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outfitted royal caravans to take advantage of it. He began minting his own coinage and imported [[chain mail]], [[firearm]]s, and military advisers from [[North Africa]]. Sabun's successors were less able than he, and Darfur took advantage of a disputed political succession in 1838 to put its own candidate in power. This tactic backfired when Darfur's choice, [[Muhammad Sharif of Ouaddai\|Muhammad Sharif]], rejected Darfur and asserted his own authority. In doing so, he gained acceptance from Ouaddai's various factions and went on to become Ouaddai's ablest ruler. Sharif eventually established Ouaddai's hegemony over Baguirmi and kingdoms as far away as the [[Chari River]]. The Ouaddai opposed French domination until well into the [[20th century]]. ==Colonialism (1900&ndash;40)== {{main\|Colonial Chad}} The [[France\|French]] first penetrated Chad in 1891, establishing their authority through military expeditions primarily against the Muslim kingdoms. The decisive colonial battle for Chad was fought on [[April 22]], [[1900]] at [[battle of Kousséri\|Kousséri]] between the French [[Major]] Lamy and the [[Sudan]]ese warlord [[Rabih az-Zubayr]], both of whom were killed in the battle. In 1905, administrative responsibility for Chad was placed under a [[governor-general]] stationed at [[Brazzaville]], capital of [[French Equatorial Africa]] (AEF). Chad did not have a separate colonial status until 1920, when it was placed under a [[lieutenant-governor]] stationed in [[Fort-Lamy]] (today N'Djamena). Two fundamental themes dominated Chad's colonial experience with the French: an absence of policies designed to unify the territory and an exceptionally slow pace of [[modernization]]. In the French scale of priorities, the [[colony]] of Chad ranked near the bottom, and the French came to perceive Chad primarily as a source of raw [[cotton]] and [[manual labour\|untrained labour]] to be used in the more productive colonies to the south. Throughout the colonial period, large areas of Chad were never governed effectively: in the huge [[Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti]] [[Prefectures of Chad\|Prefecture]], the handful of French military administrators usually left the people alone, and in central Chad, French rule was only slightly more substantive. Truly speaking, France managed to govern effectively only the south. ==Decolonization (1940&ndash;60)== {{main\|Decolonization in Chad}} During [[World War II]], Chad was the first French [[colony]] to rejoin the [[Allies]] ([[August 26]], [[1940]]), after the defeat of [[France]] by [[Germany]]. Under the administration of [[Félix Éboué]], France's first black colonial governor, a military column, commanded by Colonel [[Philippe Leclerc de Hautecloque\|Leclerc]], and including two batallions of [[Sara]] troops, moved north from [[N'Djamena]] (then Fort Lamy) to engage [[Axis]] forces in [[Libya]]. After the war ended local parties started to develop in Chad. The first to be born was the conservative [[Chadian Democratic Union]] (UDT), which represented French commercial interests and a bloc of traditional leaders composed primarily of Muslim and [[Ouaddaï]]an nobility. Shortly after a more radical formation was created, the [[Chadian Progressive Party]] (PPT), eventually headed by [[François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye\|François Tombalbaye]], which was to win the pre-independence elections. The confrontation between the PPT and UDT was more than simply an ideological strife; it masked markedly different regional identities, with the PPT representing the Christian and animist south and the UDT the Islamic north. After a referendum on territorial autonomy ([[September 28]], [[1958]]), French Equatorial Africa was dissolved, and its four constituent states &ndash; [[Gabon]], [[Congo (Brazzaville)]], the [[Central African Republic]], and Chad became autonomous members of the [[French Community]] ([[November 28]], [[1958]]). On [[August 11]], [[1960]], Chad became an independent nation under its first president, François Tombalbaye. ==The Tombalbaye Era (1960&ndash;75)== {{main\|The Tombalbaye Regime}} One of the most prominent aspects of Tombalbaye's rule to prove itself was his authoritarianism and distrust of democracy. Already in January 1962 he banned all political parties except his own PPT, and started immediately concentrating all power in his own hands. His treatment of opponents, real or imagined, was extremely harsh, filling the prisons with thousands of political prisoners. What was even worse was his constant discrimination against the central and northern regions of Chad, where the southern Chadian administrators came to be perceived as arrogant and incompetent. This resentment at last exploded in a tax revolt on [[November 1]], [[1965]], in the [[Guéra]] [[Prefectures of Chad\|Prefecture]], causing 500 deaths. The year after saw the birth in [[Sudan]] of the [[FROLINAT\|National Liberation Front of Chad]] (FROLINAT), created to militarily oust Tombalbaye and the Southern dominance. It was the start of a bloody civil war. Tombalbaye resorted to calling in French troops; while moderately successful, they were not fully able to quell the insurgency. Proving more fortunate was his choice to break with the French and seek friendly ties with [[Libya]]n president [[Muammar al-Qaddafi\|Qaddafi]], taking away the rebels' principal source of supplies. But while he had reported some success against the rebels, Tombalbaye started behaving more and more irrationally and brutally, continuously eroding his consensus among the southern elites, which dominated all key positions in the army, the civil service and the ruling party. As a consequence on [[April 13]], [[1975]], several units of N'Djamena's [[gendarmerie]] [[Chadian coup of 1975\|killed Tombalbaye during a coup]]. ==Military rule (1975&ndash;78)== {{main\|Malloum's military government}} The [[coup d'état]] that terminated Tombalbaye's government received an enthusiastic response in [[N'Djamena]]. The southerner [[General]] [[Félix Malloum]] emerged early as the chairman of the new ''[[Military dictatorship\|junta]]''. The new military leaders were unable to retain for long the popularity that they had gained through their overthrow of Tombalbaye. Malloum proved himself unable to cope with the [[FROLINAT]] and at the end decided his only chance was in coopting some of the rebels: in 1978 he allied himself with the insurgent leader [[Hissène Habré]], who entered the government as prime minister. ==Civil war (1979-82)== {{main\|Chadian Civil War}} Internal dissent within the government led Prime Minister Habré to send his forces against Malloum's national army in the capital in February 1979. Malloum was ousted from the presidency, but the resulting civil war amongst the 11 emergent factions was so widespread that it rendered the central government largely irrelevant. At that point, other African governments decided to intervene. A series of four international conferences held first under Nigerian and then [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU) sponsorship attempted to bring the Chadian factions together. At the fourth conference, held in [[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]], in August 1979, the Lagos Accord was signed. This accord established a transitional government pending national elections. In November 1979, the [[National Union Transition Government]] (GUNT) was created with a mandate to govern for 18 months. [[Goukouni Oueddei]], a northerner, was named President; Colonel [[Wadel Abdelkader Kamougué\|Kamougué]], a southerner, Vice President; and Habré, Minister of Defense. This coalition proved fragile; in January 1980, fighting broke out again between Goukouni's and Habré's forces. With assistance from [[Libya]], Goukouni regained control of the capital and other urban centers by year&rsquo;s end. However, Goukouni&rsquo;s January 1981 statement that Chad and [[Libya]] had agreed to work for the realization of complete unity between the two countries generated intense international pressure and Goukouni's subsequent call for the complete withdrawal of external forces. ==The Habré Era (1982&ndash;90)== Libya's partial withdrawal to the [[Aozou Strip]] in northern Chad cleared the way for Habré's forces to enter N&rsquo;Djamena in June. French troops and an OAU peacekeeping force of 3,500 Nigerian, [[Senegal]]ese, and [[Zaire\|Zairian]] troops (partially funded by the [[United States]]) remained neutral during the conflict. [[Image:Map of Aouzou stip chad.PNG\|thumb\|The [[Aozou Strip]].]] Habré continued to face armed opposition on various fronts, and was brutal in his repression of suspected opponents, massacring and torturing many during his rule. In the summer of 1983, GUNT forces launched an offensive against government positions in northern and eastern Chad with Libyan support. In response to Libya's direct intervention, French and Zairian forces intervened to defend Habré, pushing Libyan and rebel forces north of the 16th parallel. In September 1984, the French and the Libyan governments announced an agreement for the mutual withdrawal of their forces from Chad. By the end of the year, all French and Zairian troops were withdrawn. Libya did not honor the withdrawal accord, and its forces continued to occupy the northern third of Chad. Rebel commando groups (CODO) in southern Chad were broken up by government massacres in 1984. In 1985 Habré briefly reconciled with some of his most powerful opponents including the Chadian Democratic Front and the Coordinating Action Committee of the Democratic Revolutionary Council. Goukouni also began to rally toward Habré, and with his support Habré successfully expelled Libyan forces from most of Chadian territory. A cease-fire between Chad and Libya held from 1987 to 1988, and negotiations over the next several years led to the 1994 International Court of Justice decision granting Chad sovereignty over the Aouzou strip, effectively ending Libyan occupation. ==The Déby
since most right-handed hitters will tend to hit the ball hard in this direction. The third baseman must be able to field ground balls and throw strongly to first base, as well as cover fly balls in fair and foul territory. * '''SS''': [[Shortstop\|Shortstop]] (6). Shortstops, like the second baseman, must field ground balls and start or turn double plays. In addition, they need a stronger arm as the throw to first base is farther from the shortstop side. * '''LF''': [[Left fielder\|Left Field]] (7), '''CF''': [[Center fielder\|Center Field]] (8), '''RF''': [[Right fielder\|Right Field]] (9). The role of the [[outfielder]]s is to chase down and catch any ball hit into the outfield and, if necessary, make a rapid and accurate return throw, either to a base or to the "cut-off man", an infielder who has moved into a position specifically to make a relay throw. ==Other team personnel== [[Manager (baseball)\|Manager]] [[Coach (baseball)\|Coaches]] [[Utility player (baseball)\|Utility players]] [[Designated hitter]] ==See also== [[Baseball positioning]] (depths and shifts) [[Gold Glove Award]] (for fielding excellence) {{BaseballPositions}} [[Category:Baseball positions\|]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baseball/Major leagues</title> <id>3852</id> <revision> <id>15902164</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RjLesch</username> <id>14</id> </contributor> <comment></comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Major League Baseball]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baseball/World Series</title> <id>3854</id> <revision> <id>15902166</id> <timestamp>2002-07-12T04:35:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gareth Owen</username> <id>151</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>make redirect work (hopefully)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[World Series]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baseball/History of baseball</title> <id>3855</id> <revision> <id>15902167</id> <timestamp>2002-08-23T02:43:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of baseball]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baseball/History</title> <id>3856</id> <revision> <id>15902168</id> <timestamp>2002-05-23T07:13:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of baseball]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baseball/Negro Leagues</title> <id>3857</id> <revision> <id>23471222</id> <timestamp>2005-09-18T17:43:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bash</username> <id>225814</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Negro league baseball]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>MLB Most Valuable Player Award</title> <id>3858</id> <revision> <id>41656226</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:07:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Raymondluxuryacht</username> <id>547894</id> </contributor> <comment>/ BBWAA Awards (1931-present) */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In the game of [[baseball]], both amateur and professional, it is tradition to annually recognize the one player in the league who has contributed the most to the success of the player's team. In the [[United States]], the awarding of the '''Most Valuable Player Award''' (or '''MVP''') in [[Major League Baseball]] has changed hands several times but since the [[1930s]] has been awarded by the [[Baseball Writers Association of America]]. A tally example of the 1999 [[American League]] Most Valuable Player Award can be found [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/mlb/news/1999/11/18/almvp_voting/ here] that uses the [[Borda count]] voting method. ==Chalmers Award (1911-1914)== The [[Chalmers Automobile Company]] awarded an automobile in [[1910]] to the batting average leader in each league. This led to a contoversy in the American League; [[Ty Cobb]] and [[Nap Lajoie]] entered the final day of the season neck-and-neck. [[Baltimore Orioles\|St. Louis]], playing Lajoie's [[Cleveland Indians\|Cleveland]] team, played their infield back, allowing Lajoie to beat out seven bunt singles in a doubleheader and win the title. In the ensuing debacle, Chalmers awarded automobiles to both players. (The question of who really won the batting title is still debated.) For [[1911]], the Chalmers Company decided that batting average was too narrow a focus for an award. The Chalmers Award was the first attempt to recognize a player for overall contributions to his team's success—hence the designation ''Most Valuable'' rather than "player of the year", a distinction which remains today. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! American League ! National League \|- \| [[1911]] \| [[Ty Cobb]], [[Detroit Tigers]], OF \| [[Wildfire Schulte]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF \|- \| [[1912]] \| [[Tris Speaker]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF \| [[Larry Doyle (baseball player)\|Larry Doyle]], [[San Francisco Giants\|New York Giants]], 2B \|- \| [[1913]] \| [[Walter Johnson]], [[Minnesota Twins\|Washington Senators]], P \| [[Jake Daubert]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers\|Brooklyn Dodgers]], 1B \|- \| [[1914]] \| [[Eddie Collins]], [[Oakland Athletics\|Philadelphia Athletics]], 2B \| [[Johnny Evers]], [[Atlanta Braves\|Boston Braves]], 2B \|} ==League Awards (1922-1929)== In the [[1920s]] the leagues awarded MVP titles, but limited the ballot options to one player per team, which led to there being no National League MVP in [[1922]] or [[1923]]. A League Award could also be won by a player only once, leading to unusual results like [[Babe Ruth]]'s 1927 (one of the greatest offensive seasons of all time) not being eligible for the award. The rule was changed in time for [[Rogers Hornsby]] to become the first man to win two MVP awards, in [[1929]]. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! American League ! National League \|- \| [[1922]] \| [[George Sisler]], [[Baltimore Orioles\|St Louis Browns]], 1B \| ''No winner'' \|- \| [[1923]] \| [[Babe Ruth]], [[New York Yankees]], OF \| ''No winner'' \|- \| [[1924]] \| [[Walter Johnson]], [[Minnesota Twins\|Washington Senators]], P \| [[Dazzy Vance]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers\|Brooklyn Dodgers]], P \|- \| [[1925]] \| [[Roger Peckinpaugh]], [[Minnesota Twins\|Washington Senators]], SS \| [[Rogers Hornsby]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 2B \|- \| [[1926]] \| [[George Burns (first baseman)\|George Burns]], [[Cleveland Indians]], 1B \| [[Bob O'Farrell]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], C \|- \| [[1927 in baseball\|1927]] \| [[Lou Gehrig]], [[New York Yankees]], 1B \| [[Paul Waner]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF \|- \| [[1928]] \| [[Mickey Cochrane]], [[Oakland Athletics\|Philadelphia Athletics]], C \| [[Jim Bottomley]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 1B \|- \| [[1929]] \| ''No winner'' \| [[Rogers Hornsby]], [[Chicago Cubs]], 2B \|} ==BBWAA Awards (1931-present)== In [[1931]], the [[Baseball Writers Association of America]] began awarding the Most Valuable Player trophy. In [[1956]] the [[Cy Young Award]] was first given to the best pitcher in Major League Baseball (the current practice of honoring the best pitcher in each league did not begin until [[1967]]). After that, the belief arose that the Most Valuable Player ought to be a position player, based on two factors, one being that pitchers had their own award, and the other being that pitchers could not be considered as valuable as position players since they do not play every day. On occasion, though, pitchers still win the award, and the current rules for the MVP specifically state that pitchers are to be considered. Since 1971, however, only four pitchers have won the award, the last being [[Dennis Eckersley]] in [[1992 in baseball\|1992]]. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! American League ! National League \|- \| [[1931]] \| [[Lefty Grove]], [[Oakland Athletics\|Philadelphia Athletics]], P \| [[Frankie Frisch]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 2B \|- \| [[1932]] \| [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Oakland Athletics\|Philadelphia Athletics]], 1B \| [[Chuck Klein]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], OF \|- \| [[1933]] \| [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Oakland Athletics\|Philadelphia Athletics]], 1B \| [[Carl Hubbell]], [[San Francisco Giants\|New York Giants]], P \|- \| [[1934]] \| [[Mickey Cochrane]], [[Detroit Tigers]], C \| [[Dizzy Dean]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], P \|- \| [[1935]] \| [[Hank Greenberg]]†, [[Detroit Tigers]], 1B \| [[Gabby Hartnett]], [[Chicago Cubs]], C \|- \| [[1936]] \| [[Lou Gehrig]], [[New York Yankees]], 1B \| [[Carl Hubbell]], [[San Francisco Giants\|New York Giants]], P \|- \| [[1937]] \| [[Charlie Gehringer]], [[Detroit Tigers]], 2B \| [[Joe Medwick]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], OF \|- \| [[1938]] \| [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Boston Red Sox]], 1B \| [[Ernie Lombardi]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], C \|- \| [[1939 in baseball\|1939]] \| [[Joe DiMaggio]], [[New York Yankees]], OF \| [[Bucky Walters]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], P \|- \| [[1940]] \| [[Hank Greenberg]], [[Detroit Tigers]], OF \| [[Frank McCormick]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], 1B \|- \| [[1941 in baseball\|1941]] \| [[Joe DiMaggio]], [[New York Yankees]], OF \| [[Dolph Camilli]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers\|Brooklyn Dodgers]], 1B \|- \| [[1942]] \| [[Joe Gordon (baseball player)\|Joe Gordon]], [[New York Yankees]], 2B \| [[Mort Cooper]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], P \|- \| [[1943]] \| [[Spud Chandler]], [[New York Yankees]], P \| [[Stan Musial]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], OF \|- \| [[1944]] \| [[Hal Newhouser]], [[Detroit Tigers]], P \| [[Marty Marion]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], SS \|- \| [[1945]] \| [[Hal Newhouser]], [[Detroit Tigers]], P \| [[Phil Cavarret
jpp] have shown that a degree of 25 % deuteration causes sterility. High concentrations (90 %) rapidly kills [[fish]], [[tadpole]]s, [[flatworm]]s, and [[drosophila]]. Nonetheless, accidental or intentional [[poison]]ing is unlikely, as large amounts of heavy water would have to be ingested, repeatedly, to produce any noticeable effects. In 1990, a disgruntled employee at the [[Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station]] took a sample of heavy water from the primary heat transport loop and loaded it into a water cooler. 8 employees drank some of the contaminated water. The incident was discovered when employees began leaving [[bioassay]] urine samples with elevated tritium levels. The quantities involved were well below levels which could induce heavy water toxicity, but several employees received elevated radiation doses from tritium and activated chemicals in the water.[http://www.ecology.at/nni/site.php?site=Point++Lepreau] ==Production== On [[Earth]], semiheavy water, HDO, occurs naturally in regular water at a proportion of 1 part per 3200. It may be separated from regular water by [[distillation]] or [[electrolysis]] and also by various chemical exchange processes, all of which exploit a [[kinetic isotope effect]]. In short, the difference in mass between the two hydrogen isotopes translates into a difference in the [[zero-point energy]] and thus into a slight difference in the speed at which the reaction proceeds. Once HDO becomes a significant fraction of the water, heavy water will become more prevalent as water molecules trade hydrogen atoms very frequently. To produce pure heavy water by distillation or electrolysis requires a large cascade of stills or electrolysis chambers, and consumes large amounts of power, so the chemical methods are generally preferred. The most important chemical method is the [[Girdler Sulfide process]]. ===United States=== In 1953, the United States began using heavy water in [[plutonium]] production reactors at the [[Savannah River Site]]. The first of the five heavy water reactors came online in 1953, and the last was placed in cold shutdown in 1996. The SRS reactors were heavy water reactors so that they could produce both [[plutonium]], and [[tritium]] for the US nuclear weapons program. The US developed the [[Girdler sulfide process\|Girdler Sulfide]] chemical exchange production process which was first demonstrated on a large scale at the Dana, Indiana plant in 1945 and at the Savannah River Plant, South Carolina in 1952. The SRP was operated by [[DuPont]] for the USDOE until about 1980. ===Norway=== In [[1934]], [[Norsk Hydro]] built the first commercial heavy water plant at [[Vemork]], [[Tinn]], with a capacity of 12 tonnes per year. From [[1940]] and throughout [[World War II]] the plant was under [[Nazi Germany\|Nazi German]] control, and the allies decided to destroy the plant and its heavy water in order to inhibit German development of nuclear weapons. In late [[1942]], a raid by [[United Kingdom\|British]] [[paratrooper]]s failed when the gliders crashed. All the raiders were killed in the crash or shot by German army troops. In February [[1943]], a group of 12 Norwegian infiltrators, trained in Britain by the [[Special Operations Executive]] and dropped by parachute into Norway, managed to disrupt production for two months by dynamiting the facilities. On [[November 16]] 1943, the allied air forces dropped more than 400 bombs on the site. The allied air raid prompted the Nazi government to move all available heavy water to Germany for safekeeping. On [[February 20]] [[1944]], a Norwegian partisan sunk the ferry ''M/F&nbsp;Hydro'' carrying the heavy water across Lake Tinn at the cost of 14 Norwegian civilians, and most of the heavy water was presumably lost. A few of the barrels were only half full, and therefore could float, and may have been salvaged and transported to Germany. However, recent investigation of production records at Norsk Hydro and analysis of an intact barrel that was salvaged in [[2004]] <!--reference: documentary on PBS / discovery channel--> revealed that although the barrels in this shipment contained water of [[pH]]&nbsp;14 &ndash; indicative of heavy water refinement &ndash; the barrels did not contain high concentrations of D2O. Despite the apparent size of shipment, the total quantity of pure heavy water, was quite small. The Germans would have needed a total of about 5 tons of heavy water to get a nuclear reactor running. <!--reference: documentary on Nova / Hitlers sunkin treasure--> The manifest clearly indicated that there was only 1/2 a ton of heavy water, that was being transported to Germany. The Hydro was carrying far too little heavy water for even one reactor, let alone the 10 or more tons needed to make enough plutonium for a nuclear weapon. The Hydro shipment on February 20 1944 was probably destined for an experimental reactor project. It was of no military significance, which is why it was only lightly guarded. In 1958, Norway sold 20 tons of heavy water to Israel. ===Canada=== As part of its contribution to the [[Manhattan Project]], Canada built and operated a 6 T/a electrolytic heavy water plant at [[Trail, British Columbia\|Trail, BC]], which started operation in 1943. The [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]] (AECL) design of power reactor requires large quantities of heavy water to act as a [[neutron moderator]] and coolant. AECL ordered two heavy water plants which were built and operated in [[Atlantic Canada]] at [[Glace Bay, Nova Scotia\|Glace Bay]] (by Deuterium of Canada Limited) and [[Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia\|Port Hawkesbury]], [[Nova Scotia]] (by General Electric Canada). These plants proved to have significant design, construction and production problems and so AECL built the Bruce Heavy Water Plant, which it later sold to [[Ontario Hydro]], to ensure a reliable supply of heavy water for future power plants. The two Nova Scotia plants were shut down in 1985 when their production proved to be unnecessary. The Bruce Heavy Water Plant in [[Ontario]] was the world's largest heavy water production plant with a capacity of 700 tonnes per year. It used the [[Girdler Sulfide process]] to produce heavy water, and required 340,000 tonnes of feed water to produce one tonne of heavy water. It was part of a complex that included 8 [[CANDU reactor]]s which provided heat and power for the heavy water plant. The site was located at [[Douglas Point]] in [[Bruce County]] on [[Lake Huron]] where it had access to the waters of the [[Great Lakes (North America)\|Great Lakes]]. The Bruce plant was commissioned in [[1979]] to provide heavy water for a large increase in Ontario's nuclear power generation. The plants proved to be significantly more efficient than planned and only three of the planned four units were eventually commissioned. In addition, the nuclear power programme was slowed down and effectively stopped due to a perceived oversupply of electricity, later shown to be temporary, in [[1993]]. Improved efficiency in the use and recycling of heavy water plus the over-production at Bruce left Canada with enough heavy water for its anticipated future needs. Also, the Girdler process involves large amounts of [[hydrogen sulfide]], raising environmental concerns if there should be a release. The Bruce plant was finally shut down in [[1997]]. The plant was gradually dismantled and the site cleared. [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]] (AECL) is currently researching other more efficient and environmentally benign processes for creating heavy water. This is essential for the future of the CANDU reactors since heavy water represents about 20% of the capital cost of each reactor. ===India=== [[India]] is the world's second largest producer of heavy water through its Heavy Water Board [http://www.heavywaterboard.org/]. ===Other countries=== [[Argentina]] is another declared producer of heavy water, using an ammonia/hydrogen exchange based plant supplied by Switzerland's Sulzer company. [[Romania]] also produces heavy water at the Drobeta Girdler Sulfide plant and has exported from time to time. France operated a small plant during the 1950's and 60's. ==Physical Properties (with comparison to light water)== {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! align="left" \| Property \|\| D<sub>2</sub>O (Heavy water) \|\| H<sub>2</sub>O (Light water) \|- \| Melting point (°C) \|\| 3.82 \|\| 0.0 \|- \| Boiling point (°C) \|\| 101.72 \|\| 100.0 \|- \| Density (at 20°C, g/mL) \|\| 1.1056 \|\| 0.9982 \|- \| Temp. of maximum density (°C) \|\| 11.6 \|\| 4.0 \|- \| Viscosity (at 20°C, centipoise) \|\| 1.25 \|\| 1.005 \|- \| Surface tension (at 25°C, dyn·cm) \|\| 71.93 \|\| 71.97 \|- \| Heat of fusion (cal/mol) \|\| 1,515 \|\| 1,436 \|- \| Heat of vaporization (cal/mol) \|\| 10,864 \|\| 10,515 <!-- \|- \| Ph level \|\| approx. 14.0 \|\| approx. 7.0 --> \|} ===Heavy Water in fiction=== Heavy water's supposed ability to perform cold fusion has made it very popular in the world of Science fiction. One such example of this is in the Stargate SG1 episode The Other Side in which an alien society trades weapons technology to Earth in exchange for heavy water. ==See also== * [[Norwegian heavy water sabotage]] == External links == [http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/heavy.htm Federation of American Scientists article] on the production of heavy water [http://www.cns-snc.ca/Bulletin/A_Miller_Heavy_Water.pdf Heavy Water: A Manufacturer’s Guide for the Hydrogen Century] (PDF file) *[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mheavywater.html Straight Dope Staff Report: Is "heavy water" dangerous?] [[Category:Forms of water]] [[Category:Nuclear materials]] [[ar:ماء ثقيل]] [[bg:Тежка вода]] [[be:Цяжкая вада]] [[ca:Aigua pesant]] [[cs:Těžká voda]] [[da:Tungt vand]] [[de:Schweres Wasser]] [[es:Agua pesada]] [[eo:Peza akvo]] [[fr:Eau lourde]] [[ko:중수]] [[it:Acqua pesante]] [[nl:Zwaar water]] [[ja:重水]] [[no:Tungtvann]] [[nn:Tung
llins\|Collins]] [[Funk and Wagnalls]] [[Merriam-Webster]] [[Oxford University Press]] [[Longman]] [[Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe]] ==List of online dictionaries== <!-- List should be shortened --> # Online versions of printed dictionaries #[http://www.m-w.com/ The Merriam-Webster Dictionary] #[http://www.oed.com/ The Oxford English Dictionary] (requires subscription) #[http://www.askoxford.com/dictionaries The Compact Oxford English Dictionary] #[http://dictionary.cambridge.org/ Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary etc. (Cambridge Dictionaries Online)] #[http://www.ldoceonline.com/ Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English] #[http://eedic.naver.com/ Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner's English Dictionary 4th edition (note: Korean site, but all results in English)] #[http://www.cooldictionary.com/ Talking, fully crosslinked dictionary using Webster, Wiktionary and Wikipedia] #[http://www.bartleby.com/61/ The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language Fourth Edition] #[http://www.macquariedictionary.com.au The Macquarie Dictionary] Australian English (requires subscription) #[http://www.americana.ru Americana English-Russian Dictionary] - the first bilingual dictionary about the United States, over 20,000 entries #[http://www.dwds.de/wdg W&ouml;rterbuch der deutschen Gegenwartssprache] (Dictionary of contemporary German language) #[http://www.blueray.com/magic/ Magic Words: A Dictionary] (free online version, 500+ essay-style entries) #[http://www.wikifetcher.com/ Create your own dictionary service] #[http://dictionary.goo.ne.jp/ Four Japanese Dictionaries] published by Sanseido, including the EXCEED EJ/JE dictionaries and the big Daijirin monolingual dictionary #[http://kod.kenkyusha.co.jp/service/ Kenkyusha Online Dictionary] featuring several major print dictionaries including the 5th edition New Japanese-English Dictionary (subscription) # Online-only general dictionaries #* [http://dictionary.wowla.com Wowla Dictionary] Free online searchable dictionary containing over 315,000 entries. #* [http://www.doubletongued.org Double-Tongued Word Wrester] A dictionary of new and old words from the fringes of English, professionally collected, researched, and defined. Includes slang, argot, jargon, and colloquialisms. #* [http://www.dendanskenetordbog.dk/netdob/ Netordbogen] #* [http://www.giantpicturedictionary.com/ Picture Dictionary] Online Picture Dictionary with search function. Uses pictures and symbols from Universal Picture Language. Grasp the meaning of a word with just a glance at its representative picture. #* [http://open-dictionary.com/ Open Dictionary] Offers various definitions, translations and pronunciations in many languages (uses Wiktionary and WordNet for most of its entries). #* [http://www.wordwebonline.com WordWebOnline.com] A dictionary/thesaurus and meta-search (also available as a [http://wordweb.info/free/ free download]) #* [http://www.thefreedictionary.com TheFreeDictionary.com] A dictionary, a thesaurus, a literature reference library, and a search engine all in one. #* [http://www.hyperdictionary.com hyperdictionary.com] One of the more comprehensive online dictionaries. #* [http://www.elook.org/dictionary/ eLook Dictionary] A dictionary with synonyms, antonyms, and related words. #* [http://lookword.com/ Lookword free online Dictionary] English dictionary. #* [http://www.webster-dictionary.org/ www.webster-dictionary.org] A dictionary and a thesaurus. A republisher of existing Internet dictionaries. Appears to be an attempt at a [[portal]] site. #* [http://www.dictionary.com Dictionary.com] A dictionary and thesaurus and other language aids. #* [http://www.dictionaryofwords.com Dictionary of words] Dictionary and thesaurus from multiple sources. #* [http://www.dictionary.co.uk Dictionary.co.uk] A British English online dictionary. #[http://www.dictionarydefinition.net/ Dictionary Definition] #[http://www.english-dictionary.us/ English dictionary] Fast and simple English dictionary with US and UK spellings. #[http://www.objectgraph.com/dictionary ObjectGraph.com] Suggestive dictionary, Suggests words as you type. #[http://www.misspelled.com/ Misspelled.com Dictionary Definitions of English Words] #* Portuguese: [http://www.priberam.pt/dlpo/dlpo.aspx] # Dictionary Collections #* [http://www.dicts.info All free dictionaries project] Vast collection of all existing free dictionaries. #* [http://dmoz.org/Reference/Dictionaries/ Dictionaries listed on DMOZ] #* [http://www.freesearch.co.uk/dictionary/ freesearch dictionary] British English dictionary provided by Cambridge University. #* [http://www.HavenWorks.com/dictionary HavenWorks] #* [http://www.netzdino.de/woerterbuch.html Woerterbuch] List of available Online-Dictionaries. #* [http://www.onelook.com OneLook] Searches almost 1000 online dictionaries for more than 6 million indexed words. #* [http://www.dictionary.info Dictionary] #* [http://www.yourdictionary.com Yourdictionary.com] Large list of online dictionaries. #* [http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/wboek_zoek.php?gebrTaal=eng&bronTaal=eng&doelTaal=eng Majstro's dictionary database] Dictionary search #* [http://www.a-z-dictionaries.com A-Z-Dictionaries] Large collection of dictionaries and resources. #* [http://www.xrefer.com xrefer] Offers access to dictionaries and other reference works. Pay site. # Specialty Dictionaries #* [http://www.washjeff.edu/capl/ CAPL: Culturally Authentic Pictorial Lexicon] German-English bidirectional visual dictionary with authentic images of German speaking world #* [http://www.blueray.com/dictionary/ Dictionaries of All-Consonant and All-Vowel Words] Several thousand definitions of unusual words, with copious literary examples of usage. #* [http://www.dict.pl e-DICT] English-Polish, Polish-English dictionary #* [http://www.dep.pl DeP] German-Polish, Polish-German dictionary #* [http://www.sprog.asb.dk/sn/cisg/ Danish-English Law Dictionary] The only on-line dictionary covering Danish and English legal language. #* [http://netdob.asb.dk/iasdkgb/ Danish-English Accounting Dictionary] The authoritative dictionary on Danish and English accouting terminology with collocations and phrases. #* [http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/english/emed/emedd.html The Early Modern English Dictionaries Database] A collection of the earliest English language dictionaries. #* [http://www.pseudodictionary.com Pseudodictionary] Slang, colloquialisms, and made-up words. Accepts new entries. No intent to be a serious reference work. #* [http://www.urbandictionary.com/ Urban Dictionary] Slang dictionary that you can edit. #* [http://skepdic.com/ The Skeptic's Dictionary] Dictionary taking a cynical view on [[new age]] and [[occult]] words. #* [http://www.diccionaris.net Catalan Dictionaries] Catalan-English, English-Catalan dictionary # Multilingual Dictionaries #* [http://www.dicts.info/ud.php Universal dictionary] Multilingual dictionary interconnecting more than 35 languages. #* [http://www.freetranslate.org Freetranslate.org] Firefox extension supported Multilingual dictionary. #* [http://www.popjisyo.com/WebHint/Portal_e.aspx POPjisyo is an Online Japanese/Chinese/Korean/English dictionary] which adds pop-up hints to other sites and generates study-lists/matching games based on content. #* [http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/dict.php?gebrTaal=eng&bronTaal=epo&doelTaal=eng Majstro Multilingual Translation Dictionary]: An on-line translation dictionary that uses Esperanto as a bridge language #* [http://www.online-dictionary.biz/ Online dictionary] free multi-lingual online dictionary between English and one of nine other languages. #* [http://www.shabdkosh.com English-Hindi Dictionary ] #* [http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dict_en_es/ Yahoo! Spanish-English Dictionary] #* [http://www.tomisimo.org Tomisimo Spanish-English Dictionary] #* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/ Webster's Online Dictionary] &ndash; the Rosetta Edition. Over 3,000,000 terms across 90 languages. #* [http://dict.leo.org/ Leo] - English-German (and vice-versa) dictionary; English-French (and vice-versa) dictionary, cf. [[leo.org]] #* [http://www.ego4u.com/en/dictionary English-German Dictionary] (and vice-versa) with [[International Phonetic Alphabet\|IPA]] [[pronunciation]] information #* [http://europa.eu.int/eurodicautom/Controller Terminology database of the EU], with 11 [[European Union\|EU]] languages #* [http://www.sprawk.com/ Sprawk Semantic Dictionary], based on WordNet with over 20 languages #* [http://www.woerterbuch.info woerterbuch.info] - English-German Dictionary with over 600.000 translations #* [http://www.dict.cc/ dict.cc] - English-German (and vice-versa) Dictionary #* [http://www.ilexer.org/ ilexer] - English-German (and vice-versa) Dictionary #[http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/wwwjdic.html WWWJDIC] online Japanese-English/German/French dictionary. Has text-glossing, verb conjugations, etc. # [http://www.spanish-translator-services.com/dictionaries/finance-english-spanish/index.htm English - Spanish Financial Dictionary] English to Spanish Dictionary of Finance Terms. #* [http://www.spanish-translator-services.com/dictionaries/finance-spanish-english/index.htm Spanish - English Financial Dictionary] Spanish to English Dictionary of Finance Terms. #* [http://www.spanish-translator-services.com/dictionaries/accounting-spanish-english/index.htm English - Spanish Accounting Dictionary] Spanish to English Dictionary of Acounting Terms. #* [http://www.spanish-translator-services.com/dictionaries/accounting-english-spanish/index.htm Spanish - English Accounting Dictionary] English to Spanish Dictionary of Acounting Terms. #* [http://www.yellowbridge.com/language/worddict.html Chinese-English Talking Dictionary] Chinese - English dictionary with word and character etymological decomposition. #* [http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/chinese-french-dictionary.html Chinese - French Dictionary] - [http://www.ch
ins copyright protection solely to disclaim warranty and require proper attribution of modified works, but permits redistribution and modification in ''any'' work, even proprietary ones. A copyright owner of copyleft-licensed software can produce and sell a version under any license, in addition to distributing the original version as free software. Many free software companies do this; this does ''not'' restrict any rights granted to the users of the copyleft version. All free software licenses must grant people all the freedoms discussed above. However, unless the applications' licenses are compatible, combining programs by mixing source code or directly linking binaries is problematic, because of license technicalities. Programs indirectly connected together may avoid this problem. == Examples of free software == Notable free software: * Operating systems: [[GNU/Linux]], [[Berkeley Software Distribution\|BSD]], and [[Darwin (operating system)\|Darwin]]. * [[GNU Compiler Collection\|GCC]] compilers, [[GDB]] debugger and [[C programming language\|C]] libraries. * Servers: [[BIND]] name server, [[Sendmail]] mail transport, [[Apache HTTP Server\|Apache web server]], and [[Samba software\|Samba]] file server. * [[Relational database]] systems: [[MySQL]] and [[PostgreSQL]]. * Programming languages: [[Perl]], [[PHP]], [[Python programming language\|Python]], [[Ruby programming language\|Ruby]] and [[Tcl]]. * [[Graphical user interface\|GUI]] related: [[X Window System]], [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]] desktop environments. * [[OpenOffice.org]] office suite, [[Mozilla Application Suite\|Mozilla]] and [[Mozilla Firefox\|Firefox]] web browsers and the [[GIMP]] graphics editor. * Typesetting and document preparation systems [[TeX]] and [[LaTeX]]. * [[MediaWiki]], the software which runs Wikipedia. The [[Free Software Directory]] is a free software project that maintains a large database of free software packages. The most accessible and comprehensive collections of free software are currently distributed as [[LiveDistro\|LiveDistros]], entire operating systems stored and made ready to boot on CDs, USB sticks, DVDs, and other [[Booting\|bootable media]]. By inserting a [[LiveDistro]] into your CD drive and booting the computer you arrive to a desktop with hundreds of free software packages ready to run and use. Some free software packages work on the [[non-free]] [[Microsoft Windows]] and non-free [[Unix]] platforms. Non-free software can work on free platforms, although purists prefer using platforms composed entirely of free software such as [[GNU/Linux]]. Free software packages constitute a [[software ecosystem]] where software provides services, resulting in mutual benefit: for instance, the Apache web server handling the HTTP protocol, using [[mod_python]] to provide dynamic content. == Social significance == ===Positive Social Outcomes=== * Free software is generally available at little to no cost (it is ''gratis''). When free software spreads, its [[utility]] is constant, or even increases due to [[network effect]]s. Thus, free software is a [[pure public good]] rather than a [[private good]]. * Its freedoms result in a permanently lower cost compared to [[proprietary software]] increasing access to software and to its ecomonic and social benefits. Due to this fact free software is becoming popular in [[third world]] countries. * Furthermore, the openness of free software eases [[internationalization]] creating economic and social benefits for users in more countries. * The freedom to modify free software prevents media tie-ins e.g. between web browsers, and web search engines (or between computer manufacturers and same), because such tie-ins can always be broken by the owners of a system. * The ability to view and modify the software provides a practical defence against [[Spyware]]. ===Negative Social Outcomes=== Possible loss of the economic incentives to produce software that were protected by copyright law or patents. Copies of free software can be sold, although there is often less incentive to buy free software when it can usually be obtained for free. ==Political Characterisation== Computer software is inanimate and therefore not political. However, its effects on society, like speech, are political. ===Free software as a communist movement=== SCO CEO [[Darl McBride]] and others have tended to characterise Free Software as [[communist]].[http://www.economist.com/business/displayStory.cfm?story_id=2020889] The accusation leverages the influential legacy of [[anti-communism]] in [[United States]] to generate an effect in the market or in legal matters.[http://news.com.com/2010-7344-5083904.html] Communism opposes the free market and rejects private property. Free software gives users the same freedoms the copyright holder has, while the owners of [[proprietary software]] restrict freedoms to make profit. The free software community is also critical of software patents, and other protections in technology that restrict freedoms. Models for collective ownership in free software is at odds with capitalistic ownership and production. However, free software licenses give the freedom to charge a price for distributing the software. Further, one or more copyright holders have copyright law to enforce the license of their free software package if the need arises. ===Free software as a libertarian movement=== The [[libertarian]] ideal can be characterised as being in favour of social liberty (including free speech, a free press and privacy) as well as economic liberty (including property rights and individual control over property) and in favour of a [[capitalist]] [[free market]]. There is some evidence that free software is congruent with libertarian ideals of economic liberty, intellectual property [http://libertariannation.org/a/f31l1.html] and freedom from invasions of privacy. Free software license terms guarantee that anybody coming into possession of the software has the source code and the right to modify, reproduce and distribute it. Consequently anybody with the required knowledge is able to perform modifications and provide support for the product. Modifications are enabled directly by access to the source code and other services can be provided by those who have examined and learned about the product as users and maintainers. The result is a marketplace open to competition from a wide range of participants. There is little or no barrier to entry to the market since all the necessary permissions are granted by the license. The creation of this competition for services is appealing to the libertarian ideal of the free market and facilitates the creation of businesses. The right to modify their software also enables users to exercise complete control over the computing devices that they own. Though users are generally free to choose which software products they run, the ability to modify the software products themselves means that assets can be exploited more efficiently. This reinforces the benefits of existing property and creating a situation of complete control. This control precipitates many of the positive social outcomes described above, including enhanced computer security, electronic privacy and consumer choice. == Individual motivations == Often coming into question is the reasons and motivations individuals would make the effort to participate and contribute to free software. Individuals within a team typically have a wide variety of motivations. Often, there are stances on the relationship between free software and the existing [[capitalism\|capitalist]] [[economics\|economic system]]. Some contributors dislike the capitalist economic system, and perceive that free software and capitalism are incompatible, so more free software results in less capitalism. They may also believe in inter-market competition, and that free software is a form of competition within capitalism. They may also perceive that [[copyright]] is governmental market restrictions. Other moptivations implement [[gift economy\|gift economics]], where status depends effectively on "gifts" from the contributor. == Relative security == {{Unreferencedsect}} There is controversy over the [[computer security\|security]] of free software versus proprietary software, with a a major issue being [[security through obscurity]]. A popular relative security measurement is counting known unpatched security flaws. Generally, users of this method advise avoiding products which lack fixes for known security flaws, at least until a fix is available. == Free software controversies == The [[BitKeeper]] controversy in the free software movement illustrates the movement's major issues and points of view. [[Larry McVoy]] invited high-profile free software projects to use [[BitKeeper]] to attract paying users. In 2002 a controversial decision was made to use BitKeeper, a proprietary software product, to develop the Linux kernel, a free software project. The following excerpt from a [[Newsforge]] article illustrates why this proved to be a major source of controversy. :"McVoy made the program available gratis to free software developers. This did not mean it was free software for them: they were privileged not to part with their money, but they still had to part with their freedom. They gave up the fundamental freedoms that define free software: freedom to run the program as you wish for any purpose, freedom to study and change the source code as you wish, freedom to make and redistribute copies, and freedom to publish modified versions. :The Free Software Movement has said "Think of free speech, not free beer" for 15 years. McVoy said the opposite; he invited developers to focus on the lack of monetary price, instead of on freedom. A free software activist would dismiss this suggestion, but those in our community who value technical advantage above freedom and community were susceptible to it. '''...''' :A fre
