by [[2001]]. In return, Time Warner was given some rights to News Corporation's [[satellite]]s in Asia and Europe to distribute Time Warner programming, would receive the normal compensation per subscriber paid to cable operators, and News Corporation would not object to [[Atlanta Braves]] baseball games being carried on [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]] (which normally would not happen because of the Fox television network's contract with [[Major League Baseball]]).
==Management==
The [[CEO]], [[Chairman of the Board|Chairman]], and [[President]] of Fox News is Roger Ailes. After he began his career in broadcasting, Ailes started [[Ailes Communications, Inc]] and was successful as a political strategist for Presidents [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] and [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] and in producing campaign TV commercials for [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] political candidates. His work for former President Richard M. Nixon was chronicled in the book ''[[The Selling of the President: 1968]]'' by [[Joe McGinniss]]. Ailes withdrew from consulting and returned to broadcasting in [[1992]], including [[Rush Limbaugh]]'s [[television program]] during [[1992]]-[[1996]]. He ran the [[CNBC]] channel and ''America's Talking,'' the forerunner of MSNBC for NBC. More recently, Ailes was named ''Broadcaster of the Year'' by [[Broadcast and Cable Magazine]] in 2003.
==Programming==
Fox News presents a wide variety of programming, with up to 15 hours of live programming per day. Most of the programs are broadcast from Fox News headquarters in New York City with its street-side studios on Sixth Avenue (1211 [[Avenue of the Americas]]) in the west extension of [[Rockefeller Center]].
The following is the usual weekday lineup ([[as of 2005|as of Jan. 2005]], all times [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]):
* 6 a.m.: Morning programming begins with ''[[Fox & Friends|Fox & Friends 1st]]'', hosted by one or more of the ''Fox & Friends'' hosts with rotating co-hosts [[Kiran Chetry]], [[Lauren Green]], [[Juliet Huddy]], [[Andrew Napolitano|Andrew P. Napolitano]] and others.
* 7 a.m.: ''[[Fox & Friends]]'', hosted by [[Steve Doocy]], [[E.D. Hill]] and [[Brian Kilmeade]], is similar to other cable news network programming in the mornings, such as CNN's ''[[American Morning]]'' with [[Miles O'Brien (journalist)|Miles O'Brien]] and [[Soledad O'Brien]] and [[MSNBC]]'s ''[[Imus in the Morning]]''.
* 9 a.m.: Late morning and early afternoon programming starts with ''[[Fox News Live]]'', a show featuring news, guest analysis, and interviews. Like other American cable news stations, there is news mixed with feature-like stories, as well as commentary and short [[debates]] between people on opposite sides of issues, usually between associates of candidates and officials, [[think tank]] members and journalists. Usually hosted by [[Jon Scott]], [[Brigitte Quinn]] and [[Bill Hemmer]].
* 1 p.m.: [[Juliet Huddy]] and [[Mike Jerrick]]'s talk show with a live audience, ''[[Dayside]]''.
* 2 p.m.: Another hour of ''[[Fox News Live]]'' hosted by [[Martha MacCallum]].
* 3 p.m.: [[Shepard Smith]]'s news program, ''[[Studio B]]''.
* 4 p.m.: Fox's flagship business program, ''[[Your World with Neil Cavuto|Your World]]'', hosted by [[Neil Cavuto]].
* 5 p.m.: [[John Gibson (media host)|John Gibson]] hosts ''[[The Big Story (television program)|The Big Story]]'', a news/commentary program.
* 6 p.m.: [[Primetime]] starts with the political news and discussion show ''[[Special Report with Brit Hume]]'', hosted by political reporter [[Brit Hume]] from [[Washington, DC]].
* 7 p.m.: Shepard Smith broadcasts ''The [[Fox Report]] With Shepard Smith'', FNC's evening news program (similar to programs offered on [[World News Tonight|ABC]], [[CBS Evening News|CBS]], and [[NBC Nightly News|NBC]]), offering coverage of national and international news, and FOXCAST weather.
* 8 p.m.: The network's top-rated show, ''[[The O'Reilly Factor]]''. The taped broadcast features commentary from [[Bill O'Reilly (journalist)|Bill O'Reilly]], formerly of ''[[Inside Edition]]'' fame.
* 9 p.m.: [[american conservatism|Conservative]] [[Sean Hannity]] and [[liberalism in the United States|liberal]] [[Alan Colmes]] debate political issues of the day with guests and analysts during ''[[Hannity & Colmes]]''.
* 10 p.m.: [[Greta Van Susteren]] broadcasts ''[[On the Record with Greta Van Susteren|On the Record]] with Greta Van Susteren''. This program has an emphasis on stories pertaining to legal matters or human interest.
* 11 p.m.: Reruns of previous programs are shown until 6 a.m. the next day.
In addition to the regular weekday programming, FNC also has weekend programming including ''[[Fox & Friends]]'', ''"[[The Cost Of Freedom]]"'' business block, ''[[Weekend Live]] with [[Tony Snow]] (Saturday)/[[Brian Wilson (journalist)|Brian Wilson]] (Sunday)'', ''[[Fox News Live]] with [[Jamie Colby]]'', ''[[Studio B]] with [[Trace Gallagher]]'', ''[[The Big Story]] Weekend with [[Julie Banderas]]'', ''[[The Beltway Boys]]'', ''[[Fox News Watch]]'', ''[[Fox Report]] with [[Trace Gallagher]]'', ''[[War Stories with Oliver North]]'', ''[[Heartland with John Kasich]]'', ''[[The Lineup]]'', ''[[The Big Story]] Weekend'', and ''[[The Journal Editorial Report]]''.
Fox News also produced several [[newsmagazine]] shows for its Fox affiliates including ''Fox Files'' and ''The Pulse'', although both were |
in warfare and to resolve disputes of honour in formal duels through the nineteenth century and into the twentieth.
Though agonistic competition in fencing is as old as the art itself, the modern sport of fencing originated in the first [[Olympics|Olympic games]] in 1896. The first few years of fencing as a sport were chaotic, with important rule disagreements among schools of fencing from different countries, notably the representatives of the French and Italian schools. This state of affairs ended in 1913, with the foundation of the ''Fédération Internationale d'Escrime'' ([[FIE]]) in Paris. The stated purpose of the FIE is to codify and regulate the practice of the sport of fencing, particularly for the purpose of international competition. The foundation of the FIE is a convenient breaking point between the classical and the modern traditions of fencing.
