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[[he:קוקטייל]]
[[nl:Cocktail]]
[[ja:カクテル]]
[[pl:Koktajl alkoholowy]]
[[ru:Коктейль]]
[[sl:Koktajl]]
[[sr:Коктел]]
[[sv:Cocktail]]
[[zh:鸡尾酒]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Coptic Christianity</title>
<id>7601</id>
<revision>
<id>42090413</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:38:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.201.215.126</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChristCopticArt.jpg|frame|[[Jesus]] [[Christ]] in a Coptic [[icon]].]]
'''Coptic Orthodox Christianity''' is the indigenous form of [[Christianity]] that, according to tradition, the apostle [[St. Mark the Evangelist|Mark]] established in [[Egypt]] in the middle of the [[1st century]] AD (approximately [[42]]). The Church belongs to the [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], and the [[Episcopal see|see]] of [[Alexandria]] in Coptic Christianity has been a distinct church body since the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in [[451]]. Her leader is the [[List of Coptic Popes|Pope of Alexandria and the Patriarch of the Holy See of Saint Mark]], currently [[Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria|Pope Shenouda III]]. More than 95% of Egypt's Christians belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church, but other "Patriarchates/Patriarchs of Alexandria" also exist (Coptic Catholic, Greek/Latin Catholic and Greek Orthodox - see 'Coptic Christianity Today' below).
==History==
[[Egypt]] is often identified as the place of refuge that the [[Holy Family]] sought in its [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/The_Holy_Family_in_Egypt flight] from [[Judea]]: "When he arose, he took the young Child and His mother by night and departed for Egypt, and was there until the death of [[Herod the Great]], that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the Lord through the prophet, saying, ''Out of Egypt I called My Son''" ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 2:12-23). The Egyptian Church, which is now more than nineteen centuries old, was the subject of many prophecies in the [[Old Testament]]. [[Isaiah]] the prophet, in Chapter 19, Verse 19 says "In that day there will be an altar to the LORD in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar to the LORD at its border."
The first [[Christian]]s in Egypt were mainly [[Alexandria]]n [[Jew]]s such as [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], whom [[Luke the Evangelist|Saint Luke the Evangelist]] addresses in the introductory chapter of his [[Gospel of Luke|gospel]]. When the church was founded by [[Saint Mark|Mark]] during the reign of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[emperor]] [[Nero]], a great multitude of native Egyptians (as opposed to Greeks or Jews) embraced the Christian faith. [[Christianity]] spread throughout Egypt within half a century of Mark's arrival in Alexandria as is clear from the [[New Testament]] writings found in [[Oxyrhynchus|Bahnasa]], in [[Middle Egypt]], which date around the year 200 AD, and a fragment of the [[Gospel of John|Gospel of Saint John]], written in [[Coptic language|Coptic]], which was found in [[Upper Egypt]] and can be dated to the first half of the second century. In the [[2nd century|second century]] [[Christianity]] began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the local language, namely [[Coptic Language|Coptic]].
===The Catechetical School of Alexandria, Egypt===
The Catechetical School of Alexandria is the oldest catechetical school in the world. Founded around 190 by the scholar [[Pantanaeus]], the school of Alexandria became an important institution of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as [[Athenagoras of Athens|Athenagoras]], [[Clement of Alexandria|Clement]], [[Didymus the Blind|Didymus]], and the great [[Origen]], who was considered the father of theology and who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies. Origen wrote over 6,000 commentaries of the [[Bible]] in addition to his famous [[Hexapla]]. Many scholars such as [[Saint Jerome|Jerome]] visited the school of Alexandria to exchange ideas and to communicate directly with its scholars. The scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects; science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question and answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before [[Braille]], wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write.
The Theological college of the catechetical school of Alexandria was re-established in 1893. The new school currently has campuses in Alexandria, [[Cairo]], [[New Jersey]], and [[Los Angeles]], where Coptic priests-to-be and other qualified men and women are taught among other subjects Christian theology, history, [[Coptic language]] and art - including chanting, music, [[iconography]], and tapestry.
===Egyptian origin of the cross symbol===
[[Image:Coptic_bust.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Coptic bust from the transition period, as the ankh become "christianized". Found in the Fayeum in the 1950s. {{3d_glasses}}]]
For over 2500 years the pagan symbol of the ankh cross was a ubiquitous symbol of spiritual life. Unlike most Egyptian sacred images, it was not a human-like god with the head of an animal, or even the disk of Sun, but a pure symbol of deity. It was not hard to see how that ageless symbol would somehow become connected to a faith, centered around a man who had been executed on another kind of cross. That man, Jesus, was believed by his followers to be the Son of the one and only God. Egypt had long associated the ankh cross with all that was unknowable and trandscendant in their poly-theistic faith. Everywhere else in the Roman influenced world, a cross was merely an implement of execution for slaves and enemies of the Roman state. It was very degrading to connect the memory of the Christian "Savior", to something that conotated an ignoble and lingering death. The ankh provided a means to bring the cross into the "pantheon" of Christian symbolism, after 250 years of rejection by the Jewish and Greek followers of Jesus.{{fact}}
===Monasticism and missionary work===
In the [[3rd century|third century]], during the persecution of [[Decius]], some Christians fled to the desert, and remained there to pray after the persecutions abated. This was the beginning of the [[Monasticism|monastic movement]], which was reorganized by [[Saint Anthony the Great|Anthony the Great]] and [[Pachomius]] in the [[4th century]]. By the end of the century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian hills. A number of these monasteries are still flourishing and have new vocations till this day.
Egyptian monasticism attracted the attention of Christians in other parts of the world, who visited Egypt, many bringing monastic ideas home with them, and spreading monasticism through the Christian world. [[Saint Basil|Basil]], organizer of the monastic movement in [[Asia Minor]] visited Egypt around AD [[357]] and his rule is followed by the eastern Churches; Jerome, en route to [[Jerusalem]], stopped in Egypt and left details of his experiences in his letters; [[Benedict of Nursia|Benedict]] founded monasteries in the [[6th century]] on the model of Pachomius, but in a stricter form.
===Council of Nicea===
In the 4th century, a [[Libya]]n priest called [[Arianism|Arius]] started a theological dispute about the nature of Christ that spread throughout the Christian world. The [[Ecumenical Council of Nicea]] ([[325]]) was convened by [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] to resolve the dispute and eventually led to the formulation of the Symbol of Faith, also known as the [[Nicene Creed]]. The Creed, which is now recited throughout the Christian world, was authored by [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius the Apostolic]], the Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria.
===Council of Constantinople===
In the year [[381]], [[Timothy I of Alexandria]] presided over the second ecumenical council known as the Ecumenical [[First Council of Constantinople|Council of Constantinople]], which completed the [[Nicene Creed]] with this confirmation of the divinity of the [[Holy Spirit]]:
:"We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Life-giver, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified who spoke by the Prophets and in one Holy Universal Apostolic Church. We confess one Baptism for the remission of sins and we look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the coming age, Amen."
===Council of Ephesus===
[[Image:CopticAltar.jpg|thumb|left|Coptic Altar in Jerusalem]]
Another theological dispute in the [[5th century]] occurred over the teachings of [[Nestorius]], a Patriarch of Constantinople who taught that God the Word was not [[hypostatically]] joined with human nature, but rather dwelt in the man Jesus. As a consequence of this, he denied the title "Mother of God" ''([[Theotokos]])'' to the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]], declaring her instead to be "Mother of Christ" ''(Christotokos)''. When reports of this reached the Apostolic Throne of [[Mark the Evangelist|Saint Mark]], the Coptic Pope (Cyril I) acted quickly to correct this breach with orthodoxy, requesting that Nestorius repent. When he would not, the Synod of Alexandria met in an emergency session and a unanimous agreement was reached. Pope [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril I of Alexandria]], supported by the entire See, sent a letter to Nestorius known as "The Third Epistle of Saint Cyril to Nestorius." This epistle drew heavily on the established Patristic Constitutions and contained the most famous article of Alexandrian Orthodoxy: "The Twelve Anathemas of Saint Cyril." In these [[anathema]]s, Cyril excommunicated anyone who followed the teachings of Nestorius. For example, "Anyone who dares to deny the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Holy Virgin]] the title ''Theotokos'' is Anathema!" Nestorius h |
ISPAL.NSF/0/e29f7195c53cdda905256729005035e4?OpenDocument&Highlight=2,ES-10%2F6], but not a unanimous view among all international law scholars; for example, the late Julius Stone [http://www.law.usyd.edu.au/~jurisprudence/Biography.htm] argued that they were legal under international law [http://www.aijac.org.au/resources/reports/international_law.pdf]. The Israeli policy of sponsoring, supporting, and/or tolerating the establishment of such settlements is one of the most contentious issues in the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]<!--, which [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict timeline|began]] decades earlier, in the 1920s-->.<!--dont see the last sentence as important for an introduction-->
In 2004, the Israeli government announced its [[Israel unilateral disengagement plan|unilateral disengagement plan]] to dismantle all settlements in the Gaza Strip, as well as four settlements in the West Bank. The withdrawal was completed on [[September 12]], [[2005]].
== Terminology ==
Terms commonly used to describe this matter are themselves controversial. They include:
*'''[[Settlers]]''' are people who have migrated from the land of their birth to live permanently in colonies controlled militarily by their home country.
In modern history, the word "settlers" is synonymous with terms like '''[[pioneers]]''', '''[[colonists]]''', or (as British people once called them) "'''[[colonials]]'''".
*'''Settlement''' vs '''community'''- there is broad agreement that the term settlement implies that these are recently established places, and therein lies the controversy. Although many Israelis concede that the term "settlement" is apt for these reasons, others argue that these are re-established communities, built on Jewish towns and villages that were vacated by force as late as 1948 or much earlier. They also point out that these are highly dissimilar places (see below), and that using one term is misleading.
:In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the common term for the Israeli settlements outside the Green Line is ''hitnakhluyot'' (Hebrew: &#1492;&#1514;&#1504;&#1495;&#1500;&#1493;&#1497;&#1493;&#1514;; singular - ''hitnakhlut'' or ''hitnakhalut'', &#1492;&#1514;&#1504;&#1495;&#1500;&#1493;&#1514;). This term is broadly used in the media and in public, although some think it has acquired a derogatory shade in recent years. Settlers are called ''mitnakhalim'' (Hebrew:&#1502;&#1514;&#1504;&#1495;&#1500;&#1497;&#1501;; singular - ''mitnakhel'', &#1502;&#1514;&#1504;&#1495;&#1500;). The settlers themselves and their right-wing sympathizers prefer the term ''yishuvim'' (&#1497;&#1497;&#1513;&#1493;&#1489;&#1497;&#1501;; singular - ''yishuv'', &#1497;&#1497;&#1513;&#1493;&#1489;) for settlements and ''mityashvim'' (Hebrew: &#1502;&#1514;&#1497;&#1497;&#1513;&#1489;&#1497;&#1501;; singular - ''mityashev'', &#1502;&#1514;&#1497;&#1497;&#1513;&#1489;) for settlers, which are more neutral, as they also refer to settlements inside Israel proper. Some think these terms are a euphemism.
:In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the term for settlements is ''mustawtanaat'' (Arabic: &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578;) and settlers are ''mustawtineen'' (Arabic: ????????).
* '''[[West Bank]] vs. [[Judea and Samaria]]''' - the term "West Bank" dates from the time that [[Jordan]] controlled the area in question (1948-1967), but is still by far the most common name used in the English-speaking world and by international organizations such as the UN. The terms "Judea" and "Samaria" (English for ''Yehuda'' and ''Shomron'') are historical terms that relate to the political geography of the Roman-era Jewish dominion in the area. Palestinians strongly object to the terms ''Judea'' and ''Samaria'', the use of which they deem to reflect Israeli expansionist aims. Among Palestinians, the specific area is referred to as 'the West Bank', but is commonly known as 'Palestine' or part of the [[Palestinian Territories]].
* "'''Occupied'''" vs. "'''disputed'''" vs. "'''territories'''" - the legal status of the areas is a much debated question (see below) and drives the choice of qualifier for them.
== Historical background ==
The [[armistice|cease-fire]] agreement following the [[1967 Six Day War]] left Israel in control of a number of areas captured during hostilities.
* From [[Jordan]], Israel gained control of the entire western bank of the [[Jordan river]], including parts of [[Jerusalem]] previously controlled by Jordan - [[East Jerusalem]], and the [[West Bank]].
* From [[Egypt]], Israel gained control of the entire [[Sinai]] peninsula up to the [[Suez Canal]], and the [[Gaza]] strip.
* From [[Syria]], Israel gained control of most of the [[Golan Heights]].
Original Israeli policy at that time was to deny any Jewish settlement of these areas or even Jewish resettlement of specific locations where Jews had resided up until the 1948 [[Arab-Israeli War]] such as the Jewish villages listed in this [[List of villages depopulated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war]] such as Kfar Etzion. Many attempts were made by [[Gush Emunim]] to establish outposts or resettle former Jewish areas and the Israeli government forcibly removed these attempts in the beginning, but in the absence of peace talks to determine the future of these and other disputed territories, Israel implemented different policies on their use, and did not enforce the original ban on settling.
* The municipal borders of Jerusalem were extended in 1967 to include all of the old city as well as other areas. Residents within the new municipal borders were offered the choice between citizenship (if they met Israeli requirements for naturalization) and permanent residency if they wished to retain their Jordanian passports. This annexation was not recognized by most countries.
* The Golan Heights were under Israeli military administration until 1981, when Israel similarly extended its law there, imposed permanent residency and ID cards on the residents and offered them the possibility of citizenship. This annexation was also not recognized by most countries.
* The Sinai, Gaza and the rest of the [[West Bank]] were put under Israeli military administration. Residents were not offered citizenship or residency, though they typically had de facto work permits within Israel and freedom of travel.
In the absence of a final peace settlement, the continued Israeli administration of areas captured in 1967 is in itself subject to continuing international concern and criticism. However, it is the establishment of Israeli homes and communities in those areas that has often generated condemnation.
Israel evacuated her citizens from the Sinai and demolished their homes when the area was returned to Egypt pursuant to the [[Camp David Accords (1978)|Camp David Accords]]. Since the Golan Heights was originally part of the British Mandate in Palestine, the remaining areas in question largely cover the original British mandate that was left after the establishment of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.
The Jewish population in the areas captured in 1967 live in a wide variety of centers:
* Self-contained towns and small cities with a stable population in the tens of thousands, infrastructure, and all other features of permanence (e.g. [[Ma'ale Adummim]], [[Modi'in Illit]], [[Ariel, West Bank|Ariel]]).
* Jewish neighborhoods that coexist with Arab neighborhoods in the same city (e.g. [[Hebron]] and [[East Jerusalem]]).
* Suburbs to other population centers, especially [[Jerusalem]] (e.g. [[Gilo]]), and the [[Sharon, Israel|Sharon]] area (e.g. [[Karnei Shomron]]).
* Settlement blocs (e.g. [[Gush Etzion]], in the vicinity of [[Ariel (City)|Ariel]], the [[Shechem]]/[[Nablus]] area).
* Frontier villages such as those parallel to the [[Jordan River]].
* Residential outposts, consisting of campers, trailers, and even tents.
Most of these are the result of new construction; but some are based on Jewish communities that were abandoned in 1948 or earlier. Newly constructed developments are largely on hilltops, at some distance from Arab villages, towns, and camps.
==Population==
Except for areas that were effectively annexed in Jerusalem and the Golan, Israeli citizens and others can only move to areas captured in 1967 with the authorization of the Israeli government. According to various statistics, the population distribution can be estimated:
{| class="wikitable"
! Jewish population
! 1948
! 1966
! 1972
! 1983
! 1993
! 2004
! 2005
|-
| West Bank (excluding Jerusalem)
| 480 (see [[Gush Etzion]]) || 0 || 800 || 22,800 || 111,600 || 231,800 ||
|-
| Gaza
| 30 (see [[Kfar Darom]]) || 0 || 700 <sup>*</sup> || 900 || 4,800 || 8,000 || 0
|-
| Golan Heights
| 0 || 0 || 900 || 6,800 || 12,600 || 16,000 ||
|-
| Parts of Jerusalem annexed in 1967
| 300 (see [[Atarot]], [[Neve Ya'aqov]]) || 0 || 9,200 || 75,000 || 130,000 || 177,000 ||
|}
: <sup>*</sup> including Sinai
According to Israeli government statistics, just under 400,000 Israelis lived in territories captured during the 1967 war [[As of 2000|as of November 2000]]. This number is controversial, as it includes a large number of Israeli citizens who live in "[[East Jerusalem]]", which was once, along with most of western Jerusalem, proposed by the [[United Nations]] to be an international zone under UN administration (former compromise proposal, [[UN General Assembly Resolution 181|Resolution 181]] (II) of [[29 November]] [[1947]], which the [[Arab]] states rejected); however, if the boundaries of that peace plan were used, t |
ands). The region stretched from what is now Kuwait to Oman. This was Iqlim Al-Bahrain (Province of Bahrain). In 1521, the Portuguese conquered Awal and since then the name of 'Bahrain' has specifically referred to today's Bahrain.
From the 16th centrury to [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[1743]] the control of Bahrain drifted between the Portuguese and the Persians. Ultimately, the Persian king, [[Nadir Shah]] Invaded and took control of Bahrain and for reasons of political control supported the Shia majority. In the late 18th Century the [[Al-Khalifa]] family invaded and captured the islands. In order to secure Bahrain from returning to Persian control, the Emirate entered into a treaty relationship with the [[United Kingdom]] and became a British protectorate.
Oil was discovered in 1931 and brought rapid modernization and improvements to Bahrain. It also made relations with the United Kingdom closer, evidenced by the British moving more bases to the island nation. British influence would continue to grow as the country developed, culminating with the appointment of [[Charles Belgrave]] as an advisor; Belgrave established modern education systems in Bahrain.
After [[World War II]], increasing anti-British sentiment spread throughout the Arab world and led to riots in Bahrain. In the 1960s, the United Kingdom put Bahrain's future to international arbitration and requested that the [[United Nations Secretary-General]] take on this responsibility. In 1970, Iran simultaniously laid claim to both Bahrain and the other Persian Gulf islands, however in an agreement with the United Kingdom it agreed to 'not pursue' its irredentist claims on Bahrain if its other claims were realised. The following [[plebiscite]] saw Bahrainis confirm their independence from Britain and their Arab identity. Bahrain to this day remains a member of the [[Arab League]] and the all Arab [[Gulf Cooperation Council]].
The British withdrew from Bahrain in August 1971, making Bahrain an independent emirate in line with the desires of the Plebicite. The oil boom of the 1980s greatly benefitted Bahrain, but its downturn was felt badly. However, the country had already begun to diversify its economy, and had benefited from the [[Lebanese civil war]] that began in the 1970s; Bahrain replaced [[Beirut]] as the Middle East's financial hub as Lebanon's large banking sector was driven out of the country by the war.
After 1979 [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic revolution]] in Iran, Bahraini Shia fundamentalists in 1981 orchestrated a [[1981 failed coup in Bahrain|failed coup]] attempt under the auspices of a front organisation, the [[Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain]]. The coup would have installed a Shia cleric exiled in Iran, Hojjat ol-Eslam [[Hadi al-Modarresi]], as supreme leader heading a [[theocracy|theocratic government]].
In 1994 a wave of rioting by disaffected [[Shi'a]] [[Islamists]] occurred due to perceived injust actions by the government. The Kingdom was badly affected by sporadic violence during the mid-1990s in which over forty people were killed by the government and hundreds jailed.
In March 1999, [[Hamad ibn Isa al-Khalifah]] succeeded his father as head of state and instituted elections for parliament, gave women the right to vote and released all political prisoners; moves described by [[Amnesty International]] as representing an [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGMDE110052001?open&of=ENG-BHR 'historic period for human rights']. This provided the country with a great chance to move forward, if somewhat falteringly[http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/05/front2453709.6708333334.html], toward a political consensus.
==Politics==
{{Politics of Bahrain}}
''Main article: [[Politics of Bahrain]]''
Bahrain is a [[constitutional monarchy]] headed by the King, [[Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa| Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa]]; the head of government is the Prime Minister, [[Khalifa bin Salman Ali Khalifa| Shaikh Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa]] who presides over a cabinet of 15 members. Bahrain has a bicameral legislature with a lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, elected by universal suffrage and the upper house, the Shura Council, appointed by the King. Both houses have forty members. The inaugural elections were held in 2002, with parliamentarians serving four year terms.
The opening up of politics has seen big gains for both Shia and Sunni Islamists in elections, which has given them a parliamentary platform to pursue their policies. This has meant that what are termed 'morality issues' have moved further up the political agenda with parties launching campaigns to impose bans on female mannequins displaying lingerie in shop windows, sorcery and the hanging of underwear on washing lines. Supporters of democratisation in the Middle East cite the Islamists' references to respect for human rights in their justification for these programmes as evidence that these groups can serve as a progressive force in the region.
Bahraini liberals have responded to the growing power of [[List of political parties in Bahrain| religious extremist parties]] by organising themselves to campaign through civil society in order to defend basic personal freedoms from being legislated away. In November 2005, [[Al Muntada]], a grouping of liberal academics, launched '[[We Have A Right]]', a campaign to explain to the public why personal freedoms matter and why they need to be defended.
[[Women's political rights in Bahrain]] saw an important step forward when women were granted the right to vote and stand in national elections for the first time in 2002's election. However, no women were elected to office in that year’s polls and instead Shia and Sunni Islamists dominated the election, collectively winning a majority of seats. In response to the failure of women candidates, six were appointed to the Shura Council, which also includes representatives of the Kingdom’s indigenous [[Jewish]] and [[Christian]] communities. The country's first female cabinet minister was appointed in 2004 when [[Dr Nada Haffadh]] became Minister of Health.
The King recently created the Supreme Judicial Council to regulate the country's courts and institutionalize the separation of the administrative and judicial branches of government.
On 11-[[12 November]] [[2005]], Bahrain hosted the [[Forum for the Future (Bahrain 2005)| Forum for the Future]] bringing together leaders from the Middle East and G8 countries to discuss political and economic reform in the region.
==Governorates==
[[Image:Bahrain governorates numbered.png|right|Map of Bahrain showing governorates]]
''Main article: [[Governorates of Bahrain]]''
Bahrain is split into five [[governorate]]s. Until [[July 3]] [[2002]], it was divided into twelve municipalities; see [[Municipalities of Bahrain]].
#[[Capital Governorate|Capital]]
#[[Central Governorate|Central]]
#[[Muharraq Governorate|Muharraq]]
#[[Northern Governorate|Northern]]
#[[Southern Governorate|Southern]]
For further information, see: [http://www.capital.gov.bh/pages/pdf/govlawe.pdf Decree-Law establishing governorates] from the Bahrain official website
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Bahrain]]''
In a region currently experiencing an oil boom of unprecedented proportions, Bahrain is the [http://www.tradearabia.com/tanews/newsdetails_snECO_article99455_cnt.html fastest growing economy] in the Arab world the [[United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia]] found in January 2006. Bahrain also has the [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/country.cfm?id=Bahrain freest economy in the Middle East] according to the 2006 [[Index of Economic Freedom]] published by the [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[Wall Street Journal]], and is twenty-fifth freest overall in the world.
In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the [[Persian Gulf]] crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Persian Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
==Geography==
[[Image:Bahrain map.png|right|250px|Map of Bahrain]]
:''Main article: [[Geography of Bahrain]]''
Bahrain is a generally flat and arid [[archipelago]], comprising of a low desert plain rising gently to a low central escarpment, in the [[Persian Gulf]], east of [[Saudi Arabia]]. The highest point is the 122m Jabal ad Dukhan.
Considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "[[Cradle of Humanity]]" in the [[Middle East]], Bahrain has a total area of 620 [[Square kilometre]]s (239&nbsp;[[square mile|mi²]]), which is slightly larger than the [[Isle of Man]], though it is smaller than the nearby [[King Fahd Airport]] in Dammam, Saudi Arabia which boasts an incredible 780 [[Square kilometre]]s (301&nbsp;mi²). As an archipelago of 33 islands, Bahrain does not share a land boundary with another country but does have a 161 [[kilometre]]s (528&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) coastline and claims a further 12 [[nautical mile]]s (22&nbsp;km) of [[territorial sea]] and a 24 nautical mile (44&nbsp;km) [[contiguous zone]]. Bahrain enjoys mild winters and endures very hot, humid summers.
Bahrain's natural resources include large quantities of oil and associated and nonassociated natural gas as well as fish stocks, which is perhaps fortunate as arable land constitutes only 1% of the country. Desert constitutes 92% of Bahrain and periodic droughts and dust storms are the main natural hazards for Bah |
)|Dave Miller]]
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'''Bugzilla''' is a general-purpose [[bugtracker|bug-tracking]] tool originally developed and used by the [[Mozilla Foundation]]. Since Bugzilla is [[World Wide Web|web]]-based and can be considered both [[free software]] and [[open-source software]], it is also the [[bug tracking]] tool of choice for many projects, both open source and [[proprietary software|proprietary]].
Bugzilla relies on an installed [[web server]], such as [[Apache HTTP Server|Apache]] and a [[database management system]], such as [[MySQL]] or [[PostgreSQL]], to perform its work. Bugs can be submitted by anybody, and will be assigned to a particular developer. Various status updates for each bug are allowed, together with user notes and bug examples.
Bugzilla's notion of a [[software bug|bug]] is very general; for instance, [[mozilla]].org uses it to track feature requests as well.
==Requirements==
Release notes such as [http://www.bugzilla.org/releases/2.20/release-notes.html those for Bugzilla 2.20] indicate the exact set of dependencies, which include:
*A compatible database server (often a version of [[MySQL]])
*A suitable release of [[Perl]] 5
*An assortment of Perl modules
*A compatible web server such as Apache (though any web server that supports CGI can work)
*A suitable [[mail transfer agent]] such as [[Sendmail]], [[qmail]], [[Postfix (software)|Postfix]], or [[Exim]]
==External links==
*[http://www.bugzilla.org Bugzilla Home Page]
*[http://landfill.bugzilla.org/ Bugzilla Live Demo]
*[http://www.bugzilla.org/docs/win32install.html Step-By-Step Bugzilla Installation On Windows ]
*[https://bugzilla.mozilla.org Mozilla.org's Bugzilla Installation]
*[http://bugzilla.wikimedia.org/ Bugzilla] for [[WikiMedia]]/[[Wikipedia]]
*[http://dmoz.org/Computers/Software/Configuration_Management/Bug_Tracking/ Open Directory - Bug Tracking Software]
*[http://wiki.mozilla.org/Bugzilla:Modifying_Your_Installation Wiki on Modifying Bugzilla]
*[http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/gerv/archives/008446.html Bugzilla Installation List Tops 400]
*[http://oss.segetech.com/integration.html Bugzilla/CVS/Wiki integration]
*[http://oss.segetech.com/bugzilla-svn-wiki.html Bugzilla/SVN/Wiki integration]
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<title>Bangor</title>
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<revision>
<id>39088517</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T17:12:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kirjtc2</username>
<id>3222</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--__NOTOC__-->
'''Bangor''' is a place-name found in a number of countries.
==Australia==
*[[Bangor, New South Wales]]
==Canada==
<!--Canadian places named "Bangor"-->
*[[Bangor, Nova Scotia]]
*[[Bangor, Ontario]]
*[[Bangor, Prince Edward Island]]
*[[Bangor (city), Saskatchewan]]
*[[Bangor (town), Saskatchewan]]
<!--Canadian place-names including the word "Bangor"-->
*[[Bangor Lodge, Saskatchewan]]
*[[Bangor Road, Prince Edward Island]]
==France==
*[[Bangor, Morbihan]]
==United Kingdom==
<!--British places named "Bangor"-->
*[[Bangor, County Down]]
*[[Bangor, Wales]]
<!--British place-names including the word "Bangor"-->
*[[Bangor-on-Dee]], in Wales; also known as '''Bangor Is-Coed''' or '''Bangor-Is-y-Coed'''
==United States==
<!--American places named "Bangor"-->
*[[Bangor, Alabama]]
*[[Bangor, California]]
*'''[[Bangor, Maine]]''' (this is the largest Bangor in the United States)
*[[Bangor, Michigan]] ''(see also Bangor Township, Michigan, below)''
*[[Bangor, New York]]
*[[Bangor, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Bangor, Washington]]
*[[Bangor, Wisconsin]] (village)
*[[Bangor (town), Wisconsin]]
<!--American place-names including the word "Bangor"-->
*[[Bangor Township, Iowa]]
*[[Bangor Township, Minnesota]]
*[[Bangor Township, Bay County, Michigan]] ''(see also Bangor, Michigan, above)''
*[[Bangor Township, South Dakota]]
*[[East Bangor, Pennsylvania]]
{{geodis}}
[[ang:Bancorena byrg]]
[[de:Bangor]]
[[no:Bangor]]
[[sv:Bangor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ballad</title>
<id>4575</id>
<revision>
<id>42088818</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:26:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AshishG</username>
<id>172488</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>'story' link repair</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
A '''ballad''' is a story in a [[song]], usually a [[narrative poetry|narrative]] song or [[poem]]. It is a rhythmic [[saga]] of a past affair, which may be heroic, romantic or satirical, political (affected by the previous three types mentioned, refers to either glorifying the exploits or causes of a particular leader or group, and is typical of totalitarian political systems), almost inevitably catastrophic, which is related in the third person, usually with foreshortened alternating four- and three-stress lines ('ballad meter') and simple repeating [[rhyme]]s, and often with a refrain.
If it is based on political or religious themes, a ballad may then be a version of a [[hymn]]. Ballads should not be confused with the [[ballade]], a 14th and 15th century French verse form.
==Characteristics==
Some characteristics of a ballad are:
* A ballad tells a story, typically in third person narrative.
* A ballad focuses on actions and dialogue rather than characteristics and narration.
* A ballad has a simple metrical structure and sentence structure.
* A ballad is sung to a [[Musical_mode|modal]] melody.
* A ballad is of oral tradition, passed down by word of mouth. Therefore, it undergoes changes and is of anonymous authorship.
* A ballad usually has a theme that is not directly spoken.
* A ballad is often based on true stories.
Repetition and refrains are also used in many ballads. This is a strong resemblance to many forms of traditional music. Many traditional ballads have themes related to the supernatural, and occasionally ballads contain a [[morality|moral]] dimension to them, usually expressed in a final verse.
==Broadsheet ballads==
Broadsheet ballads (also known as [[broadside ballads]], cheaply printed and often topical, humorous, even subversive, were hawked in English streets from the 16th century; the legends of [[Robin Hood]] and the pranks of [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]] were disseminated through broadsheet ballads.
New ballads were written about current events like fires, the birth of monstrous animals, and so forth, giving particulars of names and places. Satirical ballads and [[monarchism|Royalist]] ballads contributed to 17th century political discourse. In a sense, these ballads were antecedents of the modern [[newspaper]].
[[Thomas Percy (bishop)|Thomas Percy]], [[Robert Harley]], [[Francis James Child]], Sir [[Walter Scott]] and [[James Hogg]] were early collectors and publishers of ballads from the oral tradition, broadsheets and previous anthologies. Percy's publication of ''[[Reliques of Ancient Poetry]]'' and Harley's collections, such as [[The Bagford Ballads]], were of great import in beginning the study of ballads. Some of the collectors also wrote new ballads. Many ballads are referenced in scholarly works by their number in Child's compilation (see the [[Child Ballads]]). The American poet [[Carl Sandburg]] was influenced by ballads, and published a collection he had assembled as ''The American Songbag'' (1927).
The form of a ballad has been imitated in modern poetry&mdash; most notably by the Canadian ballads of [[Robert W. Service]], in [[Rudyard Kipling|Kipling]]'s 'Road to Mandalay' or in '[[Casey at the Bat]].' 'The Ballad of the Bread-man', is [[Charles Causley]]'s re-telling of the story of the birth of [[Jesus]]. Many modern written musical ballads are in the repertory of American [[folk music]].
===Murder ballads===
A specific subgenre of the broadsheet ballad is the murder ballad. Usually told from the point of view of the killer, murder ballads typically recount the details of the crime &mdash; who the victim is, why the murderer decides to kill her, how she is lured to the murder site and the act itself &mdash; followed by the escape and/or capture of the murderer. Often the ballad ends with the murderer in jail or on their way to the gallows, occasionally with a plea for the listener to learn from the evils committed by the speaker. Most of the murderers are male and the victims women. An exception to this general rule would be 'Henry Lee' (a duet with [[PJ Harvey]]) and 'The Curse of Milhaven' on the [[Murder Ballads]] album by [[Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds]].
One of the best known writers of the murder ballad is [[John R. Cash]] ([[Johnny Cash]]). His song ''[[Delia's Gone]]'' is a classic example:
Begins:
''I went down to Memphis, And I met Delia there, Found her in a parlour, Then I tied her to a chair''
Chorus:
''Delia’s gone,One more round,Delia’s gone''
Ends:
''Jailer oh Jailer, Jailer I can’t sleep, Cause all around my bedside, I hear the patter of Delia’s feet''
Chorus:
''Delia’s gone, One more round, Delia’s gone''
Often the details and locales for the murder ballad change over time, reflecting the audience and the performer. For example, "The Wexford Girl"[http://sniff.numachi.com/~rickheit/dtrad/pages/tiWXFRDGRL.html] is essentially the same ballad as "Knoxville Girl'[http://www.bluegrassnet.c |
f the armed forces, and regulation of the civic, non-military affairs of members of the armed forces". Needless to say, each government could have a strong influence over common governmental responsibilities. Each half of the Dual Monarchy proved quite prepared to disrupt common operations to advance its own interests.
Relations over the half-century after 1867 between the two halves of the Empire (in fact the Cisleithan part contained about 57% of the combined realm's population and a rather larger share of its economic resources) featured repeated disputes over shared external tariff arrangements and over the financial contribution of each government to the common treasury. Under the terms of the ''Ausgleich'', an agreement, renegotiated every ten years, determined these matters. Each build-up to the renewal of the agreement saw political turmoil. The disputes between the halves of the empire culminated in the mid-[[1900s]] in a prolonged constitutional crisis -- triggered by disagreement over the language of command in Hungarian army units, and deepened by the advent to power in Budapest (April [[1906]]) of a Hungarian nationalist coalition. Provisional renewals of the common arrangements occurred in October [[1907]] and in November [[1917]] on the basis of the ''status quo''.
==Ethnic relations==
<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=0 align=right><TR align=center><TD>
'''The ethnic distribution<BR>of Austria-Hungary'''
</TD></TR><TR align=center><TD>
<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=0><TR><TD>
German<BR>Hungarian<BR>Czech<BR>Polish<BR>Ruthenian<BR>Romanian<BR>Croat<BR>Slovak<BR>Serb<BR>Slovene<BR>
Italian
</TD><TD> </TD><TD ALIGN=right>
24%<BR>20%<BR>13%<BR>10%<BR>8%<BR>6%<BR>5%<BR>4%<BR>4%<BR>3%<BR>3%
</TD></TR></TABLE></TD></TR></TABLE>
[[Czechs]] (the majority in the [[Czech lands]], i.e.[[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]] and Austrian [[Silesia]]), [[Poles]] and [[Ukrainians]] (in [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]]), [[Slovenes]] (in [[Carniola]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and southern [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], mostly today's [[Slovenia]]) and [[Croats]], [[Italy|Italians]] and [[Slovenes]] in [[Istria]] each sought a greater say in Cisleithan affairs.
At the same time, Magyar dominance faced challenges from the local majorities of [[Romanians]] in [[Transylvania]] and in the eastern [[Banat]], of [[Slovaks]] in today's [[Slovakia]], of [[Croats]] and [[Serbs]] in the crownlands of [[Croatia]] and of [[Dalmatia]] (today's [[Croatia]]), in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and in the provinces known as the [[Vojvodina]] (today's northern [[Serbia]]). The Romanians and the Serbs also looked to union with their fellow-nationalists in the newly-founded states of [[Romania]] (1859 - 1878) and [[Serbia]].
Though Hungary's leaders showed on the whole less willingness than their German Austrian counterparts to share power with their subject minorities, they granted (it is argued) a large measure of autonomy to the kingdom of [[Croatia]] in [[1868]], parallelling to some extent their own accommodation within the Empire the previous year.
[[Image:austria hungary 1911.jpg|thumb|left|300px|"Distribution of Races in Austria-Hungary" from the Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1911]]
Language was one of the most contentious questions in Austro-Hungarian politics. All governments faced difficult and divisive hurdles in sorting out the languages of government and of instruction. Minorities wanted to ensure the widest possibility for education in their own language as well as in the "dominant" languages of Hungarian and German. On one notable occasion, that of the so-called "ordinance of April 5, 1897", the Austrian Prime Minister [[Kasimir Felix Graf Badeni]] gave Czech equal standing with German in the internal government of [[Bohemia]], leading to a crisis because of nationalist German agitation throughout the Empire. In the end Badeni was dismissed. On another occasion, the Czechs lost the privilege of using their own language in everyday life, including newspapers and in the workplace: Czechs had to use German. This caused general chaos.
From January 1907 all the public and private schools in Slovak part (aprox. 3 mil. people) of Hungary were forced to teach in Hungarian language only, burning Slovak books and newspapers. This led to wide criticism by [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]] among others.
It was not rare for the two kingdoms to divide spheres of influence. According to [[Misha Glenny]] (''The Balkans, 1804-1999''), the Austrians responded to Hungarian badgering of Czechs by supporting the Croatian national movement in Zagreb. (Croatia, in spite of nominal autonomy, was in fact an economic and administrative arm of Hungary; this the Croats resented.)
==Economy==
[[Image:BanknoteA-H.jpg|thumb|250px|A banknote of the Dual Monarchy]]
The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change accelerated [[industrialization]] and [[urbanization]]. The [[capitalist]] mode of production spread throughout the Empire during its fifty-year existence. The old institutions of [[feudalism]] continued to disappear. Economic growth centred around Vienna, the Austrian lands (areas of modern Austria), the Alpine lands, and the Bohemian lands. In the later years of the nineteenth century rapid economic growth spread to the central Hungarian plain and to the Carpathian lands. As a result of this pattern wide disparities of development existed within the Empire. In general the western areas achieved far more development than the east. By the early 20th century most of the Empire had started to experience rapid economic growth. The [[GNP]] per capita grew roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favourably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). (Source: Good, David. ''The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire''). However, the Empire's economy as a whole still lagged considerably behind the economies of other powers, as it had only begun sustained modernization much later. Britain had a GNP per-capita almost three times larger than the Habsburg Empire, while Germany's stood almost twice as high as Austria-Hungary's. Nonetheless, these large discrepancies hide different levels of development within the Empire.
[[Rail transport]] expanded rapidly in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its predecessor state, the [[Habsburg Empire]], had built a substantial core of railways in the west originating from Vienna by [[1841]]. At that point the government realized the military possibilities of rail and began to invest heavily in their construction. [[Bratislava]], Budapest, Prague, [[Kraków]], [[Graz]], Laibach ([[Ljubljana]]), and [[Venice]] became linked to the main network. By 1854 the Empire had almost 2000 kilometres of track, about 60 to 70% of it in state hands. At that point the government began to sell off large portions of track to private investors to recoup some of its investments and because of the financial strains of the [[1848 Revolution]] and of the [[Crimean War]].
From [[1854]] to [[1879]] private interests conducted almost all rail construction. What would become Cisleithania gained 7952 track kilometres, and Hungary built 5839 track kilometres. During this time many new areas joined the railway system and the existing rail networks gained connections and interconnections. This period marked the beginning of widespread rail transportation in Austria-Hungary, and also the integration of transportation systems in the area. Railways allowed the Empire to integrate its economy far more than previously possible, when transportation depended on rivers.
After 1879 the Austro-Hungarian government slowly began to re-nationalize the rail network, largely because of the sluggish pace of development during the worldwide [[depression (economics)|depression]] of the [[1870s]]. The years between 1879 and [[1900]] saw more than 25,000 km of railways built in Cisleithania and Hungary. Most of this constituted "filling in" of the existing network, although some areas, primarily in the far east, gained rail connections for the first time during this period. The railroad reduced transportation costs throughout the Empire, opening new markets for products from other lands of the Dual Monarchy.
==Foreign policy==
The Imperial (Austrian) and Royal (Hungarian) governments differed also to some extent in their attitude toward the Empire's common foreign policy. Politicians in Budapest particularly feared annexations of territory which would add to the kingdom's non-Hungarian populations. But the Empire's alliance with [[Germany]] against [[Russia]] from October [[1879]] (see [[Dual Alliance, 1879]]) commanded general acceptance, since Russia seemed the principal external military threat to both parts.
Austro-Hungarian forces occupied the territory of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] from August [[1878]] under the [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878 | Treaty of Berlin]]. The Empire annexed this territory in October [[1908]] as a common holding under the control of the finance ministry rather than attaching it to either territorial government. The annexation set up an anomalous situation which led some in Vienna to contemplate combining Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia to form a third component of the Empire, uniting its southern Slav regions under the domination of Croats (who might have proved more sympathetic to [[Vienna]] than to Budapest).
==World War I==
[[Image:Schildoh.png|thumb|150px|right|Coat of Arms of Austria-Hungary, adopted in [[1915]] to emphasize the unity of the Empire during [[World War I]].]]
On [[June |
functions of L-ascorbic acid.
__NOTOC__
== Chemistry ==
===Acidity===
The hydroxyls (OH) next to the bottom [[double bond]] are [[enol]]s. One enol loses an [[Lone pair|electron pair]], becoming an [[oxonium]] group (=OH<sup>+</sup>), by creating a [[double bond]] to the carbon. Simultaneously, the carbon-carbon double bond (between the enols) transfers its electrons to form a double bond to the next (two-oxygen) carbon. To give way, the double bond electrons of the [[carbonyl]] are received by the carbonyl's oxygen, to produce an [[enolate]]. The oxonium promptly [[deprotonation|deprotonate]]s to produce a carbonyl, and this loss of protons gives ascorbic acid its [[acidity]]. The overall reaction is enol deprotonation to produce an [[enolate]], where the negative charge of the resulting enolate [[counterion]] is delocalized over the system of carbonyl (C=O) and the double bond (C=C). This delocalization makes the counterion more stable and less likely to regain the proton.
[[Image:Ascorbic acidity3.png|thumb|left|500px|Movement of electron pairs in deprotonation]]<br style="clear:left;">
===Tautomerism===
[[Image:Ascorbic diketone.png|frame|left|Attack of ascorbic enol on proton to give 1,3-diketone]]
Ascorbic acid also rapidly interconverts into two unstable [[diketone]] [[tautomer]]s by [[proton transfer]], although it is the most stable in the enol form. The proton of the enol is lost, and reacquired by electrons from the double bond, to produce a diketone. This is an [[enol]] reaction. There are two possible forms, 1,2-diketone and 1,3-diketone.<br style="clear:both;">
===Determination===
The concerntration of a solution of ascorbic acid can be determined in many ways, the most common ways involve [[titration]] with an [[oxidising agent]].
====Titrative Methods====
=====DCPIP=====
A commonly used oxidising agent is the dye 2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol, or [[DCPIP]] for short. The blue dye is run into the ascorbic acid [[solution]] until a faint pink colour persists for 15 seconds.
=====Iodine=====
Another method involves using [[iodine]] and a [[starch]] [[indicator]], iodine reacts with ascorbic acid and when all the ascorbic acid has reacted the iodine is then in excess, forming a blue/black [[complex]] with the starch indicator. this indicates the end point of the titration.
=====Iodate and Iodine Ions=====
The above method involving iodine requires making up and standardising the iodine solution. One way round this is to generate the iodine in the presence of the ascorbic acid by the reaction of [[iodate]] and iodine ion in [[acid]] solution.
=====N-Bromosuccinimide=====
A much less common oxidising agent is [[N-bromosuccinimide]], (NBS). In this titration the NBS oxidises the ascorbic acid (in the presence of [[potassium iodide]] and starch). When the NBS is in excess (i.e. the reaction is complete) the NBS liberates the iodine from the potassium iodide which then form the blue/black complex with starch, indicating the end point of the titration.
== Uses ==
Ascorbic acid is easily oxidized and so is used as a reductant in photographic developer solutions (among others) and as a [[preservative]].
Exposure to oxygen, metals, light and heat destroy ascorbic acid, so it must be stored in dark and cold and not in a metal containment.
The oxidized form of ascorbic acid is known as [[dehydroascorbic acid]].
The [[Optical isomerism|L-enantiomer]] of ascorbic acid is also known as [[vitamin C]] (the name "ascorbic" comes from its property of preventing and curing [[scurvy]]). [[Primate]]s (including humans) and a few other species in all divisions of the animal kingdom, notably the [[guinea pig]], have lost the ability to synthesise vitamin C and must obtain it in their food.
Ascorbic acid and its sodium, potassium, and calcium [[salts]] are commonly used as [[antioxidant]] [[food additive]]s. These compounds are water soluble and thus cannot protect [[fats]] from oxidation: for this purpose, the fat-[[soluble]] [[ester]]s of ascorbic acid with long-chain [[fatty acid]]s (ascorbyl palmitate or ascorbyl stearate) can be used as food antioxidants.
The relevant European food additive [[E number]]s are:
E300 ascorbic acid,
E301 sodium ascorbate, E302 calcium ascorbate,
E303 potassium ascorbate,
E304 fatty acid esters of ascorbic acid (i) [[ascorbyl palmitate]] (ii) [[ascorbyl stearate]].
==Antioxidant mechanism==
Ascorbate acts as an antioxidant by being itself available for energeticaly favourable oxidation. Oxidants (scientifically referred to as [[reactive oxygen species]]) such as the hydroxyl radical (formed from [[hydrogen peroxide]]), contain an unpaired electron and thus are highly reactive and damaging to humans and plants at the molecular level. This is due to their interaction with [[nucleic acid]], proteins and lipids. Reactive oxygen species can 'abstract' a hydrogen from ascorbate, which becomes monodehydroascorbate and soon gains another electron to become dehydroascorbate. The reactive oxygen species are reduced to water while the oxidized forms of ascorbate are relatively stable and unreactive, and do not cause cellular damage.
==Reference==
* Clayden, Greeves, Warren, Wothers. ''Organic Chemistry.'' Oxford University Press (2001), ISBN 0198503466.
* Derek Denby ''Chemistry Review'', May 1996
== See also ==
* [[Vitamin C]] for a discussion of the medical properties of ascorbic acid as well as its historic and social role.
* [[Mineral ascorbates]]
==External links==
* [http://ptcl.chem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/AS/ascorbic_acid.html Safety data] University of Oxford
* [http://www.drpagel.de/Vitamin-C/Diss/EN/mydoc106sum_eng.html Investigations of the oxidation and reduction of the ascorbic acid / dehydroascorbic acid redox system as well as of the hydrolytic saponification from dehydroascorbic acid to diketogulonic acid] Dissertation Giessen 1992
* ''Vitamin C: Its Chemistry and Biochemistry'' Michael B. Davies, John Austin, David A. Partridge. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN: 0-85186-333-7
* ''Food: The Chemistry of Its Components; Third Edition'' T.P. Coultate. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN: 0-85404-513-9
{{vitamin}}
[[Category:Organic acids]]
[[Category:Antioxidants]]
[[ca:Vitamina C]]
[[de:Ascorbinsäure]]
[[et:C-vitamiin]]
[[es:Vitamina C]]
[[eo:Askorbata acido]]
[[fa:ویتامین ث]]
[[fr:acide ascorbique]]
[[ko:비타민 C]]
[[it:Acido ascorbico]]
[[he:ויטמין C]]
[[lt:Askorbo rūgštis]]
[[lu:Ascorbinsaier]]
[[nl:Ascorbinezuur]]
[[ja:アスコルビン酸]]
[[pl:Kwas askorbinowy]]
[[pt:Vitamina C]]
[[ro:Acid ascorbic]]
[[ru:Витамин C]]
[[simple:Vitamin C]]
[[fi:C-vitamiini]]
[[sv:Askorbinsyra]]
[[sk:Kyselina askorbová]]
[[tr:C Vitamini]]
[[zh:维生素C]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asyncronous Transfer Mode</title>
<id>2269</id>
<revision>
<id>15900699</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line</title>
<id>2270</id>
<revision>
<id>41851643</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:43:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mg-</username>
<id>1015033</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{ADSL standards}}
'''Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line''' ('''ADSL''') is a form of [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], a data communications technology that enables faster data transmission over [[copper]] [[telephone]] lines than a conventional [[modem]] can provide.
The distinguishing characteristic of ADSL over [[xDSL]] is that the volume of data flow is greater in one direction than the other, i.e. it is [[asymmetric]]. Providers usually market ADSL as a service for people to connect to the [[Internet]] in a relatively passive mode: able to use the higher speed direction for the "[[download]]" from the Internet but not needing to run servers that would require bandwidth in the other direction.
There are both technical and marketing reasons why ADSL is in many places the most common type offered to home users. On the technical side, there is likely to be more [[crosstalk]] from other circuits at the [[Digital subscriber line access multiplexer|DSLAM]] end (where the wires from many local loops are close together) than at the customer premises. Thus the upload signal is weakest at the noisiest part of the local loop, while the download signal is strongest at the noisiest part of the local loop. It therefore makes technical sense to have the DSLAM transmit at a higher bit rate than does the modem on the customer end. Since the typical home user in fact does prefer a higher download speed, the telephone companies chose to make a virtue out of necessity, hence ADSL.
For conventional ADSL, downstream rates start at 256 [[kbit/s]] and typically reach 8 [[Mbit/s]] within 1.5 km (5000 ft) of the DSLAM equipped central office or remote terminal.
Upstream rates start at 64 kbit/s and typically reach 256 kbit/s but can go as high as 1024 kbit/s. The name [[ADSL Lite]] is sometimes used for the slower versions.
Note that distances are only approximations aimed at consumers of ADSL services. Signal [[attenuation]] and [[signal-to-noise ratio|Signal to Noise Ratio]] are defining characteristics, and can vary completely independently of distance (e.g., non-copper cabling, cable diameter). Real world performance is also dependent to the line impedance, which can change dynamically either dependent on weather conditions (very common for old overhead lines) or on the number and quality of joints or junctions in a particular cable length.
A newer variant called ADSL2 provides higher downstream rates of up to 12 Mbit/s for spans of less than 2.5 km (8000 ft). Highe |
[[2004]] [[Mercury Music Prize]]. Although a staple on many college radio stations, the band has yet to break beyond this niche to achieve notable mainstream success in America. Their British chart history has been more steady and respectable. Mention of the band in ''[[High Fidelity]]'' and use of the band's songs in [[Todd Solondz]]'s [[2001]] film ''[[Storytelling]]'' indicated that Belle & Sebastian's influence in the United States had started to spread beyond the [[indie rock]] ghetto, as did a second season episode of ''[[Gilmore Girls]]'' in which Lane Kim went to great lengths to acquire a new Belle & Sebastian EP while grounded by her ultrastrict mother. A 2005 episode of the sitcom ''[[How I Met Your Mother]]'' that prominently referred to the band offered evidence that Belle & Sebastian had finally become a mainstream reference point in U.S. [[pop culture]].
Presenting a slightly fey image to the public at large, Belle and Sebastian's bittersweet love songs inspire a fanatical loyalty amongst their fans, similar to that experienced by [[The Smiths]] during their heyday. Some of this loyalty is due to the fact that until [[2003]] the band did not include singles on their albums. Thus, being in possession of their complete discography is a mark of true devotion.
In [[January 2005]] Belle and Sebastian were voted Scotland's greatest band in a poll by [[The List]], beating [[Simple Minds]], [[Idlewild (band)|Idlewild]], [[Travis (band)|Travis]], [[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]], and [[The Proclaimers]], among others.
The band's name is taken from ''[[Belle et Sébastien]]'', a children's book by French writer Cécile Aubry about a boy (Sébastien) and his dog (Belle). The book was made into a French live action television series in 1965 and a Japanese anime in 1981.
Side projects and spin-offs include the bands [[Gentle Waves]], [[V-Twin]], and [[Looper]].
==Discography==
===Albums===
====Studio====
<gallery>
<!--- Please refer to discussion before making any changes --->
<gallery>
Image:BelleAndSebastianTigermilk.jpg|<center>'''''[[Tigermilk]]'''''<br><center>[[1996]]<br><center>'''#13''' (UK, however, it did not chart until 1999), '''#15''' (SWE)
Image:Belle and Sebastian-If You're Feeling Sinister.jpg|<center>'''''[[If You're Feeling Sinister]]'''''<br><center>[[1996]]<br><center>'''#191''' (UK)
Image:Belle sebastian - the boy with the arab strap.jpg|<center>'''''[[The Boy with the Arab Strap]]'''''<br><center>[[1998]]<br><center>'''#12''' (UK), '''#30''' (SWE)
Image:FoldYourHandsChildCover.jpg|<center>'''''[[Fold Your Hands Child, You Walk Like a Peasant]]'''''<br><center>[[2000]]<br><center>'''#10''' (UK), '''#80''' (US), '''#11''' (SWE)
Image:Belle & Sebastian - Storytelling.jpg|<center>'''''[[Storytelling (album)|Storytelling]]'''''<br><center>[[2002]]<br><center>'''#26''' (UK), '''#150''' (US), '''#29''' (SWE)
Image:Dearcatastrophecover.jpg|<center>'''''[[Dear Catastrophe Waitress]]'''''<br><center>[[2003]]<br><center>'''#21''' (UK), '''#84''' (US), '''#16''' (SWE)
Image:Thelifepursuitcover.jpg|<center>'''''[[The Life Pursuit]]'''''<br><center>[[2006]]<br><center>'''#8''' (UK), '''#65''' (US), '''#47''' (CAN), '''#20''' (SWE), '''#60''' (AUT), '''#56''' (SUI)
</gallery>
====Live====
* ''[[The Black Sessions: Live at Studio Charles Trenet, Paris]]'', 1998
* ''[[If You're Feeling Sinister: Live at the Barbican]]'', 2005
===Singles & EPs===
* ''[[Dog on Wheels|Dog on Wheels EP]]'', 1997; #59 UK
* ''[[Lazy Line Painter Jane|Lazy Line Painter Jane EP]]'', 1997; #41 UK
* ''[[3.. 6.. 9.. Seconds of Light|3.. 6.. 9.. Seconds of Light EP]]'', 1997; #32 UK
* ''[[This Is Just a Modern Rock Song|This Is Just a Modern Rock Song EP]], 1998
* "[[Legal Man]]", 2000; #15 UK
* "[[Jonathan David]]", 2001; #31 UK
* "[[I'm Waking Up to Us]]", 2001; #39 UK
* "[[Step Into My Office, Baby]]", 2003; #32 UK
* "[[I'm a Cuckoo]]", 2004; #14 UK
* ''[[Books (EP)|Books EP]]'', 2004; #20 UK
* "[[Funny Little Frog]]", 2006; #13 UK
* "[[The Blues Are Still Blue]]", 2006
===Compilations===
* ''[[Lazy Line Painter Jane (boxset)]]'' (boxset of first three EPs), 2000
* ''[[Push Barman to Open Old Wounds]]'' (compilation of Jeepster singles &amp; EPs), 2005; #40 UK
* ''[[Late Night Tales: Belle & Sebastian|Late Night Tales: Belle and Sebastian]]'' (compilation of other artists, compiled by B&S), 2006
===DVDs===
* ''Fans Only'', 2003
==External links==
* [http://www.belleandsebastian.com/ Official Website]
* [http://www.jeepster.co.uk/belleandsebastian/ B&S on Jeepster]
* [http://www.missprint.org/sinister/ Sinister] &ndash; Mailing list, with lyrics and chords
* [http://www.bowlie.com/forum/belle-and-sebastian/ B&S on the Bowlie forum]
* [http://www.list.co.uk/fiftybandsmain.html The List's 'Best Scottish Band of All Time' Announcement]
* [http://www.matadorrecords.com/belle_and_sebastian/ Belle and Sebastian on Matador Records]
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<page>
<title>Boston Globe</title>
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<page>
<title>Birth control</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:23:41Z</timestamp>
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<username>Alienus</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Krautrock]] band, see [[Birth Control (band)]]''
'''Birth control''' is a regimen of one or more actions, devices, or [[medication]]s followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the likelihood of a [[woman]] giving [[childbirth|birth]] or becoming [[pregnancy|pregnant]]. Methods and intentions typically termed birth control may be considered a pivotal ingredient to [[family planning]]. Mechanisms which are intended to reduce the likelihood of the [[fertilization]] of an [[ovum]] by a [[spermatozoon]] may more specifically be referred to as ''[[contraception]]''. Contraception differs from [[abortion]] in that the former prevents fertilization, whereas abortion terminates an already established pregnancy. Methods of birth control which may prevent the implantation of an embryo ''if'' fertilization occurs are medically considered to be contraception but characterized by some opponents as abortifacients.
Birth control is a controversial political and ethical issue in many [[culture]]s and [[religion]]s, and although it is generally less controversial than abortion specifically, it is still opposed by many. There are various degrees of opposition, including those who oppose all forms of birth control short of [[sexual abstinence]]; those who oppose forms of birth control they deem "unnatural," while allowing [[natural family planning]]; and those who support most forms of birth control that prevent [[fertilization]], but oppose any method of birth control which prevents a fertilized [[embryo]] from attaching to the [[uterus]] and initiating a pregnancy.
==History of birth control==
[[Image:Familyplanningmalaysia.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A major factor in reducing birth rates in [[developing countries]] such as Malaysia is the availability of family planning facilities, like this one in Kuala Trengganu.]]
Probably the oldest methods of contraception (aside from [[sexual abstinence]]) are ''[[coitus interruptus]]'',
[[barrier contraception|barrier methods]], and herbal [[abortifacient]]s.
''[[Coitus interruptus]]'' (withdrawal of the [[penis]] from the [[vagina]] prior to [[ejaculation]]) probably predates any other form of birth control. Once the relationship between the emission of [[semen]] into the vagina and pregnancy was known or suspected, some men began to use this technique. This is not a particularly reliable method of contraception, as few men have the self-control to correctly practice the method at every single act of intercourse.
[[Folklore]] has suggested [[douche|douching]] immediately following intercourse as a contraceptive method, and while it seems like a sensible idea to try to wash the ejaculate out of the vagina, it does not work due to the nature of the fluids and the structure of the female reproductive tract — if anything, douching spreads semen further towards the uterus. Some slight [[spermicide|spermicidal]] effect may occur if the douche solution is particularly acidic, but overall it is not scientifically observed to be a reliably effective method.
There are historic records of Egyptian women using a [[pessary]] (a vaginal suppository) made of various acidic substances (crocodile dung is alleged) and lubricated with honey or oil, which may have been somewhat effective at killing sperm. However, it is important to note that the sperm cell was not discover |
subjects.
Since the colleges are all fully independent legal entities owning their own buildings, employing their own staff, and managing their own endowments, colleges vary widely in wealth. It is entirely possible for some colleges to be in better financial health than the universities of which they are a part.
Typically a student or fellow of an Oxbridge college is said to be "living in college" if their accommodation is inside the college buildings. Most colleges also accommodate students in houses or other buildings away from the college site.
====University of Durham====
The [[University of Durham]] is also collegiate in nature, and its colleges enjoy the same legal status as 'listed bodies' as the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. Generally, however, its colleges are not financially independent and do not have any teaching duties as part of the university, though they do provide meals, libraries, computers, and recreational facilities for their members. In many ways, colleges at the [[University of Durham]] have a similar function to what a traditional Hall of Residence has at many other universities.
====University of Edinburgh====
The [[University of Edinburgh]] recently restructured and created colleges along [[academic]] lines merging the old Faculties into larger bodies, and devolving control for most matters to academic schools.
====University of St Andrews====
The [[University of St Andrews]] is legally a collegiate university, having two colleges: the [[United College, St Andrews|United College of St Salvator and St Leonard]] and [[St Mary's College, St Andrews|St Mary's College]]. However, each college exists in name only and the power they once held is now vested in the [[Academic Senate]] and the Faculties of Arts, Divinity, Medicine and Science.
====University of Wales====
In the [[University of Wales]], colleges are the lower tier of institutional membership, below constituent institutions, following the reorganisation of the university in [[1996]]. Prior to this, the member institutions were all called colleges. There are not currently any colleges in the University of Wales, but this is likely to change in the future.
====New Universities====
Three of the [[New Universities]], [[Lancaster University|Lancaster]], [[University of York|York]] and [[University of Kent|Kent]], have a similar system, although their colleges lack the legal status of those at Durham and Oxbridge. Officially, the [[University of London]] consists of a number of colleges. However, the federation has always been even looser there than at Oxford or Cambridge, to the extent that each of these "colleges" is essentially an independent university-level institution.
== United States of America==
By contrast to British usage, in [[American English]] the term "college" is generally reserved for institutions of higher education, which are often totally independent and fully empowered to grant degrees. The usual practice in America today is to call an institution made up of several faculties and granting a range of higher degrees a "university" while a smaller institution only granting [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's]] or [[Associate's degree|associate's degrees]] is called a "college". (See [[liberal arts colleges]], [[community college]]). Nevertheless, a few of America's most prestigious universities, such as [[Boston College]], [[Dartmouth College]] and the [[College of William and Mary]], have retained the term "college" in their names for historical reasons though they offer a wide range of higher degrees. This problem led, in part, to the threatened lawsuit between [[Yale College Wrexham]] (equivalent to an American "[[high school]]") and [[Yale University]], the latter claiming copyright infringement.
[[Image:Belushi in Animal House.jpg|thumb|right|[[John Belushi]] played "Bluto", a stereotypical American college student in the 1978 film ''[[Animal House]]'']]
Usage of the terms varies among the [[U.S. state|states]], each of which operates its own institutions and licenses private ones. In [[1996]] for example, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] changed all of its four-year colleges to universities, and all of its [[vocational]] [[technology]] [[school]]s to [[technical college]]s. (Previously, only the four [[research]] institutions were called universities.) Other states have changed the [[name]]s of individual colleges, many having started as a [[teacher]]s' college or [[vocational school]] (such as an A&M &mdash; an [[agricultural]] and [[mechanical]] school) that ended up as a full-fledged [[state university]].
It should be noted, too, that "university" and "college" do not exhaust all possible titles for an American institution of higher education. Other options include "institute", "academy", "union," and "school" as in the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point, New York]], [[Cooper Union]], or the [[Juilliard School]].
The term ''college'' is also, as in Britain, used for a constituent semi-autonomous part of a larger university but generally organized on academic rather than residential lines. For example, at many institutions, the undergraduate portion of the university can be briefly referred to as '''the college''' (such as The College at [[Brown University|Brown]] or [[Harvard College]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]]) while at others each of the faculties may be called a "college" (the "college of engineering", the "college of nursing", and so forth). Some American universities, such as [[Rice University|Rice]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]] and [[Yale University|Yale]], do have [[residential college|residential colleges]] along the lines of Oxford or Cambridge, but the name was clearly adopted in homage to the British system. Unlike the Oxbridge colleges, these residential colleges are not autonomous legal entities nor are they typically much involved in education itself, being primarily concerned with room, board, and social life. At the [[University of California, San Diego]], however, each of the six residential colleges does teach its own core writing courses and has its own distinctive set of graduation requirements.
===The origin of America's usage===
The founders of the first institutions of higher education in the United States were graduates of Oxford and Cambridge. The small institutions they founded would not have seemed to them like universities &mdash; they were tiny and did not offer the higher degrees in medicine and theology. Furthermore, they were not composed of several small colleges. Instead, the new institutions felt like the Oxbridge colleges they were used to &mdash; small communities, housing and feeding their students who were instructed by residential tutors (see United Kingdom/Universities and Colleges above). However, when the first students came to be graduated, these "colleges" proceeded to assume (without any recognized authority) the right to confer degrees upon them. In Europe only universities could grant degrees. Presumably the leaders of [[Harvard College]] (which granted America's first degrees in 1642) thought of their college as the first of many residential colleges which would grow up into a New Cambridge university. However, over time, no new colleges were founded; and Harvard grew and added higher faculties. Eventually, it changed its title to university, but the term "college" had stuck and "colleges" had sprung up all over America.
==British and American usage contrasted==
The most confusing aspect of the conflict between the British and American terminology arises from the colloquial use of the word "college" by Americans. Where a British person (or indeed, most people around the world) would say "attend university", the American instead says, "go to college" &mdash; ''even if he is referring to an institution formally called a university''. In Britain, aside from usage in reference to [[collegiate universities]] as detailed above, to attend "college" would usually be accepted as meaning one attends a [[technical college]] or a specific [[sixth form]] institution (NB. Most [[state schools]] and [[public schools]] in Britain have sixth forms, but there are a number of sixth form specific institutions). However, in the States, the student at the enormous [[University of Michigan]] still calls it his "college". Similarly, the institution that administers many standardized admissions tests in the US is known as the [[College Board]]. Thus to the American, the word "college" refers not only to an institution but to a ''phase in one's life''. Anywhere else in the world that phase is called "university".
However, this phase itself varies somewhat around the world, which can lead to confusion even when the terminology is understood. Two outstanding features of the American version are '''universality''' and '''breadth''':
#nearly half of all Americans attend at least one year of "college", so the word is more natural, less remarkable, than "university" might sound abroad. At the less-academic end of the scale, American universities award a great many degrees for professional training which might be accomplished on-the-job elsewhere.
#at the more-academic end of the scale, on the other hand, many American college students (especially at the most elite institutions) see "college" as a time of intellectual exploration which can be accomplished free from any need to prepare for the future, believing [[graduate school]] to be the time for that. The American system, by permitting students to spend some of their time in classes entirely removed from their [[college maj |
einium | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=252 | sym=Es
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|471.7 d]]
| dm1=[[alpha emission|&alpha;]] | de1=6.760 | pn1=248 | ps1=[[berkelium|Bk]]
| dm2=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de2=1.260 | pn2=252 | ps2=[[californium|Cf]]
| dm3=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de3=0.480 | pn3=252 | ps3=[[fermium|Fm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=253 | sym=Es
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|20.47 d]]
| dm1=[[spontaneous fission|SF]] | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
| dm2=&alpha; | de2=6.739 | pn2=249 | ps2=[[berkelium|Bk]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=254 | sym=Es
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=275.7 [[day|d]]
| dm1=&epsilon; | de1=0.654 | pn1=254 | ps1=[[californium|Cf]]
| dm2=&beta;<sup>-</sup> | de2=1.090 | pn2=254 | ps2=[[fermium|Fm]]
| dm3=&alpha; | de3=6.628 | pn3=250 | ps3=[[berkelium|Bk]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=255 | sym=Es
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=39.8 d
| dm1=&beta;<sup>-</sup> | de1=0.288 | pn1=255 | ps1=[[fermium|Fm]]
| dm2=&alpha; | de2=6.436 | pn2=251 | ps2=[[berkelium|Bk]]
| dm3=SF | de3=- | pn3= | ps3=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
'''Einsteinium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Es''' and [[atomic number]] 99. A [[metal]]lic highly [[radioactive]] [[transuranic element]] (7th in the series) in the [[actinide]]s, einsteinium is produced by bombarding [[plutonium]] with [[neutron]]s and was discovered in the debris of the first [[nuclear weapon|hydrogen bomb]] test. It was named after [[Albert Einstein]] and has no known uses. Tracer studies using the [[isotope]] Es-253 show that einsteinium has [[chemistry|chemical]] properties typical of a heavy trivalent, actinide element. Einsteinium has 99 protons, 99 electrons and 153 neutrons.
== History ==
Einsteinium was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first identified]] in December [[1952]] by [[Albert Ghiorso]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] and another team headed by [[G.R. Choppin]] at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]. Both were examining debris from the first [[nuclear weapon|hydrogen bomb]] test of November, [[1952]] (see [[Operation Ivy]]). They discovered the [[isotope]] einsteinium-253 ([[half-life]] 20.5 days) that was made by the [[nuclear fusion]] of 15 [[neutron]]s with [[uranium]]-238 (which then went through seven [[beta decay]]s). These findings were kept secret until [[1955]] due to [[Cold War]] tensions, however.
In [[1961]], enough einsteinium was synthesized to prepare a macroscopic amount of Es-253. This sample weighed about 0.01 mg and was measured using a special balance. The material produced was used to produce [[mendelevium]]. Further einsteinium has been produced at the [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]'s [[High Flux Isotope Reactor]] in [[Tennessee]] by bombarding [[plutonium]]-239 with [[neutron]]s. Around 3 mg was created over a four year program of irradiation and then chemical separation from a starting 1 kg of plutonium isotope.
== Isotopes ==
19 [[radioisotope]]s of einsteinium have been characterized, with the most stable being Es-252 with a [[half-life]] of 471.7 days, Es-254 with a half-life of 275.7 days, Es-255 with a half-life of 39.8 days, and Es-253 with a half-life of 20.47 days. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 40 hours, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 30 minutes. This element also has 3 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Es-254m (t<sub>½</sub> 39.3 hours). The isotopes of einsteinium range in [[atomic mass]] from 240.069 [[atomic mass unit|u]] (Es-240) to 258.100 u (Es-258).
==References==
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/99.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Einsteinium]
* ''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele099.html It's Elemental - Einsteinium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Einsteinium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Es/index.html WebElements.com - Einsteinium] (also used as a reference)
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<page>
<title>Edmund Stoiber</title>
<id>9480</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-03T05:46:27Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Villepin-stoiber.jpg|thumb|right|French Prime Minister [[Dominique de Villepin]] with Edmund Stoiber]]
[[Image:Arnold and Edmund 1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] with Edmund Stoiber]]
'''[[Dr. jur.]] Edmund Stoiber''' (born [[September 28]], [[1941]]) is a [[Germany|German]] [[politics|politician]], currently [[minister-president]] of the [[States of Germany|state]] of [[Bavaria]], chairman of the [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|Christian Social Union (CSU)]], and was slated to join Angela Merkel's office as [[Federal Minister for Economics and Labour (Germany)|Economics minister]]. However, on [[November 1]], [[2005]], he announced his decision to stay in Bavaria.
Stoiber was born in [[Oberaudorf]] in the district of [[Rosenheim (district)|Rosenheim]]. Prior to entering politics in 1974 and serving in the Bavarian parliament, he was a [[lawyer]] and worked at the [[University of Regensburg]]. In 1978 he was elected secretary general of the CSU, a post he held until 1982/83. From 1982 to 1986 he served as deputy to the Bavarian secretary of state and then as minister of state from 1982 to 1986. Like many from southern Germany, he is [[Catholic]]; however, [[religion]] does not play a defining role in his politics. In 2002, he challenged [[Gerhard Schröder]] for the [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellorship of Germany]].
Edmund Stoiber is married to [[Karin Stoiber]].
Stoiber's conservative views and controversial remarks have made him a polarizing figure in German politics; most Germans are either fond of his politics or disdain them. Some have compared Stoiber to [[Oskar Lafontaine]]; both are close to the fringes of the German political mainstream, but come from opposite ends of the political spectrum.
==Education and Profession==
Stoiber attended the Ignaz-Günther-Gymnasium in [[Rosenheim]], where he received his [[Abitur]] (High School Diploma) in [[1961]]. His manditory military service was with the [[Gebirgsdivision]] infantry division in [[Mittenwald]] and [[Bad Reichenhall]] and was cut-short due to a knee injury. Following his military service, Stoiber studied [[political science]] and then, in the fall [[1962]] in [[Munich]], [[law]]. In [[1967]] he passed the state law exam and then worked at the [[University of Regensburg]] in [[criminal law]] and [[Eastern Europe|Eastern European]] law. He was awarded a [[doctorate]] of jurisprudence, and then in [[1971]] passed the second state examination with distinction.
In May 1993, the Bavarian ''Landtag'' (parliament) elected him as minister-president succeeding [[Max Streibl]].
== Chancellor candidacy ==
In 2002, Stoiber became the chancellor candidate for the [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]/[[Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria|CSU]] after politically out-maneuvering the leader of the CDU, a Protestant woman, [[Angela Merkel]], who had been the favoured option among the German populace but was unpopular within her own party.
In the run up to the 2002 election the CSU/CDU held a huge lead in the opinion polls and Stoiber famously remarked that "...this [election] is like a [[soccer|football]] match where it's the second half and my team is ahead by 2-0." However, on election day things had changed. The [[Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany|SPD]] had mounted a huge comeback, the CDU/CSU was narrowly defeated (though both the SPD and CDU/CSU had 38.4% of the vote, the SPD was ahead by a small 6,000 vote margin), and [[Gerhard Schröder]] was re-elected as chancellor by the parliament in a coalition with the [[Green Party of Germany]]. Many commentators fault Stoiber's mishandling of the floods in eastern Germany, in the run-up to the election, as a contributory factor in his party's poor electoral result and defeat. In addition, Schroeder distinguished himself from his opponent by taking an active stance against support for the US-led Iraq War. His extensive campaigning on this stance was widely seen as swinging the election to the SPD in the weeks running up to the election.
== Criticisms of Stoiber ==
While the conservative wing of the German political spectrum, primarily formed of the [[CDU]], [[CSU]], and the [[FDP]], enjoys considerable support, this support tends to be less extended to Stoiber. He enjoys considerably more support in his home state of Bavaria than in the rest of Germany, where CDU leader [[Angela Merkel]] is more popular. This has its reasons: Merkel supports a kind of fiscal conservatism, but a more liberal social policy. Stoiber, on the other hand favors a more conservative approach to both fiscal and social matters, and wh |
]] reported that Marvel Comics had announced the formation of Marvel Entertainment, a business entity dedicated to film adaptations of Marvel Comics properties. Coinciding with the announcement was a list of Marvel properties being developed for production by the company's new film arm to be released through partnership with [[Paramount Pictures]]; that list included Captain America. Other properties specifically named in the press announcement are: [[the Avengers]], [[Nick Fury]], [[Black Panther]], [[Ant-Man]], [[Cloak and Dagger (comics)|Cloak and Dagger]], [[Dr. Strange]], [[Hawkeye]], Power Pack, and Shang-Chi. Budgets for each film are expected to be between $45 million and $180 million. The first picture under the arrangement is slated for release by 2008.
According to a news report circulated by the [[Associated Press]] and other major wire services, actor [[Rikki Lee Travolta]] turned down a contract to take over for [[Pierce Brosnan]] in the role of [[James Bond]] because he was expected to sign to play Captain America in a new film adaptation.[http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/travolta%20i%20turned%20down%20bond] Subsequent news reports repeat the story that Travolta is in negotiations to play Captain America. However, neither Travolta nor Marvel has yet released any statement on the matter.[http://www.slashfilm.com/article.php/20051031103412243]
===Television===
[[Image:Captainamerica1.gif|180px|right|thumb|Reb Brown as Captain America (1979, TV)]]
Captain America was featured in the 1970s in two live-action television movies, ''Captain America'' and ''Captain America II: Death Too Soon'' starring Reb Brown. The character was slightly different than the comics, both in his origin and his operations. Besides his shield, this Captain America also made significant use of a specialized van and motorcycle which was memorable for its ability to operate silently.
<br clear="all">
====Animation====
Captain America was one of several Marvel Comics characters which were portrayed in animation in the late 1960s. Captain America’s show even had a theme song, which included the lyrics:
:''When Captain America throws his mighty shield,
:''All those who chose to oppose his shield must yield.
The Captain America character also made two appearances in the 1980s animated series ''[[Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends]]'', in the episodes "7 Little Superheroes" and "Pawns of the Kingpin". He also appeared in one episode of the syndicated ''Spider-Man'' series, where he and [[Spider-Man]] fought the Red Skull. Captain America appeared in the fifth season of the ''[[X-Men Animated Series|X-Men]]'' animated series to fend off Nazis as a fellow soldier and friend of Wolverine in the episode "Old Soldiers".
Captain America appeared in the 1990s ''[[Spider-Man]]'' [[animated television series]], in the "Six Forgotten Warriors" and "Secret Wars" story arcs. In this version, while the original formula was lost, scientists were able to create five similar doses, which were given to five other Americans. The formula, being imperfect, gave them all slightly different abilities and was also temporary. The other five could turn off their powers using special rings, to keep from wasting them. The six fought together in World War II, until Captain America and the Red Skull are trapped in an extra-dimensional stasis device, eternally fighting until they are briefly released.
Captain America (along with [[Nick Fury]]) also made an appearance in the animated series ''[[X-Men: Evolution]]''. In the episode "Operation Rebirth", Rogers got his abilities from a machine used as part of "Project: Rebirth". During World War II, he participated in a joint operation with a Canadian soldier named [[Wolverine (comics)|Logan]] to liberate a [[concentration camp]]. One of the prisoners was a boy named Erik Lehnsherr. After the attack, it was revealed that the ''Rebirth'' process was killing Rogers, so he and Logan destroyed the machine and Rogers was cryogenically frozen until a cure could be found. Lehnsherr would grow up to become [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]] and acquire a duplicate of the Rebirth technology, having discovered it could be used safely on mutants to prolong their life and vitality. The duplicate technology was destroyed by Wolverine, [[Rogue (comics)|Rogue]], and [[Nightcrawler (comics)|Nightcrawler]].
The Ultimate Marvel version of Captain America is featured among other heroes in an animated straight-to-video series, ''[[Ultimate Avengers]]'', the first installment of which was released in February 2006.
===Novels===
Captain America has also appeared in several (prose) novels, notably 1998's ''Captain America: Liberty's Torch'' by [[Tony Isabella]] and [[Bob Ingersoll]], in which the hero is put on trial for the imagined crimes of America by a hostile militia group.
===Computer games===
{{wikibooks|Fighting Game Moves/Capcom/C_America}}
[[Image:Cap.gif|thumb|120px|[[Capcom]] fighting game version]]
Captain America has appeared in several [[Computer and video games|video games]]. He was one of four [[playable character]]s in ''[[Captain America and the Avengers]]'' (1991). He later appeared in [[Capcom]]'s ''[[Marvel Super-Heroes (video game)|Marvel Super-Heroes]]'' and the subsequent [[Marvel vs. Capcom series]], as well as ''Maximum Carnage'' and ''Marvel Super Heroes: War of the Gems''.
===Musical Theatre===
In 1985, a musical about Captain America was announced for Broadway. The piece, written by Mel Mandel and Norman Sachs, never actually premiered, although recordings of the score have surfaced. ([http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10714FD395C0C768CDDAD0894DD484D81&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fPeople%2fN%2fNemy%2c%20Enid Citation at New York Times - article requires payment or registration])
===Pop culture references===
====Music====
The phrase "Captain America" has been used to refer ironically to American patriotic values, especially in [[rock music]].
*The 1978 [[Kinks]] song "Catch Me Now, I'm Falling", about the ailing U.S. economy in the late 1970s, refers to "Captain America calling".
*[[Jam band]] [[moe.]] composed a song called "Captain America" which deals with Captain America as an authority figure.
*[[Jimmy Buffett]] recorded a song in 1977 titled "Captain America," offering a tongue-in-cheek tribute to the hero, replete with a [[kazoo]] solo and the phrase, "He wears a mask, his clothes are weird, and some folks call him hokey. But he is hip, he just can't dig the [[Oklahoma|Okie]] from [[Muskogee, Oklahoma|Muskogee]]."
*The [[Guns N' Roses]]' song "[[Paradise City]]" also contains a reference to Captain America ("''Captain America's been torn apart...''").
*The ''[[Roadrunner United]]'' album features a song titled "I Don't Wanna Be (A Superhero)" which contains the line, "They came from sea and they from the sky, Captain America is going to die."
*The 2003 album ''[[Cyclorama]]'' by the rock band [[Styx]] features a song called "Captain America"
====Literature====
*Early ''[[Doonesbury]]'' strips have [[Zonker Harris]] referring sardonically to [[B.D.]], captain of the football team on which they both play, as "Cap'n America sir!"
*The [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] Recon unit in [[Evan Wright]]'s 2005 nonfiction bestseller ''[[Generation Kill]]'' derisively referred to their overzealous commander as Captain America.
====Cinema====
*[[Peter Fonda]]'s character in the iconic 1969 feature film ''[[Easy Rider]]'' was nicknamed Captain America. According to the "making of" feature on the [[DVD]] edition of the film, director [[Dennis Hopper]] described the two motorcyclists of the film to actor [[Robert Walker, Jr.]], who said "they sound like Captain American and Bucky", and Hopper liked the name.
*In the 1997 film ''[[Men in Black (film)|Men in Black]]'', [[Will Smith]]'s character refers to an overzealous Army lieutenant as "Captain America".
*In ''[[Armageddon (film)|Armageddon]]'', an overzealous military man is referred to as "Captain America".
====Other====
*In Britain, [[United States men's national soccer team|United States soccer captain]] [[Claudio Reyna]] is often referred to as Captain America.
*UFC Light Heavyweight fighter [[Randy Couture]] recently used the nickname "Captain America".
*In the ''[[Hellboy]]'' comics, there are two heroes who use something of the Captain America archetype. The first is the Torch of Liberty, who fought Nazis and monsters during World War II, and taught Hellboy how to use a pistol. The second is Lobster Johnson, who ''also'' fought Nazi agents and the supernatural, but before World War II. The major difference between the two heroes is that the Torch was a public hero, and Johnson was officially secret. A series of black & white films were made during and after the war to [[government conspiracy|cover this up]].
==Appearances in comic books==
{{expand_list}}
*''Captain America Comics'' #1&ndash;75 by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby (March 1941&ndash;February 1950)
*''USA Comics'' #6&ndash;17 (December 1942&ndash;Fall 1945)
*''Captain America Comics'' #76&ndash;78 (May 1954&ndash;September 1954)
*''[[Tales of Suspense]]'' #59&ndash;99 (November 1964&ndash;March 1968)
*''Captain America'' ([[1968 in comics|1968]] series) #100&ndash;454 (April 1968&ndash;August [[1996 in comics|1996]])
*''Giant-Size Captain America'' (December [[1975 in comics|1975]])
*''Marvel Treasury Special: Captain America's Bicentennial Battles'' (June 1976)
*''[[Marvel Fanfare]]'' (1982 series) #5, 18, 26, 29, 31&ndash;32
*''What If...'' ([[1984 in comics|1984]] series) #5, 26, 38, 44
*''What If...'' ([[1989 in c |
ampagne, France) - in antiquity, Durocortorum, the ''civitas'' capital of the [[Remi]] tribe - and the stag vomiting coins from Niedercorn-Turbelslach (Luxembourg) in the lands of the [[Treveri]].
==Medieval traces==
Traces of the god survived well into Christian times. The literary traditions of both Wales and Ireland contain allusions to him, while in [[Brittany]] the legendary saint [[Korneli]] (or Cornély) at Carnac has attributes of Cernunnos. It has also been suggested that the [[English mythology|English myth]] of [[Herne the Hunter]] is an allusion to Cernunnos, though this seems doubtful as Herne is thought to be a survival of Saxon, rather than Celtic, beliefs and is first mentioned in [[1597]] in [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] play ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'', Act 4, Scene 4.
==Neo-Paganism==
===Wicca===
In [[Wicca]], imagery derived from historical Celtic culture is sometimes used, including a depiction of Cernunnos, often referred to as [[The Horned God]]. This version of Cernunnos is based little on historical findings and more on phallic symbolism, merged from elements of [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]]. The adherents generally follow a life-fertility-death cycle for Cernunnos, though his death is now usually set at [[Samhain]], the Gaelic New Year Festival usually taking place on October 31. It should be noted, however, that Wicca is in no way an exact reconstruction of historical Celtic religion and culture, despite claims by some Wiccans. [http://www.clannada.org/wicca.php]
==References==
* ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' (CIL) volume 13, number 03026
* Delmarre, Xavier (2003) ''Dictionnarie de la langue gauloise'' (2nd ed.) Paris: Editions Errance. ISBN 2-87772-237-6
* Lejeune, Michel (1995) ''Receuil des Inscriptions Gauloise'' (RIG) volume 1, ''Textes gallo-grecs''. Paris: Editions du CNRS
* Nussbaum, Alan J. (1986) ''Head and Horn in Indo-European'', Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3110104490
* Porkorny, Julius (1959) ''Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch'' Berlin: Franke Verlag
==See also==
* [[Celtic polytheism]]
* [[Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism]]
* [[Horned God]]
[[Category:Ancient Gaulish and British gods]]
[[Category:Celtic gods]]
[[Category:Celtic mythology]]
[[Category:Nature gods]]
==External links==
*[http://www.shadowdrake.com/celtic/gundestrup.html Gundestrup Cauldron]
*[http://www.traditionalwitchcraft.org/witchcraft/vindos.html Vindos]
[[de:Cernunnos]]
[[fr:Cernunnos]]
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[[pl:Cernunnos]]
[[pt:Cernunnos]]
[[ru:Цернунн]]
[[fi:Cernunnos]]
[[sv:Cernunnos]]</text>
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<title>Click consonant</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Manner of articulation}}
'''Clicks''' are [[stop consonant|stops]] produced with two articulatory closures in the oral cavity. The pocket of air enclosed between the two closures is rarefied by a sucking action of the [[tongue]]. The release of the more forward closure produces what in many cases are the loudest consonants in the language, although in some languages such as [[Hadza language|Hadza]], clicks are more subtle and may even be mistaken for [[ejective consonant|ejective stops]]. Clicks appear more stop-like or more [[affricate]]-like depending on their place of articulation: Clicks involving an [[apical consonant|apical]] [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] or [[laminal consonant|laminal]] [[postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]] closure are acoustically abrupt and sharp like plain stops, while [[labial consonant|bilabial]], [[dental consonant|dental]] and [[lateral consonant|lateral]] clicks have a longer and acoustically noisier sounds that are more like affricates.
==Distribution==
Clicks occur in all the [[Khoisan languages]] of southern Africa, and in several neighbouring [[Bantu languages]], such as Nguni ([[Zulu language|Zulu]], [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], [[Swati language|Swazi]], [[Ndebele language|Ndebele]]), [[Yeyi language|Yeyi]], and [[Sesotho language|Sesotho]], which [[Sprachbund|borrowed them]] from Khoisan languages. Clicks also occur in [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]] and [[Hadza language|Hadza]], two languages of [[Tanzania]] traditionally classified as Khoisan, as well as in [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]], an endangered South [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic language]] of [[Kenya]].
The Southern African Khoisan languages only permit [[root word|root]]-initial clicks. [[Hadza]], [[Sandawe]], and several of the [[Bantu language]]s also allow [[syllable]]-initial clicks within roots, but in no language does a click close a syllable or end a word.
The only non-African language known to employ clicks as regular speech sounds is [[Damin]], a secret ritual code used by speakers of [[Lardil]] in [[Australia]]. One of the clicks in Damin is actually an ''egressive'' click, using the tongue to compress the air in the mouth for an outward (egressive) "spurt". English and many other languages may use clicks in interjections, such as "tsk-tsk" or "gee-up".
==Types of clicks==
As noted above, clicks necessarily involve two closures: an anterior one which is represented by the special click symbol in the IPA, and a posterior one which is usually [[velar consonant|velar]] but can also be [[uvular consonant|uvular]]. This posterior articulation may be oral or [[nasal consonant|nasal]], voiced or voiceless, etc. (It's quite easy to pronounce a nasal click once you realise that while maintaining the double oral closure you're free to breathe through the nose.) Since the posterior articulation is most commonly velar (and can only be velar in most languages), only the place of the anterior articulation (called the ''release'' or ''influx'') is normally mentioned, while only the manner of the posterior articulation (called the ''accompaniment'' or ''efflux'') is specified. Thus a "nasal dental click" means a click with a dental anterior articulation/release and a velar-nasal posterior articulation/accompaniment.
There are numerous combinations of elements making up a click accompaniment, some of them quite daunting. These include voiceless, voiced, aspirate, breathy voiced, nasal, voiceless nasal, breathy voiced nasal, glottalized, voiceless nasal glottalized, affricate, ejective affricate, prevoiced, prenasalized, and others as well, including extremely complicated combinations such as a voiced velar click followed by voiceless affricated ejective, {{IPA|[gk!x’]}}, and a velar ejective click followed by uvular ejective, {{IPA|[k!’q’]}} (Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996). This means that pentagraphs like ''gk!x’'' are possible in a practical orthography. However, many of these combinations are [[consonant cluster]]s rather than separate phonemes.
The size of click inventories ranges from as few as four for the Dahalo language of Kenya, to dozens in the Northern and Southern [[Khoisan language]]s, and up to 83 clicks (including 50 simple clicks) in [[!Xóõ]] (Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996). In the latter language, over 70% of words begin with a click.
==Transcription==
The five click releases with dedicated symbols in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) are [[bilabial click|bilabial]] {{IPA|ʘ}}, [[dental click|dental]] {{IPA|ǀ}}, [[palatal click|palato-alveolar]] or "palatal" {{IPA|ǂ}}, [[postalveolar click|(post)alveolar]] or "retroflex" {{IPA|ǃ}}, and [[alveolar lateral click|alveolar lateral]] {{IPA|ǁ}}. The retroflex and palatal releases are "abrupt"; that is, they are sharp popping sounds with little frication (turbulent airflow). The bilabial, dental, and lateral releases, on the other hand, are "noisy": they are longer, lip- or tooth-sucking sounds with turbulent airflow, and are sometimes called affricates. (They can, however, still have either affricate or non-affricate accompaniments.) The [[apical consonant|apical]] releases, {{IPA|ǃ}} and {{IPA|ǁ}}, are sometimes called "grave", because their pitch is dominated by low frequencies; while the [[laminal consonant|laminal]] releases, {{IPA|ǀ}} and {{IPA|ǂ}}, are sometimes called "acute", because they are dominated by high frequencies. Thus the alveolar {{IPA|ǃ}} sounds something like a cork pulled from a bottle (a low pitched pop), at least in Xhosa; while the dental {{IPA|ǀ}} is like English ''tsk! tsk!'', a high pitched sucking on the incisors. The lateral clicks are pronounced by sucking on the molars of one or both sides. The bilabial {{IPA |
n FIDE's activities.
===Ejection from FIDE===
This stand-off lasted until 1993, by which time a new challenger had qualified through the Candidates cycle for Kasparov's next World Championship defense. The world champion and his challenger ([[Nigel Short]]) decided to play their match outside of FIDE's jurisdiction, under another organisation created by Garry Kasparov called the [[Professional Chess Association]] (PCA). This is where the great fracture on the lineage of World Champions began.
Kasparov and Short were ejected from FIDE, and they played their well-sponsored match in London, which Kasparov won convincingly. FIDE organized a World Championship match between the loser of the Candidates final, [[Jan Timman]], and previous World Champion Karpov, which Karpov won. (It should be noted that Nigel Short beat both of these players in the Candidates matches before facing Kasparov.) So Kasparov held the PCA World Chess Championship, and Karpov held the FIDE World Chess Championship.
Kasparov defended his title in 1995 against the [[India|Indian]] superstar [[Viswanathan Anand]], which was held at the World Trade Center in New York City, before the PCA collapsed when [[Intel]], one of the major backers, withdrew its sponsorship. Kasparov won the match by 4 wins to 1 with 13 draws. The match had 3 clear phases: a cautious beginning with 8 draws, mostly short; a violent middle phase with a win by Anand being responded to by a crushing sequence of 4 wins in 5 games by Kasparov; and a quiet finish with 4 quick draws after the match was beyond doubt.
Kasparov tried to organise another World Championship match, under yet another organisation, the [[World Chess Association]] (WCA) with [[Linares chess tournament|Linares]] organiser [[Rentero]]. [[Alexei Shirov]] and [[Vladimir Kramnik]] played a candidates match to decide the challenger, which Shirov won in a surprising upset. The WCA collapsed, however, when Rentero admitted that the funds required and promised had never materialised.
This left Kasparov stranded, and yet another organisation stepped in &mdash; [[BrainGames.com]], headed by [[Raymond Keene]] (who was also involved in bringing Kasparov to London for his replayed Candidates match against Korchnoi, half of the first Kasparov-Karpov match, and the Kasparov-Short PCA match). No match against Shirov was arranged, and talks with Anand collapsed, so a match was instead arranged against Kramnik.
===Losing the title===
This match, Kasparov-Kramnik, took place in London during the latter half of 2000. A well-prepared Kramnik surprised Kasparov and won a crucial game 2 against Kasparov's [[Grünfeld Defence]] after the champion missed several drawing chances in an opposite-color bishop ending. Kasparov made a critical error in game 10 with the [[Nimzo-Indian Defence]], which Kramnik exploited to win in 25 moves. As white, Kasparov could not crack the passive but solid Berlin Defence in the [[Ruy Lopez]], and Kramnik successfully drew all his games as black. Kramnik won the match 8.5-6.5, and for the first time in fifteen years Kasparov had no world championship title. He became the first player to lose a world championship match without winning a game since [[Emanuel Lasker|Lasker]] lost to [[Capablanca]] in 1921.
As part of the so-called "Prague Agreement", masterminded by [[Yasser Seirawan]] and intended to reunite the two World Championships, Kasparov was to play a match against the FIDE World Champion [[Ruslan Ponomariov]] in September 2003. However, this match was called off after Ponomariov refused to sign his contract for it without reservation. In its place, there were plans for a match against [[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]], winner of the [[FIDE World Chess Championship 2004]], to be held in January 2005 in the [[United Arab Emirates]]. These also fell through due to lack of funding. Plans to hold the match in Turkey instead came too late. Kasparov announced in January 2005 that he was tired of waiting for FIDE to organise a match and that therefore he had decided to stop all efforts to regain the World Championship title.
===Retirement===
After winning the prestigious [[Linares chess tournament|Linares tournament]] for the ninth time, Kasparov announced on [[March 10]], [[2005]], that he would be retiring from serious competitive chess. He cited as the reason a lack of personal goals in the chess world (he commented when winning the Russian championship in 2004 that it had been the last major title he had never won outright) and expressed frustration at the failure to reunify the world championship.
Kasparov said he may play in some rapid events for fun, but intends to spend more time on his books (both the ''My Great Predecessors'' series (see [[#books|below]]) and a book on the links between decision-making in chess and other areas of life), and will continue to involve himself in [[Politics of Russia|Russian politics]], which he says is "headed down the wrong path." He is an outspoken critic of [[President of Russia|President]] [[Vladimir Putin]]. [http://apnews.myway.com/article/20050417/D89GSCJG0.html]
On [[April 10]], 2005, Kasparov was in Moscow at a promotional event when he was struck over the head with a chessboard he had just signed. The assailant was reported to have said "I admired you as a chess player, but you gave that up for politics," immediately before the attack.
===Inventor===
Kasparov is also an inventor with two European [[patent]] applications:
*EP1112765A4: METHOD FOR PLAYING A LOTTERY GAME AND SYSTEM FOR REALISING THE SAME from 1998, and
*EP0871132A1: METHOD OF PLAYING A LOTTERY GAME AND SUITABLE SYSTEM from 1995
===Sample games===
{{Chess diagram|=
| tright
|
|=
8 |bd| | |rd| | | |rd|=
7 |kd| | | | |pd| |pd|=
6 |pd| | |qd| |nd|pd| |=
5 |nl|pd|pd|pl| | | | |=
4 | | | |pd| |ql| | |=
3 |pl| | | | |pl|pl|bl|=
2 | |pl|pl| | | | |pl|=
1 | |kl| |rl|rl| | | |=
a b c d e f g h
| In this position after move 23 in the 1999 [[Corus Chess Tournament|Corus tournament]] game between Kasparov and [[Veselin Topalov|Topalov]], Kasparov (white) appears to be in a weaker position, but a rook sacrifice followed by precise endgame play secures Kasparov a victory.
}}
The game Kasparov-[[Veselin Topalov|Topalov]], played at the [[Corus Chess Tournament|Corus tournament]] in [[Wijk aan Zee]] in 1999, features one of his best [[Combination (chess)|combinations]] (moves given in [[algebraic chess notation]]):
1.e4 d6 2.d4 Nf6 3.Nc3 g6 4.Be3 Bg7 5.Qd2 c6 6.f3 b5 7.Nge2 Nbd7 8.Bh6 Bxh6 9.Qxh6 Bb7 10.a3 e5 11.0-0-0 Qe7 12.Kb1 a6 13.Nc1 0-0-0 14.Nb3 exd4 15.Rxd4 c5 16.Rd1 Nb6 17.g3 Kb8 18.Na5 Ba8 19.Bh3 d5 20.Qf4+ Ka7 21.Rhe1 d4 22.Nd5 Nbxd5 23.exd5 Qd6
(see diagram at right for this position)
24.Rxd4!! cxd4 25.Re7+! Kb6 [25...Qxe7 26.Qxd4+ Kb8 27.Qb6+ Bb7 28.Nc6+ Ka8 29.Qa7#] 26.Qxd4+ Kxa5 27.b4+ Ka4 28.Qc3 Qxd5 29.Ra7 Bb7 30.Rxb7 Qc4 31.Qxf6 Kxa3? [31...Rd1+ 32.Kb2 Ra8±] 32.Qxa6+ Kxb4 33.c3+! Kxc3 34.Qa1+ Kd2 35.Qb2+ Kd1 36.Bf1! Rd2 37.Rd7! Rxd7 38.Bxc4 bxc4 39.Qxh8 Rd3 40.Qa8 c3 41.Qa4+ Ke1 42.f4 f5 43.Kc1 Rd2 44.Qa7 1-0
When announcing his retirement, Kasparov commented that this was possibly the best of all his games. It is of some interest that his final professional game was a loss to the same Topalov he had defeated in this game.
Before Kasparov played the above game, he considered the following his "supreme creative achievement." The readers of [[Chess Informant]] voted it the best game in the first 64 issues of that periodical:
[[Anatoly Karpov|Karpov]]-Kasparov, 16th match game, [[World chess championship|World Championship]] 1985. 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nc6 5.Nb5 d6 6.c4 Nf6 7.N1c3 a6 8.Na3 d5 9.cxd5 exd5 10.exd5 Nb4 11.Be2 Bc5 12.O-O O-O 13.Bf3 Bf5 14.Bg5 Re8 15.Qd2 b5 16.Rad1 Nd3 17.Nab1 h6 18.Bh4 b4 19.Na4 Bd6 20.Bg3 Rc8 21.b3 g5 22.Bxd6 Qxd6 23.g3 Nd7 24.Bg2 Qf6 25.a3 a5 26.axb4 axb4 27.Qa2 Bg6 28.d6 g4 29.Qd2 Kg7 30.f3 Qxd6 31.fxg4 Qd4+ 32.Kh1 Nf6 33.Rf4 Ne4 34.Qxd3 Nf2+ 35.Rxf2 Bxd3 36.Rfd2 Qe3 37.Rxd3 Rc1 38.Nb2 Qf2 39.Nd2 Rxd1+ 40.Nxd1 Re1+ 0-1
==Books==
Kasparov has written a number of books on chess. In 2003, the first volume of his projected five volume work ''Garry Kasparov on My Great Predecessors'' was published. This volume, which deals with the world chess champions [[Wilhelm Steinitz]], [[Emanuel Lasker]], [[José Raúl Capablanca]] and [[Alexander Alekhine]], and some of their strong contemporaries, has received lavish praise from some reviewers (including [[Nigel Short]]), while attracting criticism from others for historical inaccuracies and analysis of games directly copied from unattributed sources. Despite this, the first volume won the [[British Chess Federation]]'s Book of the Year award in 2003. Volume two, covering [[Max Euwe]], [[Mikhail Botvinnik]], [[Vassily Smyslov]] and [[Mikhail Tal]] appeared later in 2003. Volume three, covering [[Tigran Petrosian]] and [[Boris Spassky]] appeared in early 2004. In December 2004, Kasparov released volume four, which covers [[Samuel Reshevsky]], [[Miguel Najdorf]], and [[Bent Larsen]], but focuses primarily on [[Bobby Fischer]]. The fifth volume which will focus mainly on [[Viktor Korchnoi]] and [[Anatoly Karpov]] is scheduled to appear on February 2006.
==Chess against computers==
In February 1996, [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s chess computer [[Deep Blue]] defeated Kasparov in one game using normal time controls, in [[Deep Blue - Kasparov, 1996, Game 1]]. However, Kasparov infamously retorted that upon the next games he "would tear Deep Blue to pieces with no question" [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/entertainment/jan-june97/big_blue_5-12.html|1] and proceeded to gain three wins and two draws, soundly winning the match.
In May 1997, an updated version of [[Deep Blue]] defeated Kasparov in [[Deep Blue - Kasparov, 1997, Game 6]], in a highly publicised six-game match. Thi |
Foundation to accept a new structure which would bring the scattered Greenpeace offices under the auspices of a single global organization, and on [[October 14]], 1979, Greenpeace International came into existence. Under the new structure, the local offices would contribute a percentage of their income to the international organization, which would take responsibility for setting the overall direction of the movement.
Greenpeace's transformation from a loose international network &mdash; united by style more than by focus &mdash; to a global organization able to apply the full force of its resources to a small number of environmental issues deemed of global significance, owed much to McTaggart's personal vision. McTaggart summed up his approach in a [[1994]] memo: "No campaign should be begun without clear goals; no campaign should be begun unless there is a possibility that it can be won; no campaign should be begun unless you intend to finish it off". McTaggart's own assessment of what could and couldn't be won, and how, frequently caused controversy.
In re-shaping Greenpeace as a centrally coordinated, hierarchical organization, McTaggart went against the anti-authoritarian ethos that prevailed in other environmental organizations that came of age in the 1970s. While this pragmatic structure granted Greenpeace the persistence and narrow focus necessary to match forces with government and industry, it would lead to the recurrent criticism that Greenpeace had adopted the same methods of governance as its chief foes &mdash; the [[multinational corporation]]s.