of this, the emperor limited Roman military enterprises during his reign. He claimed several [[Roman triumph]]s, namely over the [[Chatti]] and in Britain, but they were only propaganda manoeuvres, since these wars were still being fought. Nevertheless, several campaigns were fought during his reign, especially in the [[Danube]] frontier against the Dacians. Domitian also founded [[Legio I Minervia\|Legio I ''Minervia'']] in [[82]], to fight against Chatti. Towards the end of his reign, which had started with moderation, Domitian revealed a cruel personality. According to several sources, despite some arguments in the academic community, [[Jew]]s and [[Christianity\|Christian]]s were heavily persecuted during his reign. The emperor also developed a [[paranoia\|paranoid]] fear of persecution that led him to kill or execute several members of the senatorial and [[equestrian (Roman)\|equestrian]] orders. He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the [[Roman Senate\|Senate]]. Domitian was murdered in September 96, in a plot organized by his enemies in the Senate, Stephanus (the steward of the deceased Julia Flavia), members of the Pretorian Guard and empress Domitia Longina. The emperor knew that, according to an astrological prediction, he would die around noon. Therefore, he was always restless during this time of the day. In his last day, Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant boy what time it was several times. The boy, included in the plot, lied, saying that it was much later. More at ease, the emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees, where he was stabbed eight times by Stephanus. Domitian was succeeded by [[Nerva]] (by appointment of the senate), the first of the [[Five Good Emperors]]. ==Domitian and Early Christianity== For scholars, it is difficult to uncover Domitian's exact policy towards the developing [[Christian]] community. Many people believe that he was the Emperor during the time that the [[Book of Revelation\|Revelation]] to John was authored (95 or 96). From a Christian perspective, the Revelation, the final canonical book of the [[New Testament]], reveals God's plan for the [[Apocalypse]]. From a secular viewpoint, the Revelation could be viewed as a reaction to the anti-Christian policies of Domitian and some earlier emperors. At the time, [[Christianity]] was a struggling religion attempting to find a foothold in the classical world. In addition to sporadic persecutions Christians were also facing pressure to conform to the Imperial Cult of Domitian. Although it is unclear that Domitian officially enforced adherence to the cult, scholars generally agree that [[Roman Empire\|Roman]] governors forced citizens to participate in order to prove their loyalty and patriotism. Since Christian doctrine specifically forbids the worship of false idols, Christians refused to partake in this Imperial tradition. In the face of adversity many Christians may have been doubting their beliefs and may even have been on the verge of abandoning Christianity all together. In this atmosphere it is conceivable that John of Patmos wrote the Revelation in hopes of inspiring fledgling Christians to persevere. Within the book several symbolic references are made about the Roman Empire and the incumbent Emperor, possibly Domitian. In short, Christians are reminded that their Savior will return to reward those who believe and punish those who do not and those who stand against believers. It is interesting to note that believers of the Restoration Movement, i.e., Church of Christ, among others, hold not to the traditional Christian view that John's Revelation predicted future events, but rather to the above mentioned secular view, that the book is simply a reaction to the anti-Christian policies of Domitian. The custom of Damnatio Memoriae was issued on Domitian, obliterating him from all public record. Many of the images that survive of Domitian's successor Nerva were actually once Domitian but converted to Nerva after the Damnatio Memoriae was issued. ==External links== {{Commons\|Domitian}} {{start box}} {{succession box\|title=[[List of Roman Emperors\|Roman Emperor]]\|before=[[Titus]]\|after=[[Nerva]]\|years=81&ndash;96}} {{end box}} [[Category:51 births]] [[Category:96 deaths]] [[Category:Roman emperors]] [[Category:Flavian Dynasty]] [[Category:Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard]] [[da:Domitian]] [[de:Domitian]] [[et:Domitianus]] [[es:Tito Flavio Domiciano]] [[eo:Domiciano]] [[fr:Domitien]] [[ko:도미티아누스]] [[hr:Domicijan]] [[it:Domiziano]] [[he:דומיטיאנוס]] [[la:Domitianus]] [[nl:Titus Flavius Domitianus]] [[ja:ドミティアヌス]] [[no:Domitian]] [[pl:Domicjan]] [[pt:Domiciano]] [[ro:Domiţian]] [[ru:Тит Флавий Домициан]] [[sk:Domitianus]] [[fi:Domitianus]] [[sv:Domitianus]] [[zh:图密善]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Damascus steel</title> <id>8593</id> <revision> <id>41927173</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:56:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>141.209.47.170</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Attempts at reproduction */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Damascus steel''', also known as ''Damascened steel'' and sometimes ''water steel'', now commonly refers to two types of [[steel]] used in custom [[knife]] and [[sword]] making, pattern-weld and [[wootz]] (true damascus). Both types of Damascened steel show complex patterns on the surface, which are the result of internal structural elements in the steel. These patterns are the result of the unique [[forge \| forging]] methods used for the creation of Damascened steel, and skilled [[swordsmith]]s can manipulate the patterns to create complex designs in the surface of the steel. ==Origin of the term "Damascus"== The origins of the name "Damascus" remains somewhat controversial. Although it would seem obvious that it refers to swords built in [[Damascus]], there are several equally likely sources of the name. One is the [[Arabic language\|Arabic]] word ''damas'' for water, referring to the surface pattern of [[moiré]] ripples which looks like turbulent water and is also seen in some [[damask]] weaves of [[fabric]]. Another potential source is the swordsmith himself: the author [[al-Beruni]] refers to swords made by a man he names Damasqui. Finally another author, [[al-Kindi]], refers to swords made in Damascus as Damascene. This word has often been employed as an epithet in various Eastern European legends (''Sabya Damaskinya'' or ''Sablja Dimiskija'' meaning "Damascene sword"), of which perhaps the best known are the Bulgarian and Serbian legends of [[Prince Marko]], a historical figure of the late 14th century in what is now the [[Republic of Macedonia]]. ==Manufacture== The original Damascus steel swords may have been made in the vicinity of [[Damascus]], [[Syria]], in the period from 900 to as late as 1750. Damascus steel is a type of steel [[alloy]] that is both hard and flexible, a combination that made it ideal for the building of [[sword]]s. It is said that when Damascus made swords were first encountered by Europeans during the [[Crusade]]s it garnered an almost mythical reputation&mdash;a Damascus steel blade was said to be able to cut a piece of [[silk]] in half as it fell to the ground, as well as being able to chop through normal blades, or even [[Rock (geology)\|rock]], without losing its sharp edge. Recent [[metallurgy\|metallurgical]] experiments, based on [[microscopic]] studies of preserved Damascus-steel blades, have claimed to reproduce a very similar steel via possible reconstructions of the historical process. When forming a batch of steel, impurities are added to control the properties of the resulting alloy. In general, notably during the era of Damascus steel, one could produce an alloy that was hard and brittle at one extreme by adding up to 2% [[carbon]], or soft and malleable at the other, with about 0.5% carbon. The problem for a swordsmith is that the best steel should be both hard ''and'' malleable&mdash;hard to hold an edge once sharpened, but malleable so it would not break when hitting other metal in combat. This was not possible with normal processes. Metalsmiths in [[India]] perhaps as early as [[300 BC]] (although more likely 200 CE) developed a new technique known as [[wootz steel]] that produced a high-carbon steel of unusually high purity. [[Glass]] was added to a mixture of iron and charcoal and then heated. The technique propagated very slowly through the world, reaching modern-day [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]] around 900, and then the [[Middle East]] around 1000. This process was further refined, either using locally produced steels, or by re-working wootz purchased from India. The exact process remains unknown, but allowed [[carbide]]s to precipitate out as micro particles arranged in sheets or bands within the body of a blade. The carbides are far harder than the steel, allowing the swordsmith to make an edge centered on one of the carbide bands and thus very strong, while the sword as a whole remained flexible as in normal steels. The banded carbide precipitates appear in the blade as a beautiful swirling patterning, apparently the origin of the term [[damask]]. ==Loss of the technique== For reasons that are not entirely clear, the process was then lost to the Middle-Eastern metalsmiths around 1750, and has been eagerly sought by many since that time. The [[Russia\|Russian]] [[bulat steel]] has many similar properties, at least in nature if not in process. Recently various groups have claimed to have recreated steel with properties consistent with true Damascus blades, through [[experimental archaeology]], though even they admit they cannot be certain how it was originally created. Verhoeven et al. (1998) argued that the keys are ores with certain trace elements, controlled thermal cycling after the initial forging
he dual problems of competition from other forms of entertainment and concern on the part of the authorities that many of the popular thriller and [[martial art]]s films were socially unacceptable. In January 1986 the film industry was transferred from the Ministry of Culture to the newly formed Ministry of Radio, Cinema, and Television to bring it under "stricter control and management" and to "strengthen supervision over production." The end of the Cultural Revolution brought the release of "scar dramas", which depicted the emotional traumas left by this period. The most popular of these is probably Xie Jin's ''Hibiscus Town'' (1986), although they could be seen as late as the 1990s with Tian Zhuangzhuang's ''The Blue Kite'' (1993). ==The rise of the Fifth Generation== Beginning in the mid-late 1980s, the rise of the so-called Fifth Generation of Chinese filmmakers brought increased popularity of Chinese cinema abroad. The first generation of filmmakers to produce Chinese films since the Cultural Revolution, they jettisioned traditional methods of storytelling and opted for a more free and unorthodox approach. Most had graduated from the Beijing Film Academy since 1982. ''A One And an Eight'' (1983) and ''Yellow Earth'' (1984) (directed by [[Chen Kaige]] and photographed by [[Zhang Yimou]]) in particular were taken to mark the beginnings of the Fifth Generation. The most famous of the Fifth Generation directors, Chen Kaige and Zhang Yimou went on to produce celebrated works such as ''[[King of Children]]'' (1987), ''[[Farewell My Concubine]]'' (1993), ''[[Judou]]'' (1989), and ''[[Raise the Red Lantern]]'' (1991) which were not only acclaimed by Chinese cinema-goers but by the Western [[art film\|arthouse]] audience. [[Tian Zhuangzhuang]]'s films, though less well-known by Western viewers, were well noted by directors such as [[Martin Scorsese]]. Extremely diverse in style and subject, the Fifth Generation directors' films ranged from black comedy (Huang Jianxin's ''The Black Cannon Incident'', 1985) to the esoteric (Chen Kaige's ''Life on a String'', 1991), but they share a commonn rejection of the socialist-realist tradition worked by earlier Chinese filmmakers in the Communist era. Other notable Fifth Generation directors include Wu Ziniu, Hu Mei, and Zhou Xiaowen. Some of their bolder works with political overtones were banned by Chinese authorities. The Fourth Generation also returned to prominence. Given their label after the rise of the Fifth Generation, these were directors whose careers were stalled by the Cultural Revolution and who were professionally trained prior to 1966. Wu Tianming, in particular, made outstanding contributions by helping to finance major Fifth Generation directors under the auspices of the [[Xi'an]] Film Studio, while continuing to make films like ''Old Well'' (1986) and ''King of Masks'' (1996). The Fifth Generation movement effectively ended in the [[Tiananmen_Square_protests of 1989\|1989 Tiananmen Incident]], although its major directors continued to produce notable works. Several of its filmmakers went into self-imposed exile: Wu Tianming stayed in the [[United States]], Huang Jianxin left for [[Australia]], while many others went into television-related works. ==Sixth Generation and Beyond== The recent era has seen the "return of the amateur filmmaker" as state [[censorship]] policies have produced an edgy underground film movement loosely referred to as the Sixth Generation (from the number of generations since the 1949 revolution). These films are shot quickly and cheaply, which produces a documentary feel: long takes, hand-held cameras, ambient sound (see [[cinema verite]]). Many films are joint ventures and projects with international investment. Some important Sixth Generation directors to have emerged are [[Wang Xiaoshuai]] (''The Days'', ''Beijing Bicycle''), [[Zhang Yuan]] (''Beijing Bastards'', ''East Palace West Palace''), [[Jia Zhangke]] (''Xiao Wu'', ''Unknown Pleasures'', ''Platform'', ''The World''), and [[Lou Ye]] (''Suzhou River''). Unlike the Fifth Generation, the Sixth Generation brings a more individualistic, anti-romantic life-view and pays more attention to contemporary urban life, especially affected by disorientation. ==New Documentaries== Two decades of reform and marketization have brought dramatic social changes in mainland China, reflected not only in fiction film. [[Wu Wenguang]]'s [[Bumming in Beijing]] is now seen as the first work of the New Documentary Movement (NDM) in China. Another internationally acclaimed documentary is [[Wang Bing (documentarist)\|Wang Bing]]'s epic nine hour tale of deindustrialization ''Tie Xi Qu'' ("West of tracks"). Li Hong, the first women in the NDM, in ''Out of Phoenix Bridge'' relates the story of four young women, who moving from rural areas to the big cities like millions of other men and women , have come to Beijing to make a living. ==A New Chinese International Cinema?== In [[1999]], the multi-national production ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' achieved massive success at the Western box office despite being disregarded by some Chinese cinema-goers as pandering to Western tastes. Nevertheless, it provided an introduction to Chinese cinema for many and increased the popularity of many Chinese films which may have otherwise been relatively unknown to Westerners. In 2002, ''[[Hero (film)\|Hero]]'' was made as a second attempt to produce a Chinese film with the international appeal of ''Crouching Tiger, Hiden Dragon''. The cast and crew featured many of the most famous Chinese actors who were also known to some extent in the West, including [[Jet Li]], [[Zhang Ziyi]], [[Maggie Cheung]], [[Tony Leung Chiu-Wai]], directed by [[Zhang Yimou]]. The film was a phenomenal success in most of Asia and topped the U.S. box office for two weeks, making enough in the U.S. alone to cover the production costs. The successes of ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' and ''Hero'' blur what may be called the boundary between Mainland Chinese cinema and a more international-based "Chinese-language cinema". ''Crouching Tiger'', for example, was made by a Taiwanese director ([[Ang Lee]]), but its leads include Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Mainland Chinese actors and actresses while the funding is from overseas. This merging of people, resources, and expertise from three regions (China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) seemed to imply big-budgeted Chinese-language cinema is moving toward an international arena looking to compete with the best [[Hollywood]] films. Further examples of films in this mould include ''[[House of Flying Daggers]]'' (2004) and ''The Promise'' (2005). However, tighter-financed Chinese-language cinema are still relatively localized in content as seen in those from Hong Kong, Mainland China and Taiwan, especially in the latter two where many of the films have not yet found international distributors abroad. ==See also== [[Eastern cinema]] [[Cinema of Hong Kong]] [[Cinema of Taiwan]] [[List of Chinese actors]] [[List of Chinese actresses]] [[List of Chinese directors]] [[Propaganda in the Republic of China]] [[Propaganda in the People's Republic of China]] ==Further Readings== Rey Chow, ''Primitive Passions: Visuality, Sexuality, Ethnography, and Contemporary Chinese Cinema'', Columbia University Pres 1995 Shuqin Cui, ''Women Through the Lens: Gender and Nation in a Century of Chinese Cinema'', University of Hawaii Press 2003 Dai Jinhua, ''Cinema and Desire: Feminist Marxism and Cultural Politics in the Work of Dai Jinhua'', eds. Jing Wang and Tani E. Barlow. London: Verso 2002. Laikwan Pang, ''Building a New China in Cinema: The Chinese Left-Wing Cinema Movement, 1932-1937'', Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc 2002 Jay Leyda, ''Dianying'', MIT Press, 1972. Harry H. Kuoshu, ''Celluloid China: Cinematic Encounters with Culture and Society'', Southern Illinois University Press 2002 - introduction, discusses 15 films at length Yingjin Zhang, ''Chinese National Cinema'' (National Cinemas Series.), Routledge 2004 - general introduction Cheng, Jim, ''Annotated Bibliography For Chinese Film Studies'', Hong Kong University Press 2004 ==External links== * [http://www.dianying.com/ Chinese Movie Database] * [http://www.asiancult.com/ Asian Cult Cinema] * [http://chinesecinemas.org/ Chinese Cinema Page] * [http://www.sensasian.com/ Sensasian.com] * [http://www.yesasia.com/ YesAsia.com] * [http://www.dyddy.com/ Chinese Movie DataBase(GB)] * [http://www.cinemasie.com/ Cinemasie]&mdash;A database about Asian Cinemas, including Hong Kong, China and Taiwan. * [http://csc.ziyi.org/ Zhang Ziyi CSC] * [http://www.helloziyi.us/ Zhang Ziyi at HelloZiyi.us] * [http://www.loveasianfilm.com LoveAsianFilm.com - Your Guide To Asian Cinema Experience] Asian DVD/Film Reviews, Features, Trailers, News and more! * [http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/17286/personal_revolutions_from_chinas_5th.html?email=true Essay on 3 Chinese Films and the Cultural Revolution] [[Category:Cinema of China\| ]] <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[de:Chinesischer Film]] [[fr:Cinéma chinois]] [[zh:中华电影]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cinema of the United States</title> <id>10792</id> <revision> <id>42159657</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:23:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jrquinlisk</username> <id>43020</id> </contributor> <comment>rv vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{usculture}}The '''cinema of the United States''', although it is sometimes simply referred to as '''Hollywood''' does ''not'' refer only to the [[film industry]] of the [[United States of America]]. Other modes of production like [[documentary film]] or [[experimental film]] managed to exist beside the dominant cinema. Much like American popular music, the American film in
nothing - he has stated that his last name is "D"). The character was originally inspired by [[Brian Dowling (football)\|Brian Dowling]], the captain of Yale's football team in [[1968]]. * [[Zonker Harris]] - Stereotypical [[hippie]] turned ennobled lord, professional tanner, med student, Lieutenant Governor of [[American Samoa\|Samoa]], and occasional nanny. After his campaign to enable public access to some of California's beaches, a beach access road in [[Malibu]] was named in his honor. He now works at McFriendlys. * [[Joanie Caucus]] - Ex-[[homemaker\|housewife]] and "[[feminism\|libbie]]" who left her first husband Clinton Caucus to join Mike and Mark "[[On the Road\|on the road]]" in Colorado, went to law school, and worked with Mike on the [[John Bayard Anderson\|John Anderson]] campaign. She got re-married to journalist Rick Redfern, with whom she had a second child, Jeff. * [[Rick Redfern]] - Wife to Joanie and father to Jeff. Works as a reporter for the [[Washington Post]]. Somewhat clueless as a father. * [[J.J. (Doonesbury) \| J.J.]] - Daughter of Joanie (JJ is 'Joan Junior'). She was originally engaged to Zeke, but married Mike, left Mike for Zeke, and later won a [[MacArthur Foundation\|MacArthur Fellowship]]. Performance artist. Mother of Alex Doonesbury. * [[Zeke Brenner]] - Former caretaker for Duke's house. He married JJ on the second try. * [[Kim Rosenthal]] - Jewish-raised Vietnamese orphan, [[geek]] and Mike's second wife. Dropped out of a program towards a [[Doctorate]] in [[Computer Science]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|MIT]] because it was "too easy". * [[Alex Doonesbury]] - Teenage daughter of Mike and J.J. who now lives with her father and Kim. More or less a liberal [[foil (literature)\|foil]] for her more [[moderate]] father. * [[Jimmy Thudpucker]] - Overnight success as a rock star at 19. Later caught politics and moved to Vietnam. Modelled partially on a combination of Bob Dylan and John Denver. * Barbara Ann Boopstein ([[Boopsie]]) - Cheerleader turned actress, model, New Age channeler, and generic starlet. She is married to B.D.; they have a daughter named Samantha. * [[Zipper Harris]] - Zonker's nephew and current Walden undergraduate; his roommate is Jeff Redfern. * [[Phred (Doonesbury)\|Phred]] - The [[Viet Cong]] "terrorist" whom B.D. befriended when lost in [[Vietnam]], later Vietnamese delegate to the [[United Nations]], last seen working for [[Nike, Inc.\|Nike]] in Vietnam. <!-- Note: Roland HAS been listed as Roland Burton Hedley, Jr. AND Roland Burton Hedley, III in Doonesbury. However, the "III" appears on the official Doonesbury website --> * [[Roland Hedley \| Roland Burton Hedley, III]] - Former print journalist (to use that term generously), moved to television and then the [[Internet]]. Currently working for [[ABC News]]. * [[Jeff Redfern]] - Joanie and Rick's son. Jeff is currently attending Walden (and rooming with Zipper Harris), and is an intern for the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. [[Uncle Duke]], "Uncle" of Zonker, former Rolling Stone writer, governor of [[American Samoa]] and ambassador to China, once the [[proconsul]] of Panama, former owner of "Club Scud" in Kuwait City, ex-orphanage manager (where he realized one of the orphans, Earl, was his son), and former Mayor of Al Amok, Iraq. He has also been a drug smuggler (and heavy user), an enemy of [[John Denver]], toady to [[Donald Trump]], and a zombie slave to ex-Haitian President [[Jean-Claude Duvalier\|Duvalier]]. His character was initially based on [[Gonzo journalism\|Gonzo journalist]] [[Hunter S. Thompson]]. Duke is said to be "Like [[Forrest Gump]]'s evil twin." == Other characters == [[Honey Huan]], Duke's constant companion - Inspired by [[Tang Wensheng]] ([[Mao Zedong\|Mao]]'s interpreter when meeting with [[Richard Nixon\|Nixon]]) and partially [[Marcie]] of [[Peanuts]]. [[Lacey Davenport]], Republican U.S. Congresswoman, now deceased - reminiscent of [[Millicent Fenwick]]. Trudeau was asked, in 1976, if the similarities were deliberate, and laughed at the reporter, saying "I really don't know her that well." Fenwick was said, in the same article, to not know about ''Doonesbury'' and could not remember having met Trudeau. {{ref\|Flashbacks_Oct76}} [[Phil Slackmeyer]] - Father of Mark. A wealthy, conservative, corporate businessman. He died in 2003. [[Chase Talbott III]] - Life partner of Mark, and co-host of their NPR show, "All Things Being Equal." [[Ron Headrest]], computer-generated alter ego of President Reagan - Composite of [[Max Headroom]] and [[Ronald Reagan]]. A similar caricature of Reagan appeared briefly in the film [[Back to the Future Part II]]. Rev. [[Scott Sloan]], chaplain at Walden - Named for Rev. [[William McLennan, Jr.\|William "Scotty" McLennan, Jr.]], Trudeau's undergraduate roommate, and Rev. [[William Sloane Coffin]], Yale's chaplain while Trudeau was there. [[President King]], the president of Walden College - Based on [[Kingman Brewster, Jr.]], president of Yale when Trudeau was a student. (Indeed, the same character appeared in '''Bull Tales''' more directly as Brewster.) [[Mr. Butts]], hallucinatory walking, talking cigarette - Represents [[Tobacco industry]]. [[Donald Trump]], the greedy, rich man many would say he is in real life. [[Andy Lippincott]] - Joanie fell in love with him, but on a date, he revealed that he was gay. Was later diagnosed with and died of [[AIDS]]. Mini-D, the small man who sometimes pops out of Duke's head (via a flip-top scalp) when Duke is stoned. The concept behind the character, or at least the name, could be said to be based on "Mini-Me" from the ''[[Austin Powers]]'' movies. Virginia "Ginny" Slade - During the 1970s, when Joanie moved to California to study law at [[Boalt Hall]], she moved in with Ginny, a much younger, [[African-American]] law student. Ginny ran for Congress as a semester project, with Zonker, Andy Lippincott and Jimmy Thudpucker contributing to her campaign. She lost the Democratic primary to a scandal-ridden incumbent, Congressman Ventura, then re-entered the campaign as an independent. Close to Election Day, she chose to drop out so that long-time Republican candidate Lacey Davenport would win. Ginny later married her boyfriend, Clyde, an obnoxious but lovable guy. Clyde himself later ran against Davenport. [[Nicole (Doonesbury) \| Nicole]] - A radical [[feminist]] and member of the Walden Commune. She and Mike almost had an affair after meeting at their class reunion, but broke it off when Mike learned J.J. was pregnant. [[Bernie (Doonesbury) \| Bernie]] - Mike's college lab partner and member of Walden Commune. A mad scientist, he invented a [[werewolf]] potion and spent a summer in [[Scotland]] searching for the [[Loch Ness Monster]]. He later founded a computer company and hired Mike. [[Alice (Doonesbury) \| Alice P. Schwarzman]] and [[Elmont (Doonesbury) \| "Crazy" Elmont]] - Two [[homeless]] people, Alice first appeared as a garment worker who was a regular at a bar where Zonker was bartender. She later re-appeared as a homeless character. She later married Elmont, a deranged man, in order to move up the list for public housing. Rev. Sloan performed the ceremony. As the affluent Rep. Lacey Davenport became [[senile]], she began to regard Alice as her sister (there's some speculation that this might have been true). * [[Sid Kibbitz]] - Sid first appeared in 1982 to help Duke and Alice Schwarzman produce a movie on the life of [[John DeLorean]], and later became Boopsie's agent. In addition, many other minor characters have graced the series, serving a variety of functions from radio announcers to teenagers to waitstaff and with a wide range of ages and characteristics (male / female, young / old, gay / straight etc), often wryly commenting on social issues. == Milestones == Doonesbury delved into a number of political and social issues, causing controversies, and breaking new ground on the comics pages. Among the milestones: A November [[1972]] strip depicting Zonker telling a little boy in a sandbox a fairy tale ending in the [[protagonist]] being awarded "his weight in fine, uncut Turkish [[hashish]]" raises an uproar. During the [[Watergate scandal]], one strip showed Mark on the radio with a "Watergate profile" of [[John N. Mitchell\|John Mitchell]], declaring him "Guilty! Guilty, guilty, guilty!!"; it caused a number of newspapers, including the [[Washington Post]], to remove the strip. In June [[1973]], the military newspaper [[Stars and Stripes]] drops Doonesbury for being too political. The strip is quickly reinstated after hundreds of protests by readers. September 1973: the ''[[Lincoln Journal]]'' becomes the first newspaper to move Doonesbury to its editorial page. In February [[1976]], Andy Lippincott, a classmate of Joanie's who she falls in love with, turns out to be gay. The ''[[Miami Herald]]'' decides they aren't "ready for [[homosexuality]] in a comic strip." In November 1976, when the storyline included the blossoming romance of Rick Redfern and Joanie Caucus, four days of strips were devoted to a transition from one apartment to another, ending with a view of the two together in bed. Again, the strip was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers. In June [[1978]], one strip included a coupon listing various politicians and dollar amounts allegedly taken from Korean [[lobbyist]]s, to be clipped and glued to a postcard to be sent to the [[Speaker of the House]] [[Tip O'Neill]], resulting in an overflow of mail to the Speaker's office. In August [[1979]], Trudeau took a three-week vacation from the strip, which was uncommon among comic strip writers and artists. *From January [[1983]] through September [[1984]], the strip was not publi
of "hexa" rather than the proper Latin prefix of "sexa". The word "hexadecimal" is strange in that ''hexa'' is derived from the [[Greek language\|Greek]] &#941;&#958;&#953; (hexi) for "six" and ''decimal'' is derived from the [[Latin]] for "ten". It may have been derived from the Latin root, but Greek ''deka'' is so similar to the Latin ''decem'' that some would not consider this nomenclature inconsistent. An older term was the pure Latin "sexidecimal", but that was changed because some people thought it too risqué, and it also had an alternative meaning of "[[base 60]]". However, the word "[[sexagesimal]]" (base 60) retains the prefix. The earlier Bendix documentation used the term "sexadecimal". Several years ago an alternate, unambiguous set of hexadecimal digits was proposed. ''(Cf. [[Hexadecimal time]])'' ==Representing hexadecimal== <div style="text-align: center; float: right; margin: 0em 0em 1em 1em;"> {\| Border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" ! Hex !! Bin !! Dec \|- \| 0 \|\| 0000 \|\| 0 \|- \| 1 \|\| 0001 \|\| 1 \|- \| 2 \|\| 0010 \|\| 2 \|- \| 3 \|\| 0011 \|\| 3 \|- \| 4 \|\| 0100 \|\| 4 \|- \| 5 \|\| 0101 \|\| 5 \|- \| 6 \|\| 0110 \|\| 6 \|- \| 7 \|\| 0111 \|\| 7 \|- \| 8 \|\| 1000 \|\| 8 \|- \| 9 \|\| 1001 \|\| 9 \|- \| A \|\| 1010 \|\| 10 \|- \| B \|\| 1011 \|\| 11 \|- \| C \|\| 1100 \|\| 12 \|- \| D \|\| 1101 \|\| 13 \|- \| E \|\| 1110 \|\| 14 \|- \| F \|\| 1111 \|\| 15 \|} </div> Some hexadecimal numbers are indistinguishable from a decimal number (to both humans and computers). Therefore, some convention is usually used to flag them. In typeset text, the indication is often a subscripted suffix such as 5A3<sub>16</sub>, 5A3<sub>SIXTEEN</sub><!--this seems hugely verbose and i can't say i've ever seen it does anyone here a source? [[User:Plugwash\|Plugwash]] 23:13, [[10 July]] [[2005]] (UTC)-->, or 5A3<sub>HEX</sub>. In computer programming languages (which are nearly always [[plain text]] without such typographical distinctions as subscript and superscript) a wide variety of ways of marking hexadecimal numbers have appeared. These are also seen even in typeset text especially if that text relates to a programming language. Some of the more common textual representations: * [[Ada programming language\|Ada]] and [[VHDL]] enclose hexadecimal numerals in based "numeric quotes", e.g. "16#5A3#". (Note: Ada accepts this notation for ''all'' bases from 2 through 16 and for both [[integer]] and real types.) * [[C programming language\|C]] and languages with a similar syntax (such as [[C++]], [[C Sharp programming language\|C#]] and [[Java programming language\|Java)]] prefix hexadecimal numerals with "0x", e.g. "0x5A3". The leading "0" is used so that the [[parser]] can simply recognize a number, and the "x" stands for hexadecimal (cf. 0 for [[Octal]]). The "x" in "0x" can be either in upper or lower case but is almost always seen written in lower case. * nix shells use an escape character form "\x0FF" in expressions and "0xFF" for constants. In [[HTML]], hexadecimal character references also use the x: &amp;#x5a3; should give the same as &amp;#1443; &ndash; with your browser &#x5a3; and &#1443; respectively (Hebrew accent munah). Hexadecimal color references are prefixed with "#", e.g. "#FFFFFF" (white). * Some [[Assembly language\|assemblers]] indicate hex by an appended "h" (if the numeral starts with a letter, then also with a preceding 0, to indicate that it is a number), e.g., "0A3Ch", "5A3h". * [[Postscript programming language\|Postscript]] indicates hex by a prefix "16#". * [[Common Lisp]] use the prefixes "#x" and "#16r". * [[Pascal programming language\|Pascal]], other assemblers ([[AT&T]], [[Motorola]]), and some versions of [[BASIC programming language\|BASIC]] use a prefixed "$", e.g. "$5A3". * The [[Smalltalk]] programming language uses the prefix "16r". Note Smalltalk accepts the format "<radix>r<digits>" where radix is a number base from 2 upwards (i.e. 2r1110 is 10r14 or 16rE), with the practical limitation being within the ASCII character set range 0-9 and A-Z used to represent the digits. Some versions of Smalltalk allow fractional digits following a period character, ".", enabling hexadecimal (and other bases of) floating point numbers to be represented. * Some versions of [[BASIC programming language\|BASIC]], notably [[Microsoft]]'s variants including [[QBasic]] and [[Visual Basic]]), prefix hexadecimal numerals with "&amp;H", e.g. "&amp;H5A3"; others such as [[BBC BASIC]] just used "&amp;" (used for [[octal]] in Microsoft's BASIC!). * Notations such as <code>X'5A3'</code> are sometimes seen; [[PL/I]] uses such notation. * [[Donald Knuth]] introduced the use of different fonts to represent radices in his book ''The TeXbook''. In his notation, hexadecimal numbers are represented in a typewriter type, e.g. <tt>5A3</tt> [[Image:Hexidecimal Multiplication Table.png\|right\|thumb\|250px\|A hexadecimal [[multiplication table]]]] There is no single agreed-upon standard, so all the above conventions are in use, sometimes even in the same paper. However, as they are quite unambiguous, little difficulty arises from this. The most commonly used (or encountered) notations are the ones with a prefix "0x" or a subscript-base 16, for hex numbers. For example, both 0x2BAD and 2BAD<sub>16</sub> represent the [[decimal]] number 11181 (or 11181<sub>10</sub>). The choice of the letters ''A'' through ''F'' to represent the additional digits was not universal in the early history of computers. During the 1950's, some installations favored using the digits 0 through 5 with a [[macron]] to indicate the values 10-15. Users of [[Bendix]] computers used the letters ''U'' through ''Z''. ==Uses== A common use of hexadecimal numerals is found in [[HTML]] and [[Cascading Style Sheets\|CSS]]. They use hexadecimal notation ([[hex triplet]]s) to specify colours on web pages; there is just the # symbol, not a separate symbol for "hexadecimal". Twenty-four-bit color is represented in the format #RRGGBB, where RR specifies the value of the Red component of the color, GG the Green component and BB the Blue component. For example, a shade of red that is 238,9,63 in decimal is coded as #EE093F. This syntax is borrowed from the [[X Window System]]. In [[URL]]s, special characters can be coded hexadecimally, with a [[percent]] sign used to introduce each byte; e.g., http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main%20Page The canonical written form of numeric [[IPv6]] addresses represents each group of 16 bits as a separate hexadecimal number, to ease reading and transcription of the 128-bit addresses. ==Fractions== As with other numeral systems, the hexadecimal system can be used in forming [[vulgar fraction]]s, although [[Recurring decimal\|recurring digits]] are common since 16 has only a single prime factor: {\| Border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 width=640 \|width= 9% height=0\| \|width= 4%\| \|width=10%\| \|width= 9%\| \|width= 4%\| \|width=12%\| \|width= 9%\| \|width= 4%\| \|width=15%\| \|width= 9%\| \|width= 4%\| \|width=11%\| \|- \|align=right\| 1/ 0x1 \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x1 \|align=right\| 1/ 0x5 \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.<font style="text-decoration: overline">3</font> \|align=right\| 1/ 0x9 \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.<font style="text-decoration: overline">1C7</font> \|align=right\| 1/ 0xD \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.<font style="text-decoration: overline">13B</font> \|- \|align=right\| 1/ 0x2 \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.8 \|align=right\| 1/ 0x6 \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.2<font style="text-decoration: overline">A</font> \|align=right\| 1/ 0xA \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.1<font style="text-decoration: overline">9</font> \|align=right\| 1/ 0xE \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.1<font style="text-decoration: overline">249</font> \|- \|align=right\| 1/ 0x3 \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.<font style="text-decoration: overline">5</font> \|align=right\| 1/ 0x7 \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.<font style="text-decoration: overline">249</font> \|align=right\| 1/ 0xB \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.<font style="text-decoration: overline">1745D</font> \|align=right\| 1/ 0xF \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.<font style="text-decoration: overline">1</font> \|- \|align=right\| 1/ 0x4 \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.4 \|align=right\| 1/ 0x8 \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.2 \|align=right\| 1/ 0xC \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.1<font style="text-decoration: overline">5</font> \|align=right\| 1/ 0x10 \|\|<center> = \|\| 0x0.1 \|} Because the radix 16 is a square (4<sup>2</sup>), hexadecimal fractions have an odd period much more often than decimal ones. Recurring decimals occur when the denominator in lowest terms has a [[prime factor]] not found in the radix. In the case of hexadecimal numbers, all fractions with denominators that are not a power of two will result in a recurring decimal. ==Humor== Hexadecimal is sometimes used in programmer jokes because certain words can be formed using only hexadecimal digits. Some of these words are "dead", "beef", "babe", and with appropriate substitutions "c0ffee". [http://www.thinkgeek.com/tshirts/frustrations/6596/ This] is an example of such a joke. Since these are quickly recognisable by programmers, debugging setups sometimes initialise memory to them to help programmers see when something has not been initialised
cultural sector]], and Dominica's primary agricultural [[exports]] include [[tobacco]], [[bananas]], [[vegetables]], [[citrus]], [[copra]], [[coconut oil]], and [[essential oils]] such as [[bay leaf\|bay oil]]. The country's industries, other than tourism, include [[soap]], [[furniture]], cement blocks, and [[shoes]]. Dominica is further benefited by the presence of an offshore medical school, [http://www.rossmed.edu/ Ross University], in the northern town of Portsmouth. About 900 students live and study in Portsmouth. The Dominican economy has high [[poverty]] (30%), high [[unemployment]] (23%), and a low per capita [[GDP]] (US$5,400). The Dominican economy has been hurt by problems in the banana industry. The entire economy suffers when weather conditions damage the banana crop, or when the price of bananas falls. The [[European Union]] has phased out preferred access of bananas to its markets, causing banana demand to fall. In response, the Dominican government privatized the banana industry. Also, the government has attempted to diversify the economy and has lifted [[price controls]] in an attempt to improve the lagging economy. The government is also trying to develop tourism, especially [[ecotourism]]. The lack of a large international airport and lack of sandy beaches decrease opportunities for standard tourism, but the heavily rainforested island could lure those who want unconventional ecotourism experiences. Indeed, it is remarked that of all the islands of the Caribbean, Dominica is the only one [[Christopher Columbus]] would still recognise. ==Demographics== ''Main article: [[Demographics of Dominica]]'' Almost all of the seventy thousand nationals of Dominica today are descendants of African slaves, brought in by colonial planters in the 18th century. However, Dominica is also one of the few islands in the Eastern Caribbean to possess a population of pre-Columbian Carib Indians, about 3,000 of whom live on the island's east coast in their own territory. The population growth rate of Dominica is very low, due primarily to emigration to more developed Caribbean Islands, the United Kingdom, the United States, or Canada. English is the official language of Dominica and is universally understood; however, because of historic French domination, Antillean Creole "[[Patwa]]", a French-based [[creole language]], is also widely spoken. About 80% of the population is Catholic, though in recent years a number of Protestant churches have been established. ==Culture== ''Main article: [[Culture of Dominica]]'' Dominica is home to a wide range of people. Historically occupied by several native tribes, only a [[Carib]] tribe remained by the time European settlers reached the island. French and British settlers each claimed the island, and imported [[slaves]] from [[Africa]]. The native Caribs have a reserve on which they live in their traditional manner. This mix of cultures is important to Dominica. The famed novelist [[Jean Rhys]] was born and raised in Dominica. The island is obliquely depicted in her best-known book, ''[[Wide Sargasso Sea]]''. Rhys's friend, the political activist and writer [[Phyllis Shand Allfrey]], set her [[1954]] novel, ''[[The Orchid House]]'' ISBN 081352332X, in Dominica. The dialect of Dominica also includes Cocoy and a French Patios. "Cocoy", is primarly a mix of cockney english imported by English settler and with an infusion of African lingual. Cocoy is mainly spoken in the north-eastern part of the island. The French patios which is more widely spoken came from the French plantation owners from the neighbouring French islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique. ==See also== * [[Communications in Dominica]] * [[Foreign relations of Dominica]] * [[Politics of Dominica]] * [[Economy of Dominica]] * [[Demographics of Dominica]] * [[Military of Dominica]] * [[Transportation in Dominica]] * [[Music of Dominica]] * [[Culture of Dominica]] * [[List of people of Dominica]] == External links == {{sisterlinks\|Dominica}} ===News=== [http://www.news-dominica.com/ Latest news from Dominica] ===Directories=== [http://www.lennoxhonychurch.com/ Dominica's history & culture] [http://www.liquidguru.com/ Videos and Photos of Dominica, above and under the waves] ===Tourism=== {{wikitravel}} [http://www.dominica.dm/index.php Official tourism website] [http://www.worldcreolemusicfestival.dm/ Dominica World Creole Music Festival] [http://www.avirtualdominica.com/home.cfm In-depth travel & tourism site] [http://dominica-guide.info Travel and tourism guide for Dominica] ===Pictures=== [http://www.mydominica.org/ mydominica.org: Extensive photographs of Dominica's towns, villages, landscape and scenery] {{West_Indies}} {{Caricom}} [[Category:Dominica\|]] [[Category:CARICOM member states]] [[Category:Republics]] [[an:Dominica]] [[ast:Dominica]] [[bg:Доминика]] [[zh-min-nan:Dominica]] [[bn:ডোমিন্‌ইকা]] [[bs:Dominika]] [[ca:Dominica]] [[cs:Dominika]] [[da:Dominica]] [[de:Dominica]] [[et:Dominica]] [[es:Dominica]] [[eo:Dominiko]] [[fr:Dominique (pays)]] [[gl:Dominica]] [[ko:도미니카]] [[ht:Dominik]] [[hr:Dominika]] [[io:Dominika]] [[id:Dominika]] [[ia:Dominica (pais)]] [[it:Dominica]] [[he:דומיניקה]] [[lv:Dominika]] [[lt:Dominika]] [[ms:Dominica]] [[na:Dominica]] [[nl:Dominica]] [[nds:Dominica]] [[ja:ドミニカ国]] [[no:Dominica]] [[nn:Dominica]] [[oc:Dominica]] [[pl:Dominika]] [[pt:Dominica]] [[ro:Dominica]] [[ru:Доминика]] [[sco:Dominica]] [[sq:Domenika]] [[simple:Dominica]] [[sk:Dominika (štát)]] [[sl:Dominika]] [[sr:Доминика]] [[fi:Dominica]] [[sv:Dominica]] [[tl:Dominica]] [[tr:Dominik]] [[uk:Домініка]] [[zh:多米尼克]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Dominica</title> <id>8051</id> <revision> <id>33305869</id> <timestamp>2005-12-30T22:42:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FireFox</username> <id>358536</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB\|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The island of '''[[Dominica]]''''s indigenous [[Arawak]] people were expelled or exterminated by [[Carib]]s in the 14th century. [[Christopher Columbus]] landed there in November [[1493]]. [[Spain\|Spanish]] ships frequently landed on Dominica during the 16th century, but fierce resistance by the Caribs discouraged Spain's efforts at settlement. In [[1635]], [[France]] claimed Dominica. Shortly thereafter, French missionaries became the first European inhabitants of the island. Carib incursions continued, though, and in [[1660]], the French and [[United Kingdom\|British]] agreed that both Dominica and [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines\|St. Vincent]] should be abandoned. Dominica was officially neutral for the next century, but the attraction of its resources remained; rival expeditions of British and French foresters were harvesting timber by the start of the 18th century. Largely due to Dominica's position between [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]], France eventually became predominant, and a French settlement was established and grew. As part of the [[1763]] [[Treaty of Paris (1763)\|Treaty of Paris]] that ended the [[Seven Years' War]], the island became a British possession. In [[1778]], during the [[American Revolutionary War]], the French mounted a successful invasion with the active cooperation of the population, which was largely French. The [[1783]] Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, returned the island to Britain. French invasions in [[1795]] and [[1805]] ended in failure. In 1763, the British established a legislative assembly, representing only the white population. In [[1831]], reflecting a liberalization of official British racial attitudes, the [[Brown Privilege Bill]] conferred political and social rights on free nonwhites. Three Blacks were elected to the legislative assembly the following year. Following the abolition of slavery, in [[1838]] Dominica became the first and only British Caribbean colony to have a Black-controlled legislature in the 19th century. Most Black legislators were small holders or merchants who held economic and social views diametrically opposed to the interests of the small, wealthy English planter class. Reacting to a perceived threat, the planters lobbied for more direct British rule. In [[1865]], after much agitation and tension, the colonial office replaced the elective assembly with one comprised of one-half elected members and one-half appointed. The elected legislators were outmaneuvered on numerous occasions by planters allied with colonial administrators. In [[1871]], Dominica became part of the [[Leeward Island Federation]]. The power of the Black population progressively eroded. Crown Colony government was re-established in [[1896]]. All political rights for the vast majority of the population were effectively curtailed. [[Development aid]], offered as compensation for disenfranchisement, proved to have a negligible effect. Following [[World War I]], an upsurge of political consciousness throughout the Caribbean led to the formation of the representative government association. Marshaling public frustration with the lack of a voice in the governing of Dominica, this group won one-third of the popularly elected seats of the legislative assembly in [[1924]] and one-half in [[1936]]. Shortly thereafter, Dominica was transferred from the Leeward Island Administration and was governed as part of the [[Windward Islands\|Windwards]] until [[1958]], when it joined the short-lived [[West Indies Federation]]. In [[1961]], a Dominica Labor Party government led by [[Edward Oliver LeBlanc]] was elected. After the federation dissolved, Dominica became an associated state of the United Kingdom on [[February 27]], [[1967]] and formally took responsibility for its internal affairs. LeBlanc retired in [[1974]] and was replaced by [[Patrick John]]. On [[November 3]], [[1978]], the Commonwealth of Dominica was granted independence by th