== Fencing philosophies ==
There are many different autonomous directions in contemporary fencing:
===Sport fencing===
''Sport fencing'' is also known as ''Olympic fencing''. This is the sort of fencing seen in most competitions (including the [[Olympic Games]]). It is conducted according to the rules laid down by the [[FIE]] (the international governing body), which are roughly based on the conventions of fencing as it was developed as a martial art and gentlemanly accomplishment in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Due to technical developments and ideological disagreements, these rules are subject to frequent revisions and amendments.
===Classical fencing===
''[[Classical fencing]]''. This type of fencing generally attracts people who feel that contemporary sports fencing has strayed too far from its [[martial arts]] origins. A growing body of fencing masters continue to teach the more martial forms of the Classical period as handed down from their masters' masters. Some practitioners also often try to reconstruct old European systems of armed combat, while others only advocate a return to an earlier set of conventions in sport fencing.
===Historical fencing===
''[[Historical fencing]]'' is a type of [[historical martial arts reconstruction]] based on the work of historical texts and traditions. Historical fencing can include longsword, single-handed cutting swords, pole arms, rapier and many other forms. Only a few fencing masters still exist who have been taught and continue to teach these weapons and techniques in an unbroken lineage (that is, a system that has been passed from master to student through the centuries).
===SCA fencing===
''[[SCA fencing]]'' is the form of historical fencing conducted by members of the [[SCA]] ([[Society for Creative Anachronism]]). Generally it aspires to a pre-[[1600s]] form while still using modern fencing weapons and safety gear disguised to pass as period clothing.
===Stage fencing===
''Stage fencing'' (''l'escrime artistique'') is a type of fencing that seeks to achieve the maximum theatrical impact. Fights are, generally, choreographed, and fencing actions are somewhat exaggerated. It is not an exclusive preserve of actors and stuntmen - some people do it as a hobby.
===Academic fencing===
''[[Academic fencing]]'' or ''[[mensur]]'' is a German student tradition. The combat, which uses a type of cutting saber known as the [[schlager]], uses sharpened blades and takes place between members of different fraternities in accordance with a strictly delineated set of conventions, using special protective gear. The ultimate goal is the development of personal character; there is no "winner" or "loser," but rather the object is to show coolness and proper deportment in the face of a sharp blade.
== The weapons ==
In both its modern and its classical guise, fencing consists of three different weapons: [[Foil (sword)|foil]], [[épée]] and [[Sabre (fencing)|sabre]]. These three weapons had become standard by the late nineteenth century and all are represented at Olympic-level competition. Additionally, in classical academies, one will often find [[historical fencing]] weapons, such as ''[[la canne|canne]]'', ''[[bâton français|bâton]]'', ''[[main-gauche]]'' or [[rapier]] and [[dagger]], being taught.
Foil used to be the first weapon taught to beginners, because the techniques of foil teach, in abstract form, the fundamentals of fencing. Additionally, in the past, women were only allowed to fence foil, and the lightness of the weapon made it easier to handle for children. Today, while it is still adviseable to gain at least a fundamental grasp of foil before proceeding with either of the other two weapons, fencers, especially those who intend to fence sabre, often begin with any of the three weapons.
===Anatomy of the weapons===
While the weapons fencers use differ in size and purpose some basic parts of the weapon remain constant throughout the disciplines. The pommel, a weighted piece of metal at the end of the handle, holds the blade and handle together while providing a counter-balance to the weight of the blade (in actual combat situations, the pommel could also be used as a bludgeon). The grip can be one of several types: French, Italian (mostly seen in classical fencing), a hybrid of these two known as the Spanish grip (now illegal in FIE competition), or the orthopedic or pistol grip (the most common in FIE competition).
====Italian grip====
[[Image:Foil-2004-A.jpg|thumb||right|Italian grip]]
The [[Italian grip]], though the earliest to develop, is rarely used today in sport fencing, but is common amongst classical fencers. Its advocates say that it has most of the French grip's agility with a much greater degree of power and stability. The Italian grip consists of a straight handle, a crossbar (the [[quillions]]), and two rings. The fencer's fingers actually rest upon the ricasso, which is part of the blade. This not only gives great security, but great sensitivity.
====French grip====
[[Image:Red_French_Grip.JPG|thumb|frame|right|Electric French Grip]]
The [[French grip]] is contoured to the curve of the hand and reached its modern form in the late nineteenth century. Compared to the other primary grip used in modern sport fencing, the pistol grip, the French is thought to have greater speed and maneuverability, but lesser strength and stability. The French grip also allows the fencer to "post", holding the grip towards the base, called the pommel, instead of correctly holding the weapon near the bell guard. This gives the fencer a longer and more deceptive range while lessening speed, manueverability, strength and stability.
====Spanish grip====
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:spanishoffset.jpg|thumb|frame|right|Spanish offset grip.]] -->
The Spanish offset is a hybrid of the French and Italian grips. It resembles a French grip with two orthopedic aids coming from the top and bottom, which serve the same purpose of the quillions of the Italian grip.
====Pistol grip====
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:viscontigrip.jpg|thumb|frame|right|Visconti-Style pistol grip.]] -->
The [[Pistol grip (fencing)|pistol grip]] (otherwise known as the anatomical or orthopedic grip), originally developed for a nineteenth-century Belgian master who had lost fingers in a tram accident, contours entirely to one's hand and is held much like a pistol, hence the name. This grip became popular amongst sports fencers in the late twentieth century because of the way it complemented the agility and athleticism of competitots - albeit, as critics allege, at the cost of blade sensitivity finesse. There are several types of pistol grips, such as the basic Visconti (which is what most people refer to as a pistol grip), the American, Belgian, and Russian. The various pistol grips all provide a somewhat firmer hold for the user of the weapon than would be possible with the French grip. This endows the user with a more stable grip on the weapon.
=== Foil ===
The modern [[Foil (sword)|foil]] is descended from the training weapon for the [[small-sword]], the common sidearm of the eighteenth-century gentleman. However, it has long since been altered to be similar in length to the épée (averaging 35" or 890 mm). (Rapier and even [[longsword]] foils are also known to have been used but they were very different in terms of weight and use.) It is a light weapon, with a tapered, flexible, quadrangular blade, that scores only with the point. In modern sport fencing, which makes use of electrical scoring apparatus, one must hit the opponent with the tip of the blade, with a force of at least 4.90 [[newton]]s (500 [[kilogram-force|grams-force]]).