For smaller actions, and continuous local promotion and activism, Greenpeace has networks of active supporters that coordinate their efforts through national offices. The [http://www.greenpeace.org.uk United Kingdom] has some 6,000 Greenpeace activists.
=== Funding ===
Despite its founding in [[North America]], Greenpeace achieved much more success in [[Europe]], where it has more members and gets most of its money. The vast majority of Greenpeace's donations come from private individual members, however, it has received donations from some prominent figures such as [[Ted Turner]].
In order to ensure its independence and impartiality, Greenpeace does not accept money from [[corporation]]s or from governments: it screens donations to ensure compliance.
==Greenpeace Ships==
Since Greenpeace was founded, ships have played a vital role in its campaigns.
In [[1978]], Greenpeace launched the original ''[[Rainbow Warrior]]'', a 40-metre, former fishing [[trawler]] named for the [[Cree]] legend that inspired early activist Robert Hunter on the first voyage to Amchitka. Greenpeace purchased the ''Rainbow Warrior'' (originally launched as the ''Sir William Hardy'' in [[1955]]) at a cost of £40,000, and volunteers restored and refitted her over a period of four months.
First deployed to disrupt the hunt of the [[Iceland]]ic whaling fleet, the ''Rainbow Warrior'' would quickly become a mainstay of Greenpeace campaigns. Between 1978 to 1985, crew members also engaged in non-violent direct action against the ocean-dumping of toxic and radioactive waste, the [[Grey Seal]] hunt in the [[Orkney Islands|Orkneys]] and nuclear testing in the Pacific.
In [[1985]], the ''Rainbow Warrior'' was to trespass into the waters surrounding [[Moruroa]] atoll, site of French nuclear testing. The ship was bombed in a New Zealand harbour by the French government (by order of the French president, [[François Mitterrand]] himself, as per a publication in [[Le Monde]] in [[2005]], on the 20th anniversary of the bombing); in this event, photographer [[Fernando Pereira]] was killed, the French Government in 1987 agreed to pay New Zealand compensation of NZ$13 million and formally apologised for the bombing. (Also see [[Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior]].)
In [[1989]] Greenpeace commissioned a replacement vessel, also named the ''Rainbow Warrior'', which remains in service today as the flagship of the Greenpeace fleet. The fleet consists of three other ships: the [[MV Arctic Sunrise]], the [[MV Esperanza]], and the Argus.
In [[2005]] the ''Rainbow Warrior II'' ran aground at the [[Tubbataha Reef]] in the Philippines, while Greenpeace was on a mission to "protect" the very same reef. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4395572.stm They were fined $7,000 USD] for the damage and agreed to pay the fine, although they said that the Philippines government had intentionally given them outdated maps.
Along with the newly commissioned Rainbow Warrior the Greenpeace organization has 3 other ships.
* ''The Arctic Sunrise''
* ''The Esperanza''
* ''The Argos''
[[Image:Gp-esso.jpg|thumb|280px|left|Greenpeace protest against [[Esso]] / [[Exxon Mobil]].]]
==Activities==
{{Sidebar|'''Issues'''
* [[Climate change]]
* [[Renewable energy]] replacement of nuclear power and [[fossil fuel|fossil fuels]]
* Ocean crisis
** Seabed [[trawling]]
** Fish population decrease
** [[Whale]] population decrease
** Dead zones
* [[Forest]] protection
* [[Genetic engineering]]
* Toxic [[chemical]]s
* [[Nuclear power]] and its safe use
* Sustainable trade
** Legitimacy of [[World Trade Organization]]
*** WTO promotion contrasted with health and environment
* Abolition of [[nuclear weapons]]
}}
The organisation currently actively addresses many environmental issues, with primary focus on efforts to stop global warming and to preserve the biodiversity of the world's oceans and ancient forests. In addition to the more conventional [[environmental organisation]] methods, such as lobbying politicians and attendance at international conferences, Greenpeace has a stated methodology of engaging in [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] [[direct action]].
Greenpeace uses direct action to attract attention to particular environmental causes, whether by placing themselves between the whaler's harpoon and their prey, or by invading nuclear facilities dressed as barrels of radioactive waste.
Some of Greenpeace's most notable successes include the ending of [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons]], a (purportedly) permanent moratorium on international commercial [[whaling]], and the declaration by treaty of [[Antarctica]] as a global park, forbidding possession by individual nations or commercial interests. To back up this latter point, [[World Park Base]] was established in Antarctica, and ran for five years, from 1987 through 1992.
===Anti-nuclear testing===
In September [[1971]], the Don't Make A Wave Committee chartered the ''[[Phyllis Cormack]]'', a fishing vessel skippered by [[John Cormack]]. They named it the ''Greenpeace'', and set sail for the island of [[Amchitka]] with the intention of disrupting the scheduled second nuclear test. The [[United States Coast Guard|US Coast Guard]] vessel ''Confidence'' intercepted the ''Phyllis Cormack'' and forced her to return to port.
Upon their return to [[Alaska]], the crew learned that protests had taken place in all major Canadian cities, and that the United States had postponed the second underground test until November. Although attempts to sail into the test zone using a second chartered vessel also failed, no further nuclear tests took place at Amchitka.
====Moruroa Atoll and the ''Vega''====
In May 1972, when the newly-formed Greenpeace Foundation put out a call to sympathetic skippers to help them protest against the [[France|French]] Government's atmospheric nuclear tests at the Pacific atoll of [[Moruroa]], a response came from [[David McTaggart]], a Canadian expatriate and former entrepreneur based in New Zealand. McTaggart, a champion [[badminton]] player in his youth, had sold his business interests and relocated to the South Pacific following a gas explosion which seriously wounded an employee at one of his ski-lodges. Outraged that any government could exclude him from any part of his beloved Pacific, McTaggart offered his yacht, the ''Vega'', to the cause, and set about assembling a crew.
In [[1973]], McTaggart sailed the ''Vega'' into the exclusion zone around Moruroa, only to have his vessel rammed by the [[French Navy]]. When he repeated the protest the following year, French sailors boarded the ''Vega'' and brutally beat McTaggart. Later, the Navy released to the media staged photographs of McTaggart dining with senior navy officers, which suggested a degree of civility between the opposing parties. A different picture emerged when photographs of McTaggart's beating, smuggled off the yacht by crew member [[Anne-Marie Horne]], also appeared in the media.
The campaign against [[French nuclear testing]] achieved a victory when the French government announced a halt to atmospheric testing, only to begin testing underground. Greenpeace would continue to campaign against testing in the Pacific until the French ceased their testing programme in [[1995]].
[[Image:Rainbow warrior.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The [[Rainbow Warrior]].]]
==== Rainbow Warrior and French bombing ====
Greenpeace's continued protest against nuclear testing at Moruroa atoll prompted the government of [[France]] to order the [[bomb]]ing of the ''[[Rainbow Warrior]]'', in [[Auckland, New Zealand|Auckland]], [[New Zealand]], in 1985.
The ''Warrior'' had sailed from the North Pacific, where it assisted the evacuation of the inhabitants of [[Rongelap Atoll]] in the [[Marshall Islands]], who continued to suffer health effects attributed to the fallout from American nuclear testing during the 1950s and 1960s. Greenpeace plans envisaged the ship leading a flotilla of vessels protesting against imminent nuclear tests at Moruroa.
On the evening of [[July 10]], [[1985]], [[Scuba diving|frogmen]] attached two bombs to the hull of the ship. The first bomb detonated at 11:38, closely followed by the second explosion, sinking the ship and killing photographer [[Fernando Pereira]], who had come back to fetch his belongings.
Acting on t |
nd the rebuilt city generally followed the streetplan of the old one, and most of it has survived into the 21st century.
[[Image:London - Richard Blome's map of 1673.JPG|thumb|300px|Richard Blome's map of London (1673). The development of the [[West End]] had recently begun to accelerate.]]
Nonetheless, the new City was different from the old one. Many aristocratic residents never returned, preferring to take new houses in the [[West End]], where fashionable new districts such as [[St. James's]] were built close to the main royal residence, which was [[Whitehall Palace]] until it was destroyed by fire in the 1690s, and thereafter [[St. James's Palace]]. The rural lane of [[Piccadilly]] sprouted courtiers mansions such as [[Burlington House]]. Thus the separation between the middle class mercantile City of London, and the aristocratic world of the court in [[Westminster]] became complete. In the City itself there was a move from wooden buildings to stone and brick construction to reduce the risk of fire. The [[Act of Parliament]] "for rebuilding the city of London" stated ''"building with brick [is] not only more comely and durable, but also more safe against future perils of fire"''. From then on only doorcases, window-frames and shop fronts were allowed to be made of wood.
Christopher Wren's plan for a new model London came to nothing, but he was appointed to rebuild the ruined parish churches and to replace [[St Paul's Cathedral]]. His domed [[baroque]] cathedral was the primary symbol of London for at least a century and a half. As city surveyor, [[Robert Hooke]] oversaw the reconstruction of the City's houses. The [[East End]], that is the area immediately to the east of the city walls, also became heavily populated in the decades after the Great Fire. London's docks began to extend downstream, attracting many working people who worked on the docks themselves and in the processing and distributive trades. These people lived in [[Whitechapel]], [[Wapping]], [[Stepney]] and [[Limehouse]], generally in slum conditions.
In the winter of 1683-1684 a [[Thames frost fairs|frost fair]] was held on the Thames. The frost, which began about seven weeks before Christmas and continued for six weeks after, was the greatest on record. The [[Revocation of the Edict of Nantes]] in 1685, led to a large migration on [[Huguenots]] to London. They established a silk industry at [[Spitalfields]].
At this time the City of London was becoming the world's leading financial centre, superseding [[Amsterdam]] in primacy. The [[Bank of England]] was founded in 1694, and the [[British East India Company]] was expanding its influence. [[Lloyd's of London]] also began to operate in the late 17th century. In 1700 London handled 80% of England's imports, 69% of its exports and 86% of its re-exports. Many of the goods were luxuries from the Americas and Asia such as silk, sugar, tea and tobacco. The last figure emphasises London's role as an [[entrepot]]: while it had many craftsmen in the 17th century, and would later acquire some large factories, its economic prominence was never based primarily on industry. Instead it was a great trading and redistribution centre. Goods were brought to London by England's increasingly dominant merchant navy, not only to satisfy domestic demand, but also for re-export throughout Europe and beyond.
[[William III of England|William III]] cared little for London, the smoke of which gave him asthma, and after the first fire at Whitehall Palace (1691) he purchased Nottingham House and transformed it into [[Kensington Palace]]. [[Kensington]] was then an insignificant village, but the arrival of the court soon caused it to grow in importance. The palace was rarely favoured by future monarchs, but its construction was another step in the expansion of the bounds of London. During the same reign [[Greenwich Hospital]], then well outside the boundary of London, but now comfortably inside it, was begun; it was the naval complement to the [[Chelsea Hospital]] for former soldiers, which has been founded in 1681. During the reign of [[Queen Anne of England|Queen Anne]] an act was passed authorising the building of fifty new churches to serve the greatly increased population living outside the boundaries of the City of London.
==18th century London==
[[Image:Panoramic view of London in 1751 by T. Bowles.JPG|thumb|300px|A view of London from the east in 1751]]
{{expandsect}}
The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the [[Industrial Revolution]], and London's role at the centre of the evolving [[British Empire]].
During the Georgian period London spread beyond its traditional limits at an accelerating pace. New districts such as [[Mayfair]] were built for the rich in the [[West End]], new bridges over the Thames encouraged an acceleration of development in [[South London]] and in the East End, the Port of London expanded downstream from the City.
[[image:Westminster.JPG|thumb|240px|[[Westminster Bridge]] and the [[Palace of Westminster]], ca 1890]]
A phenomenon of 18th century London was the [[Coffee house]] which became a popular place to debate ideas. Growing [[literacy]] and the development of the [[printing press]] meant that news became widely available. [[Fleet Street]] became the centre of the embryonic British press during the century.
18th century London was dogged by [[crime]], the [[Bow Street Runners]] were established in 1750 as a professional police force. Penalties for crime were harsh, with the [[death penalty]] being applied for fairly minor crimes. Public [[hanging]]s were a common in London, and were popular public events.
In 1780 London was rocked by the [[Gordon Riots]], an uprising by [[Protestant]]s against [[Roman Catholic]] emancipation led by Lord [[George Gordon (politician)|George Gordon]]. Severe damage was caused to Catholic churches and homes, and 285 rioters were killed.
==19th century London ==
[[Image:London engraved by J. & C. Walker in 1845 from a map by R Creighton.JPG|thumb|250px|London as engraved by J. & C. Walker in 1845 from a map by R Creighton. Many districts in the West End were fully developed, and the [[East End]] also extended well beyond the eastern fringe of the City of London. There were now several bridges over the Thames, allowing the rapid development of [[South London]].]]
During the 19th century London was transformed into the world's largest city and capital of the [[British Empire]]. Its population expanded from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. During this period, London became a global political, financial, and trading capital. In this position, it was largely unrivaled until the latter part of the century, when Paris and New York began to threaten its dominance.
While the city grew wealthy as Britain's holdings expanded, 19th century London was also a city of poverty, where millions lived in overcrowded and unsanitary [[slum]]s. Life for the poor was immortalised by [[Charles Dickens]] in such novels as [[Oliver Twist]].
In 1829 the prime minister [[Robert Peel]] established the [[Metropolitan Police Service]] as a police force covering the entire urban area. The force gained the nickname of "bobbies" or "peelers" named after Robert Peel.
19th century London was transformed by the coming of the [[railway]]s. A new network of metropolitan railways allowed for the development of [[suburb]]s in neighboring counties from which middle-class and wealthy people could commute to the centre. While this spurred the massive outward growth of the city, the growth of greater London also exacerbated the class divide, as the wealthier classes emigrated to the suburbs, leaving the poor to inhabit the inner city areas.
The first railway to be built in London was a line from [[London Bridge]] to [[Greenwich]], which opened in 1836. This was soon followed by the opening of great rail termini which linked London to every corner of Britain. These included [[Euston station]] (1837), [[Paddington station]] (1838), [[Fenchurch Street station]] (1841), [[Waterloo station]] (1848), [[King's Cross station]] (1850), and [[St Pancras station]] (1863). From the 1850s, the first lines of the [[London Underground]] were constructed.
The urbanised area continued to grow rapidly, spreading into [[Islington]], [[Paddington]], [[Belgravia]], [[Holborn]], [[Finsbury]], [[Shoreditch]], [[Southwark]] and [[Lambeth]]. Towards the middle of the century, London's antiquated [[local government]] system, consisting of ancient [[parish]]es and [[vestry|vestries]], struggled to cope with the rapid growth in population. In 1855 the [[Metropolitan Board of Works]] (MBW) was created to provide London with adequate infrastructure to cope with its growth.
[[Image:OldLondonBridge.JPG|thumb|250px|Old [[London Bridge]] in the early 1890s]]
One of its first tasks was addressing London's sanitation problems. At the time, raw [[sewage]] was pumped straight into the [[River Thames]]. This culminated in [[The Great Stink]] of 1858. The polluted drinking water (sourced from the Thames) also brought disease and epidemics to London's populace.
Parliament finally gave consent for the MBW to construct a massive system of [[sewer]]s. The engineer put in charge of building the new system was [[Joseph Bazalgette]]. In what was one of the largest [[civil engineering]] projects of the 19th century, he oversaw construction of over 2100 km of tunnels and pipes under London to take away sewage and provide clean drinking water. When the [[London sewerage system]] was completed, the death toll in London dropped dramatically, and epidemics of [[cholera]] and other diseases were curtailed. Bazalgette's system is still in use today.
One of the most famous events of 19th-century London was the [[Great Exhibition of 1851]]. Held at [[The Crystal Palace]], the fair |
oup of rulers (''German:'' [[Fürst]]) and independent cities (''German:'' [[Reichsstadt]]) protests the reinstatement of the [[Edict of Worms]], beginning the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] movement.
*[[1587]] - Sir [[Francis Drake]] sinks the [[France|French]] fleet in [[Cádiz Harbor]].
*[[1692]] - [[Salem witch trials|Bridget Bishop]] goes on trial in Salem, Massachusetts for witchcraft.
*[[1713]] - With no living male [[heir]]s, Emperor [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]] issues the [[Pragmatic Sanction of 1713|Pragmatic Sanction]] to ensure that [[Habsburg]] lands and the [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austrian throne]] would be [[Inheritance|inherited]] by his daughter, [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]].
*[[1775]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: The [[Battle of Lexington and Concord]] &ndash; [[Great Britain|British]] General [[Thomas Gage]] attempts to confiscate [[United States|American]] [[13 colonies|colonists]]' firearms. Captain [[John Parker (Captain)|John Parker]] orders his band of minutemen to not fire unless fired upon. Random shots rang out among the British soldiers. The minutemen promptly fired back. This was the "[[shot heard round the world]]." The British are driven back to [[Boston, Massachusetts]], thus beginning the [[American Revolutionary War]].
*[[1809]] - The army of [[Austria]] attacks and is defeated by the forces of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]] in the [[Battle of Raszyn (1809)|Battle of Raszyn]], part of the struggles of the [[Fifth Coalition]].
*[[1810]] - [[Venezuela]] achieves home rule: [[Emparan]], Governor of the [[Captaincy General]] is removed by the people of [[Caracas]] and a [[Junta]] is installed.
*[[1839]] - The [[Treaty of London, 1839|Treaty of London]] establishes [[Belgium]] as a kingdom.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Baltimore riot of 1861]], A pro-[[Secession]] mob in [[Baltimore, Maryland]], attacks [[United States Army]] troops marching through the city.
*[[1892]] - [[Charles Duryea]] claims to have driven the first [[automobile]] in the [[United States]], in [[Springfield, Massachusetts]].
*[[1904]] - Much of [[Toronto, Ontario]], [[Canada]], is destroyed by fire.
*[[1909]] - [[Joan of Arc]] receives [[beatification]].
*[[1919]] - Leslie Irvin of the [[United States]] makes the first successful [[parachute]] jump and [[free-fall]].
*[[1927]] - [[Mae West]] is sentenced to 10 days in jail for [[obscenity]] for her play ''[[Sex (play)|Sex]]''.
*[[1928]] - The 125th and final [[fascicle]] of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' is published.
*[[1933]] - President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] announces that the [[United States]] will be abandoning the [[gold standard]].
*[[1934]] - [[Shirley Temple]] debuts in ''[[Stand Up and Cheer]]''.
*[[1938]] - [[RCA]]&ndash;[[NBC]] begins regular [[television]] broadcasts.
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: In [[Poland]], [[Germany|German]] troops enter the [[Warsaw Ghetto|Warsaw ghetto]] to round up the remaining [[Jew]]s, beginning the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]].
*1943 - ''[[Bicycle Day]]'' &ndash; [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chemist Dr. [[Albert Hofmann]] deliberately takes [[LSD]] for the first time.
*[[1950]] - [[Argentina]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1951]] - General [[Douglas MacArthur]] retires from the military.
*[[1956]] - Actress [[Grace Kelly]] marries [[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco|Rainier III of Monaco]].
*[[1960]] - Students in [[South Korea]] hold a nationwide pro-democracy protest against their president [[Syngman Rhee]], eventually forcing him to resign.
*[[1961]] - The [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion of [[Cuba]] ends in failure.
*[[1971]] - [[Sierra Leone]] becomes a [[republic]], and [[Siaka Stevens]] the [[List of Presidents of Sierra Leone|president]].
*1971 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Vietnam Veterans Against the War]] begin a five-day demonstration in [[Washington, DC]].
*1971 - [[Charles Manson]] is sentenced to life in prison for the [[Sharon Tate]] murders.
*1971 - Launch of [[Salyut 1]], first human-made [[space station]].
*[[1976]] - [[Executive Order 9066]] is rescinded
*[[1978]] - [[Lagumot Harris]] is elected [[President]] of [[Nauru]].
*[[1980]] - In [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]], [[Johnny Logan (singer)|Johnny Logan]] wins the twenty-fifth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Ireland]] singing "What's Another Year".
*[[1989]] - A [[gun turret]] explodes on the [[USS Iowa (BB-61)|USS ''Iowa'']], killing 47 sailors.
*1989 - [[Trisha Meili]], the "[[Central Park]] Jogger" is raped.
*[[1993]] - The 50-day siege of the [[Branch Davidian]] building outside [[Waco, Texas]], [[United States|USA]], ends when a fire breaks out. Eighty-one people die.
*[[1995]] - [[Oklahoma City bombing]]: The [[Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building]] in [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma|Oklahoma City]], [[Oklahoma]], [[United States|USA]], is bombed, killing 168.
*[[1999]] - The [[Germany|German]] [[Bundestag]] returns to [[Berlin]].
*[[2000]] - An [[Air Philippines]] [[Boeing 737]]-200 crashes near [[Davao International Airport]], killing 131.
*[[2005]] - Joseph Ratzinger elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]] on the second day of the [[Papal conclave, 2005|Papal conclave]].
*[[2006]] - [[Alias]] Season Five returns from its Midseason Hiatus.
==Births==
*[[1320]] - King [[Peter I of Portugal]] (d. [[1367]])
*[[1452]] - King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] (d. [[1504]])
*[[1603]] - [[Michel le Tellier]], French statesman (d. [[1685]])
*[[1658]] - [[Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine]] (d. [[1716]])
*[[1665]] - [[Jacques Lelong]], French bibliographer (d. [[1721]])
*[[1686]] - [[Vasily Tatishchev]], Russian statesman (d. [[1750]])
*[[1721]] - [[Thomas McKean]], signer of the U.S. Declaration of Independence (d. [[1817]])
*1721 - [[Roger Sherman]], signer of the U.S. Declaration of Independence (d. [[1793]])
*[[1785]] - [[Alexandre Pierre François Boëly]], French composer (d. [[1858]])
*[[1793]] - Emperor [[Ferdinand I of Austria]] (d. [[1875]])
*[[1832]] - [[José Echegaray y Eizaguirre]], Spanish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1916]])
*[[1874]] - [[Ernst Rüdin]], Swiss psychiatrist, geneticist, and eugenicist (d. [[1952]])
*[[1882]] - [[Getúlio Vargas]], President of Brazil (d. [[1954]])
*[[1883]] - [[Richard von Mises]], Austrian-born mathematician (d. [[1953]])
*[[1892]] - [[Germaine Tailleferre]], French composer (d. [[1983]])
*[[1897]] - [[Peter de Noronha]], Indian businessman and philanthropist (d. [[1970]])
*1897 - [[Constance Talmadge]], American actress (d. [[1973]])
*[[1899]] - [[George O'Brien]], American actor (d. [[1985]])
*[[1900]] - [[Richard Hughes (writer)|Richard Hughes]], English novelist (d. [[1976]])
*[[1903]] - [[Eliot Ness]], American lawman (d. [[1957]])
*[[1912]] - [[Glenn Seaborg]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize for Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1999]])
*[[1919]] - [[Merce Cunningham]], American dancer and choreographher
*[[1922]] - [[Erich Hartmann]], German pilot (d. [[1993]])
*[[1925]] - [[Hugh O'Brian]], American actor
*[[1928]] - [[Alexis Korner]], English musician (d. [[1984]])
*[[1930]] - [[Dick Sargent]], American actor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1933]] - [[Dickie Bird]], English cricket umpire
*1933 - [[Jayne Mansfield]], American actress (d. [[1967]])
*[[1935]] - [[Dudley Moore]], English actor, musician, comedian, composer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1936]] - [[Wilfried Martens]], [[Prime Minister of Belgium]]
*[[1937]] - [[Elinor Donahue]], American actress
*1937 - [[Joseph Estrada]], actor and [[President of the Philippines]]
*1940 - [[Genya Ravan (nee Genyusha Zelkowitz)]], American vocalist ([[Goldie & the Gingerbreads]], [[Ten Wheel Drive]])
*[[1944]] - [[James Heckman]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]]
*1944 - [[Bernie Worrell]], American keyboardist ([[P Funk]])
*[[1946]] - [[Tim Curry]], British actor
*[[1947]] - [[Murray Perahia]], American pianist
*[[1952]] - [[Alexis Arguello]], Nicaraguan boxer
*[[1953]] - [[Ruby Wax]], British television personality
*[[1960]] - [[Roger Merrett]], Australian footballer
*1960 - [[Frank Viola]], baseball player
*[[1962]] - [[Al Unser, Jr.]], American race car driver
*[[1965]] - [[Suge Knight]], American record producer
*[[1967]] - [[Steven H Silver]], American science fiction editor
*1967 - [[Greg Ferrara]], Independent Filmmaker, writer
*1967 - [[Dar Williams]], American musician and songwriter
*[[1968]] - [[Mswati III]], [[King of Swaziland]]
*1968 - [[Ashley Judd]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Kelly Holmes]], English athlete
*1970 - [[Luis Miguel]], Puerto Rican singer
*[[1972]] - [[Rivaldo]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Jason Gillespie]], Australian cricketer
*1975 - [[Jussi Jääskeläinen]], Finnish footballer(Goalkeeper)
*[[1977]] - [[Lucien Mettomo]], Cameroonian footballer
*[[1978]] - [[James Franco]], American actor
*1978 - [[Gabriel Heinze]], Argentinian footballer
*[[1979]] - [[Kate Hudson]], American actress
*[[1981]] - [[Hayden Christensen]], Canadian actor
*1981 - [[Catalina Sandino Moreno]], Colombian actress
*[[1987]] - [[Maria Sharapova]], Russian tennis player
*1987 - [[Oksana Akinshina]], Russian actress
==Deaths==
*[[1012]] - [[Alphege]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (b. [[954]])
*[[1054]] - [[Pope Leo IX]] (b. [[1002]])
*[[1390]] - King [[Robert II of Scotland]] (b. [[1316]])
*[[1560]] - [[Philipp Melanchthon]], German humanist and reformer (b. [[1497]])
*[[1578]] - [[Uesugi Kenshin]], Japanese samurai and warlord (b. [[1530]])
*[[1588]] - [[Paolo Veronese]], Italian painter
*[[1608]] - [[Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset]], English statesman and poet (b. [[1536]])
*[[1627]] - [[John Beaumont]], English poet (b. [[1583]])
*[[1629]] - [[Sigismondo d'India]], Italian composer
*[[1632]] - King [[Sigismund I of Sweden]] (b. [[1561]])
*[[1686]] - [[Antonio de Solís y Ribadeneyra]], Spanish writer (b. [[1610]])
*[[1689]] - Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] (b. [[1626]])
*[ |
8-ball tournaments on television. These rules are often played in amateur leagues as well. World Rules creates differences to encourage quick play and promote skill by making playing a snooker (hook) more difficult and making covering pockets less advantageous.
[http://www.epa.org.uk/wrules.php] - World 8 Ball rules with English definitions.
Some examples of these differences would be -
On all shots, the player must cause the Cue Ball's initial contact with a ball to be with a ball "On" and then pot a ball "On" or cause the Cue Ball or any Object Ball to contact a cushion.
This means that an easy snooker cannot always be played.
Also -
In some versions of 8 ball purposefully committing a foul (by potting an opponents ball) is not allowed. World 8 ball rules permits this. Furthermore, the cue ball (white ball) cannot be moved after a foul is committed.
This means that pocketing an opponents ball sometimes means that no significant advantage is given to the opposing player. This depends on where the cue ball lies after the shot is played. Care must be taken though as playing a foul shot resulting in a snooker results in a "foul snooker". The opposing player can then play a free ball from the baulk.
For further explanations of the definitions of "snooker", "fouls", "on", "Object ball" and "free ball" please visit the sites above.
== Blackball Rules ==
From 1st January 2006, "Blackball" rules were introduced to the U.K. along with other countries playing "small table, English pool" in an attempt to unify all the different rule-sets that currently exist. "Blackball" takes the best parts of the all the main types of rules. These rules are sanctioned by the World Pool Association. Blackball is being adopted by the Scottish Pool Association whilst the English Pool Association may adopt these in the future. [http://www.blackball.co.uk/]
A guide to blackball pool can be found at www.blackball.info [http://www.blackball.info/]
==Terminology==
{{section-stub}}
==See also==
*[[Nine Ball]]
*[[Straight Pool]]
==External links==
*[http://www.supacues.com The SupaCues Online Pool Resource ]
*[http://www.easypooltutor.com Easy pool tutor!]
*[http://www.funkypool.com/ Play 8-Ball Pool Online]
*[http://www.bca-pool.com/play/tournaments/rules/rls_8bl.shtml Official Rules for Eight-Ball from the BCA]
*[http://www.epa.org.uk/index.php The English Pool Association website. Official governing body for pool in England]
*[http://www.billiardresource.com/forum/about53.html Forum thread on Eight Ball]
[[Category:Pool billiards]]
[[ja:エイトボール]]
[[pl:Ósemka (bilard)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earned value management</title>
<id>9728</id>
<revision>
<id>39775136</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T20:15:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>141.213.53.156</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Earned value management''' is a [[project management]] technique for estimating how a [[project]] is doing in terms of its [[budget]] and [[schedule]].
Earned value compares the work finished so far with the estimates made in the beginning of the project. This gives a measure of how far the project is from completion. By extrapolating from the amount of work already put into the project, the [[project manager]] can get an estimate on how much resources the project will have used at completion.
This technique is related to the [[critical path]] concept. An alternative project performance measurement and management technique is [[critical chain]], which utilizes [[buffer management]] instead. The reason is that the earned value management method does not distinguish between the progress on the project [[constraint]] (i.e. its critical chain) from progress on the non-constraints (i.e. other paths in the [[project network]]). This can sometimes lead the project manager to expedite non-critical work at the expense of critical work in pursuit of better earned value measures, resulting in delayed project completion. This is a case of [[local optimization]], resulting from a lack of [[subordination]] of [[local measure]]s to [[global measure]]s.
To apply earned value to a project, the project manager needs the following primary data:
* a [[work breakdown structure]] (WBS): a list of all tasks broken down in a hierarchical structure
* [[project master schedule]] (PMS): a [[Gantt chart]] of what [[task]] will be done when and by whom
* [[budgeted cost of work scheduled]] (BCWS) or [[planned value]] (PV): for every period the budgets of the tasks that were planned to be finished in this time unit. 'How much work should be done?'
* [[budgeted cost of work produced]] (BCWP) or [[earned value]] (EV): for every period the budgets of the tasks that actually finished in this time unit. 'How much work is done?'
* [[actual cost of work produced|actual cost (AC) of work produced]] (ACWP) or [[effort spent]]: for every period the actual costs of the work. 'How much did it cost?'
* estimate to complete (ETC), the projection of remaining costs to be incurred; this is an estimate based on best current information, irrespective of budget
* [[budget at completion]] (BAC): &sum;[[BCWS]], the total budget estimated to be spent to complete the project
* [[total funding available]] (TFA): the budget the client has committed to
* [[negotiated period of performance]] (NPOP): the time period the client has agreed upon with the project manager
* [[planned period of performance]] (PPOP): the time period thought required to finish the project
* [[cost accrual ratio]] (CAR): the total average cost per person per time unit
* [[forecast of remaining work]] (FCST) or current schedule: the work that still needs to be done after this time unit
Generally, the Planned Values are based on labour costs only, and the Earned Values and Actual Costs are calculated on the same basis.
When a task is complete, the Earned Value in respect of a task is set (allocated) to be equal to the Planned Value of the task, irrespective of the Actual Costs spent on its accomplishment.
For tasks partly complete, it may be possible to measure the amount of work completed. In such cases, the Earned Value can be calculated accordingly as a fraction of the total Planned Value. Other alternative conventions exist for partially completed tasks, based on, for example:
* 50% notional progress for partial completion
* elapsed time
* ... and others
Whatever the basis of calculation, the Earned Value for a project is the sum of the Earned Values for its separate tasks.
From these data, the project manager can calculate:
; Cost Variance ([[CV]])
: <math>\begin{matrix}CV & = & BCWP - ACWP \\ \ & = & EV - AC \end{matrix}</math>, greater than 0 is good
; Schedule Variance ([[SV]])
: <math>\begin{matrix}SV & = & BCWP - BCWS \\ \ & = & EV - PV \end{matrix}</math>, greater than 0 is good
If the cost or schedule variance deviates from the budget by more than a percentage threshold, then the project manager must provide an analysis of the cause, including corrective actions. Such an explanation is required even if the deviation is a favorable one, to ensure that any tradeoffs made are visible. For example, more staff could be hired to complete a task faster but the cost may be higher. The threshold percentage is set by each individual project but is typically 10 percent.
; Cost Performance Index ([[CPI]])
: <math>CPI = {BCWP \over ACWP}</math>
: < 1 means that the cost of completing the work is higher than planned (bad)
: = 1 means that the cost of completing the work is right on plan (good)
: > 1 means that the cost of completing the work is less than planned (good or sometimes bad).
Having a CPI that is very high (in some cases, very high is only 1.2) may mean that the plan was too conservative, and thus a very high number may in fact not be good, since the CPI is being measured against a poor baseline. Management or the customer may be upset with the planners since an overly conservative baseline does not free up available funds for other purposes, and the baseline is also used for manpower planning.
; Schedule Performance Index (SPI)
: <math>SPI = {BCWP \over BCWS }</math>, greater than 1 is good
: or
: <math>SPI = {EV \over PV}</math>
; Estimate At Completion (EAC)
: EAC is the manager's projection of total cost of the project at completion.
: <math>EAC = ACWP + ETC</math>
; To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI)
: The TCPI projects what the CPI will be for the remaineder of the project based on the manager's projection of subsequent performance. The TCPI should be compared to the CPI. Any significant difference should be accounted for to explain why the manager projects either improved or degraded performance in the future.
: <math>TCPI = { \left( BAC - BCWP \right) \over ETC }</math>
; Independent Estimate At Completion (IEAC)
:The IEAC is a metric to project total cost using the performance to date to project overall performance. This can be compared to the EAC, which is the manager's projection.
: <math>IEAC = \sum ACWP + { \left( BAC - \sum BCWP \right) \over CPI }</math>
: or
: <math>IEAC = \sum AC + { \left(BAC -\sum EV \right) \over CPI }</math>
==Limitations==
Earned value cannot easily be applied in all circumstances. Here are some project management situations where EV is not straightforward:
* Research Management
* Diverse or changing work teams
* Contracts where the true costs are not known or revealed
* Where the Scope, PBS or WBS is fluid or changed radically
==See also==
* [[List of project management topics]]
==External links==
* [http://www.acq.osd.mil/pm US DoD Earned value management website]
* [http://www.ndia.org/Template.cfm? |
te communications, or from a disk-drive head, which is the smallest meaningful unit of data. These bytes might include start bits, stop bits, or parity bits, and thus could vary from 7 to 12 bits to contain a single 7-bit ASCII code.
# A ''[[datatype]]'' or synonym for a datatype in certain [[programming language]]s. [[C programming language|C]], for example, defines ''byte'' as a storage unit capable of at least being large enough to hold any character of the execution environment (clause 3.5 of the C standard). Since the C <code>char</code> integral data type can hold at least 8 bits (clause 5.2.4.2.1), a byte in C is at least capable of holding 256 different values (signed or unsigned <code>char</code> doesn't matter). [[Java programming language|Java]]'s primitive <code>byte</code> data type is always defined as consisting of 8 bits and being a signed data type, holding values from -128 to 127.
The term "byte" came from "bite," as in the smallest amount of data a computer could "bite" at once. The spelling change not only reduced the chance of a "bite" being mistaken for a "bit," but also was consistent with the penchant of early computer scientists to make up words and change spellings.
Early microprocessors, such as Intel's 8008 (the direct predecessor of the 8080, and then the Pentium) could perform a small number of operations on four bits, such as the DAA (decimal adjust) instruction, and the "half carry" flag, that were used to implement decimal arithmetic routines. These four-bit quantities were called "nibbles," in homage to the then-common 8-bit "bytes."
==History==
The term ''byte'' was coined by ''[[Werner Buchholz]]'' in [[1956]] during the early design phase for the [[IBM 7030|IBM Stretch]] computer. Originally it was defined in instructions by a 4-bit byte-size field, allowing from one to sixteen bits; typical I/O equipment of the period used six-bit units. A fixed eight-bit byte size was later adopted and promulgated as a standard by the [[System/360]]. The word was coined by mutating the word ''bite'' so it would not be accidentally misspelled as bit.
==Alternate words==
The eight-bit byte is often called an '''[[octet (computing)|octet]]''' in formal contexts such as industry standards, as well as in [[computer network|networking]] and [[telecommunication]], in order to avoid any confusion about the number of bits involved. However, 8-bit bytes are now firmly embedded in such common standards as [[Ethernet]] and [[HTML]]. Octet is also the word used for the eight-bit quantity in many non-English languages, where the pun on ''bite'' does not translate.
Half of an eight-bit byte (four bits) is sometimes called a [[nibble]] (sometimes spelled ''nybble'') or a [[hex digit]]. The nibble is often called a semioctet in a networking or telecommunication context and also by some standards organizations.
==Abbreviation==
Byte can be abbreviated to B (e.g. MB means megabyte).
Bit is often abbreviated to b (e.g. Mb to mean megabit), however the [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] recommends to use only "bit" (e.g. Mbit for megabit) for maximum disambiguation from byte.
French-speaking countries sometimes use an uppercase "o" for "octet". This is unacceptable in [[SI]] because of the risk of confusion with the zero.
==Names for larger units==
''Note'': the names "kilobyte", "megabyte", etc. may be used to mean either the SI or binary multipliers. For further discussion, see [[Binary prefix]].
[[Category:Units of information]]
[[ar:بايت]]
[[ast:Byte]]
[[ca:Byte]]
[[cs:Byte]]
[[da:Byte]]
[[de:Byte]]
[[et:Bait]]
[[es:Byte]]
[[eo:Bitoko]]
[[eu:Byte]]
[[fa:بایت]]
[[fr:Octet]]
[[gl:Byte]]
[[ko:바이트]]
[[hr:Bajt]]
[[id:Byte]]
[[it:Byte]]
[[he:בית (מחשב)]]
[[lt:Baitas]]
[[hu:Bájt]]
[[ms:Bait]]
[[nl:Byte]]
[[ja:バイト (情報)]]
[[no:Byte]]
[[pl:Bajt (informatyka)]]
[[pt:Byte]]
[[ro:Octet]]
[[ru:Байт]]
[[simple:Byte]]
[[sk:Bajt]]
[[sl:Bajt]]
[[fi:Tavu (tietotekniikka)]]
[[sv:Byte (enhet)]]
[[th:ไบต์]]
[[vi:Byte]]
[[tr:Bayt]]
[[uk:Байт]]
[[zh:字节]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Commonwealth</title>
<id>3366</id>
<revision>
<id>15901706</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-18T18:29:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Montrealais</username>
<id>3378</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Commonwealth of Nations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baroque Music</title>
<id>3367</id>
<revision>
<id>15901707</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-20T22:14:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Baroque music]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Baroque music]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Board games</title>
<id>3369</id>
<revision>
<id>15901708</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Board game]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boron nitride</title>
<id>3370</id>
<revision>
<id>40923776</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T22:31:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaraalbe</username>
<id>261435</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Ceramics cat, external links, risk phrases</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| width="300" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
|+ <font size="+1">'''Properties'''</font>
<!--
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | INSERT PICTURE HERE -->
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | '''General'''
|-
| Name
| Boron nitride
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| [[boron|B]][[nitrogen|N]]
|-
| [[color|Appearance]]
| White solid
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | '''Physical'''
|-
| [[Atomic weight|Formula weight]]
| 24.8 [[atomic mass unit|amu]]
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| sublimes at 3273 [[kelvin|K]] (3000 [[celsius|°C]])
|-
| [[Density]]
| 2.2 &times;10<sup>3</sup> [[kilogram|kg]]/[[metre|m]]<sup>3</sup>
|-
| [[Crystal structure]]
| [[zinc blende]] or layered
|-
| [[Solubility]]
| insoluble
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | '''Thermochemistry'''
|-
| [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|&Delta;<sub>f</sub>H<sup>0</sup><sub>gas</sub>]]
| 476.98 [[joule|kJ]]/[[mole (unit)|mol]]
|-
| &Delta;<sub>f</sub>H<sup>0</sup><sub>solid</sub>
| -250.91 kJ/mol
|-
| [[Standard molar entropy|S<sup>0</sup><sub>gas, 1 bar</sub>]]
| 212.36 J/mol·K
|-
| S<sup>0</sup><sub>solid</sub>
| 14.77 J/mol·K
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | '''Safety'''
|-
| [[Risk Phrases]]
| R36 R37
|-
| Ingestion
| Classified "not hazardous"
|-
| Inhalation
| ?
|-
| Skin
| ?
|-
| Eyes
| ?
|-
| More info
| ?
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | <font size="-1"> [[SI]] units were used where possible. Unless otherwise stated, [[standard temperature and pressure|standard]] conditions were used.
[[Inorganic table information|Disclaimer and references]] </font>
|}
'''Boron nitride''' is a [[binary compound|binary chemical compound]], consisting of equal proportions of [[boron]] and [[nitrogen]], with formula BN. Structurally, it is [[isoelectronic]] to [[carbon]] and takes on similar physical forms: a hexagonal, [[graphite]]-like one, and a cubic, [[diamond]]-like one. Cubic boron nitride is one of the hardest materials known, behind only diamond and [[ultrahard fullerite]]. It is widely used for grinding and as a material for tools in industry. This is in part because it does not dissolve into [[iron]], [[nickel]], and related [[alloys]] at high temperatures like diamond does. Hexagonal boron nitride finds use as a high-temperature lubricant where the electrical conductivity or reactivity of graphite would be problematic.
Boron nitride can also be synthesized in forms analogous to carbon [[fullerenes]] and [[nanotubes]]. BN nanotubes are a new important nanostructure mostly due to their homogeneous electronic behavior: tubes of different chiralities are all semiconductors with almost the same band gap.
==Synthesis==
Hexagonal boron nitride is produced by the [[nitridation]] or [[ammonolysis]] of [[boron trioxide]]. Cubic boron nitride is produced by treating hexagonal boron nitride at high pressure and temperature, much as [[synthetic diamond]] is produced from graphite.
==External links==
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/15.html National Pollutant Inventory - Boron and Compounds]
* [http://www.fiz-chemie.de/infotherm/html/molpages/00%5C35%5C/mol3597.html Fiz Chimie Berlin] thermophysical database
* [http://ptcl.chem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/BO/boron_nitride.html Materials Safety Data Sheet] at University of Oxford
==See also==
*[[Beta carbon nitride]]
*[[Borazon]]
[[Category:Nitrides]]
[[Category:Boron compounds]]
[[Category:Ceramics]]
[[Category:Superhard materials]]
[[Category:Semiconductor materials]]
[[cs:Nitrid boritý]]
[[de:Bornitrid]]
[[es:Nitruro de boro]]
[[eo:Bornitrido]]
[[fr:Nitrure de bore]]
[[nl:Boornitride]]
[[ja:窒化ホウ素]]
[[pt:Nitreto de boro]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bach (disambiguation)</ti |
|}
|-
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1961 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||155
|-
||'''AT BATS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||603
|-
||'''RUNS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||115
|-
||'''HITS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||197
|-
||'''SINGLES'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||114
|-
||'''DOUBLES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||39
|-
||'''TRIPLES'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||10
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||34
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||7.71
|-
||'''HR/100 PA'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||5.07
|-
||'''HR/100 AB'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||5.64
|-
||'''RBI'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||120
|-
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||21
|-
||'''CAUGHT STEALING'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||9
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||.327
|-
||'''SLG'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.594
|-
||'''OBA'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||.381
|-
||'''OPS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.974
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||131
|-
||'''RCAA'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||59
|-
||'''RCAP'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||35
|-
||'''WP'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.746
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||8.02
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||358
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||83
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||.267
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||.380
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||.993
|-
||'''BPA'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.615
|-
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||20
|-
||'''GIDP'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||16
|-
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||9
|-
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||671
|-
||'''OUTS'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||441
|}
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1962 NL'''
|-
||'''RUNS'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||127
|-
||'''HITS'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||191
|-
||'''DOUBLES'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||28
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||45
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||10.51
|-
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||6.75
|-
||'''HR/100 AB'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||7.60
|-
||'''RBI'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||128
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||.323
|-
||'''SLG'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.618
|-
||'''OBA'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||.390
|-
||'''OPS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||1.008
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||139
|-
||'''RCAA'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||64
|-
||'''RCAP'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||54
|-
||'''OWP'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.752
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||8.77
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||366
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||79
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.296
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||.421
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||1.050
|-
||'''BPA'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.643
|-
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||14
|-
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||6
|-
|}
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1963 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||161
|-
||'''AT BATS'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||631
|-
||'''RUNS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||121
|-
||'''HITS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||201
|-
||'''DOUBLES'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||29
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||44
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||9.76
|-
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||6.16
|-
||'''HR/100 AB'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||6.97
|-
||'''RBI'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||130
|-
||'''WALKS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||78
|-
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||31
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.319
|-
||'''SLG'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||.586
|-
||'''OBA'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.391
|-
||'''OPS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||.977
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||149
|-
||'''RCAA'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||79
|-
||'''RCAP'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||61
|-
||'''OWP'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||.798
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||8.92
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||370
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||77
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.268
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||.433
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||1.063
|-
||'''BPA'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||.648
|-
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||18
|-
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||714
|}
|-
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1964 NL'''
|-
||'''RUNS'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||103
|-
||'''HITS'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||187
|-
||'''SINGLES'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||131
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||24
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||5.84
|-
||'''RBI'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||95
|-
||'''WALKS'''||9<sup>TH</sup>||62
|-
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||22
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.328
|-
||'''SLG'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||.514
|-
||'''OBA'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.393
|-
||'''OPS'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||.907
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||112
|-
||'''RCAA'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||47
|-
||'''RCAP'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||36
|-
||'''OWP'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||.727
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||7.36
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||.326
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||.912
|-
||'''BPA'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||.554
|-
||'''GIDP'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||22
|-
|}
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1965 NL'''
|-
||'''RUNS'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||109
|-
||'''HITS'''||10<sup>TH</sup>||181
|-
||'''DOUBLES'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||40
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||32
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||7.69
|-
||'''HR/100 PA'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||5.01
|-
||'''HR/100 AB'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||5.61
|-
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||24
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.318
|-
||'''SLG'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.560
|-
||'''OBA'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||.379
|-
||'''OPS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.938
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||121
|-
||'''RCAA'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||51
|-
||'''RCAP'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||37
|-
||'''OWP'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.729
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||7.85
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||319
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||73
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||.242
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||.382
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.980
|-
||'''BPA'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||.603
|-
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||8
|-
|}
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black"
|-
|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"|'''1966 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||158
|-
||'''RUNS'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||117
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||44
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||9.57
|-
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||6.40
|-
||'''HR/100 AB'''||2<sup>ND</sup>||7.30
|-
||'''RBI'''||1<sup>ST</sup>||127
|-
||'''WALKS'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||76
|-
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||21
|-
||'''SLG'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||.539
|-
||'''OPS'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||.895
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||117
|-
||'''RCAA'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||42
|-
||'''RCAP'''||7<sup>TH</sup>||32
|-
||'''OWP'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||.689
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||8<sup>TH</sup>||6.87
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||325
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||68
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||5<sup>TH</sup>||.260
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||3<sup>RD</sup>||.416
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||6<sup>TH</sup>||.929
|-
||'''BPA'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||.590
|-
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||4<sup>TH</sup>||15
|-
||'''SACRIFI |
s transcendence (''[[Ein Sof]]'', without end) and immanence (''[[Shekhinah]]'', in-dwelling), but these are merely human words to describe two ways of experiencing God; God is one and indivisible.
Some Jewish and Christian philosophers hold that due to these differences, it may well be that Jews and Christians don't believe in the same god at all. The majority Jewish view, codified in [[halakha|Jewish law]], is that Christians do worship the same God that Jews do but with extras - called a 'Sheetoof' (combination). The vast majority of Christians have always held that they worship the same God as the Jews.
== Understanding of the Bible ==
Jews and Christians seek authority from many of the same basic books, but they conceive of these books in significantly different ways.
The [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] is comprised of three parts:
* [[Torah]] - the five books of Moses
* [[Nevi'im]] - the writings of the Prophets, and
* [[Ketuvim]] - other writings canonised over time, such as the Books of Esther, Jonah, Ruth or Job.
Collectively, these are known as the [[Tanakh]], a Hebrew acronym for the first letters of each. Rabbinical Judaism traditionally believes that these written works were also accompanied by an oral tradition which taught how to perform commandments that are not stated explicitly in the Torah (i.e. what a [[Menorah]] looks like and what is meant by "Frontlets" in the [[Shema]]), and that it was revealed to [[Moses]] at Sinai and passed down through generations and eventually written down in the [[Talmud]] (see below).
Judaism accept as authoritative an [[oral law]] which explains the meaning and application of the laws in the Tanakh. These works of oral law are today collected in the [[Mishnah]], which was written down around 200 C.E., and a Babylonian and a Jerusalem [[Talmud]], which were edited around 600 C.E. and 450 C.E., respectively.
Since the transcription of the Talmud, notable rabbis have compiled law codes that are generally held in high regard: the [[Mishnah Torah]], the [[Tur]], and the [[Shulchan Aruch]], which is generally held to be authoritative by Orthodox Jews. The [[Zohar]], which was written in the thirteenth century, is generally held as the most important mystical treatise of the Jews.
Within the Torah, Jews find [[613 Mitzvot]] (formal divine commandments), of which some are positive obligations, and others negatives that must be avoided. These form the basis of their understanding of the law. The in-depth examination to understand the commandments and their true significance and scope, to "walk in My ways", forms a major thread within the Talmud and other Jewish writings.
For Jews, the Torah is one's primary guide to the relationship between God and man, a living document that has unfolded and will continue to unfold whole new insights over the generations and millennia. A saying that captures this goes, "Turn it [the Torah's words] over and over again, for everything is in it."
Jews do not accept the characterization of their sacred texts as an [[Old Testament]], nor do they believe that the [[New Testament]] has religious authority. Many Jews see Christians as having quite an ambivalent view of the Torah (or the Mosaic Law part of the Old Testament as it is known to Christians), on the one hand it is God's absolute word, on the other hand at times [[Cafeteria Christianity|treating commandments very selectively]]. As it seems to some Jews, Christians cite from the Old Testament commandments to support one point of view but then ignore other commandments of a similar class which are also of equal weight. Examples of this are certain commandments where God states explicitly they shall abide "for ever", or where God states a particular thing is an "abomination", but which are not undertaken by most Christians. Some forms of Christianity even go so far as [[Antinomianism]].
Christians reject the Jewish oral law (Matt. 15:6). However in a similar way [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] and [[Orthodox Christianity]] consider their [[Sacred Tradition]] as the correct interpretation, while [[Protestantism|Protestants]] hold to the principle of [[sola scriptura]]. Christians disagree with the Jewish order of sacred texts (and some Christian traditions have included in their [[Old Testament]] books that are not included in today's Jewish canon, although they were included in the Jewish [[Septuagint]]). Historically, the Jewish oral tradition was not written down until the period of the Roman Empire, in the early centuries CE([[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]] [[Palestinian Talmud|Jerusalem Talmud]]) and later developed more thoroughly through codification. Many Christians reject the covenant with God embodied in traditional Jewish scriptures and oral traditions as obsolete, and thus refer to their canon of Hebrew books as the "[[Old Testament]]." Some Christians believe that God has established a [[New Covenant]] with people, and that this new covenant is established in an additional set of books collectively called the [[New Testament]], together with the oral teachings of Jesus to the Apostles which have been handed down to this day.
== Sin and Original Sin ==
In both religions, one's offenses against the will of God are called [[sin]] (in Christianity the full name is "actual sin"). These sins can be thoughts, words, or deeds.
Catholicism categorizes sins into various groups. A wounding of the relationship with God is often called [[venial sin]]; a complete rupture of the relationship with God is often called [[mortal sin]]. Without salvation from sin (see below), a person's separation from God is permanent, causing such a person to enter [[Hell]] in the afterlife.
[[Original Sin]] is a slightly different concept in Christianity, it is not part of Jewish belief or philosophy. Original sin refers to the idea that the sin of [[Adam and Eve]]'s disobedience (sin "at the origin") has passed on a spiritual heritage, so to speak. Christians teach that human beings inherit a corrupted or damaged human nature in which the tendency to do bad is greater than it would have been otherwise, so much so that human nature would not be capable now of participating in the afterlife with God. This is not a matter of being "guilty" of anything; each person is only personally guilty of their own actual sins. However, this understanding of original sin is what lies behind the Christian emphasis on the need for spiritual salvation from a spiritual Saviour, who can forgive and set aside sin even though humans are not inherently pure and worthy of such salvation. [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] in [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] and [[1 Corinthians|First Corinthians]] placed special emphasis on this doctrine, and stressed that belief in Jesus would allow Christians to overcome death and attain salvation in the hereafter.
[[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians, and some [[Protestantism|Protestants]] teach the Sacrament of [[Baptism]] is the means by which each person's damaged human nature is healed and [[Sanctifying Grace]] (capacity to enjoy and participate in the spiritual life of God) is restored. This is referred to as "being born of water and the Spirit," following the terminology in the [[Gospel]] of St. John. Most [[Protestantism|Protestants]] believe this salvific grace comes about at the moment of personal decision to follow Jesus, and that [[Baptism]] is a symbol of the grace already received.
The Hebrew word for sin, ''het'', literally means "to go astray." Just as Jewish law, ''halachah'' provides the proper "way" (or path) to live, sin involves straying from that path. Judaism teaches that humans are born morally neutral and have free will. Jews have no concept of Original Sin, and do not accept it; instead, Judaism affirms that people are born with a ''yetzer hatov'', (literally, "the good inclination", in some views, a tendency towards goodness, in others, a tendency towards having a productive life and a tendency to be concerned with others) and with a ''yetzer hara'', (literally "the evil inclination", in some views, a tendency towards evil, and in others, a tendency towards base or animal behaviour and a tendency to be selfish). In Judaism all human beings are believed to have free will and can choose the path in life that they will take. There is almost always a "way back" if a person wills it. (Although texts mention certain categories for whom the way back will be exceedingly hard, such as the slanderer, and the malicious person)
The rabbis recognize a positive value to the ''yetzer hara'': one tradition identifies it with God's observation on the last day of creation that His accomplishment was "very good" (God's work on the preceding days was just described as "good") and explain that without the yetzer ha'ra there would be no marriage, children, commerce or other fruits of human labor; the implication is that yetzer ha'tov and yetzer ha'ra are best understood not as moral categories of good and evil but as selfless versus selfish orientations, either of which used rightly can serve God's will.
Or as Rabbi [[Hillel]] famously summarised the Jewish philosophy:
:''"If I am not for myself, who will be for me?''
:''"But if I am not for <u>others</u> - what am I?''
:''"And if not now [if I do not choose now], [then] when?''
Another explanation is, without the existence of the yetzer ha'ra, there would be no merit earned in following God's commandments; choice is only meaningful if there has indeed been a choice made. So whereas creation was "good" before, it became "very good" when the evil inclination was added, for then it became possible to truly say that man could make a true choice to obey G |
ribed as atheist. Of the 58% self-describing as Russian Orthodox Christian, 42% said they had never been in a church.
*A 2002 survey by Adherents.com [http://adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html] estimates the proportion of the world's people who are "secular, non-religious, agnostics and atheists" as about 14%.
*In a 2003 poll in [[France]], 54% of those polled identified themselves as "faithful", 33% as atheist, 14% as agnostic, and 26% as "[[apatheism|indifferent]]". [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35454.htm]
*A 2004 survey by the BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/3518375.stm] in 10 countries showed the proportion of the population "who don't believe in God" varying between 0% and 44%, with an average close to 17% in the countries surveyed. About 8% of the respondents stated specifically that they consider themselves to be atheists.
*A 2004 survey by the CIA in the World Factbook [http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html#People] estimates about 12.5% of the world's population are non-religious, and about 2.4% are atheists.
*A 2004 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]] [http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?PageID=757] showed that in the United States, 12% of people under 30 and 6% of people over 30 could be characterized as non-religious.
*A 2005 poll by AP/Ipsos [http://www.ipsos-na.com/news/pressrelease.cfm?id=2694] surveyed ten countries. Of the developed nations, people in the [[United States]] had most certainty about the existence of god or a higher power (2% atheist, 4% agnostic), while [[France]] had the most skeptics (19% atheist, 16% agnostic). On the religion question, [[South Korea]] had the greatest percentage without a religion (41%) while [[Italy]] had the smallest (5%).
* A 2006 survey in the Norwegian newspaper [[Aftenposten]] (on [[February 17]]), saw 1006 inhabitants of [[Norway]] answering the question "What do you believe in?". 29% answered "I believe in a god or deity", 23% answered "I believe in a higher power without being certain of what", 26% answered "I don't believe in god or higher powers", and 22% answered "I am in doubt". Depending on the definition of atheism, Norway thus has between 49% and 71% atheists. Still, some 85% of the population are members of the Norwegian state's official [[Lutheran]] [[Protestant]] church. Parts of this deviance is due to the fact that all non-affilated Norwegians were signed into this church a few years before (without being asked), and that signing out, if they are even aware of being signed in, is a time-consuming, bureaucratic affair yielding no immediate gains.
===Statistical problems===
Statistics on atheism are often difficult to accurately represent for a variety of reasons.
====Atheism is nonexclusive====
Atheism is a position compatible with other forms of identity. Some atheists also consider themselves [[Agnosticism|Agnostic]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Jainism|Jains]] or hold other related philosophical beliefs. Therefore, given limited poll options, some may use other terms to describe their identity.
====Misrepresentation====
Some politically motivated organizations that report or gather population statistics may, intentionally or unintentionally, misrepresent atheists. Survey designs may bias results due to the nature of elements such as the wording of questions and the available response options. Also, many atheists, particularly former Catholics, are still counted as [[Christianity|Christian]]s in church rosters, although surveys generally ask samples of the population and do not look in church rosters. Some Christians believe that ''"once a person is <nowiki>[truly]</nowiki> saved, that person is always saved"'', a doctrine known as [[Perseverance of the saints|eternal security]]. [http://www.evangelicaloutreach.org/eternalsecurity1.htm].
====Attitudes toward religion====
Statistics are generally collected on the assumption that religion is a categorical variable. As terms such as ''weak atheism'' and ''strong atheism'' suggest, however, people vary in terms of the strength of their convictions. Instruments have been designed to measure attitudes toward religion, including one that was used by [[L. L. Thurstone]]. This may be a particularly important consideration among people who have neutral attitudes, as it is more likely prevailing social norms will influence the responses of such people on survey questions which effectively force respondents to categorize themselves either as belonging to a particular relgion or belonging to no religion.
====Misunderstanding and external pressure====
A negative perception of atheists and pressure from family and peers may also cause some atheists to disassociate themselves from atheism. Misunderstanding of the term may also be a reason some label themselves differently.
====Discrimination====
Legal and social discrimination against atheists in some places may lead some to deny or conceal their atheism due to fears of persecution.
For example, in the 20th century, atheists, socialists and communists were persecuted alongside Jews by the Nazis, who lumped all of these terms into one complex issue or theme ('the Jewish-Bolshevik world conspiracy', as addressed in [[Joseph Goebbels]]' 1935 speech "Communism with the Mask Off", in which Christian civilization -national socialism- was described as antithetical to Jewish Communism).
==Religion and atheism==
===Spiritual and religious atheism===
Although atheistic beliefs are often accompanied by a total lack of [[supernatural]] beliefs, this is not an aspect, or even a necessary consequence, of atheism. Indeed, there are many atheists who are not [[irreligion|irreligious]] or [[secularism|secular]]. These are most common in spiritualities like [[Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]], but they also exist in sects of religions that are usually very theistic by nature, such as [[Christianity]], especially in some [[Religious Society of Friends|Liberal Quaker]] groups.
A number of atheistic churches have been established, such as the [http://thomasinechurch.org/ Thomasine Church], [[Naturalistic pantheism|naturalistic pantheists]], [[Brianism]], and the [[Fellowship of Reason]]. There is also an atheist presence in [[Unitarian Universalism]], an extremely [[inclusivism|inclusivist]] religion.
====Belief in God as a non-being====
In English, believers usually refer to the [[monotheism|monotheistic]] Abrahamic god as "[[God]]". In many abstract or esoteric interpretations of monotheism or [[henotheism]], God is not thought of as a supernatural being, as a deity or god. Rather, God becomes a philosophical category: the All, the One, the [[Ultimate]], the [[Absolute Infinite]], the [[Transcendent]], the Divine Ground, [[Being]] or [[Existence]] itself, etc. For example, such views are typical of [[pantheism]], [[panentheism]], and religious [[monism]]. Attributing [[anthropomorphic]] characteristics to God may be regarded as idolatry, blasphemy, or symbolism by some. Some theists may not believe in, or may even deny, the existence of deities as supernatural beings, while maintaining a belief in god as so conceived.
For example, the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] theologian [[Paul Tillich]] described God as the "ground of Being", the "power of Being", or as "Being itself", and caused controversy by making the statement that "God does not exist", resulting in him occasionally being labelled as an atheist. Nevertheless, for [[Tillich]], God is not "a" being that exists among other beings, but is Being itself. For him, God does not "exist" except as a concept or principle; God is the basis of Being, the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] power by which Being triumphs over non-Being.
However, most atheists who deny the existence of deities as supernatural beings would also deny this and similar conceptions of God, or simply consider them incomprehensible. Even the broadest definitions of atheism often do not include belief in a conceptual or metaphysical God, categorizing this under theism instead.
===Judaism===
In general, formulations of [[Jewish principles of faith]] require a belief in God (represented by Judaism's paramount prayer, the [[Shema]]). In many modern movements in Judaism, rabbis have generally considered the behavior of a Jew to be the determining factor in whether or not one is considered an adherent of Judaism. Within these movements it is often recognized that it is possible for a Jew to strictly practise [[Judaism]] as a faith, while at the same time being an agnostic or atheist, giving rise to the joke: "Q: What do you call a Jew who doesn't believe in God? A: A Jew." It is also worth noting that [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionism]] does not require any belief in a deity, and that certain popular [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] prayer books, such as ''Gates of Prayer'', offer some services without mention of God.
Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] [http://www.vbm-torah.org/archive/rk16-kook.htm][http://www.vbm-torah.org/archive/rk17-kook.htm], first Chief Rabbi of the Jewish community in pre-state Israel, held that atheists were not actually denying God: rather, they were denying one of man's many images of God. Since any man-made image of God can be considered an idol, Kook held that, in practice, one could consider atheists as helping true religion burn away false images of God, thus in the end serving the purpose of true monotheism.
Some Jewish atheists reject Judaism, but wish to continue identifying themselves with the Jewish people and culture. See, for example, Levin (1995). Jewish atheists who practice [[Humanistic Judaism]] embrace Jewish culture and history, rather than belief in a supernatural god, as the sources of their Jewish identity.
===Christianity===
By necessity, C |
the expression of a "voice of conscience" telling the good from the evil.
Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is experience itself, and access consciousness, which is the processing of the things in experience (Block 2004). Others consider this distinction to be mistaken (Dennett 1991). Some philosophers believe that consciousness is part of the physical world whilst others believe it may be separate from the physical world in some sense. (Descartes, in particular, strongly held this view.) Many cultures and religious traditions place the seat of consciousness in a [[soul]] that is the mind separate from the body. Some consider consciousness to be intimately linked to the neural functioning of the [[brain]], dictating the way by which the world is experienced. [[Marx]], [[Nietzsche]] and [[Freud]] all criticized the notion of a conscious [[subject (philosophy)|subject]], [[sovereignty|sovereign]] of himself, which forms the groundworks of the [[liberalism|liberal]] tradition of the [[social contract]].
Humans (and often other animals, as well) are variously said to possess consciousness, [[self-awareness]], and a [[mind]] that contains our sensations, perceptions, [[dreams]], [[lucid dreams]], inner speech and imagination etc. Each of us has a [[subjective]] view. There are many debates about the extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world, the passage of [[time]], and [[free will]].
An understanding of necessary preconditions for consciousness in the human brain may allow us to address important ethical questions. For instance, to what extent are non-human animals conscious? At what point in human development does consciousness begin? Can machines ever achieve conscious states? These issues are of great interest to those concerned with the ethical treatment of other beings, be they [[animal rights|animals]], [[fetus|fetuses]], or in the future, [[artificial consciousness|machines]]. [[Panpsychism]] is the belief that all matter is sentient or conscious.
In common parlance, consciousness denotes being [[awake]] and responsive to one's environment; this contrasts with [[unconsciousness]] as when being [[sleep|asleep]] or in a [[coma]] (distinct from Freud's [[unconscious mind]]). The term 'level of consciousness' denotes how consciousness seems to vary during [[anesthesia]] and during various states of mind, such as [[day dreaming]], [[lucid dreaming]], imagining, etc. Nonconsciousness exists when consciousness is not present. There is speculation, especially among religious groups, that consciousness may exist after death or before birth.
== Etymology ==
"Consciousness" derives from Latin ''[[:la:conscientia|conscientia]]'' which primarily means [[conscience|moral conscience]]. In the literal sense, "conscientia" means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridic texts by writers such as [[Cicero]]. Here, ''conscientia'' is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else. In Christian theology, conscience stands for the moral conscience in which our actions and intentions are registered and which is only fully known to god. Medieval writers such as [[Thomas Aquinas]] describe the conscientia as the act by which we apply practical and moral knowledge to our own actions {{ref|Aquinas}}.
[[René Descartes]] has been said to be the first philosopher to use "conscientia" in a way that does not seem to fit this traditional meaning, and, as a consequence, the translators of his writings in other languages like French and English coined new words in order to denote merely psychological consciousness. These are, for instance, ''[[:fr:conscience|conscience]]'', and ''[[:de:Bewusstsein|Bewusstsein]]'' {{ref|Davies}}.
However, it has also been argued that [[John Locke]] was in fact the first one to use the modern meaning of consciousness in his ''[[Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'', although it remains closely intertwined with moral conscience (I may be held [[responsibility|morally responsible]] only for the act of which I am conscious of having achieved; and my personal identity - [[self (philosophy)|my self]] - goes as far as my consciousness extends itself). The modern sense of "consciousness" was therefore first found not in Descartes' work - who sometimes used the word in a modern sense, but did not distinguish it as much as would Locke do -, but in Locke's text. The modern sense of the word (consciousness associated to the idea of [[personal identity]], which is assured by the repeated consciousness of oneself) was therefore introduced by Locke; but the word "conscience" itself was coined by Pierre Costes, French translator of Locke. Henceforth, the modern sense first appeared in Locke's works, but the word itself first appeared in the French language {{ref|Balibar}}.
== Philosophical approaches ==
Some philosophers suggest that consciousness resists or even defies definition, although it is generally considered as the mental perception accompanying each thought ("I am conscious that I am thinking"). [[John Locke]] and succeeding philosophers considered it as the basis of [[personal identity]], of the [[self (philosophy)|self]]. This classic conception, which is at the basis of the [[social contract]] theory, has been challenged by thinkers such as [[Marx]], [[Nietzsche]] and [[Freud]]. Marx considered that ''social relations'' preceded individual consciousness; Nietzsche considered consciousness to be but the effect of [[guilt]] and ''[[ressentiment]]'' (while not denying its very real existence); and Freud thought the specific concept of an [[unconscious mind]], from which [[Carl Jung]] would derive the concept of a [[collective unconscious]], sometimes related to [[ideology]]. As a major characteristic of the definition of the [[subject (philosophy)|subject]], the criticisms of consciousness necessarily led to a criticism of the notion of an [[individualism|individual]] subject and its correlating [[free will]]. Still other philosophers have also tried to distinguish consciousness between ''phenomenal consciousness'' and ''access'' or ''psychological consciousness''. In a general sense, there are many philosophical stances on consciousness, including: [[behaviorism]], [[dualism]], [[idealism]], [[functionalism]], [[phenomenalism]], [[phenomenology]] (which describes [[intentionality]] as the basic structure of consciousness), [[physicalism]], [[emergentism]], [[mysticism]], etc.
=== Consciousness as the basis of personal identity (John Locke) ===
[[John Locke]]'s chapter XXVII "On Identity and Diversity" in ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (1689) has been said to be one of the first modern conceptualization of consciousness as the repeated self-identification of [[self (philosophy)|oneself]], through which moral [[responsibility]] could be attributed to the [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] - and therefore punishment and [[guilt]]yness justified, as would critics such as [[Nietzsche]] point out.
According to Locke, [[personal identity]] (the self) "depends on consciousness, not on [[substance theory|substance]]" nor on the [[soul]]. We are the same person to the extent that we are conscious of our past and future thoughts and actions in the same way as we are conscious of our present thoughts and actions. If consciousness is this "thought" which doubles all thoughts, than personal identity is only founded on the repeated act of consciousness: "This may show us wherein personal identity consists: not in the identity of substance, but... in the identity of consciousness". For example, one may claim to be a [[reincarnation]] of Plato, therefore having the same soul. However, one would be the same [[person]] as Plato only if one had the same consciousness of Plato's thoughts and actions that he himself did. Therefore, self-identity is not based on the soul. One soul may have various personalities.
Self-identity is not founded either on the body or the substance, argues Locke, as the substance may change while the person remains the same: "animal identity is preserved in identity of life, and not of substance", as the body of the animal grows and change during its life. Take for example a prince's soul which enters the body of a cobbler: to all exterior eyes, the cobbler would remain a cobbler. But to the prince himself, the cobbler would be himself, as he would be conscious of the prince's thoughts and acts, and not of the cobbler's life. A prince's consciousness in a cobbler body: thus the cobbler is, in fact, a prince.
But this interesting border-case leads to this problematic thought that since personal identity is based on consciousness, and that only oneself can be aware of his consciousness, exterior human judges may never know if they really are judging - and punishing - the same person, or simply the same body. In other words, Locke argues that you may be judged only for the acts of your body, as this is what is apparent to all but God; however, you are in truth only [[responsibility|responsible]] for the acts for which you are conscious. This forms the basis of the [[insanity defense]]: one can't be held accountable for acts from which one was [[unconsciousness|unconscious]] - and therefore leads to interesting philosophical questions:
:"personal identity consists [not in the identity of substance] but in the identity of consciousness, wherein if Socrate and the present mayor of Queenborough agree, they are the same person: if the same Socrates waking and sleeping do not partake of the same consciousness, Socrate waking and sleeping is not the same person. And to punish Socrates waking for what sleeping Socrates thought, and waking Socrates was never conscious of, would be no more right, than to punish one twin for what his brother-twin di |
ight Test Center, [[Edwards Air Force Base]], California, is responsible for flight testing the engineering, manufacturing and development aircraft.
The first aircraft, named ''Spirit of Missouri'', was delivered on [[December 17]], [[1993 in aviation|1993]]. Depot maintenance responsibility for the B-2 is held by [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] contractor support and is managed at the Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center at [[Tinker Air Force Base]] in [[Oklahoma]].
The prime contractor, responsible for overall system design and integration, is [[Northrop Grumman]] Integrated Systems Sector. [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]], [[Hughes Aircraft]] (now [[Raytheon]]), [[General Electric Aircraft Engines]] and [[Vought Aircraft Industries]], are key members of the aircraft contractor team. Another major contractor, responsible for aircrew training devices (weapon system trainer and mission trainer) is Link Simulation & Training, a division of L-3 Communications formerly Hughes Training Inc. (HTI). [http://www.link.com/b2atd.html] Link Division, formerly known as CAE - Link Flight Simulation Corp. Link Simulation & Training is responsible for developing and integrating all aircrew and maintenance training programs. The [[military contractor]]s for the B-2 engaged in massive lobbying campaigns to gain Congressional support for its funding.
[[Whiteman Air Force Base]] in [[Missouri]] was the B-2's only operational base until early [[2003 in aviation|2003]], when facilities for the B-2 were constructed on the joint [[United States|U.S.]]/[[United Kingdom|U.K.]] military base on the [[United Kingdom|British]] island of [[Diego Garcia]] in the [[Indian Ocean]], followed by deployment to [[Guam]] in [[2005 in aviation|2005]]. Facilities for the aircraft have also been constructed at [[RAF Fairford]] in [[Gloucestershire]] in the [[United Kingdom]].
Questions remain over the ongoing and escalating cost of the program [http://www.fas.org/man/gao/gao94217.htm]. Some writers have suggested that the huge program cost may actually include costs for other [[black project]]s that remain classified. The high per-unit cost may also be partially explained by the small number of planes produced coupled with a large research overhead in the B-2 program.
These bombers were originally designed to deliver [[nuclear weapons]] during the [[Cold War]], and support for them dwindled as military spending declined. In May of [[1995 in aviation|1995]], in a study commissioned by Congress, the Institute For Defense Analysis concluded that after the demise of the [[Soviet Union]], there was no need for more B-2s.
===Units using the B-2===
====United States Air Force====
* [[509th Bomb Wing]], [[Whiteman Air Force Base]]
** [[13th Bomb Squadron]]
** [[393d Bomb Squadron]]
** [[394th Combat Training Squadron]]
* [[53d Wing]]
** [[72d Test and Evaluation Squadron]]
==Combat==
[[Image:B-2 Spirit Night 2.JPG|thumb|right|330px|This Spirit was photographed in 2004 at [[Andersen Air Force Base]], [[Guam]].]]
The B-2 was derided by many as being too expensive to risk in combat. However, the aircraft has seen service in three separate campaigns.
Its first combat was during the [[Kosovo War]] in 1999. The aircraft performed well, and it introduced the satellite guided [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]] bomb to the world as well. Since then the aircraft has seen combat over [[Afghanistan]] in [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] and [[Iraq]] in [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]].
The missions to Afghanistan saw a first for the aircraft. After flying bombing missions over Afghanistan, the aircraft concerned landed at [[Diego Garcia]], were refueled and had a crew change before launching on another combat mission. This was taken a step further during the Iraq campaign when B-2s were actually based at Diego Garcia.
Later missions to Iraq were launched and returned to Whiteman AFB in Missouri. This resulted in missions lasting over 30 hours and even one mission of over 50 hours. B-2 crews have been used to pioneer sleep cycle research to improve combat crew performance over extended periods.
In the Pentagon's Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report it noted that the B-2's overall mission capable rate for FY03 was still short of original requirements, primarily due to maintenance of the B-2's Low Observable materials. It also noted that the Defensive Avionics suite also had shortcomings in warning of pop-up threats. Despite these problems the B-2 maintained a high mission-capable state for Operation Iraqi Freedom, dropping 583 JDAMs during the conflict. [http://pogo.org/m/dp/dp-2003-B2.pdf]
==Trivia==
*Weighing in at 2,300,000 [[Troy weight|troy ounces]] (71,668 kg), each B-2 cost over $950.00 per troy ounce ($30/g) which is just under double its weight in [[gold]].
*Most B-2s are named for states in the US, following the naming convention "Spirit of [state]." The two exceptions are "Spirit of America" (AV-1) and "Spirit of [[Kitty Hawk]]" (AV-19).
*The B-2 simulator at Whiteman AFB has been dubbed "Spirit of Hell" by students who have endured marathon training sessions in it.
==Specifications (B-2A)==
[[Image:B-2_spirit_bombing.jpg|thumb|A B-2 Spirit drops Mk82 bombs in a 1994 training exercise off Pt. Mugu in the Pacific Ocean.]]
{{airtemp|
<!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft]] -->
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|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet
<!-- Now, fill out the specs. Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses).
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|crew=2
|length main=69 ft
|length alt=20.9 m
|span main=172 ft
|span alt=52.12 m
|height main=17 ft
|height alt=5.1 m
|area main=5,000 ft&sup2;
|area alt=460 m&sup2;
|empty weight main=158,000 lb
|empty weight alt=71,700 kg
|loaded weight main=336,500 lb
|loaded weight alt=152,634 kg
|max takeoff weight main=336,500 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=152,634 kg
|engine (jet)=[[General Electric F-118]]-GE-100
|type of jet=[[turbofan]]s
|number of jets=2
|thrust main=17,300 lbf
|thrust alt=77 kN
|max speed main=[[Mach number|Mach]] 0.85, 560 kt
|max speed alt=1,000 km/h
|range main=6,500 mi
|range alt=12,000 km
|ceiling main=50,000 ft
|ceiling alt=15,240 m
|climb rate main=ft/min
|climb rate alt=m/s
|loading main=67.3 lb/ft&sup2;
|loading alt=329 kg/m&sup2;
|thrust/weight=0.205
|armament=
Block 30 Aircraft:
* 40,000 lb (18,000 kg) of Bomb Rack Assembly mounted 500 lb class bombs (Mk82) (total carriage quantity: 80)
* 27,000 lb (12,000 kg) of BRA mounted 750 lb CBU class bombs (total carriage quantity: 36)
* 16 Rotary Launcher Assembly (RLA) mounted 2000 lb class weapons (Mk84, JDAM-84, JDAM-102)
* 16 RLA mounted B61 or B83 nuclear weapons
Later avionics and hardware upgrades allow B-2A to carry [[JSOW]] and [[GBU-28]]s as well.
}}
==List of B-2 Bombers==
{|
|-
! align="left" | Designation &nbsp; !! align="left" | Tail # !! align="left" | Formal name !! align="left" | Informal names
|-
| AV-1 || 82-1066 || Spirit of America || Fatal Beauty
|-
| AV-2 || 82-1067 || Spirit of Arizona || Ship From Hell, Murphy's Law
|-
| AV-3 || 82-1068 || Spirit of New York || Navigator, Ghost, Afternoon Delight
|-
| AV-4 || 82-1069 || Spirit of Indiana || Christine, Armageddon Express
|-
| AV-5 || 82-1070 || Spirit of Ohio || Fire and Ice, Toad
|-
| AV-6 || 82-1071 || Spirit of Mississippi || Black Widow, Penguin, Arnold the Pig
|-
| AV-7 || 88-0328 || Spirit of Texas || Pirate Ship
|-
| AV-8 || 88-0329 || Spirit of Missouri ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-9 || 88-0330 || Spirit of California ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-10 || 88-0331 || Spirit of South Carolina ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-11 || 88-0332 || Spirit of Washington ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-12 || 89-0127 || Spirit of Kansas ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-13 || 89-0128 || Spirit of Nebraska ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-14 || 89-0129 || Spirit of Georgia ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-15 || 90-0040 || Spirit of Alaska ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-16 || 90-0041 || Spirit of Hawaii ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-17 || 92-0700 || Spirit of Florida ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-18 || 93-1085 || Spirit of Oklahoma ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-19 || 93-1086 || Spirit of Kitty Hawk ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-20 || 93-1087 || Spirit of Pennsylvania ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-21 || 93-1088 || Spirit of Lousiana ||&nbsp;
|-
| AV-22 &ndash; AV-165 || cancelled &nbsp; || &nbsp;||&nbsp;
|}
==References==
*[http://www.cnn.com/US/9903/24/us.kosovo.military/index.html CNN - B-2 stealth bombers make combat debut - March 24, 1999]
*[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/b-2.htm FAS - B-2 Spirit - United States Nuclear Forces ]
*[http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=82 Air Force Link - Fact Sheet : B-2 Spirit]
==External links==
* [http://www.whiteman.af.mil Home of America´s Bomber - The B-2 Spirit of Whiteman Air Force Base]
* [http://www.is.northropgrumman.com/products/usaf_products/b2/b2.html B-2 Spirit - Northrop Grumman]
* [http://pogo.org/m/dp/dp-2003-B2.pdf Pentagon Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report]
== Related content ==
{{Commons|B-2 Spirit}}
{{aircontent|
|sequence=
* [[B-1 Lancer|B-1]] - '''B-2'''
<!-- From which older designs was this plane developed, and what planes did it lead to? -->
|related=
* [[Northrop YB-49]]
|similar aircraft=
<!-- aircraft with similar role, era, and capability -->
* [[F-117 Nighthawk]]
|lists=
<!-- lists of similar aircraft (aircraft from the same nation, with the same mission profile, etc.) -->
* [[List of bomber |
depart from this general pattern in a more fundamental way. For example, the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventist]]s meet on Saturday (the biblical [[Sabbath]]); not Sunday, the day of Christ's [[resurrection]]. [[Charismatic]] or [[Pentecostal]] congregations may be spontaneously moved by the Holy Spirit, rather than follow a formal order of service. At a Quaker meeting, participants sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak.
In some denominations (mainly liturgical ones), the service is led by a [[priest]]. In others (mainly among Protestants), there is a [[minister of religion|minister]], [[preacher]], or [[pastor]]. Still others may lack formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. In addition, there are "high" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "low" services at which a more casual atmosphere prevails, even if the service in question is liturgical in nature.
In Orthodox churches, the congregation traditionally stands throughout the liturgy (although allowances are made for human weakness). Roman Catholics and many Protestant churches follow a custom in which participants stand to sing, kneel to pray, and sit to listen (to the sermon). Others services are less programmed, and may be quite lively and spontaneous. Music is usually incorporated, and often involves a [[choir]] and/or [[organ (music) | organ]]. Some churches use only [[a cappella]] music, either on principle (many [[Churches of Christ]] object to the use of musical instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).
In many [[non-denominational]] Christian churches, as well as some Protestant denominations, there is usually a [[worship music]] portion of the service that precedes the sermon or message. This usually consists of the singing of [[hymns]], [[praise and worship music]] or [[psalms]]. Many churches believe that worship is important to usher in the Presence of God for the rest of the service.
A recent trend is the growth of "convergence worship" which combines liturgy with spontaneity. This sort of worship is often a result of the influence of [[Charismatic|charismatic renewal]] within Churches which are traditionally liturgical. Convergence worship has spawned at least one new denomination, the [[Charismatic Episcopal Church]].
===Holidays===
Catholics, Eastern Christians, and about half of the Protestants follow a [[liturgical calendar]] with various holidays (from "holy day"). These calendars include feast days (where special worship services are held, to mark a special anniversary) as well as days of [[fasting]]. Typically, a feast will be found preceded by a traditional fast. The best-known fasting period is [[Lent]].
Even Christians who do not follow a liturgical tradition can generally be found celebrating [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]], despite some disagreement as to dates. A few churches object to the recognition of special holidays and may object to the pagan origins of Christmas and Easter.
===Symbols===
The best-known Christian symbol is the [[cross]], of which many varieties exist. For convenience of recognition, several denominations tend to favor distinctive crosses: the [[crucifix]] for Catholics, the [[crux orthodoxa]] for Orthodox, and the unadorned cross for Protestants. However, this is not a hard-and-fast rule. Other Christian symbols include the [[ichthys]] ("fish") symbol, or in ancient times, an [[anchor]].
==History and Origins==
{{main|History of Christianity}}
{{seealso|Timeline of Christianity}}
Christianity began within the Jewish religion among the followers of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]]. Under the leadership of the Apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], it opened up early to [[Gentiles]], gradually distinguishing itself from and parting ways with [[Judaism|Rabbinical Judaism]]. Some Jewish Christians rejected this approach and developed into various sects of their own. Among Gentile Christians, separated by geography, a great diversity existed, but a church hierarchy seems to have developed, at least by the time of the writing of the [[Pastoral Epistles]], and was certainly formalized by the 3rd century.
Christianity spread across the [[Mediterranean Basin]], enduring persecution by Roman Emperors. As Christianity expanded beyond Palestine, it also came into contact with Greek philosophy, which would become a significant influence on Christian thought. Early Christian theologians such as [[Origen]] worked to create a synthesis between Greek philosophy, especially [[Platonism]], and Christianity, developing a distinctively Christian theology. Christian teachers sought to distinguish their faith from other religious beliefs of the day, notably [[Gnosticism]] (some sects of which were strongly influenced by Christian ideas) and [[Mithraism]]. Various elements of the contemporary pagan religion, particularly the [[mystery cults]], may have been absorbed into Christianity, although scholars differ as to the level of influence thus exerted.
Early in the 4th century, the Emperor [[Constantine the Great]] legalized Christianity. [[Theodosius I]] established it as the official religion of the [[Roman Empire]] near the end of the century. From that time onwards, the history of Christianity is difficult to extricate from the cultural and political history of Europe and surrounding regions, as the Church took on some of the political and cultural unifying role previously held by the Roman pagan institutions. The Roman Empire, having become Christian, now suppressed both the old [[Paganism|pagan cults]] and those forms of Christianity which the Church had condemned as [[heresy|heretical]]. After the religion's legalization, doctrinal disputes, especially regarding [[Christology]], intensified, leading to internal strife and the attempt to reach clearer dogmatic definitions through [[Ecumenical council|ecumenical councils]]. Various forms of [[monasticism]] also developed, beginning in the early fourth century.
The Christian Church of the Roman Empire was broadly divided into the Latin-speaking West, centred on [[Rome]], and the Greek-speaking East, centred on [[Constantinople]], with significant communities also in [[Coptic Christianity|Egypt]] and [[Syriac Christianity|Syria]]. Outside the borders of the Empire, Christianity was adopted in a number of realms such as [[Armenia]] and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopia]], and also spread to [[Christians in Iran|Persia]] and [[Saint Thomas Christians|India]], and among [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic]] tribes. During the [[Migration Period]], various Germanic peoples adopted Christianity; at first the [[Arianism|Arian]] creed was widespread (as among [[Goths]] and [[Vandals]]), but later Catholic Christianity prevailed, beginning with the [[Franks]]. The Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe generally adopted the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] form of Christianity (e.g. [[Baptism of Kievan Rus'|Russia]] in [[988]]). Cultural differences and disciplinary disputes divided the Eastern and Western parts of the Christian Roman Empire and resulted in the [[Great Schism]] (conventionally dated to [[1054]]), which effectively divided Christendom into the Catholic West and the Orthodox East.
From the 7th century, Christianity was challenged by [[Islam]], which quickly conquered the Middle East and Northern Africa. Numerous military struggles followed, including the [[Crusades]], the Spanish [[Reconquista]] and the eventual [[Fall of Constantinople|conquest of the Byzantine Empire]] and south-eastern Europe by the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]].
Western Christianity in the [[Middle Ages]] was characterized by cooperation and conflict between the secular rulers and the Church under the [[Pope]] and the development of [[Scholasticism|scholastic theology and philosophy]]. Later, increasing discontentment with corruption and immorality among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform Church and society. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] managed to [[Counter-Reformation|renew itself]] at the [[Council of Trent]] ([[1545]]-[[1563]], but only after the [[95 theses]] was published in [[1517]] by [[Martin Luther]]. This was one of the key events of the [[Protestant Reformation]] which was to result in the emergence of numerous [[Christian denominations|denominations]]. During the following centuries, the competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with the struggle among European states for political dominance, while many of the Orthodox Churches found themselves under non-Christian rulers. Partly as a result of missionary zeal, but also under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity in its various forms spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. As the European [[Enlightenment]] took hold, Christianity was also confronted with the discoveries of science (including the [[heliocentric]] model and the theory of [[evolution]]), and with the development of [[biblical criticism]] and modern political ideologies such as [[Liberalism]], [[Nationalism]] and [[Socialism]].
In the 19th and 20th centuries, important developments have included the rise of [[Christian ecumenism|Ecumenism]], the [[Charismatic Movement]], and [[Fundamentalist Christianity]].
For the contributions of Christianity to the humanities and world culture, see [[Christian philosophy]], [[Christian art]], [[Christian literature]], [[Christian music]], [[Christian architecture]].
==Persecution==
:''Main articles: [[Persecution of Christians]], [[Historical persecution by Christians]]''
Christians have frequently suffered from persecution. During the first three centuries of its existence, Christianity was regarded with suspicion and frequently persecuted in the [[Roman Empire]]. Adherence to Christianity was declared illegal and, especially in the 3rd century, the government demande |
the east. Lochias (the modern Pharillon) has almost entirely disappeared into the sea, together with the palaces, the "Private Port" and the island of Antirrhodus. There has been a land subsidence here, as throughout the northeast coast of Africa.
#The Great Theatre, on the modern Hospital Hill near the Ramleh station. This was used by Caesar as a fortress, where he stood a siege from the city mob after the [[battle of Pharsalus]]
#The [[Poseideion]], or [[Temple (Greek)|Temple]] of the [[Poseidon|Sea God]], close to the [[Theatre]]
#The Timonium built by [[Mark Antony]]
#The Emporium (Exchange)
#The Apostases (Magazines)
#The Navalia (Docks), lying west of the Timonium, along the sea-front as far as the mole
#Behind the Emporium rose the Great Caesareum, by which stood the two great [[obelisk]]s, each later known as "[[Cleopatra's Needle]]," and now removed to [[New York City]] and [[London]]. This temple became in time the Patriarchal Church, some remains of which have been discovered; but the actual Caesareum, so far as not eroded by the waves, lies under the houses lining the new sea-wall.
#The [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|Gymnasium]] and the [[Palaestra]] are both inland, near the Boulevard de Rosette in the eastern half of the town; sites unknown.
#The Temple of [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]]; site unknown.
#The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of the two main streets
#The [[Musaeum]] with its famous [[Library of Alexandria|Library]] and theatre in the same region; site unknown.
#The [[Serapeum]], the most famous of all Alexandrian temples. Strabo tells us that this stood in the west of the city; and recent discoveries go far to place it near "Pompey's Pillar" which, however, was an independent monument erected to commemorate [[Diocletian]]'s siege of the city.
The names of a few other public buildings on the mainland are known, but there is no information as to their position. None, however, are as famous as the building that stood on the eastern point of Pharos island. There, [[Lighthouse of Alexandria|The Great Lighthouse]], one of The [[Seven Wonders of the World]], reputed to be 138 meters (450 feet) high, was constructed. The first [[Ptolemy]] began it, and the second completed it, at a total cost of 800 [[talent (weight)|talent]]s. It took 12 years to complete and served as a [[prototype]] for all later [[lighthouse]]s in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top. It was built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. The Pharos lighthouse was unfortunately destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century, making it the second longest living ancient wonder next to The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]].
A temple of [[Hephaestus]] also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole. In the [[Augustus|Augustan]] age the population of Alexandria was estimated at 300,000 free citizens, in addition to an immense number of women, freedmen, children and slaves. The total population has been estimated to range from 500,000 to over 1,000,000 people.
==Ancient remains==
[[Image:Egypt.Alexandria.PompeysPillar.01.jpg|thumb|150px|"Pompey's Pillar"]]
[[Image:DSC00293.JPG|thumb|260px|Qaitbay's Citadel, built in 1477 AD]]
Very little of the ancient city has survived into the present day. Much of the royal and civic quarter has sunk beneath the harbour due to [[earthquake]] subsidence, and much of the rest has been built upon in modern times. "[[Pompey]]'s Pillar" is the most well-known ancient monument still standing. It is located on Alexandria's ancient [[acropolis]] &mdash; a modest hill located adjacent to the city's Arab [[cemetery]] &mdash; and was originally part of a temple colonnade. Including its [[pedestal]] it is 30m (99 feet) high; the shaft is of polished red granite, roughly three meters in diameter at the base, tapering to two and a half meters at the top. The structure was plundered and demolished in the fourth century when a bishop decreed that paganism must be eradicated. "Pompey's Pillar" is a misnomer perpetuated by the Crusaders, as it has nothing to do with Pompey, having been erected in [[293|AD 293]] for [[Diocletian]]. Beneath the acropolis itself are the subterranean remains of the Serapeum, where the mysteries of the god [[Serapis]] were enacted, and whose carved wall niches are believed to have provided overflow storage space for the ancient Library.
Alexandria's [[catacomb]]s, known as "Kom al Sukkfa" are a short distance southwest of the pillar, consist of a multi-level labyrinth, reached via a large spiral staircase, and featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues, and other [[syncretism|syncretic]] Romano-Egyptian religious symbols, burial niches and [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]], as well as a large Roman-style banquet room, where memorial meals were conducted by relatives of the deceased.
The most extensive ancient excavation currently being conducted in Alexandria is known as "Kom al Dikka", and it has revealed the ancient city's well-preserved theatre, and the remains of its Roman-era baths.
==Antiquities==
Persistent efforts have been made to explore the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have been given by the local [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] Society, and by many individuals, notably Greeks justly proud of a city which is one of the glories of their national history.
The past and present directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time to carry out systematic excavations when opportunity offered; [[D. G. Hogarth]] made tentative researches on behalf of the [[Egypt Exploration Fund]] and the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies in [[1895]]; and a German expedition worked for two years ([[1898]]&ndash;[[1899]]). But two difficulties face the would-be excavator in Alexandria.
[[Image:Caesarion BBC.jpg|left|thumb|Caesarion]] First, since the great and growing modern city stands right over the ancient one, it is almost impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except at enormous cost. Second, the general subsidence of the coast has sunk the lower-lying parts of the ancient town under water. (This underwater section, containing much of the most interesting sections of the Hellenistic city, including the palace-quarter, is still being extensively investigated by the French underwater archaeologist [http://www.franckgoddio.org Franck Goddio] and his [[underwater archaeology|team]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/203470.stm] and [http://newssearch.bbc.co.uk/cgi-bin/search/results.pl?q=Alexandria+underwater&scope=newsukfs&tab=news]. It raised a noted head of [[Ptolemy XV Caesarion|Caesarion]], left. These are even being opened up to tourists, to some controversy [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/940333.stm].)
Unfortunately the spaces still most open are the low grounds to northeast and southwest, where it is practically impossible to get below the Roman strata.
The most important results were those achieved by Dr G Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighbourhood of "Pompey's Pillar," where there is a good deal of open ground. Here substructures of a large building or group of buildings have been exposed, which are perhaps part of the Serapeum. Hard by immense [[catacomb]]s and ''columbaria'' have been opened which may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now lighted by electricity and shown to visitors.
The objects found in these researches are in the museum, the most notable being a great basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum. Other catacombs and tombs have been opened in Kore es-Shugafa Hadra (Roman) and Ras et-Tin (painted).
The Germans found remains of a Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east of the city, but little else. Hogarth explored part of an immense brick structure under the mound of Kom ed-Dik, which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea or a Roman fortress.
The making of the new foreshore led to the dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some objects of antiquity being discovered. The wealth underground is doubtless immense; but, despite all efforts, there is not much for antiquarians to see in Alexandria outside the museum and the neighbourhood of "Pompey's Pillar." The native tomb-robbers, well-sinkers, dredgers and the like, however, come upon valuable objects from time to time, which find their way into private collections.
==See also==
{{commons|Alexandria|Alexandria}}
* [[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Egypt]]
[[Category:Cities in Egypt]]
[[ar:الإسكندرية]]
[[bg:Александрия (Египет)]]
[[bs:Aleksandrija]]
[[ca:Alexandria]]
[[cs:Alexandrie]]
[[da:Alexandria]]
[[de:Alexandria]]
[[es:Alejandría]]
[[eo:Aleksandrio]]
[[eu:Alexandria]]
[[fa:اسکندریه]]
[[fr:Alexandrie]]
[[gl:Alexandría - الإسكندرية]]
[[id:Iskandariyah]]
[[is:Alexandría (Egyptalandi)]]
[[it:Alessandria d'Egitto]]
[[he:אלכסנדריה]]
[[la:Alexandria Magna]]
[[lt:Aleksandrija]]
[[hu:Alexandria]]
[[nl:Alexandrië]]
[[ja:アレクサンドリア]]
[[ka:ალექსანდრია (ეგვიპტე)]]
[[no:Alexandria]]
[[nn:Alexandria]]
[[pl:Aleksandria]]
[[pt:Alexandria]]
[[ro:Alexandria, Egipt]]
[[ru:Александрия]]
[[simple:Alexandria]]
[[sl:Aleksandrija]]
[[sr:Александрија]]
[[fi:Aleksandria]]
[[sv:Alexandria]]
[[tr:İskenderiye]]
[[uk:Александрія]]
[[zh:亞歷山大港]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Alexandria, Rumania</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alexandria, |
ee also==
* [[The Tales of Beatrix Potter]]
==External links==
*[http://www.peterrabbit.com/beatrixpotter/ Biography] at [http://www.peterrabbit.com/ PeterRabbit.com]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Beatrix+Potter | name=Beatrix Potter}}
*[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?amode=start&author=Potter%2c%20Beatrix a list of online e-texts]
*[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/about/news/newsarticle.asp?id=424 Beatrix Potter's Garden at Liverpool Museum]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/kids.htm Kids' Corner: Featuring the Stories of Beatrix Potter]
* [http://wiredforbooks.org/judytaylor/ Audio interview with Judy Taylor, biographer of Beatrix Potter. Interview by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
<!--categories-->
[[Category:1866 births|Potter, Beatrix]]
[[Category:1943 deaths|Potter, Beatrix]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Potter, Beatrix]]
[[Category:British children's writers|Potter, Beatrix]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Potter, Beatrix]]
[[Category:Fabulists|Potter, Beatrix]]
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[[de:Beatrix Potter]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Liberal Party (UK)</title>
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<comment>*[[List of Liberal Party (UK) MPs]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the historic Liberal Party. For the new Liberal Party formed by those opposing the 1988 merger with the SDP, see [[Liberal Party (UK, 1989)]].''
The '''Liberal Party''' was one of the two major British political parties from the early 19th century until the 1920s, and a third party of varying strength and importance up to [[1988]], when it merged with the [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]] (the SDP) to form a new party which would become known as the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]].
==Origins==
[[Image:palmerston.jpg|thumb|right|Viscount Palmerston]]
The Liberal Party grew out of the [[British Whig Party|Whigs]], which had their origins as an aristocratic faction in the reign of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. The Whigs were in favour of reducing the power of the Crown and increasing the power of the Parliament, and although their motives in this were originally to gain more power for themselves, the more idealistic Whigs gradually came to support an expansion of [[democracy]] for its own sake. The great figures of reforming Whiggery were [[Charles James Fox]] (died [[1806]]) and his disciple and successor [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey|Earl Grey]]. After decades in opposition the Whigs came to power under Grey in [[1830]], and carried the [[Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]] in [[1832]].
The Reform Act was the climax of Whiggery, but also brought about the Whigs' demise. The admission of the middle classes to the franchise and to the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] led eventually to the development of a systematic middle class liberalism and the end of Whiggery, although for many years reforming aristocrats held senior positions in the party. In the years after Grey's retirement the party was led first by [[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|Lord Melbourne]], a fairly traditional Whig, and then by [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|Lord John Russell]], the son of a Duke but a crusading radical, and [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]], a renegade Irish [[Tory]] and essentially a conservative, although capable of radical gestures.
As early as [[1839]] Russell had adopted the name Liberal Party, but in reality the party was a loose coalition of Whigs in the [[House of Lords]] and [[Radicals (UK)|Radicals]] in the Commons. The leading Radicals were [[John Bright]] and [[Richard Cobden]], who represented the manufacturing towns which had gained representation under the Reform Act. They favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the [[Church of England]] (many of them were [[Nonconformism|Nonconformists]]), avoidance of war and foreign alliances (which were bad for business), and above all [[free trade]]. For a century free trade was the one cause which could unite all Liberals.
In [[1841]] the Liberals lost office to the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] under Sir [[Robert Peel]], but their period in opposition was short, because the Conservatives split over the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]], a free trade issue, and a faction known as the [[Peelite]]s (but not Peel himself, who died soon after), defected to the Liberal side. This allowed ministries led by Russell, Palmerston and the Peelite [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Lord Aberdeen]] to hold office for most of the [[1850s]] and [[1860s]]. The leading Peelite was [[William Ewart Gladstone]], who was a zealous reforming [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] in most of these governments. The formal foundation of the Liberal party is traditionally traced to [[1859]] and the formation of Palmerston's second government.
The Whig-Radical amalgam could not become a true modern political party, however, while it was dominated by aristocrats, and it was not until the departure of the "Two Terrible Old Men", Russell and Palmerston, that Gladstone could become the first leader of the modern Liberal Party. This was brought about by Palmerston's death in [[1865]] and Russell's retirement in [[1868]]. After a brief Conservative interlude (during which the [[Reform Act of 1867|Second Reform Act]] was passed by agreement between the parties), Gladstone won a huge victory at the [[1868]] election and formed the first Liberal government. New constituencies with new MPs entered Westminster, such as [[Charles Reed]] the first MP for Hackney. The establishment of the party as a national membership organisation came with the foundation of the [[National Liberal Federation]] in [[1877]].
==The Gladstonian era==
[[Image:ac.gladstone2.jpg|thumb|right|William Gladstone]]
For the next thirty years Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous. The "Grand Old Man", as he became known, was Prime Minister four times and the powerful flow of his rhetoric dominated British politics even when he was out of office. His rivalry with the Conservative leader [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield|Benjamin Disraeli]] became legendary. Gladstone was a [[High Church]] Anglican and enjoyed the company of aristocrats, but he grew more and more radical as he grew older: he was, as one wit put it, "a Tory in all but essentials". [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], who had grown up as a Whig under the tutelage of Melbourne, became a Tory in reaction against Gladstone's moralising Liberalism.
Gladstone's great achievements in office were his reforms to education, land reform (particularly in [[Ireland]], where he ended centuries of landlord oppression), the [[disestablishment]] of the (Anglican) [[Church of Ireland]], the introduction of democratic local government, the abolition of patronage in the civil service and the army, and the [[Representation of the People Act 1884|Third Reform Act]] which greatly extended democracy by giving the vote to almost all adult males. In foreign policy Gladstone was an anti-imperialist and an avoider of foreign entanglements, but even he found it hard to resist the imperialist ideology of Victorian Britain.