ies * [[BMW E39]] - (1996-2003) 5 Series * [[BMW E46]] - (1998-2005) 3 Series * [[BMW E52]] - (2000-2004) Z8 * [[BMW E53]] - (2000-present) X5 * [[BMW E60]] - (2004-present) 5 Series * [[BMW E63/E64\|BMW E63]] - (2004-present) 6 Series coupe * [[BMW E63/E64\|BMW E64]] - (2004-present) 6 Series convertible * [[BMW E65/E66\|BMW E65]] - (2002-present) 7 Series short wheel base * [[BMW E65/E66\|BMW E66]] - (2002-present) 7 Series long wheel base * [[BMW E70]] - future X5 * [[BMW E83]] - (2004-present) X3 * [[BMW E85]] - (2003-present) Z4 * [[BMW E87]] - (2004-present) 1 Series * [[BMW E90]] - (2005-present) 3 Series * [[BMW E91]] - (2005-present) 3 Series Wagon ==Related companies== * [[Automobilwerk Eisenach]] * [[Isetta]] * [[Glas]] * [[Rolls-Royce\|Rolls-Royce Motor Cars Limited]]: BMW subsidiary that owns the [[Rolls-Royce]] trademark. * [[Rover (car)\|Rover]]: briefly owned by BMW, which retained the [[Mini]] after selling off the rest of the company (see [[MG Rover Group]]). * [[Land Rover]]: sold to [[Ford Motor Company\|Ford]]; the current [[Range Rover]] was developed mostly by BMW during their ownership of the company and until recently was powered by their 4.4&nbsp;L [[V8]] petrol (gasoline) engine and continues to use the BMW 3.0&nbsp;L I6 diesel engine * [[BMW MINI]]: a small [[hatchback]]; inspired by the original [[Mini]], which was the British competitor to the [[Volkswagen Beetle]]. * [[Wiesmann]]: A company making sporty 2-seater coupes for which BMW supplies the engines. [[DesignworksUSA]]: Design studio founded in 1972 by Charles W. Pelly, and owned by BMW AG since May 1995. DesignworksUSA has worked on various designs for BMW and other companies, not just automobile. One of the latest designs is computer keyboard and mouse, which were sold by [[BenQ]] as x700 Pro keyboard, x730 Pro wireless keyborard and mouse combo, M306 wireless mouse. Bavaria Wirtschaftsagentur GmbH: BMW Group subsidiary that offers insurance services. [[Softlab]] GmbH: IT consulting and systems integration. ==Motorsport== [[Image:BMW.WilliamsF1 Team.png\|thumb\|BMW.[[WilliamsF1]] Team logo]] BMW has been engaged in [[motorsport]] activities since the dawn of the first BMW motorcycle. BMW has competed and won many of the most coveted and prestigious races and motoring events. [[BMW Sauber\|BMW Sauber F1 Team]] * [[WilliamsF1]] * [[Brabham Racing Organisation]] * [[Team McLaren]] * [[Touring car racing]] * [[Le Mans 24 Hours]] * [[Mille Miglia]] * [[Nürburgring]] * [[Paris Dakar Rally]] ==Motorcycles== [[Image:BMWbike.jpg\|thumb\|A modern BMW motorcycle]] {{main\|BMW motorcycles}} BMW branded motorcycles were first produced in [[1923]] and had an unusual "[[flat-twin\|boxer twin]]" engine, with two air-cooled cylinders protruding from opposite sides of the machine. Prior to this BMW built the "Flink" 2- stroke and "Helios" motorcycles, as well as supplying M2B15 motors to other companies such as Victoria. The R series currently designates machines with a boxer-twin engine, the K series has an I4 engine (1000 and 1200cc) or an I3 (750cc), and the F series has a single cylinder [[Rotax]] engine. During [[World War II\|WWII]] BMW produced the [[BMW R75]] motorcycle with a [[sidecar]] attached. This motorcycle was essentially an 80% interchangeable copy of the ZUndapp KS750, made by BMW to avoid producing the KS750 under licence. Unusually, the sidecar's wheel was also driven. Combined with a lockable [[differential (mechanics)\|differential]], this made the vehicle very capable off-road, an equivalent in many ways to the [[Jeep]]. BMW motorcycles tend to be relatively large and heavy, and relaxed and comfortable to ride. All BMW motorcycles except for the F series (which have a chain or belt drive) use shaft drive, a characteristic of BMW motorcycles since 1923. BMW updated the traditional R design in 1993. These new bikes were principally oil-cooled (hence, called [[oilhead]]s) and had 4 valves per cylinder. (Older Rs are principally air-cooled, and called [[airhead (motorcycle)\|airhead]]s.) In 2004, BMW updated the oilhead boxer engine, adding double spark plugs per cylinder, a built-in balance shaft, an increased capacity to 1200&nbsp;cc and enhanced performance to 100&nbsp;hp (75&nbsp;kW) for the R1200GS, compared to 85&nbsp;hp (63&nbsp;kW) of the previous oilhead s R1150GS. In 2004, BMW introduced the new K1200S Sports Bike which marked a departure for BMW. It is both powerful (the engine is a 167 bhp unit derived from the company's work with the Williams F1 team) and significantly lighter than previous K models. It was BMW's latest attempt to keep up with the pace of development of sports machines from the likes of [[Honda]], [[Kawasaki motorcycles\|Kawasaki]] and [[Suzuki]]. Innovations include a unique electronically adjustable front and rear suspension, and a Hossack-type front fork BMW calls Duolever. BMW was one of the earliest manufacturers to offer [[anti-lock braking system\|anti-lock brakes]] on production motorcycles. BMW is an innovator in motorcycle suspension design. Most modern examples use single-sided rear swingarms. Their trademark front suspension design, called the Telelever, was first seen in the early 1990s. The Telelever significantly reduces dive under braking, and is sometimes criticized by sport riders as insulating the rider from road inputs, therefore reducing the rider's "feel" for the roadway. == Nicknames == '''''Bimmer''''' - slang for BMW cars {{ref\|bostonbimmer}} (pronounced "bimmer" or "beemer") '''''Beamer/Beemer''''' - slang for BMW motorcycles '''''Beba''''' - [[Greece]] '''''B M''''' - Arab countries '''''Bembara''''' - [[Serbia]] '''''Bambalis''''' - [[Lithuania]] '''''Bummer''''' - [[Russia]] '''''Bemm''''' - [[Estonia]] == Culture == BMW has also gained a reputation as part of an Internet prank, in that it is intentionally referred to ''erroneously'' as "British Motor Works" in order to get a charge out of [[newbie]]s. The term "beemer" started as a pronunciation of the acronym "BMW," adapted from the early-20th-Century British pronunciation of [[Birmingham Small Arms Company\|BSA]] (as "beeser" or "beezer"), whose motorcycles were often racing BMW's. Over time, the term became closely associated with BMW motorcycles. The term "bimmer" was later coined to refer (exclusively) to BMW automobiles. As such, use of the word "beemer" to refer to a BMW automobile is [http://www.boston-bmwcca.org/reference/Bimmer-Beemer.aspx frowned upon] by BMW enthusiasts, because it is the term used for motorcycles, though the distinction is somewhat arbitrary. Interestingly, in the German language, the correct pronunciation of the term "bimmer" is "beemer." == Community == BMW has always had a very tight and loyal community following. They're one of the few automakers that support driving their cars to their limits, suggesting "spirited driving" in certain operation manuals. In the summer of 2001, BMW even went as far as starting the [http://www.bmwfilms.com BMW Films] website, showcasing some sporty models being driven to extremes. These videos are very popular within the [http://www.unitedbimmer.com enthusiast community] and have opened the eyes of many owners looking for a sporty/fun car. However, even with all this success, on October 21st, 2005, the BMW Films were taken offline. ==See also== * [[BMW Steptronic]] * [[List of automobile manufacturers]] * [[List of Formula One constructors]] * [[BMW films]] * [[List of BMW engines]] * [[BMW Headquarters]] ==Notes== # {{note\|bostonbimmer}} [http://www.boston-bmwcca.org/reference/bimmer-beemer.aspx Beemer vs. Bimmer article from the Boston Chapter BMW Car Club of America] ==External links== * [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/41/41758.html Yahoo! - Bayerische Motoren Werke AG Company Profile] * [http://www.netcarshow.com/bmw/ BMW Image Galleries] ===Official corporate websites=== [http://www.bmwgroup.com/ BMW Group International] [http://www.bmwgroup.com/e/nav/index.html?../0_0_www_bmwgroup_com/home/home.html&source=overview BMW Group English] [http://www.bmw.com/ BMW International] [http://www.bmwusa.com/ BMW USA] [http://www.bmwmotorcycles.com/ BMW Motorcycles USA] [http://www.mini.com/ MINI International] *[http://www.miniusa.com/crm/main.jsp MINI USA] [http://www.rolls-roycemotorcars.com/master_frame.html Rolls-Royce Motors] [http://www.historicalarchive.bmw.com BMW Group archives] [http://www.bmw.com/com/en/index_narrowband.html?content=/com/en/insights/history/overview.html BMW History] [http://www.designworksusa.com/site.html DesignworksUSA homepage] [http://www.softlab.com Softlab homepage] ===Club and information websites=== [http://www.dtmpower.net DTMPower.net] is by far the best BMW forum. Great people and great times. * [http://www.thebmwblog.com TheBMWBlog.com] BMW Blog posting latest information on the German automaker. * [http://www.bimmerportal.com/forum/ BMW Forums] provides BMW enthusiasts a place to discuss BMWs and exchange their knowledge. Forums for different models, for sale section, motorsport, general discussions, and BMW related news. * [http://www.bimmerportal.com BimmerPortal] is a website / portal dedicated to the Ultimate Driving Machine. This site has everything a BMW owner is looking for. Many forums, car galleries, owner's garage, recent news articles, DIY's, and much more. * [http://www.bmwfaq.com BMWFaq] Spanish BMW forum * [http://bmwturbos.scottiesharpe.com BMW Turbos!] is a forum for fans of the E23 745i, M102 and M106 six-cylinder turbo motors and other M30 turbo kits such as those made by Callaway, Dinan, etc. * [http://www.unitedbimmer.com United Bimmer] Is a growing BMW community offering tech support forums, a DIY (Do It Yourself) knowledge base, a wallpaper gallery, a Rat
h ran weeknights at 12:30 am eastern time, immediately following ''[[The Tonight Show]]'', quickly established a reputation as being edgy and unpredictable, and soon developed a cult following (particularly among college students). The show was markedly different than the soft-sell talk-show competition (including his own lead-in); Letterman as an interviewer could be sarcastic and antagonistic to the point that a number of celebrities have even stated that they were afraid of appearing on the show. Letterman's reputation as an acerbic interviewer was born out of moments like his verbal sparring matches with [[Cher (entertainer)\|Cher]], [[Shirley MacLaine]] and most notably, [[Madonna (entertainer)\|Madonna]] (see [[Madonna on Letterman]]). [[Image:daveln.jpg\|thumb\|right\|220px\|During a monologue on ''Late Night'']] The show often included quirky, genre-mocking regular features, including "[[Stupid Pet Tricks]]", throwing things off the roof, the [[Top 10 List]], and a facetious letter-answering segment on Thursdays ("Viewer Mail" moved to Fridays in [[1987]] when a fifth night was added to the program's weekly broadcast schedule). Other memorable moments included Letterman using a bullhorn to interrupt ''[[The Today Show]]'' TV program, which was on the air conducting a live interview at the time, announcing that he was not wearing any pants; interrupting [[Al Roker]] on the [[Live at Five]] live local news by walking into the studio; and the outrageous appearances by comedian [[Andy Kaufman]], ''Late Night'' writer [[Chris Elliott]] and [[comic book]] writer [[Harvey Pekar]]. In one highly publicized appearance, Kaufman appeared to be slapped and knocked to the ground by professional wrestler [[Jerry Lawler]]. (Lawler and Kaufman's friend [[Bob Zmuda]] later revealed that the event was [[work (professional wrestling)\|staged]].) Actor [[Crispin Glover]] once aimed a kick at Letterman's head; the host immediately left the set. When the show returned after a commercial break, Glover had disappeared. A guest shot by writer [[Hunter S. Thompson]] was cut short, apparently after Thompson offered to shoot off fireworks on the studio floor. ==Late Shift== [[Image:Johnnylatenight.jpg\|thumb\|left\|220px\|Johnny Carson faxing a joke to David Letterman on ''Late Night'']] Letterman remained with [[NBC]] for eleven years. When [[Johnny Carson]] announced that he would retire in May 1992, a protracted, multi-lateral battle erupted over who would replace the long-time ''Tonight'' host. Eventually, executives at [[NBC]] announced Carson's frequent guest-host [[Jay Leno]] as Carson's replacement; despite Carson's own wish of handing the reins to Letterman. Letterman had become a victim of his own success; with [[NBC]] confirming that Letterman's high ratings in the 12:30 ([[North American Eastern Standard Time Zone\|EST]]) timeslot meant that [[NBC]] preferred to keep Letterman in the 'Late Night' gig. Letterman, a longtime protégé of Carson's and who had frequently credited Carson with boosting his career, was reportedly bitterly disappointed and angry at not having been given the ''Tonight Show '' job. In 1993, after receiving advice from Carson, Letterman moved to [[CBS]] to host a new show, ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]''. In 1996, [[HBO]] produced a made-for-television movie called ''[[The Late Shift]]'', based on a book by [[Bill Carter]], chronicling the battle between Letterman and Leno for the coveted ''Tonight Show'' hosting spot. Letterman would mock the film for months afterward, specifically on how the actor playing him didn't resemble him in the least. ("They took a guy who looked nothing like me and with makeup and special camera angles, turned him into a guy who looked nothing like me, with red hair.") About a year after ''Late Show'' began, Carson made a surprise appearance during a "Top 10 List" segment. The audience went wild as Letterman stood and invited Carson to sit at his desk. Such was the overwhelming applause that Carson was unable to deliver the joke (the applause having gone on too long) and he humbly returned backstage. ===Move to CBS: ''The Late Show''=== ''The Late Show'' competes in the same time slot as Leno's ''[[The Tonight Show]]''. Letterman has garnered both critical and industry praise; his shows have received 67 [[Emmy Award]] nominations, winning twelve times in his first twenty years in late night television. Leno consistently beats Letterman in the ratings. At one point Leno's lead was as large as two million viewers but has been narrowed, [[February 2005\|as of February 2005]], to less than a million viewers (5.8 vs. 4.9 million) [http://groups.google.com/group/alt.fan.letterman/browse_thread/thread/9beb064836f93133]. ===Popularity=== Letterman has also consistently ranked higher than Leno in the annual [[Harris Poll]] of ''Nation's Favorite TV Personality''; [[as of 2003]] Letterman ranked third in that poll, behind [[Oprah Winfrey]] and [[Ray Romano]], while Leno ranked ninth. [[Image:Happydave.jpg\|thumb\|right\|220px\|Letterman in the audience during a Stump the Band segment on the ''Late Show''.]] ===Academy Awards=== In early 1995, it was announced Letterman would host that year's Academy Awards ceremony. Letterman would be blasted by critics for his poor hosting of the Oscars. In an infamous quote, he started off by introducing Uma Thurman to Oprah Winfrey ("Uma...Oprah! Oprah...Uma!") and many of his jokes fell flat. Letterman turned the whole thing into a long-running gag. On his first show after the Oscars, he confessed "Looking back, I had no idea that thing was being televised." For years afterward, Letterman would bring up how horrible a host he was, although some have defended him by saying it was the show itself, not him, that was poor that year. ===Health=== In January of 2000, Letterman underwent quintuple heart bypass surgery. During the initial weeks of his recovery, friends of Letterman hosted reruns of the ''Late Show'', including [[Drew Barrymore]], [[Ray Romano]], [[Robin Williams]], [[Bill Murray]], [[Regis Philbin]], [[Charles Grodin]], [[Julia Roberts]], [[Bruce Willis]], [[Jerry Seinfeld]], [[Martin Short]], [[Danny DeVito]], [[Steve Martin]] and [[Sarah Jessica Parker]]. Later, while still recovering from surgery, Letterman revived the late night tradition of 'guest hosts' (a practice that virtually disappeared on network television during the 1990's) by allowing [[Bill Cosby]], [[Kathie Lee Gifford]] (recommended by Regis, who was asked first but had no time in his schedule), [[Dana Carvey]], [[Janeane Garofalo]], and others to host new episodes of ''The Late Show''. Cosby, the show's first guest host, refused to sit at Letterman's desk out of respect, using the couch instead; Garofalo also followed suit, utilizing a set of grade-school desks instead. Letterman would again hand over the reins of the show to several guest hosts (including [[Brad Garrett]], [[Elvis Costello]], [[John McEnroe]], [[Vince Vaughn]], [[Will Ferrell]], [[Bonnie Hunt]], and [[Luke Wilson]]) in February 2003, when he was diagnosed with a severe case of [[shingles]]. Later, Letterman tried using guest hosts for new shows broadcast on Fridays, but that experiment did not last long, possibly due to the decreased ratings from these shows. ====Return==== Upon his return to the show on [[February 21]], [[2000]], Letterman brought onstage all of the doctors that had performed the operation, including Dr. O. Wayne Isom and physician [[Louis J. Aronne]], who makes frequent appearances on the show. In an unusual show of emotion, Letterman was nearly in tears as he thanked the doctors. The episode earned an [[Emmy]] nomination. [[Image:Johndave.jpg\|thumb\|left\|220px\|Letterman as a guest on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' in 1986]] ==September 11th== On [[September 17]], [[2001]], David Letterman was the first major [[United States\|American]] comedy performer to return to the television airwaves after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. In his opening monologue, an uncharacteristically serious and very emotional Letterman struggled with the reality of the attacks and the role of comedy in a post-9/11 world, saying, "We're told that they were zealots fueled by religious fervor... religious fervor... and if you live to be a thousand years old will that make any sense to you? Will that make any goddamn sense?" ==Contract Renewed== In March 2002, as Letterman's contract with CBS was expiring, [[American Broadcasting Corporation\|ABC]] expressed the intention to offer Letterman the time slot for long-running news program ''[[Nightline]]'' with [[Ted Koppel]], citing more desirable viewer demographics. This caused a minor flap that ended when Letterman re-signed with CBS. [[Image:Johnnyondave.jpg\|thumb\|right\|220px\|Johnny Carson at Letterman's desk on the ''Late Show with David Letterman'']] ==Letterman and Carson== In early [[2005]], it was revealed that retired King of Late Night [[Johnny Carson]] still kept up with current events and late-night TV right up to his death that year, and that he occasionally sent jokes to Letterman. Letterman then used these jokes in the monologue of his show, which, according to CBS senior vice president Peter Lassally (a onetime producer for both men), "[Johnny] gets a big kick out of." Lassally also claimed that Carson had always believed Letterman, not Leno, to be his "rightful successor." [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6841123/] Letterman also frequently employs some of Carson's trademark bits on his show, including "Carnac the Magnificent" (with Paul Shaffer as Carnac), "Stump the Band" and the "Week in Review". The late Carson wrote all of the jokes Letterman used in the opening monologue of his first show after Carson's passing. ==HD== The show started to broadcast in [[High-definition television\|HDTV]] format on [
romise to lift the ban on homosexuals in the armed forces. The final result was a Congressional compromise of "Don't ask, don't tell" that was later amended to include "don't harass." Officially, the compromise dictates that the armed forces will no longer ask recruits about their sexual orientation, will not investigate any serviceman or woman's sexual orientation without solid evidence (thus preventing witch-hunts), and homosexual servicemen and women agree that they will not engage in homosexual sex acts, or do anything that announces that they are a homosexual, i.e. public statements or participate in a same-sex marriage. However, the number of homosexuals discharged from the armed forces after the change in policy actually grew as did reports of harassment and unsuccessful court challenges. In 2000, Northwestern Univeristy Professor Charles Moskos, the principal author of DADT, told "Lingua Franca" that he felt that policy will be gone within five to ten years. Moskos also dismissed the unit cohesion argument, instead arguing that homosexuals should be banned due to "modesty rights," saying "Fuck unit cohesion. I don't care about that...I should not be forced to shower with a woman. I should not be forced to shower with a gay [man]." Moskos did not offer any alternative to his DADT policy. In January 2005, it was reported by the Department of Defense that between the fiscal years 1998 and 2003, twenty Arabic- and six Farsi-language experts were separated from the armed forces due to "telling." Such language experts are considered particularly difficult to recruit and highly valuable considering the level of American military activity in the Middle East. "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" has been upheld five times in federal court, but the United States Supreme Court is leery of addressing the issue. The historic [[Supreme Court of the United States\|Supreme Court]] decision of [[Lawrence v. Texas]] (2003), invalidating criminal prohibitions of homosexual sex, on substantive due process and equal protection grounds could lay the precedent for restricting the usage of the armed force's sodomy law as while the military law is broadly written to include heterosexual or homosexual sodomy, it has not been used against adult consensual acts of heterosexual sodomy. In April 2005 [[The Pentagon]]'s [[General Counsel]] issued a recommendation that definition of sodomy should be revised from "unnatural carnal copulation with another person of the same or opposite sex" to only involve cases of force or involvement of a minor below the age of sixteen, but The Pentagon quickly denouced the statement. On September 13, 2005, the [[Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military]], a [[think tank]] affiliated with the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]], issued a news release revealing the existence of a 1999 [[FORSCOM]] regulation (Regulation 500-3-3) that allowed the active duty deployment of Army Reservists and National Guard troops who say they are gay or who are accused of being gay. U.S. Army Forces Command spokesperson Kim Waldron later confirmed the regulation and indicated that it was intended to prevent Reservists and National Guard members from pretending to be gay to escape combat ([http://washblade.com/2005/9-23/news/national/outiraq.cfm]). ==Statistics== Statistics on the number of persons discharged from the military in the years since the policy was first introduced (1993) show that more people are discharged now than were before. Also, more of these people are given honorable discharges than was the case before. <table border="1" width=50%> <caption>''From [[Servicemembers Legal Defense Network]] - Annual Gay Discharges Under "Don't Ask, Don't Tell, Don't Pursue, Don't Harass"''</caption> <tr> <th>Year</th> <th>[[United States Coast Guard\|Coast Guard]]</th> <th>[[United States Marine Corps\|Marines]]</th> <th>[[United States Navy\|Navy]]</th> <th>[[United States Army\|Army]]</th> <th>[[United States Air Force\|Air Force]]</th> <th>Total</th></tr> <tr><td>1994</td><td>0</td><td>36</td><td>258</td><td>136</td><td>187</td><td>617</td></tr> <tr><td>1995</td><td>15</td><td>69</td><td>269</td><td>184</td><td>235</td><td>772</td></tr> <tr><td>1996</td><td>12</td><td>60</td><td>315</td><td>199</td><td>284</td><td>870</td></tr> <tr><td>1997</td><td>10</td><td>78</td><td>413</td><td>197</td><td>309</td><td>1007</td></tr> <tr><td>1998</td><td>14</td><td>77</td><td>345</td><td>312</td><td>415</td><td>1163</td></tr> <tr><td>1999</td><td>12</td><td>97</td><td>314</td><td>271</td><td>352</td><td>1046</td></tr> <tr><td>2000</td><td>19</td><td>104</td><td>358</td><td>573</td><td>177</td><td>1231</td></tr> <tr><td>2001</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>1273</td></tr> <tr><td>2002</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>906</td></tr> <tr><td>2003</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>?</td><td>787</td></tr> </table> <nowiki></nowiki> Breakdown of discharges by service branch not available Additionally, in February 2005, the [[Government Accountability Office]] released estimates on the cost of the policy to the U.S. government, totalling nearly $200 million since 1993. ==Military Readiness Enhancement Act== On [[April 5]], [[2005]], [[Ileana Ros-Lehtinen]], a Republican member of the House [[Subcommittee on National Security, Emerging Threats and International Relations]] became a cosponsor of the bill, joining [[Christopher Shays]] of [[Connecticut]] and [[Jim Kolbe]] of [[Arizona]] (both House Republicans, Kolbe is openly gay) and 70 Democrats in sponsoring the [[Military Readiness Enhancement Act]], which would end Don't Ask, Don't Tell. "We've tried the policy. I don't think it works. And we've spent a lot of money enforcing it," she said. "We investigate people. Bring them up on charges. Basically wreck their lives... People who've signed up to serve our country. We should be thanking them." She called arguments against gay people serving openly "the same kind of talk we heard about women [and blacks]." "The odds [of passage] are very small, unless the top military brass would embrace it," [[Robert Wexler]], a Florida Democrat said, comparing the odds to the chances of snow in South Florida. Still, Ros-Lehtinen says she will always support the bill. [http://www.kansascity.com/mld/kansascity/news/nation/11360250.htm] ==Criticism== [[Judith Butler]] argues that the ban displays a paranoid nature which conflates [[speech act\|speech]] and conduct: "the statement, then, 'I am a homosexual,' is fabulously misconstrued...A claim that is, in the first instance, reflexive, that attributes a status to only oneself, is taken to be solicitous...to hear the utterance is to 'contract' the sexuality to which it refers...This is a statement construed as a solicitation; a constative taken as an interrogative; a self-ascription taken as an address." (Butler {{ref\|Butler}} 113) ==Situation outside the United States== {{main\|Sexual orientation and military service}} Most other Western military forces have now removed policies excluding individuals of other sexual orientations (with strict policies on [[sexual harassment]]). ==See also== * [[Barry Winchell]] - American soldier who was killed by his fellows. '''Many believe that his death was related to a homophobic climate created by the don't ask, don't tell policy. '''{{fact}} ==References== * {{note\|Butler}} Butler, Judith (1997). ''Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative''. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415915880. * Johansson, Warren and William A Percy. [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Outing.htm ''Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence.''] Harrington Park Press, 1994. * Shilits, Randy (1994). ''[[Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the US Military]]''. ==External links== * [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode10/usc_sec_10_00000654----000-.html 10 U.S.C. § 654. Policy concerning homosexuality in the armed forces] * [http://www.sldn.org Servicemembers Legal Defense Network] * [http://www.california.com/~rathbone/links003.htm Chronology of Don't Ask, Don't Tell] * [http://www.gaymilitary.ucsb.edu/ Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military] * [http://www.cmrlink.org/hmilitary.asp Center for Military Readiness page on Gays in the Military] * [http://www.angelfire.com/oh4/faggot/war.html A New Kind of War, An Old Kind of Prejudice by Brian W. Fairbanks] [[Category:Bill Clinton]] [[Category:United States military policies]] [[Category:History of LGBT civil rights in the United States]] [[Category:Political slogans]] [[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]] [[no:Don't ask, don't tell]] [[zh:不问，不说]]</text> </revision> </page> <page>
English and Danish traditions dealing with persons and events of the [[4th century]] (see below), and partly from the fact that striking affinities to the cult of [[Nerthus]] as described by Tacitus are to be found in Scandinavian, especially Swedish and Danish, religion. Investigations in this subject have rendered it very probable that the island of Nerthus was Sjælland ([[Zealand]]), and it is further to be observed that the kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately to a certain [[Scyld]], who is clearly to be identified with [[Skiöldr]], the mythical founder of the Danish royal family ([[Skiöldungar]]). In English tradition this person is connected with "Scedeland" (pl.), i.e. [[Scandinavia]], while in Scandinavian tradition he is specially associated with the ancient royal residence at Leire in Sjælland. There is a theory that the name of the Angles came from [[Germanic languages\|Germanic]] words for "narrow" (compare [[German language\|German]] ''eng'' = "narrow"), and meant "the people who live beside the Narrow [Water]", i.e. beside the [[Schlei]] estuary. [[Bede]] states that the Angli before they came to Great Britain dwelt in a land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the ''[[Historia Brittonum]]''. King [[Alfred the Great]] and the chronicler [[Aethelweard\|Æthelweard]] identified this place with the district which is now called Angel in the province of [[Schleswig]] (Slesvig), though it may then have been of greater extent, and this identification agrees very well with the indications given by Bede. Full confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named [[Wermund]] and [[Offa]], from whom the Mercian royal family were descended, and whose exploits are connected with Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in their service, [[Frowinus]] ([[Freawine]]) and [[Wigo]] ([[Wig]]), from whom the royal family of [[Wessex]] claimed descent. During the [[5th century]] the Angli invaded Great Britain, after which time their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of the code mentioned above. The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in prehistoric antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries. Among the places where these have been found, special mention should be made of the large cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld, between Rendsburg and Eckernförde, which has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling those found in heathen graves in England. Of still greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel) and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments, articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &c., and in the latter case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are able to reconstruct a fairly detailed picture of Angle civilization in the age preceding the invasion of Great Britain. == Angle influence in Great Britain == According to sources such as the [[Bede\|Venerable Bede]], after the invasion of Great Britain the Angles split up and founded the kingdoms of the ''Nord Angelnen'' ([[Northumbria]]), ''Ost Angelnen'' ([[East Anglia]]), and the ''Mittlere Angelnen'' ([[Mercia]]). Thanks to the major influence of the [[Saxons]], the tribes were collectively called [[Anglo-Saxon]]s by the [[Normans]]. A region of the [[United Kingdom]] is still known by the name East Anglia. The center of the Angle homeland in the north-eastern portion of the modern German bundesland of [[Schleswig-Holstein]], itself on the [[Jutland Peninsula]], is where the rest of that people stayed, a small peninsular form still called ''[[Angeln]]'' today and is formed as a triangle drawn roughly from modern [[Flensburg]] on the Flensburger Fjord to the [[City of Schleswig]] and then to Maasholm on the [[Schlei]] inlet. In any case, this small and relatively easterly geographic localisation of the original Angeln tribal group has led to one of the [[Anglo-Saxon Invasion]]'s enduring mysteries: how it is possible that the Anglo-Saxons were so frequently mentioned as colonisers of ancient Great Britain in all the ancient and medieval written sources, while evidence of the neighbouring and much more powerful Frisians' concurrent colonising activities in Great Britain has been so limited to discoveries in archeological science, and more often to logical deductions and inferences alone? Of course, ethnic Frisians are known to have inhabited the land directly in the path of any migration route from Angeln to Great Britain (except for the long and difficult route by sea around the northern tip of Denmark), and, in fact, they also inhabited lands between the ancient Saxon domain and Great Britain; yet they are rarely mentioned as having taken part in the vast migration. == St. Gregory == The Angles are the subject of a legend about [[Pope Gregory I]] (ca. 540–604). As an abbreviated version of the story goes, Gregory happened to see a group of Angle children from [[Deira]] for sale as slaves in the Roman market. Struck by the beauty of their fair-skinned complexions and bright blue eyes, Gregory inquired about their background. When told they were Angles, he replied with a Latin pun that translates well into English: “Non Angli, sed angeli”("Not Angles, but angels"). Supposedly, he thereafter resolved to convert their pagan homeland to Christianity. ==References== * [[Hector Munro Chadwick]], ''Angli'', 1911 Britannica article {{1911}} ==External links== [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/2076470.stm English and Welsh are races apart]; BBC; 30 June, 2002. [[Category:1911 Britannica\|Angli]] [[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]] [[Category:Anglo-Saxon England]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]] [[Category:History of Northumberland]] [[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]] [[Category:Migration Period]] [[ca:Angle (poble germànic)]] [[da:Angler]] [[de:Angeln (Volk)]] [[es:Anglos]] [[fi:Anglit]] [[fr:Angles (peuple)]] [[gl:Anglos]] [[it:Angli]] [[nl:Angelen]] [[no:Anglerne]] [[pl:Anglowie]] [[pt:Anglos]] [[ru:Англы]] [[uk:Англи]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aster CT-80</title> <id>2137</id> <revision> <id>39606357</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T16:50:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SpacemanAfrica</username> <id>691095</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Aster CT-80''', an early [[home computer\|home]]/[[personal computer]] developed by the small [[Netherlands\|Dutch]] company MCP (later renamed to '''Aster Computers'''), was sold in its first incarnation as a kit for hobbyists. Later it was sold ready to use. It consisted of several [[Eurocard]] [[Printed circuit board\|PCB]]'s and a [[backplane]]. Three models were sold. The first model looked like the later [[IBM PC]], a rectangular base unit with two [[floppy]] drives on the front, and a monitor on top with a separate keyboard. The second incarnation was a much smaller unit the width of two 5 1/4" floppy drives stacked on top of each other, and the third incarnation looked like a flattened [[Apple II\|Apple]] with a built-in keyboard. All units ran much faster than the original [[TRS-80]], at 4 [[Megahertz\|MHz]], and the display supported upper and lower case, and hardware snow suppression (video ram bus arbitration logic). The floppy disk interface supported dual density, and disk capacities up to 800 [[Kilobyte\|KB]]. The Aster also had the unique feature of supporting two fundamentally different internal architectures: when turned on without a boot floppy, or with a TRS-DOS floppy the Aster would be fully TRS-80 compatible. But when the boot loader detected a [[CP/M]] floppy the Aster would reconfigure its internal architecture on the fly to optimally support CP/M with 60 KB free [[Random Access Memory\|RAM]], and a 80 x 25 display, a capability it only shared with the [[LOBO Max-80]] another TRS-80 clone. With a special configuration tool it could reconfigure its floppy drivers to read and write the floppies of about 80 other CP/M systems. Most Aster CT-80's (about 10 thousand) were sold to schools for computer education, in a project first known as the "honderd scholen project" (one hundred schools project), but which later involved many more than just one hundred schools. MCP received this order from the Dutch government because their computer met all the demands, including the demand that the computers should be of Dutch origin and should be built in the Netherlands. Later however the Government turned around and gave 50% of the order to [[Philips]] and their [[Philips P2000\|P2000]] homecomputer even though the P2000 did not meet all the demands and was made in [[Austria]]. Aster computers was based in the small town of [[Arkel]] near the town of [[Gorinchem]]. Initially Aster computer b.v. was called MCP (Music print Computer Product) and was specialised in producing computer assisted printing of sheet music. They started selling electronic kits to hobbyists. Among those kits were alternative floppy disk drives for TRS-80 computers. Because the infamous [[TRS-80 expansion interface]] was very expensive they also developed their own alternative in the form of a floppy disk controller and printer interface that could be built right into the floppy disk enclosure. The lack of RAM expansion was solved by a service in which the 16 KB RAM chips would be replaced by 64 KB ram chips. While this went on MCP renamed itself to ''MCP CHIP'' but ran into problems with the German computer magazine CHIP, and had to return to its former name. At that time MCP did also sell imported home computers like the TRS-80, and the Apple. After designing their own fully functional replacement for the TRS-80 expansion interface (which was never commercialised) the compa
was the [[September 26]] dismissal of A.J. Burnett from the team for making disparaging comments about the Marlins' lack of offense, their "scared" ways of playing and coaching, and Jack McKeon's management of the team. The Marlins closed the season by sweeping the Braves, and their final record for the season stood at 83-79. ===2005 offseason=== McKeon, still the oldest manager in the majors at age 74, announced his retirement on [[October 2]] after the Marlins' last game of the season. Former [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]] manager [[Lou Piniella]], Braves third base coach [[Fredi Gonzalez]] (who previously managed in the Marlins' farm system), and [[New York Yankees]] bench coach [[Joe Girardi]] were named as possible replacements for McKeon. [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051002&content_id=1235159&vkey=news_fla&fext=.jsp&c_id=fla] On [[October 19]], Girardi was hired as the new manager. Girardi, who was hired at age 41, became the youngest current manager in the major leagues. [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051019&content_id=1254369&vkey=news_fla&fext=.jsp&c_id=fla] Few of the coaching staff, aside from infield/first base coach Perry Hill and bullpen coordinator Pierre Arsenault, are expected to return; Marlins GM [[Larry Beinfest]] has told them to seek employment elsewhere. Pitching coach Mark Wiley and bullpen coach Luis Dorante came under fire during the season due to the late-season struggles of Burnett and the season-long struggles of the Marlins' bullpen. Similarly, hitting coach Bill Robinson was often blamed for the Marlins' offensive woes throughout the season, and in particular his failure to get Pierre and Lowell out of season-long slumps. Girardi is considering [[Andrés Galarraga]] as a replacement for Robinson; he has also hired [[Rick Kranitz]] as the new pitching coach and [[Bobby Meacham]] as the new third-base coach. On [[October 3]], the first day after the end of the regular season, the Marlins made their first offseason moves, releasing relief pitchers [[John Riedling]] and [[Tim Spooneybarger]]. Riedling had a 4-1 record and a 7.14 ERA during the season; Spooneybarger, who had not played since 2003 due to rehabilitation from [[Tommy John surgery]], had to have the surgery a second time during the season and is expected to miss at least the [[2006 in baseball\|2006]] season as well. Reliever [[Jim Mecir]] retired following the Marlins' last game of the season. [[Todd Jones (baseball player)\|Todd Jones]], [[A.J. Burnett]], [[Jeff Conine]], [[Lenny Harris]], [[Juan Encarnación]], [[Alex González]], [[Brian Moehler]], [[Ismael Valdéz]], and [[Paul Quantrill]] were among the Marlins players whose contracts expired following the 2005 season. Following the playoffs, they declared free agency. Burnett signed a five-year deal with the [[Toronto Blue Jays]] worth [[U.S. dollar\|$]]55 million; Jones signed for two years with the [[Detroit Tigers]], and Moehler elected to remain with the Marlins. The Marlins declined to offer arbitration to Conine, Valdez, Quantrill, Encarnacion, Damion Easley, and Mike Mordecai, therefore ending their tenures with the club. [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051207&content_id=1278816&vkey=news_fla&fext=.jsp&c_id=fla] [[Image:16220477.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Artist's rendition of the proposed Marlins Stadium]] Soon after the end of the 2005 season, the Marlins reported that their proposal for a new stadium had died due to the rising costs of building a new stadium. Team president David Samson stated that the Marlins would explore relocation, and mentioned [[Las Vegas, Nevada]], [[Portland, Oregon]], [[Charlotte, North Carolina]], [[Monterrey, Mexico]], northern New Jersey, [[Norfolk, Virginia]], and [[San Antonio, Texas]] as possible places where they could move. [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051122&content_id=1271440&vkey=news_fla&fext=.jsp&c_id=fla] Within the same week, the Marlins started to shed payroll by dealing their highest-paid players for minor-league prospects, in a series of moves reminiscent of the "fire sale" in the 1997 offseason. On [[November 21]], it was reported that [[Josh Beckett]] and [[Mike Lowell]] would be traded to the Red Sox for minor-league prospects shortstop [[Hanley Ramirez]], and pitchers [[Aníbal Sánchez]] and [[Jesús Delgado]]. The deal was made official three nights later, and also included the Marlins sending [[Guillermo Mota]] to the Red Sox and receiving minor-league pitcher Harvey Garcia. The Beckett trade left the Marlins with just one member of their rotation on Opening Day in 2005, Dontrelle Willis. The Marlins will fill most of the remaining rotation spots with young pitchers such as [[Jason Vargas]], [[Josh Johnson]], and [[Scott Olsen]], all of whom they had recalled from their [[Carolina Mudcats\|Class AA affiliate]] during the 2005 season. [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051125&content_id=1272277&vkey=news_fla&fext=.jsp&c_id=fla] On [[November 23]], the Mets and the Marlins agreed on a deal to move [[Carlos Delgado]] to the Mets for first baseman [[Mike Jacobs (baseball player)\|Mike Jacobs]] and pitching prospect [[Yusmeiro Petit]]. Also, the Marlins would have to pay $7 million of Delgado's remaining contract. When the deal was made official the next day, the Marlins also received minor-league infielder Grant Psomas. According to the ''[[Fort Lauderdale Sun-Sentinel]]'', the Marlins passed up the Mets' offer to give them center fielder [[Lastings Milledge]], who was at the time ranked the Mets' top prospect according to [[Baseball America]]. [http://www.sun-sentinel.com/sports/sfl-marlspec24nov24,0,4180547.story?coll=sfla-sports-front] Combined, the two trades allowed the Marlins to reduce their 2006 payroll by $27 million. However, the Marlins were not yet done reducing payroll. [[Paul Lo Duca]] was traded to the Mets for two players to be named later; these players turned out to be pitcher [[Gabriel Hernandez]] and outfielder [[Dante Brinkley]]. Longtime second baseman [[Luis Castillo]] was traded to the Twins for pitchers [[Travis Bowyer]] and [[Scott Tyler]], and [[Juan Pierre]] to the Cubs for pitchers [[Sergio Mitre]], [[Ricky Nolasco]], and [[Renyel Pinto]]. Of the seven players that the Marlins acquired in these three deals, only Mitre and Bowyer had any major-league experience when they came to the Marlins. On [[December 6]], [[2005]], Marlins officials met with San Antonio city leaders, including Mayor [[Phil Hardberger]], and various city councilmen, concerning relocating the franchise to San Antonio. Potential sites for a new stadium were toured, and San Antonio leaders discussed various proposals for funding and building a baseball only stadium. City leaders stated they were confident funding could be arranged using hotel/motel taxes to fund the cities portion of the stadium. Marlins officials stated at a press conference that they were serious about negotiations to relocate the franchise. At Mayor Hardberger's annual state of the city address in Jan 06, he reiterated his desire to bring Major League baseball to San Antonio. On [[January 9]], [[2006]], Marlins officials met with [[Portland, Oregon\|Portland]] city leaders, including [[Mayor]] [[Tom Potter]]. Following the meeting, Mayor Potter announced that the city would not finance a baseball stadium, despite the [[Oregon]] Legislature's 2003 approval of a plan to finance a stadium. Whether this has put Portland entirely out of the running is unclear. On [[January 18]], [[2006]], Terrie Suit (R-[[Virginia Beach]]) submitted a bill to the [[Virginia]] legislature at the request of William Somerindyke Jr., who last year headed a group called Norfolk Major League Baseball Co. and led an effort to bring the [[Montreal Expos]] to [[Norfolk, Virginia\|Norfolk]]. Somerindyke has been in contact with the Florida Marlins about moving to Norfolk. Rep. Suit’s bill would require the state government to forward state taxes generated at a major-league sports facility to the city to pay off the arena or stadium debt. That would include income, sales and corporate taxes. The legislation is open to any jurisdiction in the state able to attract a major sports team. However, Norfolk is considered the likely site because of its position as the cultural and urban center of the state and its centrally located downtown. Land for the new stadium is already owned by the city, adjoins the current [[Harbor Park]] stadium (home to NY [[Mets]] AAA-affiliate [[Norfolk Tides]]) and is located on the route of a planned commuter rail line. Marlins officials also plan to meet with civic leaders in [[Charlotte]] about moving to that city; [[North Carolina]] is the largest state in the Union that does not have a baseball team either within or adjacent to its territory (even though the [[Atlanta Braves]] are the closest team to that state, and many of its residents are Braves fans). Attorney Jerry Reese has proposed building a 38,000 seat baseball stadium downtown on the site of a current park that will include a retractable roof to use for large-scale events such as concerts and the [[Final Four]]; the stadium, if built, will be privately funded and will be the anchor for a redevelopment of the former [[African-American]] neighborhood of Brooklyn. Initial response from local governmental officials have been positive, but no committment has been made as many feel that Charlotte does not have the necessary population to support Major League Baseball. Marlins officials will soon be meeting with New Jersey, Monterrey, Mexico and Las Vegas in the near future. The state of Oklahoma has also expressed their interest in hosting the Marlins, based on [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma\|Oklahoma City]]'s su
Balkenende\|\| \|- \|2005\|\|[[March 2005\|22-23 March]]\|\|{{flag\|Belgium}} Brussels\|\|{{flag\|Luxembourg}} Jean-Claude Juncker\|\| \|- \|\|\|[[June 2005\|16-17 June]]\|\|{{flag\|Belgium}} Brussels\|\|{{flag\|Luxembourg}} Jean-Claude Juncker\|\| \|- \|\|\|[[October 2005\|27 October]]\|\|{{flag\|UK}} [[Hampton Court Palace]]\|\|{{flag\|UK}} Tony Blair\|\|Informal council on globalisation \|- \|\|\|[[December 2005\|15-16 December]]\|\|{{flag\|Belgium}} Brussels\|\|{{flag\|UK}} Tony Blair\|\| \|} ==See also== * [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]] * [[Institutions of the European Union]] * [[MECP\|Model European Council]] == External links and references == * [http://www.eu.int/european_council/index_en.htm European Council] * [http://www.europarl.eu.int/summits/index.htm List of summits since 1985] [[Category:European Union\|Council]] [[cs:Evropská rada]] [[de:Europäischer Rat]] [[eo:Eŭropa Konsilio]] [[fr:Conseil européen]] [[hu:Európai Tanács]] [[it:Consiglio europeo]] [[ja:欧州理事会]] [[lb:Europäesche Conseil]] [[lt:Europos Vadovų Taryba]] [[nl:Europese Raad]] [[no:Det europeiske råd]] [[pl:Rada Europejska]] [[sk:Európska rada]] [[sl:Evropski svet]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European Union/History</title> <id>9583</id> <revision> <id>15907458</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment></comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[history of the European Union]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ecclesiasticus</title> <id>9585</id> <revision> <id>15907460</id> <timestamp>2005-03-30T11:05:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jfdwolff</username> <id>46555</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ben Sira]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elementary group theory</title> <id>9586</id> <revision> <id>38327453</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T16:56:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mathbot</username> <id>234358</id> </contributor> <comment>Robot-assisted spelling. See [[User:Mathbot/Logged misspellings]] for changes.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[group (mathematics)\|group]] (''G'',) is usually defined as: ''G'' is a [[set]] and * is an [[associative]] [[binary operation]] on ''G'', obeying the following rules (or [[axiom]]s): :A1. ([[Closure]]) If ''a'' and ''b'' are in ''G'', then ''a''''b'' is in ''G'' :A2. ([[associative\|Associativity]]) If ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' are in ''G'', then (''a''''b'')''c''=''a''(''b''''c''). :A3. ([[identity element\|Identity]]) ''G'' contains an element, often denoted ''e'', such that for all ''a'' in ''G'', ''a''''e''=''a''. We call this element the identity of (''G'',). (We will show ''e'' is unique later.) :A4. ([[inverse element\|Inverses]]) If ''a'' is in ''G'', then there exists an element ''b'' in ''G'' such that ''a''''b''=''e''. We call ''b'' the inverse of ''a''. (We will show ''b'' is unique later.) Closure and associativity are part of the definition of "associative binary operation", and are sometimes omitted, particularly closure. Notes: The is not necessarily multiplication. Addition works just as well, as do many less standard operations. When is a standard operation, we use the standard symbol instead (for example, + for addition). When is addition or any [[commutative operation]] (except multiplication), the identity is usually denoted by 0 and the inverse of ''a'' by -''a''. The operation is always denoted by something other than , often +, to avoid confusion with multiplication. When * is multiplication or any non-commutative operation, the identity is usually denoted by 1 and the inverse of ''a'' by ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>. The operation is often omitted, ''a''''b'' is often written ''ab''. (''G'',) is usually pronounced "the group ''G'' under ". When affirming that it is a group (for example, in a theorem), we say that "''G'' is a group under ". The group (''G'',) is often referred to as "the group ''G''" or simply "''G''"; but the operation "" is fundamental to the description of the group. =Examples= ==(''R'',+) is a group== The [[real numbers]] (''R'') are a group under addition (+). :Closure: Clear; adding any two numbers gives another number. :Associativity: Clear; for any ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' in ''R'', (''a''+''b'')+''c''=''a''+(''b''+''c''). :Identity: 0. For any ''a'' in ''R'', ''a''+0=''a''. (Hence the denotation 0 for identity) :Inverses: For any ''a'' in ''R'', -''a''+''a''=0. (Hence the denotation -''a'' for inverse) ==(''R'',) is not a group== The [[real numbers]] (''R'') are NOT a group under multiplication (). :Identity: 1. :Inverses: 0''a''=0 for all ''a'' in ''R'', so 0 has no inverse. ==(''R<sup>#</sup>'',) is a group== The [[real numbers]] without 0 (''R<sup>#</sup>'') are a group under multiplication (). :Closure: Clear; multiplying any two numbers gives another number. :Associativity: Clear; for any ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' in ''R'', (''a''''b'')''c''=''a''(''b''''c''). :Identity: 1. For any ''a'' in ''R'', ''a''1=''a''. (Hence the denotation 1 for identity) :Inverses: For any ''a'' in ''R'', ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a''=1. (Hence the denotation ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> for inverse) =Basic theorems= ==Inverses work on either side== '''Theorem 1.1''': For all ''a'' in ''G'', ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a'' = ''e''. * By expanding ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a'', we get * ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a'' = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a''''e'' (by A3') * ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a''''e'' = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a''(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>) (by A4', ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> has an inverse denoted (''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>) * ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a''(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>) = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>(''a''''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>e(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> (by associativity and A4') ** ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''e''(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup> = ''e'' (by A3' and A4') Therefore, ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a'' = ''e'' ==An identity works on either side== '''Theorem 1.2''': For all ''a'' in ''G'', ''e''''a'' = ''a''. * Expanding ''e''''a'', * ''e''''a'' = (''a''''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)''a'' (by A4) * (''a''''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)''a'' = ''a''(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a'') = ''a''''e'' (by associativity and the previous theorem) * ''a''''e'' = ''a'' (by A3) Therefore ''e''''a'' = ''a'' ==[[Latin square property]]== '''Theorem 1.3''': For all ''a'',''b'' in ''G'', there exists a unique ''x'' in ''G'' such that ''a''''x'' = ''b''. * Certainly, at least one such ''x'' exists, for if we let ''x'' = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''b'', then ''x'' is in ''G'' (by A1, closure); and then * ''a''''x'' = ''a''(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''b'') (substituting for ''x'') * ''a''(''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''b'') = (''a''''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)''b'' (associativity A2). *(''a''''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>)''b''= ''e''''b'' = ''b''. (identity A3). ** Thus an ''x'' always exists satisfying ''a''''x'' = ''b''. To show that this is unique, if ''a''''x''=''b'', then * ''x'' = ''e''''x'' * ''e''''x'' = (''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a'')x * (''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''a'')x = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>(''a''''x'') ** ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>(''a''''x'') = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''b'' * Thus, ''x'' = ''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>''b'' Similarly, for all ''a'',''b'' in ''G'', there exists a unique ''y'' in ''G'' such that ''y''''a'' = ''b''. ==The identity is unique== '''Theorem 1.4''': The identity element of a group (''G'',) is unique. ''a''''e'' = ''a'' (by A3) Apply theorem 1.3, with ''b'' = ''a''. Alternative proof: Suppose that ''G'' has two identity elements, ''e'' and ''f'' say. Then ''e''''f'' = ''e'', by A3', but also ''e''''f'' = ''f'', by Theorem 1.2. Hence ''e'' = ''f''. As a result, we can speak of ''the'' identity element of (''G'',) rather than ''an'' identity element. Where different groups are being discussed and compared, often ''e''<sub>''G''</sub> will be used to identify the identity in (''G'',). ==Inverses are unique== '''Theorem 1.5''': The inverse of each element in (''G'',) is unique; equivalently, for all ''a'' in ''G'', ''a''''x'' = ''e'' if and only if ''x''=''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>. * If ''x''=''a''<sup>&nbsp;-1</sup>, then ''a''''x'' = ''e'' by A4. Apply theorem 1.3, with ''b'' = ''e''. Alternative proof: Suppose that an element ''g'' of ''G'' has two inverses, ''h'' and ''k'' say. Then ''h'' = ''h''''e'' = ''h''(''g''''k'') = (''h''''g'')''k'' = ''e''''k'' = ''k'' (equalities justified by A3'; A