[[Image:foilfen.gif|frame|right|A foil fencer. Valid target (the torso) is in black.]]
The valid target area at foil is limited, due to its origins in a time when fencing was practised with limited safety equipment. Hits to the face were dangerous, so the head was removed from valid target. The target was then further reduced to only the trunk of the body, where the vitals are located. A touch which lands on an invalid target stops the bout, but no point is scored.
During the 1980s, partly due of the introduction of the pistol grip, a technique was developed known as "flicking," a move with which the fencer whipped his/her blade in such a manner that it bent almost to a square angle in midair, the point hitting the opponent only afterwards. If executed properly, this move has the ability to bypass most classical parries, and to hit in unusual or difficult places (such as the back). This technique is contoversial, in that it departs from traditional, classical style fencing. To circumvent the flick, in 2005 the FIE changed the "depression timing" of the tip. This caused most "flick touches" to be no longer detected by the scoring machines, thus favouring more classical, straight thrusts.
Foil is often seen as the most "mental" of the three weap |
red of [[nucleotide]]s and reforming a double helix. A second DNA polymerase molecule (also green) is used to bind to the other template strand as the double helix opens. This molecule must synthesize discontinuous segments of polynucleotides (called [[Okazaki fragment]]s). Another enzyme, [[DNA ligase]] shown in violet, then stitches these together into the lagging strand.]]
'''DNA replication''' or '''DNA synthesis''' is the process of copying a double-stranded [[DNA]] strand in a [[cell (biology)|cell]], prior to [[cell division]]. In [[eukaryote]]s, this is during the [[S phase]] of the [[cell cycle]], preceding [[mitosis]] and [[meiosis]]. The two resulting double strands are identical (if the replication went well), and each of them consists of one original and one newly synthesized strand. This is called ''[[semiconservative replication]]''. The process of replication consists of three steps, ''initiation'', ''replication'' and ''termination''. ''Artificial'' DNA replication is carried out through [[polymerase chain reaction]].
==Steps==
=== Initiation ===
In the initiation step, several key factors are recruited to an [[origin of replication]]. This origin of replication is unwound, and the partially unwound strands form a "replication bubble", with one [[replication fork]] on either end. Each group of enzymes at the replication fork moves away from the origin, unwinding and replicating the original DNA strands as they proceed. [[Primer (molecular biology)|Primers]] mark the individual sequences and their start and end points, to be replicated.
The factors involved are collectively called the [[pre-replication complex]]. It consists of the following:
* A [[topoisomerase]], which introduces negative supercoils into the DNA in order to minimize tortional strain induced by the unwinding of the DNA by helicase. This prevents the DNA from knotting up.
* A [[helicase]], which unwinds and splits the DNA ahead of the fork. Thereafter, [[single-strand binding protein]]s (SSB) swiftly bind to the separated DNA, thus preventing the strands from reuniting.
* A [[primase]], which generates an [[RNA]] primer to be used in DNA replication.
* A [[DNA holoenzyme]], which in reality is a complex of enzymes that together perform the actual replication.
=== Elongation===
After the helicase unwinds the DNA, RNA primase is bound to the starting DNA site.
At the beginning of replication, an enzyme called [[DNA polymerase]] binds to the RNA primase, which indicates the starting point for the replication. DNA polymerase can only synthesize new DNA from the [[Nucleic acid nomenclature|5&rsquo;]] to [[Nucleic acid nomenclature|3&rsquo;]] (of the new DNA). Because of this, the DNA polymerase can only travel on one side of the original strand without any interruption. This original strand, which goes from 3&rsquo; to 5&rsquo;, is called the [[leading strand]]. The complement of the leading strand, from 5&rsquo; to 3&rsquo;, is the [[lagging strand]].
Each time the helicase unwinds additional DNA, new DNA polymerase needs to be added to ensure there remains enough. As a result, the DNA of the lagging strand is replicated in a piecemeal fashion. Another enzyme, [[DNA ligase]], is used to connect the so-called [[Okazaki fragment]]s.
In prokaryotes, coupled leading strand and lagging strand synthesis is achieved by the action of the [[DNA polymerase III holoenzyme]].
In eukaryotes, there are a number of DNA polymerases with exonuclease and proof-reading abilities to carry out replication.
=== Termination ===
Termination occurs when DNA replication forks meet one another or run to the end of a linear DNA molecule. Also, termination may occur when a replication fork is deliberately stopped by a special protein, called a replication terminator protein, that binds to specific sites on a DNA molecule.
When the polymerase reaches the end of a length of DNA, there is a potential problem due to the antiparallel structure of DNA. Because an RNA primer must be regularly laid down on the lagging strand, the last section of the lagging-strand DNA cannot be replicated because there is no DNA template for the primer to be synthesized on. To solve this problem, the ends of most chromosomes consist of [[noncoding DNA]] that contains repeat sequences. The end of a linear chromosome is called the [[telomere]].
The repeat DNA in the telomere is not essential for survival, because it does not contain genes, so cells can endure the shortening of the chromosome at the telomere. Many cells use an enzyme called [[telomerase]] that adds the repeat units to the end of the chromosome so the ends to not become too short after multiple rounds of DNA replication. Many simple, single-celled organisms overcome the whole problem by having circular chromosomes.
Before the DNA replication is finally complete, enzymes are used to proofread the sequences to make sure the nucleotides are paired up correctly in a process called [[DNA repair]]. If mistake or damage occurs, enzymes such as a [[nuclease]] will remove the incorrect DNA. DNA polymerase will then fill in the gap.
===Equation===
A [[chemical equation]] can be written that represents the process:
<blockquote> (DNA)<sub>n</sub> + dNTP &harr; (DNA)<sub>n+1</sub> + PP<sub>i</sub></blockquote>
==Organization of multiple replication sites==
The human genome contains 6 billion nucleotide pairs (arrayed in 46 linear chromosomes) that are copied at about 50 [[base pair]]s per second by each replication fork. Yet, in a typical cell the entire replication process takes only about 8 hours. This is because there are many [[replication origin site]]s on a eukaryotic chromosome. Therefore, replication can begin at some origins earlier than at others. As replication nears completion, "bubbles" of newly replicated DNA meet and fuse, forming two new molecules.