In [[1874]] Gladstone was defeated by the Tories under Disraeli, mainly because of a sharp [[recession]]. He formally resigned as Liberal leader and was succeeded by [[Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire|the Marquess of Hartington]], but he soon changed his mind and returned to active politics. He was appalled by Disraeli's pro-[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] foreign policy and during [[1880]] he conducted the first modern outdoor mass election campaign in Britain, known as the [[Midlothian campaign]]. In [[1880]] the Liberals won a huge election victory, and Hartington had no choice but to stand aside and allow Gladstone to resume office.
Among the consequences of the Third Reform Act was giving the vote to the Catholic peasant masses of Ireland, and the consequent creation of an [[Irish Nationalist Party]] led by [[Charles Stewart Parnell]]. In [[1885]] this party won the balance of power in the House of Commons, and demanded [[Irish Home Rule]] (that is, the status of a self-governing [[Dominion]] for Ireland) as the price of support for a continued Gladstone ministry. Gladstone personally supported Home Rule, but a strong [[Liberal Unionist]] faction led by [[Joseph Chamberlain]] and the last of the Whig grandees, Hartington, bitterly opposed it.
The result was a catastrophic split in the Liberal Party, and heavy defeat in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1886|1886 election]] at the hands of [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]]. There was a final weak Gladstone ministry in [[1892]], but it also was dependent on Irish support and broke up on the rocks of Irish Home Rule. Gladstone finally retired in [[1894]], and his ineffectual successor, [[Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery|Lord Rosebery]], led the party to another heavy defeat in [[1895]]. Gladstone had dominated the Liberal Party for so long that it was lost without him.
==The Liberal Zenith==
[[Image:HerbertHenryAsquithSmall.jpeg|thumb|right|Herbert Henry Asquith]]
The Liberals languished in opposition for a decade, while the coalition of Salisbury and Chamberlain held power and presided over the high noon of British imperialism. In [[1900]], led by [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]], they bravely opposed British policy in the [[Second Boer War]], handing Sa |
[pt:Francesco Algarotti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francisco Álvares</title>
<id>11016</id>
<revision>
<id>40878384</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T16:46:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene Nygaard</username>
<id>146986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>indexing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Francisco Álvares''' (c.[[1460s|1465]] - c.[[1540s|1540]]) was a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[missionary]] and [[exploration|explorer]].
Born in [[Coimbra, Portugal]], as an adult he was a chaplain-priest and almoner to King [[Manuel I of Portugal]]. He was sent in [[1515]] as part of an embassy to the ''[[Emperor of Ethiopia|negus negust]]'' of [[Ethiopia]], accompanied by the Ethiopian ambassador Mattheus. Their first attempt to reach the port of [[Massawa]] failed due to the actions of [[Soares de Albergaria]], governor of Portuguese India, which got no closer than the [[Dahlak Archipelago]] and led to the death of the Portuguese ambassador [[Duarte Galvão]] at [[Kamaran]]. Álvares and Mattheus were forced to wait until the arrival of Soares' replacement, [[Diogo Lopes de Sequeira]], who successfully sent the embassy on, with Dom [[Rodrigo de Lima]] replacing Duarte Galvão. The party at last reached Massawa on [[April 9]], [[1520]], and reached the court of [[Lebna Dengel]] where he befriended several Europeans who had gained the favor of the Emperor, which included [[Pêro da Covilhã]] and [[Brancaleon|Nicolao Branceleon]]. Father Álvares remained six years in Ethiopia, returning to [[Lisbon]] in either [[1526]] or [[1527]].
In [[1533]] he was allowed to accompany Dom [[Martinho de Portugal]] to [[Rome]] on an embassy to [[Pope Clement VII]], to whom´Father Álvares delivered the letter Lebna Dengel had written to the Pope. The precise date of Francisco Álvares death, like that of his birth, is unknown, but the writer of the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] article concludes it was later than [[1540]], in which year an account of his travels were published at Lisbon. In the introduction of their translation of Alvarez's work, C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford furnish evidence that points to Álvares's death in [[Rome]], and admit that he may have died before his work was published.
== Álvares's writings ==
In 1540, [[Luís Rodrigues]] published a version of Alvarez's account in a one volume folio, entitled ''Verdadeira Informação das Terras do Preste João das Indias'' ("A True Relation of the Lands of [[Prester John]] of the Indies"). C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford cite evidence, based in part on the earlier work of Professor [[Roberto Almagia]], showing that Rodrigues's publication is only a part of Álvares's entire account. Another version of what Álvares wrote was included in an anthology of travel narratives, ''Navigationi et Viaggi'' assembled and published by [[Giovanni Battista Ramusio]], and published in [[1550]]. Almagia also identified three manuscripts in the [[Vatican Library]] which contain versions of excerpts from the original manuscript.
Francisco Álvares work has been translated into English at least twice. The first time was the work of the ninth Baron Stanley of Alderley for the [[Hakluyt Society]] in 1881. This translation was revised and augmented with notes by C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford, ''The Prester John of the Indies'' (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1961).
The author of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article was critical of the information it contained, believing it should "be received with caution, as the author is prone to exaggerate, and does not confine himself to what came within his own observation." However, Beckingham and Huntingford have a much higher opinion of Álvares's testimony, stating that not only is it "incomparably more detailed than any earlier account of Ethiopia that has survived; it is also a very important source for Ethiopian history, for it was written just before the country was devastated by the [[Ahmed Gragn|Moslem Somali]] and pagan [[Oromo|Galla]] invasions of the second quarter of the sixteenth century." He provides the first recorded and detailed descriptions of [[Axum]] and [[Lalibela]]. They continue:
He is sometimes wrong, but very rarely silly or incredible. He made a few mistakes; he may well have made others that we cannot detect because he is our sole authority; when he tried to describe buildings his command of language was usually inadequate; he is often confused and obscure, though this may be as much his printer's fault as his own; his prose is frequently difficult to read and painful to translate; but he seems to us to be free from the dishonesty of the traveller who tries to exaggerate his own knowledge, importance, or courage.<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
== Notes ==
# C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford, ''Prester John'', p.13
[[Category:1465 births|Alvares, Francisco]]
[[Category:1541 deaths|Alvares, Francisco]]
[[Category:Portuguese missionaries|Alvares, Francisco]]
[[Category:Portuguese explorers|Alvares, Francisco]]
[[Category:History of Ethiopia|Alvares, Francisco]]
[[de:Francisco Álvares]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francesco Andreini</title>
<id>11017</id>
<revision>
<id>36177350</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T04:35:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sagitario</username>
<id>144957</id>
</contributor>
<comment>correct stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Francesco Andreini''' (ca [[1548]]-[[1624]]), [[Italy|Italian]] [[actor]], was born at [[Pistoia]]. He was a member of the company of the Gelosi which [[Henry IV of France]] summoned to [[Paris]] to his bride, the young queen [[Marie de Medici]].
Both his wife, [[Isabella Andreini]], and their son, [[Giambattista Andreini]], were also distinguished in [[the]] arts.
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{italy-actor-stub}}
[[Category:Italian actors|Andreini, Francesco]]
[[Category:1548 births|Andreini, Francesco]]
[[Category:1624 deaths|Andreini, Francesco]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fifth Monarchists</title>
<id>11018</id>
<revision>
<id>40133222</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T10:51:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.109.252.129</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The English Commonwealth */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fifth Monarchists''' or '''Fifth Monarchy Men''' were active from [[1649]] to [[1661]] during the [[Interregnum (England)|Interregnum]], following the [[English Civil War|English Civil Wars]] of the [[1600s]]. They took their name from a belief in a world ruling kingdom to be established by a returning [[Jesus]] in which the year [[1666]] and its numerical relationship to a passage in the [[Biblical]] [[Book of Revelation]] indicating the end of earthly rule by carnal human beings.
==Overview==
[[1649]] was a year of great social unrest in England. The Parliamentary victors of the [[English Civil War#The Forth English Civil War|First English Civil War]] failed to negotiate a constitutional settlement with the defeated King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]. Members of Parliament and the [[Grandee]]s in the [[New Model Army]], when faced with Charles's perceived duplicity, reluctantly [[regicide|tried and executed]] him.
Government through the King's [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] was replaced with a new body called the [[English Council of State|Council of State]]. Due to fundamental disagreements within a weakened Parliament, this new body was dominated by the Army. There was a considerable political ferment in the country, much of it religiously conditioned, and no lack of proposals for alternative forms of government to replace the old order. These ranged from Royalists who wished to place King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] on the throne, to men like [[Oliver Cromwell]], who wished to govern with a Parliament voted in by an electorate determined by property ownership, similar to that enfranchised before the civil war, to the [[Levellers]], influenced by the writings of [[John Lilburne]], who wanted parliamentary government based on an electorate constituted of every male head of household, through to other groups with smaller followings like the ''Fifth Monarchists'', [[Diggers (True Levellers)|Diggers]], the [[Ranters]], and the [[Religious Society of Friends|Society of Friends]] or Quakers.
These were not political parties as that term is understood today, but groups clustered around one or more beliefs, some of the believers attaching themselves to more than one group. Although the pre-war establishment had been split by the Civil War, both of the opposing main factions regarded all radical groups as agitators for change, and they are described as such in the ''Historical Collections'' of [[John Rushworth]] that document events of the early period, and by the ''Journals of the House of Commons'' which cover the period of the Republic itself.
The ''Fifth Monarchists'' were a group of believers in a geopolitical theory which maintained that four other world rulers had already come and gone according to the prophecies of the biblical [[Book of Daniel]] (2: 44). This text recounts a prophetic dream by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]], in which the previous empires had been [[Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]]; [[Persian Empire|Persian]]; [[Greece|Grecian]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]], The last empire, they concluded, would be established by the returning Jesus as King of kings and Lord of lords to reign with his saints on earth for a thousand years. The ''Fifth Monarchists'' saw themselves as those saints of that soon to be dawning [[Millennialism|millennium]]. Among prominent Fifth Monarchists were [[Thomas Harrison]], [[Christopher Feake]], [[Vavasor Powell]], [[John Carew (regicide)|John Carew |
i]], a renovation of the science building, and the Joe Rosenfield Center (scheduled for completion in 2006).
==Academics==
Grinnell is one of the few colleges in the United States with an "open curriculum," meaning that students are free from general requirements, with the exception of a writing-intensive "tutorial" during their first year. Grinnell offers academic programs through twenty-six major departments and ten interdisciplinary concentrations. Popular majors include Biology, History, English, Political Science, and Economics.
An unusually high proportion of graduates go on to earn Ph.D.'s and Grinnell students have won numerous national awards including [[Rhodes Scholarships]], [[Watson Fellowships]], and [[Fulbright Scholarships]]. Recent data place Grinnell at No. 10 of all U.S. institutions for the proportion of graduates who go on to earn Ph.D. degrees and No. 15 for graduating female Ph.D. earners.
Grinnell has been ranked in the top twenty liberal arts colleges by [[U.S. News & World Report]] ever since the publication has ranked colleges; in [[2005]], Grinnell was ranked fifteenth. Also, Grinnell is one of twenty-five liberal arts colleges that ''U.S. News'' has labeled "Most Selective." [[The Wall Street Journal]] included Grinnell in their [[2003]] list of the "Top 50 Feeder Schools," which recognizes the fifty American undergraduate institutions that send the highest proportion of their alumni to the top business schools, law schools, and medical schools in the United States.
Nearly 100 percent of Grinnellians who apply to either law or medical school gain admission.{{citeneeded}}
Over half of the student body at Grinnell studies abroad for a semester at some point. Grinnell has a campus in [[London]], Grinnell-in-London, as well as Grinnell-in-Washington D.C.
==Tuition==
Grinnell's combined tuition, room, board, and fees for Fall 2005 - Spring 2006 totalled $34,814. Tuition and fees alone were $27,504.
==Athletics==
[[Image:Grinnell_College_FB.png|right|thumb|240px|Grinnell College Football ]]
[[Image:Honor_'G'.gif|thumb|left|Grinnell Athletics "Honor G"]]
The school's varsity sports teams are known as the Pioneers. They participate in eighteen intercollegiate sports at the [[NCAA]] Division III level and in the [[Midwest Conference]]. In addition, Grinnell has several club sports teams that compete in non-varsity sports such as [[waterpolo]], [[Ultimate (sport)|Ultimate]] and [[Rugby_football|rugby]]. The waterpolo team, the Wild Turkeys, plays in the Heartland division of CWPA and goes to nationals almost every year.
In February 2004, Grinnell became one of the first Division III schools to broadcast a non-championship basketball game on national television when it faced off against the [[Beloit]] Buccaneers on ESPN 2, in which Grinnell lost 86 to 85. There has been much speculation as to why ESPN 2 would come to such a small liberal arts college; however, the official reason is due to Grinnell's unique style of playing basketball, known simply as "The System."
In a fashion much like an [[ice hockey]] match, "The System" incorporates constant full-court press, continual running, hard rebounding, near constant three-point shots and repeated substitutions of entire squads. "The System" has received criticism as "bastardizing" the game and not teaching the principles of defense or the short shot. However, under "The System," Grinnell has won numerous championships over the last 5 years, as well as broken numerous NCAA individual and team scoring records.
==Social Activities and Organizations==
The [[Scarlet and Black]] is the campus newspaper and [http://kdic.grinnell.edu KDIC] broadcasts college radio.
Service organizations are popular. The Alternative Break ("AltBreak") program takes students to pursue service initiatives during school holidays and Grinnell produces more [[Peace Corps]] volunteers per capita than any other college in the nation. The college also runs its own post-graduation service program known as "Grinnell Corps" in [[China]], [[Namibia]], [[Lesotho]], [[Greece]], and [[Nepal]].
There are also a number of student groups on campus. These include everything from video game clubs to a Family Guy appreciation group. In addition, there are a number of musical groups on campus, including the all-male a cappella group, the [[G-Tones]].
Social activities tend to be informal and centered around campus, but several major campus-wide events take place each year. 10/10 is a "campus-unity" themed party that takes place on October 10th and features an all-campus shot at midnight. "Mary B. James," named for a South Campus dormitory, is a popular cross-dressers' ball. There is an annual "Disco" celebration and two formal "waltzes" are held each year. Another significant party is "Block Party," in which the block on High Street directly south of campus is closed off on the last day of finals and a beer truck arrives at 11 am. Students proceed to take several beers to the face while sitting in the street playing drinking games.
Grinnell College is one of several liberal arts colleges that have an active campus-wide [[blogosphere]] community. The system used at Grinnell is an unofficial service known as [[GrinnellPlans]]. Membership is limited to students, faculty, and alumni.
== Myths and legends ==
Like most colleges, a large body of myths has accumulated over the years.
One of the most persistent was the notion that the Quad Dining Hall, with its high ceiling, dark wood paneled walls, and stained glass windows, was supposed to be a church. The legend claims that money was bequeathed to the college to build a chapel, but the college needed a dining hall, so it built something that could be used as either. The Legend of Quad (which was actually built to look like a dining hall at Oxford College) -- complete with details such as an annual carrying-in of pews for a church service -- was born.
In the early 80's the Campus had several meetings over the hiring of a football coach who actually wanted to win games, and also the restoration, after many, many years, of a female cheerleading squad. Grinnell students at the time wanted none of that.
Another story, apparently started in the late 80s, was that the football coach was fired after being denounced in the student newspaper "for winning too many games." The Scarlet and Black's editors were concerned about what they perceived as an over-emphasis on athletics compared to academics, but the coach in question was not actually fired.
Another myth involves the idea that there are three (and only three) things that will result in instant expulsion from the school irrelevant of any other factor. Exactly what the three things are varies somewhat -- the most commonly mentioned offenses are jumping a ride on a train passing through campus, entering the steam tunnels, and gaining access to the roof of an academic building.
==Prominent alumni==
* [[Benjamin Barber]], political theorist
* [[Nordahl Brue]], lawyer/entrepreneur, founder of [[Bruegger's Bagels]]
* [[Thomas R. Cech]], Nobel Laureate chemist, president of the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]]
* [[Amy Clampitt]], poet
* [[Tom Cole]], U.S. Congressman (2002-present)
* [[Mary Sue Coleman]], President of the University of Michigan
* [[Gary Cooper]], actor
* [[Peter Coyote]], actor
* [[Hallie Flanagan]], playwright, educator, and director of the [[Federal Theater Project]]
* [[John Garang]], former leader of the [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]] and former vice president of [[Sudan]]
* [[James Norman Hall]], author
* [[Herbie Hancock]], jazz musician and composer
* [[Edward Hirsch]], poet
* [[Harry Hopkins]], [[WPA]] administrator and architect of the [[New Deal]]
* [[William S. Kenyon]], politician, U.S. Senator (1911-1922)
* [[Walter Koenig]], actor
* [[George Moose]], diplomat
* [[Robert Noyce]], co-founder of [[Intel]], co-inventor of [[integrated circuit]]
* [[Clair Patterson]], geochemist and environmentalist
* [[Morgan Taylor]], Olympic track and field medalist
* [[Otha Wearin]], politician, U.S. Congressman (1933-1939)
* [[Joseph Welch]], attorney who represented the U.S. Army in [[Army-McCarthy Hearings]]
* [[Alan Wheat]], politician, U.S. Congressman (1983-1995)
==GrinnellPlans virtual community==
[[GrinnellPlans]] is a [[virtual community]] consisting of 2,840 members as of February 2006 ([http://www.grinnellplans.com/sandbox/wellons/ source]). Most members are current students or alumni, but faculty, staff members, and (by invitation) other friends of the College have also joined.
==External links==
*[http://www.grinnell.edu/ Grinnell College Homepage]
*[http://www.grinnellplans.com/ Grinnell Plans System]. Documentation at [http://docs.grinnellplans.com/]
*[http://www.grinnellgallery.com/ Grinnell Gallery]
*[http://groups.myspace.com/grinnellcollegestudents/ Grinnell College Student/Alumni MySpace Group]
*[http://www.livejournal.com/community/grinnellians/ Grinnell College Livejournal Community]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Iowa]]
[[Category:Liberal arts colleges]]
[[Category:Associated Colleges of the Midwest]]
[[bg:&#1043;&#1088;&#1080;&#1085;&#1077;&#1083;&#1089;&#1082;&#1080; &#1082;&#1086;&#1083;&#1077;&#1078;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Geoff Ryman/253</title>
<id>13106</id>
<revision>
<id>15910741</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-23T10:11:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>G</username>
<id>8338</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect from subpage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[253 (book)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gorbachev</title>
<id>131 |
slands|Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -
[[History of Australia|Australia]] -
[[History of Austria|Austria]] -
[[History of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]
==B==
[[History of the Bahamas|Bahamas]] -
[[History of Bahrain|Bahrain]] -
[[History of Baker Island|Baker Island]] -
[[History of Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] -
[[History of Barbados|Barbados]] -
[[History of Bassas da India|Bassas da India]] -
[[History of Belarus|Belarus]] -
[[History of Belgium|Belgium]] -
[[History of Belize|Belize]] -
[[History of Benin|Benin]] -
[[History of Bermuda|Bermuda]] -
[[History of Bhutan|Bhutan]] -
[[History of Bolivia|Bolivia]] -
[[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]] -
[[History of Botswana|Botswana]] -
[[History of Bouvet Island|Bouvet Island]] -
[[History of Brazil|Brazil]] -
[[History of the British Indian Ocean Territory|British Indian Ocean Territory]] -
[[History of the British Virgin Islands|British Virgin Islands]] -
[[History of Brunei|Brunei]] -
[[History of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] -
[[History of Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]] -
[[History of Myanmar|Burma (now Myanmar)]] -
[[History of Burundi|Burundi]]
==C==
[[History of Cambodia|Cambodia]] - [[History of Cameroon|Cameroon]] - [[History of Canada|Canada]] - [[History of Cape Verde|Cape Verde]] - [[History of the Cayman Islands|Cayman Islands]] -
[[History of the Central African Republic|Central African Republic]] -
[[History of Chad|Chad]] -
[[History of Chechnya|Chechnya]] -
[[History of Chile|Chile]] -
[[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] -
[[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]] ([[History of Taiwan|Taiwan]]) -
[[Christmas Island]] -
[[History of Clipperton Island|Clipperton Island]] -
[[History of the Cocos Islands|Cocos Islands]] - [[History of Colombia|Colombia]] -
[[History of Comoros|Comoros]] -
[[History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of the Congo]] -
[[History of the Republic of the Congo|Republic of the Congo]] -
[[History of the Cook Islands|Cook Islands]] -
[[History of the Coral Sea Islands|Coral Sea Islands]] -
[[History of Costa Rica|Costa Rica]] -
[[History of Côte d'Ivoire|Côte d'Ivoire]] -
[[History of Croatia|Croatia]] -
[[History of Cuba|Cuba]] -
[[History of Cyprus|Cyprus]] -
[[History of the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]]
==D==
[[History of Denmark|Denmark]] - [[History of Djibouti|Djibouti]] - [[History of Dominica|Dominica]] - [[History of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
==E==
[[History of East Timor|East Timor]] -
[[History of Ecuador|Ecuador]] -
[[History of Egypt|Egypt]] -
[[History of El Salvador|El Salvador]] -
[[History of Equatorial Guinea|Equatorial Guinea]] -
[[History of Eritrea|Eritrea]] -
[[History of Estonia|Estonia]] -
[[History of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] -
[[History of Europa Island|Europa Island]]
==F==
[[History of the Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]] -
[[History of the Faroe Islands|Faroe Islands]] -
[[History of Fiji|Fiji]] -
[[History of Finland|Finland]] -
[[History of France|France]] -
[[History of French Guiana|French Guiana]] -
[[History of French Polynesia|French Polynesia]] -
[[History of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands|French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]
==G==
[[History of Gabon|Gabon]] -
[[History of The Gambia|The Gambia]] -
[[History of the West Bank and Gaza Strip|Gaza Strip and West Bank]] -
[[History of Georgia (country)|Georgia]] -
[[History of Germany|Germany]] -
[[History of Ghana|Ghana]] -
[[History of Gibraltar|Gibraltar]] -
[[History of the Glorioso Islands|Glorioso Islands]] -
[[History of Greece|Greece]] -
[[History of Greenland|Greenland]] - [[History of Grenada|Grenada]] - [[History of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]] -
[[History of Guam|Guam]] -
[[History of Guatemala|Guatemala]] -
[[History of Guernsey|Guernsey]] -
[[History of Guinea|Guinea]] - [[History of Guinea-Bissau|Guinea-Bissau]] - [[History of Guyana|Guyana]]
==H==
[[History of Haiti|Haiti]] - [[History of the Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] - Holy See (''see'' [[History of the Vatican City|Vatican City]]) - [[History of Honduras|Honduras]] - [[History of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] -
[[History of Howland Island|Howland Island]] -
[[History of Hungary|Hungary]]
==I==
[[History of Iceland|Iceland]] - [[History of India|India]] - [[History of Indonesia|Indonesia]] - [[History of Iran|Iran]] - [[History of Iraq|Iraq]] - [[History of Ireland|Ireland]] - [[History of the Isle of Man|Isle of Man]] - [[History of Israel|Israel]] (''see also'' [[History of Palestine|Palestine]]) - [[History of Italy|Italy]]
==J==
[[History of Jamaica|Jamaica]] - [[History of Jan Mayen|Jan Mayen]] - [[History of Japan|Japan]] - [[History of Jarvis Island|Jarvis Island]] - [[History of Jersey|Jersey]] - [[History of Johnston Atoll|Johnston Atoll]] - [[History of Jordan|Jordan]] - [[History of Juan de Nova Island|Juan de Nova Island]]
==K==
[[History of Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]] - [[History of Kenya|Kenya]] - [[Kingman Reef]] - [[History of Kiribati|Kiribati]] - [[History of North Korea|Korea, North]] - [[History of South Korea|Korea, South]] - [[History of Kuwait|Kuwait]] - [[History of Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyzstan]]
==L==
[[History of Laos|Laos]] - [[History of Latvia|Latvia]] - [[History of Lebanon|Lebanon]] - [[History of Lesotho|Lesotho]] -
[[History of Liberia|Liberia]] -
[[History of Libya|Libya]] -
[[History of Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]] - [[History of Lithuania|Lithuania]] - [[History of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]]
==M==
[[History of Macau|Macau]] - [[History of the Republic of Macedonia|The Republic of Macedonia]] - [[History of Madagascar|Madagascar]] - [[History of Malawi|Malawi]] - [[History of Malaysia|Malaysia]] - [[History of the Maldives|Maldives]] - [[History of Mali|Mali]] - [[History of Malta|Malta]] - [[History of the Isle of Man|Isle of Man]] - [[History of the Marshall Islands|Marshall Islands]] - [[History of Martinique|Martinique]] - [[History of Mauritania|Mauritania]] - [[History of Mauritius|Mauritius]] - [[History of Mayotte|Mayotte]] - [[History of Mexico|Mexico]] - <font size=-1>Federated States of </font>[[History of the Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia]] - [[History of the Midway Islands|Midway Islands]] - [[History of Moldova|Moldova]] - [[History of Monaco|Monaco]] - [[History of Mongolia|Mongolia]] - [[History of Montserrat|Montserrat]] - [[History of Morocco|Morocco]] - [[History of Mozambique|Mozambique]] - [[History of Myanmar|Myanmar]]
==N==
[[History of Namibia|Namibia]] -
[[History of Nauru|Nauru]] -
[[History of Navassa Island|Navassa Island]] -
[[History of Nepal|Nepal]] - [[History of the Netherlands|Netherlands]] -
[[History of the Netherlands Antilles|Netherlands Antilles]] -
[[History of New Caledonia|New Caledonia]] -
[[History of New Zealand|New Zealand]] - [[History of Nicaragua|Nicaragua]] -
[[History of Niger|Niger]] -
[[History of Nigeria|Nigeria]] -
[[History of Niue|Niue]] -
[[History of Norfolk Island|Norfolk Island]] - [[History of North Korea|North Korea]] - [[History of the Northern Mariana Islands|Northern Mariana Islands]] - [[History of Norway|Norway]]
==O==
[[History of Oman|Oman]]
==P==
[[History of Pakistan|Pakistan]] - [[History of Palau|Palau]] - [[History of Palmyra Atoll|Palmyra Atoll]] - [[History of Panama|Panama]] - [[History of Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]] - [[History of the Paracel Islands|Paracel Islands]]- [[History of Paraguay|Paraguay]] - [[History of Peru|Peru]] - [[History of the Philippines|Philippines]]- [[History of the Pitcairn Islands|Pitcairn Islands]] - [[History of Poland|Poland]] - [[History of Portugal|Portugal]] - [[History of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
==Q==
[[History of Qatar|Qatar]]
==R==
[[History of Réunion|Réunion]] -
[[History of Romania|Romania]] -
[[History of Russia|Russia]] -
[[History of Rwanda|Rwanda]]
==S==
[[History of Saint Helena|Saint Helena]] - [[History of Saint Kitts and Nevis|Saint Kitts and Nevis]] - [[History of Saint Lucia|Saint Lucia]] - [[History of Saint Pierre and Miquelon|Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] - [[History of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] - [[History of Samoa|Samoa]] - [[History of San Marino|San Marino]] - [[History of São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé and Príncipe]] - [[History of Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]] - [[History of Senegal|Senegal]] - [[History of Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]] - [[History of Seychelles|Seychelles]] - [[History of Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]] - [[History of Singapore|Singapore]] - [[History of Slovakia|Slovakia]] - [[History of Slovenia|Slovenia]] - [[History of the Solomon Islands|Solomon Islands]] - [[History of Somalia|Somalia]] - [[History of South Africa|South Africa]] - [[History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] - [[History of South Korea|South Korea]] - [[History of Spain|Spain]] - [[History of the Spratly Islands|Spratly Islands]] - [[History of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] - [[History of Sudan|Sudan]] - [[History of Suriname|Suriname]] - [[History of Svalbard|Svalbard]] - [[History of Swaziland|Swaziland]] - [[History of Sweden|Sweden]] - [[History of Switzerland|Switzerland]] - [[History of Syria|Syria]]
==T==
Taiwan (See [[#C|Republic of China]])-
[[History of Tajikistan|Tajikistan]] -
[[History of Tanzania|Tanzania]] -
[[History of Tatarstan|Tatarstan]] -
[[History of Thailand|Thailand]] -
[[History of Tibet|Tibet]] -
[[History of Togo|Togo]] -
[[History of Tokelau|Tokelau]] -
[[History of Tonga|Tonga]] -
[[History of Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]] -
[[History of Tromelin Island|Tromelin Island]] -
[[History of Tunisia|Tunisia]] -
[[History of Turkey|Turkey]] -
[[History of Turkmenistan|Turkmenistan]] -
[[History of the Turks and Caicos Islands|Turks and Caicos Islands]] - [[History of Tuvalu|Tuvalu]]
==U==
[[History of Uganda|Uganda]] -
[[History of Ukraine|Ukraine]] -
[[History of the United |
Synthesizer]]
* [[Video game music]]
== References ==
* Vladimir Bogdanov, Chris Woodstra, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, John Bush (editors) ''All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music'' (AMG All Music Guide Series), Backbeat Books, [[2001]] ISBN 0879306289
* Ben Kettlewell ''Electronic Music Pioneers'', ArtistPro.com, [[2001]] ISBN 1931140170
* Iara Lee, Peter Shapiro (editor), Simon Reynolds ''Modulations: A History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound'' Distributed Art Publishers, [[2000]] ISBN 189102406X
* Mark Prendergast ''The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance: The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age'', Bloomsbury, [[2001]] ISBN 0747542139, ISBN 1582341346 (hardcover eds.) ISBN 1582343233 (paper)
* Simon Reynolds ''Energy Flash: a Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture'' (UK title, Pan Macmillan, [[1998]], ISBN 0330350560), also released in US as ''Generation Ecstasy : Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture'' (US title, Routledge, [[1999]], ISBN 0415923735)
* John Schaefer ''New Sounds: A Listener's Guide to New Music'' HarperCollins, [[1987]] ISBN 0060970812
* Dan Sicko ''Techno Rebels: The Renegades of Electronic Funk'', Billboard Books, [[1999]] ISBN 0823084280
* [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1994/Ukpga_19940033_en_6.htm#mdiv63 Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994]
== Further reading ==
* Jerry Fielden ''The influence of Electronic Music in Rock Music, 1967-76; Keith Emerson, Jimi Hendrix, Pink Floyd and others'', 2000, [http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/electromusic.htm]
* Jerry Fielden ''Pioneers of Electronic Music - Early Works (Schaeffer/Henry, Ussachevsky/Luening and Le Caine)'', 2000, [http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/pioneers.htm]
* Chadabe J., (1997), "Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music", Prentice Hall, NJ.
* Emmerson S., (1986), "The Language of Electroacoustic Music", Macmillan Press, London.
* Emmerson S., (2000), "Music,Electronic Media and Culture", Ashgate Publishing,Hampshire,UK.
* Griffiths P., (1995), "Modern Music and After: Directions Since 1945", Oxford University Press, Oxford.
* Heifetz R.J., (1989), "On The Wires of Our Nerves:The Art Of Electroacoustic Music" ,Associated University Presses Inc., Cranbury, NJ.
* Kahn D., (1999), "Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts", MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
* Licata T., (2002), "Electroacoustic Music: Analytical Perspectives", Greenwood Press,Westport,CT.
* Roads C., (1996), "The Computer Music Tutorial", MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
<!--
****** Note on adding links:
****** Please add only links relevant to Electronic Music, not subgenres.
****** Do not use this space for advertising your site
****** Add links to only Prominant Communities ( > 1000 members )
****** Add your link on the bottom of this list
-->
=== Histories and collections ===
* [http://www.obsolete.com/120_years/ History of electronic musical instruments]
* [http://www.intuitivemusic.com/techno-guide-time-line.html History of electronic music]
* [http://sonhors.free.fr History of electronic music (in french)]
* [http://www.synthmuseum.com/ Synthesizer museum and magazine.]
* [http://www.di.fm/edmguide/edmguide.html Ishkur's guide to electronic music] - Satiric but informative multimedia guide to 180+ genres with 1000+ audio samples (requires [[JavaScript]], [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]], broadband)
* [http://e.discogs.com User built database about electronic music (e.discogs.com)]
* [http://www.phinnweb.org/history/ pHinnWeb/history] - Long list of links relating to electronic music history.
* [http://artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/genresearch.pl?genre=electronic Art of the States: electronic] - Small collection of electronic works by American composers
=== Recources and communities ===
* [http://www.infexious.net infexious.net]
[[Category:Electronic music|*]]
[[bg:Електронна музика]]
[[da:Elektronisk musik]]
[[de:Elektronische Musik]]
[[es:Música electrónica]]
[[fr:Musique électronique]]
[[it:Musica elettronica]]
[[ko:전자 음악]]
[[he:מוזיקה אלקטרונית]]
[[ka:ელექტრონული მუსიკა]]
[[hu:Elektronikus zene]]
[[nl:Elektronische muziek]]
[[ja:電子音楽]]
[[pl:Muzyka elektroniczna]]
[[pt:Música eletrônica]]
[[ru:Электронная музыка]]
[[fi:Elektroninen musiikki]]
[[sv:Elektronisk musik]]
[[zh:電子音樂]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>List of English proverbs</title>
<id>9511</id>
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<timestamp>2005-04-08T17:01:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tagishsimon</username>
<id>51294</id>
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<comment>#redirect [[List of proverbs]]. Content of both pages was identical</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[List of proverbs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic art music</title>
<id>9513</id>
<revision>
<id>41570846</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T05:33:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.81.94.157|70.81.94.157]] ([[User talk:70.81.94.157|talk]]) to last version by Bookofjude</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{genrebox|name=Electronic art music
|color=silver
|bgcolor=black
|stylistic_origins=[[20th century classical music]]
|cultural_origins=[[1940s]] - [[1950s]]
|instruments=[[Synthesizer]] - [[Tape loop]]s (in latter incarnations were
added [[Music sequencer|Sequencer]] - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboard]] -
[[Sampler (musical instrument)|Sampler]] - [[Computer]])
|popularity=Small.
|derivatives=[[Techno music|Techno]] - [[Electronica]] - [[Intelligent dance music|IDM]] - [[Trance music|Trance]] - [[Glitch (music)|Glitch]]
|subgenrelist=List of electronic music genres
|subgenres=[[Electroacoustic]] - [[Musique concrète]] - [[Noise music|Noise]]
|fusiongenres=
|regional_scenes=
|other_topics=
}}
'''Electronic music''' has existed, in various forms, for more than a century. Between the time that recording sounds was first made possible and the computer technology of today, a vast amount of change has occurred. Technology has been developed for creating sounds, for recording sounds, composing, and for altering sounds. Some technology involved electronics, but some important conceptual changes that did not depend on electronics still had a profound impact on the advent of electronic music.
The experimentation with technology was occurring in many countries simultaneously, sometimes for different purposes. Throughout the last century, musicians, artists, scientists, inventors, and businessmen each had interest in the progress of technology, and cross-pollination was and continues to be quite common. For this reason, part of the history necessarily includes advances in other fields.
The first quarter of the 20th century was often referred to as the Mechanical Age, which overlapped and shifted into the Electronic Age. The last quarter of the 20th century marked the beginning of the revolutionary Computer Age, in the throes of which we now find ourselves.
==Composers==
As musicians, it is notable that some of the finest musicians and most highly acclaimed institutions are largely responsible for the progress made in the field of electronic music. This is not an isolated crowd; rather, it includes celebrities such as [[Stokowski]], [[Boulez]], [[Stockhausen]], and institutions including [[Columbia University]], [[Princeton University]], and [[Stanford University]], as well as many highly active and advanced studios in Europe. The beginnings of true electronic music were received with such profound appreciation. ''Time Magazine'' and the ''Today show'' featured the experimental composers and their works, an indication that they were well-received by conventional musicians.
The people involved in electronic music today still come from many different directions, and not solely from conventional classical, or art music academia. This fact may be part of the reason that classically trained performers have less awareness of electronic music than would be warranted considering its history. These classical performers tend to still be taught pre-20th Century and early 20th Century music, and the latter half of the century is largely ignored. As one can deduce from a brief look at the history of electronic music, the progress represents a natural course, a continuum, of progress of classical music. Many believe as flutist Patricia Spencer does, that the exploration of electronic instruments represents "the development of a new instrument." [17]
Its inclusion in the current pedagogy is quite appropriate; in fact, one would be ill advised to exclude teaching this music, seeing as it represents the current trend and profoundly affects the future of classical music. Proponents of electronic music today understand the importance of knowing the history, as exemplified in this statement by flutist Elizabeth McNutt, "A knowledge of the history brings greater understanding, and we are more forgiving." [18]
[[Mario Davidovsky]], one of the most important living figures involved in electronic music, describes the effect electronic music had on his acoustic writing:
:...and then when I would return to write chamber music and orchestral music, I was incredibly influenced by all these new ideas of how sound could behave.
He also understands this music to have a large impact on all contemporary composers:
:We can say that 20th Century music has been greatly influenced by electronic music, whether the composers were using electronic instruments or not. [19]
==History of the electronic music==
This history includes advances in music technology in general, some significant works and composers, and does not focus on flute music in particular. Interest |
]] [[Wolfgang Petersen]] made a spectacular entry with his blockbuster hit ''[[Das Boot]]'', which still holds the record for most [[Academy Award]] nominations for a German film (six).
Today's biggest producers include [[Constantin Film]], [[Bavaria]], [[Studio Hamburg]], and [[UFA Film und Fernsehproduktion]]. Recent film releases such as ''[[Run Lola Run]]'' by [[Tom Tykwer]], ''[[Goodbye Lenin]]'' by [[Wolfgang Becker]], and ''[[Der Untergang|Downfall]]'' by [[Oliver Hirschbiegel]] have arguably managed to recapture the provocative and innovative nature of 1970s New German cinema.
The new decade has also seen a resurgence of the German film industry, with big-budget films and good returns at the German box office.
==Literature and links==
*Kracauer, Siegfried. 2004 RE. ''From Caligari to Hitler''. Princeton: University of Princeton Press. ISBN 0-691-11519-2
*[http://www.germany-info.org/relaunch/culture/arts/performing_arts/film.html German Film History]
*[http://www.vistawide.com/german/german_film.htm German films] New releases, contemporary German cinema, East German film, early silent films, German actors & directors, & movie soundtracks.
==Important directors in German Film History:==
*[[German Expressionism|Expressionists]]:
**[[Fritz Lang]]
**[[F. W. Murnau|Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau]]
**[[Paul Wegener]]
**[[Robert Wiene]]
*[[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] era ([[1930s in film|1933]]-[[1940s in film|1945]]):
**[[Arnold Fanck]]
**[[Veit Harlan]]
**[[Georg Wilhelm Pabst]]
**[[Leni Riefenstahl]]
*[[Heimat]] era ([[1940s in film|1945]]-c.[[1960s in film|1964]]):
**[[Konrad Wolf]]
*New Wave (mainly [[1960s in film|1960s]] to [[1980s in film|1980s]]):
**[[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]]
**[[Werner Herzog]]
**[[Wim Wenders]]
**[[Volker Schlöndorff]]
**[[Hans-Jürgen Syberberg]]
*[[Postmodernism|Postmodernists]] (1980s-present):
**[[Bernd Eichinger]]
**[[Roland Emmerich]]
**[[Oliver Hirschbiegel]]
**[[Caroline Link]]
**[[Wolfgang Petersen]]
**[[Tom Tykwer]]
**[[Robert Schwentke]]
==See also==
*[[List of German actors (from 1895 to the present)]]
*[[1920s Berlin]]
*[[German Expressionism]]
*[[History of cinema]]
*[[National socialist film policy]]
*[[Edgar Wallace movies]]
[[Category:Cinema of Germany| ]]
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[[de:Deutsche Filmgeschichte]]
[[fr:Cinéma allemand]]
[[no:Tysk ekspresjonisme]]
[[bg:Германско кино]]</text>
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</page>
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<title>Film History/Italy</title>
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<timestamp>2004-01-28T00:27:04Z</timestamp>
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<username>Michael Snow</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinema of Italy]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Film History/Poland</title>
<id>10614</id>
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<timestamp>2005-01-14T10:07:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jihg</username>
<id>13277</id>
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<comment>Redirect to [[Cinema of Poland]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinema of Poland]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Film History/Canada</title>
<id>10615</id>
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<timestamp>2005-03-18T13:38:49Z</timestamp>
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<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Dbl redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinema of Canada]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Frivolous lawsuit</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:06:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Dab. sanctions</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In courts, a [[lawsuit]] or legal argument is termed '''frivolous''' if it is filed in spite of the fact that both the [[plaintiff]] and his [[lawyer]] knew that it had no merit and it did not argue for a reasonable extension or reinterpretation of the [[law]] or no underlying justification in fact based upon the lawyer's [[due diligence]] investigation of the case before filing (''e.g.'', the well known U.S. [[Federal Rules of Civil Procedure|Federal Rule]] 11). Jurisdictions differ on whether a claim can be frivolous if the attorney acted in [[good faith]]. Because a frivolous filing wastes the court's and the other parties' time, resources and legal fees, it may result in [[sanctions (law)|sanctions]] being levied by the court upon the party or the lawyer who brings the action.
Lawyer Daniel B. Evans writes: <blockquote>[W]hen a judge calls an argument "ridiculous" or "frivolous," it is absolutely the worst thing the judge could say. It means that the person arguing the case has absolutely no idea of what he is doing, and has completely wasted everyone's time. It doesn't mean that the case wasn't well argued, or that judge simply decided for the other side, it means that there <i>was no other side</i>. The argument was <b><i>absolutely, positively, incompetent.</b></i> The judge is not telling you that you that you were "wrong." The judge is telling you that you are out of your mind. [http://evans-legal.com/dan/tpfaq.html#purpose]</blockquote>
Litigants who represent themselves (''[[in forma pauperis]]'' and ''[[pro se]]'') often make frivolous arguments due to their limited knowledge of the law and procedure. The particular tendency of [[prison|prisoner]]s to bring baseless lawsuits led [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] to pass and [[Bill Clinton]] to sign the [[Prison Litigation Reform Act]], which strictly limits the ability of prisoners to bring actions.
The more common use of the term "frivolous" in political discourse refers to lawsuits that are based on a theory that seems absurd, where there is no link between the conduct of the defendant and the injuries sustained by the plaintiff, or where the claim results in damages that greatly exceed what one would expect from a brief summary of the case. Awards for [[medical malpractice]] are frequently derided as frivolous. However, if a jury and a judge decided in favor of the plaintiff in such cases, the plaintiff's claim was technically not frivolous, though it might be considered frivolous colloquially. Because of the ambiguity in the term, calling these lawsuits "frivolous" can lead to confusion because opposite sides of the [[tort reform]] debate can both say they oppose "frivolous" suits, with the tort reform supporters referring to the colloquial understanding, and tort reform opponents referring to the narrower technical definition.[http://www.pointoflaw.com/feature/archives/000538.php]
== See also ==
*[[Barratry]]
*[[Vexatious litigation]]
*[[Abuse of process]]
*[[Malicious prosecution]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[Category:Tort law]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>Free will and determinism</title>
<id>10617</id>
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<comment>Moved unwiki text to talk and redirect ed to "free will"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[free will]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fiddle</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-25T01:39:13Z</timestamp>
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</contributor>
<comment>rvv by Seabass001 possible dangerous link to last good edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fiddle''' may be:
* [[Violin]]: a colloquial name for the violin
* [[Musical styles (violin)]]: the name used for a violin played as a folk instrument
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>French revolution</title>
<id>10619</id>
<revision>
<id>31613312</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-16T14:53:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Woohookitty</username>
<id>159678</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Karanjit|Karanjit]] ([[User talk:Karanjit|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[French Revolution]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>List of female tennis players</title>
<id>10620</id>
<revision>
<id>41686653</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:37:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.78.65.253</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* M */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">List of female [[tennis]] players:
''Note'': Players who have won more than one grand slam event in singles or have been ranked World No.1 in singles have been put in '''bold font''' so as to stand out.
__NOTOC__
[[#A|A]] - [[#B|B]] - [[#C|C]] - [[#D-E|D-E]] - [[#F-G|F-G]] - [[#H-J|H-J]] - [[#K-L|K-L]] - [[#M|M]] - [[#N|N]] - [[#P|P]] - [[#R|R]] - [[#S|S]] - [[#T-Z|T-Z]]
==A==
* [[Roberta Alison]] (USA) - 1963 paved the way for women's varsity sports
* [[Maret Ani]] (Estonia)
* [[Sabine Appelmans]] (Belgium) - 1997 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Shinobu Asagoe]] (Japan) - 2004 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* '''[[Tracy Austin]]''' (USA) - 1979 and 1981 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1981 and 1982 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 1982 and 1983 French Open quarter-finalist; 1981 Australian Open quarter-finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 22 weeks
==B==
* [[Meike Babel]] (Germany)
* [[Elena Baltacha]] (Scotland)
* [[Catherine Barclay]] (Australia)
* [[Sue Barker]] (England |
m of his home state, [[South Carolina]], that it had the right to "nullify"&mdash;declare illegal&mdash;the tariff legislation of 1828, and more generally the right of a state to nullify laws which went against its interests. Although Jackson sympathized with the South in the tariff debate, he was also a strong supporter of a strong union, with considerable powers for the central government. Jackson attempted to face Calhoun down over the issue, which developed into a bitter rivalry between the two men. Particularly famous was an incident at the April 13, 1829 Jefferson Day dinner, involving after-dinner toasts. Jackson rose first and voice booming, and glaring at Calhoun, yelled out "Our federal Union: IT MUST BE PRESERVED!", a clear challenge to Calhoun. Calhoun glared at Jackson and yelled out, his voice trembling, but booming as well, "The Union: NEXT TO OUR LIBERTY, MOST DEAR!", an astonishingly quick-witted riposte.
In response to South Carolina's threat, Congress passed a "[[Force Bill]]" in 1833, and Jackson vowed to send troops to South Carolina in order to enforce the laws. In December 1832, he issued a resounding proclamation against the "nullifiers", stating: "I consider...the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." South Carolina, the president declared, stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason," and he appealed to the people of the state to reassert their allegiance to that Union for which their ancestors had fought. Jackson also denied the right of secession: "The Constitution...forms a ''government'' not a league...To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation."
The crisis was resolved in 1833 with a compromise settlement orchestrated by [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] politician [[Henry Clay]] and adopted by a South Carolina convention. The settlement substantially lowered the tariffs and hinted that the central government considered itself "weak" in dealing with determined opposition by an individual state. To enforce this view, the convention proudly but pointlessly declared the federal Force Bill nullified, even though the bill was only meaningful with respect to the tariff nullification. Thus, the South Carolina legislature both averted major conflict with the federal government, and reaffirmed Calhoun's beloved doctrine of nullification.
===Indian Removal===
[[Image:Andrew_Jackson_Statue_Nashville.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Statue of Andrew Jackson in [[Nashville, Tennessee]].]]
Today, perhaps the most controversial aspect of Andrew Jackson's presidency was his policy regarding [[American Indians in the United States|American Indians]]. Jackson was a leading advocate of a policy known as "[[Indian Removal]]", signing the [[Indian Removal Act]] into law in 1830. Contrary to popular misconception, the Removal Act did not order the removal of any American Indians; what it did was authorize the President to negotiate treaties to purchase tribal lands in the east in exchange for lands further west, outside of existing U.S. state borders. According to biographer [[Robert V. Remini]], Jackson promoted this policy primarily for reasons of national security, seeing that Great Britain and Spain had recruited Native Americans within U.S. borders in previous wars with the United States.<!--Remini (2001), p.113--> According to historian Anthony Wallace, Jackson never publically advocated removing American Indians by force. Instead, Jackson made the negotiation of treaties a priority: nearly seventy Indian treaties&mdash;many of them land sales&mdash;were ratified during his presidency, more than in any other administration.
The Removal Act was especially popular in the [[American South|South]], where population growth and the discovery of gold on [[Cherokee]] land had increased pressure on tribal lands. The state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] became involved in a contentious jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokees, culminating in the 1832 Supreme Court decision (''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'') that ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands. About this case, Jackson is often quoted as having said, "[[John Marshall]] has made his decision, now let him enforce it!" Jackson probably never said this; the popular story that Jackson defied the Supreme Court in carrying out Indian Removal is untrue. In fact, Jackson had no clear legal right to intervene on behalf of the Cherokees in Georgia.
Instead, Jackson used the Georgia crisis to pressure Cherokee leaders to sign a removal treaty. A faction of Cherokees led by Jackson's old ally [[Major Ridge]] negotiated the [[Treaty of New Echota]] with Jackson's administration, a document of dubious legality which was rejected by most Cherokees. However, the terms of the treaty were strictly enforced by Jackson's successor, [[Martin Van Buren]], which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Cherokees along the "[[Trail of Tears]]".
In all, more than 45,000 American Indians were relocated to the West during Jackson's administration. During this time, the administration purchased about 100 million acres of Indian land for about $68 million and 32 million acres of western land. Though the relocation process was generally popular with the American people at the time, it resulted in much suffering and death among American Indians. Jackson was criticized at the time for his role in these events, and the criticism has grown over the years. Robert Remini characterizes the Indian Removal era as "one of the unhappiest chapters in American history". {{ref|remini}}
===Assassination attempt===
[[Image:JacksonAssassinationAttempt.jpg|thumb|right|200px||The etching of the assassination attempt.]]
On January 30, 1835 an unsuccessful [[assassination]] attempt against Jackson occurred in the [[United States Capital]]. This was the first assassination attempt made against an American President. As Jackson left a funeral, a man named [[Richard Lawrence]] approached Jackson and fired a pistol at point-blank range. The would-be assasin was thwarted as his pistol misfired. He immediately drew another pistol, which also misfired, at which point Jackson attacked him with his cane, subduing him. Lawrence was later found to be mentally ill and commited to an insane asylum.
===Major presidential acts===
*[[Maysville Road Veto]]
*Signed [[Indian Removal Act of 1830]]
*Vetoed renewal of [[Second Bank of the United States]] (1832)
*Signed [[Force Bill]] of 1833
*Executive Order: [[Specie Circular]] (1836)
===Administration and Cabinet===
[[Image:Andrew jackson head.gif|thumbnail|right]]
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''[[Andrew Jackson]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1837
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[John C. Calhoun]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1832
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Martin Van Buren]]'''||align="left"|1833&ndash;1837
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align="left"|'''[[Martin Van Buren]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1831
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Edward Livingston]]'''||align="left"|1831&ndash;1833
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Louis McLane]]'''||align="left"|1833&ndash;1834
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John Forsyth]]'''||align="left"|1834&ndash;1837
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[Samuel Ingham]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1831
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Louis McLane]]'''||align="left"|1831&ndash;1833
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William Duane]]'''||align="left"|1833
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Roger B. Taney]]'''||align="left"|1833&ndash;1834
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Levi Woodbury]]'''||align="left"|1834&ndash;1837
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align="left"|'''[[John H. Eaton]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1831
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Lewis Cass]]'''||align="left"|1831&ndash;1836
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align="left"|'''[[John M. Berrien]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1831
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Roger B. Taney]]'''||align="left"|1831&ndash;1833
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Benjamin_Franklin_Butler_(lawyer)|Benjamin F. Butler]]'''||align=" |
limate change, leading to a gradual deforesatation may ultimately have contributed to the civilization's downfall.
Archaeological resources suggest that the diverse geography of ancient India was increasing in the amount and specialization of faunal remains around 2400 to [[1500 BC]]. This specialization suggests that the Indus Valley Civilizations were dependent upon the alluvial soils of the rivers, which produced high yield crops. By 2600 BC, the presence of a state level society is evident, complete with hierarchical rule and large scale public works. These include accomplishments such as irrigation, warehouses for grain, public streets, and brick-lined drainage systems for sanitation. Around the mid 2nd millennium BC, the region of the Indus River basin, in which approximately two-thirds of currently known sites were located dried up, and the sites were abandoned.
===Vedic civilization===
{{main|Vedic Civilization}}
The Vedic civilization is the [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] culture associated with the [[Veda]]s, which are some of the oldest extant texts, orally composed in [[Vedic Sanskrit]]. The exact connection between the genesis of this civilization and the Indus Valley civilization on one hand, and a possible [[Indo-Aryan migration]] on the other hand, is the subject of dispute. Early Vedic society was largely [[pastoralism|pastoral]]. After the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly [[agriculture|agricultural]], and was organized around the four [[Varna]]s, or classes. Several small kingdoms and tribes merged to form a few large ones, such as the [[Kuru]] and [[Panchala|Pançala]], some of which were often at war with each other.
In addition to the principal texts of Hinduism (the [[Vedas]]), the great Indian epics (the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]]) are said to have their ultimate origins during this period, from an oral tradition of unwritten bardic recitation. The [[Bhagavad Gita]], another primary text of Hinduism, is contained within the Mahabharata.
Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the presence of [[Ochre Coloured Pottery]] in archaeological findings. The kingdom of the [[Kuru (India)|Kurus]] corresponds to the [[Black and Red Ware]] culture and the beginning of the [[Iron Age]] in Northwestern India, around [[1000 BC]] (This date is most likely, contemporaneous with the composition of the [[Atharvaveda]]). [[Painted Grey Ware]] cultures spanning much of Northern India marks the Middle Vedic period, followed by a wave of urbanization that occurred across the Indian sub-continent, from [[Afghanistan]] to [[Bengal]], in the [[6th century BC]]. A number of [[monarchy|kingdom]]s and oligarchies, often called [[republic]]s, emerged across the [[Indo-Gangetic plain]] and the northern part of the [[Deccan]] during this period. 16 of these ''Republics'', called [[Mahajanapadas]] (great lands), are referred to in the ancient literature of the period.
==The Mahajanapadas==
{{main|Mahajanapadas}}
[[Image:StandingBuddha.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Standing Buddha, ancient region of [[Gandhara]], [[1st century|1st century CE]].]]
By [[500 BC]], sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the [[Mahajanapadas]] stretched across the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]] from modern-day Afghanistan to [[Bangladesh]]. The largest of these nations were [[Magadha]], [[Kosala]], [[Kuru (India)|Kuru]] and [[Gandhara]]. The right of a king to his throne, no matter how it was gained, was usually legitimized through religious right and genealogies concocted by priests who ascribed divine origins to the rulers. There is some controversy about how closely the political entities of this period can be represented by those mentioned in the [[Rig Veda|Vedas]], and ancient epics of India. The educated speech at that time was [[Sanskrit]], while the dialects of the general population of northern India were referred to as [[Prakrit|Prakrits]].
Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly class. It is thought that the [[Upanishads]], late Vedic texts dealing mainly with incipient philosophy, were first composed early in this period. They had a huge effect on Indian philosophy, and were contemporary to the development of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], indicating a golden age of thought in this period, similar to that in ancient Greece. It was in [[537 BC]], that [[Gautama Buddha]] gained enlightenment and founded [[Buddhism]], which was initially intended as a supplement to the existing Vedic [[dharma]]. Around the same time period, in mid-6th century BC, [[Mahavira]] founded [[Jainism]]. Both religions had a simple doctrine, and were preached in Prakrit, which helped it gain acceptance amongst the masses. While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to [[Central Asia]], [[East Asia]], [[Tibet]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[South East Asia]].
Recorded history from this period of fragmented states is sparse, up until the advent of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] but the Mahajanapadas were roughly equivalent to the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] city-states of the same period in the [[Mediterranean]], producing philosophy which would eventually form the basis of much of the eastern world's beliefs, just as ancient Greece would produce philosophy that much of the western world's subsequent beliefs were based on. The period effectively ended with the onset of [[Persia|Persian]] and [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] invasion, and the subsequent rise of a single Indian empire from the kingdom of Magadha.
== Persian and Greek invasion ==
Around the 5th century BCE, the northern Indian subcontinent was invaded by the [[Achaemenid Empire]] and the Greeks of [[Alexander the Great]]'s army. This had important repercussions for Indian civilisation, as the political systems of the Persians would have an influence on later Indian political philosophy, including the administration of the [[Maurya Dynasty|Mauryan dynasty]], and a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian and Greek culture was created in the modern region of Afghanistan, producing a unique hybrid culture.
===Achaemenid Empire===
{{main|Achaemenid Empire}}
Much of the northwestern [[Indian Subcontinent]] (present day Eastern [[Afghanistan]] and most of [[Pakistan]]) was ruled by the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] from c. [[520 BC]] during the reign of [[Darius I|Darius the Great]], up intil its conquest by [[Alexander the Great]]. Lands in present-day Punjab, the Indus river from the borders of Gandhara down to the Arabian Sea, and some other parts of the Indus plain, became a satrapy of Alexander's empire. According to [[Herodotus]] of [[Halicarnassus]], it was the most populous and richest of all the twenty satrapies of the empire. Achaemenid rule lasted about 186 years. The Achaemenids used the [[Aramaic]] script for the Persian language. After the end of Achaemenid rule, the use of Aramaic in the Indus plain diminished, although we know from inscriptions from the time of [[Asoka|Emperor Asoka]] that it was still in use two centuries later. Other scripts, such as [[Kharosthi]] (a script derived from Aramaic) and [[Greek language|Greek]] became more common after the arrival of [[Alexander the Great]].
===Alexander the Great===
{{main|Alexander the Great}}
The interaction between Hellenistic Greece and Buddhism began when Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the [[Achaemenid Empire]], reaching the north west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent in 334 BC. There, he defeated King [[Porus|Puru]] in the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab. However, Alexander's troops refused to go beyond the Beas river, and he was forced to march his army southwest.
Alexander created garrisons for his troops in his new territories, and founded several cities in the areas of the [[Oxus]], [[Arachosia]], and [[Bactria]], and Macedonian/Greek settlements in Gandhara (see [[Taxila]]) and the Punjab. The regions included the [[Khyber Pass]] — a geographical passageway south of the Himalayas and the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains — and the Bolan Pass, on a trade route connecting [[Drangiana]], Arachosia and other Persian and Central Asian kingdoms to the lower Indus plain. It is through these regions that most of the interaction between South Asia and Central Asia took place, generating intense cultural exchange and trade.
===Greco-Buddhist period===
{{main|Gandhara}}
Greco-Buddhism, sometimes spelled Græco-Buddhism, is the cultural syncretism between the culture of Classical Greece and Buddhism, which developed over a period of close to 800 years in the area corresponding to modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, between the 4th century BC and the 5th century AD. Greco-Buddhism especially influenced the artistic development of [[Mahayana Buddhism]], before it was adopted by Central and Northeastern Asia from the 1st century AD, ultimately spreading to China, Korea and Japan. It was mainly centered around the area of [[Gandhara]], or modern Afghanistan, the area of the subcontinent that had most been influenced by Persian and Greek contact. Gandhara was roughly contemporary to the other Mahajanapada kingdoms elsewhere in India.
[[Image: MauryanMap.jpg|thumb|280px|The Mauryan empire ([[321 BC|321]] to [[185 BC]]), at its largest extent around [[230 BC]].]]
==The Magadha Empire==
{{main|Magadha Empire}}
Amongst the 16 Mahajanapadas, the kingdom of [[Magadha]] rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked in power under the reign of [[Asoka|Asoka Maurya]], one of India's most legendary and famous emperors. The kingdom of Magadha had emerged as a major power following the subjugation of two neighbouring kingdoms, and possessed an unparalleled military.
===Shishunaga dynasty===
According to tradition, the [[Shishunaga dynasty]] founded the [[Magadha]] Empire in [[684 BC]], whose capital was Rajagriha, later [[Patal |
m across. Steep mountains 3000 to 4000 m and up to 5000 m high along the range ensures a steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere. The [[tree line]] is around 4000 m [[elevation]] and the tallest peaks are snowbound year round.
Both North and West of the central ranges the land remains mountainous mostly 1000 to 2000 m high covered by thick [[rain forest]] and a warm humid year round climate.
The third major habitat feature is the south east lowlands with extensive [[wetland]]s stretching for hundreds of kilometers.
The [[Mamberamo]] river, sometimes referred to as the "[[Amazon River|Amazon]] of Papua" is the province's largest river which winds through the northern part of the province. The result is a large area of lakes and rivers known as the Lakes Plains region. The famous [[Baliem Valley]], home of the [[Dani (ethnic group)|Dani]] people is a tableland 1600 m above sea level in the midst of the central mountain range; [[Carstensz Pyramid]] (Puncak Jaya) is a mist covered limestone mountain peak 4884 m above sea level.
== Tribes ==
The following are some of the most well-known tribes of Papua:
*[[Amungme]]
*[[Asmat]]
*[[Bauzi]]
*[[Dani]]
*[[Kamoro]]
*[[Kombai]]
*[[Korowai]]
*[[Mee]]
*[[Sentani]]
*[[Yali people|Yali]]
== Demographics ==
The population of Papua province and the neighboring [[West Irian Jaya]], both of which are still under a united administration, totalled 2,646,489 in [[2005]].<ref>[http://irja.bps.go.id/LEFT%20FRAME/Proyeksi%20Penduduk%20%20menurut%20Kabupaten.htm BPS Papua]</ref> Since the early [[1990s]] Papua has had the highest population growth rate of all Indonesian provinces at over 3% annually. This is partly a result of high birth rates, but also from immigration from other regions in Indonesia.
According to the [[2000]] census, 78% of the Papuan population identified themselves as Christian with 54% being Protestant and 24% being Catholic. 21% of the population was Muslim and less than 1% were Buddhist or Hindu.<ref>[http://eng.papua.go.id/profil/profilpapua.html Profile of Papua - The Governmen tof Papua Province]</ref> There is also substantial practice of [[animism]] by Papuans, which is not recorded by the Indonesian government in line with the policy of [[Pancasila Indonesia|Pancasila]].
== Ecology ==
A vital tropical rainforest with the tallest tropical trees and vast biodiversity, Papua's known forest fauna includes [[marsupials]] (including [[possum]]s, [[wallabies]], [[tree-kangaroo]]s, [[cuscus]]es), other mammals (including the endangered [[Long-beaked Echidna]]), many bird species (including [[birds of paradise]], [[cassowary|cassowaries]], [[parrot]]s, [[cockatoo]]s), the world's longest lizards (Papua [[Monitor_lizard|monitor]]) and the world's largest butterflies.
The island has an estimated 16,000 species of plant, 124 genera of which are endemic.
The extensive waterways and wetlands of Papua are also home to salt and freshwater [[crocodile]], [[tree monitors]], [[megabat|flying foxes]], [[osprey]], [[bats]] and other animals; while the equatorial glacier fields remain largely unexplored.
In [[February]] [[2006]], a team of scientists exploring the [[Foja Mountains]] discovered numerous new species of birds, butterflies, amphibians, and plants, including a species of [[rhododendron]] which may have the largest bloom of the genus.<ref>McDowell, Robin. [http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=978c0a2b-4d79-4d09-b5a6-074e7daaabb9 "'Lost world' yields exotic new species"]. ''The Vancouver Sun'' 8 February 2006.</ref>
Ecological threats include logging-induced [[deforestation]], forest conversion for plantation agriculture (especially [[oil palm]]), smallholder agricultural conversion, the introduction and potential spread of non-native alien species such as the [[Crab-eating Macaque]] which preys on and competes with indigenous species, the illegal species trade, and water pollution from oil and mining operations.
==See also==
*[[Papua]]
*[[New Guinea]]
*[[Kaiser-Wilhelmsland]]
*[[Western New Guinea]]
*[[West Irian Jaya]]
*[[British New Guinea]]
*[[German New Guinea]]
*[[Dutch New Guinea]]
*[[Human rights in western New Guinea]]
==Notes==
<references/>
==External links==
* [http://www.irja.org/index2.shtml Online Library West Papua, Irian Jaya]
* [http://www.eco-action.org/ssp/resources.html Extensive Library, some material written by Lani (highland) tribespeople]
* [http://www.papuaweb.org/ PapuaWeb]
* [http://www.law.yale.edu/outside/html/Public_Affairs/426/westpapuahrights.pdf "Human Abuse in West Papua - Application of Law to Genocide"]
* [http://www.nzz.ch/dossiers/2001/westpapua/2000.12.22-engl-article72F07.html "Prison, Torture and Murder in Jayapura - Twelve Days in an Indonesian Jail" (''Neue Zürcher Zeitung'', 2000)]
* [http://www.papuaweb.org/goi/pp/peta-hr.gif Map showing the three new provinces]
* [http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm Declassified US documents on "Act of free choice"]
* [http://www.worldevangelical.org/persecute/persec_Papua_31Mar05.html Papua: Christian Leaders Fear Genocide]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IDP Languages and Ethnic Groups of Papua Province, SIL Ethnologue]
===Ecology===
*[http://russbaker.com/The%20Nation%20-%20The%20Deforesting%20of%20Irian%20Jaya.htm The Deforesting of Irian Jaya, 1994]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20040726043852/veederandld.20m.com/primnews/10201.html Monkeys Threaten New Guinea's Wildlife], October 2, 2001, '''Wall Street Journal''' (archived)
*[http://www.sidsnet.org/archives/biodiversity-newswire/2001/0055.html An article on biodiversity]
*[http://www.wetlands.or.id/irj20.htm Wetlands Study]
==References==
* King, Peter, ''West Papua Since Suharto: Independence, Autonomy, or Chaos?''. University of New South Wales Press, 2004, ISBN 0868406767.
{{Indonesia}}
[[Category:Provinces of Indonesia]]
[[Category:New Guinea]]
[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[de:Papua (Provinz)]]
[[id:Papua]]
[[it:Irian Jaya]]
[[lt:Vakarų Papua]]
[[ja:イリアンジャヤ]]
[[nl:Papua]]
[[pl:Papua (prowincja)]]
[[sk:Papua (provincia)]]
[[sv:Papua (Irian Jaya)]]
[[zh:巴布亚(印尼省分)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IMF (disambiguation)</title>
<id>15200</id>
<revision>
<id>34132553</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T17:45:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.76.96.17</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''IMF''', abbreviation:
* [[Intelligent Message Filter]], server-side message filtering, heuristics-based message analysis.
* [[International Metalworkers' Federation]], a global union federation
* [[International Monetary Fund]]
* [[International Music Feed]], a music video television network.
* [[Initial Mass Function]], in [[Big Bang]] theories of [[astronomy]].
* [[Impossible Missions Force]], a secret espionage agency in the [[Mission: Impossible]] television series and series of movies
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[ja:IMF]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interdisciplinarity</title>
<id>15201</id>
<revision>
<id>41026211</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T15:57:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MaxVeers</username>
<id>334437</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Interdisciplinarity''' is a type of academic collaboration in which specialists drawn from two or more [[academic]] [[discipline|disciplines]] work together in pursuit of common goals.
Interdisciplinary programs sometimes arise from a shared conviction that the traditional disciplines are unable or unwilling to address an important problem. For example, social science disciplines such as anthropology and sociology paid little attention to the social analysis of technology throughout most of the twentieth century. As a result, many social scientists with interests in technology have joined [[science and technology studies]] programs, which are typically staffed by scholars drawn from numerous disciplines (including [[anthropology]], [[history]], [[philosophy]], [[sociology]], and [[women's studies]]). They may also arise from new research developments, such as [[nanotechnology]], which cannot be addressed without combining the approaches of two or more disciplines. Examples include [[quantum information processing]], which amalgamates elements of [[quantum physics]] and [[computer science]], and
[[bioinformatics]], which combines [[molecular biology]] with computer science.
Many scientists believe that the most pressing problems facing humanity, including the [[AIDS]] [[pandemic]], [[global warming]], and the loss of [[biodiversity]], can be solved only by developing interdisciplinary approaches.
==Multidisciplinarity==
There are varying degrees of interdisciplinarity. In [[multidisciplinarity]], researchers from two or more disciplines work together on a common problem, but without altering their disciplinary approaches or developing a common conceptual framework. True interdisciplinarity occurs when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand.
==Barriers to interdisciplinarity==
Because most participants in interdisciplinary ventures were trained in traditional disciplines, they must learn to appreciate differing perspectives and approaches. For example, a discipline that places more emphasis on quantitative "rigor" may produce practitioners who think of themselves (and their discipline) as "more scientific" than others; in turn, colleagues in "softer" disciplines may associate quantitative approaches with an inability to grasp the broader dimensions of a problem. An interdisciplinary program may not succeed if its members remain stuck in their disciplines (and in discipli |
to'' ([[1884]]), and ''Lou Pouemo dou Rose'' ([[1897]]; Eng. trans. The Song of the Rhone); a historical tragedy, ''La Reino Jano'' (1890; "[[Queen Jane]]"); two volumes of lyrics, ''Lis Isclo d'or'' ([[1876]]; definitive edition [[1889]]) and ''Lis Oulivado'' ([[1912]]); and many short stories, collected in ''Prose d'Armana'', 3 vol. ([[1926]]-[[1929]]).
Mistral's volume of memoirs, ''Moun espelido'' (French: ''Mes origines'', [[1906]]; Eng. trans. ''Memoirs of Mistral''), is his best-known work, but his claim to greatness rests on his first and last long poems, ''Mirèio'' and ''Lou Pouemo dou Rose'', both full-scale [[epic poetry|epic]]s in 12 [[canto]]s.
''Mirèio'', which is set in the poet's own time and district, is the story of a rich farmer's daughter whose love for a poor basketmaker's son is thwarted by her parents and ends with her death in the church of Les [[Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer]]. Into this poem Mistral poured his love for the countryside where he was born. ''Mirèio'' skillfully combines narration, dialogue, description, and lyricism and is notable for the springy, musical quality of its highly individual stanzaic form. Under its French title, ''Mireille'', it inspired an opera by [[Charles Gounod]] ([[1863]]).
''Lou Pouemo dou Rose'' tells of a voyage on the [[Rhône River]] from [[Lyon]] to [[Beaucaire]] by the barge Lou Caburle, which is boarded first by a romantic young prince of Holland and later by the daughter of a poor ferryman. The romance between them is cut short by disaster when the first [[steamboat]] to sail on the Rhone accidentally sinks Lou Caburle. Though the crew swims ashore, the lovers are drowned. Although less musical and more dense in style than ''Mirèio'', this epic is as full of life and colour. It suggests that Mistral, late in life, realized that his aim had not been reached and that much of what he loved was, like his heroes, doomed to perish.
==Miscellaneous==
In his honour, the [[Chile|Chilean]] poet '''Lucila Godoy Alcayaga''' took his last name as part of her [[pseudonym]], [[Gabriela Mistral]].
The name "Mistral" has also been applied by the people of Provence to the strong wind which is found near the geographically-dominating Mont Ventoux.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1904| after = [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
}}
{{end box}}
==External link and reference==
* This article incorporates material from [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Literature/mistral_frederic.html]. "All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License."
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ego2/olko/cgi-bin/mistral-bio.html recognition of the fresh originality and true inspiration of his poetic production, which faithfully reflects the natural scenery and native spirit of his people, and, in addition, his significant work as a Provenзal philologist.]
* {{gutenberg author|id=Frédéric_Mistral|name=Frédéric Mistral}}
[[Category:1830 births|Mistral, Frédéric]]
[[Category:1914 deaths|Mistral, Frédéric]]
[[Category:French poets|Mistral, Frédéric]]
[[Category:French philologists|Mistral, Frédéric]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Mistral, Frédéric]]
[[zh-min-nan:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[bg:Фредерик Мистрал]]
[[ca:Frederic Mistral]]
[[de:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[es:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[eo:Frederic MISTRAL]]
[[fr:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[ko:프레데릭 미스트랄]]
[[he:פרדריק מיסטרל]]
[[nl:Frederic Mistral]]
[[ja:フレデリック・ミストラル]]
[[no:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[oc:Frederic Mistral]]
[[pl:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[pt:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[ro:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[fi:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[sv:Frédéric Mistral]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Five pillars of Islam</title>
<id>11482</id>
<revision>
<id>15909226</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Five Pillars of Islam]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Female condom</title>
<id>11485</id>
<revision>
<id>15909229</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Condom]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dylan Thomas/Fern Hill</title>
<id>11486</id>
<revision>
<id>15909230</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to "Fern_Hill"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fern_Hill]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>File Formats</title>
<id>11487</id>
<revision>
<id>15909231</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[File format]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Furlong</title>
<id>11488</id>
<revision>
<id>39939225</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T23:29:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R'son-W</username>
<id>316079</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:036175 5 furlong.jpg|right|thumb|256px|The 5 furlong (1006 m) post on [[Epsom Derby|Epsom Downs]]]]
A '''furlong''' is a measure of [[distance]] within [[Imperial units]] and [[U.S. customary units]]. Although its definition has varied historically, in modern terms it equals 660 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] or 220 [[yard]]s, and is therefore equal to 201.168 [[metre]]s. There are ten [[chain (length)|chains]] in a furlong and eight furlongs in a [[mile]]. The name "furlong" derives from the [[Old English language|Old English]] words ''furh'' (furrow) and ''lang'' (long). It originally referred to the length of the furrow in one [[acre]] of a ploughed [[open field system|open field]] (a medieval communal field which was divided into strips). The system of long furrows arose because turning a team of oxen pulling a heavy plough was difficult. This offset the drainage advantages of short furrows and meant furrows were made as long as possible. For this reason, it was once also called an '''acre's length'''.
Distances for [[thoroughbred horse]] [[horse-racing|races]] in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]] and the [[United States]] are given alternately in miles and furlongs ([http://www.sportinglife.com/racing/goodwood/course/ example]), but the unit is otherwise no longer in common use &mdash;and even in that discipline its usage is confined mainly to denoting distances of less than one mile. Its official use was abolished in the United Kingdom under the Weights and Measures Act [[1985]], which also abolished from official use many other traditional units of measurement.
Coincidentally, 5 furlongs is 1005.84 metres (exactly) and is therefore approximately 1 kilometre.
==Trivia==
An absurd unit of speed often misquoted is the '''[[Furlongs_per_fortnight|furlong per]] [[Fortnight|fortnight]]''', which [[Conversion_of_units#Speed|converts]] to:
*0.0001663095 [[metre per second]] or roughly one [[centimetre]] per [[minute]] (in [[SI]] units)
*0.001995714 [[inch]]es per [[second]] (in [[Imperial unit]]s)
Thus:
*a car travelling at 60&nbsp;km/h (37&nbsp;mph) is travelling at a speed of 100,214.7 furlongs per fortnight;
*a [[Boeing]] [[Boeing 737|737]] cruising at 420 [[Knot_(speed)|knots]] or 216.2&nbsp;m/s (i.e. typical 0.8 [[Mach (speed)|Mach]] cruise) is travelling at 1,300,013.7 furlongs per fortnight;
*the [[speed of light]] in vacuum is approximately 1.803{{e|12}} furlongs per fortnight;
*one furlong per fortnight is 0.166 millimetres per second, which would be barely noticeable to the naked eye (the tip of an hour hand on a clock, measuring 3.75 feet in length, travels at about 1 furlong per fortnight).
The city of [[Chicago]]'s address numbering system allots a measure of '''800''' numbers to each mile. Logically, streets were subsequently laid out 8 to the mile. This means that every block in a typical Chicago neighborhood (in either North/South or East/West direction but rarely both) is precisely one furlong.
[[Category:Units of length]]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]
[[de:Furlong]]
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[[ja:ハロン (単位)]]
[[pl:Furlong]]
[[ru:Фурлонг]]
[[sl:Furlong]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>File</title>
<id>11489</id>
<revision>
<id>35378553</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T08:38:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CyberSkull</username>
<id>123609</id>
</contributor>
<comment>unicode, file menu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''File''' has several meanings:
* [[Computer file]]
* [[file: URL]] schema
* [[file (Unix)]], a program used to determine file types.
* [[Filing (legal)]]
* [[File folder]] used for paper storage.
* [[File (tool)]]
* [[File (metalwork)]]
* [[Chess terminology#F|File (chess)]]
* [[File (formation)]] Military term for a single column of men one in front of the other. See also [[Rank (formation)]]
* The [[File menu]]
{{disambig}}
[[ja:ファイル]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fundamental frequency</title>
<id>11490</id>
<revision>
<id>28354649</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-15T02:11:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Freestyle</username>
<id>463706</id>
</contributor>
<m |
rn Athletics|Texas Longhorns]] facing each other as the only two major teams to finish the regular season undefeated. Texas beat USC 41 to 38 in the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]].
The season concludes with series of [[all-star]] bowl games in January. These include the [[East-West Shrine Game]], the [[Gridiron Classic]], the [[Hula Bowl]], and the [[Senior Bowl]]. However, the Gridiron Classic was recently declared cancelled for 2006 due to lack of sponsorship.
The length of the season has gradually increased over the course of the game's history. In spring [[2005]], the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] ruled that teams could schedule twelve regular-season games (up from eleven) beginning in the [[2006]] season. This decision was met with some criticism from those who claimed that expanding the season would overwork the athletes.
In the spring, many colleges stage a scrimmage between their offensive and defensive players. The spring game generally comes at the conclusion of spring practice.
==Rules==
Although rules for the high school, college, and [[National Football League|NFL]] games are generally consistent, there are some differences. The [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] determines the regulations for Division I, I-AA, II, and III games (The [[National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics|NAIA]] is a separate organization). Some unique rules are:
*A pass is ruled complete if one of the receiver's feet is inbounds at the time of the catch. In the NFL, both feet must be inbounds.
*A player is considered down when any part of his body other than the feet or hands touches the ground. In the NFL a player is active until he is tackled by a member of the opposing team (Down by contact).
*The game-clock is stopped when a first down is achieved, until the first-down markers are moved to the new line of scrimmage.
*When a game goes to overtime, each team is given one possession from its opponent's twenty-five yard line. The leader after those possessions, if there is one, is declared the winner. If the teams remain tied, this continues, switching the order of possessions for each overtime, until one team leads the other at the end of the overtime. Extra points do not count from the 3rd overtime on, making it necessary for teams scoring touchdowns to attempt a two-point conversion. (In The [[NFL]], overtime is decided by a 15-minute [[Overtime (sports)#American_and_Canadian_football|sudden-death quarter]].)
*[[Two-point conversion]]s are attempted from the three yard line. The [[NFL]] uses the two yard line.
For a more general discussion of football rules, see [[American football#The rules of American football|The rules of American football]].
==National championships==
[[Image:BCS national championship trophy and Bevo.JPG|right|thumb|[[Texas Longhorn Athletics|UT]]'s [[Bevo (mascot)|Bevo]] with the [[Bowl Championship Series|BCS]] Division I-A National Championship trophy ]]
*[[NCAA Division I-A national football champions]]
*[[NCAA Division I-AA national football championship]]
*[http://www.iaapreview.com/history.html NCAA Division I-AA Year-by-year playoff results]
*[[NCAA Division II national football championship]]
*[[NCAA Division III national football championship]]
*[[NAIA national football championship]]
==NCAA divisions and conferences==
===NCAA Division I-A===
[[Image:Cfdia.PNG|thumb|400px|A map of all Division I-A schools.]]
*[[Atlantic Coast Conference]]
*[[Big East Conference]]
*[[Big Ten Conference]]
*[[Big 12 Conference]]
*[[Conference USA]]
*[[Mid-American Conference]]
*[[Mountain West Conference]]
*[[Pacific Ten Conference]]
*[[Southeastern Conference]]
*[[Sun Belt Conference]]
*[[Western Athletic Conference]]
*[[NCAA Division I-A Independent Schools]]
===NCAA Division I-AA===
[[Image:Cfdiaa.PNG|thumb|400px|A map of all Division I-AA schools.]]
*[[Atlantic Ten Conference]], will be replaced by [[Colonial Athletic Association]] starting in 2007
*[[Big Sky Conference]]
*[[Big South Conference]]
*[[Gateway Football Conference]]
*[[Great West Football Conference]]
*[[Ivy League]]
*[[Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference]]
*[[Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference]]
*[[Northeast Conference]]
*[[Ohio Valley Conference]]
*[[Patriot League]]
*[[Pioneer Football League]]
*[[Southern Conference]]
*[[Southland Conference]]
*[[Southwestern Athletic Conference]]
*[[NCAA Division I-AA Independent Schools]]
===NCAA Division II===
*[[Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association]]
*[[Great Lakes Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[Great Northwest Athletic Conference]]
*[[Gulf South Conference]]
*[[Lone Star Conference]]
*[[Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletic Association]]
*[[North Central Conference]]
*[[Northeast Ten Conference]]
*[[Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference]]
*[[Pennsylvania State Athletic Conference]]
*[[Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference]]
*[[South Atlantic Conference]]
*[[Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[West Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[NCAA Division II independent schools]]
===NCAA Division III===
*[[American Southwest Conference]]
*[[Atlantic Central Football Conference]]
*[[College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin]]
*[[Centennial Conference]]
*[[Freedom Football Conference]]
*[[Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[Illini-Badger Football Conference]]
*[[Iowa Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[Liberty League]]
*[[Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association]]
*[[Middle Atlantic Corporation]]
*[[Midwest Conference]]
*[[Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[New England Football Conference]]
*[[New England Small College Athletic Conference]]
*[[New Jersey Athletic Conference]]
*[[North Coast Athletic Conference]]
*[[Northwest Athletic Conference]]
*[[Ohio Athletic Conference]]
*[[Old Dominion Athletic Conference]]
*[[Presidents' Athletic Conference]]
*[[Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[University Athletic Association]]
*[[USA South Athletic Conference]]
*[[Wisconsin Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[NCAA Division III independent schools]]
===Defunct Conferences and Teams===
*[[List of defunct Division I football teams]]
*[[List of defunct college football conferences]]
*[[List of Division I schools that have never sponsored football]]
==NAIA Conferences==
*[[Central States Football League]]
*[[Dakota Athletic Conference]]
*[[Frontier Conference]]
*[[Great Plains Athletic Conference]]
*[[Heart of America Athletic Conference]]
*[[Kansas Collegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[Mid-South Conference]]
*[[Mid-States Football Association]]
*[[NAIA independent schools]]
==College Bowl Games==
===Bowl Championship Series===
*[[Fiesta Bowl]]
*[[Orange Bowl (game)|Orange Bowl]]
*[[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]]
*[[Sugar Bowl]]
=== Other Current Bowl Games ===
*[[Alamo Bowl]]
*[[Capital One Bowl]]
*[[Champs Sports Bowl]]
*[[Chick-fil-A Bowl]] (formerly Peach Bowl)
*[[Cotton Bowl (game)|Cotton Bowl]]
*[[Emerald Bowl]]
*[[Fort Worth Bowl]]
*[[Gator Bowl]]
*[[GMAC Bowl]]
*[[Hawaii Bowl]]
*[[Holiday Bowl]]
*[[Houston Bowl]]
*[[Independence Bowl]]
*[[Insight Bowl]]
*[[Las Vegas Bowl]]
*[[Liberty Bowl]]
*[[Meineke Car Care Bowl]]
*[[Motor City Bowl]]
*[[MPC Computers Bowl]]
*[[Music City Bowl]]
*[[New Orleans Bowl]]
*[[Outback Bowl]]
*[[Poinsettia Bowl]]
*[[Sun Bowl]]
===All-Star Games===
*[[Senior Bowl]]
*[[East-West Shrine Game]]
*[[Hula Bowl]]
*[[List of college bowl games]], including defunct bowls and non-Division I games
==College football awards==
*[[Bronko Nagurski Trophy]] - outstanding defensive player
*[[Buck Buchanan Award]] - outstanding Division I-AA defensive player
*[[College Football All-America Team]] - originally selected by [[Walter Camp]].
*[[Chuck Bednarik Award]] - outstanding defensive player
*[[Dave Rimington Trophy]] - outstanding center
*[[Davey O'Brien Award]] - outstanding quarterback
*[[Dick Butkus Award]] - outstanding linebacker
*[[Doak Walker Award]] - outstanding running back
*[[Fred Biletnikoff Award]] - outstanding wide receiver
*[[Gagliardi Trophy]] - outstanding Division III player
*[[Grantland Rice Award]] - Division I national champion
*[[Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award]] - outstanding senior quarterback
*[[Lou Groza Award]] - outstanding placekicker
*[[Harlon Hill Trophy]] - outstanding Division II player
*[[Heisman Trophy]] - player of the year
*[[Lombardi Award]] - outstanding offensive or defensive lineman
*[[Manning Award]] - outstanding quarterback
*[[Maxwell Award]] - player of the year
*[[Mosi Tatupu Award]] - outstanding special teams player
*[[Outland Trophy]] - outstanding offensive or defensive interior lineman
*[[Paul "Bear" Bryant Award]] - outstanding head coach
*[[Walter Payton Award]] - outstanding Division I-AA offensive player
*[[Jim Thorpe Award]] - outstanding defensive back
==See also==
*[[Bowl Championship Series]]
*[[College Football on Television]]
*[[College Football Hall of Fame]]
*[[College rivalry#United_States|College rivalries]]
*[[Sports league attendances]]
*[[Canadian Interuniversity Sport]] - governing body of Canadian college football
==External links==
*[http://www.ncaafootball.net NCAA football official site]
*[http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/index.php College Football Data Warehouse], contains data for nearly every college football game ever played at all levels
*[http://www.ncaasports.com/football/mens NCAA football section]
*[http://www.ncaasports.com/football/mens/stats NCAA football stats]
*[http://www.scarletknights.com/football/history/first_game.htm An account of the first game]
*[http://www.donhansen.com Don Hansen's Football Gazette]
*[http://www.iaapreview.com/ I-AA College Football Weekly Preview]
*A round-up of the academic studies regarding [http://the-raw-prawn.blogspot.com/2004/10/study-winning-sports-teams-do-not-help.html the benefits of a strong collegiate athletic program]
*[http://www.bcsfootball.org |
ndustries]] and brought about a protracted depression. The people in Yeltsin's circle who controlled credit policy during this time gained huge profits by credit manipulations. At the same time, bank savings of ordinary people were quickly deleted by inflation.
Certain politicians began quickly to distance themselves from Yeltsin's program; and increasingly the ensuing political confrontation between Yeltsin on the one side, and the political opposition to radical economic reform on the other, became centered in the two branches of government. Both camps accused each other of [[corruption]]. [[Aleksandr Rutskoy]] who headed an anti-corruption committee came up with "eleven suitcases" of documents that demonstrated crminal activity of Yeltsin's close associates: deputee premier [[Yegor Gaydar]], state secretary [[Gennadiy Bulbulis]], minister of press and information [[Mikhail Poltoranin]] and former premiers [[Vladimir Shumeiko]] and [[Alexander Shokhin]], chairman of state property comitee [[Anatoly Chubais]] and foreign minister [[Andrei Kozirev]]. Of the 51 cases that Rutskoy reported to state prosecution, 45 were later found correct. In response, Yetsin fired [[Aleksandr Rutskoy]] from the position of the chairman of the anti-corruption committee and accused that Rutskoy was involved in corruption himself and had a Swiss bank account. These allegations were later shown false.
Throughout 1992, opposition to Yeltsin's reform policies grew stronger and more intractable among those concerned about the condition of Russian industry, among regional leaders who wanted more independence from [[Moscow]] and among his rivals fighting for their pieces of state property. Russia's vice president, [[Aleksandr Rutskoy]], denounced the Yeltsin program as "economic genocide." Leaders of [[petroleum|oil]]-rich republics such as [[Tatarstan]] and [[Bashkiria]] called for full independence from Russia.
Also throughout 1992, Yeltsin wrestled with the Supreme Soviet and the Russian Congress of People's Deputies for control over government, government policy, government banking and property. In 1992 the speaker of the Russian Supreme Soviet, [[Ruslan Khasbulatov]], came out in opposition to the reforms, despite claiming to support Yeltsin's overall goals.
Congress of People's Deputies attempted to impeach Yeltsin on [[March 26]], [[1993]]. Yeltsin's opponents gathered more than 600 votes for impeachment, but fell 72 votes short.
On [[September 21]], [[1993]], Yeltsin disbanded the Supreme Soviet and Congress of People's Deputies by decree, which was illegal under the [http://www.constitution.garant.ru/DOC_83126.htm#sub_para_N_5301 constitution (1992 edition, in Russian) ], which stated:
:'''Article 121-6.''' ''Authority of the President of Russian Federation cannot be used to change national and state organization of Russian Federation, dissolution or halting activity of any elected organs of state power.''
In response, the Supreme Soviet cancelled Yeltsin's presidency in accordance with the Constitution and assigned vice-president Rutskoy the president. Constitution Court confirmed that these actions were legal. Thus, beginning September 23, 1993 Yeltsin technically was no longer the president. This led to a military showdown and the [[Russian constitutional crisis of 1993]]. With military help, Yeltsin held control. The conflict that resulted in a number of civilian casualties was resolved in Yeltsin's favor. A number of paliament members, including Rutskoy who was technically the president, were arrested, and Constitution Court was halted.
New elections of the Supreme Soviet were held on [[December 12]], [[1993]], and Yeltsin's opposition easily won the majority of seats. He, however, obtained practically an absolute power in the country by succeding in changing the Constitution. According to the new Constitution, parliament's power was significantly reduced. According to the new [http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/ch4.html Constitution],
:'''Article 84.''' ''The President of the Russian Federation shall: a) call elections to the chambers of the State Duma in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law; b) dissolve the State Duma in cases and under procedures envisaged by the Constitution of the Russian Federation.''
Despite the effort to "improve" the government, the network of Russian government institutions remained almost as extensive as during the Soviet era. It harbored myriads of [[bureaucrats]] heavily involved in [[bribery]] and [[political corruption|corruption]].
Privatization of state property in 1993 was a very significant event. Officially, privatization was announced as fair distribution of state property among the citizens. In actuality, ordinary citizens obtained nearly worthless vouchers (one voucher was worth one bottle of [[vodka]]), whereas the people at the key positions in the governing structures gained enormous amounts of wealth. In many cases these were former [[communist]]s who were in the best position because of their connections to the government. Privatization was advertized as part of the struggle against the forces that wanted to restore [[communism]] in the country.
After gaining an absolute power in the country, Yeltsin allegedly violated the law by appointing his relatives to key government positions. His daughter, Tatiana Diatchenko, a computer programer in the past, became a presidential adviser in 1996. These actions were in direct violation of the Russian Federation Law "On the State Service", which states:
:'''Article 21.''' ''A citizen cannot be accepted to state service in case he/she has is a relative of a state servant and their state service involves direct supervision of on by the other.''
During Yeltsin's presidency, several of his awkward behaviors became widely known. On August 29, 1994, Yeltsin attempted to direct an orchestra during his visit to [[Germany]]. His state during the incident was characterized by the journalist as "unsober". This episode was captured on tape (see [http://informacia.ru/info/elcin2.jpg Yeltsin directing an orchestra]). In September 1994 (according to General Alexander Korzhakov), Yeltsin ordered his press secretary Vyacheslav Kostikov thrown into [[Volga river]] in order to humiliate him. On September 30, 1994, Yeltsin failed to come out from the plane for an official meeting with the [[Ireland|Irish]] Prime Minister. The official explanation was that he had overslept.
In December [[1994]], Yeltsin ordered the military invasion of [[Chechnya]] in an attempt to restore Moscow's control over the separatist republic. Yeltsin later withdrew federal forces from Chechnya under a [[1996]] peace agreement brokered by [[Aleksandr Lebed]], then Yeltsin's security chief. The deal allowed Chechnya greater autonomy but not full independence (see [[First Chechen War]]).
In [[July]] [[1996]], Yeltsin was re-elected as President with financial support from influential [[business oligarchs]] who previously gained their wealth because of their connections to Yeltsin's administration. According to general Korzhakov, [[Roman Abramovich]] was the major finance manager of Yeltsin's family. It is also alleged that Yeltsin provided Abramovich with protection from prosecution for various criminal activities ranging from stealing diesel fuel to illegally acquiring [[Sibneft]] at a staged contest. Despite only gaining 35 percent of the first round vote in the 1996 elections, Yeltsin successfully defeated his communist rival [[Gennady Zyuganov]] in the runoff election. Later that year, Yeltsin underwent [[heart bypass surgery]] and remained in the hospital for months.
During Yeltsin's presidency, he received 40 billion dollars in funds from the [[IMF]] and other international lending organizations which were supposed to support him politically and help Russia's economy. However, most of these funds were stolen by people from Yeltsin's circle and placed in foreign banks. Some believe that borrowing from the [[IMF]] shortly before the 1998 default was a carefully planned [[fraud]].
In [[1998]], a political and economic crisis emerged when Yeltsin's government defaulted on its debts, causing financial markets to panic and the country's currency, the ruble, to collapse.
On [[August 9]], [[1999]] Yeltsin fired his Prime Minister, [[Sergei Stepashin]], and for the fourth time, fired his entire cabinet. Yeltsin was famous throughout his life for impulsive firing and reshuffling his staff.
During the [[1999]] [[Kosovo war]], Yeltsin strongly opposed the [[NATO]] military campaign against [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and warned of possible Russian intervention if NATO deployed ground troops to Kosovo.
Yeltsin continued as President of [[Russia]] until [[December 31]], [[1999]], but the events of [[1991]] proved to be something of a high-water mark for him historically and personally. His approval ratings plummeted to 5 percent in his last months in office. He resigned on [[December 31]] [[1999]], and in accordance with Russian Constitution, prime minister [[Vladimir Putin]] became an Acting President until new elections were held on [[March 26]] [[2000]].
As an alleged condition of Yeltsin's support of [[Putin]], Putin warranted that neither Yeltsin nor members of his "family" (the popular term that designates the circle of people who governed the country during his presidency) would be prosecuted for unconstitutional use of military force against the lawful parliament, violation of [[law]]s, [[political corruption|corruption]], [[bribery]] or [[treason]].
==Yeltsin's alcoholism==
According to numerous reports, Yeltsin was a heavy drinker. Moreover, his [[alcoholism]] played a role in significant decisions that had effect on [[Russia]] and the whole [[world]].
*In 1989, Yeltsin went to the [[USA]] to give a series of speeches on social |
tion of the stars b-Ursae Minoris and z-Ursae Majoris about 3,000 years ago, takes into account the precession of the axis of the Earth. A study by egyptologist [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn174 Kate Spence ], shows how the changes in orientation of 8 pyramids corresponds with changes of position of those stars through time. This would date the start of the construction of the pyramid at 2467 BC.
For four [[millennia]] it was the [[World's tallest structures|world's tallest building]], unsurpassed until the 160 metre tall spire of [[Lincoln Cathedral]] was completed c. 1300 AD. The accuracy of the pyramid's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have a mean error of only 50 mm in length, and 12 [[arcsecond|seconds]] in [[angle]] from a perfect square. The sides of the square are closely aligned to the four ordinal compass points to within 3 [[minute of arc|minutes of arc]] and is based not on [[magnetic north]], but [[true north]].
[[Image:Pyramide1r.jpg|thumb|333px|left|[[Khafre's Pyramid]]. Unlike the Great Pyramid, [[Khafre's Pyramid]] has some of its smooth outer casing limestones intact.]]
The pyramid was constructed of cut and dressed blocks of [[limestone]], [[basalt]] or [[granite]]. The core was made mainly of rough blocks of low quality limestone taken from a quarry at the south of Khufu’s Great Pyramid. These blocks weighed from two to four [[tonne]]s on average, with the heaviest used at the base of the pyramid. An estimated 2.4 million blocks were used in the construction. High quality limestone was used for the outer casing, with some of the blocks weighing up to 15 tonnes. This limestone came from Tura, about 8 miles away on the other side of the Nile. Granite quarried nearly 500 miles away in Aswan with blocks weighing as much as 60-80 tonnes, was used for the portcullis doors and relieving chambers.
The total mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes with a volume (including an internal hillock) believed to be [[1 E6 m³|2,600,000 cubic metre]]s. The pyramid is the largest in Egypt and the tallest in the world and is surpassed only by the [[Great Pyramid of Cholula]] in [[Puebla]], [[Mexico]], which, although much lower in height, occupies a greater volume.
At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white 'casing stones' &ndash; slant-faced, but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These caused the monument to shine brightly in the sun and even in the evening under moonlight being visible from mountains in the south of Egypt as far away as 200 miles (300 km). Visibly all that remains is the underlying step-pyramid core structure seen today, but several of the casing stones can still be found around the base. The casing stones of the Great Pyramid and [[Khafre's Pyramid]] (constructed directly beside it) were cut to such optical precision as to be off of true plane over their entire surface area by only as little as 1/50th of an inch. They were fit together so perfectly that the tip of a knife cannot be inserted between the joints along any edge even to this day.
The Great Pyramid differs in its internal arrangement from the other pyramids in the area. The greater number of passages and chambers, the high finish of parts of the work, and the accuracy of construction all distinguish it. The walls throughout the pyramid are totally bare and uninscribed, but there are inscriptions &mdash; or to be more precise, graffiti &mdash; believed to have been made by the workers on the stones before they were assembled. All the five relieving chambers are inscribed. The most famous inscription is one of the few that mentions the name of Khufu; it says "year 17 of Khufu's reign". Although alternative theorists have suggested otherwise, given its precarious location it is hard to believe it could have been inscribed after construction; even [http://www.mm2000.nu/sphinxb98.html Graham Hancock] accepted this, after Dr Hawass let him examine the inscription. Another inscription refers to "the friends of Khufu", and probably was the name of one of the gangs of workers. Though this doesn't offer indisputable proof Khufu originated the construction of the Great Pyramid or when building began, it does however clear any doubt he at least took part in some phase of its construction (or later repairs to an existing building) during his reign.
There are three chambers inside the Great Pyramid. These are arranged centrally, on the vertical axis of the pyramid. The lowest chamber (the "unfinished chamber") is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built. This chamber is the largest of the three, but totally unfinished, only rough-cut into the rock.
The middle chamber, or ''Queen's Chamber'', is the smallest, measuring approximately 5.74 by 5.23 [[metre]]s, and 4.57 metres in height. Its eastern wall has a large angular doorway or niche, and two narrow shafts, about 20 centimeters wide, extending from the chamber to the outer surface of the pyramid, but blocked by limestone "doors" at several points. Egyptologist [[Mark Lehner]] believes that the Queen's chamber was intended as a ''serdab''&mdash;a structure found in several other Egyptian pyramids&mdash;and that the niche would have contained a statue of the interred. The Ancient Egyptians believed that the statue would serve as a "back up" vessel for the [[Egyptian soul#Ka .28corporal presence.2Flife force.29|Ka]] of the Pharaoh, should the original mummified body be destroyed. The true purpose of the chamber, however; remains a mystery.[http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/greatpyramid3.htm]
At the end of the lengthy series of entrance ways leading into the pyramid interior is the structure's main chamber, the ''King's Chamber''. This chamber was originally 10 x 20 x 5V5 cubits, or about 17 x 34 x 19 ft, roughly a double cube.
The other main features of the Great Pyramid consist of the Grand Gallery, the sarcophagus found in the King's Chamber, both ascending and descending passages, and the lowest part of the structure mentioned above, what is dubbed the "unfinished chamber".
The Grand Gallery (49 x 3 x 11 m) features an ingenious corbel halled design and several cut "sockets" spaced at regular intervals along the length of each side of its raised base with a "trench" running along its center length at floor level. What purpose these sockets served is unknown. The Red Pyramid of Dashur also exhibits grand galleries of similiar design.
The sarcophagus of the King's chamber was hollowed out of a single peice of Red Aswan granite and has been found to be too large to have fit through the passageway leading to the King's chamber. Whether the purpose of the sarcophagus was ever intended to house a body is unknown, but regardless, it is too short to accommodate a medium height individual without the bending of the knees (a technique unpracticed in Egyptian burial)and no lid was ever found.
The "unfinished chamber" lies 90ft below ground level and is rough-hewn, lacking the signature precision of the other chambers. This chamber is dismissed by Egyptologists as being nothing more than a simple change in plans in that it was intended to be the original burial chamber but later King Khufu changed his mind wanting it to be higher up in the pyramid.[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pyramid/explore/khufuunfhi.html]. Given the extreme precision and planning given to every other phase of the Great Pyramid's contruction, this conclusion seems premature at best considering according to these same Egyptologists the whole purpose of building the structure in the first place as they claim was to house the king's burial chamber.
In August 2004 two French amateur Egyptologists, Gilles Dormion and Jean-Yves Verd'hurt, claimed that they had discovered, using ground-penetrating radar and architectural analysis, a previously unknown corridor inside the pyramid. If their claim is true, the corridor is unlikely ever to have been violated and could possibly lead to a chamber containing the king's remains. But, as yet, the pair have been refused permission by the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities to follow up their findings and, they hope, prove the room's existence {{citeneeded}}.
== Labor and construction theories ==
:''See also:'' [[Egyptian pyramids construction techniques|Egyptian Pyramid construction techniques]]
[[Image:Rj2.JPG|thumb|160 px|RJ or RL-shaped supports possibly used to raise several-ton stone blocks.]]
Many varied estimates have been made regarding the labor force needed to construct the Great Pyramid. [[Herodotus]], the [[Greece|Greek]] historian in the [[5th century BC]], estimated that construction may have required the labor of 100,000 workers for 20 years. Recent evidence has been found that suggests the workforce was in fact paid, which would require accounting and bureaucratic skills of a high order. [[Poland|Polish]] [[architect]] Wieslaw Kozinski believed that it took as many as 25 men to transport a 1.5-ton stone block; based on this, he estimated the workforce to be 300,000 men on the construction site, with an additional 60,000 off-site. 19th century Egyptologist [[William Flinders Petrie]] proposed that the labor force was largely composed not of slaves but of the rural Egyptian population, working during periods when the [[Nile]] river was flooded and [[agriculture|agricultural]] activity suspended. [[Egyptology|Egyptologist]] [[Miroslav Verner]] posited that the labor was organized into a [[hierarchy]], consisting of two ''gangs'' of 1000 men, divided into five ''zaa'' or ''phyle'' of 200 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.