round the time of the invasion by Vietnam. Democratic Kampuchea's relations with [[Vietnam]] and [[Thailand]] worsened rapidly as a result of border clashes and ideological differences. While communist, the CPK was fiercely pro-Cambodia, and most of its members who had lived in Vietnam were purged. Democratic Kampuchea established close ties with the [[People's Republic of China]], and the Cambodian-Vietnamese conflict became part of the Sino-[[Soviet Union\|Soviet]] rivalry, with Moscow backing Vietnam. Border clashes worsened when Democratic Kampuchea's military attacked villages in Vietnam. The regime broke relations with Hanoi in December 1977, protesting Vietnam's attempt to create an Indochina Federation. In mid-1978, Vietnamese forces invaded Cambodia, advancing about 30 miles before the arrival of the rainy season. The reasons for Chinese support of the CPK was to prevent a pan-Indochina movement, and maintain Chinese military superiority in the region. The Soviet Union supported a strong Vietnam in order to maintain a second front against China in case of hostilities and to prevent further Chinese expansion. Since Stalin's death, relations between Mao-controlled China and the Soviet Union were luke-warm at best. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, China and Vietnam would fight the brief [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] over the issue. In December 1978, Vietnam announced formation of the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation (KUFNS) under [[Heng Samrin]], a former DK division commander. It was composed of Khmer Communists who had remained in Vietnam after 1975 and officials from the eastern sector--like Heng Samrin and Hun Sen--who had fled to Vietnam from Cambodia in 1978. In late December 1978, Vietnamese forces launched a full invasion of Cambodia, capturing Phnom Penh on January 7 and driving the remnants of Democratic Kampuchea's army westward toward Thailand. ==Modern Cambodia== {{main\|History of Cambodia (1979-present)}} Cambodia was under [[Vietnam]]ese occupation and in a [[civil war]] during the [[1980s]]. Peace efforts intensified in [[1989]] and [[1991]] with two international conferences in [[Paris]], and a [[UN peacekeeping]] mission helped maintain a cease-fire. [[UN]]-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some semblance of normalcy as did the rapid diminishment of the Khmer Rouge in the mid-1990s. [[Norodom Sihanouk]] was reinstated as King. A coalition government, formed after national elections in 1998, brought renewed political stability and the surrender of remaining Khmer Rouge forces in 1998. ==See also== [[History of Asia]] [[History of present-day nations and states]] ==Notes== # {{note\|Davidson}} Davidson, Phillip B. ''Vietnam at War: The History 1946-1975''. 1988. P. 593 # {{note\|Encyclopedia}} ''The Encyclopedia of World History''. Ed. Peter N. Stearns. 2001. P. 1012 ==References== State Department [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2732.htm#history Background Note: Cambodia] Summary of UNTAC mission [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/untacbackgr1.html] {{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/khtoc.html Cambodia] [http://www.mekong.net/ Mekong Network] [[bg:История на Камбоджа]] [[de:Geschichte Kambodschas]] [[es:Historia de Camboya]] [[it:Storia della Cambogia]] [[he:היסטוריה של קמבודיה]] [[ja:カンボジアの歴史]] [[pt:História do Camboja]] [[sv:Kambodjas historia]] [[zh:柬埔寨历史]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Cambodia</title> <id>5429</id> <revision> <id>31181698</id> <timestamp>2005-12-13T12:11:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Sources */ {{Asia in topic\|Geography of}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:cambodia sm04.png\|right\|Map Of Cambodia]] [[Cambodia]] is a country in [[Southeastern Asia]], bordering the [[Gulf of Thailand]], between [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Laos]]. Its approximate geographical coordinates are {{coor d\|13\|N\|105\|E\|}}. Its 2,572 km border is split among Vietnam (1,228 km), Thailand (803 km) and Laos (541 km), as well as 443 km of coastline. Cambodia covers 181,040 square kilometers in the southwestern part of the Indochina peninsula. It lies completely within the tropics; its southernmost points are only slightly more than 10° above the equator. Roughly square in shape, the country is bounded on the north by Thailand and by Laos, on the east and southeast by Vietnam, and on the west by the Gulf of Thailand and by Thailand. Much of the country's area consists of rolling plains. Dominant features are the large, almost centrally located, Tonle Sap (Great Lake) and the Mekong River, which traverses the country from north to south. The climate is monsoonal and has marked wet and dry seasons of relatively equal length. Both temperature and humidity generally are high throughout the year. Forest covers about two-thirds of the country, but it has been somewhat degraded in the more readily accessible areas by burning (a method called slash-and-burn agriculture), and by shifting agriculture. Total area 181,040 square kilometers, about size of [[Missouri]]; country shares 803-kilometer border with Thailand on north and west, 541-kilometer border with Laos on northeast, 1,228-kilometer border with Vietnam on east and southeast, for a total of 2,572 kilometers of land borders; coastline along Gulf of Thailand about 443 kilometers. ==Topography== [[Image:Cambodia_1997_CIA_map.jpg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|Detailed map of Cambodia]] Cambodia falls within several well-defined geographic regions. The largest part of the country--about 75 percent of the total-- consists of the Tonle Sap Basin and the Mekong Lowlands. To the southeast of this great basin is the Mekong Delta, which extends through Vietnam to the South China Sea. The basin and delta regions are rimmed with mountain ranges to the southwest (the Cardamom Mountains the Elephant Range) and to the north (Dangrek Mountains). Higher land to the northeast and to the east merges into the Central Highlands of southern Vietnam. The Tonle Sap Basin-Mekong Lowlands region consists chiefly of plains with elevations generally of less than 100 meters. As the elevation increases, the terrain becomes more rolling and dissected. The Cardamom Mountains in the southwest, oriented generally in a northwest-southeast direction, rise to more than 1,500 meters. The highest mountain in Cambodia--Phnom Aural, at 1,771 meters--is in the eastern part of this range. The Elephant Range, an extension running toward the south and the southeast from the Cardamom Mountains, rises to elevations of between 500 and 1,000 meters. These two ranges are bordered on the west by a narrow coastal plain that contains Kampong Saom Bay, which faces the Gulf of Thailand. This area was largely isolated until the opening of the port of Kampong Saom (formerly called Sihanoukville) and the construction of a road and railroad connecting Kampong Saom, Kampot, Takev, and Phnom Penh in the 1960s. The Dangrek Mountains at the northern rim of the Tonle Sap Basin consist of a steep escarpment with an average elevation of about 500 meters, the highest points of which reach more than 700 meters. The escarpment faces southward and is the southern edge of the Korat Plateau in Thailand. The watershed along the escarpment marks the boundary between Thailand and Cambodia. The main road through a pass in the Dangrek Mountains at O Smach connects northwestern Cambodia with Thailand. Despite this road and those running through a few other passes, in general the escarpment impedes easy communication between the two countries. Between the western part of the Dangrek and the northern part of the Cardamom ranges, however, lies an extension of the Tonle Sap Basin that merges into lowlands in Thailand, which allows easy access from the border to Bangkok. The Mekong Valley, which offers a communication route between Cambodia and Laos, separates the eastern end of the Dangrek Mountains and the northeastern highlands. To the southeast, the basin joins the Mekong Delta, which, extending into Vietnam, provides both water and land communications between the two countries. ==Climate== [[Image:Seasonal flooding in Thailand and Cambodia.jpg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|Seasonal flooding in Cambodia and Thailand]] Cambodia's climate--like that of the rest of Southeast Asia--is dominated by the monsoons, which are known as tropical wet and dry because of the distinctly marked seasonal differences. The monsoonal airflows are caused by annual alternating high pressure and low pressure over the Central Asian landmass. In summer, moisture-laden air--the southwest monsoon--is drawn landward from the Indian Ocean. The flow is reversed during the winter, and the northeast monsoon sends back dry air. The southwest monsoon brings the rainy season from mid-May to mid-September or to early October, and the northeast monsoon flow of drier and cooler air lasts from early November to March. The southern third of the country has a two-month dry season; the northern two-thirds, a four-month one. Short transitional periods, which are marked by some difference in humidity but by little change in temperature, intervene between the alternating seasons. Temperatures are fairly uniform throughout the Tonle Sap Basin area, with only small variations from the average annual mean of around 25°C. The maximum mean is about 28°C; the minimum mean, about 22°C. Maximum temperatures of higher than 32°C, however, are common and, just before the start of the rainy season, they may rise to more than 38°C. Minimum temperatures rarely fall below 10°C. January is the coldest month, and April is the warmest. Typhoons--tropical cyclones--that often devastate coastal Vietnam rarely cause damage in Cambodia. The total annual rainfall average is between 100 and 150 centimeters, and the heaviest amounts fall in the southeast. Rainfall
rt{\ell\over g}\quad\quad\quad\quad \|\theta_0\| \ll 1</math> ===Pendulum swinging over turntable=== Simple harmonic motion can in some cases be considered to be the one-dimensional [[projection]] of two-dimensional [[circular motion]]. Consider a long [[pendulum]] swinging over the [[turntable]] of a [[record player]]. On the edge of the turntable there is an object. If the object is viewed from the same level as the turntable, a projection of the motion of the object seems to be moving backwards and forwards on a straight line. It is possible to change the frequency of rotation of the turntable in order to have a perfect [[synchronization]] with the motion of the pendulum. The angular speed of the turntable is the pulsation of the pendulum. In general, the '''[[pulsation]]'''-also known as angular frequency, of a straight-line simple harmonic motion is the [[angular speed]] of the corresponding circular motion. Therefore, a motion with period ''T'' and frequency ''f''=1/''T'' has pulsation <math>\omega=2\pi\cdot f = \frac{2\pi}{T}</math> In general, '''pulsation''' and '''angular speed''' are not synonymous. For instance the pulsation of a pendulum is not the angular speed of the pendulum itself, but it is the angular speed of the corresponding circular motion. ===Spring-mass system=== [[Image:Equilibrium.JPG\|thumb\|right\|200px\|Equilibrium position of the spring-mass system]] [[Image:stretched.JPG\|200px\|thumb\|right\|Stretched and compressed positions of the spring-mass system]] When a spring is stretched or compressed by a mass, the spring develops a restoring force. The [[Hooke's Law]] gives the relationship of the force exerted by the spring when the spring is compressed or stretched a certain length. <math>Fs \left( t \right) =kx \left( t \right) </math> where Fs is the force, k is the spring constant, and the x is the displacement of the mass with respect to the equilibrium position. This relationship shows that the distance of the spring is always opposite to the force of the spring. By using either force balance or an energy method, it can be readily shown that the motion of this system is given by the following differential equation: <math> m \frac {d^{2}}{d{t}^{2}} x \left( t \right) +kx(t)=0 </math> If the initial displacement is A, and there is no initial velocity, the solution of this equation is given by: <math> x \left( t \right) =A\cos \left( (\sqrt {k/m}) t\right) </math> ;Energy variation in the spring-damper system In terms of energy, all systems have two types of energy, [[potential energy]] and [[kinetic energy]]. When a spring is stretched or compressed, it stores elastic potential energy, which then is transferred into kinetic energy. The potential energy within a spring is determined by the equation <math> U = 1/2\,k{x}^{2} </math> When the spring is stretched or compressed, kinetic energy of the mass gets converted into potential energy of the spring. By conservation of energy, assuming the datum is defined at the equilibrium position, when the spring reaches its maximum potential energy, the kinetic energy of the mass is zero. When the spring is released, the spring will try to reach back to equilibrium, and all its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy of the mass. ==References== * {{cite book \| last = Serway \| first = Raymond A. \| coauthors = Jewett, John W. \| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers \| publisher = Brooks/Cole \| year = 2003 \| id = ISBN 0534408427 }} * {{cite book \| last = Tipler \| first = Paul \| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1 \| edition = 4th ed. \| publisher = W. H. Freeman \| year = 1998 \| id = ISBN 1572594926 }} ==See also== [[normal mode]] [[quantum harmonic oscillator]] *[[anharmonic oscillator]] [[Category:Classical mechanics]] [[Category:Ordinary differential equations]] [[da:Harmonisk oscillator]] [[de:Harmonischer Oszillator]] [[fi:Harmoninen värähtelijä]] [[he:אוסצילטור הרמוני]] [[it:moto armonico]] [[ja:調和振動子]] [[pl:Oscylator harmoniczny]] [[sl:Nihanje]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heathers</title> <id>13901</id> <revision> <id>41931992</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:37:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.200.90.169</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film \| name = Heathers \| image = Heathers 89poster.jpg\| imdb_id = 0097493 \| writer = [[Daniel Waters (writer)\|Daniel Waters]] \| starring = [[Winona Ryder]],<br>[[Christian Slater]],<br>[[Shannen Doherty]] \| director = [[Michael Lehmann]] \| producer = [[Denise Di Novi]] \| distributor = [[New World Communications\|New World Pictures]] \| released = [[March 31]], [[1989]] \| runtime = 102 min. \| language = English \| budget = $2,000,000 \| }} '''''Heathers''''' ([[1989 in film\|1989]]) is a [[film]] in which three out of the four girls in a trend-setting [[clique]] at Westerberg High are called Heather. They play [[croquet]] with each other and rule the school through intimidation, contempt and sex appeal. It was written by [[Daniel Waters (writer)\|Daniel Waters]], directed by [[Michael Lehmann]], and starred [[Winona Ryder]], [[Shannen Doherty]], and [[Christian Slater]]. ''Heathers'' is a [[black comedy]], widely viewed as a classic teenage comedy of the [[1980]]s, considered revolutionary at the time because of its high levels of violence, cruelty, black humor and absurdity, especially for a movie set in [[high school]]. It was seen as a stiff response to the gentler and more romanticized view of high school and teenage culture put forth in the movies of [[John Hughes]]. One of the central themes of the movie is that people who want their high schools to be kinder places are deluded -- high school is not a safe haven from the world, it ''is'' the world in microcosm; and "kids who complain they want to be treated like grownups usually ARE being treated like grownups." Because ''Heathers'' portrays alienated teenagers who solve their problems with murder and terrorism, audiences in 1989 found it far-fetched and therefore safe to enjoy as a dark wish-fulfillment fantasy. But in the post-[[Columbine]] era the movie hits a different nerve and now appears prescient and unsettling in a new and even darker way. &#35;heathers is an [[IRC]] channel on IRC's [[EFNet]]. It is focused on the movie ''Heathers'', and ''Heathers'' mythology. It was formed in [[1993]]. ==Plot description== {{spoiler}} ''Heathers'' centers around a high school student named Veronica ([[Winona Ryder]]). Veronica is part of a clique of popular, pretty and wealthy girls called The Heathers. Other than Veronica, they all share that first name. Heather Duke ([[Shannen Doherty]]), Heather McNamara ([[Lisanne Falk]]) and Heather Chandler ([[Kim Walker]]), Veronica's best friend, are the prettiest and most popular girls in school. They are also the most vacant, shallow, self-centered and vicious. Veronica finds their 'friendship' both tempting and repellent. Veronica wasn't always so popular. Although it is never fully explained how she ascended to popularity, it is made clear that she used to be good friends with one of the school's biggest nerds, Betty Finn. She is also clearly smarter and far more compassionate than any of her Heather cohorts. When a new, dark boy named Jason Dean ([[Christian Slater]]), or J.D. for short, pulls a gun on school bullies Kurt ([[Lance Fenton]]) and Ram ([[Patrick Labyorteaux]]), and fires blanks at them, Veronica is intrigued. Soon Veronica and J.D. are dating, and he accompanies her on an early morning visit to Heather Chandler's home. Veronica is furious with Heather Chandler's behaviour at a [[Fraternities and sororities\|frat]] party and the two of them jokingly prepare a cup full of [[drain cleaner]] to bring her as a morning wake-up drink. They later decide on milk and [[orange juice]] as a vomit-inducing prank, but Veronica accidentally mixes up the cups (J.D. notices, but doesn't tell her) and to her horror Heather Chandler downs the drain cleaner and begins to heave and spasm, eventually collapsing face first into a glass table and dying. Realizing that she is the unintentional perpetrator of her best friend's murder, J.D. urges Veronica to forge a [[suicide note]] in Heather Chandler's handwriting. Veronica does so only to protect herself from prosecution. The entire school and community looks on Heather Chandler's death as a hip, if dramatic, decision in the life of a popular but troubled teenager, and everyone accepts the suicide note as authentic. Soon Heather's death becomes yesterday's news. Weeks later J.D. concocts a plan to punish bullies Ram and Kurt for spreading gossip about Veronica. He tells her that they will lure the two guys into the forest with the promise of a three-way with Veronica, only once the bullies have stripped down to their boxer shorts, Veronica and J.D. will shoot them with "Ich Lüge" bullets; fake bullets that will stun them unconscious long enough for Veronica and J.D. to flee. They will leave behind homosexually-oriented materials including pornographic magazines and the somewhat questionable bottled-water as well as a fake suicide note that will make it look like the two killed each other in a [[gay]] suicide pact. When they awaken, they will be humiliated. Veronica agrees, thinking the plan is hilarious, but when she misfires and one of them doesn't get shot, J.D. goes running after him desperately. Veronica instantly realizes that the bullets were real ("Ich lüge" means "I'm lying" in [[German language\|German]]) and J.D. had intended to kill the two boys all along. J.D. managed to chase the unshot boy in a circle so that he ends up back where they started, and Veronica, in a frightened daze, shoots h
stology''' is the study of [[biological tissue\|tissue]] sectioned as a thin slice, using a [[microscope]]. It can be described as microscopic [[anatomy]]. Histology is an essential tool of [[biology]]. '''[[Histopathology]]''', the microscopic study of diseased tissue, is an important tool of [[anatomical pathology]] since accurate diagnosis of [[cancer]] and other diseases usually requires histopathological examination of samples. The trained technicians who perform the preparation of histological sections are '''Histotechnicians''', Histology Technicians (HT) or Histology Technologists (HTL). Their field of study is called '''histotechnology'''. ==Source of tissue== Histological examination of tissues starts with [[surgery]], [[biopsy]] or [[autopsy]]. ==Technical procedure== ===Fixation=== The tissues are fixed in a '''fixative''', a process that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is '''formalin''' (10% [[formaldehyde]] in water). ===Embedding=== The most common technique is '''wax embedding'''. The samples are immersed in multiple baths of progressively more concentrated [[ethanol]] to dehydrate the tissue, followed by a clearing agent such as [[chloroform]], [[xylene]] or Histoclear, and finally hot molten [[paraffin wax]] (impregnation). During this 12 to 16 hour process, paraffin wax will replace the water: soft, moist tissues are turned into a hard paraffin block, which is then placed in a mould containing more molten wax (embedded) and allowed to cool and harden. ===Sectioning=== The tissue is then '''sectioned''' into very thin (3 - 5 micrometer) sections using a '''[[microtome]]'''. These slices, thinner than the average [[Cell (biology)\|cell]], are then placed on a glass slide for [[staining]]. ===Staining=== A 3 to 5 micrometer slice of most tissues is almost completely transparent with very little visible detail. To see the tissue under a [[microscope]], the sections are [[staining\|stained]] with one or more pigments. '''[[Hematoxylin]]''' and '''[[eosin]]''' (abbreviated H&E) are among the most commonly used stains in histology and histopathology. Hematoxylin colors [[cell nucleus\|nuclei]] blue, eosin colors the [[cytoplasm]] pink. Other compound used to color tissue sections include [[safranine]], fast green FCF, silver salts and numerous natural and artificial [[dyes]] originally developed to stain cloth fibers. The science of tissue staining is called histochemistry. Recently, [[antibodies]] are used to stain specific proteins: this is called '''immunohistochemistry'''. This technique has greatly increased the ability to identify categories of cells under a microscope. Other advanced techniques include '''in situ hybridization''' to identify specific DNA or RNA molecules, and confocal microscopy. '''[[Digital camera\|Digital cameras]]''' are increasingly used to capture histological and histopathological images. ===Alternative techniques=== Alternative techniques include '''[[frozen section procedure\|cryosection]]'''. The tissue is frozen and cut using a [[cryostat]]. They are stained in simular ways to that of wax sections '''Plastic embedding''' is commonly used in the preparation of material for electron microscopy. Tissues are imbedded in [[epoxy]] resin. Very thin sections (less than 0.1 micrometers) are cut using diamond or glass knives . The sections are stained with electron dense stains (uranium and lead) so that they can be seen with the [[electron microscope]]. ==History== In the 19th Century, histology was an academic discipline in its own right. The 1906 [[Nobel Prize]] in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to two histologists, [[Camillo Golgi]] and [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]]. They had dueling interpretations of the neural structure of the brain based in differing interpretations of the same images. ==Histological classification of animal tissues== [[epithelium]]: the lining of glands, bowel, skin and some organs like the liver, lung, kidney, [[endothelium]]: the lining of blood and lymphatic vessels, [[mesothelium]]: the lining of pleural, peritoneal and pericardial spaces, [[mesenchyme]]: the cells filling the spaces between the organs, including fat, muscle, bone, cartilage and tendon cells, [[blood]] cells: the red and white blood cells, including those found in lymph nodes and spleen, [[neurons]]: cells forming the brain, nerves and some glands like the pituitary and adrenal glands, [[germ cells]]: reproductive cells, [[spermatozoa]] in men, [[oocyte\|oocytes]] in women, [[placenta]]: a specialized organ essential for the growth of the fetus in the mother's uterus, and [[stem cells]]: cells able to turn into one or several of the above types. Note that tissues from plant, fungus and microorganisms can also be examined histologically. Their structure is very different from animal tissue. ==Related sciences== [[Cytology]], the study of loose cells, for example cells taken from the cervix during a cervicovaginal smear ([[pap smear]]). The cells are directly spread on a glass slide and stained. [[Cell biology]] the study of structures smaller than cells, within the cell itself, called [[organelle\|organelles]]. It usually requires an [[electron microscope]] and [[biochemistry]] techniques. [[Anatomy]], is the study of [[organ (anatomy)\|organs]] visible by the naked eye; and [[Morphology (biology)\|Morphology]], which studies entire organisms. ==Histological artifacts== A histological '''artifact''' is a structure or feature that is absent in living tissues, but introduced during preparation or staining. Troubleshooting and minimizing artifacts is a major part of the discipline of histochemistry. == References == 1. Merck Source (2002). [http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcommonzSzdorlandszSzdorlandzSzdmd_a-b_00zPzhtm Dorland's Medical Dictionary]. Retrieved 2005-01-26. 2. Stedman's Medical Dictionaries (2005). [http://stedmans.com/ Stedman's Online Medical Dictionary]. Retrieved 2005-01-26. == See also == [[Pathology]] * [[Anatomical pathology]] * [[Histopathology]] * [[Staining (biology)\|Biological staining]] * [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Histology\|Important publications in histology]] == External links == [http://www.ascp.org/bor/medlab/careers/page4.asp The Histotechnician], from the ASCP web site [http://www.ihcworld.com/protocol_database.htm Histology Protocols] [http://www.immunoportal.com Immunohistochemistry - In Situ Hybridization] [http://www.kumc.edu/instruction/medicine/anatomy/histoweb Histoweb] [http://www.siumed.edu/%7Edking2/index.htm SIU SIM Histology] [[Category:Medical terms]] [[Category:Anatomy]] [[Category:Histology]] [[Category:Histopathology]] [[af:Histologie]] [[an:Istolochía]] [[bg:Хистология]] [[bs:Histologija]] [[ca:Histologia]] [[cs:Histologie]] [[da:Histologi]] [[de:Histologie]] [[es:Histología]] [[eo:Histologio]] [[fa:بافت‌شناسی]] [[fr:Histologie]] [[id:Histologi]] [[it:Istologia]] [[he:היסטולוגיה]] [[lt:Histologija]] [[lb:Histologie]] [[mk:Хистологија]] [[ms:Histologi]] [[nl:Weefselleer]] [[ja:組織学]] [[no:Histologi]] [[nn:Histologi]] [[pl:Histologia]] [[pt:Histologia]] [[sk:Histológia]] [[sr:Хистологија]] [[sv:Histologi]] [[tr:Histoloji]] [[zh:组织学 (生物学)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heraclitus of Ephesus</title> <id>13571</id> <revision> <id>15911170</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heraclitus]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Henry VII</title> <id>13572</id> <revision> <id>35024359</id> <timestamp>2006-01-13T15:05:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.54.134.136</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry VII''' may refer to: [[Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor]] (c. 1275–1313). * [[Henry VII of England]] (1457–1509). {{disambig}} [[es:Enrique VII]] [[fr:Henri VII]] [[it:Enrico VII]] [[nl:Hendrik VII]] [[pl:Henryk VII]] [[sv:Henrik VII]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Herodotus</title> <id>13574</id> <revision> <id>42124562</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:58:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Flauto Dolce</username> <id>30706</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups\|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Herodot.jpg\|thumb\|right\|250px\|Bust of Herodotus at Naples]] '''Herodotus''' of [[Halicarnassus]] ([[Greek language\|Greek]]: Ήροδοτος, '''Herodotos''') was a [[historian]] who lived in the [[5th century BC]] ([[484 BC]]-ca. [[425 BC]]). He is known for writing ''[[Histories (Herodotus)\|The Histories]]'', a collection of stories on different places and people he learned about through his travels. It includes the conflict between [[Ancient Greece\|Greece]] and [[Persian Empire\|Persia]]. ==Opinions== Herodotus' invention earned him the title ''[[List of people known as the father or mother of something\|"The Father of History"]]'' and the word he used for his achievement, ''historie'', which previously had meant simply "inquiry", passed into Latin and took on its modern connotation of "history" or "story". His nickname was given to him by [[Cicero]]. There are many cases where Herodotus, uncertain of the accuracy or truth of a particular event or region, would report the most prominent historical accounts and then opine as to which he believed was accurate and why. However, many historians and philosophers take a more [[sceptic]]al view of Herodotus' accounts and [[narrative]]s, calling him "The Father of Lies" or "the deceiver". [[Histories (H
D.C.]], in 1864, Lincoln had to be told to duck his head to avoid being shot while observing the scenes of battle. ===Homefront=== Lincoln was more successful in giving the war meaning to Northern civilians through his oratorical skills. Despite his meager education and &#8220;backwoods&#8221; upbringing, Lincoln possessed an extraordinary command of the English language, as evidenced by the [[Gettysburg Address]], a speech dedicating a cemetery of Union soldiers from the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] that he delivered on November 19, 1863. While the featured speaker, orator [[Edward Everett]], spoke for two hours, Lincoln's few choice words resonated across the nation and across history, defying Lincoln's own prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here." Lincoln's [[Lincoln's second inaugural address\|second inaugural address]] is also greatly admired and often quoted. In these speeches, Lincoln articulated better than any of his contemporaries the rationale behind the Union effort. During the Civil War, Lincoln exercised powers no previous president had wielded; he proclaimed a [[blockade]], suspended the writ of [[habeas corpus]], spent money without [[Congress of the United States\|congressional]] authorization, and imprisoned thousands of accused Confederate sympathizers without trial. There is a fragment of uncorraborated evidence that Lincoln made contingency plans to arrest [[Chief Justice]] [[Roger Brooke Taney]], though the allegation remains unresolved and controversial (see the [[Taney Arrest Warrant]] controversy). The long war and the issue of emancipation appeared to be severely hampering his prospects and pessimists warned that defeat appeared likely. Lincoln ran under the Union party banner, composed of War Democrats and Republicans. General Grant was facing severe criticism for his conduct of the bloody [[Overland Campaign]] that summer and the seemingly endless [[Siege of Petersburg]]. However, the Union capture of the key railroad center of [[Atlanta, Georgia\|Atlanta]] by Sherman's forces in September changed the situation dramatically and Lincoln was reelected. ===Reconstruction=== The [[reconstruction]] of the Union weighed heavy on the President's mind throughout the war effort. He was determined to take a course that would not permanently alienate the former Confederate states, and throughout the war Lincoln urged speedy elections under generous terms in areas behind Union lines. This irritated congressional Republicans, who urged a more stringent Reconstruction policy. One of Lincoln's few vetoes during his term was of the [[Wade-Davis Bil]]l, an effort by congressional Republicans to impose harsher Reconstruction terms on the Confederate areas. Republicans in Congress retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from [[Louisiana]], [[Arkansas]], and [[Tennessee]] during the war under Lincoln's generous terms. "Let 'em up easy," he told his assembled military leaders [[Ulysses S. Grant\|Gen. Ulysses S. Grant]] (a future president), [[William Tecumseh Sherman\|Gen. William T. Sherman]] and [[David Dixon Porter\|Adm. David Dixon Porter]] in an 1865 meeting on the steamer ''River Queen''. When [[Richmond, Virginia\|Richmond]], the Confederate capital, was at long last captured, Lincoln went there to make a public gesture of sitting at [[Jefferson Davis]]'s own desk, symbolically saying to the nation that the President of the United States held authority over the entire land. He was greeted at the city as a conquering hero by freed slaves, whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer's quote, "I know I am free for I have seen the face of Father Abraham and have felt him." On [[April 9]], [[1865]], Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Court House]] in [[Virginia]]. This left only [[Joseph Johnston]]'s forces in the East to deal with. Weeks later Johnston would defy Jefferson Davis and surrender his forces to Sherman. Of course, Lincoln would not survive to see the surrender of all Confederate forces; just five days after Lee surrendered, Lincoln was [[assassination\|assassinated]]. He was the first President to be assassinated, and the third to die in office. ==Assassination== [[Image:Lincolnassassination.jpg\|right\|thumbnail\|250px\|The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: [[Henry Rathbone]], [[Clara Harris]], Mary Todd Lincoln, Lincoln, and Booth.]] Lincoln had met frequently with Lt. Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]] as the war drew to a close. The two men planned matters of reconstruction, and it was evident to all that they held each other in high regard. During their last meeting, on [[April 14]], [[1865]] ([[Good Friday]]), Lincoln invited Grant to a social engagement that evening. Grant declined (Grant's wife, [[Julia Dent Grant]], is said to have strongly disliked [[Mary Todd Lincoln]]). The President's eldest son, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], also turned down the invitation. [[John Wilkes Booth]], a well-known actor and Southern sympathizer from [[Maryland]], heard that the president and Mrs. Lincoln, along with the Grants, would be attending [[Ford's Theatre]]. Having failed in a plot to kidnap Lincoln earlier, Booth informed his co-conspirators of his intention to kill Lincoln. Others were assigned to assassinate [[Vice-President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] and [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]]. Without his [[bodyguard]] [[Ward Hill Lamon]], to whom he related his famous [[dream]] of his own assassination, the Lincolns left to attend the play at Ford's Theater. The play, ''[[Our American Cousin]]'', was a musical comedy by the British writer [[Tom Taylor]]. As Lincoln sat in his state box in the balcony, Booth crept up behind the President's box and waited for the funniest line of the play, hoping the laughter would cover the gunshot noise. On stage, actor Harry Hawk said the last words Lincoln would ever hear "Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal—you sockdologizing old man-trap...". When the laughter came Booth jumped into the box the president was in and aimed a single-shot, round-slug .44 [[caliber]] [[Deringer]] at his head, firing at point-blank range. The bullet entered behind Lincoln's left ear and lodged behind his right eyeball. Major [[Henry Rathbone]], who was present in the Presidential Box, momentarily grappled with Booth but was severely stabbed and slashed by the assassin. It was believed that Booth then shouted "''[[Sic semper tyrannis]]!''" (Latin: "Thus always to tyrants," the state motto of Virginia; some accounts say he added "The South is avenged!") and jumped from the balcony to the stage below, breaking his leg. Despite his injury, Booth managed to limp to his horse and make his escape. As Booth fled from the theater, a young physician, Dr. [[Charles Leale]], made his way through the audience to Lincoln's box. Leale quickly assessed the wound as mortal. The President was taken across the street from the theater to the [[Petersen House]], where he lay in a coma for nine hours before he expired. Several physicians attended Lincoln, including U.S. Army Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes of the Army Medical Museum. Using a probe, Barnes located some fragments of Lincoln's skull and the ball lodged 6 inches inside his brain. Lincoln, who never regained consciousness, was officially pronounced dead at 7:22 A.M. the next morning, April 15, 1865. Upon his death, Secretary of War [[Edwin Stanton]] lamented "now he belongs to the ages." After Lincoln's body was returned to the [[White House]], his body was prepared for his "lying in state" in the [[East Room]]. The Army Medical Museum, now named the National Museum of Health and Medicine, has retained in its collection since the time of Lincoln's death, several artifacts relating to the assassination. Currently on display in the museum are the bullet that was fired from the Deringer pistol, ending Lincoln's life, the probe used by Barnes, pieces of his skull and hair and the surgeon's cuff, stained with Lincoln's blood. The museum can be found at [http://www.nmhm.washingtondc.museum/exhibits/nationswounds/lincoln.html www.hmhm.washingtondc.museum] [[Image:LincolnTrain.jpeg\|right\|thumbnail\|250px\|Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son William, 1,654 miles to Illinois.]] Lincoln's body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to Illinois. The nation mourned a man whom many viewed as the savior of the United States. He was buried in [[Oak Ridge Cemetery]] in Springfield, where a 177 foot (54 m) tall granite tomb surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln was constructed by 1874. To prevent repeated attempts to steal Lincoln's body and hold it for ransom, Robert Todd Lincoln had Lincoln exhumed and reinterred in concrete several feet thick on [[September 26]], [[1901]]. {{further\|[[Abraham Lincoln's burial and exhumation]]}} ==Presidential appointments== ===Administration and Cabinet=== Lincoln was known for appointing his enemies and political rivals to high positions in his Cabinet. Not only did he use great political skill in reducing potential political opposition, but he felt he was appointing the best qualified person for the good of the country. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Office !! Name !! Term \|- \| [[President of the United States\|President]] \|\| '''Abraham Lincoln''' \|\| 1861–1865 \|- \| [[Vice President of the United States\|Vice President]] \|\| '''[[Hannibal Hamlin]]''' \|\| 1861–1865 \|- \| &nbsp; \|\| '''[[Andrew Johnson]]''' \|\| 1865 \|- \| [[United States Secretary of State\|Secretary of State]] \|\| '''[[William H. Seward]]''' \|\| 1861–1865 \|- \| [[United States Secretary of the Treasury\|Secretary of the Treasury]] \|\| '''[[Salmon P. Chase]]''' \|\| 1861–1864 \|- \| &nbsp; \|\| '''[[William P. Fesse
er ethic<br> hacker humour<br> hacking run<br> Hacking X for Y<br> Hackintosh<br> hackish<br> hackishness<br> hackitude<br> hack mode<br> hack on<br> hack together<br> hack up<br> hack value<br> ha ha only serious<br> hair<br> hairy<br> hairy ball<br> HAKMEM<br> hakspek<br> HAL<br> half-duplex<br> halftone<br> HALGOL<br> HALMAT<br> HAL/S<br> Halt and Catch Fire<br> halting problem<br> Hamilton<br> Hamiltonian cycle<br> Hamiltonian path<br> Hamiltonian problem<br> Hamiltonian tour<br> Hamilton's problem<br> hammer<br> Hamming code<br> Hamming distance<br> hamster<br> Han character<br> HAND<br> hand cruft<br> Handel<br> hand-hacking<br> Hand-held Personal Computer<br> handle<br> hand-roll<br> handshake<br> handshaking<br> handwave<br> hang<br> hanja<br> Hanoi<br> Han Unification<br> hanzi<br> happily<br> Happy<br> haque<br> hard boot<br> hard-coded<br> hardcopy<br> hard disk<br> hard disk drive<br> hard drive<br> hard link<br> hard sector<br> hardware<br> Hardware Abstraction Layer<br> hardware circular buffer<br> Hardware Description Language<br> hardware handshaking<br> hardwarily<br> hard-wired<br> Harris Semiconductor Ltd.<br> Harvard Graphics<br> Harvest<br> Harvest C<br> hash<br> hash bucket<br> hash coding<br> hash collision<br> hash function<br> hashing<br> hash table<br> Haskell<br> Haskell B<br> Haskell Curry<br> Haskell User's Gofer System<br> HASL<br> HASP<br> has the X nature<br> hat<br> Hayes<br> Hayes-compatible<br> HBOOK<br> hc<br> HCF<br> HCI<br> HCLP<br> HCPRVR<br> HCS<br> HD<br> HD6309<br> HDA<br> HDC<br> HDD<br> HDF<br> HDFL<br> HDL<br> HDLC<br> HDM<br> HDSL<br> HDTV<br> hdx<br> Head Disk Assembly<br> header<br> head normal form<br> head normalisation theorem<br> heads down<br> head-strict<br> heap<br> heartbeat<br> heatseeker<br> heat sink<br> heat slug<br> heavy metal<br> heavyweight<br> heavy wizardry<br> Hebbian<br> heisenbug<br> Helen Keller mode<br> Helix<br> hello packet<br> hello, sailor!<br> hello, world<br> HELP<br> henry<br> HENSA<br> HEP<br> HEPDB<br> HEPiX<br> HEPnet<br> HEPVM<br> HEQS<br> HERA<br> HERAKLIT<br> here document<br> Herman Hollerith<br> Hermes<br> Hesiod<br> heterogeneous<br> heterogeneous network<br> heterogenous<br> heuristic<br> heuristics testing<br> Hewlett-Packard<br> Hewlett-Packard Graphics Language<br> Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus<br> Hewlett Packard Multi Processing Executive<br> Hewlett Packard Precision Architecture<br> Hewlett-Packard Visual Engineering Environment<br> hex<br> hexadecimal<br> hexidecimal<br> hexit<br> HFC<br> HHCP<br> HHOJ<br> HHOK<br> HHOS<br> HIBOL<br> HID<br> hidden flag<br> hierarchical database<br> [[Hierarchical Data Format]] '''DONE'''<br> hierarchical file system<br> Hierarchical Music Specification Language<br> hierarchical routing<br> hierarchy<br> high bit<br> High bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line<br> high colour<br> high density<br> Higher Education National Software Archive<br> higher-order function<br> higher-order macro<br> High-level Data Link Control<br> high-level language<br> high memory area<br> high moby<br> High Performance Computing and Communications<br> High Performance File System<br> High Performance Fortran<br> High Performance Parallel Interface<br> High Performance Routing<br> High Performance Serial Bus<br> High Speed Circuit Switched Data<br> High Speed Connect<br> high speed serial interface<br> High Voltage Differential<br> HIGZ<br> [[hill climbing]] '''DONE'''<br/> HiLog<br> HIMEM<br> hing<br> HINT<br> HiPAC<br> HIPPI<br> hiragana<br> hirsute<br> HISTORIAN<br> history<br> hit<br> Hitachi 6309<br> Hitachi HD64180<br> HITL<br> hit rate<br> hk<br> HL7<br> HLISP<br> HLL<br> HLLAPI<br> hlp<br> hm<br> HMA<br> HMAC<br> HMP<br> HMSL<br> HMTL<br> hn<br> Hoare powerdomain<br> Hobbit<br> hobbit<br> hog<br> HOL<br> HOL-88<br> HOL-90<br> hole<br> hole model<br> Hollerithabetical order<br> Hollerith, Herman<br> Hollywired<br> HOL-UNITY<br> holy wars<br> home box<br> home machine<br> home page<br> Home Phoneline Networking Alliance <br> HomePNA<br> homogeneous<br> homogenous<br> homomorphism<br> Honeywell-800 Business Compiler<br> HOOD<br> HOOK<br> hook<br> hop (telecommunications)<br> Hope<br> Hope+<br> Hope+C<br> Hopfield model<br> Hopfield network<br> horizontal application<br> horizontal encoding<br> horizontal loop combination<br> horizontal microcode<br> horizontal scan rate<br> horizontal tabulation<br> Horn clause<br> hose<br> hosed<br> HOS-STPL<br> host<br> host adaptor<br> Host Command Facility<br> host-host layer<br> hostname<br> host number<br> Hot Fix<br> [[HotJava]]<br> Hotline<br> Hotline Communications Ltd.<br> Hotline Connect<br> hotlink<br> hotlist<br> hot spot<br> Hot Swapable Routing Protocol<br> hot swapping<br> HOTT<br> house wizard<br> Houston Automatic Spooling Program<br> HP<br> hp2ps<br> H/PC<br> HPCC<br> HPcode<br> HPCode-Plus<br> HPF<br> HPFS<br> [[HP-GL]] '''DONE''' renamed as [[HPGL]]<br> HP-GL/2 '''DONE''' same as above<br> HP-IB<br> HPL<br> HPLOT<br> HP-MPE<br> [[HP-PA]] '''DONE''', renamed as [[PA-RISC]]<br> HPPI<br> HPR<br> HP-SUX<br> HP-UX<br> HP VEE<br> hqx<br> hr<br> hs<br> HSB<br> HSC<br> HSCSD<br> HSL-FX<br> HSRP<br> HSSI<br> HSV<br> HT<br> ht<br> HTH<br> HTLM<br> HTML<br> HTML+<br> HTTL<br> HTTP<br> HTTP/1.0<br> HTTP cookie<br> HTTPd<br> HTTPS<br> HTTP server<br> hu<br> hub<br> Hubnet<br> hubs<br> hue<br> hue, saturation, brightness<br> hue, saturation, value<br> huff<br> Huffman coding<br> HUGO<br> HUGS<br> Human-Computer Interaction<br> Human-Computer Interface<br> Human Interface Device<br> Human Interface Technology Laboratory<br> humma<br> humor<br> humour<br> hung<br> Hungarian Notation<br> Hungry Programmers<br> hungry puppy<br> Hungry ViewKit<br> hungus<br> Hunt the Wumpus - Computer game originally on Dartmouth On Line System in the 1970's<br> Hurd<br> HVD<br> Hybrid<br> Hybrid Fiber Coax<br> hybrid multiprocessing<br> hybrid testing<br> hydrofluorocarbon<br> HyperBase<br> Hyper-C<br> HyperCard<br> hypercube<br> Hyperion<br> hyperlink<br> Hyper-Man<br> hypermedia<br> HyperNeWS<br> Hyperscript<br> hyperspace<br> HyperSPARC<br> Hyperstrict<br> HyperTalk<br> hypertext<br> Hypertext Markup Language<br> Hypertext Transfer Protocol<br> HyperText Transmission Protocol, Secure<br> hyperware<br> hysterical reasons<br> Hytelnet<br> HyTime<br> :''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederic Bastiat's debate with Proudhon</title> <id>11341</id> <revision> <id>30758027</id> <timestamp>2005-12-09T21:54:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bill37212</username> <id>209421</id> </contributor> <comment>category</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In February 1849, [[Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat\|Frédéric Bastiat]] wrote an essay [http://bastiat.org/fr/capital_et_rente.html Capital et Rente] (available in English as [http://bastiat.org/en/capital_and_interest.html Capital and Interest]). It had quite some success in the working class and caused some turmoil within socialist ranks. F. Chevé, writer in the socialist magazine ''La Voix du Peuple'' (the Voice of the People), wrote an open letter to Bastiat in his magazine to question his essay. Bastiat replied, and Chevé decided to publish the reply, with a counter-reply by [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon\|Proudhon]]. The debate went on between Bastiat and Proudhon, until on his 6th and last letter, Proudhon declared the debate closed and Bastiat dead. Bastiat wrote a last reply, but it was not published by ''La Voix du Peuple''; instead, they published the 13 first letters of the debate as a book ''Intérêt et Principal.'' Bastiat published the 1