There must be some form of regulation and organisation of these multiple replication sites to prevent conflict. To date, two replication control mechanisms have been identified: one positive and one negative. For DNA to be replicated, each replication origin site must be bound by a set of proteins called the ''origin recognition complex''. These remain attached to the DNA throughout the replication process. Specific accessory proteins, called [[licensing factor]]s, must also be present for initiation of replication. Destruction of these proteins after initiation of replication prevents further replication cycles from occurring. This is because licensing factors are only produced when the [[nuclear membrane]] of a cell breaks down the during [[mitosis]].
==Measurement==
===Conditional mutants===
Measurement of DNA replication can be done using [[conditional mutant]]s.
Mutants that grow at 30°C but not at 42°C are collected. At this temperature these mutants should incorporate [[nucleotide]]s into DNA. Protein synthesis should not be affected.
There are two outcomes for a graph of incorporation of labelled nucleotides into DNA vs time:
#Quick stop indicates the mutation is in a DNA synthesis factor.
#Slow stop indicates the mutation is possibly in an initiation factor such as dnaA.
The assay can measure the incorporation of [[deoxyribonucleotide]]s into [[acid]] or [[ethanol]] insoluble forms. [[Gel filtration chromatography]] or [[ion exchange chromatography]] is used to get all protein fractions and is followed by assay for [[DNA polymerase]].
==External links==
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/dna/ DNA Workshop]
* {{NCBI-scienceprimer}}
[[Category:DNA replication]]
[[de:Replikation]]
[[fr:Réplication de l'ADN]]
[[ko:DNA 복제]]
[[he:שכפול דנ"א]]
[[ja:DNA複製]]
[[nl:Replicatie (DNA)]]
[[pl:Replikacja DNA]]
[[sv:Replikation]]
[[vi:Quá trình tự nhân đôi DNA]]
[[tr:DNA'nın çoğalması]]
[[zh:DNA复制]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dravidian</title>
<id>9016</id>
<revision>
<id>39863027</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T11:00:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>M arpalmane</username>
<id>342175</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/*Pre-Indo-European Indians is a vague statement*/</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dravidian''' may refer to:
*[[Dravidian languages]], including the [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], and [[Kannada]] languages spoken especially in southern India and northern Sri Lanka.
*[[Southern Dravidian languages]], a major grouping of the languages
*[[Dravidian race]], a member of any of the peoples that speak one of the Dravidian languages.
*A political movement encompassing a number of different parties that appeal to speakers of the [[Tamil language]]
{{disambig}}
[[fa:&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1608;&#1740;&#1583;&#1740;]]
[[Category:Dravidian people]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dravidian people</title>
<id>9017</id>
<revision>
<id>41750225</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:53:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
The terms '''Dravidians''' and '''Dravidian Race''' are sometimes given to the peoples of southern and central [[India]] and northern [[Sri Lanka]] who speak [[Dravidian languages]], the best known of which are [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (&#2980;&#2990;&#3007;&#2996;&#3021;), [[Telugu language|Telugu]] (&#3108;&#3142;&#3122;&#3137;&#3095;&#3137;), [[Kannada language|Kannada]] (ಕನ್ನಡ), [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] (&#3374;&#3378;&#3375;&#3390;&#3379;&#3330;) and [[Tulu language|Tulu]] (ತುಳು).
==Ethnology==
The term |
being one of their most successful ones to date (hitting #4 in the UK charts), things did not last, as [[Ian Gillan]] left to reunite with [[Deep Purple]]. Drummer [[Bill Ward]] once again returned to the fold, and the hiring of new singer [[David Donato]] was officially announced in [[1984]]. However, after six months worth of rehearsals, Donato was discharged by management when Iommi and Butler squabbled over financial issues.
At this point, the band's frequent line-up changes, [[Ozzy Osbourne]]'s increasing success in his solo career, and side-taking from music critics, combined to put the band under Osbourne's shadow. Founding member [[Geezer Butler]] quit out of frustration and formed the [[Geezer Butler Band]], which did not end up releasing any albums. The original line-up of Black Sabbath reunited for one three-song show at [[Live Aid]] in 1985. After this, Tony Iommi decided to record a solo album and enlisted the help of longtime Sabbath keyboardist [[Geoff Nicholls]] (who was finally made an official member) and vocalist [[Glenn Hughes]], formerly of [[Deep Purple]] and [[Trapeze]]. [[Tony Iommi]] also got engaged to famous female heavy metal star [[Lita Ford]], and enlisted the help of her band's bassist ([[Dave Spitz|Dave "The Beast" Spitz]]) and drummer [[Eric Singer]], (later of [[KISS (band)|KISS]] and [[Alice Cooper]]) to round off the line-up. However, record company pressure caused the album ''[[Seventh Star]]'' to be released as ''Black Sabbath featuring Tony Iommi''.
Early in the tour for ''[[Seventh Star]]'' in [[1986]], [[Glenn Hughes]] got into a fist fight, and suffered severe blood clotting in his throat which made him lose his voice. An unknown young American singer by the name of [[Ray Gillen]] (no relation to [[Ian Gillan]]) was tapped for the job and finished the tour. The morale in the band was very high when they started recording ''[[The Eternal Idol]]'' (former drummer [[Bev Bevan]] had returned as a percussionist, and a second bassist, [[Bob Daisley]], also joined), but the new Black Sabbath hit a devastating series of catastrophes involving mismanagement and financial debt, mainly from poorly planned use of the world's most expensive recording studio. As a result, [[Ray Gillen]] left the band during the recording sessions. He later hooked up with ex-Ozzy Osbourne guitarist [[Jake E. Lee]] to form the rather successful band [[Badlands (band)|Badlands]] (which would later include Eric Singer).
Singer [[Tony Martin]] was brought in to re-record all of Gillen's original vocals on the ''Eternal Idol'' tapes, and the album was finally released. [[Tony Martin]] proved to be the perfect vocalist for the newly revitalised Black Sabbath. Though he somewhat resembled Dio, Martin clearly had his own style.
After the recording of ''[[The Eternal Idol]]'', most of the band quit Sabbath, leaving Iommi, Martin, and Nicholls to recruit bassist [[Jo Burt]] and former [[Clash]] drummer [[Terry Chimes]] for the short-lived 1987 ''Eternal Idol'' tour.