Some research suggests alternate estimates to the aforementioned labor size. For instance, [[mathematics|mathematician]] [[Kurt Mendelssohn]] calculated that the labor force |
tinctions between animate and inanimate nouns, but only in the masculine gender.
*[[Polish language|Polish]] distinguishes singular masculine animated versus inanimated nouns and plural masculine human vs. non-human nouns
*[[Swedish language|Swedish]] distinguishes masculine (han), feminine (hon), neuter (det) and non-masculine non-feminine non-neuter (den)
{{col-2}}
====More than three noun classes counting [[measure word]]s====
*[[Ainu language|Ainu]]
*[[Bengali language|Bangla (Bengali)]]
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
*[[Japanese language|Japanese]]
*[[Korean language|Korean]]
*[[Thai language|Thai]]
{{col-end}}
==Bibliography==
* Craig, Colette G. (1986). ''Noun classes and categorization: Proceedings of a symposium on categorization and noun classification, Eugene, Oregon, October 1983''. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins.
* Corbett, Greville G. (1991) ''Gender'', Cambridge University Press &mdash;A comprehensive study; looks at 200 languages.
* Corbett, Geville (1994) "Gender and gender systems". En R. Asher (ed.) ''The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics'', Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 1347--1353.
* Greenberg, J. H. (1978) "How does a language acquire gender markers?". En J. H. Greenberg et al. (eds.) ''Universals of Human Language'', Vol. 4, pp. 47--82.
* Hockett, Charles F. (1958) ''A Course in Modern Linguistics'', Macmillan.
* Ibrahim, M. (1973) ''Grammatical gender. Its origin and development''. La Haya: Mouton.
* Iturrioz, J. L. (1986) "Structure, meaning and function: a functional analysis of gender and other classificatory techniques". ''Función'' 1. 1-3.
* Meissner, Antje & Anne Storch (eds.) (2000) ''Nominal classification in African languages'', Institut für Afrikanische Sprachwissenschaften, Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt am Main. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. ISBN 3-89645-014-X.
* [[Steven Pinker|Pinker, Steven]] (1994) ''[[The Language Instinct]]'', William Morrow and Company.
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gay rights</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Limitedgeographicscope}}
{{Gay rights}}
The '''gay rights movement''', also called the '''LGBT rights movement''', is a [[social movement|social]] and [[political movement]] with the goal of achieving [[Social equality|equality]] for [[lesbian]], [[gay]], [[bisexuality|bisexual]] and [[transgender]]ed ([[LGBT]]) persons.
:''For the gay rights situation in specific countries, see [[:Category:Gay rights by country|Gay rights by country]].''
== The movement today ==
The [[gay]] rights social movement comprises a collection of loosely aligned [[civil rights]] groups, [[human rights]] groups, support groups and [[political activist]]s seeking acceptance, [[tolerance]] and [[social equality|equality]] for [[lesbian]], [[gay]], [[bisexuality|bisexual]], and [[transgender]] people, and related causes. Although it is typically referred to as the ''gay'' rights movement, members also promote the [[rights]] of groups of individuals who do not necessarily identify as being gay - see the article [[Homosexuality and Transgender]].
These views are considered controversial by some, and the [[gay]] rights movement is opposed by a variety of individuals and groups including some religious and political (traditionally though not exclusively [[conservative]]) groups. Despite this controversy, many of these views have been taken up by mainstream professional organizations such as the American Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the American Medical Association. Anti-gay-rights activists (for example, [[NARTH]]), however, say that these mainstream institutions have succumbed to political pressure rather than relying on a rational examination of the facts. An example that is often cited is the controversy over the removal of homosexuality from the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]]. In 1973, homosexuality was removed and replaced with "Sexual Orientation Disturbance" in the DSM-II; this was changed to "Ego-Dystonic Homosexuality" in the DSM-III and was removed entirely from the DSM-IV.
Although it is difficult to generalize, given the wide range of opinions and beliefs within the gay rights movement, most proponents of gay rights agree that all people deserve equal rights, equal respect and parity in law, regardless of their [[sexual orientation]], [[gender identity]] or gender expression, and that prejudice ([[homophobia]], [[biphobia]] and [[transphobia]]) is dangerous, not just to gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender people, but to all members of society. It is also commonly argued that [[sexual orientation]] and [[gender identity]] are innate and cannot be consciously changed, and attempts to alter sexual orientation (see [[ex-gay]], [[reparative therapy]] and [[gender identity]]) are generally opposed in principle.
→See [http://www.pflag.org The PFLAG website] for more information on these beliefs.
== History ==
===Before 1860===
In [[Early Modern Europe|eighteenth]] and [[European_history#The_19th_century|nineteenth century Europe]], same-sex sexual behaviour and [[cross-dressing]] were widely considered to be socially unacceptable, and were serious crimes under [[sodomy]] and [[sumptuary law]]s. Any organised community or social life was underground and secret. The first voices began to call for social acceptance from 1790, when groups of militant 'sodomite-citizens' in Paris petitioned the [[Assemblée nationale]], the governing body of the [[French Revolution]], for freedom and recognition.{{ref|Blasius1}} In 1833, an anonymous English-language writer wrote a poetic defence of Captain Nicholas Nicholls, who had been sentenced to death in London for [[sodomy]]:
:''Whence spring these inclinations, rank and strong?''
:''And harming no one, wherefore call them wrong?''{{ref|Blasius2}}
Three years later in Switzerland, Heinrich Hoessli published the first volume of ''Eros: Die Mannerliebe der Griechen'' ("Eros: The Male-love of the Greeks"), another defence of same-sex love.{{ref|Blasius3}}
===1860 - 1933===
Modern historians usually look to German activist [[Karl Heinrich Ulrichs]] as the pioneer of the LGBT rights movement. Ulrichs [[coming out|came out]] publicly and began publishing books about same-sex love and gender variance in the [[1860s]], a few years before the term "homosexual" was first published in [[1869]]. Ulrichs' ''[[Uranian]]s'' were people with a range of gender expressions and same-sex desires; he considered himself "a female psyche in a male body".
From the 1870s, social reformers in other countries had began to take up the Uranian cause, but their identites were kept secret for fear of reprisal. A secret British society called "The Order of Chaeronea" campaigned for the legalisation of homosexuality, and counted playwright [[Oscar Wilde]] among its members in the last decades of the 19th century.{{ref|McKenna}} In the 1890s, English [[socialism|socialist]] poet [[Edward Carpenter]] and Scottish [[anarchism|anarchist]] [[John Henry Mackay]] wrote in defense of same-sex love and [[androgyny]]; Carpenter and British [[pederasty|pederast]] [[John Addington Symonds]] contributed to the development of [[Havelock Ellis]]'s groundbreaking book ''Sexual Inversion'', which called for tolerance towards "inverts" and was suppressed when first published in England.
In Europe and America, a broader movement of "[[free love]]" was also emerging from the 1890s among [[first-wave feminism|"first-wave" feminists]] and a minority of radicals of [[the Left]]. They challenged [[Victorian era|Victorian]] sexual morality and attacked the traditional institutions of family and marriage that were seen to enslave women. Advocates of "free love" such as the Russian bisexual anarchist [[Emma Goldman]] spoke in defence of same-sex love and against repressive laws until the 1920s.
In [[1898]], German doctor and writer [[Magnus Hirschfeld]] formed the [[Scientific-Humanitarian Committee]] to campaign publicly against the notorious law "[[Paragraph 175]]", which made sex between men illegal. [[Adolf Brand]] later broke away from the group, disagreeing with Hirschfeld's medical view of the "[[third sex|intermediate sex]]", seeing male-male sex as merely an aspect of manly virility and male social bonding. Brand was the first to use "[[outing]]" as a political strategy, claming that German [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] [[Bernhard von Bülow]] engaged in homosexual activity.
[[Anna Rüling]], delivering a public speech in 1904 at the request of Hirschfeld, became the first female Uranian activist. Rüling, who also saw "men, women, and homosexuals" as three distinct genders, called for an alliance between the women's and sexual reform movements, but this speech is her only known contribution to the cause. Women only began to join the previously male-dominated sexual reform movement around 1910 when the German government tried to expand Paragraph 175 to outlaw sex between women. Heterosexual feminist leader [[Helene Stöcker]] became a prominent figure in the movement.
Hirschfeld, whose life was dedica |
allarat News'. Local radio stations are 'The Voice', 'Power FM' and 'Noise FM'. Ballarat has its own television broadcasting facilities which provide regional television for most of the eureka district. [[WIN Television|WIN]], [[Prime Television|PRIME]], and [[Southern Cross Ten]] license [[Nine Network]], [[Seven Network]], and [[Network Ten]] content respectively and maintain a similar schedule but with local demographic commercials and local/regional news. Subscription television services are provided by [[Neighbourhood Cable]], and [[Austar]].
[[image:rat1-640.jpg|frame|Ballarat looking over [[Lake Wendouree]]; in the distance is [[Mount Warrenheip]].]]<br clear=all />
==Climate==
Ballarat experiences a temperate climate with four seasons. Because of its elevation, at 450 metres above sea level, mean monthly temperatures tend to be on average 2-3 degrees below those for Melbourne. The mean daily maximum temperature for January is 24.9° Celsius, while for July it is 3°C . The mean annual rainfall is 705 mm, with August being the wettest month (77 mm). There are an average of 198 rain-free days per year.
In winter, [[snow]] occasionally falls on nearby [[Mount Buninyong | Mount Buninyong]], and in very cold winters, has been known to fall in the city centre.
==Famous sons, daughters, and residents==
* [[Henry Bolte]], Premier of Victoria 1955-72
* [[Steve Bracks]], Premier of Victoria, 1999-Present
* [[Henry Daglish]], Premier of [[Western Australia]], 1904-05
* [[George Cardinal Pell]], Archbishop of Sydney, 2001-present
* [[Frank Fenner]], virologist
* [[David Fleay]] (b. 1907) - [[natural history|naturalist]], and first breeder of the [[Platypus]]
* [[Leslie Morshead]], regarded as one of Australia's two greatest generals
* [[Maxine Klibingaitis]], Australian actress
* [[James Scullin]], Prime Minister of Australia, 1930-31
* [[Kimberley Davies]] - [[actor]], appeared in ''[[Neighbours]]''
* [[Tony Lockett|Tony Lockett]], [[Australian Football League]] footballer and holder of the all-time goalkicking record
* [[Steve Moneghetti]], former [[Summer Olympic Games|olympic]] [[Marathon (sport)|marathon]] runner
==External links==
*[http://www.visitballarat.com.au Ballarat Tourism website]
*[http://www.ballarathistoricalsociety.com/ Ballarat Historical Society]
*[http://ballarat.cityguide.net.au/ Ballarat CityGuide]
*[http://www.ballarat.vic.gov.au/ Local Council]
*[http://www.myballarat.com/ Residents Portal]
*[http://www.thecourier.com.au/ The Courier (Local Newspaper)]
*[http://www.noisefm.com.au/ Noise FM 87.8]
*[http://www.ballarat.edu.au/ University of Ballarat]
*[http://www.travelvictoria.com.au/ballarat/photos/ Photos from around Ballarat]
{{Victorian cities}}
[[Category:Cities in Victoria]]
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<page>
<title>Battle of Aboukir</title>
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<timestamp>2002-06-11T13:26:38Z</timestamp>
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<page>
<title>Battle of Abrittus</title>
<id>4975</id>
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<comment>added battlebox</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Abrittus
|partof=the Roman-Barbarian Wars
|image=
|caption=
|date=[[July 1]], [[251]]
|place=Razgrad, [[Bulgaria]]
|casus=
|territory=
|result=Gothic victory
|combatant1=[[Roman Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Goths]]
|commander1=[[Trajan Decius]]&dagger;<br/>[[Herennius Etruscus]]&dagger;
|commander2=[[Cniva]]
|strength1=Unknown
|strength2=Unknown
|casualties1=Unknown
|casualties2=Unknown
}}
The '''Battle of Abrittus''' (now Razgrad, [[Bulgaria]]), also known as the '''Battle of Forum Terebronii,''' occurred on [[July 1]], [[251]], between the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[legion]]s and [[Goths]] under King [[Cniva]]. The Romans were defeated, and the [[Roman Emperors|Emperor]] [[Decius]] and his son [[Herennius Etruscus|Herennius]] were both killed during battle, largely thanks to the failure of the general [[Trebonianus Gallus]] to attack aggressively. Decius became the first Roman emperor killed in a battle with barbarians.
Gallus, who became [[Roman Emperors|emperor]] upon Decius' death, negotiated a treaty with the Goths under duress, which allowed them to keep their booty and return to their homes on the other side of the Danube, while at the same time promising an annual tribute in return for the Goths' promise to respect Roman territory.
[[Ammianus Marcellinus]] (31.5.12-17) rates this reverse with the most serious military disasters of the [[Roman Empire]] to his time: [[Publius Quinctilius Varus|Varus]]' defeat at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]], the incursions of the [[Marcomanni]] during the reign of [[Marcus Aurelius]], and the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]].
[[Category:Crisis of the Third Century]]
[[Category:Battles of the Roman Empire|Abrittus 251]]
[[Category:Battles of the Goths|Abrittus 251]]
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<page>
<title>Battle of Adrianapol</title>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Battle of Adrianople]]</comment>
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<page>
<title>Battle of Adrianopolis</title>
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<page>
<title>Battle of Berestechko</title>
<id>4978</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-06T18:21:23Z</timestamp>
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<comment>link [[Chmielnicki Uprising]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bogun k.jpg|thumb|[[Ivan Bogun]] fighting the Poles in the Battle of Berestechko.]]
The '''Battle of Berestechko''' in Volhynia, [[Ukraine]], part of the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]], lasted from [[June 28]] to [[June 30]], [[1651]], between the [[Poland|Polish]] army under [[Rulers of Poland|King]] [[John II of Poland|Jan II Casimir]] and Ukrainian [[Cossack]] and peasant forces, led by [[Hetman]] [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]], and their [[Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] allies. The Polish army had around 57,000 troops, the Ukrainians around 100,000 plus 25,000 Tatar cavalry. The battle was won by the Poles after the Tatars, dispirited after the death of their leader [[Tugay Bey]], deserted the battlefield. As a result, Khmelnytsky was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Bila Tserkva]] with the Poles.
[[Category:1651]]
[[Category:Battles of Poland|Berestechko]]
[[Category:Battles of Ukraine|Berestechko]]
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<page>
<title>Boris Nikolaevich Yeltsin</title>
<id>4979</id>
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<timestamp>2002-05-01T18:32:03Z</timestamp>
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<page>
<title>Bohdan Khmelnytsky</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chmielnicki.jpg|200px|right|Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]
[[Image:BChmielnicki.JPG|166px|right|thumb|Bohdan Chmielnicki]]
'''Bohdan Zynovii Mykhailovych Khmel'nyts'kyi''' (Богдан Зиновій Михайлович Хмельницький in [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], commonly transliterated as '''Khmelnytsky'''; known in [[Polish language|Polish]] as '''Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki'''; in [[Russian (language)|Russian]] as '''Bogdan Khmel'nitsky''') (''c.'' [[1595]] &ndash; [[August 6]], [[1657]]) was a [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] noble of [[Poles|Polish]] or [[Ruthenia|Ruthenian]] origin, leader of the [[Zaporizhzhia (region)|Zaporozhia]]n [[Cossack Hetmanate]], [[hetman]] of [[Ukraine]], noted for his revolt against [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]] ([[1648]] &ndash; [[1654]]) and the [[Treaty of Pereyaslavl]] which eventually led to the annexation of [[Ukraine]] by the [[Russian Empire]].
== Biography ==
=== Early life ===
[[Image:Chmielnicki_ukraine_banknote_5_new.gif|thumb|right|300px|5 [[Hryvnia]] Ukrainian [[banknote]] depicting Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]
Khmelnytsky was probably born in [[Chyhyryn]], in [[Ukraine]]; it is unclear whether to a family of [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] nobility or to [[Poles|Polish]] nobility of [[Abdank]] Coat of Arms who had immigrated to Ukraine from [[Masovia]]. Khmelnytsky was educated by the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] in [[Lviv]]. Unlike many of their ot |
an had also built some under license.
The [[Soviet Union]] experimented extensively with hydrofoils, constructing hydrofoil [[ferries]] with streamlined designs, especially during the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. Such vessels include the [[Meteor (hydrofoil)|Meteor]] type and the smaller [[Voskhod]] type; these vessels have inspired people in the former Soviet Union to continue tinkering with hydrofoils and selling them to hydrofoil operators.
[[Image:PHM-4.jpg|thumb|300px|[[USS Aquila (PHM-4)|USS ''Aquila'']], a military hydrofoil. The T-shaped foils are visible just below the water.]]
The [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] operated combat hydrofoils, such as the [[Pegasus class hydrofoil|''Pegasus'' class]], from [[1977]] through [[1993]]. These hydrofoils were fast and well armed, and were capable of sinking all but the largest surface vessels. In their [[narcotics]] interdiction role, they were a nightmare for [[Illegal drug trade|drug runners]], being very fast, and having missiles and guns to stop anything they could not catch, as well as the ability to call in air support.
The [[Marina Militare|Italian Navy]] has used 6 hydrofoils of the ''[[Nibbio class|Nibbio]]'' class from the late [[1970s]]. These were armed with a 76 mm gun, two missiles and were capable of speed up to 50 knots.
==Current operation==
Some operators of hydrofoil include:
* [[Turbojet Ferry]], which speeds passengers across the [[Pearl River Delta]] between [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] in less than an hour, with an average speed of 45 knots (83km/h). Also services [[Shenzhen]], [[Guangzhou]] and [[Kowloon]]. Operated by Shun Tak-China Travel Ship Management Limited.
* ''Meteor'' service between [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]] and the [[Peterhof]] island, [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]'s Summer Palace.
* ''Navigazione Lago Maggiore'' provides fast and reliable boat services with hydrofoils on the [[Lake Maggiore]] between [[Locarno]] and [[Arona]]. Former Russian hydrofoils are used in southern Italy for connection with islands of [[Latium]] and [[Campania]].
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Enrico fermi lake maggiore luino.JPG|thumb|300px|A picture of ''[[Enrico Fermi]]'', an hydrofoil servicing on the [[Lake Maggiore]], here in Luino]] -->
[[image:YangtzeMeteor.jpg|thumb|300px|A Meteor in China on the [[Yangtze River]], running downstream fast on its hydrofoils.]]
<!--I removed this image as unworthy for a serious encyclopedia. Opinions welcome
[[image:hydrovessel.jpg|thumb|300px|A cutaway illustration of a hydrofoil, by Peter Welleman.]]
-->
==Video==
[[:Image:hydrofoil_egina.ogg|Video: Hydrofoils in action]]
==See also==
* [[Riverboat]]
* [[Hydroplaning]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.boeing.com/history/boeing/hydro.html Boeing's Jetfoil]
* [http://www.turbojet.com.hk Turbojet - Hong Kong to Macau Ferry]
* [http://www.human-powered-hydrofoils.com Human-Powered-Hydrofoils.com]
* [http://www.foils.org/gallery/misc.htm Human powered hydrofoil examples]
* [http://foils.org The International Hydrofoil Society]
* [http://www.kjps.co.jp/english/eindex.html Kawasaki Jetfoil]
* [http://www.riverships.ru/english/types/?grp=3 Directory of Soviet-made hydrofoils]
* Seminal [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics|NACA]] reports:
** [http://naca.larc.nasa.gov/reports/1958/naca-report-1355/ 1958-hydroplaning]
** [http://naca.larc.nasa.gov/reports/1955/naca-report-1232/ 1955-hydrofoil]
[[Category:Boat types]]
[[Category:Ship types]]
[[de:Tragflächenboot]]
[[fr:Hydrofoil]]
[[id:Hydrofoil]]
[[it:Aliscafo]]
[[nl:Draagvleugelboot]]
[[ja:水中翼船]]
[[no:Hydrofoil]]
[[sv:Bärplansbåt]]
[[zh:水翼船]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hull, England</title>
<id>13762</id>
<revision>
<id>15911354</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-13T03:50:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kingston_upon_Hull]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henri Chopin</title>
<id>13763</id>
<revision>
<id>37188837</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T08:01:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Henri Chopin''' (born [[1922]]) is an avant-garde [[poet]] and [[musician]].
Henri Chopin is a little-known but key figure of the French avant-garde during the second half of the [[20th century]]. Known primarily as a [[concrete poetry|concrete]] and [[sound poetry|sound poet]], he created a large body of pioneering recordings using early tape recorders, studio technologies and the sounds of the manipulated human voice. His emphasis on sound is a reminder that language stems as much from oral traditions as from classic literature, of the relationship of balance between order and chaos.
Chopin is significant above all for his diverse spread of creative achievement, as well as for his position as a focal point of contact for the international arts. As poet, painter, graphic artist and designer, typographer, independent publisher, film-maker, broadcaster and arts promoter, Chopin's work is a barometer of the shifts in European media between the [[1950s]] and the [[1970s]].
His publication and design of the classic audio-visual magazines Cinquième Saison and OU between 1958 and 1974, each issue containing recordings as well as texts, images, screenprints and multiples, brought together international contemporary writers and artists such as members of [[Lettrisme]] and [[Fluxus]], [[Jiri Kolar]], [[Ian Hamilton Finlay]], [[Tom Phillips (artist)|Tom Phillips]], [[Brion Gysin]], [[William S. Burroughs]] and many others, as well as bringing the work of survivors from earlier generations such as [[Raoul Hausmann]] and [[Marcel Janco]] to a fresh audience.
== External links ==
* http://www.erratum.org/chopin
[[Category:1922 births|Chopin, Henri]]
[[Category:Living people|Chopin, Henri]]
[[Category:French poets|Chopin, Henri]]
[[Category:French musicians|Chopin, Henri]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hassium</title>
<id>13764</id>
<revision>
<id>40046813</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T19:17:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=108 | symbol=Hs | name=hassium | left=[[bohrium]] | right=[[meitnerium]] | above=[[osmium|Os]] | below=(Upo) | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=8 | period=7 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery<br />white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(269)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | perhaps &#91;[[radon|Rn]]&#93; 5f<sup>14</sup> 6d<sup>6</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup><br />(guess based on [[osmium]]) }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_phase | presumably a [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 54037-57-9 }}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
'''Hassium''' ([[eka]]-osmium) is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Hs and [[atomic number]] 108.
It is a [[synthetic element]] whose most stable isotope is Hs-265, with a [[half-life]] of [[1 E-3 s|2 ms]].
== History ==
It was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] in [[1984]] by a German research team led by [[Peter Armbruster]] and [[Gottfried Münzenberg]] at the [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|Institute for Heavy Ion Research]] at [[Darmstadt]]. The name hassium was proposed by them, derived from the [[Latin]] name for the German state of [[Hessen]] where the institute is located.
There was an [[element naming controversy]] as to what the elements from 101 to 109 were to be called; thus [[IUPAC]] adopted unniloctium (symbol Uno) as a temporary, [[systematic element name]] for this element. In [[1994]] a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 108 be named hahnium.
The name hassium was adopted internationally, however, in [[1997]].
== External links ==
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Hs/index.html WebElements.com - Hassium]
*[http://www.apsidium.com/elements/108.htm Apsidium - Hs]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[ar:هاسيوم]]
[[ca:Hassi]]
[[cs:Hassium]]
[[de:Hassium]]
[[et:Hassium]]
[[es:Hassio]]
[[eo:Hasio]]
[[fr:Hassium]]
[[ko:하슘]]
[[it:Hassio]]
[[ku:Hassiyûm]]
[[la:Hassium]]
[[lt:Hasis]]
[[nl:Hassium]]
[[ja:ハッシウム]]
[[nn:Hassium]]
[[pl:Hass]]
[[pt:Hássio]]
[[ru:Хассий]]
[[sr:Хасијум]]
[[fi:Hassium]]
[[sv:Hassium]]
[[th:แฮสเซียม]]
[[uk:Гасій]]
[[zh:𨭆]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Kissinger</title>
<id>13765</id>
<revision>
<id>42130079</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:42:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>160.5.247.213</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* U.S. - Cuban relations */ M sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henry Kissinger.jpg|thumb|200px|Henry Kissinger circa 1970's.]]
'''Henry Alfred Kissinger''' (born [[May 27]], [[1923]] in [[Fürth]], [[Germany]], as '''Heinz Alfred Kissinger''') is an [[United States of America|American]] diplomat, [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel laureate]] and statesman. He served as [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] and later [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] in the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] administration, continuing in the latter position after [[Gerald Ford]] became President in the aftermath of the [[Watergate scandal]].
A proponen |
ns tend to predominate.
[[Image:Zorak-Mantis.png|thumb|none|200px|[[Chinese mantis]]]]
The exopterygote part of the [[Neoptera]] are sometimes divided into Orthopteroida (cerci present) and Hemipteroida (cerci absent), also called lower and higher Exopterygota.
There are approximately 5,000 [[Odonata|dragonfly]] species, 2,000 [[Mantodea|praying mantis]], 20,000 [[orthoptera|grasshopper]], 170,000 [[lepidoptera|butterfly and moth]], 120,000 [[Diptera|fly]], 82,000 [[hemiptera|true bug]], 350,000 [[beetle]], and 110,000 [[hymenoptera|bee and ant]] species. Estimates of the total number of current species, including those not yet known to science, range from two to thirty million, with most authorities favoring a figure midway between these extremes. The study of insects is called [[entomology]].
[[Image:Diptera 02gg.jpg|thumb|right|260px|[[Green bottle fly]]]]
==Relationship to other arthropods==
A few smaller groups with similar body plans, such as springtails ([[Collembola]]), are united with the insects in the Subphylum [[Hexapoda]]. But this Subphylum is proved to be artificial as springtails are no longer considered as relatives. They have most likely a different origin. This may also be that case for the rest of the members of the Entognatha; [[Protura]] and [[Diplura]]. The true insects (that is, species classified in the Class Insecta) are distinguished from all other arthropods in part by having '''ectognathous''', or exposed, mouthparts and eleven (11) abdominal segments. Their mouthparts are also the reason why they are called Ectognatha. Most species, but by no means all, have [[wing]]s as adults. Terrestrial arthropods, such as [[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, [[scorpion]]s and [[spider]]s, are sometimes confused with insects due to the fact that both have similar body plans, sharing (as do all arthropods) a jointed exoskeleton.
==Morphology and development==
[[Image:robal.png|left|300px|thumb|Insect anatomy <br>
'''A'''- Head &nbsp; '''B'''- Thorax &nbsp; '''C'''- Abdomen <br/>
1. antenna<br/>
2. ocelli (lower)<br/>
3. ocelli (upper)<br/>
4. compound eye<br/>
5. brain (cerebral ganglia)<br/>
6. prothorax<br/>
7. dorsal artery<br/>
8. [[trachea]]l tubes (trunk with [[spiracle]])<br/>
9. mesothorax<br/>
10. metathorax<br/>
11. first wing<br/>
12. second wing<br/>
13. mid-gut (stomach)<br/>
14. heart<br/>
15. ovary<br/>
16. hind-gut (intestine, rectum & anus)<br/>
17. anus<br/>
18. vagina<br/>
19. nerve chord (abdominal ganglia)<br/>
20. Malpighian tubes<br/>
21. pillow<br/>
22. claws<br/>
23. [[arthropod tarsus|tarsus]]<br/>
24. [[arthropod tibia|tibia]]<br/>
25. [[arthropod femur|femur]]<br/>
26. [[arthropod trochanter|trochanter]]<br/>
27. fore-gut (crop, gizzard)<br/>
28. thoracic ganglion<br/>
29. [[arthropod coxa|coxa]]<br/>
30. salivary gland<br/>
31. subesophageal ganglion<br/>
32. mouthparts<br/>]]
Insects range in size from less than a millimeter to over 18 centimeters (some [[walkingstick]]s) in length. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by an [[exoskeleton]], a hard outer covering made mostly of [[chitin]]. The body is divided into a head, a [[thorax]], and an [[abdomen]]. The head supports a pair of sensory [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]], a pair of [[compound eye]]s, and a mouth. The thorax has [[6 (number)|six]] [[leg]]s (one pair per segment) and wings (if present in the species). The abdomen, originally made up of eleven segments, has [[Excretion|excretory]] and reproductive structures.
Their nervous system can be divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord. As the head capsule are made up of six anterior body segments, the brain reflects this in its anatomy in containing six pairs of [[ganglia]]. The first three pairs are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into a structure called the subesophageal ganglion.
The thorax pairs have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair of ganglia in each thoraic segment. This arrangement is also found in the abdomen, but here there is one pair of ganglia in the first eight segments only, that is, three thoraic and eight abdominal paired ganglia.
Many species of insects have since then reduced this number by losing or fusing some of the abdominal ganglions and/or fusing those in the thorax. Some cockroach have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp ''Vespa crabro'' have reduced the number further with only two in the thorax and three abdominal. And then finally insects like the well known housefly have fused all the body ganglions into on big thoraic ganglion.
Insects have a complete digestive system. That is, their digestive system consists basically of a tube that runs from mouth to anus, contrasting with the incomplete digestive systems found in many simpler invertebrates. The excretory system consists of [[Malpighian tubule]]s for the removal of nitrogenous wastes and the hindgut for [[osmoregulation]]. At the end of the hindgut, insects are able to reabsorb water along with potassium and sodium ions. Therefore, insects don't usually excrete water with their feces, allowing storage of water in the body. This process of reabsorption enables them to withstand hot, dry environments.
Most insects have two pairs of wings located on the second and third thoracic segments. Insects are the only invertebrate group to have developed flight, and this has played an important part in their success. The winged insects, and their wingless relatives, make up the subclass [[Pterygota]]. Insect flight is not very well understood, relying heavily on turbulent atmospheric effects. In more primitive insects, flight tends to rely heavily on direct flight muscles, which act upon the wing structure. More advanced flyers, which make up the [[Neoptera]], in general, have wings that can be folded over their back, keeping them out of the way when not in use. In these insects, the wings are powered mainly by indirect-flight muscles that move the wings by stressing the thorax wall. These muscles are able to contract when stretched without nervous impulses, allowing the wings to beat much faster than would be otherwise possible.
Their outer skeleton called the cuticle is made up of two layers; the epicuticle which is a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer and contains no chitin, and another layer under it called procuticle. This is chitinous and much thicker than the first one, and who can be divided into two new layers. The first one is named the exocuticle and the second, last and deepest one is the endocuticle. The very tough and flexible endocuticle is built like numerous layers, made of fibres of chitin and proteins, crossing each others in a sandwich pattern.
Insects use [[trachea]]l respiration in order to transport oxygen through their bodies. Openings on the surface of the body called [[spiracle]]s lead to the tubular tracheal system. Air reaches internal tissues via this system of branching trachea. There are never more than one pair of spiracles per segment. And never more than two pairs of spiracles on thorax (mesothorax and metathorax), or more than eight pairs on the amdomen (the first eight segments). Many higher insects have reduced the number of spiracles; the hoverflies have lost all the spiracles on their abdomen. There is a limit to the pressure that the walls of the tracheal tubes can withstand without collapsing, even if they are stiffened with bands of chitin, which is one of the reasons why insects are relatively small.
The spiracles are equipped with muscle controlled valves, enabling the insects to open and close them. By closing them, they can avoid drowning in water, or prevent moisture from escaping their body by opening them only when new air is needed. With little activity, the spiracles are often partially closed. To stop dust and other unwelcome small particles from entering their trachea system when inhaling, the spiracles are blocked with hair that filters the particles away.
There are some species of insects, like members of [[Chironomidae]], commonly called "blood worms," that contain true respiratory pigments such as [[hemoglobin]] in their larval stage. Here the trachea are often reduced as their body can absorb oxygen directly from the water, allowing them to live in bottom mud where the oxygen levels are low.
Three pairs of the spiracles in water bugs are covered by a pressure-sensitive membrane. These work in much the same way as the human [[inner ear]], and make it possible to know their position in the water.
The last abdominal spiracle and associated trachea of caterpillars in the Lepidoptera have also been modified; the trachea of the eighth segment are modified into what can be called a trachea lung, as it has adapted to hemocyte gas exchange. Short [[tracheole]]s from this trachea ends in knots within the tracheole cell basement membrane. Since they do not supply any cellular tissue, it seems most likely that they are supplying the hemocytes with oxygen.
The [[Madagascar hissing cockroach]] expels air from certain spiracles to create a loud hissing sound.
A diffuse tissue of cells found through out the hemocoel of insects, most of all in the abdomen, is called the fat body. Energy storage and metabolic processes are among its main functions. It is also the closest insects comes to a liver.
The [[circulatory system]] of insects, like that of other arthropods, is open: The heart pumps the [[hemolymph]] through arteries to open spaces surrounding the internal organs; when the heart relaxes, the hemolymph seeps back into the heart.
Like some other invertebrates, insects cannot synthesise cholesterol and must receive it from the d |
torney General]]||align="left"|'''[[Harry M. Daugherty]]'''||align="left"|1923&ndash;1924
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Harlan F. Stone]]'''||align="left"|1924&ndash;1925
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John G. Sargent]]'''||align="left"|1925&ndash;1929
|-
|align="middle"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[Harry S. New]]'''||align="left"|1923&ndash;1929
|-
|align="middle"|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[Edwin Denby]]'''||align="left"|1923&ndash;1924
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Curtis D. Wilbur]]'''||align="left"|1924&ndash;1929
|-
|align="middle"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Hubert Work]]'''||align="left"|1923&ndash;1928
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Roy O. West]]'''||align="left"|1928&ndash;1929
|-
|align="middle"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[Henry Cantwell Wallace|Henry C. Wallace]]'''||align="left"|1923&ndash;1924
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Howard M. Gore]]'''||align="left"|1924&ndash;1925
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William M. Jardine]]'''||align="left"|1925&ndash;1929
|-
|align="middle"|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]]||align="left"|'''[[Herbert Hoover]]'''||align="left"|1923&ndash;1928
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William F. Whiting]]'''||align="left"|1928&ndash;1929
|-
|align="middle"|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Secretary of Labor]]||align="left"|'''[[James J. Davis]]'''||align="left"|1923&ndash;1929
|}
<br clear="all">
===Supreme Court appointments===
Coolidge appointed the following Justice to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
* [[Harlan Fiske Stone]] - 1925
==Retirement and death==
In his post-White House years, Coolidge served as chairman of the non-partisan [[Railroad Commission]], as honorary president of the [[Foundation of the Blind]], as a director of [[New York Life Insurance Company]], as president of the [[American Antiquarian Society]], and as a trustee of Amherst College. <ref> [http://www.vermonthistory.org/arccat/findaid/coolidge.htm Coolidge Family Papers, 1802-1932] - Vermont Historical Society Library </ref> Coolidge received an honorary LL.D. from [[Bates College]] in Lewiston, Maine.
Coolidge published an [[autobiography]] in 1929 and wrote a syndicated newspaper column, "Calvin Coolidge Says," from 1930-1931. He died suddenly of coronary [[thrombosis]] at his home, "The Beeches," at 12:45 p.m. in [[Northampton, Massachusetts]] on [[January 5]], [[1933]] at the age of 60. Prior to his death, Coolidge felt disappointed about Hoover's re-election defeat, after which his health began to decline very rapidly. Shortly before his death, Coolidge confided to an old friend: "I feel I no longer fit in these times."
Coolidge is buried beneath a simple headstone in Notch Cemetery, [[Plymouth Notch]], Vermont, where the family homestead is maintained as a museum. The State of Vermont dedicated a new historic-site visitors' center nearby to mark Coolidge's 100th birthday on [[July 4]], [[1972]].
==References==
===Scholarly sources===
* Fuess, Claude M. ''Calvin Coolidge: The Man from Vermont'' (1940)
* Sobel, Robert ''Coolidge: An American Enigma'' (1998)
* Ferrell, Robert H. ''The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge'' (1998)
* McCoy, Donald ''Calvin Coolidge: A Biography'' (2000)
* Russell, Francis. ''A City in Terror: Calvin Coolidge and the 1919 Boston Police Strike'' (2005)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1105748 White, William Allen. ''A Puritan in Babylon: The Story of Calvin Coolidge'' (1938)]
===Primary sources===
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82302633 Coolidge, Calvin. ''The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge'' (1929)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77365439 ''The Talkative President: The Off-The-Record Press Conferences of Calvin Coolidge'' edited by Howard H. Quint and Robert H. Ferrell (1964)]
===Other===
An academic conference on Coolidge was held July 30-31, [[1998]], at the [[John F. Kennedy Library]] to mark the 75th anniversary of his lantern-light homestead inaugural.
==Notes==
<references/>
== Noted Quotes ==
*"Collecting more taxes than absolutely necessary is legalized robbery."
*"I have noticed that nothing I never said ever did me any harm."
*"Patriotism is easy to understand in America. It means looking out for yourself by looking out for your country."
*"Nothing in the world can take the place of persistence. Talent will not; nothing is more common than unsuccessful people with talent. Genius will not; unrewarded genius is almost a proverb. Education will not; the world is full of educated derelicts. Persistence and determination alone are omnipotent. The slogan "press on" has solved and always will solve the problems of the human race."
*"The nation which forgets its defenders will be itself forgotten."
*"We do not need more intellectual power, we need more moral power. We do not need more knowledge, we need more character. We do not need more government, we need more culture. We do not need more law, we need more religion. We do not need more of the things that are seen, we need more of the things that are unseen. If the foundation be firm, the foundation will stand."
*"You lose." (His wife, Grace Goodhue Coolidge, recounted that a young woman sitting next to Coolidge at a dinner party confided to him she had bet she could get at least three words of conversation from him. Without looking at her he quietly retorted, "You lose.")
*"I do not choose to run for President in 1928."
*"Perhaps one of the most important accomplishments of my administration has been minding my own business."
*"The chief business of the American people is business." (Full quote: "After all, the chief business of the American people is business. They are profoundly concerned with producing, buying, selling, investing, and prospering in the world. I am strongly of the opinion that the great majority of people will always find these are moving impulses in our life. . . . In all experience, the accumulation of wealth means the multiplication of schools, the encouragement of science, the increase of knowledge, the dissemination of intelligence, the broadening of outlook, the expansion of liberties, the widening of culture. Of course the accumulation of wealth cannot be justified as the chief end of existence. But we are compelled to recognize it as a means to well-nigh every desirable achievement. So long as wealth is made the means and not the end, we need not greatly fear it. And there never was a time when wealth was so generally regarded as a means, or so little regarded as an end, as today. It is only those who do not understand our people who believe that our national life is entirely absorbed by material motives. We make no concealment of the fact that we want wealth, but there are many other things that we want very much more. We want peace and honor, and that charity which is so strong an element of all civilization. The chief ideal of the American people is idealism. I cannot repeat too often that America is a nation of idealists. . . . . No newspaper can be a success which fails to appeal to that element of our national life."
*"There is no right to strike against the public safety of anybody, anywhere, any time."
*"It's hard to imagine Senator Borah going in the same direction as his horse." (After he was told a Southern senator, named Borah, often went riding around Washington, D.C. The senator was reputedly extremely headstrong.)
*"Nothing in the world can take the place of persistence. Talent will not; nothing is more common than unsuccessful men with talent. Genius will not; unrewarded genius is almost a proverb. Education will not; the world is full of educated derelicts. Persistence and determination alone are omnipotent. The slogan, 'press on' has solved, and always will solve, the problems of the human race."
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Calvin Coolidge video montage.ogg|
title = Calvin Coolidge video montage|
description =Collection of video clips of the president. (4.0 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
== See also ==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1920]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1924]]
* [[Coolidge effect]]
==External sources==
*[[Robert N. Sobel]] published '''Coolidge: An American Enigma''' in 1998.
== External links ==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/cc30.html Official White House biography]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/coolidge.htm Inaugural Address]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=CoolidgeC Audio clips of Coolidge's speeches]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/coolidge.htm Calvin Coolidge Biography]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-1.html 1st State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-2.html 2nd State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/uni |
ar degree to a graduate degree. [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos042.htm]
*Men hold 72% of the Bachelor's degrees in computer science, women hold 28%. [http://news.com.com/Opening+doors+for+women+in+computing/2100-1022_3-5557311.html]
*The average age is 38 years old for a software developer. [http://www.gamasutra.com/features/19991222/mcconnell_pfv.htm]
{{section-stub}}<!--- needs more than just U.S. --->
== External links ==
*[http://www.techbookreport.com/ProgIndex.html TechBookReport] - reviews of books on all aspects of computer programming - including programming language tutorials, best practices, methodologies etc
*[http://www.gamasutra.com/features/19991222/mcconnell_pfv.htm Software programmer demographics]
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[[pt:Programação de computadores]]
[[ru:Программирование]]
[[sl:Ra%C4%8Dunalni%C5%A1ko_programiranje]]
[[sv:Programmering]]
[[vi:Lập trình]]
[[zh:%E7%A8%8B%E5%BA%8F%E8%AE%BE%E8%AE%A1]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Consolation of Philosophy</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boethius.consolation.philosophy.jpg|thumb|right|This early printed book has many hand-painted illustrations depicting Lady Philosophy and scenes of daily life in fifteenth-century [[Ghent]] (1485)]]
'''''Consolation of Philosophy''''' ([[Latin]]: '''''Consolatio Philosophiae''''') is a philosophical work by [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]] written in about the year [[524]] AD. It has been described as the single most important and influential work in the West in medieval and early Renaissance Christianity, and is also the last great work that can be called Classical.{{fn|1}} {{fn|7}}
==Consolation of Philosophy==
::<sup>“A golden volume not unworthy of the leisure of Plato or Tully.” [[Edward Gibbon]]</sup> {{fn|2}}
''Consolation of Philosophy'' was written during Boethius' one year imprisonment by [[Ostrogoth]]ic King [[Theodoric the Great]] while awaiting trial, and eventual horrific execution, for the crime of [[treason]]. Boethius was at the very heights of power in Rome and was brought down by treachery. It was from this experience he was inspired to write a philosophical book from prison reflecting on how a lord's favor could change so quickly and why friends would turn against him. It is “by far the most interesting example of prison literature the world has ever seen.” {{fn|3}}
Boethius writes the book as a conversation between himself and the Queen of Science, Lady Philosophy. She consoles Boethius' failed fortunes by discussing the transitory nature of earthly belongings, and the ultimate superiority of things of the mind, which she calls the “one true good”. She says happiness comes from within, something that [[fortuna|Lady Fortune]] can never take away: “Why, then, O mortal men, do you seek that happiness outside, which lies within yourselves?”
Boethius discusses time-worn philosophical questions such as the nature of predestination and free will, why evil men often prosper and good men fall into ruin, what is [[human nature]], and to define [[virtue]] and [[justice]]. He speaks about the nature of free will versus determinism when he asks if God knows and sees all, or does man have free will. To quote [[VE. Watts]] on Boethius, ''God is like a spectator at a chariot race; He watches the action the charioteers perform, but this does not cause them.''{{fn|4}} On human nature, Boethius says that humans are essentially good and only when they give in to “wickedness” do they “sink to the level of being an animal.” On justice, he says criminals are not to be abused, rather treated with sympathy and respect, using the analogy of doctor and patient to illustrate the ideal relationship between criminal and prosecutor.
Boethius sought to answer religious questions without reference to Christianity, relying solely on natural philosophy and the Classic Greek tradition. He believed in harmony between faith and reason. The truths found in Christianity would be no different than the truths found in philosophy. In the words of Henry Chadwick, “If the ''Consolation'' contains nothing distinctively Christian, it is also relevant that it contains nothing specifically pagan either...[it] is a work written by a Platonist who is also a Christian, but is not a Christian work.” {{fn|5}}
==Influence==
::<sup>“To acquire a taste for it is almost to become naturalised in the Middle Ages.” [[C.S. Lewis]]</sup> {{fn|6}}
[[Image:Consolation of philosophy 1385 boethius images.jpg|thumb|200px|From a 1385 Italian manuscript of the ''Consolation'': Minatures of Boethius teaching and in prison]]
From the [[Carolingian]] epoch to the end of the Middle Ages and beyond, this was the most widely copied work of secular literature in Europe. It was one of the most popular and influential philosophical works, read by statesmen, poets, and historians, as well as of philosophers and theologians. It is through Boethius that much of the thought of the Classical period was made available to the Western Medieval world. It has often been said Boethius was the “last of the Romans and the first of the Scholastics”. {{fn|7}}
The philosophical message of the book fit well with the religious piety of the Middle Ages. Readers were encouraged not to seek wordly goods such as money and power, but to seek internalized virtues. Evil had a purpose, to provide a lesson to help change for good; while suffering from evil was seen as virtuous. Because God ruled the universe through Love, prayer to God and the application of Love would lead to true happiness.{{fn|8}} The Middle Ages, with their vivid sense of an overruling fate, found in Boethius an interpretation of life closely akin to the spirit of Christianity. The ''Consolation of Philosophy'' stands, by its note of fatalism and its affinities with the Christian doctrine of humility, midway between the heathen philosophy of [[Seneca the Younger]] and the later Christian philosophy of consolation represented by [[Thomas Aquinas]].{{fn|9}}
The book is heavily influenced by [[Plato]] and his [[Socratic Dialogue|dialogues]] (as was Boethius himself). Its popularity can in part be explained by its [[neoplatonic]] and Christian ethical messages, although current scholarly research is still far from clear exactly why and how the work became so vastly popular in the Middle Ages. Notably, the book has not received much attention in the recent modern era, possibly in part because of its foreign inward looking virtues and rejection of the modern emphasis on material productiveness. {{fn|10}} As Sanderson Beck says of the Middle Ages:
[[Image:ForutuneWheel.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Lady Fortune with her wheel in a medieval manuscript of a work by [[Boccaccio]]; ''Consolation of Philosophy'' was responsible for the popularity of the goddess of Fortune in the Middle Ages]]
:“Who can say that this inward period of humanity did not prepare the way for the productiveness of the Renaissance like a person quiets one's consciousness in contemplation and prayer before creating a great work of art or literature or science? The Middle Ages were difficult times politically and economically, but who can estimate how much happiness they inwardly received from the Consolation of Philosophy?”.{{fn|11}}
Translations into [[vernacular]] were done personally by famous notables, to list a few: [[King Alfred]] ([[Old English language|Old English]]), [[Jean de Meun]] ([[Old French]]), [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] ([[Middle English]]), [[Queen Elizabeth I]] ([[Early Modern English]]), [[Notker Teutonicus]] ([[Old German]]).
Found within ''Consolation'' are themes that have echoed throughout the Western canon: the female figure of wisdom that informs Dante, the ascent through the layered universe that is shared with Milton, the reconciliation of opposing forces that find their way into Chaucer in The Knight's Tale, the Wheel of Fortune so popular throughout the Middle Ages.
Citations from it occur frequently in [[Dante]]s ''[[Divina Commedia]]''. Of Boethius, Dante remarked ''“The blessed soul who exposes the deceptive world to anyone who gives ear to him.”''{{fn|12}}
Boethian influence can be found nearly everywhere in [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s poetry, e.g. in ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'', ''[[The Knight's Tale]]'', ''[[The Clerk's Tale]]'', ''[[The Franklin's Tale]]'', ''[[The Parson's Tale]]'' and ''[[The Tale of Melibee]]'', in the character of Lady Nature in ''[[The Parliament of Fowls]]'' and some of the shorter poems, such as ''Truth'', ''The Former Age'' and ''Lak of Stedfastnesse''. Chaucer translated the work in his ''[[Boece (Chaucer)|Boece]]''.
Many 19th century poets reference Boethius.
[[Tom Shippey]] in ''The Road to Middle-Earth'' says how “Boethian” much of the treatment of evil is in [[Tolkien]]'s [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Shippey says that Tolkien knew well the translation of Boethius that was made by King Alfred and he quotes some “Boethian” remarks from Frodo, Treebeard, and Elrond. { |
l Flash animation by Kathy Hays] An example of how the Borda count is used to determine the Most Valuable Player in Major League Baseball.
[[Category:Voting systems]]
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[[fr:Méthode Borda]]</text>
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<page>
<title>British Library</title>
<id>4156</id>
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<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BritishLibraryOssulston.JPG|thumb|200px|British Library Ossulston St entrance, with distinctive red logo.]]
The '''British Library''' is the [[national library]] of the [[United Kingdom]] and is one of the world's most significant [[List of Research libraries|research libraries]], holding over 150 million items and adding some 3 million every year. The library includes copies of the majority of the books found in the [[Library of Congress]] (but not the other media and manuscripts), along with a substantial additional collection of international items and historical items dating back as far as [[300 BC]]. As of March [[as of 2004|2004]] the library holds 11.2 million [[monograph]]s and receives more than 41,500 regular [[serial]]s. The library receives copies of all books produced in the UK, including all books from abroad which are reprinted in the UK, and many items which are only printed abroad.
== Historical background ==
[[Image:British Library Gate.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The main entrance gate was designed by [[Lida Cardozo|Lida]] and [[David Kindersley]].]]
As an institution the British Library is surprisingly young compared to equivalent institutions in other countries, having been created in [[1973]] by the ''British Library Act 1972''. Prior to this, the national library was part of the [[British Museum]], which provided the bulk of the holdings of the new library, alongside various smaller organisations which were folded in (such as the [[British National Bibliography]]). In [[1983]], the library absorbed the [[National Sound Archive]].
[[Image:British_Library_Gate_Shadow.jpg|thumb|200px|The entrance gate and its own shadow.]]
For many years its collections were dispersed in various buildings around [[central London]], in places such as [[Bloomsbury, London|Bloomsbury]] (right next to the British Museum), [[Chancery Lane]], and [[Holborn]], with the lending library at [[Boston Spa]] and the newspaper library at [[Colindale]]. Since [[1997]], however, the main collection has been housed in a single new building in [[Euston Road]] next to [[St. Pancras railway station]]. The new library was designed specially for the purpose by the architect [[Colin St. John Wilson]]. It is the largest public building constructed in the United Kingdom in the [[20th century]]. However, newspapers are still held at [[Colindale]] and there is also a collection at a site at [[Boston Spa]] in [[Yorkshire]].
At the heart of the building is a three story glass tower containing ''The King's Library'', with 65,000 printed volumes along with other pamphlets, manuscripts and maps collected by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] between [[1763]] and [[1820]].
==Access to the collections==
[[Image:BritishLibraryInterior02.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Interior of the British Library, with the smoked glass wall of the King's Library in the background.]]
A number of important works are on display to the general public in a gallery called "Treasures of the British Library" which is open to the public seven days a week at no charge. There is an additional exhibition concerned with practical matters connected with the library's collection, such as printing and early [[sound recording]]. The Library also stages temporary exhibitions on a wide range of subjects which can be illuminated by the items in its collection - which is almost anything, not just literature.
Other items can be accessed in the Reading Rooms. In the past the Library emphasised its role as a "library of last resort" for people who needed access to deep and specialised collections which they could not find anywhere else. Nowadays it adopts a more welcoming approach and emphasises on its website that anyone who wishes to carry out research should be granted a reader's pass, providing they furnish the necessary identification for security purposes. The Library has come under criticism for admitting undergraduate students to the Reading Rooms, but the Library says that they have always admitted undergraduates as long as they have a legitimate personal, work-related or academic research purpose.
According to the website, more than half a million people use the Library's reading rooms every year. The huge reading rooms cover hundreds of seats which are filled with researchers every day. According to the [[May 2005]] Readers' Bulletin, usage of the Reading Rooms had gone up significantly in the last month or so - [[2005]] room usage has been the highest it has been for quite a few years. This is putting pressure on services including causing difficulty for readers using the cloakroom and locker facilities.
== Legal deposit ==
An [[Act of Parliament]] in [[1911]] established the principle of the [[Legal Deposit]], ensuring that the British Library, along with five other libraries in Britain and [[Ireland]], is entitled to receive a free copy of every item published in Britain and The Republic of Ireland. The other five libraries are: the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford]]; the [[Cambridge University Library|University Library]] at [[Cambridge]]; [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] Library in [[Dublin]]; and the National Libraries of [[National Library of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[National Library of Wales|Wales]]. The British Library is the only one that is entitled to receive a copy of everything within one month of publication; the other five have to wait for up to one year.
In [[2003]], a [[Private Member's Bill]], the [[Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003]], was passed which extended the Legal Deposit requirements to electronic documents such as [[CD-ROM]]s and selected [[websites]].
See [http://www.bl.uk/about/policies/legaldeposit.html here], from the British Library's website, for more information about legal deposit.
Like the [[Library of Congress]], these libraries have retained copies of every publication in the English language over the last 100 years which is deemed significant.
== Newspapers ==
The British Library Newspapers section is based in Colindale in north London. The Library has a more or less complete collection of British and Irish newspapers since [[1840]], owing in part to legal deposit legislation of [[1869]] mandating that the library receive a copy of each edition of a [[newspaper]]. [[London]] editions of national daily and Sunday newspapers are complete back to [[1801]]. In total the collection consists of 660,000 bound volumes and 370,000 reels of [[microfilm]] containing tens of millions of newspapers with 52,000 titles on 45km of shelves.
A collection of particular interest is the [[Thomason Tracts]], containing 7,200 [[seventeenth century]] newspapers, and the [[Burney Collection]] featuring newspapers from the late [[eighteenth century|eighteenth]] and early [[nineteenth century|nineteenth]] centuries. The Thomason Tracts and Burney collections are held at St Pancras, and are available in facsimile.
The section also has extensive records of non-[[United Kingdom|British]] newspapers in languages that use the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] alphabets. The collection is less substantial for languages of the [[Middle East]] and the rest of [[Asia]], though some holdings of these are held at the main library in [[St. Pancras]].
== Miscellaneous information ==
[[Image:British Library - Kings Cross - London - England - 020504.jpg|thumb|300px|British Library main building, London]]
The library also holds the [[Oriental and India Office Collections]] (OIOC), Now called APAC (Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections) which contain the collections of the [[India Office Library and Records]], and materials in the languages of [[Asia]] and of north and north-east [[Africa]].
The British Library participates in a project called '[[Bibliotheca Universalis]]' which aims at publishing major works on the [[World Wide Web|web]]. In the British Library's [[Digital library]] project collections can be toured online and the virtual pages of [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s notebooks and other great works can be turned electronically. The British Library's [[secure electronic delivery service]], started in 2003 at a cost of 6 million pounds, brings access to more than one hundred million items (including 280,000 journal titles, 50 million patents, 5 million reports, 476,000 U.S. dissertations and 433,000 conference proceedings) for researchers and library patrons worldwide which were previously unavailable outside the Library due to [[copyright]] restrictions.
The use of the Library's web catalogue also continues to increase. In [[2003]] more than 9.7 million searches were conducted.
== Highlights of the collections ==
* The [[Marc Aurel Stein|Stein collection]] from Central Asia.
* The [[Diamond Sutra]], claimed to be the world's oldest dated printed book
* The [[Lindisfarne Gospels]]
* Two [[Gutenberg Bible]]s
* Two [[1215]] copies of [[Magna Carta]]
* ''Papyrus Egerton 2'', the [[Egerton Gospel]]
* The only surviving copy of the poem ''[[Beowulf]]''
* 347 leaves of the [[Codex Sinaiticus]]
== Philatelic collections ==
The British Library [[philately|Philatelic]] Collections are the National Philatelic Collections of the [[United Kingdom]]. The Collections were established in [[1891]] with the donation of the [[Tapling Collection]] |
nt Episcopal Church''. New York: Macmillan.
*Butler, Diana Hochstedt. ''Standing against the Whirlwind: Evangelical Episcopalians in Nineteenth-Century America'' (1995)
*Bonomi, Patricia U. ''Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America'' (1988)
*Chorley, Edward Clowes. (1946). ''Men and Movements in the American Episcopal Church''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
* Gough, Deborah Mathias. ''Christ Church, Philadelphia: The Nation's Church in a Changing City'' (1995)
* [http://www.dinsdoc.com/greene-1.htm Greene, Evarts Boutelle. "The Anglican Outlook on the American Colonies in the Early Eighteenth Century." in ''American Historical Review'' 20 (October, 1914): 64-85] also in JSTOR; focus on SPG missionary work
*Hein, David. (2001). ''Noble Powell and the Episcopal Establishment in the Twentieth Century''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
*Hein, David, and Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr. (2005). ''The Episcopalians''. New York: Church Publishing.
*Hodges, George. ''Henry Codman Potter, Seventh Bishop of New York'' (1915)
*Manross, William Wilson. (1950). ''A History of the American Episcopal Church''. New York: Morehouse-Gorham.
*McConnell, Michael W. "Establishment and Disestablishment at the Founding, Part I: Establishment of Religion" ''William and Mary Law Review'', Vol. 44, 2003
*Mullin, Robert Bruce. (1986). ''Episcopal Vision/American Reality: High Church Theology and Social Thought in Evangelical America''. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.
*Nelson, John ''A Blessed Company: Parishes, Parsons, and Parishioners in Anglican Virginia, 1690-1776'' (2001)
*Olmstead, Clifton E. '' History of Religion in the United States'' (1960)
*Prichard, Robert W. (1999). ''A History of the Episcopal Church''. Rev. ed. Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Publishing.
*Prichard, Robert W. (1997). ''The Nature of Salvation: Theological Consensus in the Episcopal Church, 1801-73''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
*Shattuck, Gardiner H., Jr. (2000). ''Episcopalians and Race: Civil War to Civil Rights''. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky.
*Armentrout, Don S., & Slocum, Robert Boak. (Eds.). ([1999]).'' An Episcopal Dictionary of the Church: A User Friendly Reference for Episcopalians''. New York: Church Publishing Incorporated.
*Armentrout, Don S., & Slocum, Robert Boak. (1994). ''Documents of Witness: A History of the Episcopal Church, 1782-1985''. New York: Church Hymnal Corporation.
*Caldwell, Sandra M., & Caldwell, Ronald J. (1993). ''The History of the Episcopal Church in America, 1607-1991: A Bibliography''. New York: Garland Publishing.
*Prichard, Robert W. (Ed.). (1986). ''Readings from the History of the Episcopal Church''. Wilton, CT: Morehouse-Barlow.
*''The Episcopal Clerical Directory''. New York: Church Publishing.
*Wall, John N. (2000). ''A Dictionary for Episcopalians''. Boston, MA: Cowley Publications.
*Articles on leading Episcopalians, both lay (e.g., George Washington, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Frances Perkins) and ordained, in ''American National Biography''. (1999). Edited by John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
*''Anglican and Episcopal History'' (articles, church reviews, and book reviews)
==External links==
*[http://www.episcopalchurch.org/ The Episcopal Church]
*[http://www.episcopalchurch.org/gc/ Executive Offices of the General Convention]
*[http://www.episcopalarchives.org/ The Archives of the Episcopal Church]
*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/bcp.htm 1979 Book of Common Prayer]
*[http://www.cuac.org/53810_43981_ENG_HTM.htm?menu=menu53912/ Association of Episcopal Colleges]
*[http://www.episcopalchurch.org/ens/ Episcopal News Service]
*[http://www.iglesiaepioscopal.org.co/ The Episcopal Church Colombia]
{{Template:Anglican Churches}}
[[Category:Anglican churches|United States of America, Episcopal Church]]
[[Category:Christian denominations of North America]]
[[Category:Churches in the United States]]
[[Category:Episcopal Church in the United States of America|*]]
[[ca:Església Episcopal]]
[[de:Episcopal Church in the USA]]
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[[ja:米国聖公会]]
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[[zh:美国圣公会]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eusebius of Alexandria</title>
<id>10168</id>
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<comment>Wiki [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]. this article is not NPOV!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eusebius of Alexandria''', is an [[author]] to whom certain [[extant]] [[homilies]] are attributed.
These homilies enjoyed some renown in the [[Eastern Church]] in the sixth and seventh centuries. Their homiletical merit does not rise above mediocrity, and nothing is known of the author. In all events, he was not a [[patriarch]] of [[Alexandria]], as is affirmed in as early biography (''MPG'', lxxxvi. 1, pp. 297-310), written by one Johannes, a notary, and stating that Eusebius was called by Cyril to be his successor in the [[episcopate]]. The discourses belong probably to the fifth or sixth century, and possibly originated in Alexandria. They deal with the life of the Lord and with questions of ecclesiastical life and practise, which they resolve in a monastic-[[ascetic]] way. Their [[literary]] character is not quite clear; while most of them are adapted for public delivery, not a few bear the character of ecclesiastical pronouncements. They are printed in ''MPG,'' lxxxvi. 1, pp. 287-482, 509-536, except four included among Chrysostom's works. The fragments preserved in the so-called ''Sacra parallela'' are to be found in K. Hall's ''Fragmente vornicänischer Kirchenväter'' (''T U'', new series, v. 2, Leipzig, 1899), pp. 314-332. A homily concerning the observance of Sunday is attributed by Zahn to Eusebius of Emesa.
Note that Eusebius of Alexandria is not the well-known historian of the [[Christianity|Christian]] church, who is [[Eusebius of Caesarea]].
{{Schaff-Herzog}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eusebius of Angers</title>
<id>10169</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eusebius (Bruno) of Angers''' (died [[September 1]], [[1081]]) was bishop of [[Angers]], [[France]].
He first appears in the historical record as bishop of Angers at the [[synod]] of [[Reims]] in [[1049]], and for a long time had been an adherent of [[Berengar of Tours|Berengar]]'s doctrine of the Lord's Supper. As such he was regarded by Berengar himself and by his opponents [[Dietwin of Liege]], [[Durand of Troarne]], and [[Humbert]]. But when he recognized the strength of the opposition, he favored a compromise; at any rate he advised Berengar is [[1054]] to swear to the formula presented to him.
Nevertheless Berengar considered him his friend many years later and requested him to silence a certain Galfrid Martini or to arrange a disputation. In his reply Eusebius not only regretted the whole controversy, but also stated that he would abide by the words of the Bible, according to which the bread and wine after the consecration become the body and blood of the Lord (see [[transubstantiation]]); if one asks how this can take place, the answer must be that it is not according to the order of nature but in accordance with the divine omnipotence; at any rate one must be careful not to give offense to the plain Christian. The epistle is a downright renunciation of Berengar in case he should still maintain his view.
In favor of the supposition that Eusebius changed his opinion from deference to the [[List of Counts and Dukes of Anjou|Count of Anjou]], the decided opponent of Berengar and his doctrine, it can be adduced that he did not defend Berengar against the hostilities of the court, and that for a long time he sided with this violent prince. It is also possible that the fact impressed itself upon Eusebius that the religious consciousness of the time more and more opposed Berengar. Our knowledge, however, is too fragmentary to pass a very accurate sentence.
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[[Category:1081 deaths]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Eusebius of Caesarea</title>
<id>10172</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Eusebius}}
'''Eusebius of Caesarea''' (~[[275]] &ndash; [[May 30]], [[339]]) (often called ''Eusebius Pamphili'', "Eusebius [the friend] of Pamphilus") was a [[Archbishop of Caesarea|bishop of Caesarea in Palestine]] and is often referred to as the father of church history because of his work in recording the history of the early [[Christianity|Christian]] church. An earlier history by [[Hegesippus]] that he referred to has not survived.
==Biography==
His exact date and place of birth are unknown, and little is known of his youth. He became acquainted with the presbyter [[Dorotheus]] in [[Antioch]] and probably received exegetical instruction from him. In [[296]] he was in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and saw [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] who visited the country with [[Diocletian]]. He was in [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]] when [[Agapius]] was bishop and became friendly with [[Pamphilus of Caesarea]], with whom he seems to have studied the text of the [[Bible]], with the aid of |
ntinental Congressmen|Middleton, Henry]]</text>
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<title>Ham</title>
<id>14299</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-24T17:58:03Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41041832 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
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[[Image:NCI clove ham.jpg|thumb|Ham with cloves]]
Technically, '''ham''' is the [[thigh]] and [[buttock]] of any [[animal]] that is [[slaughter|slaughtered]] for [[meat]], but the term is usually restricted to a cut of [[pork]], the haunch of a [[pig]] or [[boar]]. Although it can be cooked and served fresh, most ham is cured in some fashion.
Ham can either be dry-cured or wet-cured. A dry-cured ham has been rubbed in a mixture containing [[sodium chloride|salt]] and a variety of other ingredients (most usually some proportion of [[sodium nitrate]] and [[sodium nitrite]]). [[Sugar]] is common in many dry cures in the [[United States]]. This is followed by a period of drying and aging. Dry-cured hams require a prolonged period of rehydration prior to consumption. A wet-cured ham has been cured with a brine, either by immersion or injection. The division between wet and dry cure is not always hard-and-fast as some ham curing methods begin wet but are followed by dry aging.
The majority of common wet-cured ham available in U.S. supermarkets is of the "city ham" variety, in which brine is injected into the meat for a very rapid curing suitable for mass market. Traditional wet curing requires immersing the ham in a brine for an extended period, often followed by light smoking. Traditional wet cured ham includes the [[England|English]] ''Wiltshire ham''.
Dry-cured varieties include ''[[prosciutto]] crudo'' (the [[Italy|Italian]] style of dry-cured ham) and ''Parma ham'' or ''prosciutto di Parma'' (''prosciutto crudo'' from the city of [[Parma]]). Spain has ''[[jamón serrano]]'' and jamón iberico. The United States has ''country ham'' (including ''Virginia ham''), which is smoked. [[England]] has the ''York ham''. [[Germany]]'s ''Westphalian ham'' is usually smoked over [[juniper]].
Ham is also processed into other meat products such as [[SPAM]] luncheon meat. Baked ham is also a traditional dish served on Easter.
==National regulation of ham production==
Each country that produces ham has its own regulations.
===USA===
In the United States, ham is regulated primarily on the basis of its cure and water content. US law (specifically the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]]) recognizes the following categories:
Fresh ham is an uncured hind leg of pork. Country Ham is uncooked, cured, dried, smoked-or-unsmoked, made from a single piece of meat from the hind leg of a hog or from a single piece of meat from a pork shoulder. [[Smithfield ham]], a country ham, must be made in or around [[Smithfield, Virginia]] to be sold as such.
[[image:ham.jpg|thumb|right|170px|Sliced ham]]
For most other purposes, under US law, a "ham" is a cured hind leg of pork that is at least 20.5% [[protein]] (not counting [[fat]] portions) and contains no added water. However "ham" can be legally applied to such things as "[[turkey (food)|turkey]] ham" if the meat is taken from the thigh of the animal. If the ham has less than 20.5% but is at least 18.5% protein, it can be called "ham with natural juices". A ham that is at least 17.0% protein and up to 10% added solution can be called "ham&mdash;water added". Finally, "ham and water product" refers to a cured hind leg of pork product that contains any amount of added water, although the label must indicate the percent added ingredients. If a ham has been cut into pieces and molded, it must be labeled "sectioned and formed" or "chunked and formed".
In addition to the main categories, some processing choices can affect legal labeling. A "smoked" ham must have been smoked by hanging over burning wood chips in a [[smokehouse]], and a "[[hickory]]-smoked" ham must have been smoked over hickory. Injecting "smoke flavor" is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was "smoked". Hams can only be labeled "[[honey]]-cured" if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used and has a discernable effect on flavor. So-called "lean" and "extra lean" hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat and [[cholesterol]] per 100 grams of product.
===Italy===
Earliest evidence of ham production in [[Italy]] comes from the [[Roman Republic|Republican Roman]] period ([[4th century BC|400]]-[[3rd century BC|300]] BCE). Modern Italian and [[European Union]] legislation grants a [[protected designation of origin]] to several hams, which specify where and how these types of ham can be produced.
There are several such hams from Italy, each one with a peculiar production process.
[[Parma]] ham, the so called [[Prosciutto di Parma]], has almost 200 producers concentrated in the eastern part of [[Parma]] Province. Its production is regulated by a quality consortium that recognizes qualifying products with distinctive mark. Only larger fresh hams are used (12-13 kilograms). Curing uses relatively little salt, producing a sweeter meat. After salting the meat is sealed with pig fat over the exposed muscle tissue, which slows drying. Curing occurs over a minimum 12 months. This curing method uses only salt, without nitrates and without spices. No conserving substances added. San Daniele ham (Prosciutto di San Daniele) is the most similar to Parma ham, especially the low quantity of salt added to the meat, and is the most prized ham.
Other raw hams include the so called "nostrani" or "nazionali" or "toscani", they are more strongly flavored and are produced using a higher quantity of salt. Italy also has widespread production of more pedestrian cooked hams.
See also [[prosciutto]].
===Spain===
One of the more exacting ham regulatory practices can be found in [[Spain]]. Not only are hams classified according to preparation, but the pre-slaughter diet and region of preparation are considered important. Spanish regulators recognize three types of ham hogs.
* Cellar hogs are fed only commercial feed.
* ''Recebo'' hogs are raised on commercial feed and fed acorns for the last few months of its life.
* ''Bellota'' hogs are fed a diet almost exclusively of [[acorn]]s (''bellotas'').
The regional appelations of Spanish ham (''[[jamón serrano]]'') include the following:
* [[Huelva]], a full-flavored ham produced in [[Cadiz]], [[Córdoba]], Huelva, [[Málaga]], [[Seville]], and [[Badajoz]].
* [[Guijuelo]], from [[Gredos]] and [[Béjar]], [[Castile]], [[León]], [[Extremadura]], and [[Andalusia]].
* Extremadura Dehesa, made in [[Cáceres]] and [[Badajoz]] exclusively of bellota hogs. This is a "white" ham.
* [[Teruel]], cured at least 800 meters above sea level, with a minimum of a year of curing and aging.
==19th-century United States wet/dry curing recipe==
(From [http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/rural_economy.html#cure_hams The Household Cyclopedia], [[1888]])
(This is reproduced, word for word, from the original source with added noted in parentheses. Vinegar is not typically used in ham curing in the present day.)
For each ham of twelve pounds weight: Two pounds of [[Sodium chloride|common salt]]; 2 ounces of [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]]; 1/4 pound of bay salt (coarse salt, possibly sea salt); 1/4 pound of coarse [[sucrose|sugar]]. This should be reduced to the finest powder. Rub the hams well with it; female hands are not often heavy enough to do this thoroughly. Then place them in a deep pan, and add a wineglassful (1/4 cup or 2 [[Fluid ounce|US fl. oz]]) of good [[vinegar]] (This may have been stronger than the "5 grain" vinegar usually available in the modern USA). Turn the hams every day; for the first three or four days rub them well with the brine; after that time it will suffice to ladle it over the meat with a wooden or iron spoon. They should remain three weeks in the pickle. When taken from it wipe them well, put them in bags of brown paper ''<nowiki>[Warning: the "brown paper" of a modern grocery sack should not be used in this fashion. The recipe probably refers to very plain, unbleached paper. "Brown paper bags" are made from a variety of unknown pulp sources and may have a variety of inappropriate chemicals.]</nowiki>'' and then (cold) [[Smoking (food)|smoke]] them with wood smoke for three weeks.
==External links==
[http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Fact_Sheets/Ham/index.asp] United States Department of Agriculture: Focus on Ham
{{cookbookpar|Ham}}
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<page>
<title>Henry Laurens</title>
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<timestamp>2005-12-29T11:39:56Z</timestamp>
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<comment>added photo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:henry laurens.jpg|thumb|250px|Henry Laurens]]
'''Henry Laurens''' ([[1724]]&ndash;[[1792]]) was an [[United States|American]] merchant and planter from [[South Carolina]] who became a political leader during the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]. He was a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]], the third President of the Second Continental Congress ([[November 1]], [[1777]] - [[December 9]], [[1778]]), the Vice-President of South Carolina, and |
pan="2" align="center"|<small>Important people and dates
|-
|align="right">|[[1931]]
| The term ''microwave'' first appears in print: ""When trials with wavelengths as low as 18 cm. were made known, there was undisguised surprise that the problem of the micro-wave had been solved so soon." ''Telegraph & Telephone Journal'' XVII. 179/1"
|-
|align="right">|[[1946]]
| The term "microwave" is first used in print in an astronomical context in an article "Microwave Radiation from the Sun and Moon" by [[Robert Dicke]] and [[Robert Beringer]].
|-
|align="right">|[[1946]]
| [[Robert Dicke]] predicts a microwave background radiation temperature of 20&nbsp;K (ref: Helge Kragh)
|-
|align="right">|[[1946]]
|Robert Dicke predicts a microwave background radiation temperature of "less than" 20&nbsp;K but later revised to 45&nbsp;K (ref: Stephen G. Brush)
|-
|align="right">|[[1946]]
|[[George Gamow]] estimates a temperature of 50&nbsp;K
|-
|align="right">|[[1948]]
|[[Ralph Alpher]] and [[Robert Herman]] re-estimate Gamow's estimate at 5&nbsp;K.
|-
|align="right">|[[1949]]
|Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman re-re-estimate Gamow's estimate at 28&nbsp;K.
|-
|align="right">|[[1960s]]
|Robert Dicke re-estimates a MBR (microwave background radiation) temperature of 40&nbsp;K (ref: Helge Kragh)
|-
|align="right">|[[1960s]]
| [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson]] measure the temperature to be approximately 3&nbsp;K. Robert Dicke, [[P. J. E. Peebles]], P. G. Roll and [[David Todd Wilkinson|D. T. Wilkinson]] interpret this radiation as a signature of the big bang.
|}
<!-- END TIMELINE -->
{{seealso|Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation}}
The cosmic microwave background was predicted by [[George Gamow]], [[Ralph Alpher]], and [[Robert Hermann]] in [[1948]]. Moreover, Alpher and Herman were able to estimate the temperature of the cosmic microwave background to be 5&nbsp;K.<ref>G. Gamow, "The Origin of Elements and the Separation of Galaxies," ''Physical Review'' '''74''' (1948), 505. G. Gamow, "The evolution of the universe", ''Nature'' '''162''' (1948), 680. R. A. Alpher and R. Herman, "On the Relative Abundance of the Elements," ''Physical Review'' '''74''' (1948), 1577.</ref> Although there were several
previous estimates of the temperature of space (see timeline), these suffered from two flaws. First, they were measurements of the ''effective'' temperature of space, and did not suggest that space was filled with a thermal [[Planck spectrum]]: Second, they are dependent on our special place at the edge of the [[Milky Way galaxy]] and did not suggest the radiation is isotropic. Moreover, they would yield very different predictions if Earth happened to be located elsewhere in the universe.<ref>A. K. T. Assis, M. C. D. Neves, "History of the 2.7&nbsp;K Temperature Prior to Penzias and Wilson," (1995, [http://redshift.vif.com/JournalFiles/Pre2001/V02NO3PDF/V02N3ASS.PDF PDF] | [http://www.dfi.uem.br/~macedane/history_of_2.7k.html HTML]) but see also N. Wright, "Eddington did not predict the CMB", [http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/Eddington-T0.html].</ref>
The results of Gamow were not widely discussed. However, they were rediscovered by [[Robert Dicke]] and [[Yakov Zel'dovich]] in the early 1960s. In 1964, this prompted [[David Todd Wilkinson]] and Peter Roll, Dicke's colleagues at [[Princeton University]], to begin constructing a Dicke radiometer to measure the cosmic microwave background<ref>R. H. Dicke, "The measurement of thermal radiation at microwave frequencies", ''Rev. Sci. Instrum.'' '''17''', 268 (1946). This basic design for a radiometer has been used in most subsequent cosmic microwave background experiments.</ref>. In [[1965]], [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson]] at [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] in nearby [[Holmdel, New Jersey]] had built a Dicke radiometer that they intended to use for radio astronomy and satellite communication experiments. Their instrument had an excess 3.5&nbsp;K [[noise temperature|antenna temperature]] which they could not account for. After receiving a telephone call from Holmdel, Dicke famously quipped: "Boys, we've been scooped."<ref>A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wilson, "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s," ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''142''' (1965), 419. R. H. Dicke, P. J. E. Peebles, P. G. Roll and D. T. Wilkinson, "Cosmic Black-Body Radiation," ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''142''' (1965), 414. The history is given in P. J. E. Peebles, ''Principles of physical cosmology'' (Princeton Univ. Pr., Princeton 1993).</ref> A meeting between the Princeton and Holmdel groups determined that the antenna temperature was indeed due to the microwave background. Penzias and Wilson received the 1978 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for their discovery.
The interpretation of the cosmic microwave background was a controversial issue in the 1960s with some proponents of the [[steady state theory]] arguing that the microwave background was the result of scattered starlight from distant galaxies. Using this model, and based on the study of narrow absorption line features in the spectra of stars, the astronomer Andrew McKellar wrote in 1941: "It can be calculated that the 'rotational' temperature of interstellar space is 2&nbsp;K."<ref>A. McKellar, ''Publ. Dominion Astrophys. Obs.'' '''7''', 251.</ref> However, during the 1970s the consensus was established that the cosmic microwave background is a remnant of the big bang. This was largely because new measurements at a range of frequencies showed that the spectrum was a thermal, black-body spectrum, a result that the steady state model was unable to reproduce.
Harrison, Peebles and Yu, and Zel'dovich realized that the early universe would have to have inhomogeneities at the level of 10<sup>-4</sup> or 10<sup>&minus;5</sup>.<ref>E. R. Harrison, "Fluctuations at the threshold of classical cosmology," ''Phys. Rev.'' '''D1''' (1970), 2726. P. J. E. Peebles and J. T. Yu, "Primeval adiabatic perturbation in an expanding universe," ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''162''' (1970), 815. Ya. B. Zel'dovich, "A hypothesis, unifying the structure and entropy of the universe," ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' '''160''' (1972).</ref> [[Rashid Sunyaev]] later calculated the observable imprint that these inhomogeneities would have on the cosmic microwave background.<ref>R. A. Sunyaev, "Fluctuations of the microwave background radiation," in ''Large Scale Structure of the Universe'' ed. M. S. Longair and J. Einasto, 393. Dordrecht: Reidel 1978. While this is the first paper to discuss the detailed observational imprint of density inhomogeneities as anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background, some of the groundwork was laid in Peebles and Yu, above.</ref> Increasingly stringent limits on the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background were set by ground based experiments, but the anisotropy was first detected by the Differential Microwave Radiometer instrument on the [[COBE]] satellite.<ref>G. F. Smoot ''et al.'' "Stucture in the COBE DMR first year maps", ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''396''' L1&ndash;L5 (1992). C. L. Bennett ''et al.'' "Four year COBE DMR cosmic microwave background observations: maps and basic results.", ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''464''' L1&ndash;L4 (1996).</ref>
Inspired by the COBE results, a series of ground and balloon-based experiments measured cosmic microwave background anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the next decade. The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the scale of the first acoustic peak, which COBE did not have sufficient resolution to resolve. The first peak in the anisotropy was tentatively detected by the [[Toco experiment]] and the result was confirmed by the [[BOOMERanG experiment|BOOMERanG]] and [[MAXIMA experiment|MAXIMA]] experiments.<ref>A. D. Miller ''et al.'', "A measurement of the angular power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background from ''l'' = 100 to 400", ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''524''', L1&ndash;L4 (1999). A. E. Lange ''et al.'', "Cosmological parameters from the first results of Boomerang". P. de Bernardis ''et al.'', "A flat universe from high-resolution maps of the cosmic microwave background", ''Nature'' '''404''', 955 (2000). S. Hanany ''et al.'' "MAXIMA-1: A measurement of the cosmic microwave background anisotropy on angular scales of 10'-5°", ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''545''' L5–L9 (2000).</ref>. These measurements demonstrated that the [[Shape of the Universe|Universe is flat]] and were able to rule out [[cosmic strings]] as a theory of cosmic structure formation, and suggested [[cosmic inflation]] was the right theory of structure formation.
The second peak was tentatively detected by several experiments before being definitively detected by [[WMAP]], which has also tentatively detected the third peak. The [[polarization]] of the microwave background was first discovered by the [[Degree Angular Scale Interferometer]] (DASI).<ref>J. Kovac ''et al.'', "Detection of polarization in the cosmic microwave background using DASI", ''Nature'' '''420''', 772-787 (2002).</ref>. Several experiments to improve measurements of the polarization and the microwave background on small angular scales are ongoing. These include DASI, WMAP, BOOMERanG and the [[Cosmic Background Imager]]. Forthcoming experiments include the |
grapes are more beneficial to the health, in fact grapes of all colors offer comparable benefits. Red wine however does offer some health benefits not found in white wine, because many of the beneficial compounds are found in the skins of the grapes, and only red wine is fermented with the skins.
<center><gallery>
Image:Grapes.jpg|A bunch of grapes
Image:Autumn Royal grapes.jpg|Autumn Royal grapes
Image:Ripe grapes.jpg|Red and green grapes
Image:More grapes.jpg|Red grapes
Image:Flame seedless grapes.jpg|Flame seedless grapes
Image:Concord grape plant.jpg|Foliage of the Concord grape plant
Image:Grapevinefoliage.jpg|Foliage of the New England wild grape
Image:Young grapes.jpg|Young grapes
Image:Yellowjacket grapes.jpg|[[Yellowjacket]] Eating grapes
</gallery></center>
== Raisins, currants, and sultanas ==
A [[raisin]] is any dried grape. A [[Zante currant|currant]] is a dried Zante grape, originally grown near [[Corinth]]. A [[sultana]] was originally a dried Sultana grape; however, modern product includes Thompson Seedless grapes treated with sulphur dioxide and lightly heated. This makes them more golden in colour and taste sweeter. [http://www.ochef.com/676.htm]
== Grape seed extract ==
The seeds in grapes are known to contain procyanidolic oligomers, also known as PCOs. Researchers have concluded that PCOs strengthen blood vessels, and improve blood circulation. Grape seed extract may help slow aging, prevent heart disease, deter cancer, lessen allergy symptoms, and eye strain, and fight certain skin diseases. In recent studies grape extract has also been shown to lessen celulite, and lower cholestral and blood pressure levels. The use of grape seed extract is available in forms such as: liquid, tablet, and capsule. Grape seed extract has not yet been shown to have any negative effects on consumers.
== Seedlessness in Grapes ==
Seedlessness is a highly desirable trait in table grape selection, and seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated, by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is, however, an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques.
There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivars get it from one of three sources: 'Thompson Seedless', 'Russian Seedless', and 'Black Monukka'. All are members of <i>[[Vitis vinifera]]</i>.
==External links==
* [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=28600 Integrated Taxonomic Information System entry for Grape famiily]
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/agriculture/agrista/2004/table_en/4611.pdf Area under vine (pdf)]
* [http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/StratfordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/wild_grape.htm Wild Grapes]
{{commons|Grape}}
[[Category:Vitales]]
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[[als:Weintraube]]
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[[fa:انگور]]
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[[io:Vito]]
[[id:Anggur]]
[[it:Vitis]]
[[he:גפן (צמח)]]
[[mg:Voaloboka]]
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[[sv:Vindruva]]
[[zh:葡萄]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Genetic disorder</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">A '''genetic disorder''', or '''genetic disease''' is a [[disease]] caused by abnormal expression of one or more genes in a person causing a clinical phenotype. There are a number of possible causes for genetic defects:
* They may be caused by a [[mutation]] in a gene, affecting its function.
* There are genetic disorders caused by the abnormal [[chromosome]] number, as in [[Down syndrome]] (extra chromosome 21) and [[Klinefelter's syndrome]] (a male with 2 X chromosomes).
* Triplet expansion repeat mutations can cause [[Fragile X syndrome]] or [[Huntington's disease]], by modification of gene expression or gain of function, respectively.
* Defective genes are often inherited from the parents. In this case, the genetic disorder is known as a '''hereditary disease'''. This can often happen unexpectedly when two healthy carriers of a defective [[recessive gene]] reproduce, but can also happen when the defective gene is [[dominant gene|dominant]].
Currently around 4,000 genetic disorders are known; new ones are constantly discovered. The vast majority of these disorders are quite rare, and affect one person in every several thousands or millions. [[Cystic fibrosis]] is the most common genetic disorder; around 5% of the population of the [[United States]] carry the defective gene.
==Single gene disorders==
A number of genetic disorders are due to the change of a single [[gene]], resulting in an [[enzyme]] or other [[protein]] not being produced or having altered functionality, they are called [[monogenic]] disorders. The change can be trivial and relatively harmless in its effects, such as [[color blindness]], or lethal such as [[Tay-Sachs]]. Other disorders, though harmful to those afflicted with them, appear to offer some advantage to carriers; as in carriers of [[sickle cell anemia]] and [[thalassemia]] appearing to have enhanced resistance to [[malaria]]. Several hereditary diseases are [[sex-linked]], meaning that they afflict one sex much more common than the other because the mutation is located on the X (or, rarely, on the Y) chromosome.
===Transmission of single gene disorders===
Where genetic disorders are the result of a single mutated gene they can be passed on to subsequent generations in the following ways, however [[Imprinting (genetics)|genomic imprinting]] and [[uniparental disomy]] may affect inheritance patterns. The divisions between recessive and dominant are not "hard and fast" although the divisions between autosomal and X-linked are (related to the position of the gene). For example, [[achondroplasia]] is typically considered a dominant disorder, but kids with two genes for achondroplasia have a severe skeletal disorder that achondroplasics could be viewed as carriers of. [[Sickle-cell anemia]] is also considered a recessive condition, but carriers of it have increased immunity to malaria in early childhood, which could be described as a dominant condition.
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
!Inheritance pattern
!Description
!Examples
|-
| Autosomal dominant
|Only one mutated copy of the gene is needed for a person to be affected by an autosomal dominant disorder. Each affected person usually has one affected parent. There is a 50% chance that a child will inherit the mutated gene.
|[[Huntingtons disease]], [[Neurofibromatosis 1]], [[Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer]]
|-
|Autosomal recessive
|Two copies of the gene must be mutated for a person to be affected by an autosomal recessive disorder. An affected person usually has unaffected parents who each carry a single copy of the mutated gene (and are referred to as carriers). Two unaffected people who each carry one copy of the mutated gene have a 25% chance with each pregnancy of having a child affected by the disorder.
|[[Cystic fibrosis]], [[Sickle cell anemia]], [[Tay-Sachs disease]], [[Spinal muscular atrophy]]
|-
|X-linked dominant
|X-linked dominant disorders are caused by mutations in genes on the [[X chromosome]]. Only a few disorders have this inheritance pattern. Females are more frequently affected than males, and the chance of passing on an X-linked dominant disorder differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked dominant disorder will not be affected, and his daughters will all inherit the condition. A woman with an X-linked dominant disorder has a 50% chance of having an affected daughter or son with each pregnancy. Some X-linked dominant conditions, such as [[Aicardi Syndrome]], are fatal to boys, therefore only girls have them (and boys with [[Klinefelter Syndrome]]).
|[[Hypophosphatemia]], [[Aicardi Syndrome]]
|-
|X-linked recessive
| X-linked recessive disorders are also caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome. Males are more frequently affected than females, and the chance of passing on the disorder differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked recessive disorder will not be affected, and his daughters will carry one copy of the mutated gene. With each pregnancy, a woman who carries an X-linked recessive disorder has a 50% chance of having sons who are affected and a 50% chance of having daughters who carry one copy of the mutated gene.
|[[Hemophilia A]], [[Duchenne muscular dystrophy]], [[Color blindness]]
|-
|Y-linked
|Y-linked disorders are caused by mutations on the Y chromosome. Only males can get them, and all of the sons of an affected father are affected. Since the Y chromosome is very small, Y-linked disorders only cause infertility, and may be circumvented with the help of some fertility treatments.
|[[Infertility|Male Infertility]]
|-
|Mitochondrial
|This type of inheritance, also known as maternal inheritance, applies to genes in [[mitochondrial DNA]]. Because only egg cells contribute mitochondria to the developing embryo, only females can pass on mitochondrial conditions to their children.
|[[Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy]] (LHON)
|}
==Multifactoral and polygenic disorders==
Genetic disorders may also be complex, multifactorial or polygenic, this means that they are likely associated with the effects of multiple genes in combination with lifestyle and environmental factors. Multifactoral disorders include [[heart disease]] a |
f Pure Reason'' could settle this dispute by defending the authority and bounds of reason. Reinhold's letters were widely read and made Kant the most famous philosopher of his era.
====Kant's later work====
Kant published a second edition of the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' in [[1787]], heavily revising the first parts of the book. Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy. He continued to develop his moral philosophy, notably in [[1788]]'s ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' (known as the second ''Critique'') and [[1797|1797's]] ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]''. The [[1790]] ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'' (the third ''Critique'') applied the Kantian system to aesthetics and [[teleology]]. He also wrote a number of semi-popular essays on history, religion, politics and other topics. These works were well received by Kant's contemporaries and confirmed his preeminent status in eighteenth century philosophy. There were several journals devoted solely to defending and criticizing the Kantian philosophy. But despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction. Many of Kant's most important disciples (including [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck|Beck]] and [[Fichte]]) transformed the Kantian position into increasingly radical forms of idealism. This marked the emergence of [[German Idealism]]. Kant was against these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter in [[1799]]. It was one of his final philosophical acts. Kant's health, long poor, turned for the worst and he died in [[1804]]. His unfinished final work, the fragmentary ''[[Opus Postumum]]'', was (as its title suggests) published posthumously.
====Erroneous beliefs====
A variety of popular beliefs have arisen concerning Kant's biography and legend. It is often held, for instance, that Kant was a late bloomer, that he only became an important philosopher in his mid-50s after rejecting his earlier views. While it is true that Kant wrote his greatest works relatively late in life, there is a tendency to underestimate the value of his earlier works. Recent Kant scholarship has devoted more attention to these "pre-critical" writings and has recognized a degree of continuity with his mature work.
Another common myth concerns Kant's personal mannerisms. It is often held that Kant lived a very strict and predictable life, leading to the oft-repeated story that neighbors would set their clocks by his daily walks. Again, this is only partly true. While still young, Kant was very gregarious and, though he never married, he remained fond of dinner parties through most of his life. Only later in his life, under the influence of his friend, the English merchant [[Joseph Green (18th century)|Joseph Green]], did Kant adopt a more regulated lifestyle{{fact}}.
==Kant's moral philosophy==
Kant developed his moral philosophy in three works: ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals]]'' [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/metaphys-of-morals.txt] ([[1785]]), ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/critique-of-practical-reaso.txt] ([[1788]]), and ''Metaphysics of Morals'' [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/intro-to-metaphys-of-morals.txt] ([[1798]]).
The three works proceed by a method of taking the "rational [, obvious, and everyday] knowledge of the moral to the philosophical [knowledge of the moral]" in the ''Groundwork'' - and also making necessary the moral works that followed; and then, in those latter works, following a method of using "practical reason", based only upon things about which reason can tell us, and not deriving any principles from experience, to reach conclusions which are able to be applied the world of experience (in the second part of ''The Metaphysic of Morals'').
Kant is known for his theory that there is a single moral obligation, which he called the [[Categorical Imperative]], which is derived from the concept of duty. It is from the Categorical Imperative that all other moral obligations are generated, and by which all moral obligations can be tested. He believed that the moral law is a principle of [[reason]] itself, and is not based on contingent facts about the world, such as what would make us happy. Accordingly, he believed that moral obligation applies to all and only rational agents.
A categorical imperative is an unconditional obligation; that is, it has the force of an obligation regardless of our will or desires. (Contrast this with [[hypothetical imperative]].) Kant's categorical imperative was formulated in three ways, which he believed to be roughly equivalent (although many commentators do not):
*The first formulation (Formula of Universal Law) says: "Act as if the maxim of thy action were to become by thy will a universal [[law of nature]]."
*The second formulation (Formula of Humanity) says: "Act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means."
*The third formulation (Formula of Autonomy) is a synthesis of the first two. It says that we should so act that we may think of ourselves as [[legislating]] universal laws through our maxims, in a possible [[Kingdom of Ends]]. We may think of ourselves as such autonomous legislators only insofar as we follow our own laws.
===Example of the first formulation:===
The most popular interpretation of the first formulation is called the "universalizability test." An agent's maxim, according to Kant, is his "subjective principle of volition" &mdash; that is, what the agent believes is his reason to act. The universalizability test has five steps:
# Find the agent's maxim. The maxim is an action paired with its motivation. Example: "I will lie for personal benefit." Lying is the action, the motivation is to get what you desire. Paired together they form the maxim.
# Imagine a possible world in which everyone in a similar position to the real-world agent followed that maxim.
# Decide whether any contradictions or irrationalities arise in the possible world as a result of following the maxim.
# If a contradiction or irrationality arises, acting on that maxim is not allowed in the real world.
# If there is no contradiction, then acting on that maxim is permissible, and in some instances required.
(For a modern parallel, see [[John Rawls]]' hypothetical situation, the [[original position]].)
==Belief in God==
Kant stated his belief in God in [[Critique of Pure Reason]] and made a moral argument for God although such arguments have been criticized. See [[Argument from morality]] for more details.
==Influence==
Kant's most powerful and revolutionary effect on philosophy, which changed forever its meaning, modes of thinking, and language(s), was not "[[positivism|positive]]" in the sense of producing specific assertions about the world that have become accepted truths, as in the positive sciences. Rather it was "[[anti-positivism|negative]]" in the sense of restricting the areas about which such knowledge was possible &mdash; by making philosophy "critical" and self-critical. Kant's idea of "critique" was to examine the legitimate scope of the mind or of knowledge. In this regard the "critique of pure reason", which was also the title of his most important work (see below and [[Critique of Pure Reason]]), meant examining what certain and legitimate knowledge human beings could arrive at simply by thinking about things independently of experience and perception, with his conclusion being: not very much. Prior to Kant, the entire mode of functioning of most philosophy was drawing conclusions about the nature of the universe, of God, or of the soul simply by logical thinking about them, by what seemed to make sense through "a priori" thinking, i.e. thinking on purely logical grounds. For this sort of thinking it ''must'' be the case that God or the universe is this way or that way, because it makes sense logically. But, in the history of philosophy, for every philosophical theory that God or the universe or the mind ''must'' be one way, some philosopher arrived at another theory stating that it ''must'' be precisely the opposite way. Kant called this unproductive, unresolvable, back-and-forth, dogmatic thinking the "dialectic of pure reason". That is, it was an inevitable consequence of trying to arrive at knowledge on purely logical grounds independently of experience or of scientific knowledge based on the evidence of the senses. For Kant, this entire style of pursuing knowledge was bankrupt and must be abandoned. According to Kant, philosophy must henceforth operate within the narrow "limits of pure reason" and recognize that most positive knowledge could come only through the sciences based on sense perception and not through [[metaphysics]], which was about things of which we could never have direct sense perception.
Some important philosophers and schools of thought, such as [[German Idealism|German Idealists]], [[neo-Thomists]] and other theologically oriented philosophers, and [[Heidegger]]'s "fundamental ontology" have refused to accept the limitations that Kant imposed upon philosophy and attempted to come up with new metaphysical systems about "the Absolute", "God", or "Being" , although even these philosophers have generally tried doing so by taking Kant into account. Over-all, however, post-Kantian philosophy has never been able to return to the style of thinking, arguing, and asserting conclusions that characterized philosophy before him. In this way, Kant was correct in asserting that he had brought about a "Copernican revolution" in philosophy. According to Kant, [[Copernicus]]'s revolution in the understanding of the [[cosmos] |
of [[Computer Science]] at [[Vrije Universiteit]], [[Amsterdam]] in the [[Netherlands]]. He is best known as the author of [[Minix]], a free [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]] for teaching purposes, and for his [[computer science]] textbooks. He regards his teaching job as his most important work.{{ref|teach}}[[Image:AndrewTanenbaum.jpg|frame|right|Andrew S. Tanenbaum]]
He was born in [[New York City]] and raised in [[White Plains, New York|White Plains, NY]]. He received his [[bachelor's degree]] in [[Physics]] from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]. He received his [[doctorate]] from [[UC Berkeley]] in 1971. He and his wife moved to the Netherlands (her homeland), but he retains his United States citizenship. [[As of 2004]] he teaches courses about Computer Organization and Operating Systems, and supervises the work of [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] candidates.
He is well recognized for his textbooks on computer science, which are famous as standard texts in the field, particularly:
* ''Computer Networks,'' ISBN 0130661023
* ''Operating Systems: Design and Implementation,'' ISBN 0136386776
* ''Modern Operating Systems,'' ISBN 0130313580
He also wrote:
* ''Structured Computer Organization,'' ISBN 0131485210
* ''Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms,'' ISBN 0130888931
''Operating Systems: Design and Implementation'' and Minix were [[Linus Torvalds]]' inspiration for the [[Linux]] kernel. In his autobiography ''[[Just For Fun]]'', Torvalds describes it as "the book that launched me to new heights". Tanenbaum started a famous, inflammatory [[Usenet]] discussion with Torvalds [http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/browse_thread/thread/c25870d7a41696d2/3f6b594a5b4eccb4] about the [[microkernel]], but Linus and Andrew appear to be on good speaking terms; Linus wants it understood that he holds no animosity towards Tanenbaum. Tanenbaum went on to write the [[Amoeba distributed operating system]], making full use of the microkernel idea.
In 2004 Tanenbaum created [[electoral-vote.com]], a popular web site analyzing [[opinion polls]] for the [[2004 U.S. Presidential Election]], using them to project the outcome in the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]]. The site also provided an electoral map. Surprising results on this map (such as, for example, a short period when Hawaii, traditionally Democratic, was listed as "Barely Bush") would often surface in popular discussion. Through most of the campaign period he kept his identity secret, referring to himself as "the Votemaster" and acknowledging only that he personally preferred [[John Kerry|Kerry]]. Tanenbaum, a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]], revealed his identity on [[November 1]], [[2004]], the day prior to the election, also stating his reasons and qualifications for running the website [http://www.electoral-vote.com/2004/info/votemaster-faq.html].
==Bibliography==
* [http://www.prenhall.com/tanenbaum/ Books written by Andrew S Tanenbaum] published by [[Prentice Hall]]
* [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/t/Tanenbaum:Andrew_S=.html Academic publications by Andrew S Tanenbaum] from [[DBLP]]
{{wikiquote}}
== External links and references ==
* [http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/ Professor Andrew S Tanenbaum] at the [http://www.cs.vu.nl/cs/index-en.html Dept. of Computer Systems at VU]
* [http://groups.google.com/groups?threadm=12595%40star.cs.vu.nl The Usenet discussion with Torvalds at Google Groups]
**{{note|teach}} [http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/brown/followup/ 2004 article] about Linux, the Usenet debate, and the [[Alexis de Tocqueville Institution]]
**[http://www.dina.dk/~abraham/Linus_vs_Tanenbaum.html Linus vs. Tanenbaum at Usenet (all posts together)]
[[Category:1944 births|Tanenbaum, Andrew S.]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ariane 5</title>
<id>3111</id>
<revision>
<id>41632359</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:41:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>153.5.46.72</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>new launch date</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ariane 5 Rosetta launch large.jpg|right|250px|thumb||'''Ariane 5''' lifts off with the [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta probe]] on 2 March 2004.]]
'''Ariane 5''' is an [[expendable launch system]] designed to deliver satellites into geostationary transfer orbit and to send payloads to low earth orbit.
It was manufactured under the authority of the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) with [[EADS SPACE Transportation]] as prime contractor, leading a consortium of sub-contractors. The rocket is operated and marketed by [[Arianespace]] as part of the [[Ariane]] programme. [[EADS SPACE Transportation]] builds the rockets in [[Europe]] and [[Arianespace]] launches them from a space port at [[Kourou]] in [[French Guiana]].
It succeeded [[Ariane 4]], but does not derive from it directly. Its development took 10 years and cost [[Euro|€]]7 billion. The ESA originally designed Ariane 5 to launch the manned mini shuttle [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]], and thus intended it to be "human rated" from the beginning. After the ESA cancelled Hermes, the rocket became a purely commercial launcher.
Two satellites can be mounted using a Sylda carrier. Three main satellites are possible depending on size. Up to eight secondary payloads, usually small experiment packages or minisatellites, can be carried with an ASAP (Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads) platform.
==Components==
Ariane 5’s [[Cryogenics|cryogenic]] H158 main stage (H173 for Ariane 5 ECA) is called the EPC (Étage Principal Cryotechnique/Cryogenic First Stage). It consists of a large tank 30.5 [[metre]]s high with two compartments, one for 130 [[tonne]]s of [[liquid oxygen]] and one for 25 [[tonne]]s of [[liquid hydrogen]], and a Vulcain engine at the base with thrust of 115 [[tonne-force|tonnes-force]] (1.13 [[meganewton]]s). This part of the first stage weighs about 15 tonnes when empty.
Attached to the sides are two solid propellant boosters, P238 (P241 for Ariane 5 ECA), each weighing about 277 tonnes full. Each delivers a thrust of about 630 tonnes-force (6.2 MN). These boosters can be recovered with parachutes, like the [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster]]s. They may have been retrieved for examination on early missions, but are not reused.
The second stage is on top of the main stage and below the payload. The Ariane 5G uses the EPS (Étage à Propergols Stockables/Storable Propellant Stage), which is fueled by [[monomethylhydrazine]] (MMH) and [[nitrogen tetroxide]], where the Ariane 5 ECA uses the ESC (Étage Supérieur Cryotechnique/Cryogenic Upper Stage), which is fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The payload and all upper stages are covered at launch by the fairing, which splits off once sufficient altitude has been reached.
==Variants==
[[Image:1esaatv.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ATV will be delivered into orbit by an Ariane 5 rocket]]
The original version is dubbed Ariane '''5G''' (Generic) with a launch mass of 737 tonnes. Its payload capability to [[Geostationary transfer orbit]] (GTO) was initially specified as 5970 [[Kilogramme|kg]], but was increased after the qualification flights to 6200kg.