arithmetic there is always a proviso, ''provided the operation is possible''. The third stage is ''single algebra'', where the symbol may denote a quantity forwards or a quantity backwards, and is adequately represented by segments on a straight line passing through an origin. Negative quantities are then no longer impossible; they are represented by the backward segment. But an impossibility still remains in the latter part of such an expression as <math>a+b\sqrt{-1}</math> which arises in the solution of the quadratic equation. The fourth stage is ''double algebra''; the algebraic symbol denotes in general a segment of a line in a given plane; it is a double symbol because it involves two specifications, namely, length and direction; and <math>\sqrt{-1}</math> is interpreted as denoting a quadrant. The expression <math>a+b\sqrt{-1}</math> then represents a line in the plane having an abscissa <math>a</math> and an ordinate <math>b</math>. Argand and Warren carried double algebra so far; but they were unable to interpret on this theory such an expression as <math>e^{a\sqrt{-1}}</math>. De Morgan attempted it by ''reducing'' such an expression to the form <math>b+q\sqrt{-1}</math>, and he considered that he had shown that it could be always so reduced. The remarkable fact is that this double algebra satisfies all the fundamental laws above enumerated, and as every apparently impossible combination of symbols has been interpreted it looks like the complete form of algebra. If the above theory is true, the next stage of development ought to be ''triple'' algebra and if <math>a+b\sqrt{-1}</math> truly represents a line in a given plane, it ought to be possible to find a third term which added to the above would represent a line in space. Argand and some others guessed that it was <math>a + b\sqrt{-1} + c\sqrt{-1}\,^{\sqrt{-1}}</math> although this contradicts the truth established by Euler that <math>\sqrt{-1}\,^{\sqrt{-1}}=e^{-\frac{1}{2} \pi}</math>. De Morgan and many others worked hard at the problem, but nothing came of it until the problem was taken up by Hamilton. We now see the reason clearly: the symbol of double algebra denotes not a length and a direction; but a multiplier and ''an angle''. In it the angles are confined to one plane; hence the next stage will be a ''quadruple algebra'', when the axis of the plane is made variable. And this gives the answer to the first question; double algebra is nothing but analytical plane trigonometry, and this is why it has been found to be the natural analysis for alternating currents. But De Morgan never got this far; he died with the belief "that double algebra must remain as the full development of the conceptions of arithmetic, so far as those symbols are concerned which arithmetic immediately suggests." When the study of mathematics revived at the University of Cambridge, so did the study of logic. The moving spirit was Whewell, the Master of Trinity College, whose principal writings were a ''History of the Inductive Sciences'', and ''Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences''. Doubtless De Morgan was influenced in his logical investigations by Whewell; but other influential contemporaries were Sir W. Hamilton of Edinburgh, and Professor Boole of Cork. De~Morgan's work on ''Formal Logic'', published in [[1847]], is principally remarkable for his development of the numerically definite syllogism. The followers of [[Aristotle]] say that from two particular propositions such as '' Some M's are A's '', and '' Some M's are B's '' nothing follows of necessity about the relation of the A's and B's. But they go further and say in order that any relation about the A's and B's may follow of necessity, the middle term must be taken universally in one of the premises. De~Morgan pointed out that from ''Most M's are A's and Most M's are B's'' it follows of necessity that ''some A's are B's'' and he formulated the numerically definite syllogism which puts this principle in exact quantitative form. Suppose that the number of the M's is <math>m</math>, of the M's that are A's is <math>a</math>, and of the M's that are B's is <math>b</math>; then there are at least <math>(a+b-m)</math> A's that are B's. Suppose that the number of souls on board a steamer was 1000, that 500 were in the saloon, and 700 were lost; it follows of necessity, that at least 700+500-1000, that is, 200, saloon passengers were lost. This single principle suffices to prove the validity of all the Aristotelian moods; it is therefore a fundamental principle in necessary reasoning. Here then De Morgan had made a great advance by introducing ''quantification of the terms''. At that time Sir W. Hamilton was teaching at Edinburgh a doctrine of the quantification of the predicate, and a correspondence sprang up. However, De Morgan soon perceived that Hamilton's quantification was of a different character; that it meant for example, substituting the two forms ''The whole of A is the whole of B'', and ''The whole of A is a part of B'' for the Aristotelian form ''All A's are B's''. Philosophers generally have a large share of intolerance; they are too apt to think that they have got hold of the whole truth, and that everything outside of their system is error. Hamilton thought that he had placed the keystone in the Aristotelian arch, as he phrased it; although it must have been a curious arch which could stand 2000 years without a keystone. As a consequence he had no room for De Morgan's innovations. He accused De Morgan of plagiarism, and the controversy raged for years in the columns of the ''Athenæum'', and in the publications of the two writers. The memoirs on logic which De Morgan contributed to the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society subsequent to the publication of his book on ''Formal Logic'' are by far the most important contributions which he made to the science, especially his fourth memoir, in which he begins work in the broad field of the ''logic of relatives''. This is the true field for the logician of the twentieth century, in which work of the greatest importance is to be done towards improving language and facilitating thinking processes which occur all the time in practical life. Identity and difference are the two relations which have been considered by the logician; but there are many others equally deserving of study, such as equality, equivalence, consanguinity, affinity, etc. In the introduction to the ''Budget of Paradoxes'' De Morgan explains what he means by the word. "A great many individuals, ever since the rise of the mathematical method, have, each for himself, attacked its direct and indirect consequences. I shall call each of these persons a ''paradoxer'', and his system a ''paradox''. I use the word in the old sense: a paradox is something which is apart from general opinion, either in subject matter, method, or conclusion. Many of the things brought forward would now be called ''crackpots'', which is the nearest word we have to old ''paradox''. But there is this difference, that by calling a thing a crackpot we mean to speak lightly of it; which was not the necessary sense of paradox. Thus in the 16th century many spoke of the earth's motion as the ''paradox of Copernicus'' and held the ingenuity of that theory in very high esteem, and some I think who even inclined towards it. In the seventeenth century the depravation of meaning took place, in England at least." How can the sound paradoxer be distinguished from the false paradoxer? De Morgan supplies the following test: "The manner in which a paradoxer will show himself, as to sense or nonsense, will not depend upon what he maintains, but upon whether he has or has not made a sufficient knowledge of what has been done by others, especially as to the mode of doing it, a preliminary to inventing knowledge for himself... New knowledge, when to any purpose, must come by contemplation of old knowledge, in every matter which concerns thought; mechanical contrivance sometimes, not very often, escapes this rule. All the men who are now called discoverers, in every matter ruled by thought, have been men versed in the minds of their predecessors and learned in what had been before them. There is not one exception." "I remember that just before the American Association met at Indianapolis in [[1890]], the local newspapers heralded a great discovery which was to be laid before the assembled savants -- a young man living somewhere in the country had squared the circle. While the meeting was in progress I observed a young man going about with a roll of paper in his hand. He spoke to me and complained that the paper containing his discovery had not been received. I asked him whether his object in presenting the paper was not to get it read, printed and published so that everyone might inform himself of the result; to all of which he assented readily. But, said I, many men have worked at this question, and their results have been tested fully, and they are printed for the benefit of anyone who can read; have you informed yourself of their results? To this there was no assent, but the sickly smile of the false paradoxer" [Note: De Morgan did not say this (how could he? He died far before 1890...). Rather, as pointed out on the discussion page, this paragraph (and the rest of the article) is copied verbatim from a lecture given in 1916] The ''Budget'' consists of a review of a large collection of paradoxical books which De Morgan had accumulated in his own library, partly by purchase at bookstands, partly from books sent to him for review, partly from books sent to him by the authors. He gives the following classification: squarers of the circle, trisectors of the angle, duplicators of the cube, constructors of perpetu
ns continued to adhere to Jewish law, but they were few in number and often considered [[heresy\|heretics]] by the Church. One example is the [[Ebionites]], which, according to the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]], were "infected with Judaistic errors" (language which Jews find offensive); for instance, they denied the [[Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)\|virgin birth]] of Jesus, the physical [[resurrection]] of Jesus, and most of the books that were later [[biblical canon\|canonized]] as the New Testament. Many [[New Testament]] passages criticise the [[Pharisees]]; it has been argued that these these passages have shaped the way that Christians have viewed Jews. Like most [[Bible]] passages, however, they can and have been interpreted in a variety of ways. During Jesus's life and at the time of his execution, the Pharisees were only one of several Jewish groups such as the [[Sadduccee]]s, [[Zealot]]s, and [[Essene]]s; indeed, some have suggested that Jesus was himself a Pharisee (although this seems unlikely). Arguments by Jesus and his disciples against the Pharisees and what he saw as their hypocrisy were most likely examples of disputes among Jews and internal to Judaism that were common at the time. ([[Lutheran]] [[Pastor]] John Stendahl has pointed out that "Christianity begins as a kind of Judaism, and we must recognize that words spoken in a family conflict are inappropriately appropriated by those outside the family.") After the destruction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] in 70 CE, however, the Pharisees emerged as the principal form of Judaism (also called "Rabbinic Judaism"). All major modern Jewish movements consider themselves descendants of Pharasaic Judaism; as such, Jews are especially sensitive to criticisms of "Pharisees" as a group. At the same time that the Pharisees came to represent Judaism as a whole, Christianity came to seek, and attract, more non-Jewish converts than Jewish converts. Within a hundred years or so the majority of Christians were non-Jews without any significant knowledge of Judaism (although until about [[1000]], there was an active Jewish component of Christianity). Many of these Christians often read these passages not as internal debates among Jews but as the basis for a Christian rejection of Judaism. Moreover, it was only during the Rabbinic era that Christianity would compete exclusively with Pharisees for converts and over how to interpret the Hebrew Bible (during Jesus's lifetime, the Sadducees were the dominant Jewish faction). Some scholars have argued that some passages of the Gospels were written (or re-written) at this time to emphasize conflict with the Pharisees. These scholars observe that the portrait of the Pharisees in the Gospels is strikingly different from that provided in Rabbinic sources, and suggest that New Testament Pharisees are a caricature and literary foil for Christianity. At a time when Christians were only seeking converts, and had no political power in the [[Roman Empire]] and were in fact [[Persecution of Christians\|persecuted]] extensively, such a caricature may not have been in any meaningful sense "anti-Judaist." But once Christianity was established as the religion of the Empire, and Christians enjoyed political domination over Europe, this caricature could be used to incite or justify oppression of Jews. Some have also suggested that the [[Greek language\|Greek]] word ''Ioudaioi'' could also be translated "Judaeans", meaning in some cases specifically the Jews from [[Judaea]], as opposed to people from [[Galilee]] or [[Samaria]] for instance. In recent years teachers in a few Christian denominations have begun to teach that readers should understand the New Testament's seeming attacks on Jews as specific charges aimed at certain Jewish leaders of that time, and upon attitudes displayed by many, inside and outside Judaism. However, Professor Lillian C. Freudmann, author of "Antisemitism in the New Testament" (University Press of America, 1994) has published a detailed study of the treatment of Jews in the New Testament, and the historical effects that such passages have had in the Christian community throughout history. Similar studies of such verses have been made by both Christian and Jewish scholars, including, Professors Clark Williamsom (Christian Theological Seminary), Hyam Maccoby (The Leo Baeck Institute), Norman A. Beck (Texas Lutheran College), and Michael Berenbaum (Georgetown University). Most rabbis feel that these verses are anti-Semitic, and many liberal Christian scholars (including clergy), in America and Europe, have reached the same conclusion. ==The Church Fathers== The following statements have been used to justify persecution of Jews. Many of the following people were recognized as saints by the Church; none of them explicitly advocated physical violence or murder, sometimes arguing, like [[Augustine of Hippo\|Augustine]], that the Jews should be left alive and suffering as a perpetual reminder of their murder of Christ. * [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], in [[325]], blames the calamities which befell the Jewish nation on the Jews' role in the death of Jesus: "that from that time seditions and wars and mischievous plots followed each other in quick succession, and never ceased in the city and in all Judea until finally the siege of Vespasian overwhelmed them. Thus the divine vengeance overtook the Jews for the crimes which they dared to commit against Christ. " (Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History: Book II, Chapter 6: The Misfortunes which overwhelmed the Jews after their Presumption against Christ) [http://web.cbn.org/bibleresources/theology/eusebius/churchhistory/eusebius-b2-7.asp] * Saint [[Ambrose]], Bishop of Milan ([[340]]-[[397]] CE) - A bishop was accused of instigating the burning of a synagogue by an anti-Semitic mob, and Emperor [[Theodosius]] was preparing to order the bishop to rebuild it. Ambrose discouraged the Emperor from taking this step because it would appear to show special favoritism to the Jews: (1) no action was taken against those responsible for burning the houses of various wealthy individuals in Rome; (2) no action was taken against those responsible for the recent burning of the house of the Bishop of Constantinople; (3) Jews had caused several Christian basilicas to be burnt during the reign of [[Julian the Apostate\|Julian]], yet had never been asked to make reparation, and some of those basilicas were still not rebuilt. Ambrose asked that Christian monies not be used to build a place of worship for unbelievers, heretics or Jews, and reminded Ambrose that some Christian laity had said of Emperor Maximus, "he has become a Jew" because of the edict Maximus issued regarding the burning of a Roman synagogue. Ambrose did not oppose punishing those directly responsible for burning the synagogue. He halted the celebration of the [[Eucharist]] until Theodosius agreed to end the investigation without requiring reparations to be made by the bishop. (from the 40th and 41st Epistles of St. Ambrose of Milan) : [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01383c.htm Catholic Encyclopaedia entry on Ambrose] * [[Augustine of Hippo]] in Book 18, Chapter 46, of ''The City of God''. wrote "The Jews who slew Him [Jesus], and would not believe in Him, because it behoved Him to die and rise again, were yet more miserably wasted by the Romans, and utterly rooted out from their kingdom, where aliens had already ruled over them, and were dispersed through the lands (so that indeed there is no place where they are not), and are thus by their own Scriptures a testimony to us that we have not forged the prophecies about Christ." [http://www.ccel.org/fathers/NPNF1-02/Augustine/cog/t103.htm] : Augustine deems this scattering important because he believes that this is a fulfillment of certain prophecies, thus proving that Jesus was the [[Messiah]]. This is because Augustine believes that the Jews who were dispersed were the enemies of the Christian Church. He also quotes part of the same prophecy that says "Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law". * [[Ephraim the Syrian]] wrote polemics against Jews in the fourth century, including the repeated accusation that Satan dwells among them as a partner. These writings were directed at Christians who were being proselytized by Jews and who Ephraim feared were slipping back into the religion of Judaism; thus he portrayed the Jews as enemies of Christianity, like Satan, to emphasize the contrast between the two religions, namely, that Christianity was Godly and true and Judaism was Satanic and false. Like John Chrysostom, his objective was to dissuade Christians from reverting to Judaism by emphasizing what he saw as the wickedness of the Jews and their religion. : [http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol1No2/HV1N2Palmer.html Ephraim the Syrian and his polemics against Jews] : [http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol5No1/HV5N1Shepardson.html Analysis of Ephraim's writings] * In his ''Dialog of Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew'', the Christian scholar [[Justin Martyr]] advanced arguments for the truth of Christianity and wrote to his imaginary Jewish opponent: "You think that these words refer to the stranger and the proselytes, but in fact they refer to us who have been illumined by Jesus. For Christ would have borne witness even to them; but now you are become twofold more the children of Hell, as He said Himself."[http://www.ccel.org/fathers/ANF-01/just/justintrypho.html] * Saint [[Jerome]] (374-419 CE) - He denounced Jews as "Judaic serpents of whom Judas was the model." In his ''The Jews in the Roman Empire'' (''Les Juifs dan L'Empire Romain'') [Is this really a work by Jerome, or a modern history?] he wrote: "The Jews seek nothing but to have children, possess riches and be healthy. They seek all earthly things,
pless "''Bos taurus''-type" cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of European cattle, zebu and yak. Cattle cannot successfully be bred with [[water buffalo]] or [[African buffalo]]. (See [[aurochs]] for the history of domestication, and [[zebu]] for peculiarities of that group.) ==Terminology== [[Image:Rainbow over cows.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|Rainbow arching over a paddock of cattle]] [[Image:HighlandCow.01.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|Highland cow]] [[Image:TexasLonghorn.jpeg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|Texas Longhorn]] The word "cattle" did not originate as a name for bovine animals. It derives from the [[Latin language\|Latin]] ''caput'', head, and thus originally meant "unit of livestock" or "one head". The word is closely related to "chattel" (a unit of property) and to "[[capital]]" in the sense of "property." Older English sources like [[King James Version]] of the [[Bible]] refer to livestock in general as cattle, or sometimes the archaic ''kine'' (which comes from the same English stem as ''cow''). Additionally other species of the genus ''[[Bos]]'' are often called cattle or wild cattle. This article refers to the common modern meaning of "cattle", the European domestic bovine. Young cattle are called [[calf\|calves]]. A young male is called a bull-calf; a young female before she has calved the second time is called a '''heifer''' (pronounced "heffer"). A young female that has had only one calf is called a "first-calf heifer." Male cattle bred for meat are [[castration\|castrated]] unless needed for breeding. The castrated male is then called a '''bullock''' or '''steer''', unless kept for draft purposes, in which case it is called an '''ox''' (plural '''oxen'''), not to be confused with the related wild [[musk ox]]. If castrated as an adult, it is called a '''stag'''. An intact male is called a '''bull'''. An adult female over two years of age (approximately) is called a '''cow'''. The adjective applying to cattle is '''bovine'''. The term ''cattle'' itself is not a plural, but a [[mass noun]]. Thus one may refer to ''some cattle'', but not ''three cattle''. There is no singular equivalent in modern English to ''cattle'' other than the various gender and age-specific terms (though "'''catron'''" is occasionally seen as a half-serious proposal). Strictly speaking, the singular noun for the domestic bovine is ''ox'': a bull is a male ox and a cow is a female ox. That this was once the standard name for domestic bovines is shown in placenames such as [[Oxford]]. But "ox" is no longer used in this general sense, being restricted to the sense given above. Today "cow" is probably the closest to being gender-neutral, although it is usually understood to mean female (females of other animals, such as whales or elephants, are also called cows). To refer to a specific number of these animals without specifying their gender, it must be stated as (for example) "ten head of cattle." Some [[Australia]]n, [[Canada\|Canadian]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Scotland\|Scottish]] farmers use the term "'''cattlebeast'''". Obsolete terms for cattle include "'''neat'''" (horned oxen, from which "[[neatsfoot oil]]" is derived), "'''beef'''" (young ox) and "'''beefing'''" (young animal fit for [[slaughtering]]). Cattle raised for human consumption are called '''beef cattle'''. Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the older term '''beef''' (plural '''beeves''') is still used to refer to an animal of either gender. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called '''[[dairy cow]]s'''. The word "cow" can also be used derogatively, when describing a person, whom one expresses a dislike for. In some countries, such as the UK, this [[term of disparagement\|slur]] is used exclusively for women whereas in others it may be used for both genders. The word "heifer" is sometimes used in a similar fashion, the implication being that the target of the term is [[overweight]]. ==Biology== {{wrapper}} \|[[Image:Hereford.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|Hereford heifer grazing]] \|- \|[[Image:Cow_with_calf_dsc06514.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|Calf suckling milk from its mother]] {{end}} Cattle are [[ruminant]]s, meaning that they have a unique [[digestive system]] that allows them to digest otherwise unpalatable foods by repeatedly regurgitating and rechewing them as "cud." The cud is then reswallowed and further digested by specialized bacterial, protozoal and fungal microbes that live in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for generating the volatile fatty acids (VGAs) that cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. The microbes that live inside of the rumen are also able to synthesize [[amino acid]]s from non-protein nitrogenous sources such as urea and ammonia. These features allow them to thrive on [[Poaceae\|grass]]es and other [[vegetation]]. Cattle have one stomach, with four compartments. They are the [[rumen]], reticulum, [[omasum]], and [[abomasum]]. The rumen is the largest compartment and the reticulum is the smallest compartment. Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum, and this is where [[hardware disease]] occurs. The reticulum is known as the "Honeycomb." The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "Many Plies." The abomasum is most like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "True Stomach." The [[aurochs]] was originally spread throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia. In historical times, their range was restricted to Europe, and the last animals were killed by poachers in [[Masovia]], [[Poland]], in 1627. Breeders have attempted to recreate the original gene pool of the aurochs by careful crossing of commercial breeds, creating the [[Heck cattle]] breed. A popular misconception about cattle (primarily bulls) is that they are enraged by the colour red. This is incorrect, as cattle are mostly [[colour-blind]]. This rumour derives from bullfighting, where [[Matador]]s traditionally use red-coloured capes to provoke bulls into attacking. The red color is merely traditional, as the movement of the cape is the attractant. ==Uses of cattle== [[Image:Cow_with_calf.jpg\|left\|200px\|thumb\|Cow with calf]] Cattle occupy a unique role in human history. Some consider them the oldest form of wealth. Their ability to provide [[meat]], dairy and draft while reproducing themselves and eating nothing but grass has furthered human interests dramatically through the millennia. In [[Hinduism]], the cow is said to be [[holy]] (and thus should not be [[eating\|eaten]]); "The cow is my mother. The bull is my sire.". [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13b041.htm] The importance of the cow is highlighted by the fact that a regional holiday called Mattu Pongal (literally Cow [[Pongal]] in [[Tamil language\|Tamil]]) exists which is akin to a bovine [[thanksgiving day]]. In fact a divine cow named [[Kamadhenu]] is considered to be the mother of all [[Hindu]] Gods. It is common to see loose cattle walking the streets, because the holiness it holds in India and other countries that practice Hinduism. In [[Latin America]], [[Australia]] and the western [[North America]] cattle are grazed on large tracts of rangeland called [[ranching\|ranchos, ranches]] or Stations (''Australia''). In [[Portugal]], [[Spain]] and some [[Latin America]]n countries, bulls are used in the [[sport]] of [[bullfighting]] while a similar sport [[Jallikattu]] is seen in [[South India]]; in many other countries this is illegal. Other sports like [[Bull riding]] are seen as part of a [[Rodeo]], especially in [[North America]]. The outbreaks of [[mad cow disease]] have reduced or prevented some traditional uses of cattle for food, for example the eating of brains or spinal cords. ==Ox== [[Image:India.Mumbai.04.jpg\|right\|thumb\|250px\|Draft [[Zebus]] in [[Mumbai]], [[India]].]] '''Oxen''' (plural of '''ox''') are [[cattle]] trained as draft animals. Often they are adult, [[castration\|castrated]] males. Usually an ox is over four years old due to the need for training and for time to grow to full size. Oxen are used for [[plowing]], [[transport]], hauling cargo, grain-grinding by trampling or by powering machines, [[irrigation]] by powering pumps, and [[wagon]] drawing. Oxen were commonly used to skid logs, and sometimes are still in low-impact select-cut logging, in forests. Contrary to popular American lore, an "ox" is not a unique breed of bovine, nor have any "blue" oxen lived outside the [[folk tale]]s surrounding [[Paul Bunyan]], the mythical American logger. An ox is nothing more than a mature bovine with an "education". The education consists of the animal's learning to respond appropriately to the [[teamster]]'s (ox driver's) commands: in North America such as (1) get up, (2) whoa, (3) back up, (4) gee (turn to the right) and (5) haw (turn to the left). American ox trainers favored larger breeds for their ability to do more work in addition to their intelligence (the ability to learn); for the same reason, the typical ox is the male of a breed, rather than the smaller female. Also, the gait of the ox is often important to ox trainers, since the speed the animal walks should roughly match the gait of the ox driver who must work with it. Oxen are most often used in teams of two, paired, for light work such as [[cart]]ing. In past days some teams were about fourteen, and even over twenty for logging. A wooden [[yoke]] is fastened about the neck of each pair so that the force of draft is distributed across their shoulders. Oxen are chosen, from calves, with horns since the horns hold the yoke in place when the oxen lower their heads, back u
Landslide: The Unmaking of the President 1984-1988" by Doyle McManus and Jane Mayer - a carefully documented narrative of one aspect of the second presidential term of Ronald Reagan. Primarily includes a painstakingly detailed history of the Iran-Contra Scandal. [[Nicaragua v. United States]], indictment by the [[International Court of Justice]] == External links == [http://www.bartleby.com/65/ir/Irancont.html Condensed article outlining Iran-Contra] * [http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/ Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters] * [http://www.hirhome.com/iraniraq/gulfwar.htm Why Bush Sr.'s 1991 Gulf War? To Protect Iranian Islamism] ''[[Historical and Investigative Research]]'' 2005 Francisco Gil-White. * [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/Iran_Contra_Affair.html Analysis of Israeli involvement in the affair] * [http://www.inthe80s.com/scandal.shtml Iran-Contra timeline] * [http://hometown.aol.co.uk/lismore1/Lebanon.html American hostages timeline] * [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB55/nsdd138.pdf Extract of NSDD-138 (PDF)] [[National Security Archive]] * [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB55/nsdd207.pdf NSDD-207 (PDF)] * [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/index.htm] [[Category:American political scandals]] [[Category:Anti-communism]] [[Category:Cold War]] [[Category:History of foreign relations of the United States]] [[Category:History of Iran]] [[Category:History of Nicaragua]] [[de:Iran-Contra-Affäre]] [[fi:Iran-Contra -skandaali]] [[fr:Affaire Iran-Contra]] [[he:פרשת איראן-קונטראס]] [[id:Skandal Iran Contra]] [[ja:イラン・コントラ事件]] [[nl:Iran-contra-affaire]] [[no:Iran-Contras-skandalen]] [[sv:Iran-contras-affären]] [[zh:伊朗门事件]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Infocom</title> <id>14788</id> <revision> <id>38673843</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T22:14:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>204.113.19.8</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Overview */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company \| company_name = Infocom \| company_logo = [[Image:Infocom logo.png]] \| company_type = [[Privately-held\|Private]] (defunct) \| company_slogan = ''This space intentionally left blank.'' \| industry = Entertainment/Business software \| foundation = [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|MIT]] ([[1979]]) \| location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts\|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]] \| key_people = [[Dave Lebling]]<br />[[Marc Blank]]<br />[[Al Vezza]]<br />[[Joel Berez]] \| num_employees = N/A \| products = ''[[Zork]]'' series<br />[[Enchanter (computer game)\|''Enchanter'']] trilogy<br />''[[Cornerstone (software)\|Cornerstone]]''<br />[[Z-machine]]<br />[[#Titles & authors\|See products listing.]] \| revenue = N/A \| homepage = None }} {{Zork_universe}} '''Infocom''' was an [[United States\|American]] [[software company]], based in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], that produced numerous works of [[interactive fiction]], known as [[text adventure]] [[computer game]]s. They also produced one notable business application, a [[relational database]] called ''[[Cornerstone (software)\|Cornerstone]]''. Infocom was founded on [[June 22]] [[1979]] by [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|MIT]] staff and students led by [[Dave Lebling]], [[Marc Blank]], [[Al Vezza]], and [[Joel Berez]] and lasted as an independent company until [[1986]] when it was bought by [[Activision]]. Activision finally shut down the Infocom division in [[1989]], although they released some titles in the [[1990s]] under the Infocom ''[[Zork]]'' brand. ==Overview== Infocom was well-known among game-players for the [[parser]] used in its witty, ambitious text adventures, which allowed the user to type complex instructions to the game. Unlike earlier works of interactive fiction, which only understood commands of the form 'verb noun' (e.g. "get apple"), Infocom's parser could understand commands like "get all apples except the green apple from the barrel." Infocom games were written using a programming language called ''ZIL'' (Zork Implementation Language or Zork Interactive Language--it was referred to as both) that ran on a standardized [[virtual machine]] called the [[Z-machine]]. As the games were text based and used variants of the same Z-machine interpreter, Infocom was able to release most of their games for most popular [[home computer]]s of the day simultaneously&mdash;the [[Apple II family]], [[Atari 8-bit family\|Atari 800]], [[IBM PC compatible]]s, [[Commodore 64]], [[Commodore 128]]&sup1;, [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A]], [[Apple Macintosh\|the Mac]], [[Atari ST]], and the [[Amiga\|Commodore Amiga]]. The company was also known for shipping creative props, or "[[feelies]]" (and even "smellies"), with its games. <!-- Note 1: Infocom was actually one of the very few companies (if not the only one) to release game software for the C128 as such, contrary to most software houses, who only catered for the C64(and thence the compatible C128 in C64 mode only) --> ==History== ===The beginning=== Inspired by ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure\|Colossal Cave]]'', Marc Blank and Dave Lebling created what was to become the first Infocom game, ''[[Zork]]'', in [[1977]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|MIT]]'s [[Project MAC\|Laboratory for Computer Science]]. Despite the development of a revolutionary virtual memory system that allowed games to be much larger than the average personal computer's normal capacity, the enormous mainframe-developed game had to be split into three roughly equal parts. ''Zork I'' was released originally for the [[TRS-80]] in [[1980]] and eventually sold more than a million copies across several platforms. Lebling and Blank each authored several more games and additional game writers (or "implementors") were hired, notably including [[Steve Meretzky]]. Other popular and inventive titles included the rest of the ''Zork'' series, ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)\|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]], and ''[[A Mind Forever Voyaging]]''. In its first few years of operation, text adventures proved to be a huge revenue stream for the company. Whereas most computer games of the era would achieve initial success and then suffer a significant drop-off in sales, Infocom titles continued to sell for years and years. One key employee said of their situation, "It was phenomenal&mdash;we had a basement that just printed money." === Standing out from the competition === Three key components proved key to Infocom's success: marketing strategy, rich storytelling and feelies. Whereas most game developers sold their games mainly in software stores, Infocom also distributed their games via bookstores. Since their games were text-based, patrons of bookstores were drawn to the Infocom games as they were already interested in reading. Next, Infocom titles featured strong storytelling and rich descriptions, eschewing the day's primitive graphic capabilities, allowing users to use their own imaginations for the lavish and exotic locations the games described. Third, the inclusion of "[[feelies]]"&mdash;imaginative props and extras tied to the game's theme&mdash;provided some copy protection against [[software piracy\|pirating]]. Some games were unsolveable without the extra content provided with the boxed game. Many of the games' puzzles proved too difficult for some players. Infocom was regularly flooded with phone calls from customers pleading for hints to solving game puzzles. Due to this, [[Mike Dornbrook]] created the [[Zork User's Group]] (ZUG) to handle a typewritten "pay-per-hint" service. He also started Infocom's customer newsletter called ''The New Zork Times'' to discuss game hints and preview and showcase new products. (After the threat of a lawsuit by the [[New York Times]], the newsletter's name was later changed to ''The Status Line'', a reference to an informational feature provided the player in every Infocom game.) The pay-per-hint service eventually led to the development of [[InvisiClues]]: books with hints, maps, clues and solutions for puzzles in the games. The answers to the puzzles were printed in invisible ink that only became visible with a special marker, provided with each book. Sales of InvisiClues proved incredibly lucrative: their sales consistently filled computer book best seller lists until the list developers were forced to combine all InvisiClues sales into one number, which simply assured that it would almost always occupy the topmost position. === Serious mistakes... === In [[1984]] Infocom started putting resources into a new division to produce business products. In [[1985]] they released a [[relational database\|database]] product, ''[[Cornerstone (software)\|Cornerstone]]''. Though this application was hailed upon its release for ease of use, it sold only 10,000 copies; not enough to cover the development expenses. Whereas their games had benefitted significantly from the portability offered by running on top of a virtual machine, this strategy did not prove to be a significant advantage for ''Cornerstone''; in fact, the virtual machine significantly slowed the database's execution speed. Most businesses were moving to the [[IBM PC]] platform by that time, so portability was no longer a significant differentiator. Infocom had sunk much of the money from games sales into ''Cornerstone''; this, in addition to a slump in computer game sales, left the company in a very precarious financial position. === ...and the Activision takeover === A surprising lack of offers for such a successful company led to the [[1985]] acquisition of Infocom by [[Activision]]. This turned out to be the beginning of th
imperial clan itself were primarily acceptable brides. Since that law was repealed in the aftermath of WWII, the present Emperor Akihito became the first crown prince for over a thousand years to have an empress outside the previously eligible circle. ===Succession=== Millennia ago, the Japanese imperial family developed its own peculiar system of hereditary succession. It has been non-primogenitural, more or less agnatic, based mostly on rotation. Today, Japan uses strict [[agnatic]] [[primogeniture]] - in other words, pure [[Salic law]]. It was adopted from [[Prussia]], by which Japan was greatly influenced in the 1870s. Strict agnatic primogeniture is, however, directly contradictory to several old Japanese traditions of imperial succession. The controlling principles and their interaction were apparently very complex and sophisticated, leading to even idiosyncratic outcomes. Some chief principles apparent in the succession have been: * Females were allowed to succeed (but not allowed to be inherited by their own children, unless the father of the child also happened to be an agnate of the imperial house). However, female accession was clearly much rarer than male. * Adoption was possible and a much used way to increase the number of succession-entitled heirs (however, the adopted child had to be a child of another member of the imperial house). * Abdication was used very often, and in fact occurred more often than death on the throne. In those days, the emperor's chief task was priestly (or godly), containing so many repetitive rituals that it was deemed that the incumbent deserved pampered retirement as an honored former emperor. * Primogeniture was not used - rather, in the early days, the imperial house practised something resembling a system of rotation. Very often a brother (or sister) followed the elder sibling even in the case of the predecessor leaving children. The "turn" of the next generation came more often after several individuals of the senior generation. Rotation went often between two or more of the branches of the imperial house, thus more or less distant cousins succeeded each other. [[Emperor Go-Saga]] even decreed an official alternation between heirs of his two sons, which system continued for a couple of centuries (leading finally to shōgun-induced (or utilized) strife between these two branches, the "southern" and "northern" emperors). Towards the end, the alternates were very distant cousins counted in degrees of male descent (but all that time, intermarriages occurred within the imperial house). After a while, however, probably due to [[Confucianism\|Confucian]] influence, inheritence by sons - but not always, or even most often, the eldest son - became the norm. Historically, the [[succession]] to Japan's [[Chrysanthemum Throne]] has always passed to descendants in male line from the imperial lineage. Generally they have been males, though of the over one hundred monarchs there have been eight women as Emperor. In part, the Japanese imperial dynasty owes its longevity in the male line to the use of [[concubine]]s, a practice that only ended in the [[Taisho]] period (1912-1926). The Japanese monarchy also relied on the specially designated collateral lines or [[shinnoke\|shinnōke]] (shinnō houses). In the last thousand years, sons of an imperial male and a Fujiwara woman have been preferred in the succession. Also, sons of the empress were preferred over sons of concubines, mainly because Fujiwara women were often Empresses and concubines came from less exalted noble families. Some emperors even had two empresses simultaneously (kogo, chugu) after a decree from the reign of [[Emperor Ichijo\|Emperor Ichijo]]. There are indications that between the son of a Fujiwara woman and the son of an imperial princess, Fujiwara descent was given precedence. This may have been caused by the higher influence of the said Fujiwara's relatives, but may also have been a part of tradition, perhaps due to the preference to have an emperor with two-side descent from the two kamis. The two influential patterns of maternal descent were: * a powerful maternal grandfather ensured a puppet on the throne in the person of an underage grandson, himself becoming their guardian. This pattern was usual in the Soga and Fujiwara eras, and even some later shoguns used their daughters in that way. This sometimes also occurred with a father-in-law and an imperial son-in-law (but regent lords preferred underage grandsons to adult son-in-laws). * a prince having descent from two rival branches of the imperial dynasty, one from the paternal side and the other from the maternal side, was elevated to the throne as a symbol of reconciliation. Besides the empress, the emperor could take concubines, and the son he had by a concubine would be recognized as heir to the throne if the empress did not give birth to an heir. Concubines were allowed also to other dynasts (shinno, o). With the help of polygamy, the imperial clan thus was capable of producing more male offspring, increasing the probability that the dynasty survived in the male line. If the immediate imperial family failed to produce an heir, one of the [[shinnoke\|shinnōke]] could provide the future emperor. There were four such collateral lines in the [[Edo period]]: [[Fushimi-no-miya\|Fushimi]], [[Katsura-no-miya\|Katsura]], [[Arisugawa-no-miya\|Arisugawa]], and [[Kan'in-no-miya\|Kan'in]]. Emperor Kōkaku (reigned 1780-1817), the lineal ancestor of all subsequent emperors, was a scion of the Kan'in house. A shinnoke could be inherited by a prince of another branch by permission of the emperor, and alternatively could be revived (the princedoms, shinnoke, seem more or less the common property of the imperial clan). The Edo-period Katsura and Arisugawa houses died out in 1881 and 1913, respectively (though they were revived later, the Arisugawa as Takamatsu, its older name, and the Katsura in the person of the second son of [[Prince Mikasa]]). The Fushimi branch, originating from the 15th century, produced a vast number of children in two generations in the 19th century. A scion of the Fushimi house succeeded to the Kan'in house in 1884. The Fushimi house was the progenitor of nine other cadet branches ([[oke\|ōke]]) of the imperial family during the [[Meiji period]]. This house and its offshoots were reduced to commoner status in 1947. Before the [[Meiji Restoration]], Japan had eight female tennō or reigning empresses, all of them daughters of the male line of the Imperial House. None ascended purely as a wife or as a widow of an emperor. Imperial daughters and granddaughters, however, usually ascended the throne as a sort of a "stop gap" measure - if a suitable male was not available or some imperial branches were in rivalry so that a compromise was needed. Almost all Japanese empresses and dozens of emperors abdicated - many empresses once a suitable male descendant in the male line of imperial descendants became old enough. (Suitable male means after his toddler years - Japanese emperors often ascended as children, as young as 6 or 8 years old, as reaching the age of legal majority was not a requirement. The high-priestly duties were deemed possible for a walking child - and several emperors abdicated/reached their entitled retirement while still in their teens.) Three empresses, [[Empress Suiko]], [[Empress Kogyoku\|Empress Kōgyoku]] (also Empress Saimei) and [[Empress Jito\|Empress Jitō]], were widows of deceased emperors and princesses of the blood imperial in their own right. One, [[Empress Gemmei]], was the widow of a crown prince and a princess of the blood imperial. The other four, [[Empress Gensho\|Empress Genshō]], [[Empress Koken\|Empress Kōken]] (also Empress Shōtoku), [[Empress Meisho\|Empress Meishō]] and [[Empress Go-Sakuramachi\|Empress Go-Sakuramachi]], were unwed daughters of previous emperors. None of these empresses married or gave birth after ascending the throne. Article 2 of the 1889 [[Meiji Constitution]] (or Constitution of the Empire of Japan) stated, "The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by Imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law." The 1889 Imperial Household Law fixed the succession on male descendants of the imperial line, and specifically excluded female descendants from the succession. In the event of a complete failure of the main line, the throne would pass to the nearest collateral branch, again in the male line. If the empress did not give birth to an heir, the emperor could take a concubine, and the son he had by that concubine would be recognized as heir to the throne. This law, which was promulgated on the same day as the [[Meiji Constitution]], enjoyed co-equal status with that constitution. Article 2 of the [[Constitution of Japan]] provides that "The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial Household Law passed by the Diet." The [[Imperial Household Law]] of [[16 January]] [[1947]], enacted by the ninety-second and last session of the Imperial Diet, retained the exclusion on female dynasts found in the 1889 law. The government of Prime Minister [[Yoshida Shigeru]] hastily cobbled together the legislation to bring the Imperial Household in compliance with the American-written [[Constitution of Japan]] that went into effect in May 1947. In an effort to control the size of the imperial family, the law stipulates that only legitimate male descendants in the male line can be dynasts; that imperial princesses and princesses lose their status as Imperial Family members if they marry outside the Imperial Family; and that the Emperor and other members of the Imperial Family may not adopt children. ====Current status==== Succession is now regulated by laws passed by the [[Diet of Japan\|Japanese Diet]]. The current law excludes females from the succession despite the historical exi
ь, Respublika Belarus), while the short name is '''Belarus''' (Беларусь, Biełaruś, Беларусь). The earlier name "Byelorussia" (Белоруссия) can still be found in use, although mainly in historical contexts. Some consider the use of "Byelorussian" derogatory, with its direct implication of [[Russification]]. The name has incorrectly been translated as "[[White Russia]]", a name that refers to a separate region. ==History of the name== Historically, the country was referred to in [[English language\|English]] as "White Russia", although this is not exactly correct, the correct translation is "White [[Ruthenia]]"; the practice continues to this day in other languages. <!-- Please don't insert any other languages' translations of Belarus; they belong on the [[White Russia]] page. Thanks! --> The first known use of "White Russia" to refer to Belarus was in the late [[16th Century]] by European [[Jerome Horsey]]. He used the term to describe the areas of [[Ivan IV\|Ivan the Terrible]]'s empire. During the [[17th century]] the Russian tsars used "White Ruthenia", asserting that they were trying to recapture their heritage from the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. After the Commonwealth broke up, the lands that now make up Belarus were officially referred to as "Belarus" and "Belarusi", instead of the then-banned terms of "Litwa" and "Licwiny."{{ref\|name}} The spellings '''Belorussia''' and '''Byelorussia''' are transliterations of the name of the country in [[Russian (spelling)\|Russian]]. Belarus was named "Byelorussia" in the days of [[Imperial Russia]], and the Russian [[tsar]] was usually styled "Emperor of All the Russias — Great, Minor, and White". This practice continued throughout the [[Soviet era]], with the country taking the official name of the "[[Byelorussian SSR\|Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]]". Some Belarusians object to the name "Byelorussia", as it is an unwelcome reminder of the days under Russian and Soviet rule. <!-- I had initially decided to remove the para below for the reasons raised during the latest FAC, but it turns out that pravapis.org is in fact the biggest and most notable website concerning Belarusian usage, and as such its findings on something like this are worth reporting. [[User:MarkGallagher\|fuddlemark]] ([[User talk:MarkGallagher\|fuddle me!]]) 14:26, [[15 September]] [[2005]] (UTC) --> In 2002, an informal survey was conducted by the website [http://pravapis.org/ pravapis.org] to see which version of the name was used on a majority of websites. By using Google, the website looked up various terms and it found that "Belarus", the official short form of the name, was used on 93% of websites checked. Different spellings of Byelorussia, such as "Belorussia" and "Bielorussia", came in second and third, respectively.{{ref\|spellings}} A number of languages today still refer to Belarus as White Russia, such as "Weißrussland" in [[German language\|German]] or "Λευκορωσία" (leukorosia) in [[greek language\|Hellenic]]. <!-- you don't have to insert more languages here --> ==History== {{main\|History of Belarus}} [[Image:Pol-lith commonwealth map.jpg\|thumb\|Map of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and the [[Kingdom of Poland]], which eventually became the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]].]] Between the [[6th century\|6th]] and [[8th century\|8th]] centuries, what is now known as Belarus was settled by the [[Slavs]], who still dominate the country. The [[Early East Slavs]] gradually came into contact with the [[Varangians]] and were organized under the state of [[Rus' (people)\|Rus']], mainly in the area around modern-day [[Polatsk]] in the northern part of the country. In the [[13th century]], the state was badly affected by a [[Mongol]] invasion, and eventually parts of Rus' were swallowed up by the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. The core lands of the duchy were territories around [[Kernavė]], [[Trakai]] and [[Vilnius]] cities and [[Samogitia]]. During this time, the Belarusian teritories were largely at peace, but duchy itself were at many wars and had famous victories against [[Mongols]] in the east, [[Turkic peoples\|Turks]] in the south and [[Teutonic knights]] in the west. By the [[15th century]], the Grand Duchy stretched across much of [[Eastern Europe]], from the [[Baltic Sea]] to the [[Black Sea]]. On [[February 2]] [[1386]], the recently-crowned King of Poland Grand Duke [[Władysław II Jagiełło\|Jagiełło]], joined the Grand Duchy with [[Poland]] in a [[personal union]] under one monarch. This personal union eventually resulted in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], a new state created in 1569. The union was transformed by the [[May Constitution of 1791]], Europe's first modern codified national constitution, which abolished all state subdivisions and merged everything into the [[Kingdom of Poland]]. However, by 1795, the state was divided and annexed by [[Imperial Russia]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]] in the course of the [[Partitions of Poland]]. Belarus teritories remained part of the Russian Empire until being occupied by [[Imperial Germany\|Germany]] during [[World War I]]. Belarus first declared independence on [[25 March]] [[1918]], forming the [[Belarusian People's Republic]]. The Republic was, however, short-lived, and the regime was overthrown soon after the German withdrawal. In 1919 Belarus became the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (BSSR), and after Russian occupation of eastern Lithuania merged into the [[Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]]. After the [[Polish-Soviet War]] ended in 1921, Byelorussian lands were split between Poland and the recreated Byelorussian SSR, which became a founding member of the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] in 1922. In [[September]] [[1939]], the Soviet Union annexed the Polish-held Byelorussian land as a result of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]]. In 1941, [[Nazi Germany]] launched [[Operation Barbarossa]], invading the Soviet Union. Byelorussia was captured soon afterwards, and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. Much the country was destroyed and much of its population was killed in the German invasion. The Jewish population of Belarus was also devastated during the [[Holocaust]]. It took until 1971 for the population of Belarus to reach the pre-war level. The Jewish population, however, never recovered. {{ref\|warpop}} After the war ended, Byelorussia was among the 51 signatories to the founding of the [[United Nations]], in 1945. The reconstruction that took place in Belarus after the war brought comparative prosperity to the Soviet Republic. During this time, Belarus became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR. The increase in jobs, brought in a huge immigrant population from the [[RSFSR\|Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic]]. {{ref\|Soviet-era}} During [[Joseph Stalin]]'s era, a policy of [[Russification]] was started to "protect" Byelorussia SSR from influences by the West. <!--The plan was to have any trace of Belarus's cultural identity to be replaced by those of Russia. -->This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. The official use of the [[Belarusian language]] and other cultural aspects were also limited by [[Soviet Government\|Moscow]]. After Stalin died in 1953, his successor [[Nikita Khrushchev]] continued the Russification program, stating in the Byelorussian SSR capital of [[Minsk]] that "The sooner we all start speaking [[Russian language\|Russian]], the faster we shall build [[communism]]." {{ref\|russification}} In 1986, a section of Belarus was affected by the fallout from the [[Chernobyl]] power plant [[Chernobyl accident\|accident]] in neighboring [[Ukrainian SSR\|Ukraine]]. When Soviet premier [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] began pushing through his [[Perestroika]] plan, the Belarusian people delivered a petition to him in December of 1986 explaining the loss of their culture. This event has been coined by historians as the "cultural Chernobyl." {{ref\|Gorby}} In June of 1988, [[mass graves]] were discovered at the city of [[Kurapaty]]. The graves allegedly contained about 250,000 of Stalin's victims. Some contend that this discovery was proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people and caused some to seek independence.{{ref\|massgraves}} Belarus declared itself sovereign on [[27 July]] [[1990]], and the BSSR formally became the Republic of Belarus on [[25 August]] [[1991]], attaining full independence. Around that time, [[Stanislav Shushkevich]] became Chairman of the [[Supreme Soviet]] of Belarus, the top leadership position in Belarus. Shushkevich, along with [[Boris Yeltsin]] of Russia and [[Leonid Kravchuk]] of [[Ukraine]] met on [[December 8]] [[1991]] in [[Belavezhskaya Pushcha]] to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]. Since 1994, the country has been led by [[Alexander Lukashenko]], who has been cited by [[Human Rights Watch]] for various violations of human rights and is generally regarded as a dictator by Western standards. As of 2005, there appears to be a movement in Belarus towards reuniting with [[Russia]]. In [[November 2005]], a draft constitution was sent to both [[Vladimir Putin]] and Lukashenko for approval.[http://www.washingtontimes.com/world/20051114-102844-6237r.htm] This move, along with others, is part of the 1996 plan created by Lukashenko and former Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] to create a [[Union of Russia and Belarus\|union]] between the two nations. ==Politics== [[Image:Victory-square.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|Victory Square, [[Minsk]].]] [[Image:Lukas