In early [[1988]], ''[[Kerrang!]]'' magazine ran a story that Vegas-lounge singer [[Tom Jones (singer)|Tom Jones]] had joined [[Tony Iommi]] and [[Bill Ward]] in Black Sabbath. This later became known as a hoax, possibly due to the fact that it was the April issue of the magazine and during the shifting lineups of the 1980s, the ''Kerrang!'' staff seemed to enjoy poking fun at Black Sabbath as it then existed.
=== 1990s, 2000s ===
However, a significant degree of band stability finally came back to Black Sabbath by [[1988]] with the retention of [[Tony Martin]] and [[Geoff Nicholls]], and the addition of loyal drummer [[Cozy Powell]], who replaced [[Terry Chimes]]. Powell, a legendary drummer, had had success with his own band, as well as with [[Rainbow (band)|Rainbow]], [[Whitesnake]], [[Emerson, Lake & Palmer|ELP]] and many others. With bassist [[Laurence Cottle]] replacing Jo Burt, Sabbath released the critically acclaimed ''[[Headless Cross]]'' album in [[1989]]. An [[MTV]] video for the title track received considerable airplay, and was released to mostly positive reviews. After the ''[[Headless Cross]]'' sessions, Laurence Cottle was replaced by veteran bassist [[Neil Murray]] (a former bandmate of [[Cozy Powell]]'s in [[Whitesnake]]). Sabbath released ''[[Tyr (album)|Tyr]]'' in 1990, considered by many to be one of the best Sabbath albums released in the post-Osbourne period. The group toured extensively throughout [[1990]] and [[1991]], as sales for the highly praised ''[[Tyr]]'' album continued to rise. Then the reunions happened.
[[Tony Iommi]] cleaned house in [[1992]] to reunite the classic 1980s lineup of Black Sabbath (although what was to become the ''[[Dehumanizer]]'' line-up had originally been Iommi/Butler/Powell before [[Cozy Powell]] suffered a hip injury) Founding member [[Geezer Butler]], along with [[Ronnie James Dio]] and [[Vinny Appice]], joined up with [[Tony Iommi]] once again (this was the same line-up from [[1981]]'s ''[[Mob Rules]]'' and [[1982]]'s ''[[Live Evil]]'') and together they recorded ''Dehumanizer'' ([[1992]]). Playing to larger audiences then they had in nearly a decade, the rejuvenated Sabbath enjoyed renewed success with the powerful ''[[Dehumanizer]]'' album and tour. It was around this time that Ozzy Osbourne announced his retirement from touring and proposed that Black Sabbath open his final two shows at [[Costa Mesa, California|Costa Mesa]]. When Dio refused to participate, Iommi, Butler and Appice agreed to appear without him.
Dio quit to return to his highly successful solo band, and [[Rob Halford]] of [[Fight]], former [[Judas Priest]] singer, was brought in as a last-minute replacement (specifically for this event only). The original Black Sabbath lineup, including [[Bill Ward]], reunited to close the second night of performances, on November 15, [[1992]], performing four songs. In the end, [[Ozzy Osbourne]] decided not to retire (following his "No More Tours" tour with the aptly titled "Retirement Sucks" tour), and contracts were all ready for a new album and tour from the original Black Sabbath line-up, but then Osbourne decided at the last minute that he did not want to do it.
After the Dio/Halford debacle, [[Vinnie Appice]] was replaced by former [[Rainbow (band)|Rainbow]] drummer [[Bobby Rondinelli]]. Vocalist [[Tony Martin]] and keyboardist [[Geoff Nicholls]] returned to the band and Black Sabbath recorded the superb ''[[Cross Purposes]]'', and ''[[Cross Purposes Live]]'', a CD and video combination, which was released in late [[1994]], after which [[Bobby Rondinelli]] left the group mid-tour. His replacement for the rest of the tour was, surprisingly, original Black Sabbath drummer [[Bill Ward]]. After the tour, both Ward and Butler parted ways with Iommi, Martin, and Nicholls.
Another reunion was on tap in [[1995]]. This time the ''[[Tyr (album)|Tyr]]''-era group would again join forces, as drummer [[Cozy Powell]] and bassist [[Neil Murray]] rejoined Iommi, Martin, and Nicholls for ''[[Forbidden (album)|Forbidden]]''. The album was produced by [[Ernie C]] of the pioneering [[rap metal]] group [[Body Count]]. To date, ''[[Forbidden]]'' remains Black Sabbath's last full-length studio album recorded by any line-up. After the recording of the album, Cozy Powell left again and was replaced for the tour by a returning [[Bobby Rondinelli]].
In [[1996]], [[Castle Records]] remastered and re-released Black Sabbath's catalog on CD up through ''Eternal Idol'' ([[1987]]), and a 1988-1995 compilation titled ''[[The Sabbath Stones]]'' was released to finish [[Tony Iommi]]'s contract with the record label.
In [[1997]], [[Ozzy Osbourne]] launched his wildly successful [[Ozzfest]] metal festival tour, which he headlined on a nightly basis. For the last part of his set each night, he was joined by Geezer Butler and Tony Iommi for a rundown on several Sabbath classics ([[Faith No More]] drummer [[Mike Bordin]] was on drums). However, in December 1997, original drummer Bill Ward joined forces with Osbourne, Iommi, and Butler to reform the original Black Sabbath for the first time since 1979.
Black Sabbath have since released at least one authorised double-CD compilation, one double-CD live compilation, and an eight CD box set. The band had writing sessions together in [[2001]], and played one new song ("Scary Dreams") on the subsequent tour. However, a new studio album has yet to be released. The band initially began work on a new album in [[2001]] with legendary producer [[Rick Rubin]], but Ozzy's solo contract has delayed, and perhaps killed, further progress on the album. The band took three years off before returning to the road in [[2004]] to headline yet another [[Ozzfest]] tour, celebrating their 35th anniversary. For [[2005]], [[Ozzy Osbourne]] performed with Black Sabbath in his Ozzfest tour, which also featured [[Iron Maiden]]. On keyboards for [[2005]] shows was [[Rick Wakeman]]'s son [[Adam Wakeman|Adam]].
In November [[2005]] Black Sabbath were inducted into the [[UK Music Hall of Fame]], and the original line-up played at the awards ceremony. That same month it was also announced that they would be inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] on [[March 13]], [[2006]].