The Ariane '''5G+''' had an improved second stage, with a GTO capacity of 6950kg for a single payload. It flew three times in 2004.
It was replaced in 2005 by the Ariane '''5GS''', with 5 ECA solid boosters.
The Ariane 5 '''ECA''' has a GTO launch capacity of 10,000 kg for dual payloads or 10,500 kg for a single payload. This variant uses a new Vulcain 2 first-stage engine, and an ESC-A second stage, powered by an HM-7B engine, weighing 6,500 kg and carrying 14,000 kg of cryogenic [[Spacecraft propulsion|propellant]]. The second stage was previously used as the third stage of Ariane 4; in ECA use, the tanks are modified to shorten stage length. The revised Vulcain has a longer, more efficient nozzle with more efficient flow cycle and denser propellant ratio. The new ratio demanded length modifications to the first-stage tanks. Also, the solid booster casings have been lightened with new welds, and packed with more propellant. The ESC-A cryogenic second stage does not improve the performance to [[Low Earth orbit]] compared to Ariane 5G, and for this reason the Ariane 5 ECA will not be used to launch the [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV).
'''Comparable rockets:'''
[[Delta IV rocket|Delta IV]] -
[[Atlas V rocket|Atlas V]] -
[[Long March 5 rocket family|Chang Zheng 5]] -
[[Angara rocket|Angara]]
==Future developments==
Ariane 5 '''ES ATV''' has been designed for launching the [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]]. It consists of the improved Vulcain 2-powered first stage and the upper stage from the Ariane 5G, and can put up to 21,000 kg in [[Low Earth orbit|LEO]].
==Cancelled developments==
Ariane 5 '''ECB''' was planned to have a ESC-B upper stage using a new "Vinci" [[expander cycle (rocket)|expander cycle]] type engine. The GTO capacity was to increase to 12,000 kg, but ECB was put on hold due to budget cuts. It was cancelled outright in May 2005 due to lack of demand in that payload range. The Vinci engine which was to power ECB's upper stage is still being developed, albeit at a lower pace. The cancellation of ECB creates a major commercial weakness for Ariane 5 : lacking a reignitabl |
forum
* [http://www.gminsidenews.com/ GMInsidenews] GM Enthusiast forum
* [http://www.netcarshow.com/gm/ GM picture galleries]
* [http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal with General Motor news]
{{General Motors brands}}
[[Category:Car companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in Michigan]]
[[Category:Dow Jones Industrial Average]]
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[[zh:通用汽车公司]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Golden Gate Bridge</title>
<id>12103</id>
<revision>
<id>42037221</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:39:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WhosAsking</username>
<id>717099</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* In fiction and film */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Bridge |
|image=GoldenGateBridge.jpg
|bridge_name=Golden Gate Bridge
|official_name=Golden Gate Bridge
|locale=[[San Francisco, California]]
|carries=Motor vehicles, pedestrians and bicycles
|crosses=[[Golden Gate]]
|maint=[[Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District]] [http://www.goldengate.org/]
|open=[[May 27]], [[1937]]
|below=220 ft (67 m) at mean higher high water
|design=[[Suspension bridge|Suspension]], [[Truss arch bridge|Truss Arch]] & [[Truss bridge|Truss Causeway]]s
|mainspan=4,200 feet (1,280 m)
|length=1.7 miles (2.7 km)
|width=90 feet (27 m)
|clearance=14 feet (4.3 m) at toll gates, higher truck loads possible
|map_image=GGBrMapCLip.jpg
|map_width=180px
|map_cue=Connects:
|map_text=Northern San Francisco Peninsula with Southern [[Marin County]]
}}
The '''Golden Gate Bridge''' is a [[suspension bridge|suspension]] [[bridge]] spanning the [[Golden Gate]], the opening into the [[San Francisco Bay]] from the [[Pacific Ocean]]. It connects the city of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] on the northern tip of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] and a portion of the south-facing [[Marin County, California|Marin County]] [[Marin Headlands|headlands]] near the small bayside town of [[Sausalito, California|Sausalito]], and is located at {{Coor dms|37|49|12|N|122|28|43|W|}}. The entire bridge (including the approach) spans 1.7 miles (2.7 km) long; the distance between the towers ("main span") is 4,200 feet (1,280 m), and the clearance below the bridge is 220 ft (67 m) at mean high water. The two towers rise 746 feet (230 m) above the water. The diameter of the main suspension cables is 36 inches (0.91 m).
The Golden Gate Bridge was the [[List of largest suspension bridges|largest suspension bridge]] in the world when it was built in 1937 and has become an internationally recognized symbol of San Francisco.
==History==
The bridge was the brainchild of [[Joseph Strauss]], an engineer responsible for over 400 drawbridges, though they were far smaller than this project and mostly inland. Strauss spent over a decade drumming up support in Northern California. Strauss's initial design[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/news_events/exhibits/bridge/up028.html] comprised a massive [[cantilever]] on each side connected with a central suspension segment. Other key figures in the bridge's construction include architect Irving Morrow, responsible for the [[Art Deco]] touches and the choice of color, and engineer [[Charles A. Ellis|Charles Alton Ellis]] and bridge designer [[Leon Moisseiff]], who collaborated on the complicated mathematics involved.
The [[Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District|Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District]] was incorporated in 1928 as the official entity to design, construct, and finance the Golden Gate Bridge. The District includes not only the City & County of San Francisco, and Marin County, in whose boundaries the bridge sits, but also [[Napa_County,_California|Napa]], [[sonoma_County,_California|Sonoma]], [[Mendocino_County,_California|Mendocino]] and [[Del_Norte_County,_California|Del Norte]] counties. Representatives from each of the six counties sit on the District's Board of Directors. Voters within the District approved funding for the project in 1930 through a special bond issue that put their homes, farms and business properties up as collateral. This bond issue raised the initial $35 million to finance the building of the Bridge. Construction began on [[January 5]], [[1933]]. The last of the construction bonds were retired in [[1971]], with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest being financed entirely from tolls. Strauss, a graduate of the [[University of Cincinnati]], placed a brick from his [[alma mater]]'s demolished McMicken Hall in the south anchorage before the concrete was poured. The bridge was completed in April [[1937]] and opened to pedestrians on [[May 27]] of that year. The next day, President Roosevelt pushed a button in [[Washington, DC]] signaling the start of vehicle traffic over the Bridge. A unique aspect of the bridge's construction was the safety net set up beneath it, significantly reducing the expected number of deaths for such a project. 11 men were killed from falls during construction, and approximately 19 men were saved by the safety net. 10 of the deaths occurred near completion, when the net itself failed under the stress of a scaffold fall. The 19 workers whose lives were saved by the safety nets became proud members of the (informal) ''Halfway to Hell Club''.
[[Image:GoldenEndFortMason.JPG|300px|thumb|right|A golden sunset behind the bridge.]]
[[Image:Golden Gate Bridge from underneath.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A photograph of the bridge from a boat underneath.]]
The center span was the [[List of largest suspension bridges|longest among suspension bridges]] until [[1964]] when the [[Verrazano Narrows Bridge]] was erected between the boroughs of [[Staten Island]] and [[Brooklyn]] in [[New York City]]. The Golden Gate Bridge also had the world's tallest suspension towers at the time of construction, and retained that record until more recently. In [[1957]], [[Michigan]]'s [[Mackinac Bridge]] surpassed the Golden Gate Bridge's length between anchorages to become the world's longest suspension bridge in total length. The longest center suspension span in the world is currently the [[Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge]] in [[Japan]].
As the only road to exit San Francisco to the north, the bridge is part of both [[United States Highway 101]] and [[California State Route 1]]. The bridge has six total lanes of vehicle traffic, and walkways on both sides of the bridge. The median markers between the lanes are moved to conform to traffic patterns. On weekday mornings, traffic flows mostly southbound into the city, so four of the six lanes run southbound. Conversely, on weekday afternoons, three lanes run northbound. While there has been discussion concerning the installation of a movable barrier since the 1980s, the Bridge Board of Directors, in March 2005, committed to finding funding to complete the $2 million study required prior to the installation of a moveable median barrier. The eastern walkway is for pedestrians and bicycles during the weekdays and during daylight hours only, and the western walkway is open to bicycles on weekends.
The [[speed limit]] on the Golden Gate Bridge was reduced from 55 mph (90 km/h) to 45 mph (70 km/h) on [[October 1]], [[1983]]. With no moveable median barrier yet, a head-on collision at 55 mph (90 km/h) would create almost 1.5 times the force than at 45 mph (70 km/h).
On [[September 1]], [[2002]], the toll for Southbound [[motor vehicle]]s was raised from US$3.00 to $5.00. Northbound motor vehicle traffic, cycling, and pedestrian traffic remain toll free.
<div style="clear: both"></div>
[[Image:Golden Gate Bridge 2003.jpg|thumb|center|600px|Golden Gate Bridge, with its approach arch over [[Fort Point]] at the San Francisco terminus (right). Behind the arch is [[Angel Island (California)|Angel Island]], and to the left of that, [[Tiburon, California]], mostly obscuring the [[East Bay (California)|East Bay]] hills.]]
[[Image:GGBRViewWestPano.jpg|thumb|centre|600px|View from [[Fort Mason]] showing northern approach at right]]
== Aesthetics ==
The color of the bridge is orange vermilion, deemed ''[[safety orange|International Orange]]''. The color was selected by consulting architect Irving Morrow because it blends well with the natural surroundings yet enhances the bridge's visibility in fog.
[[Image:Ggb by night.jpg|250px|thumb|The Golden Gate Bridge by night, with part of downtown [[San Francisco]] visible in the background at far left.]]
The bridge is widely considered one of the most beautiful examples of bridge engineering, both as a structural design challenge and for its aesthetic appeal. It was declared one of the modern [[Seven Wonders of the World|Wonders of the World]] by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. According to Frommer's travel guide, the Golden Gate Bridge is "possibly the most beautiful, certainly the most photographed, bridge in the world." [http://www.frommers.com/destinations/sanfrancisco/A25170.html] (although Frommers also bestows the "most photographed" honor on [[Tower Bridge]] [http://www.frommers.com/destinations/london/A29870.html])
== Paintwork ==
The bridge was originally painted with [[red lead]] primer and a [[lead]]-based [[topcoat]], which was touched up as required. In the mid-[[1960s]], a program was started to improve corrosion protection by stripping the original paint off and repainting the bridge with [[zinc silicate]] primer and, originally, [[vinyl]] topcoats [http://goldengatebridge.org/research |
aining, wooings, battles, feastings and deaths of the heroes and reflects a warrior society in which warfare consists mainly of single combats and wealth is measured mainly in cattle. These stories are written mainly in prose. The centrepiece of the Ulster Cycle is the ''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]''. Other important Ulster Cycle tales include ''The Tragic Death of Aife's only Son'', ''Bricriu's Feast'', and ''The Destruction of Ua Derga's Hostel''. ''The Exile of the Sons of Usnach'', better known as the tragedy of [[Deirdre]] and the source of plays by [[John Millington Synge]] and [[William Butler Yeats]], is also part of this cycle.
This cycle is, in some respects, close to the mythological cycle. Some of the characters from the latter reappear, and the same sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim, almost callous realism. While we may suspect a few characters, such as [[Medb]] or [[Cú Roí]], of once being deities, and Cúchulainn in particular displays superhuman prowess, the characters are firmly mortal and rooted in a specific time and place. If the Mythological Cycle represents a Golden Age, the Ulster Cycle is Ireland's [[Heroic Age]].
==Fenian cycle==
Like the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle is concerned with the deeds of Irish heroes. The stories of the Fenian Cycle appear to be set around the [[3rd century]] and mainly in the provinces of [[Leinster]] and [[Munster]]. They differ from the other cycles in the strength of their links with the Irish-speaking community in Scotland and there are many extant Fenian texts from that country. They also differ from the Ulster Cycle in that the stories are told mainly in [[verse]] and that in tone they are nearer to the tradition of romance than the tradition of epic. The stories concern the doings of [[Fionn mac Cumhail]] and his band of soldiers, the [[Fianna]].
The single most important source for the Fenian Cycle is the ''Acallamh na Senórach '' (''Colloquy of the Old Men''), which is found in two [[15th century]] [[manuscripts]], the ''Book of Lismore'' and Laud 610, as well as a [[17th century]] manuscript from [[Killiney]], [[County Dublin]]. The text is dated from linguistic evidence to the [[12th century]]. The text records conversations between the last surviving members of the Fianna and [[St Patrick]] and runs to some 8,000 lines. The late dates of the manuscripts may reflect a longer oral tradition for the Fenian stories.
The Fianna of the story are divided into the Clann Baiscne, led by Fionn, and the Clann Morna, led by his enemy, [[Goll mac Morna]]. Goll killed Fionn's father, [[Cumhal]], in battle and the boy Fionn was brought up in secrecy. As a youth, while being trained in the art of poetry, he accidentally burned his thumb while cooking the Salmon of Knowledge, which allowed him to suck or bite his thumb in order to receive bursts of stupendous wisdom. He took his place as the leader of his band and numerous tales are told of their adventures. Two of the greatest Irish tales, ''Toraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghrainne'' (''The Pursuit of [[Diarmuid]] and [[Grainne]])'' and ''[[Oisin]] in Tir na nOg'' form part of the cycle. The Diarmuid and Grainne story, which is one of the few Fenian prose tales, is a probable source of ''[[Tristan and Isolde]]''.
The world of the Fenian Cycle is one in which professional warriors spend their time hunting, fighting, and engaging in adventures in the spirit world. New entrants into the band are expected to be knowledgeable in poetry as well as undergo a number of physical tests or ordeals. Again, there is no religious element in these tales unless it is one of hero-worship.
==Historical cycle==
It was part of the duty of the medieval Irish bards, or court [[Irish poetry|poets]], to record the history of the family and the genealogy of the king they served. This they did in poems that blended the mythological and the historical to a greater or lesser degree. The resulting stories form what has come to be known as the Historical Cycle, or more correctly Cycles, as there are a number of independent groupings.
The kings that are covered range from the almost entirely mythological [[Labraid Loingsech]], who became High King of Ireland around [[431 BC]] to the entirely historical [[Brian Boru]]. However, the greatest glory of the Historical Cycle is the ''[[Buile Shuibhne]]'' (''The Frenzy of Suibhne''), a [[12th century]] tale told in verse and prose.
Suibhne, king of Dal nAraide, was cursed by St Ronan and became a kind of half man, half bird, condemned to live out his life in the woods, fleeing from his human companions. The story has captured the imaginations of contemporary Irish poets and has been translated by [[Trevor Joyce]] and [[Seamus Heaney]].
==Other tales==
===Adventures===
The adventures, or ''[[echtrae]]'', are a group of stories of visits to the Irish [[Other World]]. The most famous, ''Oisin in Tir na nOg'' belongs to the Fenian Cycle, but several free-standing adventures survive, including ''The Adventure of Conle'', ''[[The Voyage of Bran|The Voyage of Bran mac Ferbail]]'' and ''The Adventure of [[Lóegaire]]''.
===Voyages===
The voyages, or ''[[immrama]]'', are tales of sea journeys and the wonders seen on them. These probably grew from the experiences of fishermen combined with the Other World elements that inform the adventures. Of the seven ''immrama'' mentioned in the manuscripts, only three survive: ''The Voyage of [[Mael Duin]]'', ''The Voyage of the Ui Chorra'', and ''The Voyage of Snedgus and Mac Riagla''. ''The Voyage of Mael Duin'' is the forerunner of the later ''[[Voyage of St. Brendan]]''.
===Folk tales===
At the beginning of the 19th Century, [[Herminie T. Kavanagh]] wrote down many Irish folk tales which she published in magazines and in two books. Twenty-six years after her death, the tales from her two books, ''Darby O'Gill and the Good People'', and ''Ashes of Old Wishes'' were made in to the film [[Darby O'Gill and the Little People]].
==References==
===Primary sources in English translation===
*Cross, Tom Peete and Clark Harris Slover. ''Ancient Irish Tales''. Barnes and Noble Books, Totowa, New Jersey, 1936 repr. 1988. ISBN 566198895.
*Dillon, Myles. ''The Cycles of the Kings''. Oxford University Press, 1946; reprinted Four Courts Press: Dublin and Portland, OR, 1994. ISBN 1851821783.
*Dillon, Myles. ''Early Irish Literature''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948; reprinted : Four Courts Press, Dublin and Portland, OR, 1994. ISBN 0785816763.
*Joseph Dunn: ''The Ancient Irish Epic Tale Táin Bó Cúailnge'' ([[1914]])
*Winifred Faraday: ''The Cattle-Raid of Cualng''. London, 1904. This is a partial translation of the text in the Yellow Book of Lecan, partially censored by Faraday.
*Gantz, Jeffrey. ''Early Irish Myths and Sagas''. London: Penguin Books, 1981. ISBN 0140443975.
*Kinsella, Thomas. ''The Tain''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970. ISBN 0192810901.
===Primary sources in Medieval Irish===
*''Cath Maige Tuired: The Second Battle of Mag Tuired''. Elizabeth A. Gray, Ed. Dublin: Irish Texts Society, 1982. Series: Irish Texts Society (Series) ; v. 52. Irish text, English translation and philological notes.
*''Táin Bo Cuailnge from the Book of Leinster''. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1984.
*''Táin Bo Cuailnge Recension I''. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 1976. Irish text, English translation and philological notes.
===Retellings of the myths in English===
*Lady [[Lady Gregory|Augusta Gregory]]: ''Cuchulain of Muirthemne'' (1902)
*Lady Augusta Gregory: ''Gods and Fighting Men'' (1904)
===Secondary sources===
*Mallory, J. P. Ed. ''Aspects of the Tain''. Belfast: December Publications, 1992. ISBN 0951706829.
*O'Rahilly, T. F. ''Early Irish History and Mythology'' (1946)
*O hOgain, Daithi "Myth, Legend and Romance: An Encyclopedia of the Irish Folk Tradition" Prentice Hall Press, (1991) : ISBN 0132759594 (the only dictionary/encyclopedia with source references for every entry)
*Rees, Brinley and Alwyn Rees. ''Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales''. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1961; repr. 1989. ISBN 500270392.
*Sjoestedt, M. L. ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts''. 1949; translated by Myles Dillon. repr. Berkeley, CA: Turtle Press, 1990. ISBN 1851821791.
*Williams, J. F. Caerwyn. ''Irish Literary History''. Trans. Patrick K. Ford. University of Wales Press, Cardiff, Wales, and Ford and Bailie, Belmont, Massachusetts. Welsh edition 1958, English translation 1992. ISBN 0926689037.
==External links==
*[http://www.ucd.ie/folklore Department of Irish Folklore, Dublin. Includes the National Folklore Archives]
*[http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/index_irish.html The Celtic Literature Collection] - over one hundred ancient texts available to download free
*[http://vassun.vassar.edu/~sttaylor/Cooley/Faraday/Contents.html Winifred Faraday's version of the Tain]
*[http://vassun.vassar.edu/~sttaylor/Cooley/ Joseph Dunn's version of the Tain]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/cool/ Another source for Joseph Dunn's version of the Tain]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T301035/index.html Cecile O'Rahilly's version of the Tain]
*[http://www.paddybrown.co.uk/ulstercycle/tain.html A modern version of the Tain by Patrick Brown]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/gafm/ Gods and Fighting Men]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G302018/index.html Buile Shuibhne]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G303000/index.html Acallamh na Senórach]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G301020/index.html Deirdre of the Sorrows]
*[http://www.irishmythology.com/ The Irish mythology Cycles]
*[http://www.irishabroad.com/yourroots/mythology/ Irish Mythology features]
[[Category:Celtic mythology]]
[[Category:Irish mythology|*]]
[[Category:Irish literature]]
[[pl:Mitologia irlandzka]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Medieval Scotland]]</text>
</revisi |
ting the boundaries of morality. With ourselves, we stand on the ground of identity, not of relation, which last, requiring two subjects, excludes self-love confined to a single one. To ourselves, in strict language, we can owe no duties, obligation requiring also two parties. '''Self-love, therefore, is no part of morality. Indeed, it is exactly its opposite.'''
Ethical egoism is present in the philosophies of individuals such as [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] , [[Soren Kierkegaard]] and [[Max Stirner]] (who was the first philosopher to call himself an egoist). Others, such as [[Ayn Rand]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], and [[David Gauthier]], have argued that the conflicts which arise when people each pursue their own ends can be resolved for the best of each individual only if they all voluntarily forgo some of their aims &mdash; that is, one's self-interest is often best pursued by allowing others to pursue their self-interest as well so that liberty is equalized among individuals. Sacrificing one's short-term self-interest in order to maximize one's long-term self-interest is known as "rational self-interest." And, this is the idea behind most philosophers' advocacy of ethical egoism.
As Nietzsche (in ''Beyond Good and Evil'') and [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] (in ''After Virtue'') are famous for pointing out, the ancient Greeks did not associate [[morality]] with altruism in the way that post-Christian [[Western civilization]] has done. Consequently, followers of Rand may argue that Greeks like [[Aristotle]] (for whom pride was a virtue) were ethical egoists. However, Nietzsche, MacIntyre, and the Greeks do not associate ethical egoism with morality, either. Aristotle's view, for example, is that we have duties to ourselves as well as to other people (e.g. friends) and to the ''[[polis]]'' as a whole.
The term ''ethical egoism'' has also been applied retroactively to philosophers such as [[Bernard de Mandeville]] and to many other [[materialist]]s of his generation, but none of them declared themselves to be egoists. One must also note that being a materialist does not necessarily imply egoism, as indicated by [[Karl Marx]], and many other materialists, who espoused various forms of [[collectivism|collectivist]] altruism.
Ethical egoism is opposed not only by [[secular]] altruist philosophies, but also by the majority of [[religion]]s. Most religions hold that ethical egoism is the product of a lack of genuine spirituality and shows an individual's submersion in [[Greed (emotion)|greed]]. Particularly anti-egoist religions are [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] (see [[Atman]], [[Anatman]] and [[Pudgalavada]]). In the [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition, the pursuit of the individual's ends without consideration of the greater good is the basis for [[sin]].
==See also==
[[Altruism (ethics)]]
==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egoism// Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Egoism]
*[http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=egoism+ Merriam-Webster Dictionary entry for ''egoism'']
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[de:Ethischer Egoismus]]
[[es:Egoísmo (moral)]]
[[pl:Egoizm etyczny]]
[[fi:Eettinen egoismi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolution</title>
<id>9236</id>
<revision>
<id>42162884</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:59:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeffrey O. Gustafson</username>
<id>158658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.20.24.198|24.20.24.198]] ([[User talk:24.20.24.198|talk]]) to last version by 206.248.87.64</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[evolution (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:PhylogeneticTree.jpg|thumb|350px|A speculative [[phylogenetic tree]] of [[evolutionary tree|all living things]], based on [[non-coding RNA|rRNA]] [[gene]] data, showing the separation of the three domains, [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s.]]
In [[biology]], '''evolution''' is the process by which populations of organisms acquire and pass on novel [[Trait (biological)|trait]]s from generation to generation. Its action over large stretches of time explains the origin of [[speciation|new species]] and ultimately the vast diversity of the biological world. Contemporary species are related to each other through [[Common descent|common descent]], products of evolution and speciation over billions of years. The [[phylogenetic tree]] at right represents these relationships for the three major domains of life.
The understanding of evolution is based on the theory of [[natural selection]], which was first proposed in a joint 1858 paper by [[Charles Darwin]] and [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], and achieved a wider readership in Darwin's 1859 book, ''[[The Origin of Species|On The Origin of Species]]'' <ref>Darwin, Charles [[November 24]] [[1859]]. ''On the [[Origin of Species]] by means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life''. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street. 502 pages. Reprinted: Gramercy (May 22, 1995). ISBN 0517123207</ref>. Natural selection is the idea that individual organisms which possess variations giving them advantageous heritable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce and, in doing so, increase the frequency of such traits in subsequent generations.
In the 1930s scientists combined Darwinian natural selection with the theory of [[Gregor Mendel|Mendelian]] [[heredity]] to create the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] (often simply called the modern synthesis). The modern synthesis understands evolution to be a change in the frequency of [[allele]]s within a population from one generation to the next. The mechanisms that produce these changes are the basic mechanisms of population genetics: [[natural selection]] and [[genetic drift]] acting on [[genetic variation]] created by [[mutation]], [[sex]], and [[gene flow]].<ref>Understanding Evolution, from California's [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley University]]. "[http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_17] [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_16]</ref> This theory has become the central organizing principle of modern biology. It helps biologists understand topics as diverse as the origin of [[antibiotic resistance]] in bacteria, [[eusociality]] in insects, and the staggering [[biodiversity]] of the living world.
Because of its potential implications for the origins of humankind, the evolutionary theory has been at the center of many social and religious controversies since it was first introduced (see [[Creation-evolution controversy]]).
== History of evolutionary thought ==
{{main|History of evolutionary thought}}
[[Image:Charles Darwin.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Charles Darwin]] in 1854, five years before he published ''[[The Origin of Species]]''.]]
[[Image:Charles_Darwin_1881.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Charles Darwin]] in 1881, from ''The Illustrated Origin of Species'' by Charles Darwin, abridged and illustrated by Richard Leakey]]
The idea of biological evolution has existed since ancient times, notably among Hellenists such as [[Epicurus]] and [[Anaximander]], but the modern theory was not established until the 18th and 19th centuries, by scientists such as [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] and [[Charles Darwin]]. While transmutation of species was accepted by a sizeable number of scientists before 1859, it was the publication of Charles Darwin's ''[[The Origin of Species|On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection]]'' which provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could occur: his theory of natural selection. Darwin was motivated to publish his work on evolution after receiving a letter from [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], in which Wallace revealed his own discovery of natural selection. As such, Wallace is sometimes given shared credit for the theory [[natural selection]].
Darwin's theory, though it succeeded in profoundly shaking scientific opinion regarding the development of life, could not explain the source of variation in traits within a species, and Darwin's proposal of a [[heredity|hereditary]] mechanism ([[pangenesis]]) was not compelling to biologists. Though the occurrence of evolution of some sort became a widely-accepted scientific belief, Darwin's specific ideas about evolution &mdash; that it occurred gradually by natural and sexual selection &mdash; were actively attacked and rejected. From the end of the 19th century through the early-20th century, forms of neo-Lamarckism, "progressive" evolution ([[orthogenesis]]), and an evolution which worked by "jumps" ([[Saltation (biology)|saltationism]], as opposed to [[phyletic gradualism|gradualism]]) became popular, though a form of neo-Darwinism (led by [[August Weismann]]) enjoyed some minor success as well. The biometric school of evolutionary theory resulting from the work of Darwin's cousin, [[Francis Galton]], emerged as well, using statistical approaches to biology which emphasized gradualism and some aspects of natural selection.
When [[Gregor Mendel]]'s work regarding the nature of inheritance in the late [[19th century]] was "rediscovered" in 1900, it was interpreted as potentially supporting an anti-Darwinian "jumping" form of evolution. The convinced Mendelians ([[William Bateson]] and [[Charles Benedict Davenport]]) and biometricians ([[Walter Frank Raphael Weldon]] and [[Karl Pearson]]) became embroiled in a bitter debate, with the Mendelians charging that the biometricians did not understand biology, and the biometricians arguing that most biological traits exhibited continuous variation rather than the "jumps" expected by the early Mendelian theory. However the simple version of the early Mendelians soon gave |
shing themselves in these same lands. This was partially due to their [[nomadic]] lifestyle, which made them much better suited to life in [[Anatolia]] than the Arabs had been. But the main difference was one of [[demography]]. Whereas Arab armies conquered new lands and then installed a new governing class over them, the Turks settled as an entire people in their new lands. Unlike their Arab predecessors, the Turkish armies did not 'go home'. This made them much harder to dislodge, and indeed there are parallels with the entry of the [[Goths]] into the [[Western Roman Empire]], many centuries earlier. Another reason was that it was difficult for the emperor to remain in one theatre of war for a long time, as events elsewhere often intervened that required his attention. It has even been argued that it was never in the interests of the Comneni to expel the Turks, as the expansion back into Anatolia would have meant sharing more power with the feudal lords, thus weakening their power. If this is so, it is deeply ironic, as re-conquering Anatolia may have saved the Eastern Roman Empire in the long run.
The decline of the 'theme' system, which had supplied large numbers of troops for the empire in earlier centuries, was also a major factor in the failure of Byzantine efforts to drive out the Turks. It is thought that the Byzantine army under Manuel numbered some 40,000 men. Comparison with the thematic army that had existed in the [[ninth century]] shows that considerably more men had been available for duty under the theme system. And like the late [[Roman army]], the late [[Byzantine army]] was more costly than its earlier counterpart . Although the role of [[mercenaries]] in the Byzantine army has been the subject of much debate, it is a common misconception that they formed the entire Byzantine army in this period. In fact, the [[Comneni]] emperors made significant efforts to recruit native units as well as mercenaries. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that mercenaries did make up a substantial part of the army, and they were often expensive. One of the main advantages of the theme system was that it provided a means of mobilising large numbers of men cheaply. Now that this system no longer operated, one of the main strengths of the Byzantine state had been lost, and it is perhaps unsurprising that the empire disintegrated soon after the death of [[Manuel Comnenus]]: it was only the resolute leadership of three very capable rulers that had been holding the empire together. Byzantium had come to rely too much on individual emperors. Without strong underlying institutions that would always be there, whether the emperor was good or bad, the state was extremely vulnerable in times of crisis.
==Decline and fall of the Byzantine Empire==
===Death of Manuel Comnenus===
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Byzantine_Empire_(1204).jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Byzantine Empire in 1204 A.D. was divided into the [[Empire of Nicaea]], the [[Empire of Trebizond]] and the [[Despotate of Epirus]].]] -->
The 12th century was marked by a series of wars against the [[Hungarians]] and the [[Serbs]]. Emperor [[Manuel Comnenus]] campaigned successfully in this region, forcing the rebellious Serbs to vassalage ([[1150]]-[[1152]]) and leading his troops into Hungary. In 1168, a decisive victory near [[Zemun]] enabled him to conclude a peace by which [[Dalmatia]] and other frontier territories were ceded to him. Manuel's success enabled him to choose the next king of Hungary, and he duly appointed [[Béla III of Hungary|Béla III]] in 1172.
However, from the moment of Manuel's death on 24 September 1180, the Byzantine Empire began a steep decline that would never be reversed. The succession of disastrous rulers who followed him quickly lost virtually all of the gains of the last hundred years. As a result of unwise demands for increased taxation, a rebellion was organised in [[1185]] in [[Bulgaria]]; it was successful and one year later these lands were officially lost. These events significantly contributed to the decline of the Byzantine empire. In view of the difficulties the empire faced in its [[Asian]] territories at this time, control of the [[Balkans]] was vital to imperial security. Therefore, the empire's losses in Bulgaria and Serbia were a disaster, significantly reducing the amount of territory, manpower and revenue available to the state. They also meant that the easily-defensible [[Danube]] frontier was replaced by a long and vulnerable land frontier which separated the rich provinces of [[Greece]], [[Macedonia]] and [[Thrace]] from the two aggressive revived states to the north.
[[Image:ShepherdByzempire1265.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Byzantine Empire in 1265 (William R. Shepherd, ''Historical Atlas'', 1911).]]
===The Fourth Crusade===
Of all the turbulent events that occurred during its long life, the [[Fourth Crusade]] had the most devastating effect on the empire. Although the stated intent of the crusade was to conquer [[Egypt]], the leaders of the Crusade ran in to trouble when they found that considerably fewer men had responded to the call than had been expected. As a result, they could not afford to pay the Venetians for all the ships they had hired. After some time spent arguing over what to do next, the Venetians came up with a new proposal, and under their influence the Crusaders sailed to Constantinople, sacking the town of [[Zadar|Zara]] (which was an enemy of Venice) on the way. In 1204, through treachery the Crusaders were able to gain entry to the city, and soon their troops poured into the city of Constantine, a city that had withstood every siege for nearly a thousand years. The Crusaders ransacked the wealth of a millennium, stretching back to the days of the Roman Empire. Buildings were burned down, and the four bronze horses which famously stand in [[Saint Mark's Square]] in Venice today, were looted from the Hippodrome at Constantinople. As a result, a short-lived feudal kingdom was founded (the [[Latin Empire]]), and Byzantine power was permanently weakened. At this time, the [[Serbian Kingdom]] under the [[Nemanjic]] dynasty grew stronger with the collapse of Byzantium, forming a [[Serbian Empire]] in 1346.
===Fall===
After the sacking of Constantinople in 1204, three [[successor state]]s were established. These states included the [[Empire of Nicaea]], the [[Empire of Trebizond]], and the [[Despotate of Epirus]]. The first state, controlled by the [[Palaeologus|Palaeologan dynasty]], managed to reclaim Constantinople in 1261 and defeated Epirus. This led to the reviving of the Eastern Roman Empire, but the empire's attention was more focused on Europe than on the Asian provinces that were the primary concern. For a while, the empire survived simply because the [[Muslim|Muslims]] were too divided to attack. However, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] eventually overran many Byzantine territories except for a handful of port cities.
[[Image:Byzantine 1400.PNG|thumb|300px|right|The Byzantine Empire around year 1400.]]
The Eastern Roman Empire appealed to the west for help, but they would only consider sending aid in return for reuniting the churches. Church unity was considered, and occasionally accomplished by law, but the Orthodox citizens would not accept Roman Catholicism. Some western mercenaries arrived to help, but many preferred to let the empire die, and did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining territories.
Constantinople was initially not considered worth the effort of conquest, but with the advent of cannons, the walls (which had been impenetrable for over 1000 years except by the [[Fourth Crusade]]) no longer offered adequate protection against the Ottomans. The [[Fall of Constantinople]] finally came after a two-month siege by [[Mehmed II]] on [[May 29]], [[1453]]. The last Byzantine emperor, [[Constantine XI Paleologus]], was last seen entering deep into the fighting of an overwhelmingly outnumbered civilian army, against the invading Ottomans on the ramparts of Constantinople. Mehmed II also conquered [[Mistra]] in 1460 and [[Trebizond]] in 1461.
Mehmed and his successors continued to consider themselves proper heirs to the Byzantine Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century. By the end of the 15th century, the [[Ottoman Empire]] had established its firm rule over [[Asia Minor]] and parts of the [[Balkan peninsula]].
Meanwhile, the role of the emperor as a patron of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] was now claimed by the [[Grand Duke]]s of [[Muscovy]] starting with [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]]. His grandson, [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]], would become the first [[Tsar]] of [[Russia]] (tsar, also spelled ''czar'', is a term derived from the Latin word ''caesar''). Their successors supported the idea that [[Moscow]] was the proper heir to [[Rome]] and [[Constantinople]] and the idea of a [[Third Rome]] was carried throughout the [[Russian Empire]] until its demise in the early 20th century.
==Legacy and importance==
[[Image:Constantinople_1453.jpg|thumb|200px|The city of Constantinople in 1453.]]
Byzantium was arguably the only stable state in Europe during the [[Middle Ages]]. Its expert military and diplomatic power ensured inadvertently that Western Europe remained safe from many of the more devastating invasions from eastern peoples, at a time when the Western Christian kingdoms might have had difficulty containing it. Constantly under attack during its entire existence, the Byzantines shielded Western Europe from [[Persians]], Arabs, [[Seljuk Turks]], and for a time, the [[Ottomans]].
The 20th century has seen an increased interest by historians to understand the empire, and its impact on European civilization is only recently being recognised.
===Economy===
The Byzantine economy was the most advanced in Europe for many centuries. The Byzantine [[solidus (coin)|Solidus]] was the internationally preferred c |
wantinsuyu'', the indigenous name of the empire, derives from the [[Quechua]] "tawa" (''four'') , to which the suffix "-ntin" (''together'' or ''united'') is added, followed by "suyu" (''region'' or ''province''), which roughly renders as "''The land of the four parts together''". The empire was divided into four ''suyu''s, whose corners - according to Inca mythology - met at the "Navel of the World" (''Qosqo''), where their capital [[Cusco]] was located, now in modern-day [[Peru]].
The official language of the empire was [[Quechua language|Quechua]], although over seven hundred local languages were spoken. The Inca leadership encouraged the worship of their [[Deity|gods]], the foremost of which was [[Inti]], the [[Solar deity|sun god]].
== Origin stories ==
''See also: [[Inca mythology]]''
The Inca had two main origin myths. In one, Tici Viracocha of Colina de las Ventanas in [[Pacaritambo]] sent forth his four sons and four daughters to establish a village. Along the way, [[Sinchi Roca]] was born to [[Manco Capac|Manco]] and [[Mama Ocllo|Ocllo]], and Sinchi Roca is the person who finally led them to the valley of Cuzco where they founded their new village. There Manco became their leader and became known as [[Manco Capac]].
In the other origin myth, the sun god [[Inti]] ordered Manco Capac and [[Mama Ocllo]] to emerge from the depths of [[Lake Titicaca]] and found the city of Cuzco. They traveled by means of underground caves until reaching Cuzco where they established [[Sapa Inca|Hurin Cuzco]], or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco.
The knowledge of these myths is due to oral tradition, since the Incas did not have writing. There probably did exist a Manco Capac who became the leader of his tribe. The archeological evidence seems to indicate that the Inca were a relatively unimportant tribe until the time of Sinchi Roca, also called Cinchi Roca, who is the first figure in Inca mythology whose existence can be supported historically.
== Emergence and expansion ==
[[Image:Inca-expansion.png|thumb|350px|right|Inca expansion (1438 - 1527 CE)]]
The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the [[12th century]] CE. Under the leadership of [[Manco Capac]], they formed the small city-state of Cuzco ([[Quechua]] ''Qosqo''), shown in red on the map.
In [[1438]] CE, under the command of [[Sapa Inca]] (paramount leader) [[Pachacuti]], whose name literally meant "world-shaker", they began a far-reaching expansion. The land Pachacuti conquered was about the size of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] of the [[United States]] in [[1776]], and consisted of nearly the entire [[Andes]] mountain range.
Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cuzco into an empire, the Tahuantinsuyu, a [[federation|federalist system]] which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: [[Chinchasuyu]] (NW), [[Antisuyu]] (NE), [[Contisuyu]] (SW), and [[Collasuyu]] (SE). Pachacuti is also thought to have built [[Machu Picchu]], either as a family home or as a [[Camp David]]-like retreat.
Pachacuti would send spies to regions he wanted in his empire who would report back on their political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a ''[[List of French phrases used by English speakers#D .E2.80.93 H|fait accompli]]'' and acquiesced peacefully. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire.
It was traditional for the Inca's son to lead the army; Pachacuti's son [[Túpac Inca]] began conquests to the north in [[1463]], and continued them as Inca after Pachucuti's death in [[1471]]. His most important conquest was the Kingdom of [[Chimor]], the Inca's only serious rival for the coast of Peru. Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern day Ecuador and Colombia.
Túpac Inca's son [[Huayna Cápac]] added significant territory to the south. At its height, Tahuantinsuyu included [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]], most of what is now [[Ecuador]], a large portion of modern-day [[Chile]], and extended into corners of [[Argentina]] and [[Colombia]].
Tahuantinsuyu was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. For instance, the [[Chimú]] used money in their commerce, while the Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour (it is said that Inca tax collectors would take the head lice of the [[disability|lame]] and old as a symbolic tribute). The portions of the [[Chachapoya]] that had been conquered were almost openly hostile to the Inca, and the Inca nobles rejected an offer of refuge in their kingdom after their troubles with the Spanish.
==Spanish conquest and Vilcabamba==
''Main article: [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire]]''
Spanish [[conquistadors]] led by [[Francisco Pizarro]] explored south from Panama, reaching Inca territory by [[1526]]. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after one more expedition ([[1529]]), Pizarro travelled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy.
At the time they returned to Peru, in [[1532]], a war of succession between Huayna Capac's sons [[Huascar]] and [[Atahualpa]] and unrest among newly-conquered territories-- and perhaps more importantly, [[smallpox]], which had spread from Central America-- had considerably weakened the empire.
Pizarro did not have a formidable force; with just 180 men, 1 cannon and only 27 horses, he often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party. Their first engagement was the [[battle of Puná]], near present-day [[Guayaquil]], [[Ecuador]]; Pizarro then founded the city of [[Piura]] in July [[1532]]. [[Hernando de Soto]] was sent inland to explore the interior, and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at [[Cajamarca]] with his army of 80,000 troops.
Pizarro met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue, and through interpreters demanded that he convert to Christianity. Atahualpa was handed a Bible and threw it on the floor, which the Spanish interpreted as adequate reason for war, though some chroniclers suggest that Atahualpa simply didn't understand the notion of a book. The Spanish attacked the Inca's retinue (see [[Battle of Cajamarca]]), capturing Atahualpa.
Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in, and twice that amount of silver. The Incas fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro refused to release the Inca. During Atahualpa's imprisonment Huascar was assassinated. The Spanish maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was one of the charges used against Atahualpa when the Spanish finally decided to put him to death, in August [[1533]].
The Spanish installed his brother [[Manco Inca Yupanqui]] in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish, while the Spanish fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile an associate of Pizarro's, [[Diego de Almagro]], attempted to claim [[Cusco]] for himself. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco ([[1536]]), but the Spanish retook the city.
Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of [[Vilcabamba]], where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In [[1572]] the last Inca stronghold was discovered, and the last ruler, [[Túpac Amaru]], Manco's son, was captured and executed, bringing the Inca empire to an end.
== After the Spanish conquest ==
After the fall of Tahuantinsuyu, the new Spanish rulers brutally repressed the people and their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system. The Spanish used the Inca [[Mita (Inca)|mita]] (mandatory public service) system to literally work the people to death. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at [[Potosí]]. When one family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement.
The major languages of the empire, [[Quechua language|Quechua]] and [[Aymara language|Aymara]], were employed by the [[Catholic Church]] to evangelize in the [[Andean]] region. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread [[Amerindian language]]s.
The legend of the Inca has served as inspiration for resistance movements in the region. These include the [[1780]] rebellion led by [[Tupac Amaru II]] against the Spanish, as well as contemporary the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] movements [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] (MRTA) and [[Shining Path|Sendero Luminoso]] in Peru and [[Tupamaros]] in [[Uruguay]].
Tawantinsuyu has a modern [[rainbow flag]] which is displayed throughout Peru.
== Society ==
=== Political organization of the empire ===
[[Image:Ollantaytambo.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Ollantaytambo]]'' constituted an administrative, religious, agricultural and military complex for the Incas]]
The most powerful figure in the |
cense/ license] page
* [http://www.canoo.net/index_en.html German Grammar, Online Dictionary for Spelling, Infection and Wordformation for the German Language]
* [http://www.geodic.de GEODic] German-English-Online-Dictionary
* [http://www.woerterbuch.info woerterbuch.info — Free English-German Online Dictionary] with over 600.000 translations
* [http://www.dwds.de The Digital Dictonary Project]in German - Dictionary, Corpus and Statistics
* http://www.dedict.de - English-German Online Dictionary
* http://www.spell-it.net - Free English-German Online Dictionary
* [http://german.typeit.org Type any text with German characters].
===Grammar===
* [http://www.wm.edu/modlang/gasmit/grammar/grammnu.html Grammar of German]
* [http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~skidmore/grammarpage.htm German Grammar on the Web]
* [http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~oberle/courses/review.html German Review Grammar]
* [http://www.cas.muohio.edu/~greal/netzgrammatik/grammar.html German Grammar Charts]
==References==
* Michael Clyne, ''The German Language in a Changing Europe'' (1995) ISBN 0521499704
* [[George Oliver Curme|George O. Curme]], ''[[A Grammar of the German Language]]'' (1904, 1922) — the most complete and authoritative work in English
* Anthony Fox, ''The Structure of German'' (2005) ISBN 0199273995
* W.B. Lockwood, ''German Today: The Advanced Learner's Guide'' (1987) ISBN 0198158505
* [http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/germanistik/spr/suf/baydat-udi/pdf/Grob%FCbersicht%20Dialekte.pdf Dialect map of the German language area (in German)]
{{Official EU languages}}
[[Category:German language|German language]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:High Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Austria]]
[[Category:Languages of Belgium]]
[[Category:Languages of Brazil]]
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[[Category:Languages of Luxembourg]]
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[[Category:Languages of Romania]]
[[Category:Languages of Switzerland]]
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{{Link FA|he}}
[[af:Duits (taal)]]
[[als:Deutsche Sprache]]
[[ang:Þēodisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة ألمانية]]
[[ast:Alemán]]
[[be:Нямецкая мова]]
[[bs:Njemački jezik]]
[[br:Alamaneg]]
[[ca:Alemany]]
[[cs:Němčina]]
[[cy:Almaeneg]]
[[da:Tysk (sprog)]]
[[de:Deutsche Sprache]]
[[et:Saksa keel]]
[[el:Γερμανική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma alemán]]
[[eo:Germana lingvo]]
[[eu:Alemaniera]]
[[fa:زبان آلمانی]]
[[fo:Týskt mál]]
[[fr:Allemand]]
[[ga:Gearmáinis]]
[[gl:Lingua alemá]]
[[ko:독일어]]
[[hr:Njemački jezik]]
[[io:Germaniana linguo]]
[[ilo:Pagsasao nga Aleman]]
[[id:Bahasa Jerman]]
[[ia:Lingua german]]
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[[it:Lingua tedesca]]
[[he:גרמנית]]
[[kw:Almaynek]]
[[la:Lingua Theodisca]]
[[lv:Vācu valoda]]
[[lt:Vokiečių kalba]]
[[lb:Däitsch]]
[[li:Duits]]
[[ln:Lialémani]]
[[hu:Német nyelv]]
[[mk:Германски јазик]]
[[ms:Bahasa Jerman]]
[[nl:Duits]]
[[nds:Düütsche Spraak]]
[[ja:ドイツ語]]
[[no:Tysk språk]]
[[nn:Tysk språk]]
[[oc:Alemand]]
[[pl:Język niemiecki]]
[[pt:Língua alemã]]
[[ro:Limba germană]]
[[rm:Lingua tudestga]]
[[ru:Немецкий язык]]
[[se:Duiskkagiella]]
[[simple:German language]]
[[sk:Nemčina]]
[[sl:Nemščina]]
[[sr:Немачки језик]]
[[fi:Saksan kieli]]
[[sv:Tyska]]
[[tl:Wikang Aleman]]
[[tt:Alman tele]]
[[th:ภาษาเยอรมัน]]
[[vi:Tiếng Đức]]
[[tr:Almanca]]
[[zh:德语]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gothic language</title>
<id>11885</id>
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<id>41229752</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T23:02:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alexander 007</username>
<id>493689</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Note, this article contains special characters. You may need to install a [[:got:Wikipedia:Gothic Unicode Fonts|Gothic Unicode Font]].''
{{Infobox Language
|name=Gothic
|nativename=*𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 ''Gutisk''
|pronunciation=/ˈɡuˌtʰisk/
|region=throughout mainland [[Europe]]
|extinct=by [[10th century]]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]]
|script=[[Gothic alphabet]]
|iso2=got|iso3=got}}
The '''Gothic language''' (''*gutiska razda'', *𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺𐌰 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰) is an extinct [[Germanic language]] that was spoken by the [[Goths]] and specifically by the [[Visigoth]]s. It is known primarily through a translation of the [[Bible]] dating from the [[4th century]], and is the only [[East Germanic language]] with a sizeable corpus. All others, including [[Burgundian]] and [[Vandalic language|Vandalic]], are known, if at all, only from proper names that survived in historical accounts.
As a Germanic language, Gothic is a part of the [[Indo-European language]] family. It is the Germanic language with the earliest attestation, but it has no modern descendants. The oldest documents in Gothic date back to the [[4th century]]. The language was in decline by the mid-[[6th century]], due in part to the military defeat of the Goths at the hands of the [[Franks]], the elimination of the Goths in Italy, massive conversion to primarily Latin-speaking Roman Catholicism, and geographic isolation. The language survived in the [[Iberian peninsula]] (modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) as late as the [[8th century]], and [[Franks|Frankish]] author [[Walafrid Strabo]] wrote that it was still spoken in the lower [[Danube]] area and in isolated mountain regions in [[Crimea]] in the early [[9th century]] (see [[Crimean Gothic]]). Gothic-seeming terms found in later (post-9th century) manuscripts may not belong to the same language.
The existence of such early attested corpora makes it a language of considerable interest in [[comparative linguistics]].
The native name for the language is unattested, and the reconstruction ''*gutiska razda'' is based on [[Jordanes]]' ''[[Gothiskandza]]'', read as ''gutisk-andja'', "gothic end (or border)". ''razda'' "speech" is attested, e. g. in [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 26:73 [http://www.wulfila.be/gothic/browse/token/?ID=T3635].
''Words in Gothic written in this article are [[transliteration|transliterated]] into the [[Roman alphabet]] using the system described on the [[Gothic alphabet]] page.''
==Documents in Gothic==
[[Image:Ambrosianus.jpg|thumb|240px|leaf of the Codex Ambrosianus B]]
There are only a few surviving documents in Gothic, not enough to completely reconstruct the language.
* The largest body of surviving documentation consists of [[codices]] written and commissioned by the [[Arianism|Arian]] bishop [[Ulfilas]] (also known as ''Wulfila'', [[311]]-[[382]]), who was the leader of a community of [[Visigoths|Visigoth]] [[Christian]]s in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province of [[Moesia]] (modern [[Bulgaria]]). He commissioned a translation of the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] into the Gothic language, of which roughly three-quarters of the [[New Testament]] and some fragments of the [[Old Testament]] have survived.
:*[[Codex Argenteus]] (and the '''Speyer fragment'''): 188 leaves.
::The best preserved Gothic manuscript, the ''[[Codex Argenteus]]'', dates from the [[6th century]] and was preserved and transmitted by northern Italian [[Ostrogoths]]. It contains a large part of the four [[Gospel]]s. Since it is a translation from Greek, the language of the ''Codex Argentus'' is replete with borrowed Greek words and Greek usages. The syntax in particular is often copied directly from the Greek.
:*[[Codex Ambrosianus]] ([[Milan]]) (and the '''Codex Taurinensis'''): Five parts, totalling 193 leaves.
::The ''Codex Ambrosianus'' contains scattered passages from the New Testament (including parts of the [[Gospel]]s and the [[Epistle]]s), of the [[Old Testament]] ([[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]), and some commentaries known as ''[[Skeireins]]''. It is therefore likely that the text had been somewhat modified by copyists.
:*[[Codex Gissensis]] ([[Gießen]]): 1 leaf, fragments of Luke 23-24. It was found in Egypt in 1907, but destroyed by water damage in 1945.
:*[[Codex Carolinus]]: ([[Wolfenbüttel]]): 4 leaves, fragments of Romans 11-15.
:*'''Codex Vaticanus Latinus 5750''': 3 leaves, pages 57/58, 59/60 and 61/62 of the [[Skeireins]].
* A scattering of old documents: alphabets, calendars, glosses found in a number of manuscripts and a few [[Runic]] inscriptions that are known to be or suspected to be Gothic. Some scholars believe that these inscriptions are not at all Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus "Gotische Grammatik" Tübingen 1981)
*A few dozen terms compiled by [[Ogier de Busbecq]], a [[16th century]] [[Flanders|Flemish]] diplomat living in [[Crimea]] who listed them in his compilation ''Turkish Letters''. These terms are from nearly a millennium later and are therefore not representative of the language of Ulfilas. See [[Crimean Gothic]].
There have been unsubstantiated reports of the discovery of other parts of Ulfilas' bible. [[Heinrich May]] in [[1968]] claimed to have found in England 12 leaves of a [[palimpsest]] containing parts of the [[Gospel of Matthew]]. The claim was never substantiated.
Only fragments of the Gothic translation of the [[Bible]] have been preserved. The translation was apparently done in the [[Balkans]] region by people in close contact with Greek [[Christianity|Christian]] culture. It appears that the Gothic Bible was used by the [[Visigoths]] in [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]] until circa 700 AD, and perhaps for a time in [[Italy]], the [[Balkans]] and what is now [[Ukraine]]. In exterminating [[Arianism|Arian]]ism, many texts in Gothic were probably expunged and overwritten as palimpsests, or collected and burned. Apart from Biblical texts, the only substantial Gothic document which still exists, and the only lengthy text known to have been composed originally in the Gothic language, is the "[[Skeireins]]", a few pages of commentary on |
ightener]]s and colour-enhancing agents designed to increase the intensity and appearance of dyes. Because dyes get their colour from the interaction of [[electron]]s in their molecules, the way in which the electrons can move is determined by the charge and extent of electron delocalisation in the other ink ingredients. The colour emerges as a function of the light energy that falls on the dye. Thus, if an optical brightener or colour enhancer absorbs light energy and emits it through or with the dye, the appearance changes, as the spectrum of light re-emitted to the observer changes.
A disadvantage of dye-based inks is that they can be more susceptible to fading, especially when exposed to [[ultraviolet radiation]] as in sunlight.
Pigments contain the different colors. Pigments are the main components of the Inks. The size of the pigment is very important for the ability of diffuse in the solution inks. Denpending the sources and kind of the pigments so they have some special properties of ink like that : Brighness , Satulation, Hue.
==History of ink==
Approximately 5000 years ago, the Chinese developed ink for blackening the raised surfaces of pictures and texts carved in stone. This early ink was a mixture of soot from pine smoke, lamp oil, and gelatin from animal skins and musk. Other early cultures also developed inks (of many colors) from available berries, plants and minerals.
In an article for the Christian Science Monitor, Sharon J. Huntington describes these other historical inks:
<blockquote>About 1,600 years ago, a popular ink recipe was created. The recipe was used for centuries. Iron "salts," such as ferrous sulfate (made by treating iron with sulfuric acid), was mixed with tannin from gallnuts (they grow on trees) and a thickener. When first put to paper, this ink is bluish-black. Over time it fades to a dull brown.</blockquote>
<blockquote>Scribes in medieval Europe (about AD 800 to 1500) wrote on sheepskin parchment. One 12th-century ink recipe called for hawthorn branches to be cut in the spring and left to dry. Then the bark was pounded from the branches and soaked in water for eight days. The water was boiled until it thickened and turned black. Wine was added during boiling. The ink was poured into special bags and hung in the sun. Once dried, the mixture was mixed with wine and iron salt over a fire to make the final ink.</blockquote>
In the 14th century, a new type of ink had to be developed in Europe for the printing press. Two types of ink were prevelent at the time; The Greek and Roman writing ink (soot, glue, and water) and the 12th century variety composed of ferrous sulfate, nutgall, gum, and water. Neither of these handwriting inks could adhere to printing surfaces without creating blurs. Eventually an oily, varnish-like ink made of soot, turpentine, and walnut oil was created specifically for the printing press.
==References==
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0921/p18s02-hfks.html "Think Ink!"] by Sharon J. Huntington, Christian Science Monitor, September 21, 2004, retrieved January 17, 2006.
*"A History of Technology and Invention" by Maurice Audin, page 630
==See also==
*[[Invisible ink]]
*[[Soy ink]]
*[[Quink]]
*[[Ink sac]]
*[http://www.printpromotionguide.com/blog/item/40 Printing Metallic Inks]
[[Category:Inks|*]]
[[da:Blæk]]
[[de:Tinte]]
[[eo:Inko]]
[[es:Tinte]]
[[fr:Encre]]
[[he:דיו]]
[[it:Inchiostro]]
[[nl:Inkt]]
[[nn:blekk]]
[[no:blekk]]
[[ja:インク]]
[[simple:Ink]]
[[fi:Muste]]
[[zh:墨]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balochistan (Iran)</title>
<id>15293</id>
<revision>
<id>33411726</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T20:48:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Davidpdx</username>
<id>284281</id>
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<comment>Reverted vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Balochistan''' is the [[Iran]]ian province of the greater terroitory [[Balochistan]] (or Baluchistan). It comprises [[Sistan va Baluchestan]] province and the southeastern parts of [[Kerman province|Kerman]] and [[Hormozgan]] provinces. To the south is the [[Gulf of Oman]]. To the east is [[Balochistan, Pakistan]].
The southern part of Balochistan is known as [[Makran]].
==Cities in Balochistan==
* [[Bampur]]
{{Iran-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Geography of Iran|Balochistan, Iranian]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Islamabad Capital Territory</title>
<id>15294</id>
<revision>
<id>37212992</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T14:07:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fast track</username>
<id>782108</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Infobox corrected</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{ISB-infobox}}
''For main article on the capital of [[Pakistan]] go to [[Islamabad]].''
'''Islamabad Capital Territory''' is the capital of [[Pakistan]]. It is located to the north of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] and to the south of [[North-West Frontier, Pakistan|North-West Frontier Province]].
==Introduction==
Islamabad was designed and built to be a modern capital for [[Pakistan]]. It is located amongst the Margalla Hills at the northern end of Pothowar Plateau. It was established in 1960 by the orders of then President General [[Ayub Khan]].
The capital is full of natural terraces and meadows and the southern plain drained by the Kurang River with the Margalla Hills in the north east.
==Area and population==
The city is divided into eight basic zones:
*Administrative
*Diplomatic Enclave
*Residential Areas
*Educational Sectors
*Industrial Sectors
*Commercial Areas
*Rural Areas and
*Green Areas
Each sector has its own shopping area and public park. The population of the city is around 950,000 people with an area of about 910 square kilometers. The city lies at latitudes 33° 49' north and longitudes 72° 24' east with altitudes ranging from 457 to 610 meters.
==Climate==
It offers a healthy climate, pollution free atmosphere, plenty of water and a lush green area. It is a modern and carefully planned city with wide tree-lined streets, large houses, elegant public buildings and well-organised bazars/markets/shopping centres.
The average humidity level is 55% with an average rainfall of 1150 millimeters each year. The city is quite moderate when it comes to its weather. The maximum average temperature is 29 °C and goes down to average minimum of around 14 °C.
==Education==
Islamabad has some of the fine educational institutes of [[Pakistan]], including Quaid-e-Azam University, International Islamic University and National University of Science and Technology.
[[Quaid-e-Azam]] University offers courses in a number of subjects. The institute is located in a semi hilly area, east of the Secretariat buildings and near the base of Margala Hills. This Post-Graduate institute is spread over 1500 acres (6&nbsp;km&sup2;).
Major buildings of the campus have been designed in such a way as to form an axial spine with the library in the center. Quaid-e-Azam University now occupies an enviable position in the academic world.
==Shah Faisal mosque==
The enormous [[Shah Faisal Mosque]] sits at the foot of the Margalla Hills. It represents an eight-faceted desert 'tent' supported on four giant concrete girders and surrounded by four 90-metre high concrete minuets. The central 'tent' is faced in white marble and decorated inside with mosaics and a spectacular chandelier.
The mosque was designed by the Turkish architect [[Vedat Dalokay]], and largely financed by donations from [[Saudi Arabia]]. About 15,000 people fit inside, with room for another 85,000 in the courtyard.
==External links==
*[http://www.itspakistan.net/pakistan/islamabad.aspx Read More About Islamabad on itsPakistan]
*[http://www.itspakistan.net/pakistan/gallery_isb.aspx Picture Gallery of Islamabad on itsPakistan]
{{Territorial_Capitals_in_Pakistan}}
[[Category:Subdivisions of Pakistan]]
[[de:Islamabad Hauptstadtterritorium]]
[[ko:이슬라마바드 수도권]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intelligent Design</title>
<id>15295</id>
<revision>
<id>24194749</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-27T23:06:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kazrak</username>
<id>215642</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelligent design]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indian ink</title>
<id>15297</id>
<revision>
<id>41102311</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T01:34:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
<id>665998</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>prefered--->preferred</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the ink|the play by Tom Stoppard|Indian Ink (play)}}
'''Indian ink''' (or '''India ink''' in [[American English]]) is a simple black [[ink]] once widely used for writing and printing, and now more commonly used for [[drawing]], especially when inking [[comics]].
Early treatises on the arts refer to black carbon ink that was prepared by the ancient [[history of China|Chinese]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]]. The basis of the ink was a black carbon pigment in an aqueous [[glue]] or binding medium. Sometime before the [[12th century]], [[Eraclius]], in his De Coloribus et Artibus Romanorum, presented a set of directions for making several types of carbon inks, including one similar to the Indian ink of China, made from the [[soot]] of burning resin or wood. Different types of wood will create different-colored inks. In an [[England|English]] volume on [[handwriting]] of [[1581]], [[Theophilus]] presented a recipe for a carbon ink:
:To make Inke in haste.
:In hast, for a shift when ye have a great neede,<br>
:Take woll, or wollen to stand you in steede,<br>
:Which burnt in the fyre |
among the 22 West African rivers that have their origins in Guinea.
The coastal region of Guinea and most of the inland have a tropical climate, with a rainy season lasting from April to November, relatively high and uniform temperatures, and high humidity. Conakry's year-round average high is 29 &deg;C (85 &deg;F), and the low is 23 &deg;C (74 &deg;F); its average annual rainfall is 4.3 metres (169 inches). Sahelian Upper Guinea has a shorter rainy season and greater daily temperature variations.
[[Image:Guinea Map.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Map of Guinea]]
'''Location:'''
Western [[Africa]], bordering the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Guinea-Bissau]] and [[Sierra Leone]]
'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
{{coor dm|11|00|N|10|00|W|type:country}}
'''Map references:'''
Africa
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
245,857 km²
<br>''land:''
245,857 km²
<br>''water:''
0 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than [[Oregon]]
'''Land boundaries:'''
*''total:''
3,399 km
*''border countries:''
[[Côte d'Ivoire]] 610 km, [[Guinea-Bissau]] 386 km, [[Liberia]] 563 km, [[Mali]] 858 km, [[Senegal]] 330 km, [[Sierra Leone]] 652 km
'''Coastline:'''
320 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''[[exclusive economic zone]]:''
200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km)
<br>''territorial sea:''
12 nautical miles (22 km)
'''Climate:'''
generally hot and humid; [[monsoon]]al-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly [[harmattan]] winds
'''Terrain:'''
generally flat coastal plain, hilly to mountainous interior
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
Atlantic Ocean 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Mont Nimba]] 1,752 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[bauxite]], [[iron ore]], [[diamond]]s, [[gold]], [[uranium]], hydropower, fish
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
2%
<br>''permanent crops:''
0%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
22%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
59%
<br>''other:''
17% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
930 km² (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season
'''Environment - current issues:'''
[[deforestation]]; inadequate supplies of potable water; [[desertification]]; soil contamination and erosion; overfishing, [[overpopulation]] in forest region
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements
==See also==
*[[Guinea]]
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Guinea| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Guinea]]
[[pt:Geografia da Guiné]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Guinea</title>
<id>12179</id>
<revision>
<id>34641541</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T18:43:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Demographics of Guinea''' includes four main ethnic groups.
*[[Fulbe]] (singular Pullo). Called [[Peuhl]] or [[Peul]] ([[:fr:Peul]]) in French, [[Fula]] or [[Fulani]] in English, who are chiefly found in the mountainous region of [[Fouta Djallon]];
*[[Maninkaa]]. [[Malinke]] in French, [[Mandingo]] in English, mostly inhabiting the [[savanna]] and forest regions;
*[[Soussou]]s. Soussou is a [[lingua franca]] in Guinea, and is commonly spoken in the coastal areas including the capital [[Conakry]]; and
*Several small groups ([[Gerzé]], [[Toma]], [[Kissi]]s, etc.) in the forest region and [[Baga (people)|Baga]]s (including [[Landouma]]s) , [[Koniagi]]s etc... in the coastal area.
West Africans make up the largest non-Guinean population. Non-Africans total about 10,000 (mostly Lebanese, French, and other Europeans). Seven national languages are used extensively; the major written languages are French, Peuhl, and Arabic.
'''Population:'''
7,466,200 (July 2000 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
43.38% (male 1,614,789; female 1,623,691)
<br>''15-64 years:''
53.95% (male 1,966,929; female 2,060,877)
<br>''65 years and over:''
2.68% (male 82,376; female 117,538) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
1.95% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
40.08 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
17.86 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
-2.68 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
<br>''note:''
over the years Guinea has received several hundred thousand refugees from the civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone; by the end of 1999 all Liberian refugees were assumed to have returned; refugees from Sierra Leone are assumed to be returning
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
0.95 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.7 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
130.98 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
45.56 years
<br>''male:''
43.16 years
<br>''female:''
48.02 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
5.46 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Guinean(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Guinean
'''Ethnic groups:'''
Peuhl 40%, Malinke 30%, Soussou 20%, smaller ethnic groups 10%
'''Religions:'''
Muslim 85%, Christian 8% (mainly [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Église Evangelique des Frères]] and [[Église Evangelique Protestante]]), indigenous beliefs 7%.
Official census does not break in ethnicity or religion
'''Languages:'''
French (official), each ethnic group has its own language
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
35.9%
<br>''male:''
49.9%
<br>''female:''
21.9% (1995 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Guinea]]
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Guinea]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Guinea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Guinea</title>
<id>12180</id>
<revision>
<id>38481150</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T17:02:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ravn</username>
<id>47881</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Transparency]] to [[Transparency (humanities)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Guinea}}
'''Country name:'''
''conventional long form:''Republic of Guinea
''conventional short form:''Guinea
''local long form:''Republique de Guinee
''local short form:''Guinee
''former:''French Guinea
'''Data code:'''GV
'''Government type:''' [[Republic]]
'''Capital:''' [[Conakry]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
4 administrative regions (regions administrative, singular - region administrative) and 1 special zone (zone speciale)*; Conakry*, Guinee, Guinee-Forestiere, Haute-Guinee, Moyen-Guinee
'''Independence:'''
[[2 October]] [[1958]] (from France)
'''National holiday:'''
Anniversary of the Second Republic, [[3 April]] (1984)
'''Constitution:'''
[[23 December]] [[1990]] (Loi Fundamentale)
'''Legal system:'''
Based on French civil law system, customary law, and decree; legal codes currently being revised; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal
'''International organization participation:'''
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, MINURSO, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]
'''Flag description:'''
three equal vertical bands of red (hoist side), yellow, and green; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of [[Rwanda]], which has a large black letter R centered in the yellow band
== History ==
The [[president]] governs [[Guinea]], assisted by a [[council]] of 25 civilian [[Political minister|minister]]s appointed by him. The government administers the country through eight regions, 33 [[prefecture]]s, over 100 [[subprefecture]]s, and many [[district]]s (known as [[commune (subnational entity)|commune]]s in [[Conakry]] and other large cities and villages or "quartiers" in the interior). District-level leaders are elected; the president appoints officials to all other levels of the highly centralized administration.
A military [[junta]], led by then-[[Lt. Col.]] [[Lansana Conté]] and styling itself the [[Military Committee of National Recovery]] (CMRN), took control of Guinea in April [[1984]], shortly after the death of independent Guinea's first president, [[Sekou Toure|Sékou Touré]]. With Conté as president, the CMRN set about dismantling Touré's oppressive [[regime]], abolishing the [[authoritarian]] [[constitution]], dissolving the sole political party and its mass youth and women's organizations, and announcing the establishment of the Second Republic. The new government also released all political prisoners and committed itself to the protection of [[human rights]]. The CMRN also reorganized the [[judicial]] system, decentralized the administration, and began to liberalize the economy, promote private enterprise, and encourage foreign [[investment]] in order to reverse the steady economic decline under [[Sekou Toure|Touré]]'s rule by developing the country's natural resources.
In [[1990]], Guineans approved by [[referendum]] a new constitution that inaugurated the Third Republic, and |
, for example through a device within a microprocessor.
*''Conductive Coating'' - Evaporation, [[Thin-film deposition]], or [[sputtering]] of carbon, gold, gold/palladium, platinum or other conductive material to avoid charging of non conductive specimens in a scanning electron microscope.
== Disadvantages ==
[[Image:Krillfilter2kils.jpg|thumb|Pseudocolored SEM image of the feeding basket of [[Antarctic krill]]. Real electron microscope images do not carry any color information, they are [[greyscale]]. The first degree [[filter setae]] carry in v-form two rows of second degree [[setae]], pointing towards the inside of the [[feeding basket]]. The purple ball is one micrometer in diameter. To display the total area of this fascinating structure one would have to [http://www.ecoscope.com/krill/filter/filter7/index.htm tile] 7500 times this image.]]
Electron microscopes are expensive to buy and maintain. As they are sensitive to vibration and external magnetic fields, suitable facilities are required to house microscopes aimed at achieving high resolutions.
The samples have to be viewed in [[vacuum]], as the molecules that make up air would scatter the electrons. Recent advances have allowed hydrated samples to be imaged using environmental scanning electron microscope.
Scanning electron microscopes usually image conductive or semi-conductive materials best. Non-conductive materials can be imaged by an environmental scanning electron microscope. A common preparation technique is to coat the sample with a several-nanometer layer of conductive material, such as [[gold]], from a sputtering machine; however this process has the potential to disturb delicate samples.
The samples have to be prepared in many ways to give proper detail, which may result in ''artifacts''&mdash;objects that are purely the result of treatment. This gives the problem of distinguishing artifacts from material, particularly in [[biology|biological]] samples. Scientists maintain that the results from various preparation techniques have been compared, and as there is no reason that they should all produce similar artifacts, it is therefore reasonable to believe that electron microscopy features correlate with living cells. In addition, higher resolution work has been directly compared to results from [[X-ray crystallography]], providing independent confirmation of the validity of this technique. Recent work performed on unfixated, vitrified specimens has also been performed, further confirming the validity of this technique.
== See also ==
* [[Electron]]
* [[:Category:Electron microscope images]]
==External links==
===Archives===
* [http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8452.htm Rubin Borasky Electron Microscopy Collection, 1930-1988] Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
[[Category:Microscopes]]
[[Category:Electron]]
[[cs:Elektronový mikroskop]]
[[de:Elektronenmikroskop]]
[[es:Microscopio electrónico]]
[[fr:Microscope électronique]]
[[ms:Mikroskop elektron]]
[[nl:Elektronenmicroscopie]]
[[no:Elektronmikroskop]]
[[ja:電子顕微鏡]]
[[pl:Mikroskop elektronowy]]
[[pt:Microscópio eletrônico]]
[[zh:电子显微镜]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extinct birds</title>
<id>9731</id>
<revision>
<id>41890853</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:49:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pmaas</username>
<id>457308</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[Passerine]]s */ Removed New Zealand ravens, because extinct before 1500</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Artist's rendition of a Giant [[Harpagornis|Haast's eagle]] attacking New Zealand [[moa]].]]
Since [[1500]], over 100 species of '''[[birds]]''' have become '''[[extinct]]''', and this rate of extinction seems to be increasing. The situation is exemplified by [[Hawaii]], where 30% of all now-extinct species originally lived. Other areas, such as [[Guam]], have also been hard hit; Guam has lost over 60% of its native species in the last 30 years, many of them to imported [[snake]]s.
There are today about 10,000 species of birds, and 1186 of them are considered to be under threat of extinction. Except for 11 species, the threat is man-made.
Island species in general, and flightless island species in particular are most at risk. The disproportionate number of [[rail (bird)|rails]] in the list reflects the tendency of that family to lose the ability to fly when geographically isolated.
(This page refers only to birds that have gone extinct in historical times. See also [[Prehistoric bird|Prehistoric birds]].)
=='''Extinct species'''==
===[[Ratite]]s===
* [[Aepyornis]], ''Aepyornis maximus ''
* [[Moa]], ''Dinornithiformes''.
:Large flightless birds in [[New Zealand]]- they were probably already extinct in [[1642]] when Europeans landed there. The extinction of the moa and its main predator, [[Harpagornis|Haast's Eagle]] ''Harpagornis moorei'', is attributed to the arrival of human settlers around 1000 A.D. Very early European arrivals, ca 1830-40, described seeing birds that might have been the last of the moa but the sightings have never been reliably confirmed . New Zealand has no significant indigenous mammal life. The entire animal ecology consisted of birds, with the moa filling the niche of deer or cattle, and the harpagornis filling the niche of the wolf or tiger. Amongst the dozen or so species were '''Slender Moa,''' ''Dinornis robustus'', '''Great Broad-billed Moa,''' ''Euryapteryx gravis '' and '''Lesser Megalapteryx''', ''Megalapteryx didinus''.
:It has been long suspected that the species of moa described as ''Euryapteryx curtus'' / ''E. exilis'', ''E. huttonii'' / ''E. crassus'', and ''Pachyornis septentrionalis'' / ''P. mappini'' constituted males and females, respectively. This has been confirmed by analysis for sex-specific genetic markers of DNA extracted from bone material (''Nature'' 425 p.175). More interestingly, the former three species of ''Dinornis'': ''D. giganteus'' = ''robustus'', ''D. novaezealandiae'' and ''D. struthioides'' have turned out to be males (''struthioides'') and females of only two species, one each formerly occurring on [[New Zealand]]s North Island (''D. novaezealandiae'') and South Island (''D. robustus'') [''Nature'' paper cited above, also ''Nature'' 425 p. 172].
:Moa females were larger than males, being up to 150% of the male's size and 280% of their weight. This phenomenon - reverse size dimorphism, is not uncommon amongst [[ratite]]s, being most pronounced in moa and [[kiwi]]s.
:On a side note, the plural form of moa is also moa, as [[Maori language|Maori]] words do not feature plural-"s".
* [[King Island Emu]], ''Dromaius ater'' (Australia 1850)
* [[Kangaroo Island Emu]], ''Dromaius baudinianus'' (Australia 1827)
===[[Duck]]s, [[Goose|geese]] and [[swan]]s===
* [[Korean Crested Shelduck]], ''Tadorna cristata''
:A [[relic species]] from Northeast Asia. Officially [[Endangered species|critically endangered]] due to recent unconfirmed reports. Last confirmed record in [[1964]] near [[Vladivostok]].
* [[Réunion Shelduck]], ''Alopochen kervazoi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, [[1674]])
* [[Mauritian Shelduck]], ''Alopochen mauritianus'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, [[1698]])
* [[Amsterdam Island Duck]], ''Anas marecula'' (Amsterdam Island, South Indian Ocean, [[1800]])
* [[Mauritian Duck]], ''Anas theodori'' (Mascarenes, [[1710]])
* [[Finsch's Duck]], ''Chenonetta finschi'' from New Zealand possibly survived to [[1870]]
* [[Pink-headed Duck]], ''Netta caryophyllacea''
:Officially [[Endangered species|critically endangered]] due to parts of its former range not yet being surveyed, but probably extinct. The only area in which it might reasonably still exist is Northern [[Myanmar]] due to its remoteness: the [[Leaf Muntjac]], a species of small deer, was newly described from the Putao area as late as 1998. Reports of Pink-headed Ducks continue to be received from this area, but searches have been inconclusive.
* [[Madagascar Pochard]], ''Aythya innotata'':
:Officially [[Endangered species|critically endangered]], but probably extinct: the last known individual, a semi-captive bird at [[Antananarivo]] Botanic Gardens since 1991, this bird dying in 1992.
* [[Labrador Duck]], ''Camptorhynchus labradorius''
:This [[eider]]-like sea duck from Northwest [[North America]] was never very common. Although it has been hunted for food, it probably died out because of decline of mussels and shellfish due to pollution. The last one was seen at [[Elmira, New York]], in [[1878]].
* [[Auckland Islands Merganser]], ''Mergus australis'' (Auckland Islands, Southwest Pacific, [[1902]])
===[[Phasianidae|Quail]]s and relatives===
* [[New Zealand Quail]], ''Coturnix novaezelandiae'' (New Zealand, [[1875]])
* [[Himalayan Quail]], ''Ophrysia superciliosa'' (North India)
:Officially critically endangered. Not recorded with certainty since [[1876]], but thorough surveys are still required, and there is a recent set of possible (though unlikely) sightings around [[Naini Tal]] in [[2003]]. A little-known native name from Western [[Nepal]] probably refers to this bird, but for various reasons, no survey for ''Ophrysia'' has ever been conducted in that country, nor is it generally assumed to occur there (due to the native name being overlooked).
* [[Heath Hen]], ''Tympanuchus cupido cupido'', (New England, North America, [[1937]]) - a subspecies of the [[Greater Prairie-Chicken]].
* [[New Mexico Sharp-tailed Grouse]], ''Tympanuchus phasianellus hueyi'' (New Mexico, North America, [[1954]]) - a subspecies of the [[Sharp-tailed Grouse]].
===[[Grebe]]s===
* [[Colombian Grebe]], ''Podiceps andinus'' (Colombia, [[1977]])
* [[Atitlán Grebe]], ''Podilymbus gigas'' (Guatemala, [[1986]])
===[[Procellariiformes|Petrels and storm-petrels]]===
* [[Guadalupe Storm Petrel]], ''Oceanodroma macro |
end opacity to the eye. However, there are cases in which the eyes appear red or purple, depending on the amount of pigment present.
People with albinism are generally as healthy as the rest of their species, with growth and development occurring as normal. Many animals with albinism, however, lose their protective camouflage and are unable to conceal themselves from their predators or prey. The survivability rate of animals with albinism in the wild is usually quite low. The largest problem people with albinism face is social, as the condition is sometimes a source of teasing during adolescent years.
As albinism is a recessive gene, the chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of a creature with albinism with a creature without albinism is very low and is discussed below.
===Types of albinism===
There are many types of albinism. While there is only one type of ocular albinism, there are at least five types of oculocutaneous albinism, one of which has several subtypes. Some are easily distinguished by appearance, but in most cases, genetic testing is the only way to be sure. Apart from HPS (see below) testing has no medical benefits.
* The type with the usually least amount of pigment is '''OCA1''' ({{OMIM|203100}}). People with this type usually have very white skin, white hair and light blue eyes, however there are cases in which the eyes appear red or purple, depending on the amount of pigment present.. OCA1 is caused by an alteration of the tyrosinase gene, and can occur in two variations. The first is OCA1A, and means that the organism cannot develop pigment at all. Vision usually ranges from 20/200 to 20/400. The second is OCA1b, which has several subtypes itself. Many individuals with OCA1b can tan and develop pigment. One subtype of OCA1b is called OCA1b TS (Temperature Sensitive), where the [[tyrosinase]] can only function below a certain temperature, which causes the body hair in cooler body regions to develop pigment (i.e. get darker).
* The most common type of albinism is '''OCA2''' ({{OMIM|203200}}), which is caused by alterations of the P-gene. People with OCA2 generally have more pigment, and better vision than those with OCA1, but cannot tan like some with OCA1b. A little pigment can develop in freckles or moles. People with OCA2 usually have fair skin but not as white as OCA1, and light to golden or reddish blonde hair, and usually blue eyes. Affected people of African decent usually have a different phenotype (appearance): Yellow hair, rather white skin and blue, gray or hazel eyes.
* '''OCA3''' or Rufuous (=Red) Albinism ({{OMIM|203290}}) has only been partially researched and documented. Cases have been reported in Africa and New Guinea, affected individuals have red hair and reddish brown skin and blue or gray eyes.
* '''HPS''' or '''Hermansky-Pudlak-Syndrome''' ({{OMIM|203300}}) is not a type of OCA itself, but has similar features. HPS has a great range of degrees of pigmentation, from OCA1A-like to almost normal. Vision usually ranges from 20/60 to 20/200. Apart from the hypopigmentation and impaired vision, people with HPS have an abnormality in their blood platelets, which usually leads to bleeding issues and bruising easily, and people with HPS often suffer from lung fibrosis (scarring of the lung) and other sicknesses. HPS is very rare.
* '''Ocular albinism''' ('''OA1''') ({{OMIM|300500}}) affects only the eyes, and occurs primarily in males, as it is [[X-linked]] inherited. Nonetheless, skin color can be slightly lighter than those of the rest of the family, or "normal". The eye color can vary greatly, in which case only examination of the retina can reveal OA1.
==Visual problems associated with albinism==
Eye conditions common in albinism include (not all will necessarily be present)
* [[Nystagmus]], irregular rapid movement of the eyes back and forth.
* [[Strabismus]], muscle imbalance of the eyes ("crossed eyes" or "lazy eye")
* Sensitivity to bright light and glare.
* Far- or Near-sightedness
* [[Astigmatism]] (distortion of a viewed image, usually either horizontally or vertically)
* Abnormal routing of the [[optic nerve]] to the brain
People with albinism suffer from impaired vision, but the degree varies greatly. While a person with albinism may suffer from a standard eye affliction like [[near-sightedness]] or [[far-sightedness]], the biggest problem arises from a poorly-developed [[retina]] and abnormal nerve connections between the eyes and brain. These abnormalities ''define'' albinism, medically. While the effects of this condition are difficult to describe, it can be explained as seeing at a lower resolution. Additionally, most people with albinism suffer from [[nystagmus]] (a rapid, involuntary "shaking" of the eyes) which further reduces vision. People with albinism are also likely to have [[astigmatism]] or [[strabismus]].
The [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]], the colored area in the center of the eye, does not have enough pigment to screen out stray light coming into the eye. Light normally enters the eye only through the pupil, the dark opening in the center of the iris, but in albinism light can pass through the iris as well. Such sensitivity generally leads to a dislike of bright lights, but does not prevent people with albinism enjoying the outdoors, especially when using sunglasses and/or hats. They should avoid prolonged exposure to bright sunlight regardless, as their skin is particularly susceptible to [[sunburn]] (see below).
===Sun Protection and Vision Aids===
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Child OCA sunprotection.jpg|thumb|right|Child with OCA, enjoying the outdoors with sunglasses and hat]] -->
Albinism is a condition that cannot be "cured" or "treated" per se, but small things can be done to improve the quality of life for those affected. It is vital that people with albinism use sunscreen when exposed to sunlight to prevent premature skin aging or [[skin cancer]]. This poses a big problem for those who cannot afford sunscreen, especially in countries with high exposure to sunlight, as in Africa. Special UV-proof clothing and swimsuits are available and are a good alternative to excessive use of sunscreen.
For the most part, treatment of the eye conditions consists of visual rehabilitation. Surgery to correct strabismus may improve the appearance of the eyes. However, since surgery will not correct the misrouting of nerves from the eyes to the brain, surgery will not provide fine binocular vision. In the case of esotropia or "crossed eyes," surgery may help vision by expanding the visual field (the area that the eyes can see while looking at one point).
Glasses and low-visual aids such as magnifiers, large print materials or CCTVs ([[closed-circuit television]]), as well as bright but angled reading lights can help individuals with albinism, even if their vision cannot be corrected completely. Some people do well using bifocals which have a strong reading lens, prescription reading glasses, or contact lenses. Others use hand-held magnifiers or special small telescopes. Some use bioptics, glasses which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses, so that they can look through either the regular lens or the telescope. Newer designs of bioptics use smaller light-weight lenses. Some states allow the use of bioptic telescopes for driving. (See also NOAH bulletin "Low Vision Aids.)
Although still disputed among the experts, many ophthalmologists recommend the use of glasses from early childhood on to allow the eyes the best development possible. Surgery is possible on the ocular muscles to decrease nystagmus, strabismus and common refractive errors, but especially with nystagmus surgery the effectiveness varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances.
[[Optometry|Optometrists]] or [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologists]] who are experienced in working with low vision patients can recommend various optical aids. Clinics should provide aids on trial loan, and provide instruction in their use. The American Foundation for the Blind (1-800-AFB-LIND) maintains a directory of low vision clinics.
Use of sunglasses and hats with wide brims can make the glare outside bearable. Other things that can help people with albinism are avoiding sudden changes of the lighting situation (switching the light on in complete darkness), using dimmable switches and adding tint to car windows or blinds to normal windows. Lights should be yellowish rather than blue and not point towards the usual position of a person with albinism (like their seat at a table). When possible, people with albinism prefer to have the light on their backs rather than face it.
==Culture==
===Myths and Superstitions===
Due to albinism's effect on one's outward appearance, cultures around the world have developed many myths and superstitions regarding people with albinism.
[[Zimbabwe]] has developed a myth that having [[sex]] with a woman with albinism will cure a man of [[HIV]]. This has led to many women with albinism in the area being raped [http://ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=14122].
In [[Jamaica]], West Indies, people with albinism have been degraded and regarded as cursed. In recent times, the affected [[dancehall]] singer [[Yellowman]] has helped to end this stereotype.
In some cultures, people with albinism are thought to have [[magical]] powers or are able to tell the future.
It is also thought by many that people with albinism live short life spans. This is not true, and may be a distorted view of a more reasonable fact that people with albinism have a higher risk of skin cancer if they do not use proper skin protection when in the sun.
[[image:snowdrop.penguin.600pix.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Snowdrop, an albino African Penguin, born at Bristol Zoo (England), died in August 2004. Snowdrop would normally have looked l |
le to recall the correct words used for the incantation, allowing a Deadite to follow him through time.
==Alternate endings==
The movie has two distinct endings, both of which are covered on the movie's [[DVD]]. The more familiar ending picks up after Ash has returned to the present, in which he stages one final confrontation with the "she-bitch" in the S-Mart Housewares Department. This is the version shown in theatres and on [[television]].
The alternate ending, which was supposedly favored by director [[Sam Raimi]], depicts Ash as he races toward a cave to drink the [[potion|magic potion]]. Apparently, Ash drinks too much of the potion and sleeps well beyond his time and awakens in a post-[[apocalypse|apocalyptic]] [[Earth]]. This ending was cut, however, after critics showed their displeasure with the juxtaposition of such a quirky movie with a morbid ending.
==Trivia==
*The mystical phrase Ash is supposed to speak when he takes the [[Necronomicon]], "Clatto Verata Nicto" (As it is in the script) is a reference to the classic [[science fiction]] film ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]]''. In the film, the phrase "[[Klaatu barada nikto]]" is used to cancel the robot Gort's attack.
*[[Bruce Campbell]] sustained an injury on the set when a piece of armor made a gash in his chin. When he was rushed to the emergency room, he was still in his costume and make-up. The physicians had to ask which cut was the real one!
*The film was mostly shot in the Nevada desert near Las Vegas.
*The plot of the film was originally meant for ''[[Evil Dead II]]''. During pre-production, the plot of ''Evil Dead II'' involved the evil force from the end of the first film hitting Ash and sending him back to 1300 AD where he would destroy the book. Promotional drawings were created and published in ''Variety'' during the casting process before the budget was deemed too little for the plot. The working title at the time? ''Evil Dead II: Army of Darkness''.
*In the opening scene when Bruce tells the story so far, you can see the support cable he was attached to as he was being sucked into the portal from the cabin. This was obviously overlooked by the film's editors and can still be clearly seen on television (on rotation on the [[SciFi Channel]].) to this day.
*The film was edited into multiple cuts to meet with the motion picture standards which differ around the world. The original ending, which can be seen on some special edition dvds of the film was deemed to be depressing by the movie studio, and so a new happier ending was written for the film, to the dismay of the director Sam Raimi and star Bruce Campbell.
*Anyone who has played the successful [[Duke Nukem 3D]] can see the uncanny similarities it shares with various cult movies, such as [[They Live]] and Army of Darkness. The vast majority of the game's main character's lines were clearly taken from the movie (lines such as 'groovy,' 'gimme some sugar baby,' 'hail to the king,' 'come get some,' 'this is my BOOM STICK!',and others). The official movie poster, when compared to the game's box cover, is also a dead giveaway. These obvious take-offs were not seen as homages by star Bruce Campbell, but more as a rip-off, according to comments printed in [[IGN for Men]]: "...they're rip-off artists. Let them get their own damn material. It's called hiring a writer. They're blatantly ripping it off and if I was any kind of litigious guy they would've gotten a phone call by now. It's depressing and I think it's wrong. That's why [[Tachyon: The Fringe]] will kick little Duke's ass any day." --Bruce Campbell
*Director [[Peter Jackson]] pays [[homage]] to ''Army of Darkness'' in ''[[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy]]'' in two scenes. Similar dialog is used between the scene where the humans declare their support for Ash and the scene where the ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Fellowship of the Ring]]'' is first formed. Also, the wiseman brings a portion of newly created [[gunpowder]] close to a naked flame but Ash abruptly moves it away. A similar scene occurs in ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Two Towers]]'' between [[Wormtongue]] and [[Saruman]].
*The 1997 [[PlayStation]] video game [[Herc's Adventures]] published by [[Lucas Arts]] pay homage to "Army of Darkness" in several scenes. When you die and end up in [[Hades]] skeletons will crawl up to you and shout "I'll cut yer gizzard out" and for numerous cemetery scenes with skeletal hands jumping out and grabbing you.
*In [[Texas]], there is an actual S-Mart store, where you can ask for the "Army of Darkness" tour which is a tour of the store, including Ash's specialty, housewares.
*In [[Oregon]] there is another actual S-Mart store, just north of Ashland on [[Interstate 5]].
*The Christian band [[Dogwood (band)|Dogwood]] have a quote of Ash's speech at the castle in the title track off the album 'Building a better me' from 1:46 — 1:55 (“Go ahead and run. Run home and cry to mama. Me! I’m through runnin’”)
*The progressive rock band [[Coheed and Cambria]] also feature a quote from Ash's castle speech during the introduction of the acoustic version of their song 'Junesong Provision' ("Now listen up, you primitive screwheads. See this? This... is my boomstick!")
*Instrumental rock band [[The Magic Elf]] uses an audio excerpt from the film on the album 'Heavy Meddle'. The line spoken by the skeleton general (Evil Ash) to his "men" just before the battle scene - "bring me forth into the castle...forward!" - precedes the first track on the album.
*The rock band [[Showbread (band)|Showbread]] wrote the song 'Dead by Dawn' about the Evil Dead trilogy. The song lyrics are largely quoted directly from the movies.
*The outro to the final track (Orgiastic Disembowelment) on the "None So Vile" cd by the death metal band [[Cryptopsy]] features the same quote as the [[Dogwood (band)|Dogwood]] song.
*In the Director's Cut, Ash's response to Evil Ash (after shooting him in the face) is "I ain't that good." This was replaced by what is perhaps one of the most memorable of all of Ash's lines: "Good... Bad... I'm the guy with the gun." The original line, however, slipped into at least one dubbed version of the released film, with the spanish line being "No soy tan bueno", a direct translation of it.
*In the castle battle, one of the deadites says "It's the one in the cart that we want!" However, due to the ambiant noise of the scene, it can be very easy to mistake the word "cart" for "car". This has led to many confused fans wondering how a medieval Deadite could know about a car.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0106308|title=Army of Darkness}}
*[http://kdkprankcalls.com/soundboards/page4/index.html Army of Darkness soundboard]
*[http://www.withinthewoods.co.uk/ Within the Woods] - Largest UK based appreciation site for ALL things Evil Dead.
*[http://www.deadites.net Deadites Online] - Web site with details and information regarding the Evil Dead trilogy, including Army of Darkness
*The [http://www.edenstudios.net/aodrpg/products.html Army of Darkness RPG] from Eden Studios.
{{Evil Dead}}
[[Category:Evil Dead]]
[[Category:1993 films]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Horror films]]
[[Category:Zombie films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Sam Raimi]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[de:Armee der Finsternis]]
[[es:Army of Darkness]]
[[fr:Evil Dead 3 : l'armée des ténèbres]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ASROC</title>
<id>3218</id>
<revision>
<id>32004082</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-19T20:19:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Cruiser</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Asroclauncher.jpg|thumb|250px|right|An older "Matchbox" ASROC launcher, phased out in the 1990s]]
'''ASROC''' (for '''Anti-Submarine ROCket''') is an antisubmarine [[missile]] system, developed by the [[United States Navy]], and installed on over 200 surface ships, generally [[cruiser (warship)|cruisers]] and [[destroyer]]s. A surface ship first detects an enemy [[submarine]] by using [[sonar]], then fires an ASROC missile, which has a [[torpedo]] or [[depth charge]] on the tip, toward the target. Once the missile's [[rocket]] motor stops firing, the torpedo breaks away and a [[parachute]] slows it down until it enters the water. The torpedo's motor then activates and the torpedo, which is guided by its own sonar system, homes in on the target and explodes. (Alternatively, if the missile is instead equipped with a depth charge, it merely sinks to a predetermined depth and then explodes.) An ASROC missile can carry either a [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] or conventional explosive, although the nuclear depth charges were phased out by the [[1990s]].
The first ASROC system, using the MK-112 "Matchbox" launcher, was developed in the [[1950s]] and installed in the [[1960s]]. This system was phased out in the [[1990s]] and replaced with the Vertical Launch ASROC, or "VLA".
[[Image:VLAlaunch.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Launch of a Vertical Launch ASROC]]
The VLA missile is a rocket-propelled, three-stage, [[anti-submarine warfare]] (ASW) weapon designed for deployment on [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga''-class cruisers]], [[Arleigh Burke class destroyer|''Arleigh Burke''-class destroyers]], and [[Spruance class destroyer|''Spruance''-class destroyers]] equipped with the MK41 Vertical Launching System (VLS) and MK 116 [[fire-control system|fire control system]]. The VLA missile provides the fleet with the capability for rapid response, all weather delivery of a MK 46 tor |
ellivison home game system.
*A similar syndicated show ran in the Los Angeles area at the same time, with callers saying ''POW!'' to interface with the system. The show was sabotaged by prank callers calling in to the station after telling an operator the call was an emergency, which caused the operator to interrupt the live program with a "I have an emergency call for 555-1212" message.
*Intellivision is short for ''Intelligent Television''.
== Screenshots ==
<gallery>
Image:Intv_Armor_Battle.png|''[[Armor Battle]]''<br>Mattel/APh (1979)
Image:Intv_Auto_Racing.png|''Auto Racing''<br>Mattel/APh (1980)
Image:Intv_Major_League_Baseball.png|''Major League Baseball''<br>Mattel/APh (1980)
Image:Intv_NHL_Hockey.png|''NHL Hockey''<br>Mattel/APh (1980)
Image:Intv_Donkey_Kong.png|''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''<br>[[Coleco]] ([[1982]])
Image:Intv_Frog_Bog.png|''Frog Bog''<br>Mattel/APh (1982)
Image:Intv_[[Lock_'n'_Chase]].png|''Lock'n'Chase''<br>Mattel (1982)
Image:Intv_QBert.png|''[[QBert|Q*Bert]]''<br>[[Parker Brothers]] ([[1983]])
</gallery>
More screenshots can be found in the [[Intellivision/Screenshots|Screenshot Gallery]].
==Technical specifications==
*General Instrument CP1610 16-bit microprocessor [[central processing unit|CPU]] running at 894.886 [[kilohertz|kHz]] (i.e., slightly less than 1 MHz)
*1352 [[byte]]s of [[random-access memory|RAM]]:
**240 &times; 8-bit Scratchpad Memory
**352 &times; 16-bit (704 bytes) System Memory
**512 &times; 8-bit Graphics RAM
*7168 bytes of [[read-only memory|ROM]]:
**4096 &times; 10-bit (5120 bytes) Executive ROM
**2048 &times; 8-bit Graphics ROM
*160 [[pixel]]s wide by 196 pixels high (5&times;4 TV pixels make one Intellivision pixel)
*16 color palette, all of which can be on the screen at once
*8 [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s of size 8&times;8 or 8&times;16
**Can be stretched horizontally (2&times;) or vertically (2&times;, 4&times; or 8&times;)
**Can be mirrored horizontally or vertically
*3 channel sound, with 1 noise generator ([[sound chip|audio chip]]: GI AY-3-8914)
==Game controller specs==
*Twelve-button [[numeric keypad]] (0&ndash;9, Clear, and Enter)
*"Four" side-located "action buttons" (where the top two are actually electronically the same, giving three distinct buttons)
*"Directional Disk", capable of detecting 16 directions of movement
*"Overlays" that would slide into place as an extra layer on the keypad to show game-specific key functions
Fans of the game recall that an [[:Category:overuse injuries|overuse injury]] was possible when playing for extended periods of time due to the pressure needed to use the keypad and especially the side buttons. This was a phenomenon similar to [[BlackBerry Thumb]] today. The problem was worsened significantly when the cost-reduced Intellivision II changed from solid rubber side buttons to plastic ones with a hollow center, leaving a rectangular imprint on players' thumbs and causing pain after even short periods of play. The change was apparently made to fractionally reduce the materials cost of the units, and was never play-tested for usability due to the rush to bring the system to market in the early days of the Video game crash of 1983.
==External links==
*[http://www.intellivisionlives.com/home.shtml Intellivision retrogaming company homepage], run by Keith Robinson and The Blue Sky Rangers (the original Intellivision game programmers)
*[http://intelliwiki.kylesblog.com/ Intellivision Technical Wiki], put together by modern day Intellivision enthusiasts
*[http://sdk-1600.spatula-city.org/ SDK-1600], a development kit for the Intellivision
*[http://www.intelligentvision.org/ IntelligentVision], a group releasing cartridge versions of homebrew Intellivision games
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta3.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], an extensive history of the Intellivision console and its development
*[http://www.intellivisionworld.com/ IntellivisionWorld], The more up to date Intellivision related web site, working on development of new cartridges
==See also==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
[[List of Intellivision games]]
[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]
[[de:Intellivision]]
[[fr:Intellivision]]
[[nl:Intellivision]]
[[fi:Intellivision]]
[[sv:Intellivision]]
[[it:Intellivision]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intellectual History</title>
<id>15310</id>
<revision>
<id>15912788</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-05T00:37:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*#redirect [[Intellectual history]] </comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Intellectual history]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intelligent Design Theory</title>
<id>15311</id>
<revision>
<id>15912789</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-06T14:31:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ed Poor</username>
<id>188</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merging with ID</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[intelligent design]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intelligent design</title>
<id>15313</id>
<revision>
<id>42162827</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:58:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kenosis</username>
<id>938404</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Arguments from ignorance */ wikify</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{creationism2}}
{{Intelligent Design}}
'''Intelligent design''' ('''ID''') is the concept that "certain features of the [[universe]] and of [[life|living things]] are best explained by an [[Argument from design|intelligent cause]], not an undirected process such as [[natural selection]]."{{ref|id_def}} Its leading proponents, all of whom are affiliated with the [[Discovery Institute]]{{ref|proponents_affiliated}}, say that intelligent design is a [[Science|scientific]] [[theory]] that stands on equal footing with, or is superior to, current scientific theories regarding the [[origin of life]].{{ref|intro_meyer}}
An overwhelming majority{{ref|overwhelming}} of the [[scientific community]] views intelligent design not as a valid [[scientific theory]] but as [[pseudoscience]] or [[junk science]].{{ref|id_junkscience_1}} The [[United States National Academy of Sciences|U.S. National Academy of Sciences]] has stated that intelligent design "and other claims of [[supernatural]] intervention in the origin of life" are not science because they cannot be tested by [[scientific experiment|experiment]], do not generate any predictions and propose no new [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] of their own.{{ref|nas_id_creationism_1}}
[[United States federal courts]] have ruled as unconstitutional a public school district requirement endorsing intelligent design as an alternative to evolution in science classes, on the grounds that its inclusion violates the [[Establishment Clause]] of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]. In ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' (2005). United States federal court judge [[John E. Jones III]] [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion#H. Conclusion|ruled that]] intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature.
==Intelligent design in summary==
Intelligent design is presented as an alternative to purely [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] explanations for [[evolution]]. The stated{{ref|id_goal_putative}} purpose is to investigate whether or not existing [[empiricism|empirical evidence]] implies that life on [[Earth]] must have been designed by an [[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]] agent or agents. [[William Dembski]], one of intelligent design's leading proponents, has stated that the fundamental claim of intelligent design is that "there are natural systems that cannot be adequately explained in terms of undirected natural forces and that exhibit features which in any other circumstance we would attribute to intelligence."{{ref|dembski_adequately_explained}}
Proponents of intelligent design look for [[scientific evidence|evidence]] of what they term ''"signs of intelligence"'' — [[physical properties]] of an object that they assert necessitate design. The most commonly cited signs include [[irreducible complexity]], [[information]] mechanisms, and [[specified complexity]]. Design proponents argue that living systems show one or more of these, from which they infer that some aspects of life have been designed. This stands in opposition to mainstream [[Biology|biological science]], which relies on experiment and collection of uncontested data to explain the natural world exclusively through observed impersonal physical processes such as [[mutations]] and [[natural selection]]. Intelligent design proponents say that while evidence pointing to the nature of an "intelligent cause or agent" may not be directly [[observation|observable]], its effects on nature can be detected. Dembski, in ''Signs of Intelligence'', states: "Proponents of intelligent design regard it as a scientific research program that investigates the effects of intelligent causes. Note that intelligent design studies the ''effects'' of intelligent causes and not intelligent causes ''per se''." In his view, one cannot test for the identity of influences exterior to a closed system from within, so questions concerning the identity of a designer fall outside the realm of the concept.
===Origins of the concept===
For millennia, philosophers have argued that the complexity of nature indicates the existence of a purposeful natural or supernatural designe |
tempt at mimicking the success of the top-selling ''Superman'' comics of the time. New characters such as [[Batwoman]], [[Ace the Bat-Hound]], and [[Bat-Mite]] (the latter two paralleling [[Krypto|Krypto the Superdog]] and [[Mr. Mxyzptlk]] of the Superman titles) appeared. Batman also began having various adventures involving either odd transformations or dealing with bizarre space aliens. Batman was a highly public figure during the stories of the 1950s as well, regularly appearing at such events as charity functions, and also frequently appearing in broad daylight. In 1960, Batman also became a member of the [[Justice League|Justice League of America]], which debuted in ''[[The Brave and the Bold]]'' #28.