natural lake in Honduras. This lake is twenty-two kilometers long and at its widest point measures fourteen kilometers. Several large, brackish lagoons open onto the Caribbean in northeast Honduras. These shallow bodies of water allow limited transportation to points along the coast. ==Other facts== ===Area:=== * ''total:'' 112,090 km² * ''land:'' 111,890 km² * ''water:'' 200 km² * ''Area - comparative:'' slightly larger than [[Tennessee]] and slightly smaller than [[England]]. ===Land boundaries:=== * total: 1,520 km :''border countries:'' * Guatemala 256 km, * El Salvador 342 km, * Nicaragua 922 km ===Coastline:=== * 820 km * Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: natural extension of territory or to 200 nm *exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm ===Climate:=== Honduras is tropical in the lowlands and temperate in the mountains. The Pacific coast region is slightly hotter than the [[Caribbean]] coast. ===Terrain:=== Honduras has a mountainous interior, a narrow Pacific coastal plain, the Sula Valley in the north west running down to [[San Pedro Sula]], a further coastal strip heading east until the large [[La Mosquita]] jungle plain in the North East. ===Elevation extremes:=== * Lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m * Highest point: Cerro Las Minas 2,870 m ===Natural resources:=== [[timber]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[iron]] ore, [[antimony]], [[coal]], [[fish]], [[hydropower]] ===Land use:=== * arable land: 15% * permanent crops: 3% * permanent pastures: 14% * forests and woodland: 54% * other: 14% (1993 est.) * Irrigated land: 740 km² (1993 est.) ===Natural hazards:=== Frequent mild, [[earthquake]]s, and damaging [[hurricanes]] and floods along the [[Caribbean]] coast ==Environment== There is a move out of the poor [[campesinos]] out of the countryside and into the urban centers. [[Deforestation]] resulting from [[logging]] is especially rampant in [[Olancho Department]]. The clearing of land for agricultural purposes occurs throughout Honduras but especially in the largely undeveloped [[La Mosquitia]] region, and causes further land degradation and soil erosion hastened. Mining activities pollute the [[Lake Yojoa]], which is the country's largest source of fresh water, as well as some rivers and streams with [[heavy metals]]. [[Hurricane Mitch]] cause severe damage. ===International agreements=== Honduras has signed and ratified agreements on [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change\|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], and [[Wetlands]]. Honduras has signed, but not ratified the [[Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol]]. ==See also== [[Honduras]] [[List of places in Honduras]] ==Sources== [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies] ''CIA World Fact Book'' [[Category:Geography of Honduras\|]] [[Category:Geography by country\|Honduras]] [[fr:Géographie du Honduras]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Honduras</title> <id>13397</id> <revision> <id>36811652</id> <timestamp>2006-01-26T17:15:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Darwinek</username> <id>107928</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Demographics]] of [[Honduras]]''' About 91% of the population is [[mestizo]]. There also are small minorities of [[Europe]]an, [[Afro-Latin American\|Afro-Honduran]], and indigenous [[Amerindian]] descent. Many Hondurans are [[Roman Catholic]], but [[Protestant]] [[proselytization]] has resulted in significant numbers of converts. The [[Spanish language]] is the predominant language, and while ([[pidgin]]) [[English language\|English]] is spoken in the Caribbean [[Islas de la Bahía department]] it is being superseded. Indigenous [[Amerindian language]]s (in several dialects) and [[Garifuna]] are also spoken, though Spanish is becoming more popular everywhere where it was not widely spoken, due to efforts by the government, including making Spanish the language used in education. The population is 7.1 million according to a [[United Nations]] 2004 estimate. ==Age structure== <br>''0-14 years:'' 43% (male 1,361,259; female 1,303,041) <br>''15-64 years:'' 54% (male 1,665,406; female 1,699,680) <br>''65 years and over:'' 3% (male 104,469; female 115,743) (2000 est.) ==Population growth rate== 2.52% (2000 est.) ==Birth rate== 32.65 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) ==Death rate== 5.31 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) ==Net migration rate== -2.17 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) ==Sex ratio== at birth 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over 0.9 male(s)/female total population 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.) ==Infant mortality rate== 31.29 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) ==Life expectancy at birth== total population 69.93 years male 67.91 years female 72.06 years (2000 est.) ==Total fertility rate== 4.26 children born/woman (2000 est.) ==Nationality== noun Honduran(s)or Hondurainian(s) adjective Honduran or Hondurainian ==Ethnic groups== mestizo (mixed Amerindian-European and African) 91%, Amerindian 7%, Arab, black, white 2% ==Religions== Roman Catholic 97%, Protestant minority ==Languages== Spanish, Amerindian dialects ==Literacy== definition age 15 and over can read and write total population 72.7% male 72.6% female 72.7% (1995 est.) ''Article based on text from the [[CIA World Factbook]].'' [[Category:Honduran society]] [[Category:Demographics by country\|Honduras]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Honduras</title> <id>13398</id> <revision> <id>33629110</id> <timestamp>2006-01-02T19:58:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Wikify dates</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Honduras}} '''Politics of Honduras''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system\|presidential]] [[representative democracy\|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Honduras]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[National Congress of Honduras]]. The party system is dominated by the conservative [[National Party of Honduras]] and the liberal [[Liberal Party of Honduras]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. The [[1982]] [[constitution]] of [[Honduras]] provides for a strong executive, a unicameral [[National Congress of Honduras\|National Congress]], and a judiciary appointed by the National Congress. Reinforced by the media and several political watchdog organizations, [[human rights]] and [[civil liberties]] are reasonably well protected. There are no known political prisoners in Honduras and the privately owned media frequently exercises its right to criticize without fear of reprisals. Organized labor now represents less than 15% of the work force and its economic and political influence has declined. ==Current situation== ===Security situation=== The security situation in [[Honduras]] is inevitably going to be more precarious in [[2005]] because it is an election year, culminating in the presidential elections in November. Three major events over the last 2 years have brought this tiny country to the attention of the world [[media]]. A massacre of 68 prisoners in the farm prison of [[La Ceiba]] on [[5 April]] [[2003]], a fire in the prison at [[San Pedro Sula]] that killed 107 prisoners on [[18 May]] [[2004]], and the massacre of 27 innocent men, women and children in San Pedro Sula, on [[23 December]] [[2004]]. There is a great feelings of insecurity amongst the population about the chronically poor security situation in Honduras. The major problem is rooted in the [[gangs]], who are called maras in [[Spanish language\|Spanish]] (ants in English). These include the [[Mara Salvatrucha]] and the [[Mara 18]]. The gangs are rooted in the poverty of Honduras, and in the ready availabity of [[crack]] [[cocaine]]. Honduras is not only a transit point for cocaine running between [[Colombia]] and the [[United States]] but also has an internal market, creating all sorts of inner city urban problems. The gangs sell the crack, commit other crimes, and hire themselves out to the seriously organised drug smugglers. Those engaged in international trafficking are better resourced than the state authorities combating them. An argument some would use to justify increasing US [[military]] aid to Honduras to help fight the organised drug gangs, while others would say that Honduras would be better off legalising drugs, thus avoiding military solutions to Honduran security problems. President [[Ricardo Maduro]], a former Central Bank of Honduras chairman, decided to stand for President on a security ticket after his only son was murdered on [[23 April]] [[1997]], an event that gained him considerable public support. During his tenure as President of the Central Bank of Honduras,a banking license was given to Banco de Producción, after leaving the Central bank he became Chairman and majority stockholder of the bank and the General Manger of the Central bank, Ana Cristina Mejia de Pereira became the General Manager of Banco de la Producción. He came into power in January [[2002]] with a wave of measures against gangs and delincuency, the most noticeable of which has been soldiers patrolling the streets with the police. Many gang members have been jailed for illicit a
ks == [http://www.pbs.org/transistor/science/info/transmodern.html PBS The Field Effect Transistor] [http://www.onr.navy.mil/sci_tech/information/312_electronics/ncsr/devices/jfet.asp Junction Field Effect Transistor] [http://www.williamson-labs.com/480_fet.htm Field Effect Transistors] [http://www.play-hookey.com/semiconductors/enhancement_mode_mosfet.html The Enhancement Mode MOSFET] [http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_4/chpt_3/8.html CMOS gate circuitry] [http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/archives/35-05/latchup/ Winning the Battle Against Latchup in CMOS Analog Switches] [[Category:Transistors]] [[ca:Transistor d'efecte camp]] [[da:Felteffekttransistor]] [[de:Feldeffekttransistor]] [[es:Transistor de efecto campo]] [[id:Transistor efek medan]] [[lt:Lauko tranzistorius]] [[nl:Veldeffecttransistor]] [[ja:電界効果トランジスタ]] [[pt:FET]] [[ru:Полевой транзистор]] [[sl:Tranzistor na poljski pojav]] [[sv:Fälteffekttransistor]] [[zh:场效应管]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Felix Wankel</title> <id>11358</id> <revision> <id>41855799</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:19:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.77.124.62</ip> </contributor> <comment>add link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Dr. '''Felix Heinrich Wankel''' ([[August 13]], [[1902]]&ndash;[[October 9]], [[1988]]) was the [[Germany\|German]] inventor of the [[Wankel engine]]. Wankel was born in [[Lahr]], Germany, in the upper Rhine Valley. Since his mother was widowed in [[World War I]], Wankel received no [[university]] education or even an [[apprenticeship]]. However he was able to teach himself technical subjects and conceived the idea of the [[Wankel engine]] in [[1924]]. In the 1930s, he had a disagreement with [[Adolf Hitler]], and was imprisoned by the [[National Socialist German Workers Party\|Nazis]] for some months. During [[World War II]], he developed seals and rotary valves for German air force aircraft and navy torpedoes. After the war, he was imprisoned by the [[Allies]] for some months, his laboratory was closed, his work confiscated, and he was prohibited from doing more work. In [[1951]], he began development of the engine at [[NSU Motorenwerke AG\|NSU]], leading to the first running prototype in [[1957]]. His [[Wankel engine]] design was licensed and further developed and improved in 1959 and 1960 by Curtiss Wright in New Jersey before [[Mazda]] used these improvements in Japan. The engine has been successfully used by Mazda in several generations of their RX-series of [[Coupe\|coupés]]. In later years, Wankel was granted an honorary Doctorate of Engineering (Dr.-Ing.). He was known for his championing of [[animal rights]] and opposition to the use of animals in testing. Felix Wankel died in [[Heidelberg]], having never been issued a [[driver's license]]. ==Honors and awards== Honorary doctorate degree from [[Technische Universität München]], [[December 5]], [[1969]]. The Federation of German Engineers Gold Medal, [[1969]]. The Grand Federal Service Cross, Germany's highest civilian honor, [[1970]] The Franklin Medal, [[Philadelphia]], [[1971]]. The Bavarian Service Medal, [[1973]]. The "Honour Citizen" of [[Lahr]],[[1981]], and the title of Professor in [[1987]]. Honorary citizenship of [[Lindau]] (declined) ==See also== [[NSU Ro 80]] [[Citroën GS]] [[Mazda RX-7]] [[Mazda RX-8]] ==External links== {{US patent\|2988008}} [http://www.monito.com/wankel/dr-wankel.html A page about Dr. Wankel] [http://science.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=rotary-engine.htm&url=http://www.monito.com/wankel/dr-wankel.html Brief Biography of Dr. Ing. Felix Heinrich Wankel (1902-1988)] {{inventor-stub}} [[Category:1902 births\|Wankel, Felix]] [[Category:1988 deaths\|Wankel, Felix]] [[Category:German inventors\|Wankel, Felix]] [[af:Felix Wankel]] [[de:Felix Wankel]] [[es:Felix Wankel]] [[fr:Felix Wankel]] [[it:Felix Wankel]] [[nl:Felix Wankel]] [[ja:フェリクス・ヴァンケル]] [[no:Felix Wankel]] [[pt:Felix Wankel]] [[fi:Felix Wankel]] [[sv:Felix Wankel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>February 4</title> <id>11359</id> <revision> <id>42164148</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:13:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.138.229.246</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Events /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{\| style="float:right;" \|- \|{{FebruaryCalendar}} \|- \|{{ThisDateInRecentYears\|Month=February\|Day=4}} \|} '''February 4''' is the 35th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 330 days remaining (331 in [[leap year]]s). ==Events== [[211]] - [[Roman Emperor]] [[Septimius Severus]] dies, leaving the [[Roman Empire]] in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons, [[Caracalla]] and [[Publius Septimius Geta\|Geta]]. [[1454]] - In the [[Thirteen Years' War]], the [[Secret Council]] of the [[Prussian Confederacy]] sends a formal act of disobedience to the [[Grand Master]]. [[1703]] - In [[Edo]] (now [[Tokyo]]), 46 of the [[Forty-Seven Ronin]] commit [[seppuku]] (ritual suicide) as recompense for avenging their master's death. [[1783]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: The [[United Kingdom]] formally declares that it will cease hostilities with the [[United States\|United States of America]]. [[1789]] - [[George Washington]] is unanimously elected to be the first [[President of the United States]] by the [[U.S. Electoral College]]. [[1792]] - [[George Washington]] is unanimously elected to a second term as [[President of the United States]] by the [[U.S. Electoral College]]. [[1794]] - The [[France\|French]] legislature abolishes [[slavery]] throughout all territories of the [[French Republic]]. [[1801]] - [[John Marshall]] is sworn in as [[Chief Justice of the United States]]. [[1810]] - [[British Navy]] seizes [[Guadeloupe]]. [[1859]] - [[Codex Sinaiticus]] discovered in [[Egypt]]. [[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: In [[Montgomery, Alabama]] the [[Confederate States of America]] is formed by delegates from six break-away [[U.S. state\|United States]]. [[1862]] - [[Bacardi]], one of the world's largest [[Distilled beverage\|spirits]] company, is founded as a small [[Distillation\|distillery]] in [[Santiago de Cuba]] in eastern [[Cuba]]. [[1899]] - The [[Philippine-American War]] begins. [[1915]] - [[Germany]] establishes a [[submarine]] blockade around the [[United Kingdom\|UK]] and declares any vessel in it a legitimate target. [[1927]] - [[The Jazz Singer]] starring [[Al Jolson]] is released. [[1932]] - [[World War II]]: [[Japan]] occupies [[Harbin, China]]. 1932 - [[1932 Winter Olympics]] open in [[Lake Placid, New York]]. [[1936]] - [[Radium]] E. becomes the first [[radioactive]] element to be made synthetically. [[1938]] - [[Thornton Wilder]]'s play ''[[Our Town]]'' opens ([[New York City]]). 1938 - [[The Walt Disney Company\|Disney]]'s ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)\|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'' was released, and it went on to become a major [[List of highest-grossing films\|box-office success]], making more money than any other [[motion picture]] in [[1938]]. [[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[United Service Organization]] (USO) is created to entertain [[United States\|American]] troops. [[1943]] - [[Battle of Stalingrad]] ends. [[1945]] - World War II: [[President of the United States\|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Soviet Union\|Soviet]] leader [[Joseph Stalin]] begin the [[Yalta Conference]]. [[1948]] - [[Ceylon]] (later renamed [[Sri Lanka]]) becomes independent within the [[Commonwealth of Nations\|British Commonwealth]]. [[1957]] - [[USS Nautilus (SSN-571)\|USS ''Nautilus'']], the first [[Nuclear marine propulsion\|nuclear-powered]] [[submarine]], logs her 60,000th [[nautical mile]], matching the endurance of the fictional [[Nautilus (Verne)\|''Nautilus'']] described in [[Jules Verne]]'s novel ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea\|"20,000 Leagues Under the Sea"]]''. [[1960]] - [[Lorraine, Quebec]] is founded. [[1962]] - [[Ian Fleming]]'s ''[[The Living Daylights]]'' first published. [[1966]] - [[All Nippon Airways]] [[Boeing 727]] jet plunges into [[Tokyo Bay]], killing 133. [[1968]] - [[Bowie Kuhn]] becomes the fifth commissioner of [[Major League Baseball]], replacing [[William Eckert]]. [[1969]] - [[Yasser Arafat]] takes over as chairman of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]]. [[1974]] - The [[Symbionese Liberation Army]] kidnaps [[Patty Hearst]] in [[Berkeley, California]]. [[1976]] - In [[Guatemala]] and [[Honduras]] an [[earthquake]] kills more than 22,000. [[1976]] - [[1976 Winter Olympics]] open in [[Innsbruck]], [[Austria]]. [[1977]] - [[Fleetwood Mac]] releases one of the biggest-selling albums of all time, ''[[Rumours]]''. [[1980]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] names [[Abolhassan Banisadr]] as president of [[Iran]]. [[1984]] - The [[Youth of the Left Socialists]] (VSU) founded in [[Denmark]]. [[1991]] - The [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] votes to ban [[Pete Rose]]. [[1996]] - Major [[snowstorm]] paralyzes [[Midwest]]ern [[United States]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] ties all-time record low temperature at -26°F. (-32°C) [[1997]] - [[O. J. Simpson]] is found to be civilly liable for the deaths of [[Nicole Brown Simpson]] and [[Ronald Goldman]]. 1997 - En route to [[Lebanon]], two [[Israel]]i [[CH-53 Sea Stallion\|Sikorsky CH-53]] troop-transport [[helicopter]]s collide in mid-air over [[northern Galilee]], [[Israel]] killing 73. 1997 - After at first contesting the results, [[Serbia]]n President [[Slobodan Milošević]] recognizes opposition victories in the [[November]] [[1996]] elections. [[1998]] - An [[earthquake]] measuring 6.1 on the [[Richter Scale]] in northeast [[Afghanistan]] kills more than 5,000. [[1999]] - [[Hugo Chávez Frías]], [[Venezuelan]] military and politician, is elected [
'P'')&equiv;1 to it. Nearly every problem can be cast as a decision problem by using [[reduction (complexity)\|reduction]]s, often with little effect on the amount of time or space needed to solve the problem. Many traditional hard problems have been cast as decision problems because this makes them easier to study and to solve, and proving that these problems are hard suffices to show that more complex problems are hard as well. ==Examples== Important undecidable decision problems include the [[halting problem]]; for more, see [[list of undecidable problems]]. In [[complexity theory (computation)\|computational complexity]], decision problems which are [[complete problem\|complete]] are used to characterize complexity classes of decision problems. Important examples include the [[boolean satisfiability problem]] and several of its variants, along with the [[undirected reachability problem\|undirected]] and [[directed reachability problem]]. == History == The ''Entscheidungsproblem'', German for "Decision-problem", is attributed to [[David Hilbert]]: "At [the] 1928 conference Hilbert made his questions quite precise. First, was mathematics ''complete''... Second, was mathematics ''consistent''... And thirdly, was mathematics ''decidable''? By this he meant, did there exist a definite method which could, in principle be applied to any assertion, and which was guaranteed to produce a correct decision as to whether that assertion was true" (Hodges, p. 91). Hilbert believed that "in mathematics there is no [[ignorabimus]]' (Hodges, p. 91ff) meaning 'we do not know and will not know'. See [[David Hilbert]] and [[Halting Problem]] for more. == References == * [[Andrew Hodges]], ''Alan Turing: The Engima'', Simon and Schuster, New York. Cf Chapter "The Spirit of Truth" for some more history that led to Turing's work. A wonderful biography. ::Hodges references a biography of [[David Hilbert]]: [[Constance Reid]], ''Hilbert'' (George Allen & Unwin; Springer-Verlag, 1970). There are apparently more recent editions. [[Category:Logic]] [[Category:Theory of computation]] [[Category:Problems]] [[de:Entscheidungsproblem]] [[es:Problema de decisión]] [[fr:Problème de la décision]] [[he:בעיית הכרעה]] [[ja:決定問題]] [[pl:Problem decyzyjny (teoria obliczeń)]] [[pt:Entscheidungsproblem]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dunwich</title> <id>8337</id> <revision> <id>38867007</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T03:49:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RlyehRising</username> <id>472450</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>dab lnk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4\|the village of Dunwich in England\|H. P. Lovecraft's fictional location\|Dunwich (Lovecraft)}} '''Dunwich''' (pronounced ''Dun-Itch'') is a town in the county of [[Suffolk]] in [[England]], the remnant of what was once a prosperous seaport and centre of the wool trade during the early [[middle ages]], with a natural harbour formed by the mouths of the [[River Blyth, Suffolk\|River Blyth]] and the [[River Dunwich]]. Dunwich was one of the largest ports in eastern England, with a population of around 3,000, eight churches, five houses of religious orders, three chapels and two hospitals. The main exports were wool and grain, and the main imports were fish, furs and timber from [[Iceland]] and the [[Baltic region]], cloth from the [[Netherlands]], and wine from [[France]]. Over time, the rivers silted up, and Dunwich was lost to the sea over a period of two to three hundred years through a form of [[coastal erosion]] known as [[long-shore drift]]. Buildings on the present day cliffs were once a mile inland and the village no longer has a significant natural harbor. Most of the original buildings have disappeared, including all eight churches (a new church, All Saints, was built in the [[19th century]]) and Dunwich is now a small coastal "village", though retaining its status as a town. However, the remains of a Franciscan priory and a building constructed as a hospice for [[leper]]s can still be seen. A local legend says that at certain tides, church bells can still be heard from beneath the waves. As a legacy of its previous significance it retained the right to send two Members to Parliament until [[1832]], making it an example of a [[rotten borough]]. The village now lies between the [[birdwatching]] areas of [[Dunwich Heath]] (to the north, towards [[Walberswick]] and [[Southwold]]) and [[RSPB Minsmere\|Minsmere]] (to the south, towards [[Sizewell]]). Dunwich is the destination of the annual semi-organized [[bicycle]] ride, the [[Dunwich Dynamo]], which leaves [[Hackney]] in [[London]] on the Saturday night closest to the full moon in July and arrives in Dunwich on the Sunday morning. ==See also== [[Lost cities]] {{oscoor gbx\|TM475705}} ==External links== [http://www.suffolkchurches.co.uk/dunwichas.html All Saints, Dunwich] [[Category:Villages in Suffolk]] [[Category:Ghost towns]] [[Category:Sunken cities]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diatoms</title> <id>8338</id> <revision> <id>15906343</id> <timestamp>2002-03-28T12:26:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username> <id>43</id> </contributor> <comment>Moving to singular noun title--see naming conventions</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diatom]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Domain Name System</title> <id>8339</id> <revision> <id>42096171</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:24:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tobias Conradi</username> <id>10784</id> </contributor> <comment>lower case</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{template:IPstack}} <!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --> {{mergefrom\|Domain name}} The '''Domain Name System or Domain Name Server''' ('''DNS''') is a system that stores information associated with '''[[domain name]]s''' in a [[Distributed Database]] on networks, such as the [[Internet]]. The domain name system (Domain Name Server) associates many types of information with domain names, but most importantly, it provides the [[IP address ]] associated with the domain name. It also lists [[mail exchange server]]s accepting [[e-mail]] for each domain. In providing a worldwide keyword-based redirection service, DNS is an essential component of contemporary Internet use. DNS is useful for several reasons. Most well known, the DNS makes it possible to attach hard-to-remember IP addresses (such as 207.142.131.206) to easy-to-remember domain names (such as "wikipedia.org") Humans take advantage of this when they recite [[Uniform Resource Locator\|URL]]s and [[e-mail address]]es. Less recognized, the domain name system makes it possible for people to assign authoritative names, without needing to communicate with a central registrar each time. ==A brief history of the DNS== The practice of using a name as a more human-legible abstraction of a machine's numerical address on the network predates even [[TCP/IP]], all the way back to the [[ARPAnet]] era. Originally, each computer on the network retrieved a file called '''HOSTS.TXT''' from SRI (now [[SRI International]]) which mapped an address (eg. 192.0.34.166) to a name (eg. www.example.net.) The [[Hosts file]] still exists on most modern operating systems either by default or through configuration and allows users to specify an [[IP Address]] to use for a [[hostname]] without checking the DNS. This file is now used primarily for troubleshooting DNS errors or mapping local addresses to more organic names (the Hosts file can also be used for [[HOSTS_file#Ad_filtering\|ad blocking]], or it can be used by [[spyware]] to hijack a computer). Such a system had inherent limitations, because of the obvious requirement that every time a given computer's address changed, every computer that wanted to communicate with it would need an update to its Hosts file. The growth of networking called for a more scalable system: one which recorded a change in a host's address in one place only. Other hosts would learn about the change dynamically through a notification system, thus completing a globally accessible network of all hosts' names and their associated IP Addresses. Enter the DNS. [[Paul Mockapetris]] invented the DNS in [[1983]]; the original specifications appear in [[Request for Comments\|RFC]] 882 and 883. In [[1987]], the publication of RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 updated the DNS specification and made RFC 882 and RFC 883 obsolete. Several more recent RFCs have proposed various extensions to the core DNS protocols. ==How the DNS works in theory== [[Image:Domain name space.svg\|right\|thumb\|400px\|Domain names are arranged in a tree, and cut into zones, which are served by nameservers.]] The domain name space is a [[tree data structure\|tree]] of domain names. Each node or leaf in the tree is associated with '''resource records''', which hold the information associated with the domain name. The tree is divided into '''zones'''. A zone is a collection of connected nodes that are authoritatively served by an '''authoritative DNS nameserver'''. (Note that a single nameserver can host several zones.) When a system administrator wants to let another administrator control a part of the domain name space within his or her zone of authority, he or she can '''delegate''' control to the other administrator. This splits a part of the old zone off into a new zone, which is served by the second administrator's nameservers. The old zone is no longer authoritative for what is under the authority of the new zone. The information associated with nodes is looked up by a '''resolver'''. A resolver knows how to communicate with name servers by sending DNS requests, and heeding DNS responses. R
New York, New York\|New York]] ([[2000]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/installations/corning/Art/CdCC_Img0042B.html Fern Green Tower]'', [[Corning Museum of Glass]], [[Rockefeller Center]], [[New York, New York\|New York]] * [[Washington]] ([[1988]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/CdCC_Img0077B.html] [[Frank Russell Company]], [[Tacoma, Washington\|Tacoma]] ([[1991]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/citycentre.html] [[City Centre Mall]], [[Seattle, Washington\|Seattle]] ([[1992]]-[[1993]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/wa_state.html] [[Washington State Trade and Convention Center]], [[Seattle, Washington\|Seattle]] ([[1994]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/unionstation/] [[Union Station Federal Courthouse]], [[Tacoma, Washington\|Tacoma]] ([[1995]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/gonzagaB.html] Jundt Art Museum ([[Gonzaga University]]), [[Spokane, Washington\|Spokane]] ([[1995]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/sleepinglady.html] [[Pacific Lutheran University]], [[Tacoma, Washington\|Tacoma]] ([[1995]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/microblueB.html] [[Microsoft Corporation]], [[Redmond, Washington\|Redmond]] ([[1996]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/sleepinglady.html] Sleeping Lady Conferance Retreat, [[Leavenworth, Washington\|Leavenworth]] ([[1997]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/tnt/Art/p1_Img0094B.html] [[Tacoma News Tribune]], [[Tacoma, Washington\|Tacoma]] ([[1998]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/benaroya01.html] [[Benaroya Hall]], [[Seattle, Washington\|Seattle]] ([[2002]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/collections/public.html Chihuly Bridge of Glass]'', [[Museum of Glass]], [[Tacoma, Washington\|Tacoma]] ([[2003]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/tam/perm.html] [[Tacoma Art Museum]], [[Tacoma, Washington\|Tacoma]] [[Wisconsin]] *([[1998]]) [http://www.uwbadgers.com/facilities/kohl_center/index.aspx Mendota Wall] [[Kohl Center]], [[University of Wisconsin, Madison]] [[England]] ([[2001]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/vanda.html] [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], [[London]] ==Exhibitions== ([[1996]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/cov/ Chihuly Over Venice]'', [[Venice]], [[Italy]] ([[1999]]-[[2000]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/jerusalem/jerusalem.html Chihuly in the Light of Jerusalem 2000]'', [[Tower of David]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Israel]] ([[2001]]-[[2002]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/installations/garfield/ Chihuly In The Park: A Garden Of Glass]'', [[Garfield Park Conservatory]], [[Chicago, Illinois\|Chicago]], [[Illinois]] ([[2004]]) ''[http://www.atlantabotanicalgarden.org/chihuly/chihuly_index.htm Chihuly in the Garden]'', [[Atlanta Botanical Garden]], [[Atlanta, Georgia]] ([[2005]]) ''[http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/chihuly/exhibition/ Gardens of Glass]'', [[Kew Gardens]], [[London]]. ([[2005]]) ''[http://www.kiarts.org/chihuly.htm Chihuly in Kalamazoo]'', [[Kalmazoo Institute of Arts]]'', [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]] ([[2005]]-[[2006]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/installations/fairchild/ Chihuly at Fairchild]'', [[ Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden]], [[Coral Gables, Florida]] ==External links== {{commons\|Dale Chihuly}} [http://www.chihuly.com Chihuly's official website] * [http://www.thestranger.com/seattle/Content?oid=30734 Article about Dale Chihuly's business] * [http://www.cindycenter.com Visit cIndycenter.com to listen to the podcast interview with Dale Chihuly] * [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/niijima/statement.html Niijima Floats Series] [[Category:1941 births\|Chihuly, Dale]] [[Category:Living people\|Chihuly, Dale]] [[Category:American sculptors\|Chihuly, Dale]] [[Category:Glass artists\|Chihuly, Dale]] [[Category:Pacific Northwest artists\|Chihuly, Dale]] [[Category:Seattleites\|Chihuly, Dale]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dean Kamen</title> <id>9133</id> <revision> <id>40056793</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:43:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Haakon</username> <id>7745</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External link / link->links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dean_kamen.jpg\|thumb\|Dean Kamen on one of his inventions, the [[Segway Human Transporter]].]] [[Image:NorthDumplingIsland.jpg\|thumb\|Dean Kamen's home on North Dumpling Island.]] [[Image:clinton-kamen.jpg\|thumb\|[[President Clinton]] and Kamen in the [[White House]], Kamen riding his innovative [[invention]], the [[iBOT\|iBOT Mobility System]].]] '''Dean L. Kamen''' (born [[April 5th]], [[1951]]) is an [[United States\|American]] [[entrepreneur]] and [[inventor]]. He attended [[Worcester Polytechnic Institute]], but dropped out before graduating. ==Career== <!-- The remainder of this article needs thorough fact-checking - it coincides with what I remember reading but I haven't gone and checked it properly. --> Kamen is probably most well-known to the public from the publicity surrounding the product that eventually became known as the [[Segway HT]]&mdash;a kind of electric [[scooter]] with a complex, computer-controlled [[gyroscope\|gyroscopic]] stabilization and control system that keeps the device balanced on two horizontally-placed wheels and controlled by moving body weight. The machine's secret development was the object of much speculation after segments of a book quoting [[Steve Jobs]] and other notable IT visionaries espousing its society-revolutionising potential were leaked in 1999. Kamen founded [[DEKA\|DEKA Research & Development Corporation]] in 1982. With the success of his inventions, DEKA now employs about 200 engineers, technicians and machinists who work in the firm's electronics and software engineering labs, machine shop, and on CAD stations. According to the company's [[website]], DEKA's mission is "to foster innovation." Kamen has also worked extensively on a project involving [[Stirling engine]] designs, attempting to create a machine that would generate power while serving as a [[water purification]] system. He hopes the project will help improve living standards in developing countries. [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.09/kamen_pr.html] In 1989, Kamen founded the robotics organization, [[FIRST]] (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology), for high-school students. In 2005 it held over thirty regional competitions and one national. Kamen remains the driving force behind the organization providing over 1000 high schools with the tools needed to learn valuable engineering skills. However, Kamen was already a successful and wealthy inventor, after inventing a new type of mobile [[dialysis]] system for medical applications, as well as an all-terrain electric wheelchair known as the [[iBOT\|IBOT]] using many of the same gyroscopic balancing technologies that later made their way into the [[Segway]]. An article states that Kamen holds that "walking is a remnant of the Dark Ages, an unpleasant time-waster that technology need eradicate" [http://archive.salon.com/tech/feature/2001/12/07/segway/]; this point is often noted by critics of the Segway, who feel that walking is a natural human exercise that should be encouraged, not made obsolete, to offset declining health figures. During his impressive career Kamen has won numerous awards. In April 2002, Kamen was awarded the [[Lemelson-MIT Prize]] for inventors for his invention of the Segway and of an infusion pump for [[diabetes mellitus\|diabetics]]. He was elected to the [[National Academy of Engineering]] in 1997 for his biomedical devices and for making engineering more popular among high school students. In 2000, he was awarded the [[National Medal of Technology]] by [[President of the United States\|US President]] [[Bill Clinton]]. Kamen owns the small [[North Dumpling Island]] off the coast of [[Connecticut]], and has "declared" the island to be an independent state. His father is [[Jack Kamen]], the well-known illustrator of ''[[Weird Science (comic)\|Weird Science]]'' and other [[EC Comics]]. ==External links== [http://www.dekaresearch.com/ DEKA website] * [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.09/kamen.html?pg=1&topic=&topic_set= Bio of Dean Kamen] &ndash; from ''[[Wired Magazine]]'' * [http://www.radiophiles.org Listen to the Dean Kamen interview on Radiophiles.org] * [http://www.usfirst.org/about/bio_dean.htm FIRST biography] [[Category:1951 births\|Kamen, Dean]] [[Category:Living people\|Kamen, Dean]] [[Category:American entrepreneurs\|Kamen, Dean]] [[Category:American inventors\|Kamen, Dean]] [[Category:Autodidacts\|Kamen, Dean]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Derivative (finance)</title> <id>9135</id> <revision> <id>42040029</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:18:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>196.25.255.195</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Articles */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''derivative''' is a [[finance\|financial]] [[contract]] whose payoffs over time are ''derived'' from the performance of [[asset]]s (such as commodities, shares or bonds), [[interest rate]]s, [[exchange rate]]s, or indices (such as a [[stock market index]], [[consumer price index]] (CPI) or an index of weather conditions). This performance can determine both the amount and the timing of the payoffs, and these payoffs can be in cash, as well as be the delivery of the [[underlying]] asset. This flexibility in underlying and payoff leads to a huge range of different derivatives contracts that are traded in the market. The main types of derivatives are [[futures]], [[forwards]], [[option]]s and [[swaps]]. [[Image:Chicago_bot.jpg\|none\|400px\|right\|thumb\|Derivatives traders at the Chicago Board of Trade.]] ==Types of derivatives== ===OTC and exchange-traded=== Broadly speaking there are two distinct groups of derivative contracts, whi
II<br> Modula<br> Modula-2<br> Modula-2<br> Modula-2+<br> Modula-3<br> Modula-3<br> Modula-3pi<br> Modula-P<br> Modula-Prolog<br> Modula/R<br> Modular C<br> MODUlar LAnguage<br> Modular Prolog<br> Modular SB-Prolog<br> module<br> Modulex<br> modulo<br> modulo arithmetic<br> modulo operator<br> molly-guard<br> monad<br> monadic<br> Mongolian Hordes technique<br> moniter<br> monitor<br> monkey, scratch<br> monkey up<br> monochrome<br> monoid<br> monotonic<br> MONSTR<br> Montage<br> Monte Carlo<br> monty<br> MOO<br> Moof<br> Moore bound<br> Moore graph<br> Moore's Law<br> moose call<br> MooZ<br> Mops<br> MORAL<br> moria<br> morphing<br> Morse code<br> MORTRAN<br> [[MOS Technology\|MOS]] '''DONE''' (MOS Technology)<br> Mosaic<br> Mosaic Communications Corporation<br> Moscow ML<br> MOSFET<br> Mosiac<br> MOS Technologies<br> most general unifier<br> [[most significant bit]]<br> motd<br> mother<br> motherboard<br> [[Motif (widget toolkit)\|Motif]] '''DONE'''<br> Motion JPEG<br> Motion Picture Experts Group<br> Motorola<br> Motorola 14500B<br> Motorola 6800<br> Motorola 68000<br> Motorola 6801<br> Motorola 68010<br> Motorola 68020<br> Motorola 68030<br> Motorola 68040<br> Motorola 68050<br> Motorola 68060<br> Motorola 6809<br> Motorola 680x0<br> Motorola 68HC11<br> Motorola 68LC040<br> Motorola 88000<br> Motorola, Inc.<br> mount<br> Mouse<br> mouse<br> mouse ahead<br> mouse around<br> mouse arrest<br> mouse belt<br> mouse droppings<br> mouse elbow<br> mouse mat<br> mouse pad<br> mouse trails<br> mouso<br> Moving JPEG<br> Moving Picture Expert Group<br> Moving Picture Experts Group<br> Moving Pictures Experts Group<br> Moxie<br> Mozilla<br> Mozilla Public License<br> mp<br> MP1<br> MP-1<br> MP2<br> MP3<br> MPC<br> MPC Level 1 Specification<br> MPC Level 2 Specification<br> MPEG<br> MPEG-1<br> MPEG-1 audio layer 3<br> MPEG-1 layer 3<br> MPEG-2<br> MPEG-3<br> MPEG-4<br> MPG<br> mpg<br> [[MPI]]<br> MPL<br> MPL II<br> MPLS<br> MPLS domain<br> MP/M<br> MPP<br> MPPE<br> MPPL<br> MPR II<br> M-Prolog<br> MPS III<br> MPSX<br> MPV<br> MPX<br> mq<br> MQG<br> mr<br> MRDS<br> MRI<br> MROC<br> MROM<br> MRP<br> MRP II<br> MRS<br> ms<br> MS Access<br> MSAU<br> [[most significant bit\|MSB]]<br> MS-BASIC<br> MS-DOG<br> MS-DOS<br> MSG.84<br> msgGUI<br> MSIE<br> MSM<br> MS Mail<br> MSN<br> MSS<br> MS-Windows<br> MswLogo<br> MS Word<br> MSX<br> MSX-DOS<br> mt<br> MTA<br> MTBF<br> mtc<br> M Technology Association<br> MTOS<br> MTS<br> [[Mean Time To Recovery\|MTTR]]<br> MTU<br> Mu<br> mu<br> MUA<br> MUCAL<br> MUD<br> muddie<br> Muddle<br> mudhead<br> MUD Object Oriented<br> muFP<br> mu-law<br> Mule<br> Mul-T<br> Multi-BinProlog<br> multiC<br> MultiCal System<br> multicast addressing<br> multicast backbone<br> Multi-channel Memorandum Distribution Facility<br> multician<br> Multics<br> Multics Relational Data Store<br> Multiflow Computer<br> Multi-Garnet<br> multihomed host<br> multilayer perceptron<br> MultiLisp '''Done'''<br> multimedia<br> Multimedia and Hypermedia information coding Expert Group<br> MultiMedia Compact Disc<br> MultiMedia Extension<br> Multimedia Integrated Conferencing for European Researchers<br> Multimedia Internet Mail Extensions<br> Multimedia Personal Computer<br> multi-part key<br> Multi-Pascal<br> multiple access<br> Multiple Document Interface<br> multiple inheritance<br> Multiple Instruction Multiple Data<br> Multiple Instruction/Multiple Data<br> Multiple Master<br> multiple perspective software development<br> multiple value<br> Multiple Virtual Storage<br> multiplexer<br> multiplexing<br> multiplexor<br> Multiplexor Channel<br> multiplex printer<br> Multipop-68<br> multiprocessing<br> multiprocessor<br> multiprogramming<br> Multiprotocol Label Switching<br> Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions<br> multiscan<br> MultiScheme<br> Multistation Access Unit<br> multisync<br> Multisystem eXtension Interface Bus<br> multitasking<br> Multi-tasking Program for Microcomputers<br> multithreaded<br> multithreading<br> MultiTOS<br> Multi-User Dimension<br> Multi-User Dungeon<br> Multi-User Shared Hallucination<br> Multi-Version Concurrency Control<br> multi-way branch<br> MuMath<br> mumblage<br> mumble<br> mumble mode<br> MUMPS<br> munch<br> munching<br> munching squares<br> munchkin<br> mundane<br> mung<br> munge<br> MUP<br> MU-Prolog<br> Murphy's Law<br> Muse<br> museum<br> MUSH<br> Music<br> Musical Instrument Digital Interface<br> MuSimp<br> MUSL<br> mutant<br> Mutation Testing<br> MuTeX<br> mutex<br> mutter<br> mutual exclusion<br> mutually recursive<br> mutual recursion<br> mux<br> mv<br> MVC<br> MVCC<br> MVS<br> MVS/ESA<br> MVS/OE<br> MVS/Open Edition<br> MVS/SP<br> MVS/XA<br> mw<br> MX<br> mx<br> MXI<br> MXIbus<br> MX Record<br> my<br> My Favourite Toy Language<br> MYOB<br> MYSTIC<br> mz<br> N<br> N10<br> na<br> nadger<br> NAG<br> Nagling Coalescence<br> nagware<br> nailed to the wall<br> nailing jelly<br> naive<br> naive user<br> NAK<br> name capture<br> named<br> named pipe<br> name resolution<br> name service switching<br> namespace<br> NaN<br> NAND<br> nano-<br> nanoacre<br> nanobot<br> nanocomputer<br> nanofortnight<br> nanosecond<br> nanotechnology<br> Napier<br> [[NAPLPS]] '''DONE'''<br> NAPSS<br> narrowing<br> NAS<br> nasal demons<br> NASI<br> nastistical<br> NASTRAN<br> nastygram<br> NAT<br> Nathan Hale<br> National Bureau of Standards<br> National Center for Supercomputing Applications<br> national characters<br> National Database Language<br> National Information Infrastructure<br> National Information Services and Systems<br> National Institute of Standards and Technology<br> National Research and Education Network<br> National Science Foundation<br> National Science Foundation Network<br> National Software Reuse Directory<br> National Spatial Data Infrastructure<br> National Television Standards Committee<br> native compiler<br> Native Language System<br> NATURAL<br> natural deduction<br> Natural English<br> natural language<br> Natural Language Information Analysis Method<br> natural language processing<br> natural number<br> nature<br> NAU<br> navigating<br> Navigator<br> Nawk<br> NB<br> NBFCP<br> NBS<br> NBT<br> NC<br> nc<br> NCD<br> NCP<br> NCR Corporation<br> NCS<br> NCSA<br> ND<br> NDIS<br> NDL<br> NDS<br> ne<br> neat hack<br> neats vs. scruffies<br> Nebula<br> NEC<br> neep-neep<br> negation by failure<br> negative acknowledge<br> NELIAC<br> Neon<br> neophilia<br> Neptune<br> Nerd pride<br> NERECO<br> NESL<br> net<br> net.-<br> netaddress<br> NetBEUI<br> NetBIOS<br> NetBIOS Frames Control Protocol<br> NetBios over TCP/IP<br> NetBOLLIX<br> netbui<br> netburp<br> netCDF '''DONE'''<br/> Netcom On-line Communication Services, Inc.<br> netdead<br> Netfind<br> net.god<br> NetHack<br> netiquette -- '''DONE'''<br> NETL<br> netlag<br> netload<br> Netmarq Limited<br> netmask<br> NetNanny<br> netnews<br> net.personality<br> netpipes<br> net.police<br> netquette<br> Netrek<br> netrock<br> Netscape<br> Netscape Communications Corporation<br> Netscape Navigator<br> Netscape Public License<br> netsplit<br> netstat<br> netter<br> NetWare<br> NetWare Core Protocol<br> Netware Directory Services<br> Netware Input/Output Subsystem<br> NetWare Link State Protocol<br> network<br> network address<br> Network Addressable Unit<br> Network Address Translation<br> Network Address Translator<br> network byte order<br> network card<br> network closet<