==Reunions==
In [[1985]], the original members of Black Sabbath (Iommi/Butler/Osbourne/Ward) reunited for the [[Live Aid]] [[benefit concert]]. They played only three songs.
In [[1992]], the 1980-1982 version of Black Sabbath (Iommi/Butler/Dio/Appice) reunited and toured for the album ''[[Dehumanizer]]''.
In [[1992]], the original members of Black Sabbath played three songs after one of Ozzy Osbourne's "retirement" concerts in Costa Mesa, California.
In [[1995]], the 1989-1991 version of the band (Iommi/Powell/Martin/Murray/Nicholls) reunited for the album and tour for ''[[Forbidden (album)|Forbidden]]''.
In [[1997]]-[[1998|98]], the original memb |
iangle weave]]
* [[bead netting]]
* [[African helix]]
* [[Dutch spiral]]
The techniques produce fabrics with distinct textures and other properties, and thus are suitable for different kinds of articles.
References:
* Don Pierce, ''Beading on a Loom.'' Interweave Press, 1999. ISBN 1-883010-63-2
* Carol Wilcox Wells, ''Creative Bead Weaving.'' Lark Books, 1996. ISBN 1-887374-05-1
[[Category:Weaving]]
[[Category:Beadwork]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Be bold in updating pages</title>
<id>3404</id>
<revision>
<id>15901740</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-13T23:59:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Netoholic</username>
<id>41995</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cleaning up Neutrality's bad page move</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Be bold in updating pages]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense</title>
<id>3405</id>
<revision>
<id>15901741</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-17T07:13:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kevyn</username>
<id>71581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Branchiopoda</title>
<id>3406</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T09:53:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mahlum</username>
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<minor />
<comment>no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Branchiopods
| image = Triopsl.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Triops'', a [[notostracans|notostracan]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| subphylum = [[Crustacea]]
| classis = '''Branchiopoda'''
| classis_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1817
| subdivision_ranks = Orders
| subdivision =
*Sarsostraca
*:[[Fairy shrimp|Anostraca]]
*[[Phyllopoda]]
*:[[Notostraca]]
*:[[Diplostraca]]
*::[[Laevicaudata]]
*::[[Spinicaudata]]
*::[[Cyclestherida]]
*::[[Cladocera]]
}}
'''Branchiopoda''' is a group of primitive and primarily [[fresh water]] [[crustacean]]s, mostly resembling [[shrimp]]. A few are well-known, including ''Artemia'' ([[brine shrimp]], called ''[[Sea-Monkey]]s'' when marketed as novelties), and ''[[Daphnia]]'', both of which are raised as aquarium food or as interesting pets in and of themselves.
In older classifications, the superorder [[Diplostraca]] was made up of the two orders [[Conchostraca]] and [[Cladocera]]. According to newer data, however, these orders may be artificial (at least in their present state) as some of their members seem to have a paraphyletic origin within the Diplostraca. For this reason, the order Conchostraca is no longer used.
Although a few species of water flea have adapted to a life in the sea, these crustaceans belong primarily in [[fresh water]]. This could mean they belong to an old group that became extinct in the rest of the aquatic habitats of the world, or that they actually originated in fresh water. The fact that they are especially [[adaptation|adapted]] to temporary pools and waters that are too extreme for other animals to live in (like [[salt lake]]s) indicates that they could have sought refuge in these places because they were unable to compete with or evade the more advanced groups of animals living elsewhere. This resulted in a short generation cycle and small body size. Most of them are still unable to live in waters where there are [[fish]] and other advanced predators, since they are too slow and vulnerable to survive them. Some, however, have evolved to cope with this problem well enough to survive, even with predators around them. Their main defence is probably their high number thanks to their small size, ability to produce many offspring and short life cycle. ''[[Leptodora]]'', a relatively large branchiopod, relies on its very transparent body and diel vertical migration. It is so transparent that its shadow is said to be more visible than its body.
[[Category:Crustaceans]]
[[de:Kiemenfußkrebse]]
[[fr:Branchiopodes]]
[[he:סרטנים מסננים]]
[[no:Bladfotkreps]]
[[pl:Skrzelonogi]]
[[pt:Branchiopoda]]
[[zh:鰓足綱]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>BaruchSpinoza</title>
<id>3407</id>
<revision>
<id>26585822</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-27T02:55:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hottentot</username>
<id>239268</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baruch Spinoza]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baruch Spinoza</title>
<id>3408</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42085638</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:00:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Blainster</username>
<id>31831</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remv redundant section (major works already extensively discussed)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophers |
era = [[17th-century philosophy]] |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = Spinoza.jpg |
image_caption = Benedictus de Spinoza |
<!-- Information -->
name = Benedictus de Spinoza |
birth = [[November 24]], [[1632]] ([[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]) |
death = [[February 21]], [[1677]] ([[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]) |
school_tradition = [[Continental rationalism]] |
main_interests = [[Ethics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Metaphysics]] |
influences = [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Avicenna]], [[Maimonides]], [[Nicholas of Cusa]] |
influenced = [[David Conway|Conway]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Davidson]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Albert Einstein]] |
notable_ideas = [[Pantheism]] |
}}
'''Benedictus de Spinoza''' ([[November 24]], [[1632]] &ndash; [[February 21]], [[1677]]), was named ''Baruch Spinoza'' by his synagogue elders and known as ''Bento de Espinosa'' or ''Bento d'Espiñoza'' in his native [[Amsterdam]]. He is considered one of the great [[continental rationalism|rationalists]] of [[17th-century philosophy]] and, by virtue of his [[magnum opus]] the ''[[Ethics (book)|Ethics]]'', one of the definitive ethicists. His writings, like those of his fellow rationalists, reveal considerable mathematical training and facility. Spinoza was a lens crafter by trade, an exciting engineering field at the time because of great discoveries being made by telescopes. The full impact of his work only took effect sometime after his death and after the publication of his ''Opera Posthuma''. He is now seen as having prepared the way for the 18th century [[Enlightenment]], and as a founder of modern [[biblical criticism]].