[[Image:Batman227.jpg|thumb|left|160px|''Batman'' #227 (December 1970). An example of Batman's return to a more gothic atmosphere during the 1970s. Art by [[Neal Adams]].]]
Editor [[Julius Schwartz]] presided over drastic changes made to a number of DC's comic book characters, including Batman in 1964's ''Detective Comics'' #327. Schwartz introduced changes designed to make Batman more contemporary and return him to more detective stories, including a redesign of Batman's equipment, the Batmobile, and his costume (introducing the yellow ellipse behind the costume's bat-insignia), and brought in artist [[Carmine Infantino]] to help in this makeover. The space aliens and characters of the 1950s such as Batwoman, Ace, and Bat-Mite were retired. This makeover soon became known as the "New Look" Batman. Julius Schwartz also created Aunt Harriet to live with Bruce and Dick. This influenced the [[Camp (style)|camp]]y [[Adam West]] Batman parody TV series in 1966, which ran until 1968.
Writer [[Denny O'Neil]] and artist [[Neal Adams]] made additional changes to Batman when they started working on the comic, reintroducing some of Batman's earlier grimmer elements, starting with ''Detective Comics'' #395 "The Secret of the Waiting Graves" (1970). Dick Grayson was sent off to college the previous year, which also made Batman once again a loner. O'Neil's tone influenced Batman's comics through the rest of the 1970s and into the 1980s; 1977 and 1978's stories in ''Detective Comics'' written by [[Steve Englehart]] (with art by [[Marshall Rogers]]) are held by many as a high point of this era.
[[Image:Dark knight returns.jpg|thumb|right|The first issue of ''The [[Dark Knight Returns]],'' which redefined Batman in the 1980s.]]
Writer [[Frank Miller]] grounded Batman further in his grim and gritty roots with the comic book [[limited series]] ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'' (1986), which takes place in a possible future, and 1987's four-issue storyline ''[[Batman: Year One]]''. ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'''s popularity was nothing short of phenomenal, and raised sales for comics across the board. [[Alan Moore]] and Brian Bolland continued this dark trend with 1988's ''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]'', in which the Joker crippled Batgirl [[Barbara Gordon]], kidnapped [[Commissioner Gordon]] (her father) and attempted to drive him insane through physical torture and showing him nude photos of his critically injured daughter. These stories and others like them helped to raise the image of comic books beyond mere children's entertainment. ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'' and stories following it (such as [[John Byrne]]'s Superman revamp) also severed the close friendship of Batman and Superman, replacing it with a more antagonistic relationship.
Stories like these, in turn, have set the tone for the last two decades of Batman comics. [[Tim Burton]]'s Batman movies, Warner Bros' ''[[Batman (1989 movie)|Batman]]'' and ''[[Batman Returns]]'' also featured a darker, more Gothic Batman; the popularity of those movies in turn led to the noir-ish [[Batman: The Animated Series]]. The ongoing comic book series, meanwhile, has continued in this gritty trend and this tone has served to inspire imitators in other comic books and films.
''[[Batman: Year One]]'' was also significant in that it was set in, and significantly revised, Batman's early days. Since the original publication of ''Year One'', many creators have set their stories in Batman's formative years, and the Batman title ''[[Legends of the Dark Knight]]'' in particular often features stories that take place in Batman's early days. Many of the stylistic notes of ''Year One'', specifically text captions designed to look handwritten on note paper, have also been used quite successfully by other authors. In addition the general concept of a ''Year One'' book, taking a fresh look at the origins of an older character, as well as showing their learning process, has been embraced by the comics industry as a whole. Other comics which have since gotten the 'Year One' treatment include [[Spider-Man]] and the [[Justice League]].
Batman's evolution continued through the late 1980's and into the 1990s and 2000s. 1988 saw [[Jason Todd]], the second [[Robin]], killed by the Joker, and in the years following this, Batman took an even darker, often excessive approach to his crimefighting. 1993's ''[[Knightfall]]'' series introduced a new villain named Bane, who critically injured Batman. Jean-Paul Valley, also known as [[Azrael (comics)|Azrael]], was called upon to wear the costume of Batman during Bruce's convalescence. 1994's ''[[Zero Hour (comics)|Zero Hour]]'' storyline, the ideas of Batman as not having caught his parent's killer and of being an [[urban legend]] were first introduced.
In 1998, Gotham City was destroyed during the [[Cataclysm (comics)|Cataclysm]] storyline, and Batman becomes deprived of many of his technological resources, forcing him to reconnect with the more mythical side of his persona. DC's 2005 crossover event ''[[Identity Crisis (comics)|Identity Crisis]]'', had Batman discovering that JLA member [[Zatanna]] had edited his memories, which led to Batman losing trust in the rest of the superhero community.
==Character history==
[[Image:Batman 06.jpg|thumb|200px|The Batman.]]
Over the years, Batman's origin story, history and tone have undergone various revisions, both minor and major. Some elements have changed drastically; others, like the death of his parents and his pursuit of justice, have remained constant.
Consistent across all versions of the Batman [[mythos]], Batman is the alter-ego of '''Bruce Wayne''', a [[millionaire]] or [[billionaire]] (depending on time period) [[playboy (disambiguation)|playboy]], [[industrialist]] and [[philanthropist]] who was driven to fight [[crime]] in [[Gotham City]] after his parents, the [[physician]] [[Thomas Wayne|Dr. Thomas Wayne]] and his wife Martha Wayne, were murdered before his eyes in a petty street crime.
===Golden Age version===
The [[Golden Age of Comic Books|Golden Age]] Batman's origin was first presented in ''Detective Comics'' #33 in November 1939, and was later fleshed out in ''Batman'' #47, the 1985 four-issue [[limited series]] ''America vs. the Justice Society'' and 1986's ''Secret Origins'' (volume 2) #6.
As these comics state, Bruce Wayne was born in the late 1910s to Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, two wealthy Gotham City socialites. Bruce was brought up in Wayne Manor and its wealthy splendor and led a happy and privileged existence until the age of eight, when his parents were killed by a small-time criminal named [[Joe Chill]] on their way home from the movie theater. Bruce was subsequently raised at Wayne Manor by his uncle, Philip Wayne.
Bruce Wayne swore an oath to rid the city of the evil that had taken his parents' lives. He engaged in intense intellectual and physical training and studied a variety of areas which would aid him in his endeavors, including [[chemistry]], [[criminology]], [[forensic]]s, [[martial arts]], and [[gymnastics]], as well as theatrical skills like [[disguise]], [[escapology]], and [[ventriloquism]]. He realized, however, that these skills alone would not be enough.
"Criminals are a superstitious and cowardly lot," said Wayne, "so my disguise must be able to strike terror into their hearts. I must be a creature of the night, black, terrible..." As if responding to his desires, a bat suddenly flitted through the window, inspiring Bruce to assume the persona of Batman. His debut as the Caped Crusader 1939 initially earned him the ire of the police; however, his relations with the law thawed by the early 1940s.
[[Image:Detective38.JPG|left|thumb|175px|''Detective Comics'' #38 (May 1940), the first appearance of Robin. Art by [[Bob Kane]] and [[Jerry Robinson]].]]
In 1940, Bruce took in the orphaned circus acrobat Dick Grayson, who became his sidekick, Robin. Also in late 1940, Batman became a founding member of the [[Justice Society of America]] (''DC Special'' #29).
Batman continued to function in Gotham City through the 1940s and into the 1950s. After the introduction of DC Comics' [[Multiverse (DC Comics)|multiverse]] in the 1960s, it was retroactively established that the Golden Age Batman lived on the parallel world of [[Multiverse (DC Comics)#Earth-Two|Earth-Two]]. It was also revealed that in the mid-1950s, Bruce Wayne had partnered with [http://members.fortunecity.com/retcon/page17.html] and soon married the reformed [[Catwoman]], Selina Kyle (as shown in ''[[Superman Family]]'' #211); the two had their first and only child in 1957, [[Huntress (comics)|Helena Wayne]]. Batman's activities soon lessened, as he went into semi-retirement, only returning to action to engage in special cases, with Robin taking over much of his functioning in Gotham City. Upon the retirement of Commissioner Gordon, Bruce Wayne took over the post of Gotham City police commissioner.
In the late 1970s, Bruce Wayne's life became tumultuous, as he dealt with the death of his wife Selina, who was blackmailed by criminals into going into action one more time as Catwoman, which proved fatal to her (as seen in ''DC Super-Stars |
he [[discrete signal|discrete]]-time domain (often called a [[digital filter]] although there are analog filters constructed with [[charge-coupled device]]s that are discrete-time filters). It maps positions on the <math> j \omega \ </math> axis, <math> Re[s]=0 \ </math>, in the [[s-plane]] to the [[unit circle]], <math> |z| = 1 \ </math>, in the [[complex plane|z-plane]]. Other bilinear transforms can be used to warp the [[frequency response]] of any discrete-time linear system (e.g., to approximate the human auditory's non-linear frequency resolution) and are implementable in the discrete domain by replacing a system's unit delays <math> \left( z^{-1} \right) \ </math> with first order [[all-pass filter]]s.
The transform preserves [[stability]] and maps every point of the [[frequency response]] of the continuous-time filter, <math> H_a(j \omega_a) \ </math> to a corresponding point in the frequency response of the discrete-time filter, <math> H_d(e^{j \omega_d T}) \ </math> although to a somewhat different frequency, as shown in the Frequency Warping section below. This means that for every feature that one sees in the frequency response of the analog filter, there is a corresponding feature, with identical gain and phase shift, in the frequency response of the digital filter but, perhaps, at a somewhat different frequency. This is barely noticeable at low frequencies but is quite evident at frequencies close to the [[Nyquist frequency]].
The bilinear transform is a first-order approximation of the natural logarithm function that is an exact mapping of the z-plane to the s-plane. When the [[Laplace transform]] is performed on a discrete-time signal (with each element of the discrete-time sequence attached to an correspondingly delayed [[Dirac delta function|unit impulse]]), the result is precisely the [[Z transform]] of the discrete-time sequence with the substitution of
:{|
|-
|<math>z \ </math>
|<math> = e^{sT} \ </math>
|-
|
|<math> = \frac{e^{sT/2}}{e^{-sT/2}} \ </math>
|-
|
|<math> \approx \frac{1 + s T / 2}{1 - s T / 2} \ </math>
|}
where <math> T \ </math> is the [[sample time]] (the reciprocal of the [[sampling frequency]]) of the discrete-time filter. The above bilinear approximation can be solved for <math> s \ </math> or a similar approximation for <math> s = (1/T) \log(z) \ \ </math> can be performed.
The inverse of this mapping (and its first-order bilinear approximation) is
:{|
|-
|<math>s \ </math>
|<math> = \frac{1}{T} \log(z) \ </math>
|-
|
|<math> = \frac{2}{T} \left[ \frac{z-1}{z+1} + \frac{1}{3} \left( \frac{z-1}{z+1} \right)^3 + \frac{1}{5} \left( \frac{z-1}{z+1} \right)^5 + \frac{1}{7} \left( \frac{z-1}{z+1} \right)^7 + \ldots \right] \ </math>
|-
|
|<math> \approx \frac{2}{T} \frac{z - 1}{z + 1}. \ </math>
|}
The bilinear transform essentially uses this first order approximation and substitutes into the continuous-time transfer function, <math> H_a(s) \ </math>
:<math>s \leftarrow \frac{2}{T} \frac{z - 1}{z + 1}.</math>
That is
:<math>H_d(z) = H_a(s) \bigg|_{s = \frac{2}{T} \frac{z - 1}{z + 1}}= H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \frac{z-1}{z+1} \right). \ </math>
The bilinear transform is a special case of a [[conformal map|conformal mapping]], namely, the [[Möbius transformation]] defined as
:<math>z^{\prime} = \frac{a z + b}{c z + d}.</math>
== Stability and minimum-phase property preserved ==
A continuous-time filter is [[BIBO stability|stable]] if the [[Pole (complex analysis)|poles]] of its transfer function fall in the negative real half of the [[complex number|complex]] [[s-plane]]. A discrete-time filter is stable if the poles of its transfer function fall inside the [[unit circle]] in the [[complex plane|complex z-plane]]. The bilinear transform maps the negative real half of the complex s-plane to the interior of the unit circle in the z-plane. Thus filters designed in the continuous-time domain that are stable are converted to filters the discrete-time domain that preserve that stability.
Likewise, a continuous-time filter is [[minimum-phase]] if the [[Zero (complex analysis)|zeros]] of its transfer function fall in the negative real half of the complex s-plane. A discrete-time filter is minimum-phase if the zeros of its transfer function fall inside the unit circle in the complex z-plane. Then the same mapping property assures that continuous-time filters that are minimum-phase are converted to discrete-time filters that preserve that property of being minimum-phase.
== Example ==
As an example take a simple RC-filter. This continuous-time filter has a transfer function
:<math>H_a(s) = \frac{1}{1 + RC s}.</math>
If we wish to implement this filter as a digital filter, we can apply the bilinear transform by substituting for <math>s</math> the formula above; after some reworking, we get the following filter representation:
:{|
|-
|<math>H_d(z) \ </math>
|<math> =H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \frac{z-1}{z+1}\right) \ </math>
|-
|
|<math>= \frac{1}{1 + RC \left( \frac{2}{T} \frac{z-1}{z+1}\right)} \ </math>
|-
|
|<math>= \frac{1 + z}{(1 - 2 RC / T) + (1 + 2RC / T) z}. \ </math>
|}
== Frequency warping ==
To determine the frequency response of a continuous-time filter, the transfer function <math> H_a(s) \ </math> is evaluated at <math>s = j \omega \ </math> which is on the <math> j \omega \ </math> axis. Likewise, to determine the frequency response of a discrete-time filter, the transfer function <math> H_d(z) \ </math> is evaluated at <font style="vertical-align:+30%;"><math>z = e^{ j \omega T} \ </math></font> which is on the unit circle, <math> |z| = 1 \ </math>. When the actual frequency of <math> \omega \ </math> is input to the discrete-time filter designed by use of the bilinear transform, it is desired to know at what frequency, <math> \omega_a \ </math>, for the continuous-time filter that this <math> \omega \ </math> is mapped to.
:<math>H_d(z) = H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \frac{z-1}{z+1}\right) \ </math>
:{|
|-
|<math>H_d(e^{ j \omega T}) \ </math>
|<math>= H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \frac{e^{ j \omega T} - 1}{e^{ j \omega T} + 1}\right) \ </math>
|-
|
|<math>= H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \cdot \frac{e^{j \omega T/2} \left(e^{j \omega T/2} - e^{-j \omega T/2}\right)}{e^{j \omega T/2} \left(e^{j \omega T/2} + e^{-j \omega T/2 }\right)}\right) \ </math>
|-
|
|<math>= H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \cdot \frac{\left(e^{j \omega T/2} - e^{-j \omega T/2}\right)}{\left(e^{j \omega T/2} + e^{-j \omega T/2 }\right)}\right) \ </math>
|-
|
|<math>= H_a \left(j \frac{2}{T} \cdot \frac{ \left(e^{j \omega T/2} - e^{-j \omega T/2}\right) /(2j)}{\left(e^{j \omega T/2} + e^{-j \omega T/2 }\right) / 2}\right) \ </math>
|-
|
|<math>= H_a \left(j \frac{2}{T} \cdot \frac{ \sin(\omega T/2) }{ \cos(\omega T/2) }\right) \ </math>
|-
|
|<math>= H_a \left(j \frac{2}{T} \cdot \tan \left( \omega \frac{T}{2} \right) \right) \ </math>
|-
|
|<math>= H_a \left(j \omega_a \right). \ </math>
|}
This shows that every point on the unit circle in the discrete-time filter z-plane, <font style="vertical-align:+30%;"><math>z = e^{ j \omega T} \ </math></font> is mapped to a point on the <math>j \omega \ </math> axis on the continuous-time filter s-plane, <math>s = j \omega_a \ </math>. That is, the discrete-time to continuous-time frequency mapping of the bilinear transform is
:<math> \omega_a = \frac{2}{T} \tan \left( \omega \frac{T}{2} \right) </math>
and the inverse mapping is
:<math> \omega = \frac{2}{T} \arctan \left( \omega_a \frac{T}{2} \right). </math>
The discrete-time filter behaves at frequency <math>\omega \ </math> the same way that the continuous-time filter behaves at frequency <math> (2/T) \tan(\omega T/2) \ </math>. Specifically, the gain and phase shift that the discrete-time filter has at frequency <math>\omega \ </math> the same gain and phase shift that the continuous-time filter has at frequency <math> (2/T) \tan(\omega T/2) \ </math>. This means that every feature, every "bump" that is visible in the frequency response of the continuous-time filter is also visible in the discrete-time filter, but at a slightly different frequency. For low frequencies <math>\omega \approx \omega_a \ </math>.
One can see that the entire continuous frequency range
: <math> -\infty < \omega_a < +\infty \ </math>
is mapped onto the fundamental frequency interval
: <math> -\frac{\pi}{T} < \omega < +\frac{\pi}{T}. \ </math>
The continuous-time filter frequency <math> \omega_a = 0 \ </math> corresponds to the discrete-time filter frequency <math> \omega = 0 \ </math> and the continuous-time filter frequency <math> \omega_a = \pm \infty \ </math> correspond to the discrete-time filter frequency <math> \omega = \pm \pi / T. \ </math>
One can also see that there is a nonlinear relationship between <math> \omega_a \ </math> and <math> \omega. \ </math> This effect of the bilinear transform is called '''''frequency warping'''''. The continuous-time filter can be designed to compensate for this frequency warping by setting <math> \omega_a = \frac{2}{T} \tan \left( \omega \frac{T}{2} \right) \ </math> for every frequency specification that the designer has control over (such |
;
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PPLambd |
e proletariat and are given a measure of control over how normal people live their lives. In addition, when government actions go awry, intellectuals provide rulers with a convenient scapegoat - those who were paid to promote the policy can easily be blamed for creating it.
Although not a leftist thinker, [[Eric Hoffer]] is closely associated with this view of intellectuals. He compared them to the scribes that directed the constrcution of the Pyramids - seemingly authoratitive figures who were in reality puppets of the Pharaoh.
====Current themes====
More recently Democrats and liberals have become extremely suspicious of the [[neoconservative]] movement, which they often portray as a "cabal" of ivory-tower theorists who cause disaster when they gain power and try to put their abstract ideas into practice. The radical deregulation of the economy, tax cuts at at time of war, and the program to rapidly democratize the [[Middle East]] through military means are cited as examples of this.
Some even believe that neoconservatism is a front for a secret group that follows the teachings of the anti-democratic philosopher and intellectual [[Leo Strauss]].
All of this lends to the portrait of neocoservatism as a sinister party of academics carelessly testing elitist theories on the suffering "ordinary people" of America.
===Economic factors===
In the past five to ten years once-plentiful high-tech and skilled technical jobs have begun to disappear from America, and have been replaced with low-wage service occupations which at most require a high school diploma. Therefore the economic incentive to attend college, where one might be exposed to intellectual ideas, has lessened. There thus exists the potential for increased anti-intellectualism in the future. However, statistics indicate that currently in the United States half the adult population has at least some college experience and one-third of that population are graduates.
===In American political discourse===
America, more than other developed nations, has been accused of suffering from anti-intellectualism, particularly by the [[American liberalism|liberal]] [[literati]] both in the [[United States]] and in [[Europe]]. Such accusations are particularly fueled by the political schism between the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] and [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] parties. The less scrupulous contenders on both sides use the accusation of anti-intellectualism as a rhetorical weapon, but most often it is Democrats that accuse Republican backers of exploiting public sentiments against the values of the cultural elite for their own economic gain.
Many Democrats and liberals claim that [[conservative]] beliefs about foreign affairs or [[economics]] stem from "ignorance," poor education, and a "lack of awareness" of the substantive issues involved, and as such are anti-intellectual. The liberal position often contends that conservative ideology has a tendency to approach issues such as morality and foreign policy in "simplistic" ways, breaking them down into easily understood confrontations between good and evil. The left views its own ideology as more sophisticated and worldly, and based on an interpretative study of human history. Conservatives have countered by claiming that it is liberals who are the true anti-intellectuals, relying on irrational and over-emotional arguments when debating poverty, [[civil liberties]] and, especially, the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].
====In the media====
In the [[2000 Presidential Election]], the media (particularly late night comics) portrayed Candidate [[Al Gore]] as boring "[[brainiac]]" who spoke in a monotonous voice and jabbered on about numbers and figures that no one could understand. It was also widely reported - erroneously - that Gore had claimed to have invented the Internet. It was the classic stereotype of a pompous, out-of-touch intellectual, and this perception arguably hurt Gore in the election. In the years since, debate between the left and right in America has often centered on the relation of the intellectual class to the public as a whole.
Conservative commentators such as [[Ann Coulter]], [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]] and [[Rush Limbaugh]] commonly argue that conservative politicians, particularly [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[George W. Bush]], have been unjustly attacked by a liberal media as being "incompetent" - this can be understood as an accusation of intellectual snobbery by the media. O'Reilly in particular is well known for having a hostile attitude towards what he calls the "[[Ivy League]] Elite." The word "intellectual" itself has been used as an insult by many on the right.
Both O'Reilly and Limbaugh, as well as other conservative hosts such as [[Tucker Carlson]], and [[Joe Scarborough]], are frequently accused of having anti-intellectual atmospheres on their shows, evidenced by their frequent interruption of guests who try to put forward complex arguments. Scarborough once commented that "If my guest is allowed to speak uninterrupted for more than 15 seconds, then I'm not doing my job".
While some on the left claim this represents a right-wing bias in the American media, other analysts feel it merely shows that the media, in the service of higher ratings, has a tendency to promote argument and spectacle rather than informed debate
=====Sensationalism=====
Indeed, there is a strong feeling on both sides of the political divide that corporate news focuses too much on soundbytes and headlines, and not enough on in-depth reporting. Researchers have noticed a trend in the amount of coverage newspapers and broadcast networks devote to various subjects: World events and political coverage are receiving a declining percentage of print space and airtime, while crimes, sex scandals, and celebrity intrigue take up more and more space.
This trend is clearly visible on cable television as well. For example, [[The History Channel]], [[The Discovery Channel]] and [[The Learning Channel]] have shifted from airing purely documentary and informational content to devoting a large portion of their programming to makeover specials, home-remodling shows, and programs focused on muscle cars and motorcycles.
This is cited as proof of a shift in American media that is undoubtedly anti-intellectual even though it is not rooted in any political or cultural bias.
==Anti-intellectualism in the former Soviet Union==
In the [[Soviet Union]], within the first decade after the Revolution of 1917, the [[Bolsheviks]] generally scorned and suspected the educated as potential traitors to the cause of the proletariat. Whereas the core of the [[Communist]] Party was well-educated, the people who became local activists and officials in [[government]] and [[industry]] often lacked at least formal education and disdained those who had it. [[Lenin]] once called the [[intelligentsia]], particularly those who opposed him, "rotten" and "shit". The boast, roughly translated as "we ain't completed no academies" ("мы академиев не кончали") became a byword for the new ruling [[elite]].
Later on, the Soviet government came to see education as important and dedicated great resources to literacy, on the one hand, and higher and professional education, on the other. However, as a matter of social policy, the government sought to promote the [[working class]] over an intellectual élite. Accordingly, industrial workers often received greater salaries than university-trained professionals such as [[teacher]]s, [[medical doctor|doctor]]s, and [[engineer]]s. Moreover, workers were covertly inculcated with the notion that only the manual labor creates real value in the economy, whereas the educated people just sit around writing papers. Some critics have seen this policy as anti-intellectual.
It must be stressed, however, that the anti-intellectualism of the Soviet political elite was closely associated with the fact that the Russian academic milieu, as a part of the tzarist state apparatus, had been hostile to the 1917 Bolshevik takeover almost by definition; however, when dealing with practical issues such as economic and scientific menagement, the early Soviet regime had to resort to such "bourgeois experts", therefore the tense relationship between the Communist Party elite and non-Party educated people. It was only during the early 1930s that [[Stalin]] attempted to do away with the old intelligentsia altogether, and to put a new Party one in its stead. Such favouring of ''partinost'' - that's to say a partisan stance towards all matters intellectual - over formal scholarship, no matter how crude such partisan stance happened to be - in the end amounted to a clear anti-intellectual stance.
The Soviet treatment of science is an example of anti-intellectualism - the triumph of [[Lysenkoism]] in Soviet Russia was a result of political bullying of scientists and the punishment of dissenters rather than the normal scientific process of publishing one's findings. Soviet promotion of this [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] idea has been compared to the recent statements in favor of [[creationism]] by the current American political leadership.
==Anti-intellectualism in Asia - Maoist China and Cambodia==
In [[Maoist]] [[China]] during the [[Cultural Revolution]], a revolutionary transformation of all aspects of life, including education, was attempted. University education in particular was moved away from the generation of highly specialized experts, who were seen as constituting a self-interested [[social class|class]] divorced from the rest of society, and into the service of the masses. Training programs were accelerated and connected to the practical needs of productive work and socialist development. Some universities were c |
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f [[Burgundy]] as the [[Burgundian Netherlands]]. These states gained a degree of autonomy in the 15th century and were thereafter named the [[Seventeen Provinces]].
{| align="left" border="0"
|-
| [[Image:Map-1477 Low Countries.png|250px|thumb|left|The [[Seventeen Provinces]] (orange, brown and yellow areas) and the [[Bishopric of Liège]] (green area). For a detailed description, see [[Seventeen Provinces]].]]
|-
| [[Image:Wappers belgian revolution.jpg|left|thumb|250px|''Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830'', [[Egide Charles Gustave Wappers]] (1834), in the Ancient Art Museum, Brussels]]
|}
The history of Belgium can be distinguished from that of the Low Countries from the 16th century. A [[civil war]], the [[Eighty Years' War]] (1568&ndash;1648), divided the Seventeen Provinces into the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands|United Provinces]] in the north and the [[Southern Netherlands]] in the south. The southern provinces were ruled successively by the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]] and the [[History of Austria#Charles VI and Maria Theresa (1711-1780)|Austrian]] [[Habsburg]]s. Until independence, the Southern Netherlands were sought after by numerous French conquerors and were the theatre of most [[Early Modern France#France in the 17th and 18th centuries |Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars]] during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the [[French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1794 | Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars]], the Low Countries—including territories that were never under Habsburg rule, such the [[Bishopric of Liège]]—were overrun by France, ending Spanish-Austrian rule in the region. The reunification of the Low Countries as the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] occurred at the end of the [[first French Empire|French Empire]] in 1815.
The 1830 [[Belgian Revolution]] led to the establishment of an [[independence|independent]], [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and neutral Belgium under a provisional government. Since the installation of [[Leopold I]] as king in 1831, Belgium has been a [[constitutional monarchy]] and [[parliamentary democracy]]. Between independence and [[World War II]], the democratic system evolved from an [[oligarchy]] characterised by two main parties, the Catholics and the Liberals, to a [[universal suffrage]] system that has included a third party, the [[Belgian Labour Party]], and a strong role for the [[trade union]]s. Originally, French, which was the adopted language of the [[nobility]] and the [[bourgeoisie]] was the official language. The country has since developed a bilingual Dutch-French system.
The [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 agreed to hand over [[Colonisation of the Congo|Congo]] to [[Léopold II of Belgium|King Leopold II]] as his private possession, called the [[Congo Free State]]. In 1908, it was ceded to Belgium as a colony, henceforth called the [[Belgian Congo]]. Belgium's neutrality was violated in 1914, when Germany invaded Belgium as part of the [[Schlieffen Plan]]. The former [[German colonies]] [[Ruanda-Urundi]]—now called [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]]—were occupied by the Belgian Congo in 1916. They were mandated in 1924 to Belgium by the [[League of Nations]]. Belgium was again invaded by Germany in 1940 during the [[blitzkrieg]] offensive. The Belgian Congo gained its independence on [[30 July]] [[1960]] during the [[Congo Crisis]], and Ruanda-Urundi became independent in 1962.
After World War II, Belgium joined NATO and, together with the Netherlands and Luxembourg, formed the [[Benelux]] group of nations. Belgium was also one of the founding members of the [[European Economic Community]]. Belgium hosts the headquarters of NATO and a major part of the [[European Union]]'s institutions and administrations, including the [[European Commission]], the [[Council of the European Union]] and most of the sessions of the [[European Parliament]]. During the 20th century, and in particular since World War II, the history of Belgium has been increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main language communities. This period saw a rise in intercommunal tensions, and the unity of the Belgian state has come under scrutiny.{{ref|language_BBC}} Through constitutional reforms in the 1970s and 1980s, [[regionalisation]] of the unitary state had led to the establishment of a three-tiered system of [[federalism]], linguistic-community and regional governments, a compromise designed to minimise linguistic tensions. Nowadays, these federal entities uphold more legislative power than the national bicameral parliament.
== Politics==
{{main|Politics of Belgium}}
[[Image:Gverof.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Guy Verhofstadt]], Prime Minister since July 1999]]
Belgium is a [[constitutional monarchy |constitutional]] [[popular monarchy]] and [[parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]] that evolved after World War II from a [[unitary state]] to a [[federation]]. The [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[parliament]] is composed of a [[Senate]] and a [[Chamber of Representatives]]. The former is a mix of directly elected senior politicians and representatives of the communities and regions; while the latter represents all Belgians over the age of eighteen in a [[proportional representation|proportional voting]] system. Belgium is one of the few countries that has [[compulsory voting]], thus having one of the highest rates of [[voter turnout]] in the world.{{ref|turnout}}
The federal government, formally nominated by the king, must have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives. It is led by the [[Prime Minister]]. The numbers of Dutch- and French-speaking ministers are equal as prescribed by the Constitution.{{ref|minister}} The King or Queen is the [[head of state]], though he has limited [[Royal Prerogative |prerogative]]s. Actual power is vested in the Prime Minister and the [[list of Governments in Belgium |different governments]], who govern the country. The judicial system is based on [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and originates from the [[Napoleonic code]]. The [[Court of Appeals]] is one level below the [[Court of Cassation (Belgium)|Court of Cassation]], an institution based on the [[Cour de cassation|French Court of Cassation]].
Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power is organised around the need to represent the main language communities. Since around 1970, the significant national Belgian [[political party|political parties]] has split into distinct components that mainly represent the interests of these communities. The major parties in each community belong to three main political families: the [[right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten|Liberals]], the [[centrism|centrist]] [[Christian Democracy|Christian Democrats]], and the [[left-wing politics|left-wing]] [[Social Democracy|Social Democrats]]. Other important younger parties are the [[worldwide green parties|Green parties]] and, especially in Flanders, the [[nationalism|nationalist]] and [[far-right]] parties. Politics is influenced by lobby groups, such as [[trade union]]s and business interests in the form of the [[Federation of Enterprises in Belgium]].
[[Image:King Albert II of Belgium 2.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Albert II of Belgium|Albert II]], King of the Belgians]]
The current king, [[Albert II of Belgium|Albert II]], succeeded King [[Baudouin of Belgium|Baudouin]] in 1993. In 1999, Prime Minister [[Guy Verhofstadt]] from the [[Flemish Liberals and Democrats|VLD]] has led a six-party Liberal-Social Democrat-Greens [[coalition]], often referred to as 'the rainbow government'. This was the first government without the Christian Democrats since 1958.{{ref|rainbow_BBC}} In the [[Belgian general election, 2003|2003 election]]s, Verhofstadt won a second term in office and has led a Liberal-Social Democrat coalition of four parties.{{ref|chambre}} More recently however, the steady rise of the Flemish ultra-right nationalist [[separatism|separatist]] party [[Vlaams Belang]], has superseded the [[Flemish Block|Vlaams Blok]] amidst concerns of racism promoted by the party. {{ref|VB_expa}}{{ref|VB_BBC}}
A significant achievement of the two successive Verhofstadt governments has been the achievement of a balanced budget; Belgium is one of the few member-states of the EU to have done so. This policy was applied by the successive governments during the 1990s under pressure from the [[European Council]]. The fall of the previous government was mainly due to the [[dioxin]] crisis,{{ref|dioxin}} a major food intoxication scandal in 1999 that led to the establishment of the Belgian Food Agency.{{ref|food}} This event resulted in an atypically large representation by the Greens in parliament, and a greater emphasis on environmental politics during the first Verhofstadt government. One Green policy, for example, resulted in [[nuclear power phase-out#Belgium|nuclear phase-out]] legislation, which has been modified by the current government. The absence of Christian Democrats from the ranks of the government has enabled Verhofstadt to tackle social issues from a more [[liberalism|liberal]] point of view and to develop new legislation on the use of [[soft drug]]s, [[same-sex marriage in Belgium|same-sex marriage]] and [[euthanasia#Belgium|euthanasia]]. During the two most recent parliaments, the government has promoted active diplomacy in Africa,{{ref|rwanda}} opposed a military intervention during the [[Iraq disarmament crisis]], and has passed legislation concerning [[War Crimes Law (Belgium)|war crimes]]. Both of Verhofstadt's terms have been marked by disputes between the Belgian communities. The major points of contention are the nocturnal air traffic routes at [[Brussels Airport]] and the status of the electoral district of [[Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde]].
{{seealso|list of Belgian monarchs|Belgian federal parliament|Belgian federal government|list of Belgian Prime Ministers|Political p |
.org/Collections/DoeReview.htm Additional information on the DoE 2004 Cold Fusion Review.] This page includes the full text of the reviewer's comments, which is not available on the DoE pages, plus links to the full text of 42 of the papers submitted by cold fusion researchers to the review panel. (The list of all 130 submitted papers can be found [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/Hagelsteinnewphysica.pdf here].)
**[http://www.lenr-canr.org/acrobat/BeaudetteCresponseto.pdf Response to the DoE/2004 Review of Cold-Fusion Research] - C. Beaudette's critique of the DoE 2004 Cold Fusion Review
*[http://peswiki.com/index.php/PowerPedia:Cold_fusion Cold Fusion overview] - John Coviello provides an introductory synopsis for new encyclopedic entry at ''PESWiki.com''.
*[http://www.tcm.phy.cam.ac.uk/~bdj10/papers/storms/review8.html Cold Fusion - An Objective Assessment] - by Dr. Edmund Storms, a review of the experimental results (December 2001; 233 references, including 34 studies reporting anomalous energy using the Pons-Fleischmann method)
*[http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StormsEastudentsg.pdf A Student's Guide to Cold Fusion] - by Edmund Storms. A 55-page introduction to the subject.
*[http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IyengarPKoverviewof.pdf Overview of BARC Studies in Cold Fusion.] - P.K. Iyengar (Atomic Energy Commission, India) and M. Srinivasan (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre) review some of the major research in India.
* A [http://www.xmx.it/fusionefreddaFAQ2.htm Cold Fusion primer], in English and Italian
===Papers===
* {{note|Fleischmann1989}} Fleischmann, M., S. Pons, and M. Hawkins, electrochemically induced nuclear fusion of deuterium. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1989. 261: p. 301 and errata in Vol. 263. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/Fleischmanelectroche.pdf]
* {{note|Pons1990}} Pons, S. and M. Fleischmann, Calorimetric measurements of the palladium/deuterium system: fact and fiction. Fusion Technol., 1990. 17: p. 669.
* {{note|Huizenga1993}} Huizenga, J.R., ''Cold Fusion: The Scientific Fiasco of the Century''. second ed. 1993, New York: Oxford University Press. 319.
* {{note|Paneth1926}} Paneth, F. and K. Peters, On the transmutation of hydrogen to helium. Naturwiss., 1926. 43: p. 956 (in German).
* {{note|Paneth1927}} Paneth, F., The transmutation of hydrogen into helium. Nature (London), 1927. 119: p. 706.
* {{note|Mallove1991}} Mallove, E., Fire From Ice. 1991, NY: John Wiley. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/MalloveEfirefromic.pdf]
* {{note|Appleby1989}} Appleby, A.J., et al. Evidence for Excess Heat Generation Rates During Electrolysis of D2O in LiOD Using a Palladium Cathode-A Microcalorimetric Study. in Workshop on Cold Fusion Phenomena. 1989. Santa Fe, NM.
* {{note|Appleby1990}} Appleby, A.J., et al. Anomalous Calorimetric Results During Long-Term Evolution of Deuterium on Palladium from Alkaline Deuteroxide Electrolyte. in The First Annual Conference on Cold Fusion. 1990. University of Utah Research Park, Salt Lake City, Utah: National Cold Fusion Institute.
* {{note|ERAB1989}} ERAB, Report of the Cold Fusion Panel to the Energy Research Advisory Board. 1989, Department of Energy, DOE/S-0073: Washington, DC. [http://www.ncas.org/erab/ ] [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/ERABreportofth.pdf]
* {{note|Storms1991}} Storms, E., Review of experimental observations about the cold fusion effect. Fusion Technol., 1991. 20: p. 433.
* {{note|Will1993}} Will, F.G., K. Cedzynska, and D.C. Linton, Reproducible tritium generation in electrochemical cells employing palladium cathodes with high deuterium loading. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1993. 360: p. 161. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/WillFGtritiumgen.pdf]
* {{note|Storms1990}} Storms, E. and C.L. Talcott, Electrolytic tritium production. Fusion Technol., 1990. 17: p. 680.
* {{note|Iyengar1990}} Iyengar, P.K., et al., Bhabha Atomic Research Centre studies on cold fusion. Fusion Technol., 1990. 18: p. 32. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IyengarPKoverviewof.pdf]
* {{note|Packham1989}} Packham, N.J.C., et al., Production of tritium from D2O electrolysis at a palladium cathode. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1989. 270: p. 451.
* {{note|Will1990}} Will, F.G., Groups Reporting Cold Fusion Evidence. 1990, National Cold Fusion Institute: Salt Lake City, UT. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/WillFGgroupsrepo.pdf]
* {{note|Bockris1990}} Bockris, J., G.H. Lin, and N.J.C. Packham, A review of the investigations of the Fleischmann-Pons phenomena. Fusion Technol., 1990. 18: p. 11.
* {{note|Hansen1991}} Hansen, W.N. Report to the Utah State Fusion/Energy Council on the Analysis of Selected Pons Fleischmann Calorimetric Data. in Second Annual Conference on Cold Fusion, "The Science of Cold Fusion". 1991. Como, Italy: Societa Italiana di Fisica, Bologna, Italy. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/HansenWNreporttoth.pdf]
* {{note|Melich1993}} Melich, M.E. and W.N. Hansen. Back to the Future, The Fleischmann-Pons Effect in 1994. in Fourth International Conference on Cold Fusion. 1993. Lahaina, Maui: Electric Power Research Institute 3412 Hillview Ave., Palo Alto, CA 94304. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/MelichMEbacktothef.pdf]
* {{note|Miles2003}} Miles, M. Correlation Of Excess Enthalpy And Helium-4 Production: A Review. in Tenth International Conference on Cold Fusion. 2003. Cambridge, MA: LENR-CANR.org. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/MilesMcorrelatioa.pdf]
* {{note|Storms2004}} Storms, E., Calorimetry 101 for cold fusion. 2004, www.LENR-CANR.org. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StormsEcalorimetr.pdf]
* {{note|McKubre1994}} McKubre, M.C.H., et al., Isothermal Flow Calorimetric Investigations of the D/Pd and H/Pd Systems. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1994. 368: p. 55. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/McKubreMCHexcesspowe.pdf]
* {{note|Storms2001}} Storms, E., Cold Fusion: An Objective Assessment. 2001. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StormsEcoldfusionc.pdf]
* {{note|Storms2000}} Storms, E., A critical evaluation of the Pons-Fleischmann effect: Part 2. Infinite Energy, 2000. 6(32): p. 52. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StormsEacriticale.pdf]
* {{note|Miles1993}} Miles, M.H., et al., Correlation of excess power and helium production during D2O and H2O electrolysis using palladium cathodes. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1993. 346: p. 99. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/MilesMcorrelatio.pdf]
* {{note|Iwamura2004}} Iwamura, Y., et al. Observation of Nuclear Transmutation Reactions induced by D2 Gas Permeation through Pd Complexes. in ICCF-11, International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science. 2004. Marseilles, France: www.LENR-CANR.org. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYobservatiob.pdf]
* {{note|Iwamura2003}} Iwamura, Y., et al. Low Energy Nuclear Transmutation In Condensed Matter Induced By D2 Gas Permeation Through Pd Complexes: Correlation Between Deuterium Flux And Nuclear Products. in Tenth International Conference on Cold Fusion. 2003. Cambridge, MA: LENR-CANR.org. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYlowenergyn.pdf]
* {{note|Iwamura2002}} Iwamura, Y., et al. Observation of Low Energy Nuclear Reactions Induced By D2 Gas Permeation Through Pd Complexes,. in The 9th International Conference on Cold Fusion, Condensed Matter Nuclear Science. 2002. Beijing, China: Tsinghua Univ. Press. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYobservatioa.pdf]
* {{note|Iwamura2002b}} Iwamura, Y., M. Sakano, and T. Itoh, Elemental Analysis of Pd Complexes: Effects of D2 Gas Permeation. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. A, 2002. 41: p. 4642. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYelementalaa.pdf]
* {{note|Iwamura2000}} Iwamura, Y., T. Itoh, and M. Sakano. Nuclear Products and Their Time Dependence Induced by Continuous Diffusion of Deuterium Through Multi-layer Palladium Containing Low Work Function Material. in 8th International Conference on Cold Fusion. 2000. Lerici (La Spezia), Italy: Italian Physical Society, Bologna, Italy. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYnuclearpro.pdf]
* {{note|DoE2004}} D.o.E., U.S. Department of Energy Report of the Review of Low Energy Nuclear Reactions. 2004, DE: Washington, DC. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/DOEreportofth.pdf]; See also: D.o.E., U.S. Department of Energy Cold Fusion Review Reviewer Comments. 2004, DE: Washington, DC. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/DOEusdepartme.pdf]
* {{note|Storms2005}} Storms, E., A Response to the Review of Cold Fusion by the DoE. 2005, Lattice Energy, LLC: Santa Fe, NM. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StormsEaresponset.pdf] [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/BeaudetteCresponseto.pdf]
* {{note|Williams1989}} D. E. Williams, et al. [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v342/n6248/abs/342375a0.html Upper bounds on 'cold fusion' in electrolytic cells], Nature 342, 375 - 384 ([[23 November]] [[1989]]); doi:10.1038/342375a0
* {{note|Gai1989}} M. Gai, et al. [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v342/n6248/abs/342375a0.html Upper limits on neutron and big gamma-ray emission from cold fusion], Nature 340, 29 - 34 (06 July 1989); doi:10.1038/340029a0
===Journals and publications===
* [http://www.infinite-energy.com/ ''Infinite Energy''] - one of the original periodicals dedicated to cold fusion and new energy
* [http://www.newenergytimes.com/ ''New Energy Times''] - site that focuses on the latest advances in the field of cold fusion
* [http://world.std.com/~mica/cft.html ''Cold Fusion Times''] - quarterly journal about cold fusion
===Websites and repositories===
*[http://www.lenr-canr.org/ LENR-CANR Low Energy Nuclear Reactions — Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions] - information and links on cold fusion research (mainly pro-cold fusion), and an online library of over 450 full-text papers from the peer-reviewed literature and conference proceedings
*[http://www.chem.au.dk/~db/fusion/ Britz's cold nuclear fusion bibliography] - an overview and review of almost all available publications about cold nuclear fusion
*[http://freeenergynews.com/Directory/ColdFusion/ Cold Fusion — 16 Years and Heating Up] - directory of cold fusion resources compiled by ''FreeEnergyNews.com''
*[http://blake.montclair.edu |
obin Hood Hills]]'' and ''[[Paradise Lost 2: Revelations]]'', have documented this case, as have the books ''[[Blood of Innocents]]'' by [[Guy Reel]] and ''[[Devil's Knot]]'' by [[Mara Leveritt]]. The documentary films and Leaveritt's book were strongly critical of the case, and argue that the suspects were wrongly convicted. Some have been critical of the filmmakers' omission of Echols' history of mental illness.
Also, [[Damien Echols]] now has an autobiography out, entitled ''Almost Home''.
The first ''Paradise Lost'' documentary was filmed during the trial and investigation.
''Paradise Lost 3'' is currently in production.
Stacey Simmons used the West Memphis 3 case in her dissertation: Contested Suburbs: space and its representation in moral panics. The study was a comparison of three moral panics in the United States, the West Memphis 3, the [[McMartin preschool trial|McMartin Preschool Case]], and the [[Columbine High School massacre|Columbine Shootings]]. The study concluded that space, the media representation of an area, real income, racial similarity, and other population factors contributed to whether a moral panic would develop into a larger phenomena of metapanic, as happened in Columbine and McMartin, but which was decidedly absent in the West Memphis 3 case.
==Tributes and support==
The case has seen significant support from some rock and pop musicians, who have popularized the case and staged fund-raisers. [[Eddie Vedder]] was often photographed while wearing a "Free The West Memphis 3" shirt. The actress [[Winona Ryder]] has also publicly supported the attempts to obtain a retrial.
[[Metallica]]--Baldwin's favorite musical group--contributed original music to both ''Paradise Lost'' documentaries.
Under the direction of [[Henry Rollins]], various [[hip-hop]], [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]], [[punk music|punk]], and other musicians came together to record ''Rise Above'', a collection of [[cover songs]] originally performed by [[Black Flag (band)|Black Flag]]. All profits from the record and the supporting tour were donated to the suspects' defense funds.
Another benefit album was [[2000]]'s ''[[Free the West Memphis 3]]'' featuring artists such as [[Steve Earle]],
[[Tom Waits]], [[The Supersuckers]], [[Joe Strummer]], and [[Eddie Vedder]]. This
album was organized by [[Eddie Spaghetti]] of The Supersuckers.
[[Metalcore]] band [[Zao (band)|Zao]] featured a song named "Free the Three" on their 2002 album ''Parade of Chaos''.
In [[2003]] a benefit exhibition titled ''Cruel And Unusual'' was held at the [[Los Angeles]] art gallery [[sixspace]] which was hosted by [[Winona Ryder]] and included artwork by [[Raymond Pettibon]], [[Shepard Fairey]], [[Marilyn Manson]] and others. The exhibition also included a series of talks by lawyers involved with the case and public figures such as [[Jello Biafra]].
[[Alkaline Trio]] have a song "Prevent This Tragedy" on their [[2005]] album ''[[Crimson]]'' about the West Memphis Three.
==External links==
*[http://www.wm3.org West Memphis 3 Support Group]
*[http://www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/famous/memphis/index_1.html West Memphis 3] at the [[Court TV]] Crime Library
*{{dmoz|Society/Issues/Crime_and_Justice/Injustice/Individual_Stories/United_States/West_Memphis_Three/|West Memphis 3}}
*{{imdb title|id=0117293|title=Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills}}
*{{imdb title|id=0239894|title=Paradise Lost 2: Revelations}}
[[Category:Disputed convictions]]
[[Category:History of Arkansas]]
[[Category:Murder]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Donald Dewar</title>
<id>8833</id>
<revision>
<id>42157451</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:59:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Drew</username>
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</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added Category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wfm donald dewar statue.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of Donald Dewar in Glasgow's Buchanan Street]]
[[The Right Honourable]] '''Donald Campbell Dewar''' ([[August 21]], [[1937]] &ndash; [[October 11]], [[2000]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[politician]] and the first [[First Minister of Scotland]] after [[devolution]] in [[1999]].
== Biography ==
Born in [[Glasgow]], he attended [[Glasgow Academy]] before studying at the [[University of Glasgow]], where he gained both [[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]] and [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|MA]] degrees. Here, he met his close friend [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]]&mdash;who would later become leader of the [[British Labour Party]]&mdash;through the debating society. In his time at university he also served as President of the [[Glasgow University Union]].
A member of the [[Labour Party (UK)]] at both Scottish and UK levels, Donald Dewar worked as a [[solicitor]] in Glasgow before being elected at the age of 28 in the [[1966 General Election]] to the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] at Westminster to represent the marginal [[constituency]] of [[Aberdeen South (UK Parliament constituency)|Aberdeen South]]. In [[1967]] he was made [[Private Parliamentary Secretary]] to the [[Education Secretary]] [[Anthony Crosland]], who Dewar confessed later to never really establishing a rapport with.
Despite his early political success, his personal life was less happy. He married Alison McNair on [[20 July]] [[1964]] and had two children with her, but in [[1970]] she left him for the Scottish lawyer [[Derry Irvine]]. The two men remained unreconciled even though they were later to serve in the same [[Cabinet]] from [[May]] [[1997]] onwards. [[1970]] was a black year for Dewar. As well as his wife leaving him, he lost his parliamentary seat in the [[1970 General Election]] and was laid up with back trouble. He and his wife divorced in [[1973]] and Dewar never remarried.
After a political hiatus during the 1970s, Donald Dewar was returned to Westminster as the Member of Parliament for [[Glasgow Garscadden]] in [[1978]]. He rose quickly through the ranks, becoming a member of the [[Shadow Cabinet]] in [[1984]]. In [[1992]] John Smith made him Shadow [[Social Security]] Security. In [[1995]], Dewar was made a Chief Whip for the Labour Party by [[Tony Blair]], and when the Labour Party was declared the majority party in the [[1997]] election, he was given the post of [[Secretary of State for Scotland]].
By this stage, Dewar was in a position which the late John Smith would never have thought possible. He was able to start the devolution process, and worked endlessly on creating the [[Scotland Act]], popularly known as Smith's "unfinished business". When ratified, this was to give Scotland its first [[Scottish Parliament|Parliament]] for nearly 300 years.
When the first elections for the new Scottish parliament were held in 1999, Dewar was returned as the Member for [[Glasgow Anniesland (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Glasgow Anniesland]], and subsequently elected [[First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] for the governing Scottish Labour Party/Liberal Democrat coalition.
A man with endless enthusiasm, the strain of establishing the new Parlimament would begin to take its toll, and Dewar underwent major open heart surgery in May 2000. He returned to his post as First Minister three months later. On [[10 October]] that year, he suffered a massive [[brain hemorrhage]] which was triggered by the [[anticoagulant]] medication he was taking after the surgery. He died a day later, in Edinburgh's Western General Hospital, at the age of 63. His funeral service was held at Glasgow Cathedral, amid scenes of mourning in Scotland's largest city unbeknown for a politician. He was cremated and his ashes scattered at Lochgilphead.
''Although he has become something of a political legend, Donald would have abhorred any attempt to turn him into some kind of secular saint. He would have been horrified at a Diana-style out-pouring of synthetic grief at his untimely death.'' -- Iain MacWhirter, Sunday Herald, [[October 15]] [[2000]].
Donald Dewar's work for the Scottish Parliament has led him to be called the "[[Father of the Nation]]". He certainly cared deeply for his consitituents, while his slightly unkempt appearance endeared him to many a British citizen.
In May 2002, the Prime Minister, [[Tony Blair]] unveiled a statue of Dewar at the top of Glasgow's [[Buchanan Street]] &mdash; and in keeping with his famous unkempt appearance, it showed Dewar wearing a slightly crushed jacket. The statue was taken down in October [[2005]] to be cleaned and was re-erected on 6 foot high plinth in December of the same year. On the base of the statue was inscribed the opening words of the Scotland Act: ''There Shall Be A Scottish Parliament'', a phrase to which Dewar himself famously said ''I Like That!'' .
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Aberdeen South (UK Parliament constituency)|Member for Aberdeen South]] | years=1966&ndash;1970 | before=[[Priscilla Buchan, Baroness Tweedsmuir of Belhevie|Lady Tweedsmuir]] | after=[[Iain Sproat]]}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Scotland]] | before=[[Michael Forsyth]] | after=[[John Reid (UK politician)|Dr John Reid]] | years=1997&ndash;1999}}
{{succession box | title=[[First Minister of Scotland]] | before=&mdash; | after=[[Henry McLeish]] | years=1999&ndash;2000}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1937 births|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:2000 deaths|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:Glaswegians|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:British MPs|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:UK Labour Party politicians|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:Scottish politicians|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:Members of the Scottish Parliament|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:Debaters||Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:First Ministers of Scotland|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:Members |
9</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">34,349</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">41,707</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">50,681</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">47</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lithuania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29,745</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48,194</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">76,001</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">121,475</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Poland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">388,328</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">418,128</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">548,107</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">747,750</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Romania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">91,106</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">66,994</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">70,687</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">84,575</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">50</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Soviet Union</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">333,725</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">406,022</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">463,462</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">690,598</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Turkey in Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">52</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Yugoslavia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">141,516</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">152,967</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">153,745</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">165,798</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">53</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Eastern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">54</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Europe n.e.c.</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,037</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,768</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20,700</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,320</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">55</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,979,037</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,539,777</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">824,887</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">490,996</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">56</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Armenia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(X)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">57</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;China 1/</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">529,837</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">286,120</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">172,132</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">99,735</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">58</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;India</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">450,406</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">206,087</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51,000</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,296</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Japan</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">290,128</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">221,794</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">120,235</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">109,175</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">60</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Palestine</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">21,070</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">61</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Syria</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">36,782</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,081</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,962</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,717</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Turkey in Asia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">55,087</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51,915</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48,085</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">52,228</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">63</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; |
roles as Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn in ''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]]). Henry, played by [[Robert Shaw]], also appears as one of the main characters in the multiple-[[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning movie about [[Thomas More]], ''[[A Man for All Seasons]]'' ([[1966 in film|1966]]), based upon [[Robert Bolt]]'s play of the same name.
[[Sid James]] played Henry in the movie ''[[Carry On films|Carry On Henry]]'' ([[1970 in film|1970]]), which portrayed the relationship between the King and two fictitious wives ("Marie of [[Normandy]]" and "Bettina", a mistress).
===TV &ndash; fiction===
He has also been a TV stalwart, both in drama and documentary, and in America and the UK. In drama, one notable example is the 1970 BBC series [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/6302676185 'the Six Wives of Henry VIII'], made up of six television plays, one per wife, each by a different author. Another is [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0382737/ the 2003 [[ITV]] feature-length ''Henry VIII''], with [[Ray Winstone]] as Henry VIII, critically panned for Henry as an East End gangster, spoken in Winstone's usual [[Cockney]] tones, surrounded entirely by a court speaking in [[Received Pronunciation]], such as [[David Suchet]] as [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Wolsey]].
An episode of the 1960s American [[situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[Bewitched]]'' had Samantha Stevens staving off a lustful Henry's intentions to make her his next wife. Henry's life was the subject of the famous but inaccurate ''[[The Simpsons|Simpsons]]'' television episode named "''[[Margical History Tour]]''" in [[2004 in television|2004]], in which [[Homer Simpson]] played the King.
===TV &ndash; documentary===
In documentary, the leading academic on Henry, [[David Starkey]] leads the field, with [[Channel 4]] series entitled 'Henry VIII' and [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/S/sixwives/ 'The Six Wives of Henry VIII'] - the latter gave one episode each to [[Catherine of Aragon]] and [[Anne Boleyn]], one jointly to [[Jane Seymour]] and [[Anne of Cleves]], and another jointly to [[Catherine Howard]] and [[Catherine Parr]]. Henry also has an episode to himself in his more recent series [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/M/monarchy/ 'Monarchy'] ([[Monarchy TV series]]).
In 2002, Henry VIII placed 40th in a [[BBC]]-sponsored poll on the [[100 Greatest Britons]].
===Music &ndash; music hall===
Henry was almost certainly the inspiration for the title of the popular song "[[I'm Henry the Eighth, I Am]]" ([[1911 in music|1911]]), recorded by [[Harry Champion]] and later by [[Herman's Hermits]]; the actual song, however, is about a man named Henry whose wife has been married to seven different individuals, all named Henry.
===Music &ndash; Other===
In [[1973 in music|1973]], [[Rick Wakeman]] released a rock [[concept album]] on ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]'', his first solo album after splitting from [[Yes (band)|Yes]].
==Style and arms==
Henry VIII was the first English monarch to regularly use the style "Majesty", though the alternatives "Highness" and "Grace" were also used from time to time.
Several changes were made to the royal style during his reign. Henry originally used the style "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of [[God]], [[List of monarchs of England|King of England]], [[English Kings of France|France]] and [[Lord of Ireland]]". In 1521, pursuant to a grant from [[Pope Leo X]] rewarding a book by Henry attacking [[Martin Luther]] and defending [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]], the royal style became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, [[Fidei Defensor|Defender of the Faith]] and Lord of Ireland". After the breach with [[Rome]], [[Pope Paul III]] rescinded the grant of the title "Defender of the Faith", but an [[Act of Parliament]] declared that it remained valid.
In 1535, Henry added the "supremacy phrase" to the royal style, which became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in [[Earth]] Supreme Head". In 1536, the phrase "of the [[Church of England]]" changed to "of the Church of England and also of [[Church of Ireland|Ireland]]".
In 1542, Henry changed the title "Lord of Ireland" to "[[King of Ireland]]" after being advised that many [[Irish ethnicity|Irish people]] regarded the [[Pope]] as the true head of their country, with the Lord acting as a mere representative. The style "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head" remained in use until the end of Henry's reign.
Henry's [[motto]] was ''Coure Loyall'' (true heart) and he had this embroidered on his clothes in the form of a heart symbol and with the word 'loyall'. His emblem was the [[Tudor rose]] and the Beaufort portcullis.
Henry VIII's [[heraldry|arms]] were the same as those used by his predecessors since [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]: ''Quarterly, Azure three [[Fleur-de-lis|fleurs-de-lys]] Or (for [[France]]) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for [[England]])''.
==Issue==
<br clear="all">
{| border="1" align="center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Catherine of Aragon]]''''' (married [[June 11]] [[1509]] annulled 1533; she died [[January 6]] [[1536]])
|-
| ''Miscarried daughter'' || [[January 31]] [[1510]] || [[January 31]] [[1510]]||&nbsp;
|-
|[[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]]||[[1 January]] [[1511]]||[[22 February]] [[1511]]||&nbsp;
|-
|''Unnamed son''||November 1513||November 1513||&nbsp;
|-
|''Henry, Duke of Cornwall''||December 1514||December 1514||&nbsp;
|-
|[[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]]||[[18 February]] [[1516]]||[[13 September]] [[1558]]||married 1554, [[Philip II of Spain]]; no issue
|-
|''Unnamed child'' || [[November 10]] [[1518]] || [[November 10]] [[1518]] || &nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Anne Boleyn]]''''' (married [[January 25]] [[1533]] annulled 1536; she was executed [[May 19]] [[1536]])
|-
|[[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]||[[7 September]] [[1533]]||[[24 March]] [[1603]]||&nbsp; never married, no issue
|-
| ?Henry Tudor || 1534 || 1534 || Historians are uncertain if the child was born and died shortly after birth, or if it was a miscarriage. The affair was hushed up and we cannot even be certain of the child's sex.
|-
|''Unnamed son''||[[29 January]] [[1536]]||[[29 January]] [[1536]]||&nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Jane Seymour]]''''' (married [[May 20]] [[1536]]; she died [[October 25]] [[1537]])
|-
|[[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]]||[[12 October]] [[1537]]||[[6 July]] [[1553]]||&nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Anne of Cleves]]''''' (married [[January 6]] [[1540]] annulled 1540; she died [[July 17]] [[1557]])
|-
|colspan=4|no issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Catherine Howard]]''''' (married [[July 28]] [[1540]] annulled 1541; she was executed [[February 13]] [[1542]])
|-
|colspan=4|no issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Catherine Parr]]''''' (married [[July 12]] [[1543]]; he died [[January 28]] [[1547]]; she remarried and died [[September 5]] [[1548]])
|-
|colspan=4|no issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Elizabeth Blount]]'''''
|-
|[[Henry Fitzroy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset|Henry Fitzroy, Duke of Richmond and Somerset]]||[[15 June]] [[1519]]||[[18 June]] [[1536]]||illegitimate; married 1533, the Lady Mary Howard; no issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By The [[Lady Mary Boleyn]]''''' ([[Alison Weir|most historians]] now reject the legend that the following two children were fathered by Henry VIII)
|-
|[[Catherine Carey]]||c. 1524 ||[[15 January]] [[1568]]||reputed illegitimate; married Sir [[Francis Knollys]]; had issue
|-
|[[Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon|Henry Carey, Baron Hunsdon]]||[[4 March]] [[1526]] ||[[23 July]] [[1596]]||reputed illegitimate; married 1545, Ann Morgan; had issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Mary Berkeley]]'''''
|-
|[[Thomas Stucley|Sir Thomas Stucley]]||c. 1525||[[August 4]] [[1578]]||reputed illegitimate; married Anne Curtis; had issue
|-
|[[John Perrot|Sir John Perrot]]||c. 1527||September 1592||reputed illegitimate; married (1) Ann Cheyney and (2) Jane Pruet; had issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Joan Dyngley]]'''''
|-
|[[Etheldreda Malte]]||c. 1529||aft. 1555|| reputed illegitimate; married 1546&ndash;1548 to John Harrington; no known issue
|}
'''<nowiki>*</nowiki>''' ''Note: Of Henry VIII's reputedly illegitimate children, only the Duke of Richmond and Somerset was formally acknowledged by the King. The paternity of his other alleged illegitimate children is not fully established. There may also have been other illegitimate children born to short-term mistresses who we no longer know of.''
==Trivia==
* His [[court jester]] was named Will Somers.
==See also==
*[[Royal Navy#History|Royal Navy]]
*[[History of the Royal Navy#The beginnings of an organised navy|History of the Royal Navy]]
*[[The Tudors and the Royal Navy]]
==References==
*Bowle, John. ''Henry VIII: A Study of Power in Action'' Little, Brown, 1964.
*Bryant, M. ''Private Lives''. Cassell, 2001.
*[http://tudorhistory.org/wives/ Eakins, L. E. (2004). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII".]
*Farrow, John V. ''The Story of Thomas More''. Collins, 1956.
*"Henry VIII". (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica,'' 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
*[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/tudor.htm Jokinen, A. (2004). "Henry VIII (1491&ndash;1547)".]
*Moorhouse, Geoffrey. ''Great Harry's Navy: How Henry VIII Gave England Seapower''
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/sixwives/ Public Broadcasting S |
ich she wears in the programme.
*Leslie Grantham originally auditioned for the part of Pete Beale but was thought too good looking so was instead cast as [[Den Watts]].
*The War memorial on set features names of people involved in ''EastEnders'' along with past stars.
*[[Oxfam]] was the main outlet used for the actors costumes when the series was first made.
*A vocal version of the theme tune called 'Anyone can fall in Love' reached number 4 in the charts in the summer of 1986 and was sung by Anita Dobson (Angie Watts).
*The Queen visited the set in 2001 and was shown around by actresses Wendy Richard and Barbara Windsor.
*The roads around Albert Square are not built to scale: they look real but some can only take one car at a time.
*When [[Barbara Windsor]] joined in 1994, she was only contracted for ten episodes.
*Albert Square is built on the site last used for building works in the 1980s ''[[Auf Wiedersehen, Pet]]''.
*In 1993, the show's theme tune was updated to a Jazzy version, first heard on [[11 May]] [[1993]]. However, it proved very unpopular with the viewers and was replaced with a remix of the original theme tune only 11 months later, from [[11 April]] [[1994]] (Also the first Monday edition of the show).
* ''EastEnders'' was the inaugural winner of the 1999 [[BAFTA]] for best continuing drama.
*Since ''EastEnders'' began in 1985, at least one of its episodes have rated higher than any other British soap opera throughout each decade. This includes the 1980's, 1990's and so far the 2000's.
*Osymyso a.k.a Mark Nicholson, one of the UK's original [[Bastard pop|bootleg]] artists created a track based on remixed scenes of the Pat vs Peggy showdown.
* On Friday the [[11 November]] [[2005]], ''EastEnders'' was the first British drama to feature a two minute silence.
*[[Lulu (singer)|Lulu]] is a big fan of the show.
*Originally there was a storyline written that the whole Ferreira clan killed their pushy father Dan, but after Dalip Tahil could not get a visa for working in the U.K the storyline was scrapped and instead [[Ronny Ferreira]] got stabbed.
==Further reading==
{{main|Further Reading on EastEnders}}
* ''EastEnders: The First 10 Years: A Celebration'', Colin Brake (1994, [[BBC]] Books, ISBN 0563370572 (hardback); 1995, [[Penguin Books|Penguin]], ISBN 0140253394 (updated paperback)) &mdash; Official guide to the soap&#8217;s first decade.
* ''Public Secrets: EastEnders and its Audience'', David Buckingham (1987, [[BFI]], ISBN 0851702104)
* ''The EastEnders Programme Guide'', Josephine Munro (1994, [[Virgin Group|Virgin]] Publishing, ISBN 0863698255)
* ''EastEnders: The Inside Story'', Julia Smith and Tony Holland (1987, BBC Books, ISBN 0563206012)
==See also==
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject EastEnders]]
*[[EastEnders Revealed]]
*[[EastEnders Xtra]]
*[[EastEnders theme tune]]
*[[EastEnders merchandise]]
*[[EastEnders off set episodes]]
*[[List of characters from EastEnders]]
*[[List of past EastEnders characters by year of exit]]
*[[List of pets in EastEnders]]
*[[List of residences in EastEnders]]
*[[Storylines of EastEnders]]
**[[Sharongate]], [[Shannis]], [[Molfie]]
*[[Walford]], [[London E20]]
**[[Albert Square]]
**[[Walford East]], [[The Queen Vic]], [[The Dagmar]], [[Angie's Den]], [[E20 (nightclub)|E20]]
==References==
* {{Citenews | title=EastEnders loses to soap wedding | date=[[January 5]] [[2005]] | org=BBC | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/4149733.stm}}
* {{Citenews | title=EastEnders loses out to Emmerdale | date=[[September 22]] [[2004]] | org=BBC | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/3679776.stm}}
* {{Citenews | title=EastEnders wins soap battle | date=[[August 13]] [[2001]] | org=The Guardian | url=http://media.guardian.co.uk/broadcast/story/0,7493,536090,00.html}}
* {{Citenews | title=EastEnders wins soaps showdown | date=[[August 11]] [[2001]] | org=BBC | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/1485953.stm}}
* {{Citenews | title=Axe falls on EastEnders boss | date=[[September 22]] [[2004]] | org=The Guardian| url=http://media.guardian.co.uk/broadcast/story/0,7493,1309899,00.html}}
* {{Citenews | title=BBC3 breaks down the barriers | date=[[February 14]] [[2003]] | org=The Guardian | url=http://media.guardian.co.uk/overnights/story/0,7965,895615,00.html}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/eastenders/ BBC: ''EastEnders'', official site]
* {{cite book | author=Smith, Rupert | title=EastEnders: 20 Years in Albert Square | publisher=BBC Books, BBC Worldwide Ltd | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0563521651}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/eastenders/ BBC - ''EastEnders''] Official site
* [http://www.tv-heaven.co.uk/forum EastEnders spoilers and discussion]
*{{imdb title|id=0088512|title=EastEnders}}
* [http://www.starfury.demon.co.uk/uground/walford.html Underground ''EastEnders''] Information on Walford East
* [http://www.walfordweb.co.uk Walford Web ]'' EastEnders'' on the Net
* [http://www.wgazette.com/ The Walford Gazette]
* [http://www.nceastenders.com/ North Carolina ''EastEnders'' Fan Club]
* [http://www.walford.net/ Walford.net] Archive of ''EastEnders'' Updates
* [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/rec.arts.tv.uk.eastenders/ rec.arts.tv.uk.eastenders]
* [http://popmatters.com/tv/reviews/e/eastenders.shtml PopMatters] ''EastEnders'' review
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/E/htmlE/eastenders/eastenders.htm Encyclopedia of Television]
* [http://www.saveeastenders.com Save ''EastEnders''] Originally set up when the show was taken off air in America
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/writersroom/insight/insight_eastenders_face2face.shtml BBC writers room] Face2Face with ''EastEnders''
* [http://www.e-subversive.net/soundboards/eastenders/ Eastenders soundboard]
* [http://www.walford-underground.com/ Walford Underground] EastEnders Community
* [http://www.talkwalford.co.uk/ipb/ Talk Walford] Talk about the show with fans
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<page>
<title>Embroidery</title>
<id>9996</id>
<revision>
<id>41965249</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:48:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dab stitch</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gold embroidery.jpg|thumb|250px|Gold Embroidery]]
'''Embroidery''' is the [[art]] or [[handicraft]] of decorating [[fabric]] or other [[material]]s with designs [[Embroidery stitch|stitch]]ed in strands of [[yarn|thread or yarn]] using a [[needle]]. Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as [[metal]] strips, [[pearl]]s, [[bead]]s, [[quill]]s, and [[sequin]]s.
==Types of embroidery==
[[Image:Cross stitch embroidery.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Cross-stitch]] embroidery, [[Hungary]], mid-20th century]]
Embroidery is classified according to its use of the underlying foundation fabric. One classification system divides embroidery styles according to the relationship of stitch placement to the fabric:
*In [[free embroidery]], designs are applied without regard to the weave of the underlying fabric. Examples include [[crewel embroidery|crewel]] and traditional [[China|Chinese]] embroidery.
The most ornate and tedious form of embroidery is the Zardosi workmanship mainly originatingfrom India.This form uses metal thread instead of the ususal silk or rayon.The fabric usually silk or velvet is marked with the pattern and then the craftsman covers the pattern with metal thread embellishing it with stonesor beads.
Another form of embroidery from India is the Ari work. This work is done by stretching the fabric on a frame and creating the stiches from a long a needle.The needle also carries sequence, beads, and other embelishments to decorate the pattern.
As a matter of fact India has almost 72 forms of embroidery original to every region.
*In [[counted-thread embroidery]], patterns are created by making stitches over a pre-determined number of threads in the foundation fabric. Counted-thread embroidery is more easily worked on an [[even-weave]] foundation fabric such as embroidery [[canvas]], [[aida cloth]], or specially woven [[cotton]] and [[linen]] fabrics although non-evenweave linen is used as well. Examples include [[needlepoint]] and [[cross-stitch]].
A second division classifies embroidery according to whether the design is stitched ''on top of'' or ''through'' the foundation fabric:
* In '''[[Surface embroidery]]''', patterns are worked on top of the foundation fabric using decorative stitches and laid threads. Surface embroidery encompasses most free embroidery as well as some forms of counted-thread embroidery (such as [[cross-stitch]]).
* In '''[[Canvas work]]''', threads are stitched through a fabric mesh to create a dense pattern that completely covers the foundation fabric. All canvas work is not counted-thread embroidery. There are printed and hand painted canvases where the painted or printed image is meant to serve as a color guide. Stitches are of the stitcher's choosing.
[[ang:Blēocræft]]
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<page>
<title>Edward Mitchell Bannister</title>
<id>9997</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-05T09:24:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Reyk</username>
<id>378651</id>
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<minor />
<comment>grammar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Edward Mitchell Bannister''' (ca.[[1828]] - [[1901]]) was an African American [[painter]] whose tonalism and predominantly pastoral subject matter owed much to his admiration for Millet and the French Barbizon School. He was born in St Andrews, New |
required of such an endeavour becomes harder and harder to maintain, leading to the state of affairs Irenaeus criticizes. Irenaeus also makes reference to the Valentinian practise of [[the Bridal Chamber|Bridal Chamber]], a ritualistic [[sacrament]] in which sexual union is seen as analogous to the activities of the paired [[syzygy|syzygies]] that constitute the Valentinian [[Pleroma]]; though it is known that Valentinus had a more relaxed approach to sexuality than much of the orthodox church (he allowed women to hold positions of ordination in his community), it is not known whether the Bridal Chamber was a ritual involving actual intercourse, or whether human sexuality is here simply being used in a metaphorical sense.
Of the [[Carpocratians]] Irenaeus makes much the same report: they 'are so abandoned in their recklessness that they claim to have in their power and be able to practise anything whatsoever that is ungodly (irreligious) and impious ... they say that conduct is only good or evil in the eyes of man' (''Adversus Haereses'', I.25.4). Once again a differentiation might be detected between a man's actions and the grace he has received through his adherence to a system of ''gnosis''; whether this is due to a common sharing of such an attitude amongst Gnostic circles, or whether this is simply a blanket-charge used by Irenaeus is open to conjecture.
On the whole, it would seem that Gnostic behaviour tended towards the ascetic. This said, the heresiological accusation of duplicity in such practises should not be taken at face value; nor should similar accusations of amoral libertinism. The Nag Hammadi library itself is full of passages which appear to encourage abstinence over indulgence. Fundamentally, however, gnostic movements appear to take the 'ancient schema of the two ways, which leaves the decision to do what is right to human endeavour and promises a reward for those who make the effort, and punishment for those who are negligent' (Kurt Rudolph, ''Gnosis: The Nature and Structure of Gnosticism'', 262).
===Major Gnostic schools and their texts===
As noted [[#History|above]], schools of Gnosticism are defined as being a member of one of two broad categories. These are the 'Eastern' or 'Persian' school, and a 'Syrian-Egyptic' school. The former possesses more demonstrably dualist tendencies; their myths display a more definitive division between light and darkness; creation is typically witnessed as being the result of an interaction between the realms of light and darkness; finally, though the two competing forces are seen somewhat as equivalent in capacity, the ultimate object of the process of creation is to assure the victory of the forces of light (see [[#Dualism and monism|Dualism and monism]]).
The Syrian-Egyptian school, by contrast, derives its nature from its [[platonism|Platonist]] influences. Typically, it depicts creation in a series of emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in the creation of the material universe; as a result, there is a tendency in these schools to view material 'evil', rather than as a force equal to immaterial 'goodness', as something markedly ''inferior'' to it. Indeed, these schools of gnosticism may be said to use the terms 'evil' and 'good' as being ''relative'' descriptive terms, with the former indicating the extremes of distance from the principle and source of goodness, without necessitating its ''inherent'' negativity.
*'''Persian Gnostics'''
**''[[Mandaeanism]]'' which is still practised in small numbers, in parts of southern [[Iraq]] and the Iranian province of [[Khuzestan]];
**''[[Manichaeism]]'' which represented an entire independent religious heritage, but is now extinct. Both of these traditions differ from the Syrian-Egyptian schools in that they contain no overt Christian elements.
*'''Syrian-Egyptic Gnostics'''
** ''Classical Gnostic Scripture'', sometimes referred to as [[Sethian]] gnosticism, for its common reference to [[Seth]], the third son of Adam and Eve, as being possessor and disseminator of special knowledge. Many texts have been attributed to this school, including those following:
*** ''[[Apocryphon of John|The Secret Book According to John]]''
*** ''[[Apocalypse of Adam|The Revelation of Adam]]''
*** ''[[The Reality of the Rulers]]''
*** ''[[The Thunder Perfect Mind|The Thunder-Perfect Intellect]]''
*** ''[[Trimorphic Protennoia|First Thought in Three Forms]]''
*** ''[[Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians|The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit]]'', or, the ''[[Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians|Egyptian Gospel]]''
*** ''[[Zostrianos]]''
*** ''[[The Foreigner]]''
*** ''[[The Three Tablets of Seth]]''
**The ''[[Thomas the Apostle|Thomasine]]s'', or the ''School of St. [[Thomas the Apostle]]''; once again, many gnostic texts are attributable to this school:
***''[[The Hymn of the Pearl]]'', or, the ''[[Hymn of the Pearl|Hymn of Jude Thomas the Apostle in the Country of Indians]]''
***''[[The Gospel According to Thomas]]''
***''[[Book of Thomas|The Book of Thomas: The Contender Writing to the Perfect]]''
**The ''[[Valentinians]]'', in reference to the Christian teacher [[Valentinius]] ([[Circa|ca.]] [[100]]&ndash;[[Circa|ca.]] [[153]] [[Common Era|CE]]), better known as 'Valentinus', who developed one of the complex cosmologies to be found in gnosticism, outside the Sethian tradition. Valentinus was, for a time, the most successful Christian gnostic thinker. Several texts are attributable to him, and to his followers (texts written by Valentinus himself are, in the main, fragmentary; here they are marked with an '*'):
***''[[The Divine Word Present in the Infant]]'' (Fragment A) *
***''[[On the Three Natures]]'' (Fragment B) *
***''[[Adam's Faculty of Speech]]'' (Fragment C) *
***''[[To Agathopous: Jesus' Digestive System]]'' (Fragment D) *
***''[[Annihilation of the Realm of Death]]'' (Fragment F) *
***''[[On Friends: The Source of Common Wisdom]]'' (Fragment G) *
***''[[Epistle on Attachments]]'' (Fragment H) *
***''[[Summer Harvest]]''*
***''[[Gospel of Truth|The Gospel of Truth]]''*
***''[[Ptolemy's Version of the Gnostic Myth]]''
***''[[A Prayer of Paul the Apostle]]''
***''[[Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora]]''
***''[[Treatise on Ressurrection]]'' (''Epistle to Rheginus'')
***''[[The Gospel According to Philip]]''
**The ''[[Basilides|Basilidians]]'', named for the founder of their school, Basiledes ([[132]]&ndash;? [[Common Era|CE]]), are mainly known through the summaries of Irenaeus' ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'' (see above), and through a series of fragments, found in the work of Clement of Alexandria:
***The Octet of Subsistent Entities (Fragment A)
***The Uniqueness of the World (Fragment B)
***Election Naturally Entails Faith and Virtue (Fragment C)
***The State of Virtue (Fragment D)
***The Elect Transcend the World (Fragment E)
***Reincarnation (Fragment F)
***Human Suffering and the Goodness of Providence (Fragment G)
***Forgivable Sins (Fragment H)
*'''Other schools and related movements'''; these are presented in chronological order:[[Image:Gnostic_cross.png|right|frame|The [[Sun cross|circular, harmonic cross]] was an [[emblem]] used most notably by the [[Cathars]], a [[medieval]] [[heresy]] that related to Gnosticism]]
**''[[Simon Magus]]'' and ''[[Marcion of Sinope]]'' both had Gnostic tendencies, but such familiar ideas that they presented were as-yet unformed; they might thus be described as pseudo- or proto-Gnostics. Both developed a sizeable following. Simon Magus' pupil ''[[Menander]]'' could potentially be included within this grouping.
**''[[Cerinthus]]'', the leader of a late first century or early second century cult; though he believed in the existence of a lesser, creator deity who governs the world, Cerinthus apparently sets great store against observation of ceremonies as a redemptive observance, rather than the ''gnosis'' that is naturally the emphasis of gnostic schools.
**The ''[[Ophites]]'', so-named because they worshipped the serpent of [[Genesis]] as the bestower of knowledge.
**The ''[[Cainites]]'', as the term implies, worshipped [[Cain]], as well as [[Esau]], [[Korah]], and the [[Sodom|Sodomites]]. There is little evidence concerning the nature of this group; however, it is surmisable that they believed that indulgence in sin was the key to salvation because since the body is evil, one must defile it through immoral activity (see [[libertinism]]).
**The ''[[Carpocrates|Carpocratians]]''
**The ''[[Borborites]]''
**The ''[[Bogomils]]''
**The ''[[Cathar]]s'' (''Cathari'', ''Albigenses'' or ''Albigensians'') are typically seen as being imitative of Gnosticism; whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is disputed. Though the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, [[satan|Satanic]], creator god), they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (''gnosis'') as an effective salvific force. For the relationship between these medieval heresies and earlier Gnostic forms, see [[#The development of the Persian school|historical discussion above]].
=='Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category==
In [[1966]] in [[Messina]], [[Italy]], a conference was held concerning systems of ''gnosis''. Among its several aims were the need to incept a program to translate the recently-acquired Nag Hammadi library (see [[#Translation|above]]) and the need to arrive at an agreement concerning an accurate definition of 'Gnosticism'. This was in answer to the tendency, prevalent since the eighteenth century, to use the term 'gnostic' less as its origins implied, but rather as an interpretive category for ''contemporary'' philosophical and religious movements. Thus in [[1835]] [[New Testament]] scholar [[Ferdinand Baur]] constructs a developmental model of Gnosticism that culminates in the religious philosophy of [[Hegel]]; one might compa |
t [[psychosis]]. Common conditions with which antipsychotics might be used include [[schizophrenia]], [[mania]] and [[delusional disorder]], although antipsychotics might be used to counter psychosis associated with a wide range of other diagnoses. Antipsychotics also have some effects as [[mood stabilizer]]s, leading to their frequent use in treating [[mood disorder]] (particularly [[bipolar disorder]]) even when no signs of psychosis are present. Some antipsychotics ([[haloperidol]], [[pimozide]]) are used to treat [[Tourette's Syndrome]].
These drugs are also referred to as '''neuroleptic drugs''', or simply '''neuroleptics'''. The word neuroleptic is derieved from Greek. 'Neuro' refers to the nerves and 'lept' means 'to take hold of'. Thus the word means 'taking hold of one's nerves' which implies their role in mood stabilization.
There are currently two main types of antipsychotics in use, the [[typical antipsychotic]]s and [[atypical antipsychotic]]s. A new class of antipsychotic drugs has recently been discovered, known as [[partial dopamine agonist]]s. Clinical development has progressed rapidly on partial dopamine agonists, and one drug in this class ([[aripiprazole]]) has already been approved by the [[FDA]]. Although the underlying mechanism of this new class is different from all previous typical and atypical antipsychotics, partial dopamine agonists are often categorized as atypicals.
Typical antipsychotics are sometimes referred to as '''major tranquilizers''', because some of them can tranquilise and sedate. This term is increasingly disused because many newer antipsychotics do not have strong sedating properties and the terminology implies a connection with [[benzodiazepine]]s, whereas none exists.
== Common antipsychotic drugs ==
Commonly used antipsychotic medications are listed below by drug group. Trade names appear in brackets.
*[[Typical antipsychotic]]s:
** [[Phenothiazines]]:
*** [[Chlorpromazine]] (Thorazine&reg;)
*** [[Fluphenazine]] (Prolixin&reg;) - Available in decanoate (long acting) form
*** [[Perphenazine]] (Trilafon&reg;)
*** [[Prochlorperazine]] (Compazine&reg;)
*** [[Thioridazine]] (Mellaril&reg;)
*** [[Trifluoperazine]] (Stelazine&reg;)
** [[Haloperidol]] (Haldol&reg;)- Available in decanoate (long acting) form
** [[Pimozide]] (Orap&reg;) - Used to treat [[Tourette's Syndrome]]
* [[Atypical antipsychotic]]s:
** [[Clozapine]] (Clozaril&reg;)- Requires weekly to every two week [[complete blood count|CBC (FBC)]] due to risk of [[agranulocytosis]] (severe decrease of [[white blood cells]]).
** [[Olanzapine]] (Zyprexa&reg;) - Used to treate psychotic disorders including acute manic episodes and maintenance of bipolar disorder. Dosing 2.5 mg to 20 mg per day. Comes in a form that quickly dissovles in the mouth (Zyprexa Zydis). May cause appetite increase, weight gain and altered glucose metabolism leading to an increased risk of diabetes mellitus.
** [[Risperidone]] (Risperdal&reg;) - Dosing 0.25 - 6 mg per day and is titrated upward; divided dosing is recommended until initial titration is completed at which time the drug can be administered once daily. Available in long-acting form (Risperdal Consta that is administered every 2 weeks; usual dose is 25 mg.). Comes in a form that quickly dissovles in the mouth (Risperdal M-Tab)
** [[Quetiapine]] (Seroquel&reg;)- Also used to treat bipolar disorders; helps with sleep (if used for sleep and not effective at 200 mg, it is not going to be effective in this regard) Dosing 25 mg up to 800 mg maximum. Usually see smaller doses during the day and larger dose at bedtime.
** [[Ziprasidone]] (Geodon&reg;) - Now approved to treat bipolar disorder. Dosing 20 mg twice daily initially up to 80 mg twice daily. Prolonged [[QT interval]] a concern; watch closely with patients who have heart disease; when used with other drugs that prolong QT interval potentially life-threatening.
* [[Partial dopamine agonist]]s:
** [[Aripiprazole]] (Abilify) - Newest atypical antipsychotic; dosing 5 mg up to maximum of 30 mg has been used. Mechanism of action is thought to reduce susceptibility to metabolic symptoms seen in some other atypical antipsychotics.
Symbyax - (combination of olanzapine and fluoxetine used in the treatment of bipolar depression.)
* [[Tetrabenazine]] (Nitoman&reg; in Canada and Xenazine&reg; in New Zealand and some parts of Europe) is similar in function to antipsychotic drugs, though isn't generally considered an antipsychotic itself. This is likely due to its main usefulness being the treatment of hyperkinetic [[movement disorder]]s such as [[Huntington's Disease]] and [[Tourette's Syndrome]], rather than for conditions such as [[schizophrenia]]. Also, rather than having the potential to cause [[tardive dyskinesia]] that most antipsychotics have, tetrabenazine can actually be an effective ''treatment'' for the condition.
The typical antipsychotic drugs are now out of [[patent]] meaning any pharmaceutical company is legally allowed to produce cheap [[generic drug|generic]] versions of these medications. Whilst this makes them a great deal cheaper than the atypical drugs which are still in patent, atypical drugs are preferred as a first line treatment due to the fact that they are believed to have fewer side effects and seem to have additional benefits for the 'negative symptoms' of [[schizophrenia]], a typical condition for which they might be prescribed. A recent multi-site, [[NIMH]] study published in 2005 comparing the atypicals to perphenazine found no greater efficacy for the atypicals, which had a side effect profile that was equal to or worse than the older drug.
== Drug action and effectiveness ==
All antipsychotic drugs tend to block the D<sub>2</sub> [[receptors]] in the [[dopamine]] pathways in the [[brain]], so the normal effect of dopamine release in the relevant [[synapse]]s is reduced.
It is the blockade of D<sub>2</sub> receptors in the [[mesolimbic pathway]] of the [[brain]] which is thought to produce the intended antipsychotic effect.
Typical antipsychotics are not particularly selective and also block the same receptors in the [[mesocortical pathway]], [[tuberoinfundibular pathway]] and the [[nigrostriatal pathway]]. Blocking D<sub>2</sub> receptors in these other pathways is thought to produce some of the unwanted [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side effects]] that the typical antipsychotics can produce (see below).
Atypical antipsychotic drugs have a similar blocking effect on D<sub>2</sub> receptors but seem to be a little more selective, targeting the intended pathway to a larger degree than the others. They also block or partially block [[serotonin]] receptors (particularly 5HT<sub>2A,C</sub> and 5HT<sub>1A</sub> receptors).
This combination of effects on both dopamine and serotonin receptors might be why atypical antipsychotic drugs tend to have fewer side effects than typicals and have a seemingly additional effect on the 'negative symptoms' of schizophrenia.
Anti-psychotics can be classified on a spectrum of low potency to high potency, where potency refers to the ability of the drug to bind to dopamine receptors, and not to the effectiveness of the drug. High potency antipsychotics such as [[haloperidol]] typically have doses of a few milligrams and cause less sleepiness and calming effects than low potency antipsychotics such as [[chlorpromazine]], which have dosages of several hundred milligrams.
There is generally a lag of a few days to a few weeks between the time the drug is started and the time that the medication begins to reduce psychosis. Why this is so remains unclear.
Some people who become psychotic do not seem to respond to antipsychotic medication, despite studies showing that the drug is blocking the same number of receptors as in other people who do respond to the treatment.
A [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16172203&query_hl=2 recent review], comparing the effectiveness of both typical and atypical antipsychotic medication, found little clinical advantage for atypical antipsychotics in reducing psychotic symptoms, although [[olanzapine]] was associated with more weight gain and less chance of discontinuation.
== Side effects ==
The range of interactions can produce different adverse effects including [[Extrapyramidal side-effect|extrapyramidal]] reactions, including acute [[dystonia]]s, [[akathisia]], rigidity and [[tremor]], [[tardive dyskinesia]], [[tachycardia]], [[hypotension]], [[impotence]], lethargy, [[seizure]]s, and [[hyperprolactinaemia]].
The atypical antipsychotics (especially [[olanzapine]]) seem to cause weight gain more commonly than the typical antipsychotics. The well documented metabolic side effects associated with weight gain include diabetes that, not infrequently, can be life threatening.
[[clozapine|Clozapine]] also has a risk of inducing [[agranulocytosis]], a potentially dangerous reduction in the number of white blood cells in the body. Because of this risk, patients prescribed clozapine may need to have regular blood checks to catch the condition early if it does occur, so the patient is in no danger.
One of the more serious of these side effects is [[tardive dyskinesia]], in which the sufferer may show repetitive, involuntary, purposeless movements often of the lips, face, legs or torso. (Photos and video can be seen [http://www.yoism.org/?q=node/120 here]). It is believed that there is a greater risk of developing tardive dyskinesia with the older, typical antipsychotic drugs, although the newer antipsychotics are now also known to cause this disorder. It is believed by some that the risk of tardive dyskinesia can be reduced by combining the anti-psychotics with [[diphenhydramine]] or [[benztropine]], though this has not |
y an earth bank, about four metres high, with a wide [[ditch]] on the north side, and a [[Roman road|military way]] or road on the south. The Romans initially planned to build forts every six miles, but this was soon revised to every two miles, resulting in a total of 19 forts along the wall.
The wall was abandoned after only 20 years, when the [[Roman legion]]s withdrew to Hadrian's Wall in AD [[164]]. After a series of attacks in AD [[197]], Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] arrived in Scotland in AD [[208]] to secure the frontier, and repaired parts of the wall. Although this re-occupation only lasted a few years, the wall is sometimes referred to (by later Roman historians) as the '''Severan Wall'''.
Although most of the wall has been destroyed over time, sections of the wall can still be seen in [[Bearsden]], [[Kirkintilloch]], [[Twechar]], [[Croy, North Lanarkshire|Croy]], [[Falkirk, Scotland|Falkirk]] and [[Polmont, Scotland|Polmont]].
==See also==
* [[History of Scotland]]
* [[Historic Sites in Scotland]]
* [[Roman Britain]]
* [[Trimontium]]
* [[List of walls]].
==External links==
* http://www.athenapub.com/antwall1.htm
* http://www.athenapub.com/britsite/hillfoot.htm
* http://www.roman-britain.org/frontiers/antonine.htm
* http://www.almac.co.uk/FalkirkTCM/Rome.htm
* http://www.kilsyth.org.uk/
[[Category:Ancient Roman architecture]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Scotland]]
[[Category:Fortification]]
[[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]]
[[Category:Roman military occupation in southern Scotland]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Scotland]]
[[Category:Separation barriers]]
[[Category:Walls]]
[[Category:Roman frontiers]]
{{Scotland-stub}}
{{UK-hist-stub}}
[[cs:Antoninův val]]
[[de:Antoninuswall]]
[[es:Muro de Antonino]]
[[fr:Mur d'Antonin]]
[[no:Den antoninske mur]]
[[fi:Antoninuksen valli]]
[[zh:安多宁长城]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 3</title>
<id>1259</id>
<revision>
<id>41773404</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:23:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ removed Ram Suri - no matching article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=3}}
|}
'''[[August 3]]''' is the 215th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (216th in [[leap year]]s), with 150 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[8]] - Roman general [[Tiberius]] defeats [[Dalmatians]] on the river Bathinus.
* [[435]] - Deposed [[Patriarch of Constantinople]] [[Nestorius]], considered the originator of the [[Christology|Christological]] "[[heresy]]" (at the time) known as [[Nestorianism]], was exiled by [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Theodosius II]] to a [[monastery]] in [[Egypt]].
*[[1492]] - [[Christopher Columbus]] sets sail from [[Palos de la Frontera]], [[Spain]].
*1492 - The [[Jew]]s of [[Spain]] are expelled by the [[Catholic Monarchs]].
*[[1527]] - First known letter was sent from North America by [[John Rut]] while at [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland]].
*[[1635]] - The third of the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa shoguns]], [[Tokugawa Iemitsu|Iemitsu]], establishes the system of alternate attendance by which the feudal [[daimyo|daimyō]] are required to spend one year at [[Edo Castle]] in [[Tokyo]] and one year back home at their feudal manor, while their families remained in [[Tokyo]] as virtual political hostages. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese Date]]: June 21, 1635).
*[[1645]] - The [[Battle of Nördlingen (1645)|Second Battle of Nördlingen]] is fought between the forces of [[France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
*[[1678]] - [[Robert LaSalle]] builds the ''[[Griffon (ship)|Griffon]]'', the first known ship built in America.
*[[1783]] - [[Mount Asama]] erupts in [[Japan]], killing 35,000 people.
*[[1860]] - The [[Second Maori War]] begins in [[New Zealand]].
*[[1900]] - [[Firestone Tire]] & Rubber Company founded.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I|First World War]]: [[Germany]] declares war against [[France]].
*[[1916]] - First World War: The [[Battle of Romani]] is fought between forces of the [[British Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]].
*[[1923]] - [[Calvin Coolidge]] is inaugurated as the 30th [[President of the United States]].
*[[1940]] - [[World War II|Second World War]]: [[Italy]] invades [[British Somaliland]].
*[[1946]] - [[National Basketball Association]] is founded in the [[United States]].
*[[1948]] - [[Whittaker Chambers]] accuses [[Alger Hiss]] of being a [[communist]] and a [[secret agent|spy]] for the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1958]] - The [[Nuclear energy|nuclear]] [[submarine]] [[USS Nautilus (SSN-571)|USS ''Nautilus'']] travels beneath the [[Arctic Ocean|Arctic]] ice cap.
*[[1960]] - [[Niger]] gains independence from [[France]].
*[[1972]] - [[United States|U.S.]] Senate ratifies the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]].
*[[1973]] - [[R&B]] singer [[Stevie Wonder]] releases the classic album ''[[Innervisions]]''.
*[[1975]] - A privately chartered [[Boeing]] 707 impacts the mountainside near [[Agadir]], [[Morocco]] killing 188.
*[[1977]] - [[United States Senate]] Hearing on [[MKULTRA]].
*[[1981]] - In the United States, Professional [[Air traffic controller|Air Traffic Controllers]] Organization walks off the job. All 13,000 members will eventually be fired by President [[Ronald Reagan]].
*1981 - [[Senegal]]ese opposition parties, under the leadership of [[Mamadou Dia]], launches the [[Antiimperialist Action Front-Suxxali Reew Mi]].
*[[1990]] - The highest temperature recorded in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] until [[10 August]], [[2003]] - 37.1°C (98.8°F) at [[Cheltenham]] in [[Gloucestershire]].
*[[1997]] - [[Oued El-Had and Mezouara massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 40-76 villagers killed.
*[[2004]] - The pedestal of the [[Statue of Liberty]] reopens after being closed since [[September 11, 2001]].
*[[2005]] - [[President]] [[Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya]] of [[Mauritania]] is overthrown in a [[military coup]] while attending the [[funeral]] of [[King Fahd]] in [[Saudi Arabia]].
==Births==
*[[1509]] - [[Étienne Dolet]], French scholar and printer (d. [[1546]])
*[[1604]] - [[John Eliot (missionary)|John Eliot]], English missionary (d. [[1690]])
*[[1692]] - [[John Henley]], English clergyman (d. [[1759]])
*[[1770]] - King [[Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia]] (d. [[1840]])
*[[1801]] - [[Joseph Paxton]], English gardener and architect (d. [[1865]])
*[[1808]] - [[Hamilton Fish]], American politician (d. [[1893]])
*[[1811]] - [[Elisha Graves Otis]], American inventor (d. [[1861]])
*[[1817]] - [[Archduke Albert (1817-1895)|Archduke Albert]], Austrian general (d. [[1895]])
*[[1832]] - [[Ivan Zajc]], Croatian composer (d. [[1914]])
*[[1856]] - [[Alfred Deakin]], second [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1919]])
*[[1860]] - [[W.K. Dickson]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1935]])
*[[1867]] - [[Stanley Baldwin]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1947]])
*[[1872]] - King [[Haakon VII of Norway]] (d. [[1957]])
*[[1887]] - [[Rupert Brooke]], English poet (d. [[1915]])
*[[1894]] - [[Harry Heilmann]], baseball player (d. [[1951]])
*[[1900]] - [[Ernie Pyle]], American war correspondent (d. [[1945]])
*1900 - [[John T. Scopes]], American defendant (d. [[1970]])
*[[1901]] - [[Stefan Wyszynski]], Polish Catholic prelate (d. [[1981]])
*[[1903]] - [[Habib Bourguiba]], Tunisian Politician (d. [[2000]])
*[[1904]] - [[Clifford D. Simak]], American author (d. [[1988]])
*[[1905]] - [[Dolores del Rio]], Mexican-born actress (d. [[1983]])
*1905 - Cardinal [[Franz König]], Austrian Catholic archbishop (d. [[2004]])
*[[1916]] - [[José Manuel Moreno]], Argentine footballer (d. [[1978]])
*[[1918]] - [[Sidney Gottlieb]], American Central Intelligence Agency official (d. [[1999]])
*[[1920]] - [[P.D. James]], English novelist
*[[1923]] - [[Shenouda III of Alexandria]], Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church
*[[1924]] - [[Leon Uris]], American novelist (d. [[2003]])
*[[1925]] - [[Marv Levy]], American football coach
*[[1926]] - [[Tony Bennett]], American singer
* 1926 - [[Anthony Sampson]], British journalist and biographer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1927]] - [[Gordon Scott]], American actor (Tarzan)
*[[1935]] - [[Georgi Shonin]], cosmonaut (d. [[1997]])
*[[1936]] - [[Edward Petherbridge]], English actor
*[[1937]] - [[Steven Berkoff]], British actor
* 1937 - [[Diane Wakoski]], American poet
*[[1938]] - [[Terry Wogan]], Irish radio and television presenter
*[[1940]] - [[Lance Alworth]], American football player
* 1940 - [[Martin Sheen]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Beverly Lee]], American singer ([[Shirelles]])
* 1941 - [[Martha Stewart]], American publisher and media personality
*[[1946]] - [[Jack Straw (politician)|Jack Straw]], British politician
*[[1948]] - [[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]], [[Prime Minister of France]]
*[[1950]] - [[John Landis]], American film director
*[[1951]] - [[Marcel Dionne]], Canadian hockey player
* 1951 - [[Jay North]], American actor
*[[1952]] - [[Osvaldo Ardiles]], Argentine footballer and coach
*[[1959]] - [[Martin Atkins]], English drummer
* 1959 - [[Koichi Tanaka]], Japanese scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]
*[[1963]] - [[James Hetfield]], American singer and guitarist ([[Metallica]])
*[[1970]] - [[Gina G]], British singer
*[[1977]] - [[Tom Brady]], American football player
*[[1979]] - [[Evangeline Lilly]], Canadian actress and fashion model
==Deaths==
*[[1181]] - [[Pope Alexander III]] (c. [[1105]])
*[[1460]] - King [[James II of Scotland]] (b. [[1430]])
*[[1546]] - [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger]], Italian architect (b. [[1484]])
*1546 - [[Étienne Dolet]], French scholar and printer (b. [[1509]])
*[[1604]] - [[Bernardino de Mendoza]], Spanish military commander
*[[1621]] - [[Guillaume du Vair]], French writer (b. [[1556]])
*[[1667]] - [[Francesco Borromini]], Swiss sculptor |
onvene in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] to nominate their first [[President of the United States|Presidential]] candidate, former [[President]] [[Millard Fillmore]].
*[[1861]] - In [[Montgomery, Alabama]], [[Jefferson Davis]] is inaugurated as the provisional [[President]] of the [[Confederate States of America]].
*1861 - With the [[Italian unification]] almost complete, [[Monarch|King]] [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] of [[Piedmont]], [[Savoy]] and [[Sardinia]] assumes the title of [[King of Italy]].
*[[1865]] - In the [[U.S.]], [[Delaware]] voters reject the [[13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution]], and vote to continue the practice of slavery. (Delaware finally ratifies the amendment on [[February 12]], [[1901]].)
*[[1878]] - The [[Lincoln County War]] begins in [[Lincoln County, New Mexico]].
*[[1885]] - [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'' is published for the first time.
*[[1911]] - The first official flight with [[air mail]] takes place in [[Allahabad]], [[British India]], when [[Henri Pequet]], a 23-year-old pilot, delivers 6,500 letters to [[Naini]], about 10 km away.
*[[1913]] - [[Raymond Poincaré]] becomes [[President]] of [[France]].
*[[1929]] - First [[Academy Awards]] are announced.
*[[1930]] - While studying photographs taken in [[January]], [[Clyde Tombaugh]] discovers [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]].
*1930 - [[Elm Farm Ollie]] becomes the first [[cattle|cow]] to fly in an [[airplane]] and also the first cow to be milked in an airplane.
*[[1932]] - The [[Empire of Japan]] declares [[Manzhouguo]] (obsolete [[Chinese]] name for [[Manchuria]]) independent from [[China]].
*[[1943]] - The [[Nazi]]s arrest the members of the [[White Rose]] movement.
*1943 - [[Joseph Goebbels]] delivers the [[Sportpalast speech]].
*[[1948]] - [[Eamon de Valera]] resigns as [[Taoiseach]] of [[Ireland]].
*[[1953]] - The first [[3D film]], ''[[Bwana Devil]]'', opens.
*1953 - [[Lucille Ball]] and [[Desi Arnaz]] sign an $8,000,000 contract to continue the ''[[I Love Lucy]]'' [[television series]] through [[1955]].
*[[1965]] - [[The Gambia]] becomes independent from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1970]] - The [[Chicago Eight]] are found not guilty of conspiring to incite [[riot]]s at the [[1968]] [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] national convention.
*[[1972]] - The [[California Supreme Court]] invalidates the state's [[death penalty]] and commutes the sentences of all [[death row]] inmates to life in prison.
*[[1974]] - The [[game show]] ''[[Tattletales]]'' debuts in the slot vacated by the long-running [[soap opera]] ''[[The Secret Storm]]''.