="top"\|Outstanding problems \|align="left" valign="top"\|[[Origin of life]] - [[Unsolved problems in biology]] \|-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"\|Other \|align="left" valign="top"\|[[List of technologies]] - [[List of conservation topics]] \|} ==External links== {{wikibooks}} {{wikibookspar\|Wikiversity\|School of Biology}} [http://www.biologynews.net/ ''Biology News Net'']: Daily updated biology news & community website. [http://www.bionews.in/ ''BioNews :Latest Biology News '']: Research News and Articles from Biological Science and related fields. [http://www.rom.on.ca/biodiversity/biocode/biocode1997.html ''BioCode'']: A proposal for organism naming. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books NCBI Open-Access Books] [[PhyloCode]], [http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index.html] [http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html ''The Tree of Life'']: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity. [http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=index-html BioOne] Bioscience research journals. [http://www.everythingbio.com EverythingBio] Protocols, graduate school information, hard to find definitions. '''Journal Links''' [http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=index-html&issn=1545-7885 PLos Biology] A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the Public Library of Science [http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/index.html Perspectives in Biology and Medicine] ==Further reading== * [[Lynn Margulis]], ''Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth,'' 3rd ed., St. Martin's Press, [[1997]], paperback, ISBN 0805072527 (many other editions) * [[Neil Campbell]], ''Biology (7th edition)'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, [[2004]], hardcover, ISBN 080537146X {{Natural sciences-footer}} [[Category:Biology\|]] {{Link FA\|es}} {{Link FA\|ja}} {{Link FA\|vi}} [[dv:Biology]] [[af:Biologie]] [[als:Biologie]] [[ar:علم الأحياء]] [[an:Biolochía]] [[ast:Bioloxía]] [[bg:Биология]] [[be:Біялёгія]] [[bn:জীববিদ্যা]] [[bs:Biologija]] [[br:Bevoniezh]] [[ca:Biologia]] [[cv:Биологи]] [[co:Biulugia]] [[cs:Biologie]] [[cy:Bioleg]] [[da:Biologi]] [[de:Biologie]] [[et:Bioloogia]] [[el:Βιολογία]] [[es:Biología]] [[eo:Biologio]] [[eu:Biologia]] [[fa:زیست‌شناسی]] [[fo:Lívfrøði]] [[fr:Biologie]] [[fy:Biology]] [[ga:Bitheolaíocht]] [[gd:Bith-Eòlas]] [[gl:Bioloxía]] [[ko:생물학]] [[hi:जीव शास्त्र]] [[hr:Biologija]] [[io:Biologio]] [[id:Biologi]] [[ia:Biologia]] [[ie:Biologie]] [[iu:ᐆᒪᔅᓱᓯᖃᕐᑐᓕᕆᓂᖅ]] [[is:Líffræði]] [[it:Biologia]] [[he:ביולוגיה]] [[jv:Biologi]] [[kn:ಜೀವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ]] [[ka:ბიოლოგია]] [[csb:Biologijô]] [[kw:Bywonieth]] [[km:ជីវវិទ្យា]] [[ky:Биология]] [[lad:Biolojiya]] [[la:Biologica]] [[lv:Bioloģija]] [[lt:Biologija]] [[lb:Biologie]] [[li:Biologie]] [[jbo:mivyske]] [[hu:Biológia]] [[mk:Биологија]] [[ms:Biologi]] [[mn:Биологи]] [[nah:Yolizmatiliztli]] [[nl:Biologie]] [[ne:जीवशास्त्र]] [[nds:Biologie]] [[ja:生物学]] [[pih:Biiolojie]] [[no:Biologi]] [[oc:Categoria:Biologia]] [[os:Биологи]] [[pl:Biologia]] [[pt:Biologia]] [[ro:Biologie]] [[ru:Биология]] [[sco:Biologie]] [[scn:Bioluggìa]] [[simple:Biology]] [[sk:Biológia]] [[sl:Biologija]] [[sr:Биологија]] [[su:Biologi]] [[fi:Biologia]] [[sv:Biologi]] [[tl:Biyolohiya]] [[ta:உயிரியல்]] [[tt:Biologí]] [[th:ชีววิทยา]] [[vi:Sinh học]] [[tr:Biyoloji]] [[uk:Біологія]] [[ur:حیاتیات]] [[vo:Lifav]] [[war:Biyolohiya]] [[zh:生物学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bundesrepublik Deutschland</title> <id>3342</id> <revision> <id>15901684</id> <timestamp>2002-10-24T19:50:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brion VIBBER</username> <id>51</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Restoring</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Germany]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belgium</title> <id>3343</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42042773</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:56:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.175.222.238</ip> </contributor> <comment>/ Geography */ rm pics; see comments on FAC page; those pics belong elsewhere (geography of Belgium?)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}} {{otheruses}} {{Infobox Country\| native_name = Kingdom of Belgium<br /> Koninkrijk België<br /> Royaume de Belgique<br/> Königreich Belgien \| common_name = Belgium \| image_flag = Flag of Belgium (civil).svg \| image_coat = Belgium coat of arms large.png \| national_motto = [[Dutch language\|Dutch]]: Eendracht maakt macht; <br />[[French language\|French]]: L'union fait la force; <br />[[German language\|German]]: Einigkeit macht stark <br>(English: "Strength lies in unity") \| image_map = LocationBelgium.png \| national_anthem = [[The Brabançonne]] (The Song of Brabant) \| official_languages = [[Dutch language\|Dutch]], [[French language \|French]], [[German language \|German]] \| capital = [[Brussels]] \| latd = 50\|latm=54\|latNS=N\|longd=4\|longm=32\|longEW=E \| government_type = [[Constitutional Monarchy]] \| leader_titles = [[Belgian monarchy\|King]]<br />[[List of Prime Ministers of Belgium\|Prime Minister]] \| leader_names = [[Albert II of Belgium \|Albert II]]<br />[[Guy Verhofstadt]]\| largest_city = [[Brussels]] \| area = 30,528 \| areami² = 11,787 \| <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> area_rank = 148th \| area_magnitude = 1 E10 \| percent_water = 6.4 \| population_estimate = 10,445,852\| population_estimate_year = 2005 \| population_estimate_rank = 79th \| population_census = 10,445,852\| population_census_year = 2005\| population_density = 342 \| population_densitymi² = 886 \| <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> population_density_rank = 17th \| GDP_PPP_year = 2004 \| GDP_PPP = $316.2&nbsp;[[1 E9\|billion]] \| GDP_PPP_rank = 30th \| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $29,707\| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 14th \| HDI_year = 2003 \| HDI = 0.945 \| HDI_rank = 9th \| HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>\| sovereignty_type = Independence \| established_events = [[Belgian Revolution]]\| established_dates = 1830 \| currency = [[Euro]] \| currency_code = EUR \| time_zone = [[Central European Time\|CET]] \| utc_offset = +1 \| time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time\|CEST]] \| utc_offset_DST = +2\| cctld = [[.be]] \| calling_code = 32\| footnotes = }} The '''Kingdom of Belgium''' ([[Dutch language\|Dutch]]: ''Koninkrijk België''; [[French language\|French]]: ''Royaume de Belgique''; [[German language\|German]]: ''Königreich Belgien'') is a country in [[Western Europe\|northwest Europe]] bordered by [[Netherlands\|the Netherlands]], [[Germany]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[France]]. Belgium has a population of over ten million people in an area of thirty thousand square kilometres (11,700&nbsp;[[square mile\|sq.&nbsp;mi]]). Straddling the cultural boundary between [[Germanic language\|Germanic]] and [[Romance language\|Romance]] Europe, it is both linguistically and culturally divided. Two major languages are spoken in Belgium: Dutch—sometimes unofficially called [[Flemish (linguistics)\|Flemish]]—spoken in [[Flanders]] to the north; and French, spoken in [[Walloon Region\|Wallonia]] in the south. The capital, [[Brussels-Capital Region\|Brussels]], is officially bilingual, while the majority of its residents speaks French. An officially recognized minority of [[German language\|German]] speakers is present in the east. This linguistic diversity often leads to political conflict, and is reflected in Belgium's complex [[Communities, regions and provinces of Belgium\|system of government]] and [[history of Belgium\|political history]]. Belgium derives its name from its first named inhabitants, the ''[[Belgae]]'', a group of mostly [[Celt\|Celtic]] tribes, and from the [[Roman province]] in northern [[Gaul]], known as [[Gallia Belgica]]. Historically, Belgium has been a part of the [[Low Countries]], which also include the Netherlands and Luxembourg and were covering a somewhat larger region than the current [[Benelux]] group of states. From the end of the [[Middle Ages]] until the seventeenth century, it was a prosperous center of commerce and culture. From the sixteenth century until independence in 1830, Belgium, called at that time [[Southern Netherlands \|the Southern Netherlands]], was the site of many battles between the European powers, and has been dubbed "the [[Cockpit]] of Europe."{{ref\|Nuttall}} More recently, Belgium was a founding member of the [[European Union]], hosting its headquarters, as well as those of other major international organisations, such as [[NATO]]. ==History== {{main\|History of Belgium}} Over the past two millennia, the area that is now known as Belgium has seen significant demographic, political and cultural upheavals. The first well-documented population move was the conquest of the region by the [[Roman Republic]] in the 1st century [[Anno Domini\|BC]], followed in the 5th century by the [[Germanic people\|Germanic]] [[Frank]]s. The Franks established the [[Merovingian]] kingdom, which became the [[Carolingian Empire]] in the 8th century. During the Middle Ages, the Low Countries were split into many small [[feudal]] states. Most of them were united in the course of the 14th and 15th centuries by the house o
ot;{{ref\|9-Ashby}} '''Grace is resistible''': God takes initiative in the salvation process and His grace comes to all people. This grace (often called ''[[Prevenient Grace \| prevenient]]'' or pre-regenerating grace) acts on all people to convict them of the Gospel, draw them strongly towards salvation, and enable the possibility of sincere faith. Picrilli states "indeed this grace is so close to regeneration that it inevitably leads to regeneration unless finally resisted." {{ref\|10-Picirilli}} The offer of salvation through grace does not act irresistably in a purely cause-effect, deterministic method but rather in an influence-and-response fashion that can be both freely accepted and freely denied.{{ref\|11-Forlines}} '''Man has free will to respond or resist''': Free will is limited by God's sovereignty, but God sovereignly allows all men the choice to accept the Gospel of Jesus through faith, simultaneously allowing all men to resist. '''Election is [[Conditional election \| conditional]]''': Arminius defined ''election'' as "the decree of God by which, of Himself, from eternity, He decreed to justify in Christ, believers, and to accept them unto eternal life."{{ref\|12-Arminius}} God alone determines who will be saved and his determination is that all who believe Jesus through faith will be justified. According to Arminius, "God regards no one in Christ unless they are engrafted in him by faith."{{ref\|13-Arminius}} '''God predestines the elect to a glorious future''': Predestination is not the predetermination of who will believe, but rather the predetermination of the believer's future inheritance. The elect are therefore predestined to sonship through adoption, glorification, and eternal life.{{ref\|14-Pawson}} '''Eternal security is also [[Conditional Preservation of the Saints \| conditional]]''': All believers have full assurance of salvation with the condition that they remain in Christ. Salvation is conditioned on faith, therefore perseverance is also conditioned.{{ref\|15-Picirilli}} Apostasy (turning from Christ) is only commited through a deliberate, willful rejection of Jesus and renouncement of belief.{{ref\|16-Picirilli}} The [[Five articles of Remonstrance]] that Arminius' followers formulated in 1610 state the above beliefs regarding (I) conditional election, (II) unlimited atonement, (III) total depravity, (IV) total depravity and resistable grace, and (V) possibility of apostasy. Note, however, that the five articles completely denied perseverance of the saints; Arminius, himself, said that "I never taught that a true believer can...fall away from the faith...yet I will not conceal, that there are passages of Scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect; and those answers to them which I have been permitted to see, are not of such as kind as to approve themselves on all points to my understanding."{{Ref\|17-Arminius}} The core beliefs of Jacobus Arminius and the Remonstrants are summarized as such by theologian Stephen Ashby: :1. Prior to being ''drawn and enabled'', one is ''unable to believe...able only to resist.''<br> :2. Having been ''drawn and enabled'', but prior to regeneration, one is ''able to believe...able also to resist.''<br> :3. After one ''believes'', God then regenerates; one is ''able to continue believing...able also to resist.''<br> :4. Upon ''resisting'' to the point of ''unbelief'', one is ''unable again to believe...able only to resist.''{{Ref\|18-Ashby}}<br> ===Wesleyan Arminianism=== :''See also: [[Methodism]]'' Apart from Arminius himself, John Wesley has historically been the strongest proponent of Arminianism. Wesley thoroughly agreed with the vast majority of what Arminius taught, maintaining strong doctrines of original sin, total depravity, conditional election, prevenient grace, unlimited atonement, and possibly apostasy. [[Image:John_Wesley.jpg\|thumbnail\|350px\|right\|Portrait of [[John Wesley]].]] Wesley departs from tradition and forges into new theological territory on three issues primarily. '''Atonement''' - Wesley's atonement is a hybrid of the [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) \| penal substitution theory]] and [[Hugo Grotius]]' (a lawyer and one of the Remonstrants) [[Atonement (Governmental view) \| governmental theory]]. Steven Harper states "Wesley does not place the substitionary element primarily within a legal framework...rather it is the need to bring into proper relationship the 'justice' between God's love for persons and God's hatred of sin...it is not the satisfaction of a legal demand for justice so much as it is an act of mediated reconciliation." {{ref\|19-Harper}} * '''Possibility of apostasy''' - Wesley fully acknowledges the possibility that Christians could apostasize and lose their salvation. Wesley's sermon ''A call to backsliders'' is one of his more influential sermons, and Harper summarizes as follows: "the act of committing sin is not in itself ground for the loss of salvation...the loss of salvation is much more related to experiences that are profound and prolonged. Wesley sees two primary pathways that could result in a permanent fall from grace: unconfessed sin and the actual expression of apostasy." {{Ref\|20-Harper}} Wesley disagrees with Arminius, however, in maintaining that apostasy was not final; Wesley himself, when talking about those who have made "shipwrecks" of their faith (1 Tim 1:19), claims that "not one, or a hundred only, but I am persuaded, several thousands...Innumerable are the instances of this kind, of those who had fallen but now stand upright."{{Ref\|21-Wesley}} * '''[[Christian perfection]]''' - Christian perfection, according to Wesley, is “purity of intention, dedicating all the life to God” and “the mind which was in Christ, enabling us to walk as Christ walked.” It is “loving God with all our heart, and our neighbor as ourselves”. {{ref\|22-Wesley}} It is 'a restoration not only to the favour, but likewise to the image of God,” our “being filled with the fullness of God".{{ref\|23-Wesley}} Wesley was clear that Christian perfection did not imply perfection of bodily health or an infallibility of judgment. It also does not mean we no longer violate the will of God, for involuntary transgressions remain. Perfected Christians remain subject to temptation, and have continued need to pray for forgiveness and holiness. It is not an absolute perfection but a perfection in love. Furthermore, Wesley did not teach a salvation by perfection, but rather says that, "Even perfect holiness is acceptable to God only through Jesus Christ."{{Ref\|24-Wesley}} ===Other variations=== Since the time of Arminius, his name has come to represent a very large variety of beliefs. Some of these beliefs, such as Pelagianism (see [[Arminianism#Pelagianism \| below]]) are not considered to be within Arminianism orthodoxy and are dealt with elsewhere. Some doctrines, however, do adhere to the Arminian foundation and, while minority views, are highlighted below. ====Open theism==== :''Main article: [[Open theism]]'' The doctrine of open theism states that God is not all-powerful, all-knowing, all-present, but is rather ''most''-powerful, ''most''-knowing, ''most''-present. As such, open theists resolve the issue of human free will and God's sovereignty by claiming that God is not logically capable of predetermining human choices - salvation or otherwise. [[Clark Pinnock]] is one of the most well-known propenents. Some Arminians, such as professor and theologian Robert Picirilli, reject the doctrine of open theism as a "deformed Arminianism".{{Ref\|25-Picirilli}} Joseph Dongell stated that "open theism actually moves beyond classical Arminianism towards process theology."{{Ref\|26-Dongell}} The majority Arminian view accepts [[Classical Theism \| classical theism]] - the belief that God's power, knowledge, and presence have no limits outside of His divine character. Most Arminians reconcile human free will with God's sovereignty and foreknowledge by holding three points: * Human free will is limited by original sin, though God's [[prevenient grace]] restores to humanity the ability to accept God's call of salvation.{{ref\|27-Picirilli}} * God purposely exercises his sovereignty in ways that do not illustrate its extent - in other words, He has the power and authority to predetermine salvation but he chooses to apply it through different means.{{ref\|28-Ashby}} * God's foreknowledge of the future is exhaustive and complete, and therefore the future is certain and not contingent on human action. God does not determine the future, but He does know it. God's certainty and human contingency are compatible.{{ref\|29-Picirilli}} ====Corporate view of election==== :''See also: [[Conditional election]]'' The majority Arminian view is that election is individual and based on God's foreknowledge of faith, but a second perspective deserves merit. These Arminians reject the concept of individual election entirely, prefering to understand the doctrine in corporate terms. According to this corporate election, God never chose individuals to elect to salvation, but rather He chose to elect the believing Church to salvation. Dutch Reformed theologian Herman Ridderbos says "[The certainty of salvation] does not rest on the fact that the church belongs to a certain "number", but that it belongs to Christ, from before the foundation of the world. Fixity does not lie in a hidden decree, therefore, but in corporate unity of the Church with Christ, whom it has come to know in the gospel and has learned to embrace in faith."{{ref\|30-Ridderbos}} Corporate election draws support from a similar concept of corporate election found in the Old Testament and Jewish law. Indeed most Biblical scholarship is in agreement that Judeo-Greco-Roman thought in the 1st century was opposite of the Western worl
t it is quite clear how the painter felt about his model; but the boy himself, while amiable, gives no sign of reciprocating the feeling. [[Image:Cardsharps.jpg\|thumb\|left\|300px\|''[[Cardsharps\|The Cardsharps]]'', c. 1594. Oil on canvas, 107 x 99 cm. [[Kimbell Art Museum]], [[Fort Worth]], [[Texas]].]] Caravaggio left d’Arpino in January 1594, determined to make his own way. He took with him the model for the boy with the fruit basket, a 16-year-old painter named [[Mario Minniti]] who would continue to appear in his works over many years{{ref\|Minniti}}, and began painting scenes of Roman street life which he sold through the dealer Costantino. ''[[The Fortune Teller (Caravaggio)\|The Fortune Teller]]'', his first composition with more than one figure, shows Mario being cheated by a gypsy girl. The theme was quite new for Rome, and proved immensely influential over the next century and beyond. This, however, was in the future: at the time, Caravaggio sold it for practically nothing. ''[[Cardsharps\|The Cardsharps]]'' — showing another unsophisticated boy falling the victim of card cheats — is even more psychologically complex, and perhaps Caravaggio’s first true masterpiece. Like the ''[[The Fortune Teller (Caravaggio)\|Fortune Teller]]'' it was immensely popular, and over 50 copies survive. More importantly, it attracted the patronage of [[cardinal (Catholicism)\|Cardinal]] [[Francesco Maria Del Monte]], one of the leading connoisseurs in Rome, and henceforth Caravaggio would share an apartment with Minniti in the cardinal’s Palazzo Madama.{{ref\|Cardsharps}} For Del Monte and his wealthy art-loving circle Caravaggio executed a number of intimate chamber-pieces — ''[[The Musicians (Caravaggio)\|The Musicians]]'', ''[[The Lute Player (Caravaggio)\|The Lute Player]]'', a tipsy ''[[Bacchus (Caravaggio)\|Bacchus]]'', an allegorical but realistic ''[[Boy Bitten by a Lizard (Caravaggio)\|Boy Bitten by a Lizard]]'' — featuring Minniti and yet more boy models. These poetic, introverted, cryptically homoerotic works{{ref\|homoerotic}} were a step away from the psychological realism that had begun to emerge a few years earlier. The realism returned with Caravaggio’s first paintings on religious themes, and the emergence of remarkable spirituality. The first of these was the ''[[Penitent Magdalene (Caravaggio)\|Penitent Magdalene]]'', showing [[Mary Magdalene]] at the moment when she has turned from her life as a courtesan and sits weeping on the floor, her jewels scattered around her. “It seemed not a religious painting at all ... a girl sitting on a sitting on a low wooden stool drying her hair ... Where was the repentance ... suffering ... promise of salvation?”{{ref\|promise_of_salvation}} It was understated, in the Lombard manner, not histrionic in the Roman manner of the time. It was followed by others in the same style: ''[[Saint Catherine (Caravaggio)\|Saint Catherine]]'', ''[[Martha and Mary Magdalene (Caravaggio)\|Martha and Mary Magdalene]]'', ''[[Judith Beheading Holofernes (Caravaggio)\|Judith Beheading Holofernes]]'', a ''[[Sacrifice of Isaac (Caravaggio)\|Sacrifice of Isaac]]'', a ''[[Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy (Caravaggio)\|Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy]]'', and a ''[[Rest on the Flight into Egypt (Caravaggio)\|Rest on the Flight into Egypt]]''. The works, while viewed by a comparatively limited circle, increased Caravaggio's fame with both connoisseurs and his fellow-artists. But a true reputation would depend on public commissions, and for these it was necessary to look to the Church. ==='Most famous painter in Rome' (1600-1606)=== [[Image:Calling-of-st-matthew.jpg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|''[[The Calling of St Matthew (Caravaggio)\|The Calling of Saint Matthew]]''. 1599-1600. Oil on canvas, 322 x 340 cm. [[Contarelli Chapel]], [[San Luigi dei Francesi]], [[Rome]]. The beam of light, which enters the picture from the direction of a real window, expresses in the blink of an eye the conversion of St Matthew, the hinge on which his destiny will turn, with no flying angels, parting clouds or other artifacts.]] In 1599, presumably through the influence of Del Monte, Caravaggio contracted to decorate the [[Contarelli Chapel]] in the church of [[San Luigi dei Francesi]]. The two works making up the commission, the [[The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew (Caravaggio)\|''Martyrdom of Saint Matthew'']] and ''[[The Calling of St Matthew (Caravaggio)\|Calling of Saint Matthew]]'', delivered in 1600, were an immediate sensation. Caravaggio’s heightened [[chiaroscuro]] brought high drama to his subjects, while his acutely observed realism brought a new level of emotional intensity. This heightened form of chiaroscuro is known as [[tenebrism]], and he is credited with popularizing it. Opinion among Caravaggio’s artist peers was polarized. Some denounced him for various perceived failings, notably his insistence on painting from life, without drawings, but for the most part he was hailed as the saviour of art: "The painters then in Rome were greatly taken by this novelty, and the young ones particularly gathered around him, praised him as the unique imitator of nature, and looked on his work as miracles."{{ref\|looked_upon_his_work_as_miracles}} Caravaggio went on to secure a string of prestigious commissions for religious works featuring violent struggles, grotesque decapitations, torture and death. For the most part each new painting increased his fame, but a few were rejected by the various bodies for whom they were intended, at least in their original forms, and had to be re-painted or find new buyers. The essence of the problem was that while Caravaggio’s dramatic intensity was appreciated, his realism was seen by some as unacceptably vulgar.{{ref\|vulgar}} His first version of ''[[Saint Matthew and the Angel (Caravaggio)\|Saint Matthew and the Angel]]'', featured the saint as a bald peasant with dirty legs attended by a lightly-clad over-familiar boy-angel, was rejected and had to be repainted as ''[[The Inspiration of Saint Matthew (Caravaggio)\|The Inspiration of Saint Matthew]]''. Similarly, ''[[The Conversion of Saint Paul (Caravaggio)\|The Conversion of Saint Paul]]'' was rejected, and while another version of the same subject, the [[Conversion on the Way to Damascus\|''Conversion of Saint Paul'']], was accepted, it featured the saint’s horse’s backside far more prominently than the saint himself, prompting this exchange between the artist and an exasperated official of [[Santa Maria del Popolo]]: “Why have you put a horse in the middle, and [[Paul of Tarsus\|Saint Paul]] on the ground?” “Because!” “Is the horse God?” “No, but he stands in God’s light!”{{ref\|he_stands_in_God's_light}} [[Image:Michelangelo Caravaggio 070.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|left\|''[[Death of the Virgin]]'' (detail). [[1601]] - [[1606]]. Oil on canvas, 396 x 245 cm. [[Louvre]], [[Paris]].]] Other works included the deeply moving ''[[The Entombment of Christ (Caravaggio)\|Entombment]]'', the ''[[Madonna di Loreto]]'' (''Madonna of the Pilgrims''), the [[Madonna and Child with St. Anne (Dei Palafrenieri) (Caravaggio)\|''Grooms' Madonna'']], and the ''[[Death of the Virgin (Caravaggio)\|Death of the Virgin]]''. The history of the ''Death of the Virgin'' illustrates the reception given to some of Caravaggio's art, and the times in which he lived. Commissioned in 1601 by a wealthy jurist for his private chapel in the new Carmelite church of Santa Maria della Scala, it was rejected by the Carmelites in 1606. Caravaggio's contemporary [[Giulio Mancini]] records that it was rejected because Caravaggio had used a well-known prostitute as his model for the Virgin;{{ref\|Death_of_the_Virgin_Mancini}} [[Giovanni Baglione]], another contemporary, tells us it was because of Mary's bare legs:{{ref\|Death_of_the_Virgin_Baglione}} a matter of decorum in either case. But Caravaggio scholar John Gash suggests that the problem for the Carmelites may have been theological rather than aesthetic, in that Caravaggio's version fails to assert the doctrine of the [[Assumption of Mary]], the idea that the Mother of God did not die in any ordinary sense but was assumed into Heaven. The replacement altarpiece commissioned (from one of Caravaggio's most able followers, [[Carlo Saraceni]]), showed the Virgin not dead, as Caravaggio had painted her, but seated and dying; and even this was rejected, and replaced with a work which showed the Virgin not dying, but ascending into Heaven with choirs of angels. In any case, the rejection did not mean that Caravaggio or his paintings were out of favour. The ''Death of the Virgin'' was no sooner taken out of the church than it was purchased by the Duke of Mantua, on the advice of [[Rubens]], and later acquired by [[Charles I]] of England before entering the French royal collection in 1671. [[Image:Amor Victorious.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|''[[Amor Vincit Omnia\|Amor Victorious]]''. [[1602]] - [[1603]]. Oil on canvas. 156 x 113 cm. [[Gemäldegalerie (Berlin)\|Gemäldegalerie]], [[Berlin]]. Caravaggio shows [[Cupid]] prevailing over all human endeavors: war, music, science, government.]] One secular piece from these years is ''[[Amor Vincit Omnia\|Amor Victorious]]'', painted in 1602 for [[Vincenzo Giustiniani]], a member of Del Monte’s circle. The model was named in a memoir of the early 17th century as "Cecco", the diminutive for Francesco. He is possibly Francesco Boneri, identified with an artist active in the period 1610-1625 and known as [[Cecco del Caravaggio]] ('Caravaggio's Ceccho'){{ref\|Ceccho}}, carrying a bow and arrows and trampling symbols of the warlike and peaceful arts and sciences underfoot. He is unclothed, and it is a difficult to accept this grinning urchin as the Roman god [[Cupid]] – as difficult as it was to accept Caravaggio’s other semi-clad adolescents as the various angels he painted in his canvases, wearing much the same stage-prop wings. The point, however, is the intense yet ambiguous reality of the work: it is simultan
nival XMas '97]]'' (1997) #''[[The Pendulum EP]]'' (2000 - 2002) Insane Clown Posse &mdash; the Necromonicon #''[[Bizzar]]'' (2000) #''[[Bizaar]]'' (2000) Insane Clown Posse &mdash; the new era #''[[The Calm EP]]'' (2005) #''[[The Tempest (album)\|The Tempest]]'' (2006) Insane Clown Posse &mdash; compilations #''[[Forgotten Freshness (Original)]]'' (1995) #''[[Mutilation Mix]]'' (1997) #''[[Mystic Wonders]]'' (1997) - bootleg; an unofficial follow-up to "Forgotten Freshness" #''[[Forgotten Freshness Volume 1 & 2]]'' (1998) #''[[Psychopathics from Outer Space]]'' (1999) #''[[Forgotten Freshness Volume 3]]'' (2001) #''[[Psychopathics from Outer Space 2]]'' (2003) #''[[Forgotten Staleness]]'' (2004) - bootleg #''[[Bootilation Mix]]'' (2005) - bootleg #''[[Forgotten Freshness Volume 4]]'' (2005) Insane Clown Posse &mdash; Hallowicked give-aways #"Dead Pumpkins" (1994) #"Mr. Rotten Treats" (1995) #"Witches & Warlocks" (1996) #"Mr. Johnson's Head (Remix)" (1997) #"Pumpkin Carvers" (with [[Twiztid]] & [[Kottonmouth Kings]]) (1998) #"Sleepwalker" (1999) #"Hallowicked 2000 Box Set" (Includes [[Bizaar]], [[Bizzar]], [[Freek Show]], Hallowicked 2000 EP, Hallowicked shirt, Hallowicked sticker, Hallowicked flier, certificate of authenticity) (2000) #"Every Halloween" (2001) #"Children of the Wasteland" ([[Blaze Ya Dead Homie]]) (2001) #"Waited Till Halloween" ([[Twiztid]]) (2001) #"Silence of the Hams" ([[Violent J]] & [[Esham]]) (2002) #"Dead Body Man 2002" ([[Blaze Ya Dead Homie]]) (2002) #"Thug Pit" (with [[Bone Thugs N Harmony]], [[Kottonmouth Kings]], [[Tech N9ne]], & [[Esham]]) (2003) #"Murda Cloak" (with [[Anybody Killa]]) (2004) #"Wicked Hellaween" (2005) Insane Clown Posse &mdash; singles, rare recordings, event tracks, etc. #"Fat Sweaty Betty" (1995) #"Chicken Huntin" (1995) #"Jokers Wild Sampler" (1995) #"Halls of Illusions" (1997) #"Psychopathic Sampler" (1998) #"Hokus Pokus" (1998) #"Join the Show" (1998) #"Phat or Wack sampler" (1999) #[[Fuck the World (single)\| Fuck the World]] (1999) #"Another Love Song" (1999) #"Mad Professor" (1999) #"Party Mix" (1999) #"Jacob's Word" (2000) #"Bizzar/Bizaar sampler" (2000) #"Tilt-A-Whirl" (2000) #"Let's Go All the Way" (2000) #"Psychopathic Sampler '01" (2001) #"[[The Wraith: Shangri-La sampler]]" (2002) #"Homies" (2003) Violent J and Shaggy solo #''[[Fuck Off (Shaggy 2 Dope solo album)\|Fuck Off]]'' (1994 - EP) * [[Shaggy 2 Dope]] #''[[Wizard of the Hood EP]]'' (2003) * [[Violent J]] #''[[Fuck the Fuck Off]]'' (2006) * [[Shaggy 2 Dope]] ===Filmography=== * [[Stranglemania]] (199?) This ultra rare [[VHS]] tape (now out of print) was the 1995 IWA [[King Of The Deathmatch]] tournament featuring Superleather, [[Cactus Jack]], [[Terry Funk]], and many more. Violent J and Shaggy dubbed over the commentary and added their own humorous [[commentary]], similar to those on their JCW tapes. Juggalo Championshit Wrestling: Volume 1,2 and 3 Strangle-Mania 2 The Shaggy Show - An internet based reality show from the road. The concept was taken from an identically-named skit on the ''Amazing Jeckel Brothers'' album. Shockumentary - (DVD & VHS) This is ICPs hard-to-find documentary. It features all the flavor of the documentary and five music videos. [[Big Money Hustlas]] (2000) [[Bootlegged In L.A.]] (2004) ===[[RIAA certifications]]=== #05/04/98 [[The Great Milenko]] - Gold #07/23/98 [[Shockumentary]] - Gold #04/21/99 [[The Great Milenko]] - Platinum #09/30/99 [[Forgotten Freshness]] - Gold #11/23/99 [[The Riddle Box]] - Gold #01/06/00 [[The Amazing Jeckel Brothers]] - Gold #04/04/01 [[Big Money Hustlas]] - Gold #05/21/02 [[Shockumentary]] - Platinum #09/17/02 [[The Ringmaster]] - Gold #10/08/03 [[Bootlegged in L.A.]] - Gold #06/07/04 [[The Ringmaster]]* - Gold [[The Ringmaster]] went gold twice, once on Island and the other on their independent release on [[Psychopathic Records]]. Source: [http://www.faygoluvers.net Faygoluvers] ==Chart positions== ===Albums=== 1997 The Great Milenko The [[Billboard 200]] No. 63 1998 Forgotten Freshness, Vol. 1-2 The Billboard 200 No. 46 1999 The Amazing Jeckel Brothers The Billboard 200 No. 4 2000 Bizaar The Billboard 200 No. 20 2000 Bizzar The Billboard 200 No. 21 2002 The Wraith: Shangri-La The Billboard 200 No. 15 2004 Hell's Pit The Billboard 200 No. 12 2005 The Calm (EP) The Billboard 200 No. 32 2005 Forgotten Freshness: Volume 4 The Billboard 200 No. 88 ===Singles=== 1997 Santa's a Fat Bitch The [[Billboard Hot 100]] No. 67 ==External links and references== [http://www.insaneclownposse.com/ Insane Clown Posse official site] * [http://www.psychopathicrecords.com/ Psychopathic Records official site (portal)] * [http://www.faygoluvers.net Faygoluvers.net The number 1 Juggalo source for everything Psychopathic, Featuring Scottie D, Dfens, Carnie, Southeast Strangla, Bonko, Dank, and Freekjoka] * [http://www.wijuggalos.com Wisconsin Juggalos The number 1 Wisconsin Juggalo Website brought to you by the former Juggalo-empire crew] * [http://www.paoracle.com/?archive=77 An Intelligent Look at the Insane Clown Posse] * [http://www.hallsofillusions.com/mainsite/icp/5602 Halls of Illusions: The Story of Insane Clown Posse] * [http://www.juggalos4life.com What Is A Juggalo ?: Juggalos Juggalos Juggalos come one come all] * [http://www.hatchetradio.com HatchetRadio.com--The Best in the Biz] * [http://sbdjuggalos.tripod.com SBDjuggalos A great fansite that strives on accurate lyrics] * ''Behind the Paint'', Violent J with Hobey Echlin. (ISBN 09741846083) [[Category:American hip hop groups\|Insane Clown Posse]] [[de:Insane Clown Posse]] [[pl:Insane Clown Posse]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Iran-Iraq War</title> <id>14889</id> <revision> <id>41999965</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:25:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.229.179.134</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* U.S.-Iraqi arms transfers in the war */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict \|conflict=Iran-Iraq War \|campaign= \|image= \|caption= \|date=[[22 September]] [[1980]]&#8211;[[20 August]] [[1988]] \|place=[[Persian Gulf]], Iranian-Iraqi border \|casus= \|result=[[stalemate]]; [[United Nations]]-mandated [[cease-fire]] \|combatant1=[[Image:Flag of Iran.svg\|100ppx]] [[Iran]] \|combatant2=[[Image:Flag of Iraq (1963-1991).svg\|100ppx]] [[Iraq]] \|commander1= \|commander2= \|strength1= \|strength2= \|casualties1=Est. 450,000-950,000 (incl. 100,000 [[Kurd]]s) \|casualties2=Est. 450,000-950,000 }} {{Campaignbox Persian Gulf Wars}} The '''Iran-Iraq War''', also called the '''First [[Persian Gulf]] War''', or the '''Imposed War''' (جنگ تحمیلی, ''Jang-e-tahmīlī'') in Iran and '''Saddām's Qādisiyyah''' (قادسيّة صدّام, ''Qādisiyyat Saddām'') in Iraq, was a [[war]] between the armed forces of Iraq and Iran lasting from September [[1980]] to August [[1988]]. It was commonly referred to as the '''(Persian) Gulf War''' until the [[Persian Gulf War\|Iraq-Kuwait conflict]] ([[1990]]&ndash;[[1991\|91]]), which became known as the Second Persian Gulf War and later simply the '''Persian Gulf War'''. It has been called "the longest conventional warfare of the 20th century", and cost 1 million casualties and $US 1.19 Trillion. <small>(''[[Iran-Iraq War#References\|D. Hiro]]'')</small> The war began when [[Iraq]] invaded [[Iran]] on [[22 September]] [[1980]] following a long history of border disputes. The conflict saw early successes by the Iraqis, but before long they were repulsed and the conflict stabilized into a long war of attrition. The [[United Nations Security Council]] called upon both parties to end the conflict on multiple occasions, but a ceasefire was not agreed to until [[20 August]] [[1988]], and the last [[prisoner of war\|prisoners of war]] were not exchanged until [[2003]]. The war irrevocably altered politics in the area, playing into wider global politics and leading to the 1990 Iraqi invasion of [[Kuwait]]. The war is also noted for extensive use of chemical weapons by Iraqi forces. ==Background== [[Image:Iraqi_stamp.jpg\|right\|250px\|frame\|Iraqi commemorative stamp depicting the victorious [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] in the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]] and its parallel during the Iran-Iraq war.]]Although the Iran-Iraq war of 1980&ndash;1988 was a war over dominance of the [[Persian Gulf]] region, the roots of the war go back many centuries. There has always been a rivalry between various kingdoms of [[Mesopotamia]] (modern [[Iraq]]) and [[Persians\|Persia]] (Iran). Before the [[Ottoman empire]], Iraq was part of Persia ruled under the [[Aq Qoyunlu]] dynasty. The rising power of the Ottomans put an end to this when [[Murad IV]] annexed what is today Iraq from the weakening [[Safavid]] Persia in 1638. The border disputes between Persia and the Ottomans never ended however: between 1555 and 1918, Persia and Turkey signed no less than 18 treaties re-addressing their disputed borders. Modern Iraq was created with the British involvement in the region and the final collapse of the Ottoman empire, hence inheriting all the disputes with Persia. More precisely, the origins of the Iran-Iraq war of 1980&ndash;1988 go back to the question of sovereignty over the resource-rich province of [[Khuzestan]]. Khuzestan, home to Iran's [[Elamite Empire]], was an independent non-[[Semitic]] speaking kingdom whose
ts this set. # [[Real number]]s include the algebraic numbers as well as the [[transcendental number]]s, which cannot appear as solutions to polynomial equations with rational coefficients. A blackboard bold capital '''R''' (<math>\mathbb{R}</math>) often represents this set. # [[Imaginary numbers]] appear as solutions to equations such as ''x''<sup>2</sup> + r = 0 where r > 0. A [[blackboard bold]] capital '''I''' (<math>\mathbb{I}</math>) often represents this set. # [[Complex number]]s are sums of a real and an imaginary number: ''r'' + ''s''i. Here both ''r'' and ''s'' can equal zero; thus, the set of real numbers and the set of imaginary numbers are subsets of the set of complex numbers. A blackboard bold capital '''C''' (<math>\mathbb{C}</math>) often represents this set. == Paradoxes == We referred earlier to the need for a formal, axiomatic approach. What problems arise in the treatment we have given? The problems relate to the formation of sets. One's first intuition might be that we can form any sets we want, but this view leads to inconsistencies. For any set ''x'' we can ask whether ''x'' is a member of itself. Define :''Z''&nbsp;= {''x''&nbsp;: ''x'' is not a member of ''x''}. Now for the problem: is ''Z'' a member of ''Z''? If yes, then by the defining quality of ''Z'', ''Z'' is not a member of itself, i.e., ''Z'' is not a member of ''Z''. This forces us to declare that ''Z'' is not a member of ''Z''. Then ''Z'' is not a member of itself and so, again by definition of ''Z'', ''Z'' is a member of ''Z''. Thus both options lead us to a contradiction and we have an inconsistent theory. Axiomatic developments place restrictions on the sort of sets we are allowed to form and thus prevent problems like our set ''Z'' from arising. This particular paradox is [[Russell's paradox]]. The penalty is that one must take more care with one's development, as one must in any rigorous mathematical argument. In particular, it is problematic to speak of a set of everything, or to be (possibly) a bit less ambitious, even a [[set of all sets]]. In fact, in the standard axiomatisation of set theory, there is no set of all sets. In areas of mathematics that seem to require a set of all sets (such as [[category theory]]), one can sometimes make do with a universal set so large that all of ordinary mathematics can be done within it (see [[universe (mathematics)\|universe]]). Alternatively, one can make use of [[class (set theory)\|proper class]]es. Or, one can use a different axiomatisation of set theory, such as [[W. V. Quine]]'s [[New Foundations]], which allows for a set of all sets and avoids Russell's paradox in another way. The exact resolution employed rarely makes an ultimate difference. ==See also== * [[Algebra of sets]] * [[Axiomatic set theory]] * [[Internal set theory]] * [[Set]] * [[Set theory]] ==References== * [[Paul Richard Halmos\|Halmos, P.R.]], ''[[Naive Set Theory (book)\|Naive Set Theory]]'', D. Van Nostrand Company, Princeton, NJ, 1960. Reprinted, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1974, ISBN 0-387-90092-6. * [[Nicolas Bourbaki\|Bourbaki, N.]], ''Elements of the History of Mathematics'', John Meldrum (trans.), Springer-Velag, Berlin, Germany, 1994. * [[Keith J. Devlin\|Devlin, K.J.]], ''The Joy of Sets: Fundamentals of Contemporary Set Theory'', 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1993. * [[Jean van Heijenoort\|van Heijenoort, J.]], ''From Frege to Gödel, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1967. Reprinted with corrections, 1977. * [[John L. Kelley\|Kelley, J.L.]], ''General Topology'', Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1955. == External links == * [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Beginnings_of_set_theory.html Beginnings of set theory] page at St. Andrews * [http://members.aol.com/jeff570/s.html Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (S)] * [http://www.angelfire.com/az3/nfold/nulltheorem.html Uniqueness of the empty set] Is there only one empty set rather than an infinity of empty subsets? == Note == {{ent\|1\|origin}} Concerning the origin of the term ''naive set theory'', Jeff Miller has this to say: &ldquo;''Naïve set theory'' (contrasting with axiomatic set theory) was used occasionally in the 1940s and became an established term in the 1950s. It appears in Hermann Weyl's review of P. A. Schilpp (ed) ''The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell'' in the ''American Mathematical Monthly'', 53., No. 4. (1946), p. 210 and Laszlo Kalmar's review of ''The Paradox of Kleene and Rosser'' in ''Journal of Symbolic Logic'', 11, No. 4. (1946), p. 136. (JSTOR).&rdquo; [http://members.aol.com/jeff570/s.html] The term was later popularized by [[Paul Halmos\|Paul Halmos']] book, ''Naive Set Theory'' (1960). [[Category:Set theory]] [[ca:Teoria de conjunts]] [[de:Mengenlehre]] [[es:Teoría de conjuntos]] [[fr:Théorie naïve des ensembles]] [[he:&#1514;&#1493;&#1512;&#1514; &#1492;&#1511;&#1489;&#1493;&#1510;&#1493;&#1514; &#1492;&#1504;&#1488;&#1497;&#1489;&#1497;&#1514;]] [[it:Teoria ingenua degli insiemi]] [[nl:Verzameling]] [[pt:Teoria básica de conjuntos]] [[zh:&#26420;&#32032;&#38598;&#21512;&#35770;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Black economy</title> <id>4945</id> <revision> <id>15903192</id> <timestamp>2004-11-25T03:53:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nickj</username> <id>94904</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black market]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Breathy voice</title> <id>4946</id> <revision> <id>33662566</id> <timestamp>2006-01-03T00:33:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Canderson7</username> <id>202193</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>sp</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Breathy voice''' or '''murmured voice''' is a [[phonation]] in which the [[vocal cords]] vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are held further apart, so that a larger volume of air escapes between them. This produces an audible noise. A breathy-voiced phonation {{IPA\|[ɦ]}} (not actually a [[fricative]], as a literal reading of the IPA chart would suggest) can be heard as an [[allophone]] of English /h/ between vowels, eg. in ''behind''. A stop with breathy-voiced release (symbolised either as {{IPA\|[bʱ], [dʱ], [gʱ],}} ''etc.'' or as {{IPA\|[b̤], [d̤], [g̈],}} ''etc.'') is like [[aspiration]] in that it delays the onset of full voicing. This is the phonation of the [[Hindi]] "voiced aspirated stops" ''bh, dh, jh, gh.'' There are several ways to generate breathy-voiced sounds like {{IPA\|[ɦ]}}. One is to hold the vocal cords apart, so that they are lax as they are for [h], but to increase the volume of airflow so that they vibrate loosely. A second is to bring the vocal cords closer together along their entire length than in voiceless [h], but not as close as in modally voiced sounds such as vowels. This results in an airflow intermediate between [h] and vowels, and is the case with English intervocalic /h/. A third is to constrict the glottis, but separate the [[arytenoid cartilage]]s that control one end. This results in the vocal cords being drawn together for voicing in the back, but separated to allow the passage of large volumes of air in the front. This is the situation with Hindi. ==See also== * [[Aspiration (phonetics)\|aspiration]] * [[Creaky voice]] * [[List of phonetics topics]] * [[Slack voice]] [[Category:Phonation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bézout's identity</title> <id>4947</id> <revision> <id>40361330</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[number theory]], '''Bézout's identity''', named after [[Étienne Bézout]], is a [[linear equation\|linear]] [[diophantine equation]]. It states that if ''a'' and ''b'' are [[integer\|integers]] with [[greatest common divisor]] ''d'', then there exist integers ''x'' and ''y'' such that :''ax'' + ''by'' = ''d''. Numbers ''x'' and ''y'' as above can be determined with the [[extended Euclidean algorithm]], but they are not uniquely determined. For example, the greatest common divisor of 12 and 42 is 6, and we can write :''12x'' + ''42y'' = ''6''. with some of the solutions being :(-3)·12 + 1·42 = 6 and also :4·12 + (-1)·42 = 6. The greatest common divisor ''d'' of ''a'' and ''b'' is in fact the smallest positive integer that can be written in the form ''ax'' + ''by''. Bézout's identity works not only in the [[ring (algebra)\|ring]] of integers, but also in any other [[principal ideal domain]] (PID). That is, if ''R'' is a PID, and ''a'' and ''b'' are elements of ''R'', and ''d'' is a greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'', then there are elements ''x'' and ''y'' in ''R'' such that ''ax'' + ''by'' = ''d''. The reason: the [[ideal (mathematics)\|ideal]] ''Ra''+''Rb'' is principal and indeed is equal to ''Rd''. To confirm: In some credible books, this identity has been attributed to French mathematician [[Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac]]. ==External links== * [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/arithmetic/bezout.en Online calculator] of Bézout's identity. * [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/06/bezouts-identity-for-gaussian-integers.html Bezout's Identity for Gaussian Integers], Fermat's Last Theorem Blog covers topics in the history of Fermat's Last Theorem. [[Category:Diophantine equations]] [[de:Lemma von Bézout]] [[ca:Identitat de Bézout]] [[es:Identidad de Bézout]] [[fr:Id
Commons]], which it retained after the [[Reform Act 1832]] and into the 20th century. Today it is included wholly in the [[Cities of London and Westminster]] constituency, and statute requires that it not be divided between two neighbouring areas. The City's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of 20th century as many houses were demolished to make way for office blocks. This trend has now been reversed as the Corporation is encouraging residential use, although the resident population is not expected to go much above ten thousand people. Some of the extra accommodation is in small pre [[World War II]] commercial buildings which are not suitable for occupation by the large companies which now provide much of the City's employment. The largest residential section of the City is the [[Barbican Estate]]. {\| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" \|- style="background: #efefef;" ! Year !! Population \|- \| 1700 \|\| 208,000 (of which 139,000 within the walls) \|- \| 1750 \|\| 144,000 (of which 87,000 within the walls) \|- \| 1801 \|\| 128,129 \|- \| 1841 \|\| 123,563 \|- \| 1881 \|\| 50,569 \|- \| 1901 \|\| 26,846 \|- \| 1911 \|\| 19,657 \|- \| 1921 \|\| 13,709 \|- \| 1931 \|\| 10,999 \|- \| 1951 \|\| 5,324 \|- \| 1961 \|\| 4,767 \|- \| 1971 \|\| 4,234 \|- \| 1981 \|\| 5,300 \|- \| 1991 \|\| 5,385 \|- \| 2001 \|\| 7,185 \|} Since the 1990s, the City has diversified away from near exclusive office use in some other ways as well. For example, several hotels have opened and also the City's first [[department store]]. However, large sections of it remain very quiet at weekends, and it is quite common to find pubs and cafes closed on these days. ==Local government== :''see also [[Corporation of London]]'' The City of London has a unique political status, a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as a corporate city since the Anglo Saxon period and its singular relationship with the crown. Historically its system government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by the [[Municipal Reform Act 1835]]. It is administered by the [[Corporation of London]], headed by the [[Lord Mayor of London]] (not the same post as the more recent [[Mayor of London\|London Mayor]], who presides over Greater London). The City is a [[ceremonial counties of England\|ceremonial county]] too, although instead of having its own [[Lord-Lieutenant]], the City of London has a Commission, headed by the Lord Mayor, exercising this function. ===Elections=== The City has a unique electoral system, which does not follow the usual rules of [[democracy]], allowing businessmen a vote and arranging voters in wards with very unequal number of voters. This is sometimes a cause of controversy. The [[business vote]] had been abolished in other local elections in 1969, but retained in the City. The [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/locact02/20020006.htm ''City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002 (2002 Chapter vi)''] which reformed the voting system for electing Members to the Corporation of London, received the [[Royal Assent]] on [[7 November]] [[2002]]. Under the new system, the business vote increased by 16,000 to 32,000. Previously disenfranchised firms will be entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already included in the business vote, and will be required to choose these voters in a representative fashion. The Bill will also remove other anomalies that have developed over time within the current system, which has been unchanged since the 1850s. This system is usually seen as undemocratic, but adopting a more conventional system would place the 7,000 residents of the City in charge of local planning for a major financial capital. Proposals to annex the City to one of the neighbouring [[London borough]]s, possibly the [[City of Westminster]], have never been taken seriously. ===Other functions=== The City has its own independent police force, the [[City of London Police]]. The rest of Greater London is policed by the [[Metropolitan Police Service]], based at [[Scotland Yard\|New Scotland Yard]]. The City of London controls three [[independent schools]] — [[City of London School]] (all male), [[City of London School for Girls]] (all female) and [[City of London Freemen's School]] (co-educational). The City is a major patron of the arts. It oversees the [[Barbican Centre]] and subsidizes several important performing arts companies. It also takes an interest in open spaces outside its boundaries: see [[Corporation of London open spaces]]. [[Image:norton_folgate.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|The City of London viewed from [[Norton Folgate]].]] ==Security== The City's position as the United Kingdom's financial centre and a critical part of the country's economy, contributing about one sixth of the UK's [[gross national product]], has resulted in it becoming a terrorist target. The [[Provisional IRA]] exploded several [[bomb]]s in the City in the early 1990s. The area is also spoken of as a possible target for [[al-Qaeda]]. For instance, when in May 2004 the BBC's ''[[Panorama]]'' programme examined the preparedness of Britain's emergency services for a terrorist attack on the scale of [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], they simulated a chemical explosion on [[Bishopsgate]] in the east of the City. See also [[City of London's ring of steel\|City of London's "Ring of Steel"]] for measures that have been taken against these threats. ==Sights== * [[Bank of England]] * [[Barbican Arts Centre]] * [[Barbican Estate]] * [[List of churches and cathedrals of London\|Churches and cathedrals]] ** [[St Paul's Cathedral]] * [[City of London School]] * [[City of London School for Girls]] * [[Guildhall, London\|Guildhall]] * [[Inns of Court]] [[Inner Temple]] [[Middle Temple]] * [[Lloyd's Building]] * [[London Stone]] * [[London Wall]] * [[Monument to the Great Fire of London\|The Monument]] * [[Museum of London]] * [[Newgate Prison]] * [[Old Bailey]] * [[Pool of London]] * [[Royal Exchange]] * [[Smithfield, London\|Smithfield]] * [[St Bartholomew's Hospital]] * [[Swiss Re Tower]] (popularly known as the "Gherkin") * [[Temple Bar London\|Temple Bar]] * [[Temple of Mithras, London]] * [[Tower of London]] * [[Tower 42]] (formerly known as the NatWest Tower) ==Roads, streets and squares== * [[Aldersgate]] * [[Aldgate]] * [[Bishopsgate]] * [[Cheapside]] * [[Cripplegate]] * [[Fleet Street]] * [[Gracechurch]] * [[Holborn]] * [[Ludgate]] * [[Moorgate]] * [[Newgate]] * [[Threadneedle Street]] ==Transport== The City of London transport is integrated with that of the rest of Greater London under [[Transport for London]]. ===Bridges=== * [[Blackfriars Bridge]] * [[London Bridge]] * [[Southwark Bridge]] * [[Tower Bridge]] * [[London Millennium Bridge\|Millennium Bridge]] ===Mainline stations=== * [[Blackfriars station]] * [[Cannon Street station]] * [[City Thameslink railway station]] * [[Fenchurch Street railway station]] * [[Liverpool Street station]] * [[Moorgate station]] ===Underground lines and stations=== * [[Central Line]] * [[Circle Line]] * [[District Line]] * [[Northern Line]] * [[Waterloo & City Line]] * [[Aldgate tube station]] * [[Bank and Monument stations]] * [[Barbican tube station]] * [[Cannon Street station]] * [[Chancery Lane tube station]] * [[Liverpool Street station]] * [[Mansion House underground station]] * [[St. Paul's tube station]] ===DLR stations=== * [[Tower Gateway DLR station]] ===Other underground transport=== * [[London Post Office Railway]] * [[Tower Subway]] ==See also== * [[City of London Police]] * [[Corporation of London]] * [[Economy of England]] * [[Economy of the United Kingdom]] * [[Great Fire of London]] * [[History of London\|The History of London]] * [[Livery Company]] * [[Lord Mayor of London]] * [[Port of London]] * [[Tall buildings in London]] * [[Smallest cities in Britain]] ==External links== ;Official websites :[http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/ Corporation of London], the City of London government website :[http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/ Museum of London] ;General city information :[http://citymayors.com/government/london_corp.html CityMayors.com profile of Corporation] :[http://london.visittown.com/ London, VisitTown.com] ;Maps, photos, and other images :Corporation of London: [http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/about_us/voting/wards/ward_boundaries_map.htm Ward boundaries map] :[http://www.streetmap.co.uk/newmap.srf?x=532750&y=180750&z=2&sv=532750,180750&st=4&ar=N&mapp=newmap.srf&searchp=newsearch.srf Street map] — the boundary is shown in mauve-grey, and is easiest to pick up in the river. Click the arrow on the left for the western and northern most parts of the City of London. ;Blogs :[http://inthesquaremile.com City of London — In the Square Mile], an insider's view of the City including resources, historical articles and commentary. {{London}} <!-- space between boxes -->&nbsp; {{England counties}} {{English Cities}} [[Category:City of London\| ]] [[Category:Districts of London]] [[Category:London Government]] [[Category:Cities in England\|London, City of]] [[Category:Financial districts\|London, City of]] [[Category:Central business districts\|London, City of]] [[cs:City (Londýn)]] [[de:City of London]] [[fr:Cité de Londres]] [[he:הסיטי של לונדון]] [[it:City of London]] [[nl:City of London]] [[ja:シティ・オブ・ロンドン]] [[no:City of London]] [[pl:City of London]] [[pt:City of London]] [[ro:City of London]] [[simple:City of London]] [[fi:Lontoon City]] [[sv:City of London]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clitoris</title> <id>6884</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42024502</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:49:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sonjaaa</username> <id>56593</id> </contributor> <comment>/