==Life==
Born to a great family of [[Sephardic Jew]]s, among the [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Portuguese Jews]] of Amsterdam, he gained fame for his positions of [[pantheism]] and [[neutral monism]], as well as the fact that his ''Ethics'' was written in the form of postulates and definitions, as though it were a [[geometry]] treatise. In the summer of [[1656]], he was [[Excommunication|excommunicated]] because of [[apostasy]] from the Jewish community for his claims that [[God]] is the mechanism of nature and the universe, having no personality, and that the [[Bible]] is a metaphorical and allegorical work used to teach the nature of God, both of which were based on a form of Cartesianism (see [[René Descartes]]). Following his excommunication, he adopted the first name Benedictus (the [[Latin]] equivalent of his given name, Baruch). The terms of his excommunication were quite severe; see Kasher and Biderman (19nn).
After his excommunication, he lived and worked for a while in the school of [[Franciscus van den Enden]], who taught him Latin and may have introduced him to modern philosophy. In this period Spinoza also became acquainted with several Collegiants, members of a non-dogmatic and interdenominational sect with tendencies towards Rationalism. By the beginning of the 1660s Spinoza's name became more widely known, and eventually [[Leibniz]] and [[Henry Oldenburg]] paid him visits. He corresponded with the latter for the rest of his life. Spinoza's first publication was his ''Principles of Cartesian Philosophy'', a work that introduced some of his own ideas. In 1665 he notified Oldenburg that he had started to work on a new book, the ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'', published in 1670.
Since the public reactions to the anonymously published ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'' turned unfavourable to his brand of [[Rene Descartes|Cartesianism]], Spinoza abstained from publishing more of his works. Wary and independent, he wore a [[signet ring]] engraved with his [http://www.mtsu.edu/~rbombard/RB/Images/bds1.jpg initials, a rose and the word "caute"] (Latin for caution). The ''Ethics'' and all other works, apart from the ''Principles of Cartesian Philosophy'' and the ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'', were published after his death in the ''Opera Postuma'' edited by his friends.
==Philosophy - Overview==
Known as both the "greatest Jew" and the "greatest Atheist", Spinoza contended that God and Nature were two names for the same reality, namely the single [[substance]] (meaning "to stand beneath" rather than "matter") that underlies the universe and of which all lesser "entities" are actually modes or modifications. The a |
s maintain that it derives from the [[Illyrian language]].
* Ibero-Caucasian, a group that includes ethnic groups throughout the [[Caucasus]] region (both North and South). [[Ibero-Caucasian languages]] are not linked to the [[Indo-European]] languages. This group includes [[Georgians]], [[Abkhaz people|Abkhaz]], [[Chechens]], [[Balkars]], and a number of other smaller ethnic groups that reside in the [[Caucasus]].
* Turkey and Azerbaijan both have languages classified as [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] and not of Indo-European origin. Moreover, they are predominantly [[Islam|Muslim]] countries, as opposed to the rest of Europe where many denominations of [[Christianity]] prevail.
* Hungary, having a [[Hungarian language|language]] not of Indo-European origin and distantly related to Finnish and Estonian. Due to its location, Hungary is normally grouped with Central or Eastern European countries.
* Finland and Estonia, whose languages are distantly related to Hungarian. They are normally associated with northern European countries. Finland is, due to cultural ties, considered part of the [[Nordic countries]] and Estonia is associated with [[Balticum]].
* Armenia, although not considered as part of Europe geographically, has a language that constitutes a separate branch of [[Indo-European]] family of languages and the nation is considered to be European culturally. The Armenian language is spoken in Armenia and other European countries with [[Armenian Diaspora|Armenian communities]] (such as France, Greece, Belgium, Russia, Germany etc.).
===Religious affiliation===
{{disputed}}
The terms "Catholic Europe", "Orthodox Europe", and "Muslim Europe" are sometimes used in two senses: to delineate traditional religious affiliation of European regions or to describe the overall European population of particular creed.
*'''[[Catholicism]]''': Countries with significant Catholic populations are [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[France]], [[Belgium]], south [[Netherlands]], the [[Republic of Ireland]], west [[Scotland]], south [[Germany]], south [[Switzerland]], [[Italy]], [[Austria]], [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], the Croatian parts of [[Bosnia]], [[Slovakia]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Poland]], west [[Ukraine]], [[Romania]], [[Latvia]] {{fact}} and [[Lithuania]]. There are also large Catholic minorities in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Russia]] {{fact}}, although they are not concentrated in one area.
*'''[[Protestantism]]''': Countries with significant Protestant populations include [[Norway]], [[Iceland]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], the [[UK]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] and north [[Switzerland]] {{fact}}. There are significant minorities in [[France]], [[Slovakia]] {{fact}} and the [[Republic of Ireland]] and indeed small minorities in most European Countries.
*'''[[Islam]]''': Countries with influential Muslim population are [[Albania]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], south [[Bulgaria]] and Eurasian states of [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Turkey]], and [[Azerbaijan]]. Some other countries have significant Muslim population as well. Also, as of 2005, about 5% of the EU identify themselves as Muslims, with many Muslim immigrants in [[Germany]] and [[France]].
*'''[[Orthodox Christianity]]''': The countries with significant Orthodox populations are [[Albania]], [[Armenia]], [[Belarus]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], east [[Slovakia]] {{fact}}, [[Finland]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Moldova]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Ukraine]].
*Others: Other minor religions exist in Europe, some brought by migrants, including:
'''[[Hinduism]]''', mainly in the [[UK]].
'''[[Buddhism]]''', thinly spread throughout western Europe.
'''[[Rastafari]]''', communities in the UK, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and elsewhere {{fact}}.
'''[[Sikhism]]''', mainly in the [[UK]].
'''[[Norse]]''', with small minorities throughout [[Scandinavia]] {{fact}}.
'''[[Celtic]]''', mainly in the [[Republic of Ireland]] and the [[UK]] {{fact}}.
'''[[Jainism]]''', mainly in the [[UK]].
'''[[Voodoo]]''', mainly in the [[UK]] and [[France]].
'''[[Traditional African Religions]]''' (including [[Muti]]), mainly in the [[UK]] and [[France]].
*'''[[Non-confessional]]''': Millions of Europeans profess no religion or are atheistic or agnostic. The largest non-confessional populations (as a percentage) are found in [[Sweden]], the [[Czech Republic]] and [[France]] although most former [[communist]] countries have significant non-confessional populations.