*[[1977]] - The [[Space Shuttle Enterprise]] test vehicle goes on its maiden "flight" while sitting on top of a [[Boeing 747]].
*[[1983]] - Thirteen people die and one is seriously injured in the [[Wah Mee massacre|Wah Mee Massacre]] in [[Seattle, Washington]], said to be the largest robbery-motivated mass-murder in [[United States|American]] history.
*[[1985]] - The legendary "[[mirror globe]]" ident, first used in [[1969]], is seen for the last time in regular rotation on [[BBC1]].
*[[1991]] - The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] explodes bombs in the early morning at both [[Paddington station]] and [[Victoria station (London)|Victoria station]] in [[London]].
*[[1998]] - Two [[white separatism|white separatist]]s are arrested in [[Nevada]] and accused of plotting a [[biological warfare|biological attack]] on [[New York City]] [[metro|subway]]s.
*[[2001]] - [[Dale Earnhardt]] is killed on the last lap of the [[Daytona 500]]
*[[2003]] - Nearly 200 people die in the [[Daegu subway fire]] in [[South Korea]]
*[[2004]] - Up to 295 people, including nearly 200 rescue workers, die near [[Neyshabur]] in [[Iran]] when a run-away freight [[train]] carrying [[sulfur]], [[petrol]] and [[fertiliser]] catches fire and explodes.
*[[2005]] - The [[United Kingdom]] law banning [[fox hunting]], [[hare coursing]] and other sports which kill wild [[mammal]]s is enforced from this date.
*[[2006]] - Upwards to two million people gather at [[Rio de Janeiro]]'s [[Copacabana Beach]] to see a free concert performed by the [[Rolling Stones]].
==Births==
*[[1486]] - [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], [[Bengal|Bengali]] saint, [[bhakti yoga]] developer.
*[[1516]] - Queen [[Mary I of England]] (d. [[1558]])
*[[1530]] - [[Uesugi Kenshin]], Japanese samurai and warlord (d. [[1578]])
*[[1559]] - [[Isaac Casaubon]], French classical scholar (d. [[1614]])
*[[1602]] - [[Per Brahe (the younger)]], Swedish soldier and statesman (d. [[1680]])
*[[1609]] - [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon]], English statesman and historian (d. [[1674]])
*[[1635]] - [[Johan Göransson Gyllenstierna]], Swedish statesman (d. [[1680]])
*[[1642]] - [[Marie Champmeslé]], French actress (d. [[1698]])
*[[1658]] - [[Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre]], French writer (d. [[1743]])
*[[1745]] - [[Alessandro Volta]], Italian physicist (d. [[1827]])
*[[1835]] - [[César Cui]], Lithuanian composer (d. [[1918]])
*[[1838]] - [[Ernst Mach]], Austrian physicist and philosopher (d. [[1916]])
*[[1846]] - [[Wilson Barrett]], English actor and playwright (d. [[1904]])
*[[1848]] - [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]], American glass artist (d. [[1933]])
*[[1849]] - [[Alexander Kielland]], Norwegian author (d. [[1906]])
*[[1859]] - [[Sholom Aleichem]], Russian Yiddish humorist and author (d. [[1916]])
*[[1871]] - [[Harry Brearley]], English inventor (d. [[1948]])
*[[1883]] - [[Nikos Kazantzakis]], Greek writer (d. [[1957]])
*[[1884]] - [[Andrew Watson Myles]], Canadian politician (d. [[1970]])
*[[1890]] - [[Edward Arnold (actor)|Edward Arnold]], American actor (d. [[1956]])
*1890 - [[Adolphe Menjou]], American actor (d. [[1963]])
*[[1892]] - [[Wendell Willkie]], U.S. Presidential candidate (d. [[1944]])
*[[1896]] - [[Andre Breton]], French writer (d. [[1966]])
*[[1898]] - [[Enzo Ferrari]], Italian race car driver and manufacturer (d. [[1988]])
*1898 - [[Luis Muñoz Marín]], Puerto Rican poet, journalist, and politician (d. [[1980]])
*[[1901]] - [[Reginald Sheffield]], British actor (d. [[1957]])
*[[1903]] - [[Nikolai Podgorny]], [[President of the Soviet Union]] (d. [[1983]])
*[[1905]] - [[Jan Gies]], Dutch resistance fighter (d. [[1993]])
*[[1906]] - [[Hans Asperger]], Austrian pediatrician (d. [[1980]])
*[[1909]] - [[Wallace Stegner]], American writer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1915]] - [[Phyllis Calvert]], British actress (d. [[2002]])
*[[1919]] - [[Jack Palance]], American actor
*[[1920]] - [[Bill Cullen]], American game show host (d. [[1990]])
*1920 - [[Eric Gairy]], Grenadan politician (d. [[1997]])
*[[1922]] - [[Helen Gurley Brown]], American editor and publisher
*1922 - [[Allan Melvin]], American actor
*[[1924]]: [[Humberto Fernández Morán]], [[Venezuela]]n scientist, inventor of [[diamond scalpel]] (d. [[1999]]).
*[[1925]] - [[George Kennedy]], American actor
*[[1927]] - [[John Warner]], U.S. Senator
*[[1929]] - [[Len Deighton]], British author
*[[1930]] - [[Gahan Wilson]], American cartoonist
*[[1931]] - [[Johnny Hart]], American cartoonist
*1931 - [[Toni Morrison]], American writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1931 - [[Bob St. Clair]], American football player
*[[1932]] - [[Milos Forman]], Czech film director
*[[1933]] - [[Yoko Ono]], Japanese-born singer, artist, and wife of [[John Lennon]]
*1933 - [[Bobby Robson]], English football manager
*1933 - [[Mary Ure]], Scottish actress (d. [[1975]])
*[[1936]] - [[Jean Auel]], American writer
*[[1938]] - [[István Szabó]], Hungarian film director
*[[1943]] - [[Graeme Garden]], Scottish writer, comedian, and actor
*[[1945]] - [[Judy Rankin]], American golfer
*[[1947]] - [[Dennis DeYoung]], vocalist pianist/keyboardist of [[Styx (band)|STYX]]
*1947 - [[Princess Christina of the Netherlands]]
*1947 - [[Carlos Lopes]], Portuguese Olympic athlete
*[[1948]] - [[Sinéad Cusack]], Irish actress
*[[1949]] - [[Gary Ridgway]], American serial killer
*[[1950]] - [[John Hughes (film director)|John Hughes]], American director, producer, and writer
*1950 - [[Cybill Shepherd]], American actress
*[[1952]] - [[Maurice Lucas]], American basketball player
*1952 - [[Juice Newton]], American country singer
*[[1953]] - [[Derek Pellicci]], Australian drummer ([[Little River Band]])
*1953 - [[Robbie Bachman]], Canadian drummer ([[Bachman-Turner Overdrive]])
*[[1954]] - [[John Travolta]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Ted Gärdestad]], Swedish singer (d. [[1997]])
*[[1957]] - [[Marita Koch]], German athlete
*1957 - [[Vanna White]], American game show presenter
*[[1960]] - [[Greta Scacchi]], Australian actress
*[[1962]] - [[Julie Strain]], American actress
*[[1964]] - [[Matt Dillon]], American actor
*[[1965]] - [[Dr. Dre]], American rapper and record producer
*[[1968]] - [[Molly Ringwald]], American actress
*[[1969]] - [[Alexander Mogilny]], Russian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1970]] - [[Raine Maida]], Canadian rock musician. Band: [[Our Lady Peace]]
*1970 - [[Susan Egan]], American musical actress
*[[1973]] - [[Claude Makelele]], French footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Jamey Carroll]], American baseball player
*[[1975]] - [[Keith Gillespie]], Northern Irish footballer
*1975 - [[Gary Neville]], English footballer ([Manchester United])
*[[1981]] - [[Andrei Kirilenko (basketball)|Andrei Kirilenko]], Russian basketball player
*1981 - [[Buddy Nielsen]], American singer ([[Senses Fail]])
*1981 - [[Ivan Sproule]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1983]] - [[Jermaine Jenas]], English footballer
*[[1984]] - Jason Orach, American engineer
*[[1985]] - [[Lee Boyd Malvo]], American serial killer
*1985 - [[Anton Ferdinand]], English footballer
*[[1988]] - [[Rihanna]], West Indian singer
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[4th millennium BC|3102 BC]] - [[Krishna]], Indian god (b. 3228 BC)
*[[806]] - [[Tarasius]], Patriarch of Constantinople (b. [[1866] |
a}}
Interestingly, in some remote areas of Austria the referendum on the independence of Austria on [[13 March]] was held despite the [[Wehrmacht]]'s presence in Austria (it took up to 3 days to occupy every part of Austria). For instance, in the village of [[Innervillgraten]] a majority of 95 % voted for Austria's independence.{{ref|wienerzeitung_b}}
Austria remained part of the [[Third Reich]] until the end of [[World War II]] when a preliminary Austrian Government declared the Anschluss void and null on [[April 27]] [[1945]]. After the war then [[allied]] occupied Austria was recognized and treated as a separate country, but was not restored to [[sovereignty]] until the [[Austrian State Treaty]] and Austrian [[Declaration of Neutrality]], both of 1955, largely due to the rapid development of the [[Cold War]] and disputes between the [[Soviet Union]] and its former allies over its foreign policy.
==Reactions and consequences of the Anschluss==
[[Image:karl-renner.jpg|thumbnail|right|180px|Social Democrat Karl Renner publicly announced his support for the Anschluss]]
The picture of Austria in the first days of its existence in the [[Third Reich]] is one of contradictions: At one and the same time, Hitler's terror regime began to tighten its grip in every area of society, beginning with mass arrests and thousands of Austrians attempting to flee in every direction; yet Austrians could be seen cheering and welcoming German troops entering Austrian territory. Many Austrian political figures did not hesitate to announce their support of the Anschluss and their relief that it happened without violence.
Cardinal [[Theodor Innitzer]] (a political figure of the CS) declared as early as [[12 March]]: "The Viennese Catholics should thank the Lord for the bloodless way this great political change has occurred, and they should pray for a great future for Austria. Needless to say, everyone should obey the orders of the new institutions." The other Austrian bishops followed suit some days later. [[Vatican Radio]], however, immediately broadcast a vehement denunciation of the German action, and Cardinal [[Pius XII|Pacelli]] ordered Innitzer to report to Rome. Before meeting with the pope, Innitzer met with Pacelli, who had been outraged by Innitzer's statement. He made it clear that Innitzer needed to retract; he was made to sign a new statement, issued on behalf of all the Austrian bishops, which provided: ''“The solemn declaration of the Austrian bishops ... was clearly not intended to be an approval of something that was not and is not compatible with God's law”''. The Vatican newspaper also reported that the bishops' earlier statement had been issued without the approval from Rome.
Robert Kauer, President of the [[Protestants]] in Austria, greeted Hitler on [[13 March]] as "saviour of the 350,000 German Protestants in Austria and liberator from a five-year hardship." Even [[Karl Renner]], the most famous Social Democrat of the First Republic announced his support for the Anschluss and appealed to all Austrians to vote in favour of it on [[10 April]].{{ref|wienerzeitung_c}}
The international response to the expansion of Germany may be described as ''moderate''. ''[[The Times]]'' commented that 200 years ago Scotland had joined England as well and that this event would not really differ much. On [[14 March]] the [[British Prime Minister]] [[Neville Chamberlain]] noted in the [[House of Commons]]:
[[Image:Neville Chamberlain2.jpg|thumb|right|220px|British [[appeasement]] policy led to the [[Treaty of Munich]], the next major step for [[Hitler]] to create an all-German Reich]]
<blockquote>
His Majesty's Government have throughout been in the closest touch with the situation. The Foreign Secretary saw the German Foreign Minister on the 10th&nbsp;of March and addressed to him a grave warning on the Austrian situation and upon what appeared to be the policy of the German Government in regard to it. . . . Late on the 11th&nbsp;of March our Ambassador in Berlin registered a protest in strong terms with the German Government against such use of coercion, backed by force, against an independent State in order to create a situation incompatible with its national independence.
</blockquote>
However the speech concluded:
<blockquote>I imagine that according to the temperament of the individual the events which are in our minds to-day will be the cause of regret, of sorrow, perhaps of indignation. They cannot be regarded by His Majesty's Government with indifference or equanimity. They are bound to have effects which cannot yet be measured. The immediate result must be to intensify the sense of uncertainty and insecurity in Europe. Unfortunately, while the policy of appeasement would lead to a relaxation of the economic pressure under which many countries are suffering to-day, what has just occurred must inevitably retard economic recovery and, indeed, increased care will be required to ensure that marked deterioration does not set in. This is not a moment for hasty decisions or for careless words. We must consider the new situation quickly, but with cool judgement... As regards our defence programmes, we have always made it clear that they were flexible and that they would have to be reviewed from time to time in the light of any development in the international situation. It would be idle to pretend that recent events do not constitute a change of the kind that we had in mind. Accordingly we have decided to make a fresh review, and in due course we shall announce what further steps we may think it necessary to take. {{ref|speech}}</blockquote>
The lenient reaction to the Anschluss was the first major consequence of the strictly followed [[appeasement]] British foreign policy strategy. The international reaction on the events of [[March 12]]th 1938 led Hitler to conclude that he could use even more aggressive tactics in his ''roadmap'' to expand the [[Third Reich]], as he would later in annexing the [[Sudetenland]]. The relatively bloodless Anschluss helped pave the way for the [[Treaty of Munich]] in September 1938 and the annexation of [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939, because it reinforced [[appeasement]] as the right way for Britain to deal with Hitler's [[Germany]].
==Legacy of the 1938 Anschluss==
===The Anschluss: annexation or union?===
Some historical sources, for instance [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] and the [[Encarta|Encarta Encyclopedia]] describe the Anschluss as an "annexation" {{ref|encarta_sidebar}}. Outside this context "Anschluss" is properly translated as "join", "connection", "[[unification]]" or "political union". The German word "Annektierung" would mean military annexation unambiguously. However, the word commonly used in German for the process of spring 1938 is ''Anschluss''.
The precise character of the Anschluss remains a difficulty essential to Austria's understanding of its history and the obligations it entails.
===The appeal of Nazism to Austrians===
The Anschluss can be misunderstood as ''simply'' a military annexation of an unwilling Austria, but this lends itself to confusion with other German military occupations of European countries. It also tends to conceal the culpability of many Austrians in Nazi crimes, most of all the [[Holocaust]], by perpetuating the myth of Austria as the first victim of Hitler's expansionism. Despite the subversion of Austrian political process by Hitler's sympathisers and associates in Austria, Austrian acceptance of direct government by Hitler's Berlin is a very different phenomenon from the administration of other collaborationist countries.
With the break-up of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian monarchy]] in 1918, popular opinion was for unification with Germany, in realization of the [[Grossdeutschland]] concept- this however was forbidden by the [[Treaty of St. Germain]], to which the newly formed Austrian republic was obliged. This was in stark contrast to the general concept of [[self-determination]] which governed the [[Treaty of Versailles|Versailles talks]], as was the inclusion of the [[Sudetenland]], a German-populated area of the former Austro-Hungarian province of [[Bohemia]] (whose population favoured joining German-speaking Austria), in the newly formed [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] republic, giving rise to [[revisionism|revisionist]] sentiment. This laid the grounds for the general willingness of the populations of both Austria and the Sudetenland for inclusion into the [[Third Reich]], as well as the relative acceptance of the Western Governments, who made little protest until March 1939, when the [[irredentism|irredentist]] argument lost its value following the annexation of the rest of Czech-speaking Bohemia, as well as Moravia and Czech Silesia.
[[Image:Grossdeutschland.jpg|thumb|right|Nazi propaganda poster]]
The small Republic of Austria was seen by many of its citizens as economically unviable, a feeling that was exacerbated by the [[Great Depression|Depression]] of the 1930s. In contrast the Nazi dictatorship appeared to have found a solution to the economic crisis of the 1930s. Furthermore, the break-up had thrown Austria into a crisis of identity, and many Austrians, of both the left and the right, felt that Austria should be part of a larger German nation.
Politically, Austria had not had the time to develop a strongly democratic society to resist the onslaught of [[totalitarianism]]. The final version of the First Republic's constitution had only lasted from 1929 to 1933. The [[First Republic]] was ridden by violent strife between the different political camps; the [[Christian Social Party]] were complicit in the murder of large numbers of adherents of the decidedly left-wing [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Party]] by the police during the [[July Revolt of 1927]]. In fact, with the end |
ersion (optics)|dispersion]] of visible light. This strong ability to split white light into its component colors is an important aspect of diamond's attraction as a gemstone, giving it impressive [[prism (optics)|prismatic]] action that results in so-called ''fire'' in a well-cut stone. The [[luster]] of a diamond, a characterization of how light interacts with the surface of a crystal, is brilliant and is described as ''adamantine'', which simply means diamond-like. This is owed to their high [[refractive index]] of 2.417 (at 589.3 [[1 E-9 m|nm]]), which causes [[total internal reflection]] to occur. Some diamonds exhibit [[fluorescence]] of various colors (predominately blue) under long wave [[ultraviolet light]]. Nearly all diamonds fluoresce bluish-white, yellow or green under [[X-ray|X-rays]] and this property is used extensively in mining to separate the fluorescing diamond from the non-fluorescing rock. Most diamonds show no fluorescence although colored diamonds show a wider range of fluorescence than the blue fluorescence normally observed in clear diamonds
====Electrical properties====
Except for most [[blue]] diamonds, which are [[semiconductor]]s, diamonds are good electrical [[insulator]]s. Blue diamonds owe their semiconductive property to [[boron]] impurities, which act as a [[doping (semiconductors)|doping agent]] and cause [[p-type semiconductor]] behavior. Blue diamonds which are not boron-doped, such as those recently recovered from the [[Argyle diamond mine]] in [[Australia]] that owe their color to an overabundance of [[hydrogen]] atoms, are not semiconductors.
====Thermal properties====
Unlike most electrical insulators, diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding within the crystal. Most natural blue diamonds contain [[boron]] atoms which replace carbon atoms in the crystal matrix, and also have high thermal conductivity. Specially purified synthetic diamond has the highest [[thermal conductivity]] (2000&ndash;2500 W/(m&middot;K), five times more than copper) of any known solid at room temperature. Because diamond has such high thermal conductance it is already used in semiconductor manufacture to prevent silicon and other semiconducting materials from overheating.
===Media===
[[Image:Diamond_Cubic-F_lattice_animation.gif|frame|right|Diamond, Cubic-F lattice, with a motif of C (0,0,0) and C (1/4,1/4,1/4).]]
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Diamond animation.ogg |
title = Rotating diamond animation |
description = Animation of a rotating diamond structure (0:12, 3.98 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Diamond stereo animation.ogg |
title = Rotating stereo animation |
description = [[Stereogram]] of a rotating diamond structure (0:12, 3.74 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
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{{multi-video end}}
==Natural history==
===Formation===
Diamond is formed by prolonged exposure of carbon bearing materials to high [[pressure]] and [[temperature]]. On [[Earth]], the formation of diamonds is possible because there are regions deep within the Earth that are at a high enough pressure and temperature that the formation of diamonds is [[thermodynamics|thermodynamically]] favorable (see the diamond [[phase diagram]] and [[geotherm]]s [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/diamonds/formation.html here]). Under [[continental crust]], diamonds form starting at depths of about 150 kilometers (90 miles), where pressure is roughly 5 [[pascal|gigapascal]]s and the temperature is around 1200 degrees Celsius (2200 degrees Fahrenheit). Diamond formation under [[oceanic crust]] takes place at greater depths because of higher temperatures, which require higher pressure for diamond formation. Long periods of exposure to these high pressures and temperatures allow diamond crystals to grow larger.
[[Image:Rough diamond.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The slightly misshapen octahedral shape of this rough diamond crystal in matrix is typical of the mineral. Its lustrous faces also indicate that this crystal is from a primary deposit.]]
Through studies of carbon [[isotope]] ratios (similar to the methodology used in [[carbon dating]]) except using the stable isotopes C-12 and C-13, it has been shown that the carbon found in diamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds, known as ''[[Peridotite|harzburgitic]]'', are formed from inorganic carbon originally found deep in the Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]]. In contrast, ''[[eclogite|eclogitic]]'' diamonds contain organic carbon from organic [[detritus]] that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth's [[crust (geology)|crust]] through [[subduction]] (see [[plate tectonics]]) before transforming into diamond. These two different source carbons have measurably different <sup>13</sup>C:<sup>12</sup>C ratios. Diamonds that have come to the Earth's surface are generally very old, ranging from under 1 [[billion]] to 3.3 billion years old.
Diamonds occur most often as [[euhedral]] or rounded [[octahedron|octahedra]] and [[Crystal twinning|twinned]] octahedra known as ''macles''. As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many [[facet]]s that belong to a [[Cube (geometry)|cube]], [[octahedron]], [[rhombicosidodecahedron]], [[tetrakis hexahedron]] or [[disdyakis dodecahedron]]. The crystals can have rounded off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Sometimes they are found grown together or form double "twinned" crystals grown together at the surfaces of the octahedron. This is all due to the conditions in which they form. Diamonds (especially those from secondary deposits) are commonly found coated in ''nyf'', an opaque gum-like skin.
Diamonds can also form in other natural high-pressure, high-temperature events. Very small diamonds, known as ''microdiamonds'' or ''nanodiamonds'', have been found in [[impact crater]]s where [[meteor]]s strike the Earth and create shock zones of high pressure and temperature where diamond formation can occur. Microdiamonds are now used as one indicator of ancient [[meteorite]] impact sites.
=== Surfacing ===
[[Image:VolcanicPipe.jpg|right|thumb|float|220px|Schematic diagram of a volcanic pipe]]
Diamond-bearing rock is forced close to the surface through deep-origin [[volcano|volcanic]] eruptions. The [[magma]] for such a volcano must originate at a depth where diamonds can be formed, 90 miles (150 km) deep or more (three times or more the depth of source magma for most volcanoes); this is a relatively rare occurrence. Below these typically small surface volcanic craters are formations known as [[volcanic pipe]]s, which contain material that was pushed toward the surface of the earth by volcanic action, but did not erupt before the volcanic activity ceased. Diamond-bearing volcanic pipes are most commonly found in the oldest regions of continental crust, which relates to the fact that these areas are the coolest portions of the earth's crust, and therefore diamonds can form at the shallowest depths.
The magma in such volcanic pipes is usually one of two characteristic types, which cool into [[igneous rock]] known as either [[kimberlite]] or [[lamproite]]. The magma itself does not contain diamond; instead, it acts as an elevator that carries deep-formed rocks and material upward. These rocks are characteristically rich in [[magnesium]] bearing [[olivine]], [[pyroxene]], and [[amphibole]] minerals which are usually altered to [[serpentine]] under near surface conditions. Certain ''indicator minerals'' typically occur within diamondiferous kimberlites and are used as mineralogic tracers in the search for diamond deposits by prospectors. These minerals are rich in [[chromium]] (Cr) or [[titanium]] (Ti), elements which impart bright colors to the minerals. The most common indicator minerals are chromian [[garnet]]s (usually bright red Cr-[[pyrope]], and occasionally green [[ugrandite]]-series garnets), eclogitic garnets, orange Ti-pyrope, red high chromian [[spinel]]s, dark [[chromite]], bright green
Cr-[[diopside]], glassy green [[olivine]], black [[ilmenite|picroilmenite]], and [[magnetite]]. Kimberlite deposits are known as ''blue ground'' for the deeper serpentinized part of the deposits, or as ''yellow ground'' for the near surface [[smectite]] [[clay]] and carbonate [[weathering|weathered]] and [[oxidation|oxidized]] portion.
Once diamonds have been forced to the surface by magma in a volcanic pipe, they may [[erosion|erode]] out and be distributed over a large area. A volcanic pipe containing diamonds is known as a ''primary source'' of diamonds. ''Secondary sources'' of diamonds include all areas where a significant number of diamonds, eroded out of their kimberlite or lamproite matrix, accumulate because of water or weather action. These include [[alluvium|alluvial]] deposits and deposits along existing and ancient shorelines, where loose diamonds tend to accumulate because of their approximate size and density. Diamonds have also rarely been found in deposits left behind by [[glacier]]s (notably in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Indiana]]); however, in contrast to alluvial deposits, glacial deposits are not known to be of significant concentration and are therefore not viable commercial sources of diamond.
Diamonds can also be brought to the surface through certain processes which may occur when two continental plates collide forcefully, although this phenomenon is less understood and currently assumed to be uncommon.
==Gemological characteristics==
The use of diamonds as gemstones of decorative value is the most familiar use to most people today, and is also the earliest use, with decorative use of diamonds stretching back into antiquity. The dispersion of white light into a rainbow of colors, known in the trade as ''fire'', |
ory:British comedy writers|Adams, Douglas]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drum and bass</title>
<id>8092</id>
<revision>
<id>42092450</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:54:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Frantik</username>
<id>587611</id>
</contributor>
<comment>expanded on early history of dnb, gave examples of records.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{genrebox|name=[[Drum and bass]]
|color=silver
|bgcolor=black
|stylistic_origins=[[Breakbeat hardcore]], [[Techno music|Techno]], [[Hip-hop]], [[Reggae]]/[[Ragga]], [[Dancehall]]/[[Dub (music)|Dub]], [[Funk]], [[Breakbeat]]
|cultural_origins=early/mid-1990s, [[London]], [[Bristol]]
|instruments=[[Synthesizer]] - [[Drum machine]] - [[Music sequencer|Sequencer]] - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboard]] - [[Sampler (musical instrument)|Sampler]] - [[Laptop]]
|popularity=Small, largely based in [[United Kingdom|UK]] at first, now global
|derivatives=
|subgenrelist=List of electronic music genres
|subgenres=[[Clownstep]] - [[Darkstep]] - [[Drumfunk]] - [[Hardstep]] - [[Intelligent drum and bass]] - [[Jump-Up]] - [[Jungle music|Jungle]] - [[Liquid funk]] - [[Neurofunk]] - [[Techmospheric]] - [[Techstep]] - [[Wobble]]
|fusiongenres=[[Breakcore]] - [[Breakstep]] - [[Dubstep]] - [[Techbreaks music|Techbreaks]] - [[Jazzstep]]
|regional_scenes=
|other_topics=[[List of jungle and drum n bass artists|Drum and bass artists]], [[List of jungle and drum n bass record labels|Drum and bass record labels]]
}}
'''Drum and bass''' (commonly abbreviated '''dnb''') is a type of [[electronic dance music]] also known as '''jungle'''.
It began as an offshoot of the [[United Kingdom]] [[breakbeat hardcore]] and [[rave]] scene and came into existence in the early 1990s. Over the first decade of its existence, drum and bass saw many permutations in style, incorporating everything from [[reggae]] and [[jazz]] to [[techno]] and [[trance]]. Today it is usually heard in [[nightclubs]] and its most recognizable features include a heavy emphasis on fast tempo drums in addition to loud intricate [[bassline]]s.
==History==
===Beginnings in the UK===
Drum and bass has its origins in breakbeat hardcore, a part of the UK rave scene. Hardcore DJ typically played their records at fast tempos, and breakbeat hardcore emphasised breakbeats over the [[4-to-the-floor]] beat structure common to [[house music]]. Breakbeat harcore records (commonly called 'tunes' within the community) Lennie De Ice's "We are I.E" ([[1991]]) and LTJ Bukem's ''Demon's Theme'' (1991) are generally credited [http://www.discogs.com/release/156749] as being among the first to have a recognizable drum and bass sound.
Most hardcore tracks at the time were extremely light and upbeat; the most extreme example of this was the so called "toy-town" track such as Smart E's' ''Sesame's Treat'' which features the children's show ''[[Sesame Street]]'' theme song. This style of hardcore would many years later be known as [[happy hardcore]].
In response to these lighter tracks, some producers started focusing on darker, more aggressive sounds; this style became known as [[darkcore]]. Strange noises and effects, syncopated rhythms made from rearranged funk [[breaks]] and loud bass lines defined the genre. Examples of darkcore include [[Goldie]]'s '''Terminator''' (1992) and Nasty Habits' (aka [[Doc Scott]]) ''Here Comes the Drumz'' (1992).
This darker, more aggressive sound appealed to many in the [[dancehall]] and raggae communities. Both darkcore and dancehall shared an emphasis on rhythm and bass, and the tempos were well suited to be mixed together. Soon many elements of dancehall raggae were being incorporated into the hardcore sound.
Whilst it has been suggested that it was the dancehall-aware black youth of Britain who fueled the drum and bass scene in the early days, this is not entirely true as there was substanial white following in northern British cities. The drum and bass [[subculture]] today has retained this racial diversity.
The influence of Jamaican sound-system culture can be found in the use of basslines and remixing techniques derived from [[Dub]] and [[Reggae]] music, alongside the fast breakbeats and samples derived from urban musics such as [[hip-hop]], [[Funk]], [[jazz]], and [[r&b]] alongside many production techniques borrowed from early electronic music such as [[house]], and [[techno]].
As the genre aged, the use of sampled funk breakbeats became increasingly complex (most notably and wide spread is the [[Amen break]] taken from a b-side funk track "Amen, My Brother" by the Winston Brothers) producers began cutting apart loops and using the component drum sounds to create new rhythms. To match the complex drum lines, basslines which had less in common with the simple patterns of house and techno music than with the complex phrasings of dub and hip-hop began to be used. Gradually, the bass and drum elements began to dominate to the music and -- combined with the liberal use of 32nd notes and abstract time signatures -- drum and bass became incompatible with house and techno and began to develop its own separate identity. This sonic identity became highly-distinctive for both the depth of its bass and the increasingly-complex, rapid-fire breakbeat percussion. Vastly different rhythmic patterns were distinctively being used, as well as new types of sampling, synthesis and effects processing techiniques, resulting in a greater focus on the intricacies of sampling/synthesis production and rhythm. This notably included early use of the [[Time stretching]] effect which was often used on percussion or vocal samples. As the influences of reggae and dub became more prominent, the sound of drum and bass began to take on an urban sound which was heavily influenced by ragga and dancehall music as well as hip-hop, often incorporating the distinctive vocal styles of these musical genres. This raggae/dancehall influenced sound is most commonly associated with the term jungle.
However, as the early nineties saw drum and bass break out from its underground roots and begin to win popularity with the general British public, many producers attempted to expand the influences of the music beyond the domination of ragga-based sounds. By 1995, a counter movement to the ragga style was emerging, dubbed "[[intelligent drum and bass|intelligent]]" drum and bass by the music press, and embodied by producers such as [[LTJ Bukem]] and his [[Good Looking Organisation|Good Looking]] label. Some say that the move to intelligent drum and bass was a conscious and concerted reaction by top DJs and producers against a culture that was becoming tinged with "gangsta" and violent elements, and stereotyped with the recognizable production techniques of the ragga-influenced producers. Intelligent drum and bass maintained the uptempo breakbeat percussion, but focused on more atmospheric sounds and warm, deep basslines over vocals or samples which often originated from [[Soul music|Soul]] or [[Jazz]] music. From this period on, drum and bass would maintain the unity of a relatively-small musical culture, but one characterised by a competing group of stylistic influences. Although many DJs have specialised in distinctive sub-genres within jungle and drum and bass, the majority of artists within the genre remain connected via record labels, events and radio shows.
Jungle being a specific musical culture, has also resulted in the appearance of [[junglist]] [[subculture]], which, while not nearly as distinctive, alienated, ideological or obvious as other youth subcultures, and having many similarities with hip-hop styles and behaviour, does function distinctively within the drum & bass listening community.
====Early pioneers====
Pioneers such as Bizzy B, [[Remarc]], Krome & Time, [[Technical Itch]], [[Fabio (DJ)|Fabio]], [[DJ Hype]], [[Grooverider]], [[L Double]], [[Andy C]], [[Roni Size]], [[DJ SS]], [[Brockie]], [[Aphrodite (artist)|Aphrodite]], [[Ray Keith]], [[Kenny Ken]], [[Goldie]], [[Jonny Waines]], [[LTJ Bukem]], [[Omni Trio]] and other DJs quickly became the stars of the genre. Other early artists include [[A Guy Called Gerald]] (seminal track "28 Gun Bad Boy") and [[4hero]] ("Mr Kirk's Nightmare") who later developed own styles, leaving the drum and bass mainstream. However, many of the early producers and DJs still produce and play in today's scene, forming something of a jungle 'old guard'.
===Jungle to drum and bass===
The phrase "drum and bass" had been used for years previously in the London soul and funk pirate radio scenes (and was even |
geologist (b. [[1809]])
*[[1935]] - [[Kurt Tucholsky]], German journalist and satirist (b. [[1890]])
*[[1937]] - [[Frank B. Kellogg]], [[United States Secretary of State]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1856]])
*[[1940]] - [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]], American writer (b. [[1896]])
*[[1945]] - [[George S. Patton]], U.S. general (b. [[1885]])
*[[1957]] - [[Eric Coates]], English composer (b. [[1886]])
*[[1958]] - [[Lion Feuchtwanger]], German writer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1983]] - [[Paul de Man]], Belgian-born literary critic (b. [[1919]])
*[[1988]] - [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]], Dutch ornithologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1907]])
*[[1992]] - [[Albert King]], American musician (b. [[1924]])
* 1992 - [[Nathan Milstein]], Ukrainian violinist (b. [[1903]])
*[[2001]] - [[Dick Schaap]], American sports journalist (b. [[1931]])
*[[2004]] - [[Autar Singh Paintal]], Indian medical scientist (b. [[1925]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Roman festivals]] - [[Divalia]] in hounour of [[Angerona]]
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - Saint [[Petrus Canisius]] ; formerly feast day of [[Thomas (apostle)|Thomas the apostle]]
* Also see [[December 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
* [[USA]] - Forefathers' Day: commemoration of the landing of the Mayflower in [[1620]] on this date in the Gregorian calendar ([[11 December]] Old Style)
* The [[summer solstice]] (Southern Hemisphere) or [[winter solstice]] (Northern Hemisphere), sometimes known as ''[[Yule]]'', occurs on or very close to this date. It is an important festival in the [[Chinese calendar]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/21 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/21 Today in History: December 21]
----
[[December 20]] - [[December 22]] - [[November 21]] - [[January 21]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:21 Desember]]
[[ar:21 ديسمبر]]
[[an:21 d'abiento]]
[[ast:21 d'avientu]]
[[bg:21 декември]]
[[be:21 сьнежня]]
[[bs:21. decembar]]
[[ca:21 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 21]]
[[cv:Раштав, 21]]
[[co:21 di decembre]]
[[cs:21. prosinec]]
[[cy:21 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:21. december]]
[[de:21. Dezember]]
[[et:21. detsember]]
[[el:21 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:21 de diciembre]]
[[eo:21-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 21]]
[[fo:21. desember]]
[[fr:21 décembre]]
[[fy:21 desimber]]
[[ga:21 Nollaig]]
[[gl:21 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 21일]]
[[hr:21. prosinca]]
[[io:21 di decembro]]
[[id:21 Desember]]
[[ia:21 de decembre]]
[[is:21. desember]]
[[it:21 dicembre]]
[[he:21 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:21 Desember]]
[[ka:21 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:21 gòdnika]]
[[ku:21'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:21 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 21]]
[[lb:21. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 21]]
[[mk:21 декември]]
[[ms:21 Disember]]
[[nap:21 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:21 december]]
[[ja:12月21日]]
[[no:21. desember]]
[[nn:21. desember]]
[[oc:21 de decembre]]
[[pl:21 grudnia]]
[[pt:21 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:21 decembrie]]
[[ru:21 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 21.]]
[[sco:21 December]]
[[sq:21 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:21 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 21]]
[[sk:21. december]]
[[sl:21. december]]
[[sr:21. децембар]]
[[fi:21. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:21 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 21]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 21]]
[[tt:21. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 21]]
[[th:21 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:21 tháng 12]]
[[tr:21 Aralık]]
[[uk:21 грудня]]
[[wa:21 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 21]]
[[zh:12月21日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 21]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 14</title>
<id>8851</id>
<revision>
<id>42133608</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:13:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.138.229.246</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''December 14''' is the 348th day of the year (349th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are seventeen days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[867]] - [[Pope Adrian II|Adrian II]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[872]] - [[Pope John VIII|John VIII]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1287]] - [[St. Lucia's flood]]: The [[Zuider Zee]] sea wall in the [[Netherlands]] collapses, killing over 50,000 people.
*[[1542]] - Princess Mary Stuart becomes Queen [[Mary I of Scotland]].
*[[1769]] - [[Dartmouth College]] is chartered by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] of [[England]].
*[[1819]] - [[Alabama]] becomes the 22nd [[U.S. state]].
*[[1896]] - The [[Glasgow Subway|Glasgow Underground Railway]] is opened by the Glasgow District Subway Company.
*[[1900]] - [[Quantum Mechanics]]: [[Max Planck]] presents a theoretical derivation of his [[Planck's law of black body radiation|black-body radiation law]].
*[[1902]] - The [[Commercial Pacific Cable Company]] lays the first [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] cable, from [[Ocean Beach, San Francisco]] to [[Honolulu, Hawaii]].
*[[1911]] - [[Roald Amundsen]]'s team, comprising himself, [[Olav Bjaaland]], [[Helmer Hanssen]], [[Sverre Hassel]], and [[Oscar Wisting]], becomes the first to reach the [[South Pole]].
*[[1918]] - [[Friedrich Karl von Hessen]], a [[Germany|German]] prince elected by the [[Parliament of Finland]] to become King [[Väinö I of Finland|Väinö I]], renounces the [[List of Finnish rulers|Finnish throne]].
*[[1939]] - [[Winter War]]: The [[Soviet Union]] is expelled from the [[League of Nations]].
*[[1946]] - The [[UN General Assembly]] votes to establish its headquarters in [[New York City]].
*[[1947]] - The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing ([[NASCAR]]) is founded in [[Daytona Beach, Florida]].
*[[1958]] - The 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition becomes the first-ever to reach [[South Pole|The Pole of Relative Inaccessibility]] in the [[Antarctic]].
*[[1959]] - The ''[[Motown]]'' [[record label]] is founded in [[Detroit, Michigan]] by [[Berry Gordy]].
*[[1962]] - [[NASA]]'s ''[[Mariner 2]]'' becomes the first [[spacecraft]] to fly by [[Venus (planet)|Venus]].
*1962 - The ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' is assessed at [[United States dollar|US$]]100 million, the [[List of most expensive paintings|highest insurance valuance for a painting]] in history.
*[[1964]] - [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]]: ''[[Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States]]'' - The [[United States Supreme Court]] rules that the [[U.S. Congress]] can use its [[Commerce Clause]] power to fight discrimination.
*[[1977]] - Releasing of [[Saturday Night Fever]] film.
*[[1981]] - [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]: [[Israel]]'s [[Knesset]] passes ''The Golan Heights Law'', extending Israeli law to the area of the [[Golan Heights]].
*[[1989]] - [[Patricio Aylwin]] is elected [[President of Chile]].
*[[1995]] - [[Yugoslav Wars]]: The [[Dayton Agreement]] is signed in [[Paris]] by [[President of Serbia|President]] [[Slobodan Milošević]], [[President of Croatia|President]] [[Franjo Tuđman]], [[President of Bosnia and Herzegovina|President]] [[Alija Izetbegović]], [[President of the French Republic|President]] [[Jacques Chirac]], [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[John Major]], [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] [[Helmut Kohl]] and [[Prime Minister of Russia|Prime Minister]] [[Viktor Chernomyrdin]].
*[[1999]] - [[Charles M. Schulz]], creator of the [[comic strip]] ''[[Peanuts]]'', announces his retirement.
*[[2000]] - The "[[Texas 7]]" rob a [[Radio Shack]] store in [[Pearland, Texas]], stealing police [[radio scanner]]s.
*[[2003]] - The [[La Fenice]] [[opera house]] in [[Venice, Italy]], rebuilt following [[arson]], is reopened.
*2003 - [[President of Pakistan]] [[Pervez Musharaf]] narrowly escaped an assassination attempt.
*[[2004]] - The [[Millau viaduct]], the highest bridge in the world, spanning the valley of the [[River Tarn]] near [[Millau]], [[France]] and designed by British architect [[Lord Foster]] in collaboration with French bridge engineer [[Michel Virlogeux]], is officially opened.
*[[2005]] - The [[Road and Transport Authority]] of [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]] starts to issue [[NSW Photo Card]].
==Births==
*[[1009]] - [[Emperor Go-Suzaku]] of Japan (d. [[1045]])
*[[1503]] - [[Nostradamus]], French astrologer and mathematician (d. [[1566]])
*[[1546]] - [[Tycho Brahe]], Danish astronomer (d. [[1601]])
*[[1625]] - [[Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville]], French orientalist (d. [[1695]])
*[[1631]] - [[Anne Conway, Viscountess Conway]], English philosopher (d. [[1679]])
*[[1640]] - (baptism date) - [[Aphra Behn]], playwright and novelist (d. [[1689]])
*[[1678]] - [[Daniel Neal]], English historian (d. [[1743]])
*[[1720]] - [[Justus Möser]], German statesman (d. [[1794]])
*[[1775]] - [[Philander Chase]], American founder of Kenyon College (d. [[1852]])
*1775 - [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald]], British admiral (d. [[1860]])
*[[1824]] - [[Pierre Puvis de Chavannes]], French painter (d. [[1898]])
*[[1866]] - [[Roger Fry]], British artist and art critic (d. [[1934]])
*[[1870]] - [[Karl Renner]], [[President of Austria]] (d. [[1950]])
*[[1884]] - [[Jane Cowl]], American actress and playwright (d. [[1950]])
*[[1895]] - [[Paul Eluard]], French poet (d. [[1952]])
*1895 - King [[George VI of the United Kingdom]] (Albert Frederick Arthur George Windsor) (d. [[1952]])
*[[1896]] - [[Jimmy Doolittle]], American General (d. [[1993]])
*[[1897]] - [[Margaret Chase Smith]], American politician (d. [[1995]])
*[[1902]] - [[Frances Bavier]], American actress (d. [[1989]])
*[[1908]] - [[Morey Amsterdam]], American comedian and actor (d. [[1996]])
*[[1909]] - [[Edward Tatum]], American geneticist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1975]])
*[[1911]] - [[Spike Jones]], American comedian and musician (d. [[1965]])
*[[1913]] - [[Dan Dailey]], American actor (d. [[1978]])
*[[1914]] - [[Karl Carstens]], [[President of Germany]] (d. [[1992]])
*1914 - [[Rosalyn Tureck]], American pianist and harpsichordist (d. [[2003]])
*[[1918]] - [[James T. Aubrey]], American television executive |
ts]]" from other Trotskyists, which are loathe to do the same.
==Cold War years==
As the Soviet Union won important allies by victory in the [[World War II|Second World War]] in Eastern Europe, communism as a movement spread to a number of new countries, and gave rise to a few different branches of its own, such as [[Maoism]].
Communism had been vastly strengthened by the winning of many new nations into the sphere of Soviet influence and strength in Eastern Europe. Governments modeled on Soviet Communism took power with Soviet assistance in [[Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[East Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Hungary]] and [[Romania]]. A Communist government was also created under [[Joseph Tito|Marshal Tito]] in [[Yugoslavia]], but Tito's independent policies led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the [[Cominform]], which had replaced the [[Comintern]], and [[Titoism]], a new branch in the world communist movement, was labeled "[[deviationism|deviationist]]." [[Albania]] also became an independent Communist nation after World War II.
By [[1950]] the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communists]] held all of China except [[Taiwan]], thus controlling the most populous nation in the world. Other areas where rising Communist strength provoked dissension and in some cases actual fighting include [[Laos]], many nations of the Middle East and Africa, and, especially, [[Vietnam]] (''see'' [[Vietnam War]]). With varying degrees of success, Communists attempted to unite with nationalist and socialist forces against what they saw as Western imperialism in these poor countries.
===Maoism===
{{main|Maoism}}
After the death of Stalin in [[1953]], the Soviet Union's new leader, Nikita Khrushchev, denounced Stalin's crimes and his [[cult of personality]]. He called for a return to the principles of Lenin, thus presaging some change in Communist methods. However, Khrushchev's reforms heightened ideological differences between China and the Soviet Union, which became increasingly apparent in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. As the [[Sino-Soviet Split]] in the international Communist movement turned toward open hostility, Maoist China portrayed itself as a leader of the underdeveloped world against the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, with [[Maoism]] gaining recognition worldwide as a new branch of Marxism.
==Communism after the collapse of the Soviet Union==
In 1985, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became leader of the Soviet Union and relaxed central control, in accordance with reform policies of [[glasnost]] (openness) and [[perestroika]] (restructuring). The Soviet Union did not intervene as [[Poland]], [[East Germany]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], and [[Hungary]] all abandoned Communist rule by [[1990]]. In [[1991]], the Soviet Union itself dissolved.
By the beginning of the [[21st century]], states under control by Communist parties under a single-party system include the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Cuba]], [[Laos]], [[North Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. President [[Vladimir Voronin]] of [[Moldova]] is a member of the [[Communist Party of Moldova]], but the country is not run under single-party rule. Communist parties, or their descendent parties, remain politically important in many European countries and throughout the Third World, particularly in [[India]].
The People's Republic of China has reassessed many aspects of the Maoist legacy; and the People's Republic of China, Laos, Vietnam, and, to a lesser degree, Cuba have reduced state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. The People's Republic of China runs [[Special Economic Zone]]s dedicated to market-oriented enterprise, free from central government control. Several other communist states have also attempted to implement market-based reforms, including Vietnam. Officially, the leadership of the People's Republic of China refers to its policies as "[[market socialism]]."
Theories within Marxism as to why communism in Eastern Europe was not achieved after socialist revolutions pointed to such elements as the pressure of external capitalist states, the relative backwardness of the societies in which the revolutions occurred, and the emergence of a bureaucratic stratum or class that arrested or diverted the transition press in its own interests. Marxist critics of the Soviet Union referred to the Soviet system, along with other Communist states, as "[[state capitalism]]," arguing that Soviet system fell far short of Marx's communist ideal. They argued that the state and party bureaucratic elite acted as a surrogate capitalist class in the heavily centralized and repressive political apparatus.
Non-Marxists, in contrast, have often applied the term to any society ruled by a Communist Party and to any party aspiring to create a society similar to such existing nation-states. In the social sciences, societies ruled by Communist Parties are distinct for their single party control and their socialist economic bases. While [[anticommunism|anticommunists]] applied the concept of "[[totalitarianism]]" to these societies, many social scientists identified possibilities for independent political activity within them, and stressed their continued evolution up to the point of the dissolution of the Soviet Union and its allies in Eastern Europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s.{{Ref|ind_ident1}}{{ref|ind_ident2}}
Today, Marxist revolutionaries are active in [[India]], [[Nepal]], and [[Colombia]].
==Criticism of communism==
:''Main article: [[Criticisms of communism]].''
A diverse array of writers and political activists have published criticism of communism, such as Soviet bloc dissidents [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] and [[Vaclav Havel]]; social theorists [[Hannah Arendt]], [[Raymond Aron]], [[Ralf Dahrendorf]], [[Seymour Martin Lipset]], and [[Karl Wittfogel]]; economists [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], and [[Milton Friedman]]; historians and other social scientists [[Robert Conquest]], [[Daniel Pipes]], and [[R. J. Rummel]], anti-communist leftists [[Ignazio Silone]], [[Saul Alinsky]], [[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]], [[Arthur Koestler]] and [[Bernard-Henri Levy]]; and philosophers [[Leszek Kołakowski]] and [[Karl Popper]] are among such critics. Some writers such as Conquest go beyond attributing large-scale human rights abuses to Communist regimes, presenting events occurring in these countries, particularly under Stalin, who rejected the form of fair treatment, as an argument against Marxism itself. Some of the critics were former Marxists, such as Wittfogel, who applied Marx's concept of "Oriental Despotism" to communist societies such as the Soviet Union, and Silone, Wright, Koestler (among other writers) who contributed essays to the book [[The God that Failed]] (the title refers not to the Christian God but Marxism itself).
There have also been more direct [[criticisms of Marxism]], such as criticisms of the [[labor theory of value]] or Marx's predictions. Nevertheless, Communist parties outside of the [[Warsaw Pact]], such as the Communist parties in Western Europe, Asia, Latin America, and Africa, differed greatly. Thus a criticism that is applicable to one such party is not necessarily applicable to another.
==Comparing "Communism" to "communism"==
According to the [[1996]] third edition of ''[[Fowler's Modern English Usage]]'', ''communism'' and derived words are written with the [[lowercase]] "c" except when they refer to a political party of that name, a member of that party, or a government led by such a party, in which case the word "Communist" is written with the [[uppercase]] "C". Thus, one may be a communist (an advocate of communism) without being a Communist (a member of a Communist Party or another similar organization).
==See also==
* [[Communist state]]
* [[Anti-communism]]
* [[Criticisms of communism]]
* [[Post-Communism]]
===Schools of communism===
<!-- [[Anarchist communism]] commented out pending dispute -->
* [[Council communism]]
* [[De Leonism]]
* [[Eurocommunism]]
* [[Hoxhaism]]
* [[Juche]]
* [[Left communism]]
* [[Luxembourgism]]
* [[Marxism]]
* [[Leninism]]
* [[Marxism-Leninism]]
* [[Maoism]]
* [[Religious communism]]
* [[Stalinism]]
* [[Titoism]]
* [[Trotskyism]]
===Organizations and people===
* [[Communist Party]]
* [[List of Communist parties]]
* [[List of Communists]]
==References==
#{{note|cromwell}} Eduard Bernstein, (1895). ''Kommunistische und demokratisch-sozialistische Strömungen während der englischen Revolution'', J.H.W. Dietz, Stuttgart. ISBN 081246303. Sources available at [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bernstein/works/1895/cromwell/]
#{{note|germanideology}} Karl Marx, (1845). ''[[The German Ideology]]'', Marx-Engels Institute, Moscow. ISBN 1573922587. Sources available at [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm]
#{{note|ind_ident1}} H. Gordon Skilling, (April 1966). "Interest Groups and Communist Politics." ''World Politics'', Volume 18, Number 3, 435-451. <!-- ISBN number needed -->
#{{note|ind_ident2}} Arch Getty, (1985). ''Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered: 1933-1938'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521335701
===Further reading===
* Fernando Claudin, ''The Communist Movement: From Comintern to Cominform'' (1975)
* [[János Kornai|Kornai, János]], ''The Socialist System. The Political Economy of Communism.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992
* [[Richard Pipes|Pipes, Richard]], "Communism", London, (2001), ISBN 0-297-64688-5
*[[Stéphane Courtois]], Werth, Panné, Paczkowski, Bartosek, Margolin, Das Schwarzbuch des Kommunismus, Unterdrückung, Verbrechen und Terror. Piper-Verlag Mai 1998, ISBN 3492040535 . [[The Black Book of Communism]]
==External links== |
over the treatment of the colonies at the hands of the crown, but was not above using his father's notoriety to enhance his own standing.
Franklin established a common law marriage with Deborah Read on [[September 1]], [[1730]]. At a time when many colonial families consisted of six or more children, Benjamin and Deborah Franklin eventually had two (in addition to raising William). The first was Francis Folger Franklin, born October 1732. In one of the most painful moments of Franklin's life, the boy died of smallpox in the fall of 1736. A daughter, Sarah Franklin, was born in 1743. She eventually married a man named Richard Bache, had seven children, and cared for her father in his old age.
Deborah's fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe, despite his repeated requests.
===Success as author===
In 1733, Franklin began to issue the famous ''[[Poor Richard's Almanac|Poor Richard's Almanac]]'' (with content both original and borrowed) on which much of his popular reputation is based. Adages from this almanac such as "A penny saved is twopence clear" (often misquoted as "A penny saved is a penny earned") and "Fish and visitors stink in three days" remain common quotations in the modern world. He sold about ten thousand copies a year.
In 1758, the year in which he ceased writing for the Almanac, he printed "Father Abraham's Sermon," one of the most famous pieces of literature produced in [[Colonial America]].
Franklin was well-known as a [[humorist]] and a collection of his humorous writings can be found in the book: "Fart Proudly: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School."
Franklin's [[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin|Autobiography]], published after his death, has become one of the classics of the genre.
===Inventions and scientific inquiries===
Franklin was a prodigious inventor. Among his many creations were the [[lightning rod]], the [[armonica]], the [[Franklin stove]], [[bifocals|bifocal glasses]], and the flexible urinary [[catheter]]. Although Franklin never patented any of his own inventions, he was a supporter of the rights of inventors and authors and was responsible for inserting into the United States Constitution the provision for limited-term patents and copyrights.
In 1743, Franklin founded the [[American Philosophical Society]] to help scientific men discuss their discoveries. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life (in between bouts of politics and money-making).
[[Image:BenFranklin Waterspout 1806.jpg|thumb|180px|right|An illustration from Franklin's paper on "[[waterspout|Water-spouts]] and Whirlwinds."]]
In 1748, he retired from printing and went into other businesses. He created a partnership with his foreman, David Hill, which provided Franklin with half of the shop's profits for 18 years. This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made discoveries that gave him a reputation with the learned throughout Europe and especially in [[France]].
These include his investigations of [[electricity]]. Franklin proposed that "vitreous" and "resinous" electricity were not different types of "electrical fluid" (as electricity was called then), but the same electrical fluid under different pressures (See [[electrical charge]]). He was the first to label them as positive and negative respectively,[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/FranklinBenjamin.html] and the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge.[http://www.physchem.co.za/Static%20Electricity/Charge.htm] In 1750, he published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a [[kite flying|kite]] in a [[storm]] that appeared capable of becoming a [[lightning]] storm. On [[May 10]], [[1752]], Thomas Francois d'Alibard of [[France]] conducted Franklin's experiment (using a 40-foot-tall iron rod instead of a kite) and extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On [[June 15]], Franklin conducted his famous kite experiment and also successfully extracted sparks from a cloud (unaware that d'Alibard had already done so, 36 days earlier). Franklin's [[experiment]] was not written up until [[Joseph Priestley]]'s 1767 ''History and Present Status of Electricity''; the evidence shows that Franklin was insulated (not in a conducting path, as he would have been in danger of [[electrocution]] in the event of a lightning strike). (Others, such as Prof. [[Georg Wilhelm Richmann]] of [[St. Petersburg, Russia]], were spectacularly electrocuted during the months following Franklin's experiment.) In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of [[ground (electricity)|electrical ground]]. If Franklin did perform this experiment, he did not do it in the way that is often described, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, (as it would have been [http://www.mos.org/sln/toe/kite.html dramatic but fatal]). Instead he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, which implied that [[lightning]] was electrical. See, for example, the 1805 painting by [[Benjamin West]] of ''[http://www.frankelec.com/west_thumb_desc.htm Benjamin Franklin drawing electricity from the sky]''.
Franklin's electrical experiments led to his invention of the [[lightning rod]]. He noted that conductors with a sharp rather than a smooth point were capably of discharging silently, and at a far greater distance. He surmised that this knowledge could be of use in protecting buildings from lightning, by attaching ''"upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground;...Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!"'' Following a series of experiments on Franklin's own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the [[University of Pennsylvania]]) and the Pennsylvania State House (later [[Independence Hall]]) in 1752.[http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-59/iss-1/p42.html]
In recognition of his work with electricity, Franklin received the [[Royal Society]]'s [[Copley Medal]] in 1753, and in 1756 he became one of the few eighteenth century Americans to be elected as a Fellow of the Society. The [[cgs]] unit of [[electric charge]] has been named after him: one ''franklin'' (Fr) is equal to one [[statcoulomb]].
On [[October 21]], [[1743]], a storm blowing from the north-east denied Franklin the opportunity of a witnessing a [[lunar eclipse]]. In correspondance with his brother, Franklin learned that the same storm had not reached [[Boston]] until ''after'' the eclipse, despite the fact that Boston is to the north-east of Philadelphia. He deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept which would have great influence in [[meteorology]].[http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/almanac/arc2003/alm03oct.htm]
Franklin noted a principle of [[refrigeration]] by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one. To understand this [[phenomenon]] more clearly Franklin conducted experiments. On one warm day in [[Cambridge]], England in 1758, Franklin and fellow scientist John Hadley experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury [[thermometer]] with [[diethyl ether|ether]] and using [[bellows]] to evaporate the ether. With each subsequent [[evaporation]], the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °F (-14 °C). Another thermometer showed the room [[temperature]] to be constant at 65 °F (18 °C). In his letter “[[Cooling by Evaporation]],” Franklin noted that “one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer’s day."
===Musical endeavors===
Franklin is known to have played the [[violin]], the [[harp]], and the [[guitar]]. He also composed music, notably a [[string quartet]] in [[Classical music era|early classical style]], and invented (a much improved version of) the [[glass harmonica]], which soon found its way to Europe.
<!-- source: http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/articles/fall%202003/Franklin.html -->
===Public life===
Franklin and several other members of a [[philosophical]] association joined their resources in 1731 and began the first [[public library]] in Philadelphia. The newly founded [[Library Company]] ordered its first books in 1732, mostly theological and educational tomes, but by 1741 the library also included works on history, geography, poetry, exploration, and [[science]]. The success of this library encouraged the opening of libraries in other American cities, and Franklin felt that this [[enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]] partly contributed to the American colonies' struggle to maintain their privileges.
In 1736 Franklin created the [[Union Fire Company]], the first volunteer [[firefighting]] company in America. In the same year he printed a new currency for [[New Jersey]] based on innovative anti-[[counterfeiting]] techniques which he had devised.
As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs. In 1743, he set forth a scheme for [[The Academy and College of Philadelphia]]. He was appointed President of the Academy in [[November 13]], [[1749]], and it opened on [[August 13]], [[1751]]. At its first [[commencement]], on [[May 17]], [[1757]], seven men graduated; six with a [[Bachelor of Arts]] and one as [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|Master of Arts]]. It was later merged with the '' |
th century BC|1830]])
*Sirukdukh (fl. c. [[18th century BC|1792]])
*Shimut-Wartash (c. [[18th century BC|1772]] – c. [[18th century BC|1770]])
'''Igehalkid Dynasty (c. 1350 – c. 1200 BC)'''
*Ige-Halki (c. [[1350s BC|1350]] – c. [[1330s BC|1330]])
*Pakhir-Ishshan (c. [[1330s BC|1330]] – c. [[1310s BC|1310]])
*Attar-Kittakh (c. [[1310s BC|1310]] – c. [[1300s BC|1300]])
*Khuman-Numena (c. [[1300s BC|1300]] – c. [[1270s BC|1275]])
*Untash-Naprisha (c. [[1270s BC|1275]] – c. [[1240s BC|1240]])
*Unpatar-Naprisha (c. [[1240s BC|1240]] – c. [[1230s BC|1235]])
*Kiddin-Khutran (c. [[1230s BC|1235]] – c. [[1210s BC|1210]])
'''Shutrukid Dynasty (c. 1205 – c. 1100 BC)'''
*Khallutush-In-Shushinak (c. [[1200s BC|1205]] – c. [[1180s BC|1185]])
*[[Shutruk-Nahhunte]] (c. [[1180s BC|1185]] – c. [[1150s BC|1155]])
*Kutir-Nahhunte III (c. [[1150s BC|1155]] – c. [[1150s BC|1150]])
*Shilkhak-In-Shushinak (c. [[1150s BC|1150]] – c. [[1120s BC|1120]])
*Khutelutush-In-Shushinak (c. [[1120s BC|1120]] – c. [[1110s BC|1110]])
*Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar (c. [[1110s BC|1110]] – ????)
'''Late Elam Dynasty (743–644)'''
*Khumbanigash I ([[743 BC|743]]–[[717 BC|717]])
*Shuttir-Nakhkhunte ([[717 BC|717]]–[[699 BC|699]])
*Khallushu ([[699 BC|699]]–[[693 BC|693]])
*Kutir-Nakhkhunte ([[693 BC|693]]–[[692 BC|692]])
*Khumma-Menanu ([[692 BC|692]]–[[689 BC|689]])
*Khumma-Khaldash I ([[689 BC|689]]–[[681 BC|681]])
*Khumma-Khaldash II ([[681 BC|681]]–[[680 BC|680]])
*Khumma-Khaldash II & Shilhak-In-Shushinak ([[680 BC|680]]–[[676 BC|676]])
*Shilhak-In-Shushinak & Urtaku ([[676 BC|676]]–[[664 BC|664)]]
*Shilhak-In-Shushinak & Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak ([[664 BC|664]]–[[653 BC|653]])
*Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Khumbanigash II ([[653 BC|653]]–[[651 BC|651]])
*Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Tammaritu ([[651 BC|651]]–[[649 BC|649]])
*Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Indabigash ([[649 BC|649]]–[[648 BC|648]])
*Indabigash ([[648 BC|648]]–[[647 BC|647]])
*Khumma-Khaldash III ([[647 BC|647]]–[[644 BC|644]])
===[[Jiroft Kingdom]], c. 2500 BC===
The recent archeological findings at [[Jiroft]] have uncovered an "independent, bronze age, civilization with its own architecture and language" that have led some archeologists to speculate it to be the remains of the lost '''[[Aratta]] Kingdom'''. [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200405/what.was.jiroft..htm 1]
==Empire of Medians and Persians==
===[[Medes|Median]] Dynasty, 728–550 BC===
*[[Deioces]], [[728 BC|728]]–[[675 BC|675]]
*[[Phraortes]], [[675 BC|675]]–[[653 BC|653]]
*[[Madius|Madius the Scythian]], [[653 BC|653]]–[[625 BC|625]]
*[[Cyaxares]], [[625 BC|625]]–[[585 BC|585]]
*[[Astyages]], [[585 BC|585]]–[[550 BC|550]]
The Medes were an Iranian people. The '''Persians''', a closely related and subject people, revolted against the [[Medes|Median empire]] during the [[6th century BC]].
===[[Achaemenid dynasty]], 550–330 BC===
*[[Achaemenes]], founder of the dynasty, king of Persia.
*[[Teispes of Anshan]], his son, king of Persia, king of Anshan, died [[640]].
<table border=1 cellpadding=5>
<tr><td colspan=2></tr>
<tr>
<th>Line of Cyrus</th>
<th>Line of Ariaramnes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> <!-- Cyrus-->
*[[Cyrus I of Anshan]], son of Teispes, king of Anshan [[640 BC|640]]–[[580 BC|580]].
*[[Cambyses I of Anshan]], his son, king of Anshan [[580 BC|580]]–[[559 BC|559]].
*[[Cyrus II of Persia|Cyrus II the Great]], his son, king of Anshan [[559 BC|559]]–[[529 BC|529]]. He conquered the Median Empire in [[550]] and established the [[Persian Empire]].
</td>
<td> <!-- Ariaramnes -->
*[[Ariaramnes of Persia]], son of Teispes, king of Persia.
*[[Arsames of Persia]], son of Ariaramnes, king of Persia until [[550]], died after [[520]].
*His son [[Hystaspes]] was Satrap of [[Parthia]] under [[Cambyses II]], [[Smerdis]] and his son [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]].
</td>
</tr>
<tr><td colspan=2></tr>
</table>
*[[Cyrus II of Persia|Cyrus II the Great]], established the [[Persian Empire]] and ruled it from [[550 BC|550]]–[[529 BC|529]].
*[[Cambyses II]], his son, ruled [[530 BC|530]]–[[522 BC|522]].
*[[Smerdis]], his alleged brother, ruled [[522 BC|522]].
*[[Darius I of Persia|Darius I the Great]], son of [[Hystaspes]], ruled [[521 BC|521]]–[[486 BC|486]].
*[[Xerxes I]], his son, ruled [[486 BC|486]]–[[465 BC|465]].
*[[Artaxerxes I|Artaxerxes I Longimanus]], his son, ruled [[464 BC|464]]–[[424 BC|424]].
*[[Xerxes II]], his son, ruled [[424 BC |424]].
*[[Sogdianus]], his half-brother, ruled [[424 BC|424]]–[[423 BC|423]].
*[[Darius II|Darius II Nothus]], his half-brother and rival, ruled [[423 BC|423]]–[[404 BC|404]].
*[[Artaxerxes II|Artaxerxes II Memnon]], his son, ruled [[404 BC|404]]–[[358 BC|358]] (see also [[Xenophon]]).
*[[Artaxerxes III|Artaxerxes III Ochus]], his son, ruled [[358 BC|358]]–[[338 BC|338]].
*[[Arses of Persia|Artaxerxes IV Arses]], his son, ruled [[338 BC|338]]–[[336 BC|336]].
*[[Darius III of Persia|Darius III Codomannus]], great-grandson of Darius II, ruled [[336 BC|336]]–[[330 BC|330]].
*Artaxerxes V [[Bessus]], a usurper who murdered Darius and continued the resistance against [[Alexander the Great]] from [[330 BC|330]]–[[329 BC|329]].
The epigraphic evidence for ancestors of [[Darius I of Persia|Darius I the Great]] is highly suspect and might have been invented by that king.
==Hellenistic rulers==
===[[Argead Dynasty]], 330–310 BC===
*[[Alexander of Macedon]] (Alexander the Great) ([[330 BC]]–[[323 BC|323]])
*[[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III Arrihadeus]] ([[323 BC]]–[[317 BC|317]])
*[[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]] ([[323 BC]]–[[310 BC|310]])
===[[Seleucid dynasty]], 305–164 BC===
*[[Seleucus I Nicator]] ([[312 BC|312]]/[[305 BC|305]]–[[281 BC|281]])
*[[Antiochus I Soter]] (co-ruler from [[291 BC|291]], ruled [[281 BC|281]]–[[261 BC|261]])
*[[Antiochus II Theos]] ([[261 BC|261]]–[[246 BC|246]])
*[[Seleucus II Callinicus]] ([[246 BC|246]]–[[225 BC|225]])
*[[Seleucus III Ceraunus]] ([[225 BC|225]]–[[223 BC|223]])
*[[Antiochus III the Great]] ([[223 BC|223]]–[[187 BC|187]])
*[[Seleucus IV Philopator]] ([[187 BC|187]]–[[175 BC|175]])
*[[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] ([[175 BC|175]]–[[164 BC|164]])
*[[Antiochus V Eupator]] ([[164 BC|164]]–[[162 BC|162]])
*[[Demetrius I Soter]] ([[162 BC|162]]–[[150 BC|150]])
*[[Alexander Balas]] ([[150 BC|150]]–[[145 BC|145]])
*[[Demetrius II Nicator]] ([[145 BC|145]]–[[139 BC|139]])
The Seleucid Dynasty gradually lost control of Persia. In [[253 BC|253]], the [[Arsacid Dynasty]] established itself in [[Parthia]]. The Parthians gradually expanded their control, until by the mid [[2nd century BC]], the Seleucids had completely lost control of Persia. There were more Seleucid rulers of Syria and, for a time, Babylonia, after Antiochus IV, but none had any effective power in Persia).
==[[Parthia|Parthian]] dynasty ([[Arsacid dynasty]]), 247 BC – AD 224==
{{Arsacid dynasty}}
There were various regional client dynasties, often with significant autonomy.
==[[Sassanid dynasty]], AD 224–651==
*[[Ardashir I of Persia|Ardashir I]], [[224]] to [[241]].
*[[Shapur I of Persia|Shapur I]], [[241]]–[[272]], starting claiming universal rule: Iran & Aniran, i.e. the rest of the world.
*[[Hormizd I of Persia|Hormizd I]], [[272]]–[[273]].
*[[Bahram I of Persia|Bahram I]], [[273]]–[[276]].
*[[Bahram II of Persia|Bahram II]], [[276]]–[[293]].
*[[Bahram III of Persia|Bahram III]] year [[293]].
*[[Narseh of Persia|Narseh]], [[293]]–[[302]].
*[[Hormizd II of Persia|Hormizd II]], [[302]]–[[310]].
*[[Shapur II of Persia|Shapur II]], [[310]]–[[379]]
*[[Ardashir II of Persia|Ardashir II]], [[379]]–[[383]].
*[[Shapur III of Persia|Shapur III]], [[383]]–[[388]].
*[[Bahram IV of Persia|Bahram IV]], [[388]]–[[399]].
*[[Yazdegerd I of Persia|Yazdegerd I]], [[399]]–[[420]].
*[[Bahram V of Persia|Bahram V]], [[420]]–[[438]].
*[[Yazdegerd II of Persia|Yazdegerd II]], [[438]]–[[457]].
*[[Hormizd III of Persia|Hormizd III]], [[457]]–[[459]].
*[[Peroz I of Persia|Peroz I]], [[457]]–[[484]].
*[[Balash of Persia|Balash]], [[484]]–[[488]].
*[[Kavadh I of Persia|Kavadh I]], [[488]]–[[531]].
**[[Djamasp of Persia|Djamasp]], [[496]]–[[498]].
*[[Khosrau I of Persia|Khosrau I]], [[531]]–[[579]].
*[[Hormizd IV of Persia|Hormizd IV]], [[579]]–[[590]].
*[[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]], [[590]]–[[628]].
**[[Bahram VI of Persia|Bahram VI]], [[590]]–[[591]].
**[[Bistam of Persia|Bistam]], [[591]]–[[592]].
**[[Hormizd V of Persia|Hormizd V]] year [[593]].
*[[Kavadh II of Persia|Kavadh II]], [[628]].
*[[Ardashir III of Persia|Ardashir III]], [[628]]–[[630]].
**[[Peroz II of Persia|Peroz II]], [[629]].
*[[Shahrbaraz of Persia|Shahrbaraz]], [[630]].
*[[Purandokht|Boran (Purandokht)]] and others, [[630]]–[[631]].
*[[Hormizd VI of Persia|Hormizd VI (or V)]], [[631]]–[[632]].
*[[Yazdegerd III of Persia|Yazdegerd III]], [[632]]–[[651]].
==Rulers after the advent of Islam in Iran==
===Arab caliphs rule===
All Persian provinces fell under The Arabic Caliphate from 661 to 867.
*[[Umayyad]] dynasty, 661–750
*[[Abbasid]] dynasty, 750–867
''divided, 867–1029''
===[[Tahirid]]s in [[Khorasan]], 821–872===
* Taher ebne Hosein ebne Mos'ab, Emir [[821]]–[[822]]
* Talhat ebne Taher, [[822]]–[[828]]
* Abdollah ebne Taher, [[828]]–[[844]]
* Taher ebne Abdollah, [[844]]–[[862]]
* Mohammad ebne Taher, [[862]]–[[872]]
===[[Alavids]], 864–928===
* Hasan ebne Zeid Hasani, Emir [[864]]–[[884]]
* Mohammad ebne Zeid, [[884]]–[[900]]
* Hasan ebne Ali Hoseini, [[913]]–[[916]]
* Hasan ebne Ghasem Hasani, [[916]]–[[928]]
===[[Ziyarid|Ziyarids]], 928–1043===
* Abolhojaj Mardavij ebne Ziyar, Emir [[928]]–[[934]]
* Abu Taher Voshmgeer ebne Ziyar, [[934]]–[[967]]
* Zahir-ol-doleh Behsotoon, [[967]]–[[976]]
* Shams ol Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos, [[976]]–[[1012]]
* Falak ol Mo'ali Manuchehr ebne Ghabus, [[1012]]–[[1031]]
* Anushiravan ebne Manuchehr, [[1031]]–[[1043]]
===[[B |
n.com]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/anaisnincafe Anais Nin Cafe discussion group]
* [http://www.geocities.com/arsenio_grilo/a_nin_1.html Delta of Venus]
* [http://www.geocities.com/arsenio_grilo/little_birds_1.html Little Birds]
* [http://www.oldkewgardens.com/ss-2-homes-0125.html Anaïs Nin]
[[Category:Women writers|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[Category:1903 births|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[Category:Diarists|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[Category:American writers|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[Category:California writers|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[da:Anaïs Nin]]
[[de:Anaïs Nin]]
[[es:Anaïs Nin]]
[[fr:Anaïs Nin]]
[[nl:Anaïs Nin]]
[[pl:Anaïs Nin]]
[[pt:Anaïs Nin]]
[[fi:Anaïs Nin]]
[[sv:Anaïs Nin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AIM</title>
<id>2920</id>
<revision>
<id>40032124</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T17:10:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RoboDick</username>
<id>815650</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''AIM''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:
* [[AOL Instant Messenger]]
* [[A I M Management Group Inc.]] ([[AIM Investments]])
* [[Abductory Inductive Mechanism]]
* [[Abrams Integrated Management]]
* [[Abridged Index Medicus]]
* [[Absorption Isotherm Measurement]]
* [[Accunet Information Manager]] ([[AT&T]])
* [[Accuracy in Media]] (news media watchdog)
* [[Acquisition Information Management]]
* [[Action Item Master]]
* [[Active Inert Missile]]
* [[Ada Interactive Monitor]] (cf. [[Ada programming language]])
* [[Active Intermodal Mapping]] (hypothesis underlying facial [[imitation]] in early infants)
* [[Adaptive Internetwork Management]] ([[Ungermann-Bass]])
* [[Adiabatic Invariance Method]] ([[ion-molecular reaction]]s)
* [[Administrators In Medicine]]
* [[AIM (Marvel)|Advanced Idea Mechanics]]
* [[Advanced Induction Motor]]
* [[Advanced Industrial Management]]
* [[Advanced Informatics in Medicine]]
* [[Advanced Information Management]]
* [[AIM 65|Advanced Interactive Microcomputer 65 (AIM 65)]] (Rockwell's [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] [[single-board computer]], based on the [[KIM-1]] design)
* [[Advanced Integrated Multiplex]]
* [[Advanced Integration Module]] ([[Cisco Systems]])
* [[Advanced Interactive Microcomputer]]
* [[Advanced Interconnect Modeling]]
* [[Advanced Invar Mask]] ([[cathode-ray tube|CRT]] display technology by [[ViewSonic]])
* [[Advanced Inventory Management]] ([[Telco Research]])
* [[Advanced Isolation Method]]s
* [[Advanced ISR Management]]
* [[Adventures In Ministry, Inc.]]
* [[Adventures In Missions]]
* [[Aerial-Intercept missile]]
* [[Aeronautical Information Manual]]
* [[Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere]], a satellite mission to observe [[noctilucent clouds]] - [http://aim.hamptonu.edu/]
* [[Africa Inland Mission]]
* [[Air Intercept Missile]] (e.g. [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]])
* [[Alternative Investment Market]] [http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/products/companyservices/ourmarkets/aim]
* [[American Indian Movement]]
* [[American Institute of Mathematics]]
* American Image Marketing
* [[AIM alliance|Apple IBM Motorola alliance]] (formed between the three companies to develop the [[PowerPC]] microprocessor architecture)
* [[Asian Institute of Management]]
* [[Arse Injection of Millman]]
* [[Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility]] [http://www.aimglobal.org/]
* [[Association of Independent Music]]
* Association of International Mercenaries
* [[Atoms in Molecules]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
----
'''See also:''' [[Aim]]
[[de:AIM]]
[[it:AIM]]
[[nl:AIM]]
[[ja:AIM]]
[[pl:AIM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AOL Instant Messanger</title>
<id>2922</id>
<revision>
<id>15901301</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AOL Instant Messenger]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AOL Instant Messenger</title>
<id>2923</id>
<revision>
<id>42000876</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:34:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mosquitopsu</username>
<id>319514</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Spyware/Adware/Viruses */ fixed name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software2|
name = AOL Instant Messenger
|logo = [[image:Aim_brand5.gif|AIM Logo]]
|screenshot = [[image:AIMlogin.PNG|AIM Triton Login Window]]
|caption =
|developer = [[America Online]]
|operating_systems = [[Windows]], [[Mac]], [[Linux]]
|genre = [[Instant Messaging|Instant Messanger]]
|license =
|website = [http://www.aim.com/ www.aim.com/]
}}
The '''AOL Instant Messenger''' ('''AIM''') is an ad-supported [[instant messaging]] and [[Presence information|presence]] [[computer program]], [[publishing|published]] by [[AOL]] in October of 1997, which uses the [[OSCAR protocol|OSCAR instant messaging protocol]] and the [[TOC protocol]]. The most recent [[Computer software|software]] versions are '''AIM Triton 1.0.4''', released on [[January 26]], [[2006]] (for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] 2000/XP), '''AIM Triton Beta 1.2.10.3''', released on [[February 14]], [[2006]] (for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] 2000/XP), '''AIM 5.9.3861''', released on [[August 10]], [[2005]] (for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] 98/ME/2000/XP), '''AIM 4.7.1333''', released on [[February 18]], [[2004]] (for [[Mac OS X]]), and '''AIM 1.5.286''', with an unknown release date (for various [[Linux]] distributions). AOL has described this technology as a means of "immediate cross-[[Internet]] [[communication]]"
==About==
AIM allows users to communicate instantly through text to their "buddies" (or bots such as [[SmarterChild]] or [[ZolaOnAOL]]) around the world, provided they have the AIM software. AIM has 195 million users (January 2003), with a large portion using [[Internet slang]]. Advocates claim that it is easy to locate these users by visiting chatrooms that AOL has set up solely for those purposes. Chat topics range from heavy metal music to current affairs. AOL also has a member directory where AIM users can locate others online who share their interests. AIM is also noteworthy for its use of [[buddy icon|buddy icons]] and [[buddy profile|buddy profiles]], allowing its users to construct a personal [[avatar (virtual reality)|avatar]] and small personal information page.
AIM's setup varies greatly from [[MSN Messenger]] in that it does not require approval from one buddy to be added to another's buddy list (MSN's default settings send a message to a user notifying them if anyone has added them and letting them choose whether or not to block that user). As a result, many users keep other unsuspecting users on their buddy list to read their profiles or see if they are online (if the said user had blocked them before), A user can block another user from all communications, but some users keep extra usernames for avoiding these blocks.
Since version 2.0, AIM has included person-to-person text messaging, chatroom messaging, and the ability to share files [[peer-to-peer]] with one's buddies. Somewhere in the 4.x series, the AIM client for [[Microsoft Windows]] added the ability to play games against one another (This uses the WildTangent engine, which is listed as adware.). Recent (4.3 and later) versions of the client software store one's contact information on AOL's servers, so one can keep track of up to 500 buddies from any computer with Internet access. Stand-alone official AIM client software is available [[gratis|for free]] for [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Linux]], [[Windows CE]], and [[Palm OS]]. It was believed that versions of AIM including and above 4.0 contained a clause in the [[software license]] that disallowed the use of third party clients, so some users still use the 3.0 series of AIM. However, the latest version of AOL Instant Messenger's software license does allow the use of third party clients, subject to the terms and conditions of that third party.
There is also a version of AIM, called AIM Express, that is implemented in [[DHTML]] and runs in a [[web browser]]. It is intended for use by people who are unable or unwilling to install an executable client on their machines but still want to use instant messaging. AIM Express supports many of the standard features included in the stand-alone client, but does not provide advanced features like file transfer, audio chat, or video conferencing.
The standard protocol that AIM clients use to communicate is called OSCAR. AIM Express uses another protocol called TOC. TOC has also been made available to the public, which some people believe is an attempt to throw a bone to third-party client developers and lure them away from OSCAR. If this is the case, it has not been entirely successful. AOL often changes the details of the OSCAR protocol, which tends to keep third-party clients from working properly. This has resulted in quite a bit of difficulty for programmers of third party clients.
[[Apple Computer]]'s [[iChat AV]] software, released in June 2003 for [[Mac OS X]], was the first AIM-compatible client to allow for audio and video conferencing over the AIM protocol. In February, 2004, AIM 5.5 was released, allowing Windows users to video conference with each other and with iChat users. Although AIM is the most feature rich official release of a mainstream instant messenger for the [[Apple Macintosh]], it lacks several features that the latest Microsoft Windows version offers.
AIM software is the first to use online video streaming advertisements, using ads from [[eyewonder]]
AOL has recently released its new client software, [[AIM Triton|Triton]]. Triton is an overhauled version of the AIM client, which has many of the features from the |
among the other three rows. More aggressive players may take up an attack with the offense and midfield, leaving the goalie unattended.
With practice, it is possible to learn very fast "set-piece" moves, including the "snake", "pull-shot" and "front-pin". The pull shot is where you position the ball near the top of the oppositions goal. Then you pull your bar, which moves the ball downwards, and you aim for the hole or corner that is no longer guarded. The snake and front-pin both involve pinning the ball, or clamping the ball with your men. That way one can sway either direction.
==Robots==
[[Robot]]s designed to play table football by roboticists at the [[University of Freiburg]] are claimed to be able to beat 85 percent of casual players. They use a camera from below a transparent table base to track the ball, and an electronic control system to control high torque motors to rotate and move the foosmen. Currently an expert player can beat the robot 10 games to 1. [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99996346]. [[Foosbot]] is another foosball robot that currently claims to have never been beaten by a human.
==Television and Film==
<small>Appearances of Foosball tables and play in feature films and television series<small>
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0082676/ Long Shot (USA, 1981)] Feature movie of a Foosball Championships starring [[1970|70's]] [[teen idol]] [[Leif Garrett]]. Also features an "over-the-top" ''("Rainbow Shot")'' foosball stunt double closeup by pro Johnny Lott
*[[Il Postino]] (1994, [[Italy]]) A female character flirts with the protagonist while playing foosball.
*[[Dazed and Confused (film)]] (1993, USA) Features a long scene in a foosball and [[billiards]] parlor.
*[[Notting Hill (film)]] (1999, USA) A stored foosball table is visible in [[Hugh Grant|Hugh Grant's]] character's flat
* [[Friends]] (USA NBC 1994-2004). <small>The show featured a Dynamo table in earlier seasons, and later a Tornado (Valley) brand table, the latter which is the standard competition table on the pro circuit in the USA. The stars of the show were also reported to play the game frequently. The foosball table is originally purchased in 1.12, "The One With The Dozen Lasagnas," when [[Joey Tribbiani|Joey]] and [[Chandler Bing|Chandler]] purchase it instead of a kitchen table, and [[Monica Geller|Monica]] beats the boys at the game. It is stolen in 4.02, and another (The Tornado with green playfield, black & yellow men, and marbled sides) is purchased by Chandler in 4.07. [http://www.friends-tv.org/faq.html#3.21 friends-tv.org's FAQ] claims a third table was used as a stunt table in 6.06, to depict a collapsed leg in the episode where Chandler fails to let Joey win at the game. The table is destroyed by Monica in the series finale, 10.18, The Last One, in order to rescue two pet fowl, Chick Jr. and Duck Jr, who were lost in the table by Joey. Other episodes that feature the table are 2.16, The One Where Joey Moves Out, and The One with the Prom Video with guest star [[Tom Selleck]].</small>
* [[Cheers]] "Achilles Hill" (Season 9, 1/10/91) [[Carla Tortelli|Carla]] believes the foosball table is possessed.
* [http://www.foosmovie.com/ Foosball Movie Documentary] In progress.
==See also==
* [[Sport]]
* [[Subbuteo]]
* [[Table hockey]]
* [[Air hockey]]
==External links==
International and national federations
*[http://www.table-soccer.org/ International Table Soccer Federation]
*[http://www.britfoos.com/ British Foosball Association]
*[http://www.francebabyfoot.com/ French table-soccer federation]
*[http://www.dtfb.de/ German table-soccer federation]
*[http://www.bordfodbold.dk/ Danish table-soccer federation]
*[http://www.vifa.com/ VIFA, the main North American federation]
General sites
*[http://pub86.ezboard.com/bfoosball6358 EZ-Board Foosball - A discussion forum on foosball frequented by tournament and recreational table soccer players]
*[http://www.fooswatch.com/ Fooswatch.com - a foosball directory, foosball playing locations worldwide]
*[http://foosworld.com/ Foosball website with tournament dates, forums, and stats]
*[http://www.foosball.com/ foosball.com, American site with rules, tricks, results]
*[http://www.foosballheaven.com/ foosballheaven.com, American site, original host of rec.sport.table-soccer usenet FAQs]
*[http://www.insidefoos.com/ Inside Foos, American site, known for sports video of pro tournaments with color commentary]
*[http://www.foosworld.com/ Foosworld serves the Ohio and Indiana foos communities]
Local leagues
*[http://www.calcetto.co.uk/ Calcetto International League]
*[http://www.warwickfoos.co.uk/ Warwick University Table football Society]
*[http://www.coloradofoosball.com/ Colorado Foosball]
*[http://www.nycfoosball.com/ New York City Foosball]
*[http://www.safoos.com/ San Antonio Foosball]
Videos
*[http://gprime.net/video.php/wickedfoosballshot "Wicked Foosball Shot"]
*{{google video|7163168983627084545|Foosball}}
*[http://www.informatik.uni-freiburg.de/~kiro/english/index.html KiRo the Foosball Robot]
*[http://www.boreme.com/boreme/funny-2004/tablefootball-skills-p1.php Extreme foosball skills with slow-motion replays]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0082676/ Long Shot (1981) Feature movie with over-the-top foosball stunt double closeup by pro Johnny Lott]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Indoor sports]]
[[Category:Tabletop games of physical skill]]
[[de:Tischfußball]]
[[es:Futbolín]]
[[fr:Baby-foot]]
[[gl:Futbolín]]
[[hr:Stolni nogomet]]
[[it:Calcio balilla]]
[[nl:Tafelvoetbal]]
[[pt:Totó]]
[[ru:Кикер]]
[[uk:Кікер]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Family law</title>
<id>10905</id>
<revision>
<id>41619042</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:39:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the television drama, please see [[Family Law]]''
{{FamilyLaw}}
'''Family law''' is an area of the [[law]] that deals with [[family|family-related]] issues and domestic relations including, but not limited to:
*the nature of [[marriage]], [[civil union]]s, and [[domestic partnership]]s;
*problems during the marriage including [[spousal abuse]], [[legitimacy (law)|legitimacy]], [[adoption]], [[child abuse]], and [[child abduction]]
*the termination of the relationship and ancillary matters including [[divorce]], [[annulment]], [[property settlement]]s, [[alimony]], and [[parental responsibility (access and custody)|parental responsibility]] orders (in the [[United States]], [[child custody]] and [[contact (law)|visitation]], [[child support]] awards).
This list is by no means dispositive of the potential issues that come through the [[family court]] system. In many [[jurisdiction|jurisdictions]] in the United States, the family [[court]]s see the most crowded [[docket|dockets]]. [[litigant|Litigants]] representative of all [[social class|social]] and [[economic class]]es are parties within the [[judicial system|system]]. Because the family courts are notoriously underfunded and see a relatively large proportion of economically dependent litigants, a common criticism levied is that the system inherently prejudices the needs of these disadvantaged parties.
For the [[Conflict of Laws]] elements dealing with transnational and interstate issues, see [[marriage (conflict)]], [[divorce (conflict)]] and [[nullity (conflict)]].
==See also==
*[[Algerian Family Code]]
*[[Family Court of Australia]]
**[[Australian family law]]
*[[Family law system in the UK]]
*[[Fathers' rights]]
*[[Law of the Family]]
*[[Marriage strike]]
*[[Same-Sex Marriage]]
*[[The Children Act]]
*Sir [[Morris Finer]] - Report on One Parent Familes
==Research==
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/divorce.htm Current marriage and divorce rates statistics]
* [http://www.eleventhdistrictcourt.state.nm.us/stats/mckinley/dvcumulative.pdf Recent court report that indicates 86% of order of protections were awarded to females and 7% of these petitions were denied in the same forty-six month period]
* [http://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/re/1998/d/re1998d4.html Government banking report linking divorce to bankruptcy]
* [http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=Matt%2019:1-12;&version=47;/ Christian Biblical law]
==Further reading==
* [http://marriage.rutgers.edu/Publications/Pub%20Whitehead%20Testimony%20Apr%2004.htm Testimony of Barbara DaFoe Whitehead, Ph.D, Co-Director, National Marriage Project Rutgers University, before US Senate Subcommitee]
==External links==
===USA===
* [http://www.abanet.org/family/home.html American Bar Association - Family Law Section]
* [http://www.law.yale.edu/rcw Representing Children Worldwide: How Children are Represented in Protective Proceedings (Yale Law Resource)]
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/topic2.html#family%20law LII resources on Family Law]
* [http://www.divorcereform.org/ Americans for Divorce Reform] -- Cultural and legislative efforts to reduce divorce
* [http://www.ilnd.uscourts.gov/LEGAL/NewRules/locrules.htm Federal Rules: U.S. District Court Northern Illinois]
* [http://www.state.il.us/court/SupremeCourt/Rules/Art_I/default.asp State Rules I: Illinois]
* [http://www.state.il.us/court/SupremeCourt/Rules/Art_II/default.asp State Rules II: Illinois]
* [http://www.cookcountycourt.org/rules/index.html Local Rules for Cook County]
* [http://www.cookcountyclerkofcourt.org/Forms/forms.htm Court Forms for Cook County]
* [http://divorce.travishubbard.net Common Sense Divorce and Custody Information] - Free information about divorce.
* [http://nafcj.org/ National Alliance for Family Court Justice] - Information on women losing custody of their children and mothers' rights
===Australia===
*[http://www.familycourt.gov.au Family Court of Aus |
is the [[physics]] of the [[electromagnetic field]]: a [[field (physics)|field]], encompassing all of [[space]], which exerts a [[force]] on those [[particle]]s that possess the property of [[electric charge]], and is in turn affected by the presence and motion of such particles. The term '''electrodynamics''' is sometimes used to refer to the combination of electromagnetism with [[mechanics]], and deals with the effects of the electromagnetic field on the dynamic behavior of electrically charged particles. Electromagnetism encompasses various real-world '''electromagnetic phenomena'''.
== Electric and magnetic fields ==
It is often convenient to understand the electromagnetic field in terms of two separate fields: the [[electric field]] and the [[magnetic field]]. A non-zero electric field is produced by the ''PRESENCE'' of [[electric charge|electrically charged]] particles, and gives rise to the electric [[force]]; this is the force that causes [[static electricity]] and drives the flow of electric charge ([[current (electricity)|electric current]]) in [[conductor (material)|electrical conductors]]. The magnetic field, on the other hand, can be produced by the ''MOTION'' of electric charges, or electric current, and gives rise to the magnetic force associated with [[magnet]]s.
The term "electromagnetism" comes from the fact that the electric and magnetic fields generally cannot be described independently of one another. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of [[electromagnetic induction]], which underlies the operation of [[electrical generator]]s, [[induction motor]]s, and [[transformer]]s). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field.
Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it makes sense to consider them as a single, theoretically coherent entity &mdash; the electromagnetic field. This unification, which was completed by [[James Clerk Maxwell]], is one of the triumphs of [[19th century]] physics. It had far-reaching consequences, one of which was the elucidation of the nature of [[light]]: as it turns out, what we think of as "light" is actually a propagating [[oscillation|oscillatory]] disturbance in the electromagnetic field, i.e., an electromagnetic [[wave]]. Different [[frequency|frequencies]] of oscillation give rise to the different forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]], from [[radio wave]]s at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to [[gamma ray]]s at the highest frequencies.
The theoretical implications of electromagnetism led to the development of [[special relativity]] by [[Albert Einstein]] in [[1905]].
== The electromagnetic force ==
The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles, called the '''electromagnetic force''', is one of the four [[fundamental force]]s. The other fundamental forces are the [[strong interaction|strong nuclear force]] (which holds [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]] together), the [[weak interaction|weak nuclear force]] (which causes certain forms of [[radioactive decay]]), and the [[gravity|gravitational force]]. All other forces are ultimately derived from these fundamental forces.
As it turns out, the electromagnetic force is the one responsible for practically all the phenomena one encounters in daily life, with the exception of gravity. Roughly speaking, all the forces involved in interactions between [[atom]]s can be traced to the electromagnetic force acting on the electrically charged [[proton]]s and [[electron]]s inside the atoms. This includes the forces we experience in "pushing" or "pulling" ordinary material objects, which come from the [[intermolecular force]]s between the individual [[molecule]]s in our bodies and those in the objects. It also includes all forms of [[chemistry|chemical phenomena]], which arise from interactions between [[electron orbital]]s.
== Origins of electromagnetic theory ==
{{electromagnetism}}
The scientist [[William Gilbert]] proposed, in his ''[[De Magnete]]'' ([[1600]]), that electricity and magnetism, while both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were distinct effects. Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes had the ability to disturb a compass needle, but the link between lightning and electricity was not confirmed until [[Benjamin Franklin|Franklin's]] proposed experiments (performed initially by others) in [[1752]]. One of the first to discover and publish a link between man-made electric current and magnetism was [[Gian Domenico Romagnosi|Romagnosi]], who in [[1802]] noticed that connecting a wire across a [[Voltaic pile]] deflected a nearby [[compass]] needle. However, the effect did not become widely known until [[1820]], when [[Hans Christian Ørsted|Ørsted]] performed a similar experiment. Ørsted's work influenced [[André-Marie Ampère|Ampère]] to produce a theory of electromagnetism that set the subject on a mathematical foundation.
An accurate theory of electromagnetism, known as [[classical electromagnetism]], was developed by various [[physicist]]s over the course of the [[19th century]], culminating in the work of [[James Clerk Maxwell]], who unified the preceding developments into a single theory and discovered the electromagnetic nature of light. In classical electromagnetism, the electromagnetic field obeys a set of equations known as [[Maxwell's equations]], and the electromagnetic force is given by the [[Lorentz force|Lorentz force law]].
One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile with [[classical mechanics]], but it is compatible with [[special relativity]]. According to Maxwell's equations, the [[speed of light]] is a universal constant, dependent only on the [[Permittivity|electrical permittivity]] and [[magnetic permeability]] of the [[vacuum]]. This violates [[Galilean invariance]], a long-standing cornerstone of classical mechanics. One way to reconcile the two theories is to assume the existence of a [[luminiferous aether]] through which the light propagates. However, subsequent experiments efforts failed to detect the presence of the aether. In [[1905]], [[Albert Einstein]] solved the problem with the introduction of [[special relativity]], which replaces classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics that is compatible with classical electromagnetism.
In addition, Relativity theory shows that in moving frames of reference a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and vice versa; thus firmly showing that they are two sides of the same coin, and thus the term '''Electromagnetism'''.
==Failures of classical electromagnetism==
In another paper published in that same year, Einstein undermined the very foundations of classical electromagnetism. His theory of the [[photoelectric effect]] (for which he won the Nobel prize for physics) posited that light could exist in discrete particle-like quantities, which later came to be known as [[photon]]s. Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect extended the insights that appeared in the solution of the [[ultraviolet catastrophe]] presented by [[Max Planck]] in [[1900]]. In his work, Planck showed that hot objects emit [[electromagnetic radiation]] in discrete packets, which leads to a finite total [[energy]] emitted as [[black body radiation]]. Both of these results were in direct contradiction with the classical view of light as a continuous wave. Planck's and Einstein's theories were progenitors of [[quantum mechanics]], which, when formulated in [[1925]], necessitated the invention of a quantum theory of electromagnetism. This theory, completed in the [[1940s]], is known as [[quantum electrodynamics]] (or "QED"), and is one of the most accurate theories known to physics.
==SI electricity units==
{{SI_electromagnetism_units}}
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Tipler | first = Paul
| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 2: Light, Electricity and Magnetism
| edition = 4th ed.
| publisher = W. H. Freeman
| year = 1998
| id = ISBN 1572594926
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Griffiths | first = David J.
| title = Introduction to Electrodynamics
| edition = 3rd ed.
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| year = 1998
| id = ISBN 013805326X
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Jackson | first = John D.
| title = Classical Electrodynamics
| edition = 3rd ed.
| publisher = Wiley
| year = 1998
| id = ISBN 047130932X
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Rothwell | first = Edward J.
| coauthors = Cloud, Michael J. | title = Electromagnetics
| publisher = CRC Press
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 084931397X
}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.rmcybernetics.com/science/physics/electromagnetism_intro_electric_force.htm Introduction to Electromagnetism] From the basics to advanced level science
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-02Electricity-and-MagnetismSpring2002/VideoLectures/index.htm MIT Video Lectures - Electricity and Magnetism] from Spring 2002. Taught by Professor Walter Lewin.
* [http://www.lightandmatter.com/area1book4.html Electricity and Magnetism] - an online textbook (uses algebra, with optional calculus-based sections)
* [http://www.plasma.uu.se/CED/Book/ Electromagnetic Field Theory] - an online textbook (uses calculus)
* [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/em/em.html Classical Electromagnetism: An intermediate level course] - an online intermediate level texbook downloadable as PDF file
* [http://poststuffx.entensity.net/012306/media.php?media=metal.wmv Electromagnetism in action - an art video of some magnetic fluid]
{{Physics-footer}}
[[Category:Electromagnetism| ]]
[[af:Elektromagnetisme]]
[[ar:كهرومغناطيسية]]
[[ca:Electromagnetisme]]
[[cs:Elektřina a magnetismus]]
[[da:Elektromagnetisme]]
[[de:Elektrodynamik]]
[[el:Ηλεκτρομαγνητισμός]]
[[eo:Elektromagnetismo]]
[[es:Electromagnetismo]]
[[fi:Sähkömagnetismi]]
[[fr: |
than FAT32; it has existed since [[Windows NT]] was first released in 1993.
Each system has its own advantages and disadvantages. Standard FAT allow only eight-character file names (plus a three-character extension) with no spaces, for example,
whereas NTFS allows much longer names that can contain spaces. You can call a file '''Payroll records''' in NTFS, but in in FAT you would be restricted to
something like '''payroll.dat''' (unless you were using VFAT, a FAT extension allowing long file names).
[[File manager|File-manager]] programs are utility programs that allow you to manipulate files directly. They allow you to move, create, delete and rename
files and folders, although they do not actually allow you to read the contents of a file or store information in it. Every computer system provides at least
one file-manager program for its native file system. Under Windows, the most commonly used file manager program is Windows Explorer.
==See also==
*[[File manager]]
*[[File system]]
*[[File copying]]
*[[File size]]
*[[Block]]
*[[Object_composition]]
==External links and references==
* [http://www.wwwcentral.net/ File Extension Archives]
*[http://www.dotwhat.net/ Dotwhat? - File Extension Listing] - Listing of file extensions and the programs that use them.
*[http://filext.com/ FILExt - The File Extension Source] - Site for looking up file extensions.
*[http://www.filename.info/ Filename.info] - Information about [[Microsoft Windows]] filenames.
*[http://www.2-spware.com/files.php Exploit Files] - List of files associated with [[spyware]] and [[adware]].
*[http://www.pcreview.co.uk/startup/ - Startup Files] Windows Startup Files Information
<!-- Method of ... -->
[[Category:Computer data]]
[[Category:Computer file systems|File]]
[[Category:Inter-process communication]]
[[ast:Ficheru informáticu]]
[[da:Fil (dataobjekt)]]
[[de:Datei]]
[[et:Fail]]
[[es:Archivo informático]]
[[eo:Dosiero]]
[[fa:پرونده (رایانه)]]
[[fr:Fichier (informatique)]]
[[fy:Triem]]
[[ko:파일]]
[[it:File]]
[[he:קובץ]]
[[lt:Failas]]
[[hu:Fájl]]
[[nl:Bestand (computer)]]
[[no:Datafil]]
[[pl:Plik]]
[[pt:Arquivo]]
[[ru:Файл]]
[[sl:Datoteka]]
[[vi:Tập tin]]
[[zh:计算机文件]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CID</title>
<id>7079</id>
<revision>
<id>29403242</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-27T19:28:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>61.2.20.51</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">As an acronym '''CID''' can refer to (in alphabetical order):
* Telephone [[Caller ID]].
* [[CVV2|Card Identification Number]], a security feature on [[American Express]] credit cards.
* A [[charge-injection device]] which is a light-sensor based on [[photodiode]]s.
* [[CID fonts]].
* [[Collision-induced dissociation]] a mass spectrometry technique for fragmenting gas phase ions.
* [[Combat Identification]] the process of characterizing military objects.
* The [[Committee of Imperial Defence]] which was formed in [[1904]] and responsible for directing British [[military strategy]].
* NASA's [[Controlled Impact Demonstration]].
* The [[International Dance Council|Counseil International de la Dance]] (english: International Dance Council).
* The [[Criminal Investigation Department]] within [[United Kingdom]] and [[Commonwealth]] police forces.
* The [[Criminal Investigation Division]] of the United States Army.
* Cubic-inch [[engine displacement|displacement]] in [[automobiles]].
'''CID''' can also refer to:
* The Spanish knight [[El Cid]].
* [[The Eastern Iowa Airport]] in [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa]].
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christian Doppler</title>
<id>7080</id>
<revision>
<id>40664492</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T03:51:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tevatron</username>
<id>191635</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cdoppler.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Christian Doppler]]
'''Johann Christian Andreas Doppler''' ([[November 29]], [[1803]] in &ndash; [[March 17]], [[1853]]) was an [[Austrian]] [[mathematician]] and [[physicist]], most famous for the hypothesis of what is now known as the [[Doppler effect]] which causes the frequency of a wave to apparently change as its source moves toward or away from the observer.
==Life==
Christian Doppler was born in [[Salzburg]] as the son of a stonemason. However he could not work in his father's business because of his generally weak physical condition. After completing high school he studied physics and mathematics in [[Vienna]] and Salzburg and started to work at the [[Prague Polytechnic]] (now [[Czech Technical University]]), where he was appointed professor for mathematics and physics in [[1841]].
Only one year later at the age of 39 he published his most notable work on the [[Doppler effect]] (for instance to be noticed in the change of sound of a quickly passing vehicle). In his time in [[Prague]] as professor he published more than 50 articles in mathematics, physics and astronomy.