* A number of countries in Europe have [[official religion]]s, including Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, Vatican City (Catholic); Cyprus {{fact}} and Greece (Eastern Orthodox), Denmark, Iceland and Norway (Lutheran). In Switzerland, some [[cantons]] are officially Catholic, others Reformed Protestant. Georgia has no established church, but the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]] enjoys "''de facto''" privileged status. In Finland, both Eastern Orthodox and Lutheran are official. Russia recognises Eastern Orthodox, Buddhism, Judaism and Islam as all "official" {{fact}} (with one state, [[Kalmykia]], officially Buddhist {{fact}}). England, a part of the UK, has [[Anglicanism]] as its official religion. Scotland, another part of the UK, has Presbyterianism as the 'National' church, but is no longer "official", and in Sweden, the 'National' church is [[Lutheran]], but no longer "official". France, Turkey and Azerbaijan are officially "secular".
==See also==
[[Image:Deutsche-Bank-Frankfurt-am-Main.jpg|thumb|[[Deutsche Bank]] in [[Frankfurt]], one of the major financial centres in the world.]]
*[[Eurasia]]
*[[Culture of Europe]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[List of extinct animals of Europe|Extinct animals of Europe]]
*[[Geography of Europe]]
*[[Prehistoric Europe]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[Politics of Europe]]
*[[Transport in Europe]]
*[[Eurozone]]
*[[European Union]]
*[[Euroregion]]
*[[Europium]]
===Lists and tables===
*General
**[[Europe#Table of territories and regions|Table of European territories and regions]]
*Demographics
**[[Area and population of European countries]]
**[[European Union Statistics]]
**[[Largest European metropolitan areas|The most populous metropolitan areas in Europe]]
**[[Largest urban areas of the European Union|The most populous urban areas of the European Union]]
*Economy
**[[Economy of the European Union]]
**[[Financial and social rankings of European countries]]
**[[List of European countries by GDP|GDP of European Countries]]
*Political
**[[Names of European cities in different languages|Alternative names of European cities]]
**[[Date of independence of European countries]]
**[[International Organisations in Europe]] (table of membership)
*Other
**[[List of Europe-related topics]]
==External links==
{{wikinews|Category:Europe}}
{{commons|Europe}}
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook Information about all countries in the world]
*[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=13266 Europe at Night] at [[NASA Earth Observatory]]
*[http://www.geog.tamu.edu/~prout/GVmidtermTwo.html Regions of Europe]
*[http://www.eufpc.org EUFPC European Foreign Policy Council]
*[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/index.html Physical Map of Europe]
*[http://www.parks.it/europa/Eindex.html Parks in Europe] - National parks, nature parks, reserves and other protected areas.
*Unique Images of Europe: [http://www.mazmanian.net/visuals/europa-one.html Europa Series One] and [http://www.mazmanian.net/visuals/europa-two.html Europa Series Two]
{{Europefooter}}
{{Continent}}
{{Region}}
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Europe| ]]
{{Link FA|zh}}
[[af:Europa]]
[[als:Europa]]
[[ang:Europa]]
[[ar:أوروبا]]
[[an:Europa]]
[[roa-rup:Evropa]]
[[ast:Europa]]
[[ay:Iwrupa]]
[[bg:Европа]]
[[zh-min-nan:Au-chiu]]
[[be:Эўропа]]
[[bn:ইউরোপ]]
[[bs:Evropa]]
[[br:Europa]]
[[ca:Europa]]
[[cv:Европа]]
[[chr:ᎡᎶᏆ]]
[[co:Europa]]
[[cs:Evropa]]
[[cy:Ewrop]]
[[da:Europa]]
[[de:Europa]]
[[et:Euroopa]]
[[el:Ευρώπη]]
[[es:Europa]]
[[eo:Eŭropo]]
[[eu:Europa]]
[[fa:اروپا]]
[[fr:Europe]]
[[fy:Jeropa]]
[[fur:Europe]]
[[ga:An Eoraip]]
[[gd:Europa]]
[[gl:Europa]]
[[gn:Europa]]
[[gu:યુરોપ]]
[[ko:유럽]]
[[ht:Ewòp]]
[[haw:ʻEulopa]]
[[hi:यूरोप]]
[[hr:Europa]]
[[io:Europa]]
[[id:Eropa]]
[[ia:Europa]]
[[is:Evrópa]]
[[it:Europa]]
[[he:אירופה]]
[[kn:ಯುರೋಪ್]]
[[ka:ევროპა]]
[[kk:Еуропа]]
[[csb:Eùropa]]
[[kw:Europa]]
[[sw:Ulaya]]
[[ku:Ewropa]]
[[la:Europa]]
[[lv:Eiropa]]
[[lt:Europa]]
[[lb:Europa (Kontinent)]]
[[li:Europa]]
[[hu:Európa]]
[[mk:Европа]]
[[mi:Ūropi]]
[[ms:Eropah]]
[[mo:Europa]]
[[nah:Eutlocpan]]
[[na:Iurop]]
[[nl:Europa (continent)]]
[[nds:Europa]]
[[ja:ヨーロッパ]]
[[no:Europa]]
[[nn:Europa]]
[[oc:Euròpa]]
[[pl:Europa]]
[[pt:Europa]]
[[ro:Europa]]
[[qu:Iwrupa]]
[[ru:Европа]]
[[se:Eurohpá]]
[[sc:Europa]]
[[sco:Europe]]
[[st:Europa]]
[[sq:Evropa]]
[[sh:Evropa]]
[[scn:Europa]]
[[simple:Europe]]
[[sk:Európa]]
[[sl:Evropa]]
[[sr:Европа]]
[[fi:Eurooppa]]
[[sv:Europa]]
[[ta:ஐரோப்பா]]
[[th:ทวีปยุโรป]]
[[vi:Châu Âu]]
[[tpi:Yurop]]
[[tr:Avrupa]]
[[udm:Европа]]
[[uk:Європа]]
[[uz:Evropa]]
[[wa:Urope]]
[[yi:אייראפע]]
[[zh:欧洲]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Europa (disambiguation)</title>
<id>9240</id>
<revision>
<id>40714661</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T14:37:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Spudtater</username>
<id>240830</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Europa''' may refer to:
*[[Europa (mythology)]], a beautiful Phoenician princess in Greek mythology
*[[Europa (moon)]], the smallest of the so called Galilean Moons of planet Jupiter
*[[52 Europa]], the ninth largest asteroid known
*[[Europa Island]], a small island in the Indian Ocean which is a possession of France
*[[Europa (Romain Gary novel)]]
*[[Europa (Tim Parks b |
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