His research career in Prague was interrupted by the revolutionary incidents of March [[1848]], when he fled to Vienna. There he was appointed head of the Institute for Experimental Physics at the [[University of Vienna]] in [[1850]].
He died from a pulmonary disease in [[Venice]] aged 49.
==References==
* Peter M. Schuster: ''Moving the Stars - Christian Doppler: His Life, His Works and Principle, and the World After''. - Pöllauberg, Austria: Living Edition, 2005. - ISBN 3-901585-05-2 (translated by Lily Wilmes; [http://www.petermschuster.at/ Webpage] of the author)
==See also==
*[[List of Austrian scientists]]
*[[List of Austrians]]
==External links==
*[http://www.visit-salzburg.net/sights/christiandoppler.htm Christian Doppler and his birthplace in Salzburg]
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Doppler}}
*[http://www.maislinger.net/liste_english/ Born between Salzburg and Braunau am Inn]
{{mathbiostub}}
[[Category:1803 births|Doppler, Christian]]
[[Category:1853 deaths|Doppler, Christian]]
[[Category:Austrian mathematicians|Doppler, Christian]]
[[Category:Austrian physicists|Doppler, Christian]]
[[Category:Austrian scientists|Doppler, Christian]]
[[Category:Doppler effects]]
[[cs:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[de:Christian Doppler]]
[[es:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[fr:Christian Doppler]]
[[he:כריסטיאן אנדראס דופלר]]
[[hr:Christian Doppler]]
[[nl:Christian Doppler]]
[[ja:クリスチャン・ドップラー]]
[[no:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[nn:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[pl:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[sk:Christian Johann Doppler]]
[[sl:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[fi:Christian Doppler]]
[[sv:Christian Doppler]]
[[zh:克里斯琴·多普勒]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clerihew</title>
<id>7081</id>
<revision>
<id>41837644</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:46:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RichardNeill</username>
<id>109633</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* slightly fixed formatting */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''Clerihew''' (or '''clerihew''') is a very specific kind of humorous [[verse]], typically with the following properties:
* The first line consists solely (or almost solely) of a well-known person's name
* The verse is humorous and usually whimsical, showing the subject from an unusual point of view; but it is hardly ever satirical, abusive or obscene
* It has four lines.
* The form was invented by and is named after [[Edmund Clerihew Bentley]].
==Examples==
The first ever Clerihew:
:[[Sir Humphrey Davy]]
:Abominated gravy.
:He lived in the odium
:Of having discovered [[sodium]].
:Edmund Clerihew Bentley
:Worked swiftly if not gently,
:Tracking murderers down by a hidden clew
:In whodunit and clerihew.
:Edmund Clerihew Bentley
:Mused, when he ought to have studied intently;
:It was this muse
:That inspired clerihews.
:Edmund Clerihew Bentley
:was evidently
:a man
:who could not get his verses to scan
:Sir [[Karl Popper]]
:Perpetrated a whopper
:When he boasted to the world that he and he alone
:Had toppled [[Rudolf Carnap]] from his [[Vienna Circle]] throne.
:(by Armand T. Ringer)
:Sir [[Christopher Wren]]
:Said, "I am going to dine with some men.
:If anyone calls,
:Say I am designing [[St Paul's Cathedral|St Paul's]]."
:[[John Stuart Mill]],
:By a mighty effort of will,
:Overcame his natural bonhomie
:And wrote 'Principles of Political Economy'.
:Daniel Defoe
:Lived a long time ago
:He had nothing to do so
:He wrote Robinson Crusoe
:[[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
:was fond of saying, "Ach!"
:And instead of saying "Guten Morgen"
:He played the Toccata and Fugue on the organ!
:[[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
:Lived upon venison;
:Not cheap, I fear,
:Because venison's dear.
:(credited to [[Louis Untermeyer]])
:George the Third
:Ought never to have occurred.
:One can only wonder
:At so grotesque a blunder.
Clerihews are occasionally not about a particular person, as in this example by Bentley:
:The art of Biography
:Is different from Geography,
:Geography is about maps,
:But Biography is about chaps.
This is really a meta-Clerihew, as Clerihews are mini biographies.
===The World's Shortest Clerihew===
"To the Poetry Editor of the New Yorker" was composed, over breakfast, by [[W.H. Auden]] and [[Chester Kallman]], in honor of [[Howard Moss]], poet, critic, and editor of poetry at ''[[The New Yorker]]''. Despite or because of the poem's brevity, Auden and Kallman manage to rhyme the names of three different people. The poem was discovered years after Auden's death in a [[manuscript|manuscript notebook]] donated by his heirs to the [[New York Public Library]]. It has apparently never been printed in ''The New Yorker'':
TO THE POETRY EDITOR OF THE NEW YORKER
:Is [[Robert Lowell]]<br>Better than [[Noel Coward|Noel]]<br>[[Noel Coward|Coward]],<br>Howard?
==External links==
*[h |
ing the geocentric conjunction of the sun and moon to occur before sunset, in addition to requiring moonset to occur after sunset at Mecca. This ensures that the moon has moved past the sun by sunset, even though the sky may still be too bright immediately before moonset to actually see the crescent. Strictly speaking, the [[Umm al-Qura]] calendar is intended for civil purposes only. Their makers are well aware of the fact that the first visual sighting of the lunar crescent (hilāl) can occur up to two days after the date calculated in the [[Umm al-Qura]] calendar. Since AH 1419 (1998/99) several official hilāl sighting committees have been set up by the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] to determine the first visual sighting of the lunar crescent at the begin of each lunar month. Nevertheless, the religious authorities of [[Saudi Arabia]] also allow the testimony of less experienced observers and thus often announces the sighting of the lunar crescent on a date when none of the official committees could see the lunar crescent. In nearly all of these cases, a retrospective analysis indicates that these extremely early reports of the lunar crescent are impossible and are based on false sightings.
The moon sets progressively later than the sun for locations further west, thus western Muslim countries are more likely to celebrate some holy day one day earlier than an eastern Muslim country.
[[Microsoft]] uses the "[[Kuwaiti algorithm]]" to convert Gregorian dates to the Islamic ones. It is based on statistical analysis of historical data from Kuwait.
There exists a variation of the Islamic calendar known as the [[tabular Islamic calendar]] in which months are worked out by arithmetic rules rather than by observation or astronomical calculation. It has a 30-year cycle in with 11 years are leap years with 355 days instead of 354 days. In the long term, it is accurate to one day in about 2500 years. It also deviates up to about 1 or 2 days in the short term.
==Forbidding intercalary months==
In the ninth year after the Hijra, Muslims believe God forbade the [[intercalation|intercalary]] month. This is expressed in the [[Qur'an]] (9:36-37):
<blockquote>
The number of months with Allah has been twelve months by Allah's ordinance since the day He created the heavens and the earth. Of these four are known as sacred; That is the straight usage, so do not wrong yourselves therein, and fight the Pagans.
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
Verily the transposing (of a prohibited month) is an addition to Unbelief: The Unbelievers are led to wrong thereby: for they make it lawful one year, and forbidden another year, of months forbidden by Allah and make such forbidden ones lawful. The evil of their course seems pleasing to them. But Allah guideth not those who reject Faith.
</blockquote>
This prohibition was repeated by Muhammad during his last sermon on [[Mount Arafah|Mount Arafat]] which was delivered during his farewell pilgrimage to Mecca on 9 Dhu al-Hijja AH 10 (this paragraph is often deleted from the sermon by its modern editors as now unimportant):
<blockquote>
O People, the unbelievers indulge in tampering with the calendar in order to make permissible that which Allah forbade, and to forbid that which Allah has made permissible. With Allah the months are twelve in number. Four of them are holy, three of these are successive and one occurs singly between the months of Jumada and Shaban.
</blockquote>
The three successive holy months are Dhu al-Qada, Dhu al-Hijja, and Muharram, thus excluding an intercalary month before Muharram. The single holy month is Rajab.
==Names of the Islamic months==
{{Muslimmonths}}
The Islamic months are named as follows:
# [[Muharram|Muharram ul Haram]] (or shortened to Muharram) &#1605;&#1581;&#1585;&#1617;&#1605;
# [[Safar]] &#1589;&#1601;&#1585;
# [[Rabi`-ul-Awwal]] (Rabi' I) &#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;
# [[Rabi`-ul-Akhir]] (or Rabi` al-THaany) (Rabi' II) &#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1570;&#1582;&#1585; &#1571;&#1608; &#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;
# [[Jumaada-ul-Awwal]] (Jumaada I) &#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;
# [[Jumaada-ul-Akhir]] (or Jumaada al-THaany) (Jumaada II) &#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1570;&#1582;&#1585; &#1571;&#1608; &#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;
# [[Rajab]] &#1585;&#1580;&#1576;
# [[Sha'aban]] &#1588;&#1593;&#1576;&#1575;&#1606;
# [[Ramadan (calendar month)|Ramadan]] &#1585;&#1605;&#1590;&#1575;&#1606;
# [[Shawwal]] &#1588;&#1608;&#1617;&#1575;&#1604;
# [[Zil Khad]] &#1584;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1593;&#1583;&#1577; (or Thw al-Qi`dah)
# [[Zil Hijjah]] &#1584;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1580;&#1577; (or Thw al-Hijjah)
Of all the months in the Islamic calendar, [[Ramadan (calendar month)|Ramadan]] is the most sacred. Between dawn and sunset, [[Muslim]]s abstain from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse in accordance with the [[Ramadan (religious observances)|Ramadan holiday]] that lasts throughout the entire month of the same name.
==Names of the days of the week==
The Islamic week is derived from the Jewish week, as was the medieval Christian week, all of which have numbered weekdays in common. All three coincide with the Sunday through Saturday planetary week. The Islamic and Jewish weekdays begin at sunset, whereas the medieval Christian and planetary weekdays begin at the following midnight. Muslims gather for worship at a [[Masjid]] or [[mosque]] at noon on "gathering day", which corresponds to the sixth day of the Jewish and medieval Christian weeks, and to Friday of the planetary week.
# yaum as-sabt &#1610;&#1608;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1617;&#1614;&#1576;&#1618;&#1578; (sabbath day)
# yaum al-ahad &#1610;&#1608;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1583; (first day)
# yaum al-ithnayn &#1610;&#1608;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1579;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; (second day)
# yaum ath-thalatha' &#1610;&#1608;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1617;&#1615;&#1604;&#1614;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1569; (third day)
# yaum al-arba`a' &#1610;&#1608;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1614;&#1585;&#1618;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1569; (fourth day)
# yaum al-khamis &#1610;&#1608;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1614;&#1605;&#1616;&#1610;&#1587; (fifth day)
# yaum al-jum`a &#1610;&#1608;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1615;&#1605;&#1618;&#1593;&#1614;&#1577; (gathering day)
==Important dates==
Important dates in the Islamic (Hijri) year are:
* 1 Muharram ([[Islamic New Year]])
* 10 Muharram ([[Day of Ashurah]], a day of mourning for [[Shia]] Muslims and the flight of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt and Pharo's oppression to the Blessed Land for Sunni Muslims)
* 27 Rajab ([[Isra and Miraj]])
* 15 Shabaan ([[Shab-e-Br'aat]])
* 1 Ramadan (first day of fasting)
* 17 Ramadan (Nuzul Al-Qur'an) ([[Malaysia]] only; often 27 Ramadan elsewhere)
* 19-22 Ramadan ([[Shia]] Muslims mourn the death of [[Imam]] [[Ali]]).
* Last 10 days of Ramadhan which include [[Laylat al-Qadr]]
* 1 Shawwal ([[Eid ul-Fitr]])
* 8-10 Thw al-Hijjah (the [[Hajj]] to [[Makkah]])
* 10 Thw al-Hijjah ([[Eid ul-Adha]]).
==Current correlations==
For a very rough conversion, multiply the Islamic year number by 0.97, and then add 622 to get the Gregorian year number.
The Islamic calendar year of 1429 will occur entirely within the Gregorian calendar year of 2008. Such years occur once every 33 or 34 Islamic years (32 or 33 Gregorian years).
More are listed here:
{| border="1" style="text-align: center" cellpadding="2"
|colspan="3"|'''Islamic year within Gregorian year'''
|-
|''Islamic'' || ''Gregorian'' || ''Difference''
|-
|1228 || 1813 || 585
|-
|1261 || 1845 || 584
|-
|1295 || 1878 || 583
|-
|1329 || 1911 || 582
|-
|1362 || 1943 || 581
|-
|1396 || 1976 || 580
|-
|1429 || 2008 || 579
|-
|1463 || 2041 || 578
|-
|1496 || 2073 || 577
|-
|1530 || 2106 || 576
|-
|1564 || 2139 || 575
|}
==External links==
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/islam/islamyear_en.htm Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar)]
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/islam/mecca/ummalqura.htm The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia]
*[http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~jkatz/The%20Islamic%20Jewish%20Calendar.pdf Correspondence between Hebrew and Islamic calendars, months and holidays (pdf)]
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]
[[ar:تقويم هجري]]
[[ca:Calendari musulmà]]
[[da:Islamisk kalender]]
[[de:Islamische Zeitrechnung]]
[[eo:Islama kalendaro]]
[[es:Calendario musulmán]]
[[et:Islami kalender]]
[[fi:Islamilainen kalenteri]]
[[fr:Calendrier musulman]]
[[gl:Calendario musulmán]]
[[he:הלוח המוסלמי]]
[[id:Kalender Hijriyah]]
[[io:Islama kalendario]]
[[ja:ヒジュラ暦]]
[[ms:Takwim Hijrah]]
[[nl:Islamitische kalender]]
[[nn:Det muslimske året]]
[[pl:Kalendarz muzułmański]]
[[pt:Calendário islâmico]]
[[ru:Исламский календарь]]
[[sl:Muslimanski koledar]]
[[sv:Muslimska kalendern]]
[[th:ปฏิทินฮิจญ์เราะหฺ]]
[[tr:Hicri takvim]]
[[tt:Íslam täqwime]]
[[zh:伊斯兰历]]</text>
</revision>
</pag |
467;&#2472;&#2494; (&#2453;&#2478;&#2509;&#2474;&#2495;&#2441;&#2463;&#2495;&#2434;)]]
[[es:Computación]]
[[ja:コンピューティング]]
[[zh:&#35745;&#31639;]]
[[pt:Computação]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Casino</title>
<id>5215</id>
<revision>
<id>41684968</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:23:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rupertslander</username>
<id>84475</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Gambling in casinos */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about casinos for gambling. For other uses see'' [[Casino (disambiguation)]].
[[Image:Taj Mahal.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Trump Taj Mahal]] in [[Atlantic City]], [[New Jersey]].]]
A '''casino''' is a building that accommodates certain types of [[gambling]] activities. Casinos are often placed near or combined with hotels, [[restaurants]], retail shopping and other vacation attractions to encourage long stays. Some casinos are known for hosting live entertainment events, such as concerts, and sporting events, especially [[boxing]].
==Gambling in casinos==
In most jurisdictions, gambling is limited to persons over the [[age of majority]] (21 years of age in the [[United States]] and 18 to 20 in most other countries where casinos are permitted). Customers may gamble by playing [[slot machine]]s or other games of chance (e.g., [[craps]], [[roulette]], [[baccarat]]) and some skill (eg., [[blackjack]], [[poker]]) [for more see [[casino game]]s]. Game rules usually have mathematically-determined odds that ensure the house retains an advantage over the players. This advantage is called the ''edge''. ''Payout'' is the percentage given to players. In games such as poker, the house takes a commission (a "rake") on bets players make against each other. ''Our money'' refers to the situation where a winning player is placing bets with money that has been won from the casino.
A [[croupier]] is the person who takes and pays out bets at a gambling table.
==History==
[[Image:Mirage Casino.JPG|left|thumb|[[The Mirage|Mirage Hotel & Casino]], Las Vegas (jb).]]
The term originally meant a small [[villa]], [[summerhouse]] or [[pavilion (structure)|pavilion]] built for pleasure, usually on the grounds of a larger [[Italy|Italian]] villa or [[palazzo]]. There are examples of such casinos at [[Villa Giulia]] and [[Villa Farnese]]. During the [[19th century]], the term casino came to include other more public buildings where pleasurable activities, including gambling and sports, took place. An example of this type of building is the [[Newport Casino]]. In modern Italian, this term designates a [[bordello]] (also called "casa chiusa", literally "closed house"), while the gambling house is spelled ''casinò'' with an accent.
==Security==
Traditionally, casinos have had a major concentration on security. This results from the fact that large amounts of [[currency]] move through the casino and from the fact that people think they can beat the casino, that is cheat. Security today consists of cameras located throughout the property operated by highly trained individuals who attempt to locate cheating and stealing by both players and employees.
Among the most secure, and watched areas of a casino are the [[count room]]s and the [[surveillance]] room.
==See also==
[[Image:Casino slots2.jpg|right|thumb|[[Slot machine]]s are commonplace in casinos]]
* [[Casino Night]]
* [[Economic and social impacts of gambling]]
* [[Gaming Control Board]]s
* [[Native American gambling enterprises|Indian gaming]]
* [[List of casinos]]
* [[Online casino]]
==Resource web sites==
[[image:Crown Entertainment1.jpg|right|thumb|The Atrium at the [[Crown Casino]], [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]].]]
*[http://www.gambling-law-us.com United States Gambling Law]
[[Category:Casinos| ]]
[[Category:Gambling]]
[[bg:Казино]]
[[da:Kasino]]
[[de:Spielbank]]
[[es:Casino de juego]]
[[eo:Kasino]]
[[fr:Casino (lieu)]]
[[id:Kasino]]
[[he:קזינו]]
[[nl:Casino (gokken)]]
[[ja:カジノ]]
[[no:Kasino]]
[[pl:Kasyno]]
[[ru:Игорный дом]]
[[fi:Kasino]]
[[sv:Kasino]]
[[zh:賭場]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Khmer language</title>
<id>5216</id>
<revision>
<id>41046652</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:33:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.165.139.109</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Khmer
|nativename=[[Image:PhiesaKhmae.gif]] {{IPA|[pʰiːəsaː kʰmaːe]}}
|familycolor=Austro-Asiatic
|states=[[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]], [[USA]], [[France]], [[Australia]]
|speakers=15.7 to 21.6 million (2004)<br>
*Native speakers: 14.7 to 20.6 million<br>
**Cambodia: 12.1 million<br>
**Vietnam: 1.1{{ref|1}} to 7{{ref|2}} million<br>
**Thailand: 1.2 million<br>
**USA: 190,000<br>
**France: ca. 50,000<br>
**Australia: 22,000<br>
**Canada: 16,500 <br>
*2nd language speakers: 1 million in Cambodia
|fam2=[[Mon-Khmer languages|Mon-Khmer]]
|fam3=[[Eastern Mon-Khmer]]
|nation=[[Cambodia]]
|iso1=km|iso2=khm
|lc1=khm|ld1=Central Khmer|ll1=Khmer language
|lc2=kxm|ld2=Northern Khmer|ll2=Khmer language
|notice=Indic}}
'''Khmer''' (ភាសាខ្មែរ) is one of the main [[Austroasiatic languages]]. [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pāli|Pali]] have had considerable influence on the language, through the vehicles of [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]]. As result of their geographic proximity, the Khmer language has influenced [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Lao language|Laotian]] and vice versa.
Khmer is somewhat unusual among its neighboring languages ([[Thai language|Thai]], [[Lao language|Laotian]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]) in that it is not a [[tonal language]].
== Phonology ==
Modern Standard Khmer has the following consonant and vowel phonemes.
(Please note: The phonological system described here is the inventory of sounds of the spoken language, not how they are written in the [[Khmer alphabet]].)
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable"
! || Labial || Apical || Palatal || Velar || Glottal
|-
!Plosive
|{{IPA| pʰ p ɓ}}||{{IPA|tʰ t ɗ}}||{{IPA|cʰ c}}||{{IPA|kʰ k}}||{{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
!Nasal
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|ŋ}} ||
|-
!Liquid
| || {{IPA|r l}} || || ||
|-
!Fricative
| {{IPA|}} || {{IPA|s}} || || || {{IPA|h}}
|-
!Approximant
| {{IPA|ʋ}} || || {{IPA|j}} || {{IPA|}} ||
|-
|}
The consonants {{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/g/}} occur only in loanwords from French and other recent introductions.
===Vowel nuclei===
{| class="wikitable"
!Short vowels
| {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|e}} || || {{IPA|ɨ}} || {{IPA|ə}} || {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|ɑ}} || {{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|o}} ||
|-
!Long vowels
| {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|eː}} || {{IPA|ɛː}} || {{IPA|ɨː}} || {{IPA|əː}} || {{IPA|aː}} || {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{IPA|uː}} || {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|ɔː}}
|-
!Long diphthongs
|{{IPA|iə}} || {{IPA|ei}} || {{IPA|ae}} || {{IPA|ɨə}} || {{IPA|əɨ}} || {{IPA|aə}} || {{IPA|ɑo}} || {{IPA|uə}} || {{IPA|ou}} || {{IPA|ɔə}}
|-
!Short diphthongs
| || {{IPA|eə̆}} || || || || || || {{IPA|uə̆}} || {{IPA|oə̆}} ||
|}
It must be noted that the precise number and the phonetic value of vowel nuclei vary from dialect to dialect.
===Syllables and words===
Khmer words are predominantly of one or two syllables. There are 85 possible clusters of two consonants at the beginning of syllables and two three-consonant clusters with phonetic alterations as shown below:
{| class="wikitable"
! || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|ɓ}} || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|ɗ}} || {{IPA|c}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|ʔ}} || {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|ŋ}} || {{IPA|j}} || {{IPA|l}} || {{IPA|r}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|h}} || {{IPA|ʋ}}
|-
!{{IPA|p}}
| || || {{IPA|pʰt}}- || {{IPA|pɗ}}- || {{IPA|pʰc}} || {{IPA|pʰk}}- || {{IPA|pʔ}}- || || {{IPA|pʰn}}- || {{IPA|pʰɲ}}- || {{IPA|pʰŋ}}- || {{IPA|pʰj}}- || {{IPA|pʰl}}- || {{IPA|pr}}- || {{IPA|ps}}-|| ||
|-
!{{IPA|t}}
| {{IPA|tʰp}}-|| {{IPA|tɓ}} || || || || {{IPA|tʰk}}- || {{IPA|tʔ}}- || {{IPA|tʰm}}-|| {{IPA|tʰn}}- || || {{IPA|tʰŋ}}- || {{IPA|tʰj}}- || {{IPA|tʰl}}- || {{IPA|tr}}- || || || {{IPA|tʰʋ}}
|-
!{{IPA|c}}
| {{IPA|cʰp}}-||{{IPA|cɓ}} || || || || {{IPA|cʰk}}- || {{IPA|cʔ}}- || {{IPA|cʰm}}- || {{IPA|cʰn}}-|| || {{IPA|cʰŋ}}- || || {{IPA|cʰl}}- || {{IPA|cr}}- || || || {{IPA|cʰʋ}}-
|-
!{{IPA|k}}
| {{IPA|kʰp}}- || {{IPA|kɓ}} || {{IPA|kʰt}}- || {{IPA|kɗ}}- || {{IPA|kʰc}} || || {{IPA|kʔ}}- || {{IPA|kʰm}}-|| {{IPA|kʰn}}- || {{IPA|kʰɲ}}- || {{IPA|kŋ}}- || {{IPA|kʰj}}- || {{IPA|kʰl}}- || {{IPA|kr}}- || {{IPA|ks}}-|| || {{IPA|kʰʋ}}-
|-
!{{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|sp}}-||{{IPA|sɓ}} || {{IPA|st}}- || {{IPA|sɗ}}- || || {{IPA|sk}}- || {{IPA|sʔ}}- || {{IPA|sm}}-|| {{IPA|sn}}- || {{IPA|sɲ}}- || {{IPA|sŋ}}- || || {{IPA|sl}}- || {{IPA|sr}}- || || || {{IPA|sʋ}}
|-
!{{IPA|ʔ}}
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|ʔʋ}}-
|-
!{{IPA|m}}
| || || {{IPA|mt}}- || {{IPA|mɗ}}- || {{IPA|mc}} || || {{IPA|mʔ}}- || || {{IPA|mʰn}}- || {{IPA|mʰɲ}}- || || || {{IPA|ml}}- || {{IPA|mr}}- || {{IPA|ms}}- || {{IPA|mh}}- ||
|-
!{{IPA|l}}
| {{IPA|lp}}-|| {{IPA|lɓ}} || || || ||{{IPA|lk}}- || {{IPA|lʔ}}- || {{IPA|lm}}-|| || || {{IPA|lŋ}}- || || || || || {{IPA|lh}}- || {{IPA|lʋ}}-
|-
|}
Syllables begin with one of these consonants or consonant clusters, followed by one of the vowel nuclei. When the vowel nucleus is short, there has to be a final consonant.
{{IPA|/p/ /t/ /c/ /k/ /ʔ/ /m/ /n/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/ /l/ /h/ /j/}} and {{IPA|/ʋ/,}} can exist in a syllable coda. {{IPA|/h/}} and {{IPA|/ʋ/}} become {{IPA|[ç]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} respectively.
The most common word structure in Khmer is a full syllable as described above, preceded by an unstressed, “minor” syllable that has a consonant-vowel (CV) structure CV-, CrV-, CVN- or CrVN- (N is any nasal in the Khmer inventory). The vowel |
rval of '''P1Y2M10DT2H30M''' five times starting at '''2002-03-01T13:00:00Z''', use '''R5/2002-03-01T13:00:00Z/P1Y2M10DT2H30M'''.
==Usage==
On the [[Internet]], ISO 8601 is used by the [[World Wide Web Consortium|W3C]], defining a profile of the standard that restricts the supported formats to reduce the chance of error and the complexity of software. See also W3C link in ''External links'', below.
ISO 8601 is referenced by several specifications, but not always is the full range of options of ISO 8601 used. E.g. the different EPG standards for TV, Digital Radio, etc. do use several formats to describe points in time and durations.
The ISO 8601 week date, as of 2006-01, already appears in its basic form on major brand commercial packaging in the US. Its appearance depends on the particular packaging, canning, or bottling plant more than any particular brand. The format is particularly useful for quality assurance, so that production errors can be readily traced to work weeks, and products can be correctly targeted for recall.
==External links==
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/formats.htm The ISO 8601 Date Format]
*[http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/iso-time.html ISO 8601 summary by Markus Kuhn]
*[http://www.saqqara.demon.co.uk/datefmt.htm International Date Format Campaign]
*[http://www.qsl.net/g1smd/isoimp.htm ISO 8601 Implementation Around The World]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/iso8601/ ISO 8601 discussion group at Yahoo!]
*[http://dmoz.org/Science/Reference/Standards/Individual_Standards/ISO_8601/ ISO 8601 section of Open Directory Project]
*W3C
**Non-endorsed information
***[http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime Note about Date and Time Formats to W3C from Reuters]
***[http://www.w3.org/Submission/1997/14/Comment Comment by W3C on Reuters submission]
**Recommendations
***[http://www.w3.org/TR/xmlschema-2/#dateTime dateTime data type in XML Schema], which is based on a subset of ISO 8601
*RFC 3339, Date and Time on the Internet, 2002-July
*[http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=40874 Purchase the ISO 8601:2004 standard] ([[English language|English]], 33 pages, [[Portable Document Format|PDF]], [[Franc#Swiss_franc|CHF]] 122)
*[http://dmoz.org/Bookmarks/G/g1smd/Links_to_PDF_Copies_of_ISO_8601_Standard/ ISO 8601 draft copies in PDF format]
*[http://www.personal.ecu.edu/mccartyr/isowdcal.html Current date in '''week date''' and '''ordinal date''' format]
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/calendar/isocalendar.htm The Mathematics of the ISO 8601 Calendar]
*[http://www.probabilityof.com/ISO8601.shtml ISO 8601 - Converting and implementing]
[[Category:Calendars]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]
[[Category:ISO standards|#08601]]
[[ca:ISO 8601]]
[[de:ISO 8601]]
[[eo:ISO 8601]]
[[fr:ISO 8601]]
[[km:ISO 8601]]
[[la:ISO 8601]]
[[nl:ISO 8601]]
[[ja:ISO 8601]]
[[no:ISO 8601]]
[[pl:ISO 8601]]
[[sl:ISO 8601]]
[[fi:ISO 8601]]
[[sv:ISO 8601]]
[[zh:ISO 8601]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inertial mass</title>
<id>15026</id>
<revision>
<id>35105730</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-14T03:55:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Forbsey</username>
<id>86762</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed common spelling error. see [[WP:LCM]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Inertial [[mass]]''' is a measure of the resistance of an entity to a change in its [[velocity]] relative to an [[inertial frame]]. The [[inertial frame]] does not have to be that of the [[mass]] in question; either before or after the measurement.</br>
This 'resistance' is also sometimes called ''inertia''.
Within [[classical physics]] the inertial mass of [[point particle]]s is defined by means of the following equation for the subsequently described Machian [[thought experiment]] where particle 1 is taken as a unit (''m''<sub>1</sub> =1):
:''m''<sub>i</sub> ''a''<sub>''i''1</sub> = ''m''<sub>1</sub> ''a''<sub>1''i''</sub>,
where ''m''<sub>''i''</sub> is the inertial mass of particle ''i'', and ''a''<sub>''i''1</sub> is the initial acceleration of particle ''i'', in the direction from particle ''i'' to particle 1, in a volume occupied only by particles ''i'' and 1, where both particles are initially at rest one distance unit apart. There are no external forces, but the particles exert a force on each other.
The equation defines inertial mass of particle ''i'' in terms of the assumed measurable mutually induced accelerations ''a''<sub>''i''1</sub> and a<sub>1i</sub>. The remaining constraints on the accelerations, that the above defining equation still holds at different initial distances and when generated by the pairing of particles with other than particle 1, can be taken as requirements for the experimental validity of the theory's dynamics, cf. [[conservation law|momentum conservation]]. In addition, the requirement that the paired accelerations used are colinear, irrelevant of the direction chosen for the alignment of the particles, verifies that they are measured relative to an inertial frame in a force-free volume.
[[Category:Mass]]
[[de:Träge Masse und schwere Masse]]
[[es:Masa inercial]]
[[ru:Инертная масса]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ISA</title>
<id>15027</id>
<revision>
<id>42075480</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:31:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tiki God</username>
<id>821605</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added [[International Sign Association]] (trade association), external link to site</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">As an acronymn, '''ISA''' stands for
* [[Independent Schools Association]], a group of schools in New South Wales, Australia.
* [[Infectious salmon anemia]], a viral disease of salmon.
* [[Individual Savings Account]] (in the UK)
* [[Industry Standard Architecture]] (a computer bus standard for IBM compatible PCs)
* [[Institut de Sélection Animale]], a poultry breeding company based in Saint–Brieuc, France.
* [[Instruction set|Instruction Set Architecture]]
* [[Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society]] (formerly Instrument Society of America, a professional organization for instrument engineers)
* [[Internal Security Act]] (implemented in Malaysia and Singapore)
* [[International Seabed Authority]]
* [[Patent Cooperation Treaty|International Searching Authority]] (in patent law)
* [[International Security Alliance]] a fictional spy agency on the television soap opera ''[[Days of our Lives]]''
* [[International Sign Association]] ([http://www.signs.org/ web page])
* [[International Society of Arboriculture]] (non-profit organization)
* [[International Sociological Association]]
* [[International Space Agency]]
* [[International Standard Atmosphere]]
* [[International School Amsterdam]] an international school in the Netherlands
* [[International Symbol of Accessibility]]
* [[Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration Server|Internet Security and Acceleration Server]], a Microsoft server product
* [[Israel Space Agency]]
* [[Irish Sailing Association]] (National governing body for sailing in Ireland)
* [[Italian Space Agency]]
See also:
* [[Isa]] Jesus in Islam.
* [[Mount Isa, Queensland]]
* [[Isa (album)]] (2004), an album by [[Enslaved (band)|Enslaved]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:Isa]]
[[es:ISA]]
[[fr:ISA]]
[[nl:ISA]]
[[ja:ISA]]
[[pl:ISA]]
[[sk:ISA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Seabed Authority</title>
<id>15028</id>
<revision>
<id>26973970</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-31T13:40:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pharos</username>
<id>111996</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Category:Mining law and governance</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:isalogo.gif|right]]
The '''International Seabed Authority''' is an intergovernmental body established to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, an area underlying most of the world&rsquo;s [[ocean]]s. It is an autonomous organization having a relationship agreement with the [[United Nations]].
The Authority, in existence since 1994, was established and its tasks were defined by the 1982 [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]], as refined by the 1994 Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI (seabed provisions) of the Convention. The Convention defines this deep seabed area and its resources as &ldquo;the common heritage of mankind&rdquo;. The Authority has 138 member states, its membership consisting of all parties to the Law of the [[Sea]] Convention.
Two principal organs establish the policies and govern the work of the Authority: the Assembly, in which all members are represented, and a 36-member Council elected by the Assembly. Council members are chosen according to a formula designed to ensure equitable representation of countries from various groups, including those engaged in seabed mineral exploration and the land-based producers of minerals found on the seabed. The Authority holds one annual session, usually of two weeks duration. Its eighth session was held in August 2002; its ninth session is scheduled for July/August 2003.
The Authority operates by contracting with private and public corporations and other entities authorizing them to explore, and eventually exploit, specified areas on the deep seabed for mineral resources. The Convention also established a body called the Enterprise which is to serve as the Authority&rsquo;s own mining operator, but no concrete steps have been taken to bring this into being.
The Authority&rsquo;s sole substantive accomplishment to date has been the adoption in 2000 of regulations governing exploration for polymetallic nodules. These resources, also called |
rks.nsf/ParkContent/N0503?Opendocument&ParkKey=N0503&Type=xo | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.fromthewilderness.com.764}} {{cite web | title=The Peak in U.S. Coal Production | url=http://www.fromthewilderness.com/free/ww3/052504_coal_peak.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.eia.doe.gov.765}} {{cite web | title=International Energy Annual 2003: Reserves | url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/iea/res.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.iea.org.766}} {{cite web | title=IEA Publications Bookshop | url=http://www.iea.org/dbtw-wpd/bookshop/add.aspx?id=144 | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
[[Category:Coal|*]]
[[Category:Sedimentary rocks]]
[[Category:economic geology]]
[[bg:Каменни въглища]]
[[ca:Carbó]]
[[cs:Uhlí]]
[[cy:Glo]]
[[de:Kohle]]
[[es:Carbón]]
[[fi:Kivihiili]]
[[fr:Houille]]
[[gl:Carbón]]
[[he:פחם אבן]]
[[io:Karbono]]
[[it:Carbone (roccia)]]
[[ja:石炭]]
[[nl:Steenkool]]
[[no:Kull]]
[[pl:Węgiel]]
[[pt:Carvão mineral]]
[[sl:Premog]]
[[ta:நிலக்கரி]]
[[zh:煤炭]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chuck Palahniuck</title>
<id>5989</id>
<revision>
<id>15904155</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-24T13:33:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eclecticology</username>
<id>372</id>
</contributor>
<comment>spelling corrected</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Chuck Palahniuk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Traditional Chinese medicine</title>
<id>5992</id>
<revision>
<id>41524703</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:05:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brossow</username>
<id>483309</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clean up + bad link repair. [[Wikipedia:Bad links|You can help!]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChineseMedicine-HK.JPG|thumb|right|300px|TCM shop in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong.]]
'''Traditional Chinese medicine''' (TCM) also known simply as '''Chinese medicine''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 中醫學, zhōngyī xué, or 中藥學, zhōngyaò xué) is the name commonly given to a range of [[traditional medicine|traditional medical]] practices used in [[China]] that have developed over the course of several thousand years of history. It is also regarded as an instance of '''oriental medicine''', a term which may include other traditional Asian medical systems such as [[Kampo|Japanese]], [[Traditional Korean medicine|Korean]],
[[Traditional Tibetan medicine|Tibetan]], and [[Traditional Mongolian medicine|Mongolian]] medicine. Chinese medicine principally employs a method of analysis and synthesis, inquiring on a macro-level into the internal systems of the human body and their mutual relationships with the internal and external environment in an attempt to gain an understanding of the fundamental laws which govern the functioning of the human organism, and to apply this understanding to the treatment and prevention of disease, and health maintenance. TCM is rooted in a unique, comprehensive and systematic theoretical structure which includes the Theory of the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]], the human body [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|Meridian]] system, [[Yin-yang]] and other systems. Treatment is conducted with reference to this philosophical framework.
==Uses==
In the [[West]],
TCM is often considered [[alternative medicine]]; however, in [[mainland China]] and [[Taiwan]], TCM is widely considered to be an integral part of the health care [[system]]. The term TCM is sometimes used specifically within the field of Chinese
medicine to refer to the standardized set of theories and practices
introduced in the mid-[[20th century]] under the government of [[Mao Zedong|Mao]], as
distinguished from related traditional theories and practices preserved by people in Taiwan, [[Hong Kong]] and by the [[overseas Chinese]]. The more general sense is meant in this article.
TCM developed as a form of noninvasive therapeutic intervention (also described as [[folk medicine]] or [[traditional medicine]]) rooted in ancient belief systems, including traditional religious concepts. Chinese medical practitioners before the [[19th century]] relied on observation, trial and error, which incorporated certain mystical concepts. Like their Western counterparts, doctors of TCM had a limited understanding of infection, which predated the discovery of [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[virus]]es ([[germ theory of disease]]) and an understanding of [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular structures and [[organic chemistry]]. Instead they relyed mainly on observation and description on the nature of infections for creating remedies. Based on theories formulated through three millennia of observation and practical experience, a system of procedure was formed as to guide a TCM practitioner in courses of treatment and diagnosis.
Unlike other forms of traditional medicine which have largely become extinct, traditional Chinese medicine continues as a distinct branch of modern medical practice, and within [[China]], it is an important part of the [[public health]] care system. There are thousands of years of [[empirical knowledge]] about TCM conceptualized and recorded in terms appropriate to that system, and in recent decades there has been an effort to integrate the discoveries made by traditional Chinese medicine with the discoveries made by workers in the Western medical traditions. One important component of this work is to use the instrumentation and the methodological tools available via Western medicine to investigate observations made and hypotheses raised by the Chinese tradition.
That this effort has occurred is surprising to many for a number of reasons. In most of the world, [[traditional medicine|indigenous medical practices]] have been supplanted by practices brought from the West, while in Chinese societies, this has not occurred and shows no sign of occurring. Furthermore, many have found it peculiar that Chinese medicine remains a distinct branch of medicine separate from Western medicine, while the same has not happened with other intellectual fields. There is, for example, no longer a distinct branch of Chinese [[physics]] or Chinese [[biology]].
TCM is used by some to treat the side effects of [[chemotherapy]], treating the cravings and withdrawal symptoms of [[drug addiction|drug addicts]] and treating a variety of [[chronic]] conditions that [[conventional medicine]] is claimed to be sometimes ineffective in treating. TCM has also been used to treat [[antibiotic]]-resistant infection
A report issued by the Victorian state government in Australia states that:
:Graduates from TCM university courses are able to diagnose in western medical terms, prescribe western pharmaceuticals, and undertake minor surgical procedures. In effect, they practise TCM as a specialty within the broader organisation of Chinese health care. [http://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/pdpd/chinese/report/8.htm]
== TCM theory ==
There are many schools of thought on which TCM is based. Because of this, the foundation principles of Chinese medicine are not necessarily uniform. Received TCM can be shown to be most influenced by [[Taoism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Neo-Confucianism]].
For over 3000 years ([[1200 BC]] - present), Chinese academics of various schools have focused on the observable natural laws of the universe and their implications for the practical characterisation of humanity's place in the universe. In the [[I Ching]] and other Chinese literary and philosophical classics, they have described some general principles and their applications to health and healing:
*'''There are observable principles of constant phenomenal change by which the Universe is maintained.'''
**Man is part of the universe and cannot be separated from the universal process of change.
*'''As a result of these apparently inescapable primordial principles, the Universe (and every process therein) tends to eventually balance itself.'''
**Optimum health should result from living as harmoniously as possible with the spontaneous process of change tending towards balance. If there is no change (stagnation), or too much change (catastrophism), balance is increasingly lost and illnesses can occur.
*'''Everything is ultimately interconnected.'''
**Always use a systemic approach when addressing imbalances.
TCM is therefore largely based on the [[philosophy|philosophical]] concept that the human body is a small universe with a set of complete and sophisticated interconnected systems. Those systems usually work in balance to maintain the healthy function of the human body. The [[Yin Yang|balance]] is described as necessarily including [[Qi|qi]], [[Blood|blood]], [[Jing (TCM)|jing]], [[Body fluids|bodily fluids]], the [[Five Elements|wu xing]], [[emotion]]s, and [[soul|spirit]] ([[Shen|shen]]). TCM has a unique [[TCM model of the body|model of the body]], notably concerned with the [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridian system]]. TCM isn't monolithic, however, and there are from minor to significant regional and philosophical differences between practitioners and schools which in turn can lead to differences in practice and theory.
==TCM diagnostics==
The basics of TCM diagnostics are: observe (望 wàng), hear and smell (聞 wén), ask about background (問 wèn) and read the pulse (切 qiè). Then a diagnosis is made using a system to classify the symptoms.
Systems of diagnosis include:
*[[Yin or Yang]]
*[[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five elements]]
*[[eight principles]]
*[[Zang Fu theory]]
*[[Meridian (Chinese medicine)]]
*[[Six levels]]
*[[four stages]]
*[[Three jiaos]]
And a modern cross that is not formal but in China TCM diagnosis is being very heavily influenced by and integrated with western diagnostic thought moving towards total integration of the two systems. |
lliam and Mary laid careful plans over a number of months for an invasion. Landing with a large Dutch army at [[Brixham]], [[Devon]] on [[November 5]], [[1688]], William was greeted with much popular support, and local men joined his army. Meanwhile, in the North, many nobles also declared for William. James's forward forces gathered at [[Salisbury]], and James went to join them on [[November 19]]. It rapidly became apparent that the troops were not eager to fight, and the loyalties of many of James's commanders were doubtful. A skirmish at [[Wincanton]], [[Somerset]], around this time saw the first bloodshed, with Royalist troops defeating a small party of scouts and then retreating; the total body count from both sides was approximately 15. In Salisbury a worried James was afflicted by a sudden serious nose bleed, which he took as an evil [[omen]] that led him to decide to order a general retreat of his army. On [[November 23]], [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|John Baron Churchill]], one of James's chief commanders, deserted to William. A few days later, James's own daughter, Princess [[Anne of Great Britain|Anne]], did the same. Both were serious losses. James returned to London on [[November 26]]. By [[December 4]], William's forces were at Salisbury; by [[December 7]] they had reached [[Hungerford]], where they met with the King's Commissioners to negotiate. In reality, by that point James was simply playing for time as he already had decided to flee abroad. Convinced that his army was unreliable, he sent orders to disband it. [[December 10]] saw the second engagement between the two sides with the [[Battle of Reading (1688)|Battle of Reading]], a defeat for the King's men.
[[December 11]] saw James attempt to escape, dropping [[Great Seal of the Realm|The Great Seal]] in the [[Thames]] along the way. However, he was captured by fishermen near [[Sheerness]] on the [[Isle of Sheppey]]. The same night witnessed mass panic in [[London]] in what was later termed [[Irish night]]. Rumours of an impending Irish army attack on London gripped the capital, and mobs rioted and looted the houses of Catholics and several foreign embassies.
Upon returning to London a few days later, James was welcomed by cheering crowds. He took heart at this, and attempted to recommence government, even presiding over a meeting of the [[Privy Council]]. Then he received a request from William to remove himself from London. James went under Dutch guard to [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in [[Kent]] on [[December 18]], just as William entered London. James then escaped to [[France]] on [[December 23]]. The lax guard on James and the decision to allow him so near the coast indicates that William might have hoped that a successful escape would avoid the difficulty of deciding what to do with him, especially with the memory of the execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] still strong. By fleeing, James helped ensure that William's grip was secure.
===William made King===
In [[1689]], the [[Convention Parliament]] convened and declared that James's flight amounted to [[abdication]]. William and Mary were offered the throne as joint rulers, an arrangement which they accepted (William demanded the title of king: this demand by England's former enemy made more persuasive by his military advantage). On [[February 13]], 1689, Mary II and William III jointly acceded to the throne of England. Although their succession to the English throne was relatively peaceful, much blood would be shed before William's authority was accepted in Ireland and Scotland.
===Jacobite Uprisings===
''main article [[Williamite war in Ireland]], [[Jacobite Risings]]''
James had cultivated support on the fringes of his Three Kingdoms - in Catholic Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. Supporters of James, known as '''Jacobites''' there were prepared to resist what they saw as an illegal coup by force of arms. An uprising occurred in support of James in Scotland in 1689, the first [[Jacobite rebellion]], led by [[John Graham of Claverhouse]] known as "Bonnie Dundee", who raised an army from Highlands [[clans]]. In Ireland, local Catholics led by [[Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell]], who had been discriminated against by previous English monarchs, took all the fortified places in the kingdom except [[Derry]] to hold the Kingdom for James. James himself landed in Ireland with 6000 French troops to try to regain the throne in the [[Williamite war in Ireland]]. The war raged from [[1689]]&ndash;[[1691]]. James fled Ireland following a humiliating defeat at the [[Battle of the Boyne]], but Jacobite resistance was not ended until after the [[battle of Aughrim]] in 1691, when over half of their army was killed or taken prisoner. The Irish Jacobites surrendered at the [[Treaty of Limerick]] on October 3rd 1691. England stayed relatively calm throughout, although some English Jacobites fought on his side in Ireland. The Jacobite uprising in the [[Scottish Highlands]] was quelled despite the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] victory at the [[Battle of Killiecrankie]], due to death of their leader, Claverhouse.
The events of 1688 and their aftermath can thus be seen as much more of a ''[[coup d'état]]'', achieved by (largely Dutch) force of arms than an authentic revolution. Many, particularly in Ireland and Scotland, continued to see the [[Stuarts]] as the legitimate monarchs of the Three Kingdoms and there were further Jacobite rebellions in [[1715]] and [[1745]] in Scotland.
==Legacy==
The Glorious Revolution was one of the most important events in the long evolution of powers possessed by Parliament and by the Crown in England. With the passage of the [[English Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], it stamped out any final possibility of a Catholic monarchy, and ended moves towards [[absolute monarchy|monarchical absolutism]] in the British Isles by circumscribing the monarch's powers. The King's powers were greatly restricted; he could no longer suspend laws, levy taxes, or maintain a standing army during peacetime without Parliament's permission. Since 1689, England, and later the [[United Kingdom]], has been governed under a system of [[constitutional monarchy]], which has been uninterrupted. Since then, Parliament has gained more and more power, and the Crown has progressively lost it.
The success of the revolution came three years after the failure of the [[Monmouth Rebellion]] to overthrow the king.
The [[Williamite]] victory in Ireland is still commemorated by the [[Orange Order]] for preserving British and Protestant dominance in the country.
==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/charles_ii_king.shtml BBC History: Charles II]
*[http://www.thegloriousrevolution.org The Glorious Revolution of 1688]
*[http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/quinn.revolution.1688 Economic analysis of the Glorious Revolution from EH.NET]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13007b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
*http://www.open2.net/civilwar/6.3.aftershocks.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_%28against_food_wastage%29
[[Category:Revolutions]]
[[Category:1688]]
[[Category:History of Britain]]
[[Category:Invasions of England]]
[[de:Glorious Revolution]]
[[fr:Glorieuse Révolution]]
[[he:המהפכה המהוללת]]
[[ja:名誉革命]]
[[nl:Glorious Revolution]]
[[no:Den ærerike revolusjon]]
[[pt:Revolução Gloriosa]]
[[ru:Славная революция]]
[[fi:Mainio vallankumous]]
[[sv:Ärorika revolutionen]]
[[uk:Знаменита революція]]
[[zh:光荣革命]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genscher</title>
<id>12467</id>
<revision>
<id>15910153</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-27T00:46:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirecting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hans-Dietrich Genscher]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Great Lakes Colleges Association</title>
<id>12468</id>
<revision>
<id>27296382</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-03T23:38:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bkonrad</username>
<id>44062</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm ambiguity</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GLCA.gif|right|Great Lake Colleges Association logo]]
The '''Great Lakes Colleges Association''', Inc. (GLCA), is a consortium of twelve [[liberal arts college]]s located in the [[U.S. state]]s of [[Michigan]], [[Ohio]] and [[Indiana]]. It was chartered in the state of Michigan and incorporated as a 501(c)(3) [[non-profit organization]] in [[1962]]. The GLCA offices are located in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]].
* [[Albion College]]
* [[Antioch College]]
* [[Denison University]]
* [[DePauw University]]
* [[Earlham College]]
* [[Hope College]]
* [[Kalamazoo College]]
* [[Kenyon College]]
* [[Oberlin College]]
* [[Ohio Wesleyan University]]
* [[Wabash College]]
* [[The College of Wooster]]
==External links==
*[http://www.glca.org/ GLCA official site]
{{GLCA}}
[[Category:Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in the United States]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goidelic languages</title>
<id>12469</id>
<revision>
<id>40585500</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:09:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alexander 007</username>
<id>493689</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Other Celtic languages */ dab</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language family
|name=Goidelic
|altname=Gaelic
|region=[[Ireland]], [[Scotland]], [[Isle of Man]]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
|fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
|child1=[[Irish language|Irish]]
|child2=[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
|child3 |
hdate (#PCDATA) >
<!ELEMENT gender (#PCDATA) >
<!ELEMENT socialsecuritynumber (#PCDATA) >
Taking this line by line, it says:
# A '''"people_list"''' element contains any number of '''"person"''' elements. The '''"*"''' denotes there can be 0 or more '''"person"''' elements within the '''"people_list"''' element.
# A '''"person"''' element contains the elements '''"name"''', '''"birthdate"''', '''"gender"''' and '''"socialsecuritynumber"'''. The '''"?"''' indicates that an element is optional. The '''"name"''' element does not have a '''"?"''', so a '''"person"''' element ''must'' contain a '''"name"''' element.
# A '''"name"''' element contains data.
# A '''"birthdate"''' element contains data.
# A '''"gender"''' element contains data.
# A '''"socialsecuritynumber"''' element contains data.
An example of an XML file which makes use of and conforms to this DTD follows. It assumes the DTD is identifiable by the relative URI reference "example.dtd":
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE people_list SYSTEM "example.dtd">
<people_list>
<person>
<name>Fred Bloggs</name>
<birthdate>27/11/2008</birthdate>
<gender>Male</gender>
</person>
</people_list>
It is possible to [[render]] this in an XML-enabled [[web browser|browser]] (such as [[Internet Explorer|IE5]] or [[Mozilla]]) by pasting and saving the DTD component above to a text file named ''example.dtd'' and the XML file to a differently-named text file, and opening the XML file with the browser. The files should both be saved in the same directory. However, many browsers do not check that an XML document conforms to the rules in the DTD; they are only required to check that the DTD is syntactically correct. For security reasons, they may also choose not to read the external DTD.
==DTD criticisms and alternatives==
While DTD support in XML tools is widespread due to its inclusion in the XML 1.0 standard, it is seen as limited for the following reasons:
* No support for newer features of XML &mdash; most importantly, namespaces.
* Lack of expressivity. Certain formal aspects of an XML document cannot be captured in a DTD.
* Custom non-XML syntax to describe the schema, inherited from SGML. (namely 'Extended Backus Naur Form')
Three newer XML schema languages that are much more powerful are increasingly favored over DTDs:
*[[XML Schema]], also referred to as [[XML Schema Definition]] (XSD), has achieved Recommendation status within the W3C.
*[[RELAX NG]], which is also a part of [[DSDL]], is an ISO international standard.
*[[Document Structure Description]] (DSD), the most expressive of all major schema languages, yet very easy to use.
== See also ==
* [[Document Type Declaration]]
* [[Semantic Web]]
== External links ==
* [http://xml.silmaril.ie/ The XML FAQ] has some DTD-specific entries
* [http://www.w3schools.com/dtd/default.asp DTD Tutorial from W3schools]
* [http://www.zvon.org/xxl/DTDTutorial/General/book.html Zvon DTD Tutorial] - in 7 languages
* [http://www.editix.com DTD Editor]
* [http://xmlzoo.net/xml/dtd Interactive DTD tutorial] from XMLzoo
* [http://gutfeldt.ch/matthias/articles/doctypeswitch/table.html Different doctypes for HTML]
* [http://www.xmlpatterns.com/ XMLPatterns.com - Design Patterns for developing DTDs]
[[Category:XML-based standards]]
[[de:Dokumenttypdefinition]]
[[es:DTD]]
[[eo:Dokumento-Speco-Difino]]
[[fr:Document Type Definition]]
[[it:DTD]]
[[nl:Document Type Definition]]
[[ja:Document Type Definition]]
[[no:Document Type Definition]]
[[nn:Dokumenttypedefinisjon]]
[[pl:DTD]]
[[ru:DTD]]
[[sv:DTD]]
[[zh:文件类型描述]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dail</title>
<id>8538</id>
<revision>
<id>15906522</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-26T09:13:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.167.130.30</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Snap redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dáil Éireann]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Devil</title>
<id>8539</id>
<revision>
<id>41991464</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:11:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Splash</username>
<id>285145</id>
</contributor>
<comment>unsprot: plenty long enough to rid us of a vandal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Many scholars believe humanity was first introduced to [[angel]]ology as well as '''The Devil''' and [[demonology]], by the Iranian (Persian) prophet [[Zoroaster]], that would later single-handedly influence [[Judeo-Christian]] beliefs. This is discussed in more detail below.
'''The Devil''' is the name given to a [[supernatural]] entity, who, in most [[Western culture|Western]] [[religion]]s, is the central embodiment of [[evil]]. This entity is commonly referred to by a variety of other names, including [[Satan]], [[Asmodai]], [[Beelzebub]], [[Lucifer]] and/or [[Mephistopheles]]. In classic [[demonology]], however, each of these alternate names refers to a specific supernatural entity, and there is significant disagreement as to whether any of these specific entities is actually evil.
The [[English language|English]] word ''devil'' derives from the [[Middle English]] ''devel'', from [[Old English]] ''dēofol'', from Latin ''Diábolus'', from Late Greek ''Diabolos'', meaning, '''slanderer''', from ''diaballein'', to slander: ''dia-'', across + ''ballein'', to hurl. The term ''devil'' can refer to a greater [[demon]] in the hierarchy of [[Hell]].
In other languages ''devil'' may be derived from the same [[Indo-European]] root word for ''deva'', which roughly translates as "[[angel]]". However, a "deva" or "diva" is not a devil.
[[Image:raising-the-devil.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Raising the devil]]
As mentioned on the first paragraph, some scholars believe that the notion of a central supernatural embodiment of evil, as well as the notion of angels, first arose in Western [[monotheism]] when [[Judaism]] came into contact with the Persian religion of [[Zoroastrianism]]. Much like classical monotheism, Zoroastrianism has one supreme [[God]], and an evil spirit who ''chose'' to be evil, locked in a cosmic struggle where both are more or less evenly matched, though from the beginning [[Ahura Mazda]]'s triumph is foretold; making Zoroastrianism an ''ethical dualism''. Ahura Mazda ("Wise Lord"), also later known as [[Ormazd]] in [[Middle Persian]], is the God of light, or Truth, and [[Angra Mainyu]] ("Evil Spirit"), also later known as [[Ahriman]] in Middle Persian, is the primeval Spirit of darkness, or the Lie. In a final battle between the forces of good and evil, human [[soul]]s will be judged in a fiery ordeal of molten metal where the good will pass through as if it were warm milk and those who chose evil will be purified and all will be reunited in the new perfected world. Accordingly, humans are urged to align themselves with Ormazd and his [[Yazata]]s ("angels") and to shun His adversary who is the ruler of darkness and his demons, so that they may facilitate the final renovation (Frashō-kereti).
[[Christianity]] views Satan as an angel cast from heaven by [[God]], who was prideful, deceitful, and the tempter: all strikingly similar to the story of [[Ahriman]].
==Concept of the devil in world religions==
===Christianity===
[[Christianity]] understands the Devil in the context of the [[Old Testament]]. Unlike [[Manichaeism]] which teaches a coeval [[dualism]], Christians see the devil as a corrupted or [[fallen angel]]. He was [[Lucifer]], an angel in authority before the [[Creation (theology)|Creation]] who fell because of pride and because he waged a war against [[God]]. ''The key fact in understanding the devil is that he was originally a holy being who was corrupted by [[pride]]''.
[[Thomas Aquinas]], in his ''[[Summa Theologiae]]'', said:
<blockquote>"An angel or any other rational creature considered in his own nature, can sin; and to whatever creature it belongs not to sin, such creature has it as a gift of grace, and not from the condition of nature. The reason of this is, because ''sinning is nothing else than a deviation from that rectitude which an act ought to have''; whether we speak of sin in nature, art, or morals. That act alone, the rule of which is the very virtue of the agent, can never fall short of rectitude. Were the craftsman's hand the rule itself engraving, he could not engrave the wood otherwise than rightly; but if the rightness of engraving be judged by another rule, then the engraving may be right or faulty." (ST I.63.1, italics added)</blockquote>
Commonly-quoted [[Bible]]-texts are:
<blockquote>The grave below is all astir to meet you at your coming; it rouses the spirits of the departed to greet you &mdash; all those who were leaders in the world; it makes them rise from their thrones &mdash; all those who were kings over the nations.
They will all respond, they will say to you, "You also have become weak, as we are; you have become like us."
All your pomp has been brought down to the grave, along with the noise of your harps; maggots are spread out beneath you and worms cover you.
How you have fallen from heaven, O morning star, son of the dawn! You have been cast down to the earth, you who once laid low the nations!
You said in your heart, "I will ascend to heaven; I will raise my throne above the stars of God; I will sit enthroned on the mount of assembly, on the utmost heights of the sacred mountain.
I will ascend above the tops of the clouds; I will make myself like |
of Julius Graecinus and his wife Julia Procilla. Agricola was married to [[Domitia Decidiana]], with whom he had a daughter [[Julia Agricola]] who married the historian [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]]. His son-in-law chronicled his career in a book entitled ''[[Agricola (book)|De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae]]'' and was one of his great supporters.
His career started as a military tribune in Britain from [[58]] to [[62]], in the staff of governor [[Gaius Suetonius Paullinus]]. Returning to Rome, Agricola served as tribune of the plebs in [[66]], following with a [[praetor]]ship two years later. In [[69]] Agricola was appointed legate to the governor of Britain [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]] and commander of the [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|twentieth legion (''Valeria victrix'')]]. When Cerialis left the province, Agricola was appointed governor of the province of [[Gallia Aquitania]]. This promotion was accompanied by an elevation to the status of [[patrician]]. After some peaceful years in Gaul, Agricola was named [[consul|consul suffect]] in [[77]], and, in the following year, chosen as [[List of Roman governors of Britain|governor of Britain]]. As governor, he subdued [[Wales]] and northern England before invading [[Scotland]], where at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]] he defeated the [[Caledonia]]ns, the last undefeated tribe in Scotland. During this time, his fleet circumnavigated Britain. After an extraordinarily long tenure in Britain, he was recalled to Rome in 85; Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germany. The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue (the highest military honors apart from an actual [[Roman triumph|triumph]]); on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post, in spite of his experience and renown. He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa, but declined it, whether due to ill health or (as Tacitus claims) the machinations of Domitian. He died in 93.
{{sequence|
prev=[[Sextus Julius Frontinus]]|
next=[[Sallustius Lucullus]]|
list=[[Roman governors of Britain]]|
}}
[[Category:40 births |Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[Category:93 deaths |Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans|Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[Category:Roman governors of Britain|Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[Category:Roman generals|Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[Category:Romans in Britain|Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[de:Gnaeus Iulius Agricola]]
[[es:Cneo Julio Agrícola]]
[[eo:Gnaeus Julius AGRICOLA]]
[[fr:Julius Agricola]]
[[la:Iulius Agricola]]
[[nl:Gnaius Julius Agricola]]
[[no:Gnaeus Julius Agricola]]
[[pl:Juliusz Agrykola]]
[[ru:Агрикола, Гней Юлий]]
[[sr:Гнеј Јулије Агрикола]]
[[fi:Gnaeus Julius Agricola]]
[[uk:Агрікола Гней Юлій]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files</title>
<id>12409</id>
<revision>
<id>15910097</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-07T22:01:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Snow</username>
<id>34289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[m:Historical Wikipedia pages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/Proposed GNU Moderation System</title>
<id>12410</id>
<revision>
<id>15910098</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-12T23:06:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Snow</username>
<id>34289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[m:Proposed GNU Moderation System]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/GNU Encyclopedia Tech FAQ</title>
<id>12411</id>
<revision>
<id>15910099</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-14T22:21:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">Moved to [[meta:GNU Encyclopedia Tech FAQ]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/GNE Architecture</title>
<id>12412</id>
<revision>
<id>15910100</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-14T22:17:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">Moved to [[meta:GNE Architecture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/Preliminary DTD</title>
<id>12413</id>
<revision>
<id>15910101</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-14T22:19:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">Moved to [[meta:GNE Preliminary DTD]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/GNE Project Design</title>
<id>12414</id>
<revision>
<id>15910102</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-12T23:03:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Snow</username>
<id>34289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[m:GNE Project Design]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/Project Name</title>
<id>12415</id>
<revision>
<id>15910103</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-14T22:22:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">Moved to [[meta:GNU Encyclopedia Project Name]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guanosine</title>
<id>12417</id>
<revision>
<id>40173976</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T19:04:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Guanosine.jpg|frame|The chemical structure of Guanosine]]
'''Guanosine''' is a [[nucleoside]] comprising [[guanine]] attached to a [[ribose]] ([[ribofuranose]]) ring via a &beta;-N<sub>9</sub>-[[glycosidic bond]].
Guanosine can be phosphorylated to become GMP ([[guanosine_monophosphate|guanosine monophosphate]]), cGMP ([[Cyclic_guanosine_monophosphate|cyclic guanosine monophosphate]]), GDP ([[guanosine_diphosphate|guanosine diphosphate]]) and GTP ([[guanosine_triphosphate|guanosine triphosphate]]).
When [[guanine]] is attached to a [[deoxyribose]] ring, it is known as a [[deoxyguanosine]].
{{Nucleic acids}}
[[Category:Nucleosides]]
[[fr:Guanosine]]
[[lt:Guanozinas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gamma rays</title>
<id>12418</id>
<revision>
<id>15910106</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-07T14:51:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[gamma ray]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[gamma ray]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gödel's ontological proof</title>
<id>12420</id>
<revision>
<id>38494973</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T19:01:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.233.22.111</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Derivation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gödel's ontological proof''' is a formalization of [[Anselm of Canterbury|Saint Anselm's]] [[ontological argument]] for [[God]]'s existence by the mathematician [[Kurt Gödel]].
St. Anselm's [[ontology|ontological]] argument, in its most succinct form, is as follows: "God, by definition, is that than which a greater cannot be thought. God exists in the understanding. If God exists in the understanding, we could imagine Him to be greater by existing in [[reality]]. Therefore, God must exist." A more elaborate version was given by [[Gottfried Leibniz]]; this is the version that Gödel studied and attempted to clarify with his ontological [[logical argument|argument]].
While Gödel was [[religion|religious]], he never published his
proof because he feared that it would be mistaken as establishing
God's existence beyond [[doubt]]. Instead, he only saw it as a [[logic|logical]]
investigation and a clean formulation of Leibniz' argument with all
[[assumption|assumptions]] spelled out. He repeatedly showed the argument to friends around [[1970]]; it was published in [[1987]], nine years after his death.
An outline of the [[mathematical_proof|proof]] follows.
==Modal logic==
The proof uses [[modal logic]], which distinguishes between ''necessary'' truths and ''contingent'' truths.
A [[truth]] is necessary if it cannot be avoided, such as 2 + 2 = 4;
by contrast, a contingent truth just happens to be the case,
for instance "more than half of the earth is covered by water".
In the most common interpretation of modal logic, one considers "all possible worlds". If a statement is true in all possible worlds, then it is a necessary truth. If a statement happens to be true in our world, but is not true in all other worlds, then it is a contingent truth. A statement that is true in some world (not necessarily our own) is called a ''[[logically possible|possible]]'' truth.
A ''property'' assigns to each [[object]], in every possible world, a truth value (either true or false). Note that not all worlds have the same objects: some objects exist in some worlds and not in others. A property has only to assign truth values to those objects that exist in a particular world. As an example, consider the property
:''P''(''x'') = ''x'' is grey
and consider the object
:''s'' = my shirt
In our world, ''P''(''s'') is true because my shirt happens to be grey; in some other world, ''P''(''s'') is false, while in st |
Romania]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alexandria, Indiana</title>
<id>3082</id>
<revision>
<id>40587152</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:24:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Violent x Muse</username>
<id>712255</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}
{{Infobox City-NoFlag |
official_name = City of Alexandria, Indiana |
nickname = Small Town USA |
image_flag =|
image_seal =|
image_map = US-IN-Alexandria.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Madison County, Indiana|Madison]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = Steven Skaggs |
area_note =|
area_magnitude = 1 E6 |
area_total = 7.0 |
area_land = 7.0 |
area_water = 0.0 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note =|
population_total = 6,260 |
population_density = 891.9 |
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset = &minus;5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset_DST = &minus;5 |
latitude = 40&deg;15'47&quot; N |
longitude = 85&deg;40'35&quot; W |
website =|
footnotes =|
}}
'''Alexandria''' is a city located in [[Madison County, Indiana]]. The population was 715 in [[1890]], 7,221 in [[1900]] out of which 1,002 were foreign-born, and 5,096 in [[1910]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 6,260. It is about 46 miles northeast of [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]].
Alexandria is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Lake Erie & Western railways. In the city are a Carnegie library and Beulah Park of 24 acres (97,000 m&sup2;) & home of the Madison County "4H Fair". The city is located in rich farm country, which produces [[maize|Indian corn]], [[oat]]s and [[wheat]]; and is in the [[Indiana]] [[natural gas]] region, to which fact it owes its growth as a manufacturing centre. It was one of the principal seats of the [[glass]]
industry in Indiana-- plate glass, lamp chimneys, mirrors, &c., were once manufactured here. The municipality owns and operates the water-works as well as the city schools. Alexandria was founded in [[1836]] and was chartered as a city in [[1893]].
Alexandria is also known as "Small Town USA" and holds an annual festival to honor this heritage.
Famous residents include [[Bill and Gloria Gaither]], winners of four Grammys.
Alexandria is home to what is lauded by the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] as the world's largest ball of paint.
== Geography ==
Alexandria is located at 40&deg;15'47" North, 85&deg;40'35" West (40.263191, -85.676267){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 7.0 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (2.7 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 7.0 km&sup2; (2.7 mi&sup2;) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 6,260 people, 2,481 households, and 1,654 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 891.9/km&sup2; (2,308.6/mi&sup2;). There are 2,704 housing units at an average density of 385.2/km&sup2; (997.2/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 98.10% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.46% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.08% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.11% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.43% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.80% from two or more races. 0.99% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 2,481 households out of which 33.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 12.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.3% are non-families. 28.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.48 and the average family size is 3.04.
In the city the population is spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 35 years. For every 100 females there are 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.4 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $35,359, and the median income for a family is $42,731. Males have a median income of $30,529 versus $23,384 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $15,578. 7.0% of the population and 4.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 4.1% of those under the age of 18 and 15.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
----
''Some text originally from an old encyclopedia''
== External links ==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.263191|-85.676267}}
[http://ballofpaint.com/ Roadside Ambition]
[[Category:Cities in Indiana]]
[[Category:Madison County, Indiana]]
[[io:Alexandria, Indiana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexandria, Louisiana</title>
<id>3083</id>
<revision>
<id>41621613</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:04:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zoicon5</username>
<id>15789</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Red River]] to [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}
[[Image:LAMap-doton-Alexandria.png|right|Location of Alexandria, Louisiana]]
'''Alexandria''' is a [[city]] in [[Louisiana]], [[United States|U.S.A.]]; it is the [[parish seat]] of [[Rapides Parish, Louisiana|Rapides Parish]], on the south bank of the [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]] in almost the exact geographic center of the state. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 46,342. It is the largest municipality of [[Greater Alexandria]] (population 123,211) along with Pineville, Ball, Boyce, Woodworth, & Lecompte.
== Geography ==
Alexandria is located at {{coor dms|31|17|34|N|92|27|33|W|}}{{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 69.9 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (27.0 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 68.4 km&sup2; (26.4 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 1.5 km&sup2; (0.6 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 2.15% water.
Alexandria is on a level plain in the center of the Louisiana [[Longleaf Pine]] [[forest]]s, in which pine is interspersed with various [[hardwood]]s. In the immediate vicinity of the city, [[cotton]], [[sugar]], [[alfalfa]] and garden vegetables are cultivated.
==History==
Originally home to a community supporting activities of the adjacent Spanish outpost of Post du Rapides, the area developed as a vibrant yet sometimes debaucherous assemblage of traders and merchants in the agricultural lands bordering the mostly unsettled areas to the north, and providing a link to from the south to the [[Old San Antonio Road|El Camino Real]] and then larger settlement of Natchitoches. Alexander Fulton, a Pennsylvania businessman, received a land grant from [[Spain]] in [[1785]] and the first organized settlement was made at that time. In [[1805]]. Fulton and business partner Thomas Harris Maddox laid out the town plan and named the town after Fulton's infant daughter who died around that time. It was first incorporated as a town in [[1818]] and received a city charter in [[1882]].
===The Civil War===
Settled by northerners, home to General Sherman, and having little culturally in common with the majority of the American South, Alexandria found itself in a strange quandary during the American Civil War. Regardless of political inclinations or loyalties to North or South, its location on the [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]] made the city a major Strategic Target. In the spring of [[1863]] a Union fleet under [[David D. Porter|Admiral David D. Porter]], operating on the Red River, co-operated with land forces under General N. P. Banks in pushing the [[Confederate States of America|Confederates]] westward. Alexandria was occupied on [[May 7]], 1863, but the troops were soon withdrawn for the [[Port Hudson]] attack. On [[March 19]], [[1864]] it was again occupied by the Union forces, who made it the point of concentration for another land and naval expedition against [[Kirby Smith|E. Kirby Smith]] and [[Shreveport, Louisiana|Shreveport]]. After the check of this expedition and its abandonment, Alexandria was again vacated on the 12th-13th of May, when the city was almost entirely burned, leaving only a few homes owned by friends of Union General Sherman and the city's Cathedral which had been defended from fire squads by a shotgun wielding bishop at its front door. The Union gunboats, which had passed up the river toward Shreveport at high water, were caught in its decline above the falls at Alexandria, but they were saved by a splendid piece of engineering (a [[dam]] at the falls), constructed by Lieutenant-Colonel [[Joseph Bailey]] ([[1827]]-[[1867]]), who for this service received the thanks of Congress and the [[brevet (military)|brevet]] of brigadier-general of volunteers.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 46,342 people, 17,816 households, and 11,722 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 677.5/km&sup2; (1,754.6/mi&sup2;). There are 19,806 housing units at an average density of 289.6/km&sup2; (749.9/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 42.60% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 54.75% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. |
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ivory-billed Woodpecker</title>
<id>14992</id>
<revision>
<id>40904765</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T20:17:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeff3000</username>
<id>170884</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Ivory-billed Woodpecker
| status = {{StatusCritical}}
| image = Ivorybilledwoodpecker.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Piciformes]]
| familia = [[Picidae]]
| genus = ''[[Campephilus]]''
| species = '''''C. principalis'''''
| binomial = ''Campephilus principalis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}
The '''Ivory-billed Woodpecker''' (''Campephilus principalis'') is a very large and extremely rare member of the [[woodpecker]] [[Scientific classification|family]], ''[[Picidae]]''. It is officially listed as an [[endangered species]], and until recently had widely been considered [[Extinction|extinct]]. However, highly compelling sightings of at least one male bird in [[Arkansas]] in 2004 and 2005 were reported in [[April 2005]] ([http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1114103 abstract]), and audio evidence suggesting the presence of the bird has also been collected. If its rediscovery is confirmed, this would make the Ivory-billed Woodpecker a [[lazarus taxon|lazarus species]].
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is the second-largest woodpecker in the world, slightly smaller than the closely related [[Imperial Woodpecker]] (''C. imperialis'') of western [[Mexico]], another rare species which is very likely to be extinct. It measures from 48 to 53 cm (19 to 21 in) in length and 450 to 570 g (1.0 to 1.25 lb) in weight, with short legs and feet ending in large, curved claws.
The bird is shiny blue-black with extensive white markings on its neck and on both the upper and lower trailing edges of its wings. It has a pure white bill and displays a prominent top crest, red in the male and black in the female. These characteristics distinguish it from the darker-billed [[Pileated Woodpecker]]. Like all woodpeckers, it has a strong and straight chisel-like bill and a long, mobile, hard-tipped, barbed [[tongue]]. Its drum is a single or double rap, and its alarm call, a ''kent'' or ''hant'', sounds like a toy [[trumpet]] repeated in a series or as a double note.
The reason for the species' decline was primarily due to [[loss of habitat]] and also hunting by collectors. Even if the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is not extinct, most believe that only a handful could still be living.
== Habitat and diet ==
Ivory-billeds are known to prefer thick hardwood swamps and pine [[forest]]s, with large amounts of dead and decaying [[tree]]s. Prior to the [[American Civil War]], much of the [[U.S. Southern states|Southern United States]] was covered in vast tracts of [[Primeval forest|primeval hardwood forests]] that were suitable as habitat for the bird. At that time, the Ivory-billed Woodpecker ranged from east [[Texas]] to [[North Carolina]], and from southern [[Illinois]] to [[Florida]] and [[Cuba]] [http://birds.cornell.edu/ivory/story11.htm]. After the Civil War, the [[logging|timber industry]] [[deforestation|deforested]] millions of acres in the South, leaving only sparse isolated tracts of suitable habitat.
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker feeds mainly on the [[larva|larvae]] of wood-boring [[beetle]]s, but also eats [[seed]]s, [[fruit]], and other [[insect]]s. The bird uses its enormous white bill to hammer, wedge, and peel the bark off dead trees to find the insects. Surprisingly, these birds need about 25 km&sup2; (10 square miles) per pair so they can find enough food to feed their young and themselves. Hence, they occur at low densities even in healthy populations. The more common [[Pileated Woodpecker]] may compete for food with this species.
== Breeding biology==
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is thought to pair for life. Pairs are also known to travel together. These paired birds will mate every year between January and May. Before they have their young, they excavate a nest in a dead or partially dead tree about 8&ndash;15 m up from the ground. Usually 2 to 5 [[Egg (biology)|eggs]] are laid and incubated for 3 to 5 weeks. Both parents sit on the eggs and are involved in taking care of the chicks, with the male taking sole responsibility at night. They feed the chicks for months. About five weeks after the young are born, they learn to fly. Even after the young are able to fly, the parents will continue feeding them for another two months. The whole family will eventually split up in late fall or early winter.
== Conservation status ==
Heavy [[logging]] activity and [[hunting]] by collectors decimated the population of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers in the late [[1800s]]. It was generally considered extinct in the 1920s, when a pair turned up in Florida, only to be shot for specimens.
By 1938, an estimated 20 individuals remained in the wild, located in the old-growth forest called the Singer Tract in [[Louisiana]], where logging rights were held by the Chicago Mill and Lumber Company, which brushed aside pleas from four Southern governors and the [[National Audubon Society]] that the tract be publicly purchased and set aside as a reserve. By 1944 the last known Ivory-billed Woodpecker, a female, was gone from the cut-over tract (''Smithsonian'' p 98).
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker was listed as an [[endangered species]] on [[March 11]] [[1967]], though the only evidence of its existence at the time was a possible recording of its call made in East Texas. The last reported sighting of the [[Cuba]]n subspecies (''C. p. bairdii''), after a long interval, was in 1987; it has not been seen since.
There were occasional scattered reports of the bird, but many [[ornithology|ornithologists]] believed the species had been wiped out completely, and it was assessed as "extinct" by the [[World Conservation Union|International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]] in 1994. This assessment was later altered to "critically endangered" on the grounds that the species could still be extant [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php?species=3712].
==Pearl River expedition==
In [[1999]], there was an unconfirmed sighting of a pair of birds in the [[Pearl River (Mississippi-Louisiana)|Pearl River]] region of southeast [[Louisiana]] by a forestry student, David Kulivan. In a [[2002]] expedition in the forests, swamps, and [[bayou]]s of the Pearl River Wildlife Management Area by [[Louisiana State University]], biologists spent 30 days searching for the bird [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0220_0220_newwoodpecker.html].
In the afternoon of [[January 27]], after ten days, a rapping sound similar to the "double knock" made by the Ivory-billed Woodpecker was heard and recorded. The exact source of the sound was not found because of the swampy terrain, but signs of active woodpeckers were found (i.e., scaled bark and large tree cavities). The expedition was inconclusive, however, as it was determined that the recorded sounds were likely gunshot echoes rather than the distinctive double rap of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker [http://birds.cornell.edu/publications/birdscope/summer2002/ivory_bill_absent.html].
== Rediscovery ==
A group of seventeen authors headed by the [[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]] reported the discovery of at least one Ivory-billed Woodpecker, a male, in the Big Woods area of [[Arkansas]] in 2004 and 2005, publishing the report in the journal [[Science (journal)|''Science'']] on [[April 28]] [[2005]].
One of the authors, who was kayaking in the [[Cache River National Wildlife Refuge]], [[Monroe County, Arkansas]], on [[February 11]] [[2004]], reported on a website the sighting of an unusually large red-crested woodpecker. This report led to more intensive searches there and in the [[White River National Wildlife Refuge]] undertaken in deepest secrecy&mdash;for fear of a stampede of [[bird-watcher]]s&mdash;by experienced observers over the next fourteen months. About fifteen sightings occurred during the period (seven of which were considered compelling enough to mention in the scientific article), possibly all of the same bird. The secrecy permitted [[The Nature Conservancy]] and [[Cornell University]] to quietly buy up Ivory-billed habitat to add to the 120,000 acres (490 km&sup2;) of the Big Woods protected by the Conservancy.
A very large woodpecker was videotaped on [[April 25]] [[2004]]; its size, wing pattern at rest and in flight, and white plumage on its back between the wings were cited as evidence that the woodpecker sighted was an Ivory-billed Woodpecker. That same video included an earlier image of what was believed to be such a bird perching on a [[Water Tupelo]] (''[[Tupelo|Nyssa]] aquatica'').
The report also notes that drumming consistent with that of Ivory-billed Woodpecker had been heard in the region. It describes the potential for a thinly distributed population in the area, though no birds have been located away from the primary site. A current concern is that many bird enthusiasts will rush to the area in an attempt to catch a glimpse of this rare bird. This is exactly what birders have been encouraged not to do by experts to avoid disturbing the birds. There are stories from when the species was more abundant of adult birds abandoning their nests and young simply because they were being watched.
In June 2005, ornithologists at [[Yale University]], the [[University of Kansas]], and [[Florida Gulf Coast University]] submitted a scientific article skeptical of the initial reports of rediscovery. However, after reviewi |
colspan="2" | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Labiodental consonant|Labio-<br/>dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br/>alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}}
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}}
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| &nbsp; || {{IPA|m}}
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || {{IPA|n}}
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Flap consonant|Tap]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || {{IPA|ɾ}}
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}}
| {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}}
| {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|ʒ}}
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| {{IPA|h}} || &nbsp;
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| {{IPA|ʦ}} || &nbsp;
| {{IPA|ʧ}} || &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral approximant]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || {{IPA|l}}
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
! style="font-size: x-small" | [[Approximant]]
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || {{IPA|j}}
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
|}
The accent rule in Ido is regular, but slightly more complex than that of Esperanto: all polysyllables are stressed on the penultimate (second from last) syllable except for verb [[infinitive]]s, which are stressed on the ultimate syllable&mdash;'''sko'''lo, ka'''fe'''o and '''ler'''nas for "school", "coffee" and "learn", but i'''rar''', sa'''var''', and drin'''kar''' for "to go", "to know", and "to drink".
== Grammar ==
Each word in the Ido vocabulary is built from a root word. A root word consists of a root and a grammatical ending. Other words can be formed from that word by removing the grammatical ending and adding a new one, or by inserting certain [[affix]]es between the root and the grammatical ending. As with Esperanto, Ido is grammatically invariable; there are no exceptions in Ido, unlike in natural languages.
Some of the grammatical endings are defined as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | Grammatical form || Ido || Esperanto || English
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Noun|Singular noun]] || ''' -o''' (libro)|| '''-o''' libro || book
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Noun|Plural noun]] || '''-i''' (libri) || '''-oj''' (libroj) || books
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Adjective]] || '''-a''' (varma) || '''-a''' (varma) || warm
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Adverb]] || '''-e''' (varme) || '''-e''' (varme) || warmly
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Infinitive|Present tense infinitive]] || '''-ar''' (irar) || '''-i''' (iri) || to go
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Infinitive|Past tense infinitive]] || '''-ir''' (irir) || N/A || to have gone
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Infinitive|Future tense infinitive]] || '''-or''' (iror) || N/A || to be going to go
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Present tense|Present]] || '''-as''' (iras) || '''-as''' (iras) || go, goes
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Past tense|Past]] || '''-is''' (iris) || '''-is''' (iris) || went
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Future tense|Future]] || '''-os''' (iros) || '''-os''' (iros) || will go
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Imperative]] || '''-ez''' (irez) || '''-u''' (iru) || go!
|-
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | [[Conditional mood|Conditional]] || '''-us''' (irus) || '''-us''' (irus) || would go
|}
These are the same as in Esperanto except for ''-i'', ''-ir''/''-ar''/''-or'' and ''-ez''. Esperanto marks noun plurals by an ''agglutinative'' ending ''-j'' (so plural nouns end in ''-oj''), uses ''-i'' for verb infinitives (Esperanto infinitives are tenseless), and uses ''-u'' for the imperative. Verbs in Ido do not conjugate depending on person, number or gender; the -'''as''', -'''is''', and -'''os''' endings suffice whether the subject is I, you, he, she, they, or anything else.
===Syntax===
Ido word order is generally the same as English ([[subject verb object]]), so the sentence ''Me havas la blua libro'' is the same as the English "I have the blue book", both in meaning and word order. There are a few differences, however:
*Adjectives can be written either before the noun as in English, or after the noun as in [[French language|French]]. Thus, ''Me havas la libro blua'' is also permissible.
*Ido has the optional -n accusative ending that is used when the object of the sentence is not clear, or it may be used to alter word order when desired. ''La blua libron me havas'' is another acceptable way of saying the same thing.
Negation occurs in Ido by simply affixing '''ne''' to the front of a verb: '''Me ne havas libro''' means "I do not have a book". This as well does not vary, and thus the "I do not", "He does not", "They do not" before a verb are simply '''Me ne''', '''Il ne''', and '''Li ne'''. In the same way, past tense and future tense negatives are formed by '''ne''' in front of the conjugated verb. "I will not go" and "I did not go" become '''Me ne iros''' and '''Me ne iris''' respectively.
Yes/no questions are formed by the particle '''ka''' in front of the question. "I have a book" (me havas libro) becomes '''Ka me havas libro?''' (do I have a book?). '''Ka''' can also be placed in front of a noun without a verb to make a simple question, corresponding to the English "is it?" '''Ka Mark?''' can mean "Are you Mark?", "Is it Mark?", "Do you mean Mark?" depending on the context.
===Pronouns===
The [[pronoun]]s of Ido were revised to make them more acoustically distinct than those of Esperanto, which all end in ''i''. Especially the singular and plural first-person pronouns ''mi'' and ''ni'' may be difficult to distinguish in a noisy environment, so Ido has ''me'' and ''ni'' instead. Ido also distinguishes between [[T-V distinction|intimate (''tu'') and formal (''vu'')]] second-person singular pronouns as well as plural second-person pronouns (''vi'') not marked for intimacy. Furthermore, Ido has a pan-gender third-person pronoun ''lu'' (it can mean "he", "she", or "it", depending on the context) in addition to its masculine (''il''), feminine (''el''), and neuter (''ol'') third-person pronouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|+'''Pronouns'''
!rowspan="3"|
!colspan="7" valign="top"|singular
!colspan="6" valign="top"|plural
!rowspan="3" valign="top"|indefinite
|-
!rowspan="2" valign="top"|first
!colspan="2" valign="top"|second
!colspan="4" valign="top"|third
!rowspan="2" valign="top"|first
!rowspan="2" valign="top"|second
!colspan="4" valign="top"|third
|-
!''familiar''
!''formal''
!''masculine''
!''feminine''
!''neuter''
!''pan-gender''
!''masculine''
!''feminine''
!''neuter''
!''pan-gender''
|-
!English
|align="center"|I
|align="center"|thou¹
|align="center"|you¹
|align="center"|he
|align="center"|she
|align="center"|it
|align="center"|he/it
|align="center"|we
|align="center"|you
|align="center"|&nbsp;
|align="center"|&nbsp;
|align="center"|&nbsp;
|align="center"|they
|align="center"|one
|-
!Esperanto
|align="center"|mi
|align="center"|ci¹
|align="center"|vi¹
|align="center"|li
|align="center"|ŝi
|align="center"|ĝi
|align="center"|ĝi²
|align="center"|ni
|align="center"|vi
|align="center"|&nbsp;
|align="center"|&nbsp;
|align="center"|&nbsp;
|align="center"|ili
|align="center"|oni
|-
!Ido
|align="center"|me
|align="center"|tu
|align="center"|vu
|align="center"|il(u)
|align="center"|el(u)
|align="center"|ol(u)
|align="center"|lu
|align="center"|ni
|align="center"|vi
|align="center"|ili
|align="center"|eli
|align="center"|oli
|align="center"|li
|align="center"|on(u)
|}
<small>¹ ''ci'' and ''thou'', while technically the familiar f |
permission to license publishing. Without government approval, printing was not allowed. It is sometimes called [[prior restraint]] when a court or other governmental body prevents a person from speaking or publishing before the act has even taken place, which is sometimes viewed as worse than punishment received after someone speaks, as in libel suits.
Censorship can be explicit, as in laws passed to prevent select positions from being published or propagated (e.g. the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and [[Australia]], where certain Internet pages are not permitted), or it can be implicit, taking the form of intimidation by government, where people are afraid to express or support certain opinions for fear of losing their jobs, their position in society, their credibility, or even their lives. The latter form is similar to [[McCarthyism]].
==Subject matter==
The rationale for censorship is different for various types of data censored. There are five main types:
*'''Moral censorship''' is material that contains questionable ethics. The censoring body disapproves of the values behind the material and limits access to it. An example is [[pornography]].
*'''Military censorship''' is the process of keeping [[military intelligence]] and [[Military tactics|tactics]] confidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter [[espionage]], which is the process of gleaning military information.
*'''Political censorship''' occurs when governments conceal secrets from their citizens. The logic is to prevent the free expression needed to [[revolt]]. [[Democracies]] do not officially approve of political censorship but often endorse it privately. Any dissent against the government is thought to be a “weakness” for the enemy to exploit. Campaign tactics are also kept secret: see the [[Watergate scandal]].
*'''[[Religion|Religious]] censorship''' is the means by which any material objectionable to a certain faith is removed. This often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less dominant ones. Alternatively, one religion may shun the works of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their faith.
*'''Corporate censorship''' is the process by which editors in corporate media outlets intervene to halt the publishing of information which portrays their business or business partners in a negative light. Privately owned corporations, being in the ''business'' of news, sometimes refuse to distribute information due to the potential loss of advertiser revenue or shareholder value which adverse publicity may bring.
== State secrets and unwanted attention==
In [[wartime]], explicit censorship is carried out with the intent of preventing the release of information that might be useful to an [[opposing force|enemy]]. Typically it involves keeping times or locations secret, or delaying the release of information (e.g., an operational objective) until it is of no possible use to enemy forces. The moral issues here are often seen as somewhat different, as release of tactical information usually presents a greater risk of casualties among one's own forces and could possibly lead to loss of the overall conflict. The [[World War II]] catchphrase "Loose lips sink ships" was used as a common justification to exercise official wartime censorship and encourage individual restraint when sharing potentially sensitive information.
A well-known example of sanitization policies comes from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] under [[Stalin]], where publicly used photographs were often altered to remove people whom Stalin had condemned to execution. Though past photographs may have been remembered or kept, this deliberate and systematic alteration of history in the public mind is seen as one of the central themes of [[Stalinism]] and [[totalitarianism]]. More recently, the official exclusion of television crews from locales where coffins of military dead were in transit has been cited as a form of censorship. This particular example obviously represents an incomplete or failed form of censorship, as numerous photographs of these coffins have been printed in newspapers and magazines.
== School textbooks ==
The content of school textbooks is often the issue of debate, since their target audience is young people, and the term "whitewashing" is the one commonly used to refer to selective removal of critical or damaging evidence or comment. The [[historical revisionism (political)|reporting of military atrocities in history]] is extremely controversial, as in the case of the [[Nanking Massacre]], the [[Holocaust]] (or [[Holocaust denial]]), and the [[Winter Soldier Investigation]] of the [[Vietnam War]]. The representation of every society's flaws or misconduct is typically downplayed in favor of a more nationalist, favorable or patriotic view. Also, [[Christian]]s and other religious groups have at times attempted to block the teaching of [[evolution]] in schools, as evolutionary theory appears to contradict their [[religion|religious beliefs]]. In the context of secondary-school education, the way facts and history are presented greatly influences the interpretation of contemporary thought, opinion and socialization. One legitimate argument for censoring the type of information disseminated is based on the inappropriate quality of such material for the young. The use of the "inappropriate" distinction is in itself controversial, as it can lead to a [[slippery slope]] enforcing wider and more politically-motivated censorship.
==Implementation==
Censorship is regarded among a majority of academics in the Western world as a typical feature of [[dictatorship]]s and other [[authoritarian]] political systems. Democratic nations are represented, especially among Western government, academic and media commentators, to have somewhat less institutionalized censorship, and instead are depicted as promoting the importance of [[freedom of speech]]. The former [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] maintained a particularly extensive program of state-imposed censorship. The main organ for official censorship in the [[Soviet Union]] was the ''Chief Agency for Protection of Military and State Secrets'' generally known as the ''Glavlit'', its Russian acronym. The ''Glavlit'' handled censorship matters arising from domestic writings of just about any kind— even beer and vodka labels. ''Glavlit'' censorship personnel were present in every large Soviet publishing house or newspaper; the agency employed some 70,000 censors to review information before it was disseminated by publishing houses, editorial offices, and broadcasting studios. No mass medium escaped ''Glavlit'''s control. All press agencies and radio and television stations had ''Glavlit'' representatives on their editorial staffs.
Some thinkers understand censorship to include other attempts to suppress points of view or the exploitation of negative [[propaganda]], [[media manipulation]], [[Spin (public relations)|spin]], [[disinformation]] or "[[free speech zone]]s". These methods tend to work by disseminating preferred information, by relegating open discourse to marginal forums, and by preventing other ideas from obtaining a receptive audience.
Suppression of access to the means of dissemination of ideas can function as a form of censorship. Such suppression has been alleged to arise from the policies of governmental bodies, such as the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] in the [[United States]] of America, the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission|CRTC]] in [[Canada]], newspapers that refuse to run commentary the publisher disagrees with, lecture halls that refuse to rent themselves out to a particular speaker, and individuals who refuse to finance such a lecture. The omission of selected voices in the content of stories also serves to limit the spread of ideas, and is often called censorship. Such omission can result, for example, from persistent failure or refusal by media organisations to contact criminal defendants (relying solely on official sources for explanations of crime). Censorship has been alleged to occur in such media policies as blurring the boundaries between hard news and news commentary, and in the appointment of allegedly biased commentators, such as a [[Nancy Grace|former government attorney]], to serve as anchors of programs labeled as hard news but comprising primarily anti-criminal commentary.
The focusing of news stories to exclude questions that might be of interest to some audience segments, such as the avoidance of reporting cumulative casualty rates among citizens of a nation that is the target or site of a foreign war, is often described as a form of censorship. Favorable representation in news or information services of preferred products or services, such as reporting on leisure travel and comparative values of various machines instead of on leisure activities such as arts, crafts or gardening has been described by some as a means of censoring ideas about the latter in favor of the former.
Self Cencorship: Imposed on the media in a free market by market/cultural forces rather than a censoring authority. This occurs when it is more profitable for the media to give a biased view. Examples would include near hysterical and scientificaly untennable stances against [[nuclear power]], [[genetic engineering]] and [[recreational drugs]] as scare stories sell. It also occurs when politicians/culture expect the media to give moral guidance - ie not publishing the cartoon depictions of muhammed.
===Prevention and bypassing===
Since the invention of the printing press, distribution of limited production leaflets has often served as an alternative to dominant information sources. The use of widespread distributed network communication, [[data haven]]s and decentralized [[peer-to-peer]] [[file sharing]] systems such as [[Freenet]] has overcome some censorship. A |
chool]]s, and five [[high school]]s (two traditional, Pioneer and Huron, as well as three alternative schools: [[Community High School, Ann Arbor, Michigan|Community High]], Stone School, and Roberto Clemente). The district operates an open school program out of Mack Elementary School, as well as a preschool and family center with programs starting as early as birth for at-risk infants and other programs for at-risk children before [[kindergarten]].
Due to overcrowding problems at the two traditional high schools, a third traditional high school is under construction. Originally slated to open for the fall of 2006, the school's competion date and budget status is in jeopardy as of February 2006. Ann Arbor Public School officials are currently looking at other options for accomodating the district's students until the third high school is complete.
==Culture==
{{main|Culture in Ann Arbor, Michigan}}
[[Image:AnnArborMural.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Mural outside a restaurant on Liberty Street. Further down the street (right of image) is the Borders bookstore.]]
Ann Arbor has a number of cultural attractions and events, many sponsored by the University of Michigan. Numerous performing arts groups and facilities are located on the university's campus, as are museums dedicated to [[art]], [[archaeology]], and natural history and sciences (''see [[Museums at the University of Michigan]]''). The [[Matthaei Botanical Gardens]], located on the northeastern edge of Ann Arbor, is operated by the university. Performing arts groups not associated with the university include the Ann Arbor Civic Theatre; the Arbor Opera Theater; the Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra; the Ann Arbor Ballet Theater; the Ann Arbor Civic Ballet (established in 1954), which was Michigan's first chartered ballet company{{ref|dance}}; and Performance Network, which operates a downtown theater frequently offering new or nontraditional plays.
The [[Ann Arbor Hands-On Museum]], located in a historic downtown fire station, contains more than 250 interactive exhibits featuring science and technology. Artrain, located on North Main Street, bills itself as the nation's only traveling art museum on a train. A number of other art galleries exist in the city, notably in the downtown area and around the University of Michigan campus.
Near the State Street area are three major [[theater]]s: the [[Michigan Theater (Ann Arbor)|Michigan Theater]], a renovated 1920s movie palace now hosting live performances, independent films, and classic movies, and serving as home base for the Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra; the State Theater; and the University of Michigan's [[Hill Auditorium]]. In the Main Street area, the [[Ark (folk venue)|Ark]] hosts folk and acoustic music, while a number of smaller venues and [[nightclub]]s serve up jazz and other live music. The Main Street area, as well as South State Street and South University Avenue, is also the center of a large restaurant scene in the city.
Among U.S. cities, Ann Arbor ranks first in the number of booksellers and books sold per capita.{{ref|books}} The Ann Arbor District Library has three branch outlets in addition to its main downtown building. The city is also home to the [[Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library]].
Ann Arbor is known for college sports, notably at the University of Michigan, a member of the [[Big Ten Conference]]. Several well-known college sports facilities exist in the city, including [[Michigan Stadium]] (whose seating capacity rivals the entire population of Ann Arbor), [[Crisler Arena]], and [[Yost Ice Arena]]. [[Concordia University, Ann Arbor, Michigan|Concordia University]], a member of the [[National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics|NAIA]], also fields sports teams.
A person from Ann Arbor is called an "Ann Arborite." The city itself is often called ''A&sup2;'' ("A-squared") or ''A2'' ("A two"), and less commonly ''Tree Town'' (or, usually [[tongue-in-cheek]], ''The People's Republic of Ann Arbor''). Recently, some youth have taken to calling Ann Arbor ''Ace Deuce'' or simply ''The Deuce''.
===Events===
A number of annual events – many of them centered on performing and visual arts – draw visitors to Ann Arbor from around the state and the region. The Ann Arbor Folk Festival, an annual [[benefit concert]] held in late January for the [[Ark (folk venue)|Ark]], features many folk musicians. The [[Ann Arbor Film Festival]] is held for six days in March at the [[Michigan Theater (Ann Arbor)|Michigan Theater]]. EdgeFest is a multi-venue festival of avant-garde and progressive jazz, held each autumn since 1997.
More unorthodox annual events include the [[Hash Bash]] and the Naked Mile. Held on the first Saturday of April since 1971, the Hash Bash is an event in support of the reform of [[marijuana]] laws. It includes speeches, live music, street vending, and occasional [[civil disobedience]]. Since 1986, the notorious Naked Mile has featured students [[Streaking|running naked]] through the streets in late April to celebrate the end of the winter semester. Originally police blocked off the streets to allow the run, but beginning in 2000, a crackdown by university and city police citing safety concerns has forced participants to adapt, with the event appearing in various reduced forms since.{{ref|nakedmile}}
Many large-scale events occur during the summer months. These include the Taste of Ann Arbor, a one-day event held during the first week of June in the downtown area; and the Ann Arbor Summer Festival, a three-and-a-half-week series of concerts, plays, and films typically held from mid-June through early July at the Power Center and atop the adjacent parking structure, which is host to the free "Top of the Park" events.
The Ann Arbor Art Fairs, a set of four concurrent juried fairs held on downtown streets, began in 1960. Scheduled on Wednesday through Saturday in the third week of July, the fairs draw upward of half a million visitors from across the nation. The oldest and most competitive of the four fairs is the Ann Arbor Street Art Fair.
Other summertime events include the Blues and Jazz Festival (established in 1969), which is usually held in mid-September at Gallup Park. The Dexter-Ann Arbor Run is a running race from [[Dexter, Michigan|Dexter]] to downtown Ann Arbor along the [[Huron River (Michigan)|Huron River]]. In late August the Shopping Cart Race, an unofficial and somewhat underground competition, has been held since 1998 as part of the annual [[Seize the Week, Ann Arbor, Michigan|Seize the Week]] series of events, known through 2004 as "Punk Week".
===Media===
The ''Ann Arbor News'', owned by the Michigan-based [[Booth newspapers|Booth Newspapers]] chain, is the major daily newspaper serving Ann Arbor. Other established publications in the city include the ''Ann Arbor Observer'' – a monthly magazine with features covering local culture, politics, family life, business and history – along with the ''Current'', an entertainment guide, and the ''Ann Arbor Paper'', a free monthly with columns, fiction, humor, reviews, and profiles. The campus area is served by a variety of student publications, including the independent ''[[Michigan Daily]]''.
The three major Ann Arbor–based [[amplitude modulation|AM]] [[radio station]]s are [[WAAM]] 1600, a news and talk station; [[WLBY]] 1290, an [[Air America Radio]] affiliate; and [[WTKA]] 1050, which is primarily a sports station. The city's [[frequency modulation|FM]] stations include [[National Public Radio|NPR]] affiliate [[WUOM]] 91.7; country station [[WWWW]] 102.9; adult-alternative station [[WQKL]] 107.1; and [[WCBN]] 88.3, a noncommercial, student-run station with eclectic music and public-affairs programming. The city is also served by [[public broadcasting|public radio broadcasters]] in Ypsilanti, East Lansing, Detroit, and Toledo. [[CBC Radio One]] and [[CBC Radio Two]] affiliates from [[Windsor, Ontario]], can also be heard in Ann Arbor.
[[WPXD]] channel 31, an affiliate of the [[i (TV network)|i television network]], is licensed to the city. Community Television Network (CTN) is a city-provided cable television channel with production facilities open to city residents and nonprofit organizations. [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]-area radio and [[television station]]s also serve Ann Arbor.
==Infrastructure==
===Health and medicine===
The [[University of Michigan Health System|University of Michigan Medical Center]], the preeminent health facility in the city, is the world's largest university medical center and is considered one of the nation's best hospitals, taking the #11 slot in the 2005 ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' rankings. The University of Michigan Health System (UMHS) includes University Hospital, C.S. Mott Children's Hospital and Women's Hospital in its core complex. UMHS also operates out-patient clinics and facilities elsewhere in the city. The area's other major medical centers include a large facility operated by the [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|Department of Veterans Affairs]] in Ann Arbor and Saint Joseph Mercy Hospital in nearby [[Ypsilanti, Michigan|Ypsilanti]].
===Transportation===
[[Image:AATA Bus.JPG|thumb|200px|An AATA bus, with the blue-roofed Blake Transit Center in the background.]]
The city is belted by three [[highway]]-grade roadways: [[Interstate 94|I-94]] (which runs along the southern portion of the city), [[U.S. Highway 23|US 23]] (which primarily runs along the eastern edge of Ann Arbor), and [[Michigan State Highway 14|M-14]] (which runs along the northern edge of the city).
The streets in downtown Ann Arbor conform to a grid pattern, though this pattern is less apparent in the surrounding areas. Several major roads branch out from the downtown district like spokes on a wheel to the highways surrounding the city. Some of the major surface arteries lead to the I-94/M-14 juncture in the west, US 23 in the east, |
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