BRIC" economies ([[Brazil]], [[Russia]], [[India]], and [[China]]), [[Goldman Sachs]] named Bangladesh one of the "Next Eleven," along with [[Egypt]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[South Korea]], [[Mexico]], [[Nigeria]], Pakistan, the [[Philippines]], [[Turkey]] and [[Vietnam]]. Bangladesh has seen a sharp increase in [[foreign direct investment]]. A number of multinational corporations, including [[Unocal]] and [[Tata]], have made significant investments, with the [[natural gas]] sector a priority. In December 2005, the Central Bank of Bangladesh projected GDP growth between 6.3% to 6.8%. One significant contributor to the development of the economy has been the widespread propagation of [[Microcredit]] by [[Muhammad Yunus]] through the [[Grameen Bank]]. Already in late 1990's Grameen Bank had 2.3 million members, with a further 2.5 million members of other similar organizations.<ref name="schm">Schreiner1, Mark (2003). ''A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh'', Development Policy Review, 21(3), pp 357-382</ref> ==Demographics== {{main\|Demographics of Bangladesh}} Bangladesh has a population of 144 million (July 2005 est.) making it the 7th most populous country in the world. Bangladesh is the one of the [[List of countries by population density\|most densely populated countries in the world]] at about 1,000 persons per square kilometre (2,585/sq.&nbsp;mi). In the mid-1980's, the government promoted [[birth control]], which helped to reduce the population growth rate to about 2%. However, Most of the people are relatively young, (the 0-25 age group represents 60 percent of the total population and only 3 percent being 65 or older). Life expectancy rate is 61 years. Bangladesh is ethnically homogeneous, with Bengalis comprising 98% of the population. The remainder are mostly [[Bihari]] migrants and indegenous tribal groups. There are 13 tribal groups located in the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]], the most populous of the tribes are the [[Chakma\|Chakmas]]. The region has been a source for ethnic tension since the inception of Bangladesh.<ref name="rashm"> Rashiduzzaman, M (1998). ''Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord: Institutional Features and Strategic Concerns''. Asian Survey, 38(7), pp. 653-670.</ref> The largest tribal groups outside the Hill Tracts are the [[Santal\|Santhals]] and the [[Garo (tribe)\|Garos (Achiks)]]. The main language, as in [[West Bengal]], is [[Bangla]] (Bengali), an [[Indo-Aryan languages\|Indo-Aryan language]] of [[Sanskrit]] origin (like [[Hindi]], [[Punjabi]], and [[Gujarati language\|Gujarati]] and others). The language is written in its own [[Bengali script]]. Bangla is the official language of Bangladesh, but [[English language\|English]] is widely spoken as a second language among the middle and upper classes, and is often used in official tasks and higher education. The two major religions practiced in Bangladesh are [[Islam]] (83% [[CIA]] est. 1998, 88% US State Department est. 2005) and [[Hinduism]] (16% CIA est. 1998, 11% US State Dept. 2005). The ethnic Biharis are predominantly [[Shia]] Muslims. There are also some [[Buddhism in Bangladesh\|Buddhists]], [[Christianity\|Christians]], and [[animism\|Animists]]. Health and education levels have improved steadily, poverty levels have gone down. Nevertheless, Bangladesh remains among the poorest nations in the world. Most Bangladeshis are rural and poor, living on subsistence farming. Nearly half of the population lives on less than 1 USD per day. Health problems abound, ranging from [[surface water]] contamination, to [[arsenic]] in the [[ground water]], and diseases including [[malaria]], [[leptospirosis]] and [[dengue]]. Literacy rates are 54% among men and 32% among women. ==Culture== {{main\|Culture of Bangladesh}} Bangladesh has a vibrant culture that encompasses traditions both old and new. The [[Bangla language]] boasts a rich literary heritage, mostly shared by Bangladesh and [[West Bengal]]. The first literary text in Bangla is the seventh century [[Charyapada]]. The medieval ages saw much activity in Bangla literature by poets like [[Alaol]] and [[Chandidas]]. Bangla literature matured in the nineteenth century. The greatest literary icons are [[Rabindranath Tagore]] and [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]]. Rabindranath wrote what was later adopted as Bangladesh's national anthem [[Amar Shonar Bangla]], whereas a song of Nazrul was adopted as the Martial song. Contemporary Bangladesh keeps producing a substantial amount of litearture of all forms. Bangladesh also has a rich tradition in folk literature, evidenced by ''Môemonshingha gitika'', ''Ţhakurmar Jhuli'' or stories related to ''Gopal Bhar'' and ''[[Birbal]]''. The musical tradition of Bangladesh is lyrics-based (''Baniprodhan''), with minimal instrumental accompaniment. The [[Baul]] tradition is a unique heritage of Bangla folk music, and [[Lalon Fakir]] perhaps the best-known of Bauls. Folk music of Bengal is often accopanied by the [[ektara\|êktara]], a string instrument with only one string. Other instruments include the [[dotara]], [[dhol\|đhol]], [[khanjan]], and [[tabla]], among others. Bangladesh also has an active heritage in [[Indian classical music\|North Indian classical music]]. Perhaps the most famous classical musician from Bangladesh is [[Allauddin Khan\|Ustad Allauddin Khan]]. Similarly, Bangladeshi dance forms also draw from folk traditons, specially those of the various tribal groups, as well as the broader Indian dance tradition. Bangladesh produces about 60 films a year. However Bangladeshis are avid consumers of [[Bollywood]]-made cinema, as well as films from [[Kolkata]], in West Bengal, which has its own thriving Bengali-language movie industry. ==Sports== {{main\|Sports in Bangladesh}} [[Cricket]] is perhaps the most popular sport in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh cricket team were granted [[test cricket]] status and joined the elite league of national teams that play [[test cricket\|test matches]] in 2000. Other popular sports include [[football]], [[field hockey]], [[tennis]], [[badminton]], [[handball]], [[kabadi]], [[volleyball]], [[chess]], and [[carrom]]. Kabadi (কাবাডি), a 7-on-7 team sport played without a ball or any other equipment, is the national game of Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Sports Control Board was established, and as of 2005 it regulates 29 different sporting federations. On the international stage, Bangladesh has had its most noteworthy successes in cricket and chess. In 2005, Bangladesh won its first 5-day test match against Zimbabwe and defeated the best team and 2003 world champion Australia in a [[one-day international\|one-day match]] in one of the biggest upsets in cricket history. In chess, Bangladesh has had two [[International Grandmaster\|Grandmasters]]: [[Niaz Morshed]] and more recently [[Ziaur Rahman]]. Players from Bangladesh have won gold medals in shooting in the [[Commonwealth Games]]. ==Education== [[Image:BUET EME Building.jpg\|left\|thumb\|250px\|A view of the Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Building at BUET]] {{main\|Education in Bangladesh}} The literacy rate in Bangladesh is approximately 41% [http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/countries.cfm?c=BGD]. Education in Bangladesh is highly subsidized by the Government, which operates many [[school]]s and colleges at the [[primary school\|primary]], [[secondary school\|secondary]] and higher secondary level as well as many public [[university\|universities]]. To increase the literacy level, many innovative programs have been introduced in the country. Among the most sucessful ones are Food for education (FFE) program introduced in 1993.<ref name="ahma">Ahmed, A and del Nino, C (2002).''The food for education program in Bangladesh: An evaluation of its impact on educational attainment and food security'', FCND DP No. 138, International Food Policy Research Institute</ref> The Government also greatly subsidises the salaries of teachers in non-government schools. To promote literacy among women, a stipend program for women till the higher secondary level was instituted in 1994. A government-funded program gives incentives like [[stipend]]s and food for continuing education in the secondary level. Administratively, the country is divided into seven education boards (Barishal, Chittagong, Comilla, Dhaka, Jessore, Rajshahi and Sylhet Education Boards) which oversee education from the primary to the higher secondary level, and conduct the primary and junior scholarship examinations, the [[SSC\|Secondary School Certificate]] examination, and the [[HSC\|Higher Secondary Certificate]] examination. [[Higher education]] is also subsidized by the government, and most of the students seeking college education are enrolled in a public instituition. [[Dhaka University]] is the largest and oldest of all the public universities in Bangladesh. The National University regulates all public colleges in the country, hence an undergraduate student at a public college receives a degree from the National University. [[Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology]] (BUET), located in Dhaka, is the foremost instituition for technology in the country. There are newer universities in Chittagong, Khulna, Gazipur, Rajshahi and Sylhet that also provide engineering education. Public education in medical sciences is provided by Medical Colleges, each regulated by a public university. Postgraduate education in medical sciences is provided by BSMM University in Dhaka. [[Bangladesh Agricultural University]] in [[Mymensingh]] is the premier institution for agricultural studies, though other institutes exists as well. There are also a number of polytechnic institutes providing diplomas in specific technologies. Bangladesh also has a [[leather]] institute, a textile institute and other specialized education centers. Since the 1990's, higher education has boomed with the introduction of p
chives: Allen Ginsberg class (August 6th, 1976)] Streaming audio and 64 kbit/s MP3 ZIP [http://www.archive.org/audio/audio-details-db.php?collection=naropa&collectionid=naropa_anne_waldman_and_allen_ginsberg&from=mostViewed Naropa Audio Archives: Anne Waldman and Allen Ginsberg reading, including Howl (August 9th, 1975)] Streaming audio and 64 kbit/s MP3 ZIP [http://www.litkicks.com/BeatPages/page.jsp?what=AllenGinsberg Article on Allen Ginsberg @ Lit Kicks] [http://www.cosmoetica.com/TOP102-DES99.htm Essay on Ginsberg’s In Back Of The Real] [http://neonalley.org/ginsberg.html Blue Neon Alley &ndash; Allen Ginsberg directory] * [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0198gins.php Spike Magazine Interview] [http://www.levity.com/corduroy/ginsberg.htm Ginsberg's Memorial Page] [http://supervert.com/essays/art/allen_ginsberg Review of exhibit featuring photographs by Ginsberg] [[Category:1926 births\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:1997 deaths\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Allen Ginsberg\|Allen Ginsberg]] [[Category:American poets\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:American anarchists\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Anti-war people\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Beat Generation\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Beat writers\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Buddhists\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Columbia alumni\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Gay writers\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Greenwich Village Scene\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Jewish American writers\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Jewish anarchists\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Pederasty\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:People from New Jersey\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Tax resisters\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:American communists\|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[bg:Алън Гинсбърг]] [[cs:Allen Ginsberg]] [[de:Allen Ginsberg]] [[el:Άλλεν Γκίνσμπεργκ]] [[es:Allen Ginsberg]] [[eo:Allen GINSBERG]] [[fr:Allen Ginsberg]] [[it:Allen Ginsberg]] [[he:אלן גינסברג]] [[nl:Allen Ginsberg]] [[ja:アレン・ギンズバーグ]] [[pl:Allen Ginsberg]] [[fi:Allen Ginsberg]] [[sv:Allen Ginsberg]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Algebraically closed field</title> <id>1018</id> <revision> <id>38168661</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T17:48:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MathMartin</username> <id>29707</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[field (mathematics)\|field]] <math>F</math> is said to be '''algebraically closed''' if every [[polynomial]] in one variable of degree at least <math>1</math>, with [[coefficient]]s in <math>F</math>, has a [[root (mathematics)\|zero]] ([[root (mathematics)\|root]]) in <math>F</math>. As an example, the field of [[real number]]s is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation :<math>3x^2+1=0</math> has no solution in real numbers, even though both of its coefficients (<math>3</math> and <math>1</math>) are real. The same argument proves that the field of [[rational number]]s is not algebraically closed. Also, no [[finite field]] <math>F</math> is algebraically closed, because if <math>a_1</math>, <math>a_2</math>, &hellip;, <math>a_n</math> are the elements of <math>F</math>, then the polynomial :<math>(x-a_1)(x-a_2)</math>&nbsp;&middot;&middot;&middot;&nbsp;<math>(x-a_n)+1</math> has no zero in <math>F</math>. By contrast, the field of [[complex number]]s is algebraically closed: this is stated by the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]]. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of [[algebraic number]]s. Given a field <math>F</math>, the assertion &ldquo;<math>F</math> is algebraically closed&rdquo; is equivalent to each one of the following: Every polynomial <math>p(x)</math> of degree <math>n</math>&nbsp;&ge;&nbsp;<math>1</math>, with [[coefficient]]s in <math>F</math>, [[Factorization\|splits into linear factors]]. In other words, there are elements <math>k</math>,&nbsp;<math>x_1</math>,&nbsp;<math>x_2</math>,&nbsp;&hellip;,&nbsp;<math>x_n</math> in <math>F</math> such that ::<math>p(x)=k(x-x_1)(x-x_2)</math>&nbsp;&middot;&middot;&middot;&nbsp;<math>(x-x_n)</math>. * The field <math>F</math> has no proper [[algebraic extension]]. * For each natural number <math>n</math>, every [[Linear map\|linear map]] from <math>F^n</math> into itself has some [[Eigenvector\|eigenvector]]. * Every [[Rational function\|rational function]] in one variable <math>x</math>, with coefficients in <math>F</math>, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form <math>a/(x-b)^n</math>, where <math>n</math> is a natural number, and <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> are elements of <math>F</math>. If <math>F</math> is an algebraically closed field, <math>a</math> is an element of <math>F</math>, and <math>n</math> is a natural number, then <math>a</math> has an <math>n</math><sup>th</sup> root in <math>F</math>, since this is the same thing as saying that the equation <math>x^n-a=0</math> has some root in <math>F</math>. However, there are fields in which every element has an <math>n</math><sup>th</sup> root (for each natural number <math>n</math>) but which are not algebraically closed. In fact, even assuming that every polynomial of the form <math>x^n-a</math> splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed. Every field <math>F</math> has an "[[algebraic closure]]", which is the smallest algebraically closed field of which <math>F</math> is a subfield. ==References== * [[S. Lang]], ''Algebra'', Springer-Verlag, 2004, ISBN 0-387-95385-X * [[B. L. van der Waerden]], ''Algebra I'', Springer-Verlag, 1991, ISBN 0-387-97424-5 [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[de:Algebraisch abgeschlossen]] [[es:Cuerpo algebraicamente cerrado]] [[fr:Corps algébriquement clos]] [[it:Campo algebricamente chiuso]] [[pt:Corpo algebricamente fechado]] [[ru:&#1040;&#1083;&#1075;&#1077;&#1073;&#1088;&#1072;&#1080;&#1095;&#1077;&#1089;&#1082;&#1080; &#1079;&#1072;&#1084;&#1082;&#1085;&#1091;&#1090;&#1086;&#1077; &#1087;&#1086;&#1083;&#1077;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>August 6</title> <id>1019</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41533070</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:05:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gaius Cornelius</username> <id>293907</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Common typographical error 'battle of battle of'. See [[WP:LCM]].</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{\| style="float:right;" \|- \|{{AugustCalendar}} \|- \|{{ThisDateInRecentYears\|Month=August\|Day=6}} \|} '''August 6''' is the 218th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (219th in [[leap year]]s), with 147 days remaining. ==Events== [[1538]] - [[Bogota, Colombia\|Bogota]], [[Colombia]] founded by [[Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada]]. [[1806]] - [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor\|Francis II]], the last Holy Roman Emperor, abdicates, thus ending the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. [[1819]] - [[Norwich University]] founded in [[Vermont]] as the first private military school in the [[United States]]. [[1825]] - [[Bolivia]] gains independence from [[Spain]]. [[1861]] - [[United Kingdom\|British]] annexation of [[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]]. [[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Confederate States of America\|Confederate]] ironclad [[CSS Arkansas\|CSS ''Arkansas'']] is scuttled on the [[Mississippi River]] after suffering damage in a battle with [[USS Essex (1856)\|USS ''Essex'']] near [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]]. [[1890]] - At [[Auburn Prison]] in [[New York]], the first [[execution (legal)\|execution]] by [[electric chair]] is performed, with murderer [[William Kemmler]] as the subject. [[1901]] - [[Kiowa]] land in [[Oklahoma]] is opened for white settlement, effectively dissolving the contiguous [[Indian reservation\|reservation]]. [[1914]] - Ten [[Germany\|German]] [[U-boats]] leave their base in [[Heligoland]] to attack [[Royal Navy]] warships in the [[North Sea]], beginning the [[First Battle of the Atlantic]]. [[1915]] - [[World War I]]: The [[Battle of Sari Bair]] begins - The [[Allies]] mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major Allied landing of reinforcements at [[Suvla Bay]]. [[1926]] - [[Gertrude Ederle]] becomes first woman to swim across the [[English Channel]]. 1926 - In [[New York]], the [[Warner Brothers]]' [[Vitaphone]] system premieres with the movie ''[[Don Juan (movie)\|Don Juan]]'' starring [[John Barrymore]]. [[1945]] - [[World War II]]: the [[Atomic bombing of Hiroshima]]. An [[atomic bomb]] codenamed ''[[Little Boy]]'' is dropped by the American [[B-29]] [[Enola Gay]] on the city of [[Hiroshima]] in [[Japan]] at 8:16 a.m., killing 80,000 outright with another 60,000 dead by the end of the year due to [[Nuclear fallout\|fallout]] sickness. Ultimately, about 200,000 die due to the atomic bomb. [[1960]] - [[Cuban Revolution]]: In response to a [[United States]] embargo, [[Cuba]] nationalizes American and foreign-owned property in the nation. [[1962]] - [[Jamaica]] becomes independent. [[1965]]
a]]) * [http://www.todorokitaiko.com Todoroki Taiko] ([[Calgary, Alberta]]) * [http://www.uzume.com Uzume Taiko] ([[Vancouver, British Columbia]]) * [http://www.yakudo.com/ Yakudo] ([[Toronto, Ontario]]) * [http://www.ragingasianwomen.ca/ Raging Asian Women (RAW)] ([[Toronto, Ontario]]) ===Groups in the UK=== * [http://www.kagemusha.com/ Kagemusha Taiko] ([Exeter]) * [http://www.mugenkyo.com/ Mugenkyo] ([[Strathaven]], [[Lanarkshire]], [[Scotland]]) * [http://www.taikomeantime.com/ Taiko Meantime] ([London]) * [http://www.tamashiidaiko.com/ Tamashii Daiko] ([[London]]) ===VIDEO=== [http://robpongi.com/pages/comboMUSASHINOLO.html Musashino Summer Festival 2001 Video] {{commons\|Category:Taiko}} [[Category:Drums]] [[Category:Japanese instruments]] [[Category:Military Communication of Feudal Japan]] [[cs:Taiko]] [[de:Taiko]] [[es:Taiko]] [[he:&#1496;&#1488;&#1497;&#1511;&#1493;]] [[ja:&#21644;&#22826;&#40723;]] [[pt:Taiko]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dolly Parton</title> <id>8716</id> <revision> <id>41879054</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:45:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>209.124.229.184</ip> </contributor> <comment>/ Motion Pictures */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Band \| band_name = Dolly Parton \| image = [[Image:Dolly Parton in Nashville april 2005.jpg\|200px\|Dolly Parton in April 2005]] \| caption = Dolly Parton in April 2005. \| years_active = 1959&ndash;present \| origin = [[Sevierville, Tennessee]] \| music_genre = [[Pop music\|Pop]], [[country music\|country]], [[bluegrass]], [[folk music\|folk]] \| instruments = [[guitar]], [[banjo]], [[autoharp]] \| record_label = [[Goldband]] <small> (1959)</small> <br>[[Mercury Records\|Mercury]] <small> (1962)</small> <br>[[Somerset]] <small> (1963)</small> <br>[[Monument]] <small>(1965&ndash;1967)</small> <br>[[RCA]] <small>(1967&ndash;1985)</small> <br>[[Warner Brothers]] <small>(1987)</small> <br>[[Columbia Records\|Columbia]] <small>(1987&ndash;1995)</small> <br> [[Rising Tide]] <small> (1996&ndash;1997)</small> <br>[[Decca Records\|Decca]] <small>(1998)</small> <br>[[Asylum]] <small>(1999)</small> <br> [[Sugar Hill Records (folk)\|Sugar Hill Records]] <small>(1999&ndash;present)</small> <br> }} '''Dolly Parton''' (born [[January 19]], [[1946]]) is an [[United States\|American]] [[country music\|country]] [[singer]], [[songwriter]], [[composer]], author and [[Actor\|actress]]. She was born '''Dolly Rebecca Parton''' in [[Sevierville, Tennessee]], the fourth of twelve children born to Robert Lee Parton and Avie Lee Owens, and grew up "dirt poor" in a rustic one-room cabin in the [[Smoky Mountains]], also described as a "run-down farm" near Locust Ridge. Her siblings are Willadeene Parton (a poet), David Parton, Denver Parton, Bobby Parton, [[Stella Parton]] (a singer), Cassie Parton, Larry Parton (who died shortly after birth), Randy Parton (a singer), twins Floyd Parton (a songwriter) and Freida Parton, and [[Rachel Dennison]] (an actress). Parton was raised [[Assembly of God]], a [[Pentecostal]] [[religious denomination\|denomination]], and music was a very large part of her church experience. She once told an interviewer that her grandfather was a Pentecostal "[[Holy Roller]]" preacher and today, when appearing in live concerts, she frequently performs spiritual songs. Parton, however, professes no denomination, claiming only to be [[Christianity\|Christian]] while adding that she believes that all Earth's peoples are God's children. She began her entertainment [[career]] as a child, singing on local [[radio programming\|radio]] and [[television program\|television]] in [[East Tennessee]]. At age 12 she was appearing on [[Knoxville, Tennessee\|Knoxville]] TV, and at 13 she was recording on a small [[record label\|label]] and appearing at the [[Grand Ole Opry]] in [[Nashville, Tennessee\|Nashville]]. When she graduated from high school in [[1964]] she moved to Nashville, taking many traditional folkloric elements and popular music from East Tennessee with her. On [[May 30]], [[1966]], at the age of 20, she married Carl Dean, who ran an asphalt-paving business (whom she met upon her first day in Nashville two years earlier), in [[Ringgold, Georgia]]. She has remained with Dean, who has always shunned publicity and stayed in the background to an extraordinary degree, refusing to accompany his wife to almost every public appearance she has made since their marriage. Her extramarital relationships have been the subject of tabloid speculation for decades, with her heterosexuality often being questioned. When asked once, "Do you love women?" she replied "Yes, my mother was a woman." ==Early career== Parton's initial success came as a songwriter, with her songs being covered by [[Kitty Wells]], [[Hank Williams, Jr.]], [[Skeeter Davis]], and a number of others. She signed with [[Monument Records]] in late [[1965]], where she was initially pitched as a bubblegum pop singer, earning only one national chart single, "Happy, Happy Birthday Baby," which made it to No. 8 on the Billboard Bubbling Under The Hot 100 chart, the equivalent of No. 108 pop. (Although the song missed the Hot 100 pop chart, Bubbling Under is still one of the major Billboard charts. Thus, this technically was her first "chart single," even though it wasn't a pop "hit.") After a series of additional pop singles that failed to chart, label executives decided to allow her to sing country music after the success of her composition "Put It Off Until Tomorrow" as recorded by Bill Phillips. With Parton singing uncredited harmony on the single, Phillips' version of her song went to No. 6 on the country charts in [[1966]]. Her first country single, "Dumb Blonde" (one of the few songs she recorded during this period that she herself did ''not'' write), reached No. 24 country [[1967 in music\|1967]], followed later the same year with "Something Fishy," which went to No. 17. The two songs anchored her first full-length album, ''Hello I'm Dolly'', that same year. (She had previously contributed vocals to a compilation album, ''Hits Made Famous by Country Queens'', in late [[1963]] on the now defunct Somerset label.) [[image:DollyPorter.jpg\|left\|thumb\|Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton: "Just Between You and Me," RCA, 1967]] Late in that same year, Parton was asked to join the weekly syndicated country music TV program hosted by [[Porter Wagoner]], replacing [[Norma Jean (singer)\|Norma Jean]] who was semi-retiring. She also signed with [[RCA\|RCA Records]], Wagoner's label, during this period, where she would remain for the next two decades. Wagoner and Parton immediately began a hugely successful career as a vocal duet in addition to their solo work and their first single together, a cover of [[Tom Paxton]]'s "[[The Last Thing on My Mind]]," reached the top ten on the [[United States\|U.S.]] country [[Billboard magazine\|charts]] in late 1967, and was the first of over a dozen duet singles to chart for them during the next several years. Parton is a hugely successful songwriter, having begun by writing country songs with strong elements of [[folk music]] in them based upon her upbringing in humble mountain surroundings. Her songs "[[Coat of Many Colors]]" and "[[Jolene]]" have become classics in the field, as have a number of others. As a composer, she is also regarded as one of country music's most gifted storytellers, with many of her narrative songs based on persons and events from her childhood. [[image:LoveisLikeaButterfly.jpg\|right\|thumb\|''Love is Like a Butterfly'', RCA, 1974]] She stayed with the Wagoner show and continued to record duets with him for seven years, then made a break to become a solo artist. In [[1974 in music\|1974]], her song "[[I Will Always Love You]]" was released and went to #1 on the country charts, though the single did not "crossover" to the pop charts (as "Jolene" had done). Around the same time, [[Elvis Presley]] indicated that he wanted to cover the song. Parton was interested until Presley's manager, [[Colonel Tom Parker]], told her that she would have to sign over half of the publishing rights if Elvis recorded the song (as was the standard procedure for songs Elvis recorded). Parton refused and that decision is credited with helping make her many millions of dollars in royalties from the song over the years. During the mid-1970s, Parton had her eyes set on expanding her audience base. The first step towards meeting this goal was her attempt a variety show, ''[[Dolly (1976 TV series)\|Dolly]]''. Even though it had high ratings, the show lasted merely one season, with Parton asking out of her contract due to the stress it was causing her vocal chords. ==Breakout== Despite originally being typecast in many circles as a "Country and Western" singer, Parton later had even greater commercial success as a [[pop music\|pop]] singer and actress. Her [[1977 in music\|1977]] album "[[Here You Come Again]]" was her first million-seller, and the title track became her first top-ten single on the pop charts; many of her subsequent singles charted on both pop and country charts simultaneously. Her albums during this period were more tightly produced and were designed specifically for pop/crossover success. [[image:Tv_sesame_street_polly_darton.jpg\|left\|thumb\|Polly Darton, a character appearing on ''[[Sesame Street]]'' in the 1980s]] In [[1980 in film\|1980]], [[Jane Fonda]] decided Parton was a perf
regular ground or from other minor imbalances outside or in the home, due to weakness of quadriceps and gluteus muscles depriving the patient of automatic posture maintenance. A foot-drop can increase the likelihood of tripping. [[Dysphagia]] can occur, usually caused by upper esophageal constriction that often can be symptomatically improved, for several months to years, by bougie dilation per a GI or ENT physician. Respiratory muscle weakness can sometimes eventuate." W. King Engel, and Valerie Askanas NEUROLOGY 2006;66(Suppl 1): S20–S29 ==Causes== The causes, of sIBM are currently unknown, though it is likely that the affliction results from the interaction of a number of factors, both genetic and environmental. It appears that in people with sIBM, the muscle cells display “flags” telling the immune system that they are infected or damaged and the immune system attacks the cells and kills them, which would label it as an [[autoimmune disorder]]. One confusing aspect is that medications that lower the immune response do not improve sIBM symptoms, as should happen in the case of an autoimmune disorder. There are also many abnormal [[protein]] changes within the muscle cells. Some researchers believe it is these protein changes that are primary and that precced or trigger the abnormal immune response. From a recent article: "Two hypotheses predominate regarding the key pathogenic mechanisms involved in s-IBM: an amyloid-b-related degenerative process and an immune dysregulation. Ultimately, both may be considered important, and their possible interrelationship may be clarified. An intriguing feature is the accumulation within s-IBM muscle fibers of [[amyloid-beta]] (Ab), [[phosphorylated]] [[tau protein]], and at least 20 other proteins that are also accumulated in [[Alzheimer]] brain. In the s-IBM muscle fibers, there is evidence of misfolding of proteins, pathologic proteinaceous inclusions including aggresomes, abnormalities of the two protein-disposal systems involving the [[ubiquitin]] [[proteasome]] pathway and the [[lysosomes]], [[mitochondrial]] dysfunctions, and [[oxidative stress]]. The pronounced T-cell inflammation can be striking, and it is characterized by activated, antigen-driven, cytotoxic [[CD8]]+ [[T-cells]]." Askanas V, Dalakas MC, Engel WK. NEUROLOGY 2006;66(Suppl 1): Si ==Diagnosis== The term “inclusion body myositis” was originally introduced in [[1971]]. Over the ensuing 35 years, s-IBM has been increasingly recognized and reported, mainly due to increased awareness by doctors and because of improved diagnostic tests. In spite of much progress, sIBM is still often difficult to diagnose and many patients are initially misdiagnosed, often with another inflammatory muscle disorder called polymyositis. A diagnosis is based on clinical signs and testing. The first common clinical signs are falling down and tripping and weakness in the finger flexors - the muscles involved in grip. Several different tests may be done to help diagnose sIBM including a blood test of the level of [[creatine kinase]] (CK) (also known as phosphocreatine kinase or creatine phosphokinase (CPK)). This is an [[enzyme]] in the [[blood]] produced when muscle cells are damaged, normally by the ordinary wear and tear of everyday life. Elevated levels indicate that abnormal muscle damage has occurred, or is occurring. Typically, in sIBM, CK values are about 10 times normal levels. An [[electromyography]] (EMG) is often done. In this test, a small electric current is put into a muscle and a machine records how the muscle responds. The best test to diagnose sIBM is a [[muscle biopsy]] (MBx). A small piece of muscle is surgically removed and then is studied in the laboratory. Several major changes in the muscle cells are usually visible that are characteristic of sIBM: Inflammation is present and inflammatory cells are seen invading the muscle cells Holes ("[[vacuoles]]") appear in the muscle fibers ("vacuolar degeneration") Inclusions ("clumps" of material) are found inside the muscle fibers, these are associated with the build-up of several different abnormal proteins, including [[tau protein]] and beta [[amyloid]]. There are twisted, abnormal protein strands called "paired-helical filaments" (PHFs). PHFs contain a protein called phosphorylated tau that shows up when the muscle is tested with an stain called SMI-31 monoclonal [[antibody]] – this test recognizes p-tau of the PHFs within s-IBM muscle fibers and in the AD brain. Another abnormal protein is called [[ubiquitin]]. Inclusions containing ubiquitin can usually be seen in the muscle biopsies of sIBM patients, but they do not appear in any other muscle illnesses (e.g., not in polymyositis). Weakness and wasting (shrinkage) in the [[quadriceps]] along with the finger flexor muscles and a CK level of about ten times normal are findings suggestive of sIBM. These findings are then often confirmed with a muscle biopsy. ==Treatment== There have been several attempts to use different medications to treat sIBM but in clinical trials, none has been shown to be effective. No medication has ever been developed specifically for sIBM. ==Other Directly Related Disorders== There are several other rare genetic forms of muscle illness related to sIBM, called inclusion body myopathy (myopathies). In these forms, inflammation ([[myositis]]) is not a major feature of the muscle cells (myopathy just means diseased muscle). These illnesses are inherited, but different types are inherited in different ways. About one case of inclusion body myopathy is seen for every ten cases of sporadic inclusion body myositis. See [[hereditary inclusion body myopathy]] ==Other Related Disorders== When sIBM was originally described, the major feature was muscle inflammation. Two other disorders were also known to display muscle inflammation, so sIBM was classified along with them. They are [[dermatomyositis]] (DM) and [[polymyositis]] (PM) and all three illnesses were called idiopathic inflammatory myositis or inflammatory myopathies (idiopathic means they don’t know what causes it). It appears that sIBM and [[polymyositis]] share some common features, especially the initial sequence of immune system activation, however, polmyositis does not display the subsequent protein abnormalities seen in IBM. As well, polymyositis tends to respond well to treatments, IBM does not. IBM and polymyositis apparently involve different disease mechanisms than are seen in [[dermatomyositis]]. ==External links and references== [http://members.shaw.ca/btillieribm/ Page by a patient] *[http://www.myositissupportgroup.org/IBM/ Patient support group] Latest review: January 2006 Twenty two articles resulted from a conference held on inclusion body myositis (s-IBM) - Inclusion-body myositis: Clinical and pathologic aspects, and basic research potentially relevant to treatment. January 26-28, 2005 in Santa Monica. The TMA funded the Conference and the Muscular Dystrophy Association assisted by funding the printing and distribution of the Conference report. The 22 articles were published in electronic format as an Expedited E-Pub at www.neurology.org on December 16, 2005. They appear in print in Neurology Volume 66(2) Supplement 1 January 24, 2006. [http://members.shaw.ca/btillieribm/2006supp.htm] [[Category:Muscular disorders]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ion implantation</title> <id>15539</id> <revision> <id>35076496</id> <timestamp>2006-01-13T23:02:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluemoose</username> <id>178836</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB\|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ion implantation''' is a [[materials engineering]] process by which [[ion (physics)\|ion]]s of a material can be implanted into another solid, thereby changing the physical properties of the solid. Ion implantation is used in [[Fabrication (semiconductor)\|semiconductor device fabrication]] and in metal finishing, as well as various applications in [[materials science]] research. The ions introduce both a chemical change in the target, in that they can be a different element than the target, and a structural change, in that the [[crystal structure]] of the target can be damaged or even destroyed. [[image:ion_implanter_schematic.png\|thumb\|Ion implantation setup with mass separator]] Ion implantation equipment typically consists of an [[ion source]], where ions of the desired element are produced, an accelerator, where the ions are electrostatically accelerated to a high energy, and a target chamber, where the ions impinge on a target, which is the material to be implanted. Each ion is typically a single atom, and thus the actual amount of material implanted in the target is the integral over time of the ion current. This amount is called the dose. The currents supplied by implanters are typically small (microamperes), and thus the dose which can be implanted in a reasonable amount of time is small. Thus, ion implantation finds application in cases where the amount of chemical change required is small. Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 [[electronvolt\|keV]] (1,600 to 80,000 aJ). Energies in the range 1 to 10 keV (160 to 1,600 aJ) can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less. Energies lower than this result in very little damage to the target, and fall under the designation [[ion beam deposition]]. Higher energies can also be used: accelerators capable of 5 MeV (800,000 aJ) are common. However, there is often great structural damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad, the net composition change at any point in the target will be small. The energy of the ions, as well as the ion species and the composition of the target determine the depth of penetration of the ions in the solid: A monoen
t constitute misconduct are listed, the definitions are broad. In particular, the offence of "unsporting behaviour" may be used to deal with most events that violate the spirit of the game, even if they are not listed as specific offences. Misconduct may be punished by a [[yellow card\|caution]] (yellow card) or [[red card\|sending-off]] (red card). ===Advantage=== The advantage clause states that the referee should allow play to continue — i.e. not stop play — when the team against which an offence has been committed will benefit from having play continue. The referee may "call back" play and penalise the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue within a short period of time, typically taken to be four to five seconds. Even if an offence is not penalised due to application of the advantage clause the offender may still be sanctioned for any associated misconduct at the next stoppage of play. === Offside === {{main\|Offside law (football)}} The offside law limits the ability of attacking players to remain forward (i.e. closer to the opponent's goal-line) of both the ball and the second last defending player. It is often assumed that the purpose of this law is to prevent "goal scrounging" or "cherry picking", but in fact the offside law has similar roots to the offside law in rugby. The details and application of this law are complex, and often result in controversy: for more information on offside please refer to the main article above. ==Governing bodies== The recognised international governing body of football (and associated games, such as [[futsal]] and [[beach soccer]]) is the [[Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] (FIFA). Six regional confederations are associated with FIFA; these are: * Asia: [[Asian Football Confederation]] (AFC) * Africa: [[Confederation of African Football]] (CAF) * Central/North America & Caribbean: [[CONCACAF\|Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football]] (CONCACAF; also known as The Football Confederation) * Europe: [[UEFA\|Union of European Football Associations]] (UEFA) * Oceania: [[Oceania Football Confederation]] (OFC) * South America: [[CONMEBOL\|Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol]] (South American Football Confederation; CONMEBOL) The recognised various national associations (see [[football around the world]]) oversee football within their jurisdictions. These are affiliated both with FIFA directly and also with their respective continental confederations. Note that the Laws of the Game are not maintained by FIFA itself; rather they are maintained by the [[International Football Association Board]], as discussed in the [[#history and development\|history and development section]] above. == Major international competitions == === Worldwide international competitions === The major international competition in football is the [[Football World Cup\|World Cup]] organised by FIFA. This competition takes place over a four-year period. Over 190 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within the scope of continental confederations for a place in the finals. The finals tournament, which is held every four years, now involves 32 national teams (increased from 24 in [[1998]]) competing over a four-week period. The next World Cup takes place in Germany 2006{{ref\|WC2006}}. There has been a [[Football at the Summer Olympics\|football tournament]] at the [[Summer Olympic Games]] since [[1900]], except at the [[1932]] games in [[Los Angeles, California\|Los Angeles]]. Originally this was for amateurs only, however since the [[1984 Summer Olympics]] professionals have been permitted as well, albeit with certain restrictions which effectively prevent countries from fielding their strongest sides. Currently, the Olympic men's tournament is played at Under-23 level with a restricted number of over-age players per team; consequently the competition is not generally considered to carry the same international significance and prestige as the World Cup. A women's tournament was added in [[1996]]; in contrast to the men's event, the women's Olympic tournament is played by full international sides without age restrictions. It thus carries international prestige considered comparable to that of the [[FIFA Women's World Cup]]. === Major international competitions === The major international competitions of the world and the continental confederations, followed by their major club events where appropriate, are: * World: [[FIFA World Cup]]; [[FIFA Club World Championship]] * Europe: [[European Football Championship\|European Championship]]; [[UEFA Champions League]] * South America: [[Copa América]]; [[Copa Libertadores de América\|Copa Libertadores]] * Africa: [[African Nations Cup]]; [[CAF Champions League]] * Asia: [[Asian Cup]]; [[AFC Champions League]] * North/Central America & Caribbean: [[CONCACAF Gold Cup]]; [[CONCACAF Champions Cup]] * Oceania: [[Oceania Nations Cup]]; [[Oceania Club Championship]] == Names of the game == [[Image:Soccerball.jpg\|thumb\|A [[football (ball)\|football]]]] {{main articles\|[[Football (soccer) names]] and [[Football (word)]]}} <!-- NB: Keep this overview article streamlined! Please place details/debate of what name is used where and other name debate issues is the dedicated article [[Football (soccer) names]] rather than here! --> The rules of football were codified in England by the Football Association in [[1863]], and the name ''association football'' was coined to distinguish the game from the [[Football\|other forms of football]] played at the time, specifically [[rugby football]]. The term ''soccer'' first appeared in the [[1880s]] as a slang abbreviation of Association football. Today the sport is known by a number of names throughout the English-speaking world, the most common being ''football'' and ''soccer''. The term used depends largely on the need to differentiate the sport from other codes of football followed in a community. ''Football'' is the term used by FIFA, the sport's world governing body, and the [[International Olympic Committee]]. For more details of naming throughout the world, please refer to the main articles above. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[sport]] is frequently referred to with the [[slang]] name of "footy". [[Image:Soccer player 077.JPG\|thumb\|Juggling]]A variant game played with the soccer ball is called juggling. Basically players keep the soccer ball in the air with the use of their feet or head only. == See also == <div style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: solid #aaa 1px; background: #f9f9f9; padding: 1ex; font-size: 90%;"> {\| \|\| [[Image:Portal.gif\|Portal]] \|\| '''''[[Wikipedia:Wikiportal/Association football\|Football (soccer) portal]] \|} </div> ===Teams and players=== [[List of national football teams]] [[List of football teams\|List of club/sub-national football teams]] [[List of football (soccer) players\|List of famous football players]] ===Gameplay=== [[Formation (football)\|Football formations]] - common team formations [[Football (soccer) positions\|Football positions]] - common player positions [[Football (soccer) tactics and skills\|Football tactics and skills]] ===Other varieties of the game=== [[Beach soccer]] Indoor football: [[futsal]], [[five a side football]], and [[indoor soccer]] Informal football-style games: see [[street football]] [[Paralympic football]] ===Miscellaneous=== [[Football culture]] [[List of football (soccer) mascots]] [[NF-Board]] [[Oldest football club]]s [[Cap (football)\|Representative caps]] [[Sports league attendances]] - total and average league attendances in football and other sports [[:Category:Football (soccer) computer and video games\|Football (soccer) computer and video games]] [http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Portal:Football WikiNews football news portal] {{Football (soccer) chronology}} {{Women's football}} ==References== # {{note\|FA}} {{cite web \| title = History of the FA \| work = Football Association website \| url = http://www.thefa.com/TheFA/TheOrganisation/Postings/2004/03/HISTORY_OF_THE_FA.htm \| accessdate = February 19 \| accessyear = 2006 }} # {{note\|IFAB}} {{cite web \| title = The International FA Board \| work = FIFA website \| url = http://www.fifa.com/en/history/history/0,3504,3,00.html \| accessdate = February 19 \| accessyear = 2006 }} # {{note\|WC2006}} {{cite web \| title = FIFA World Cup 2006 \| work = FIFA World Cup 2006 website \| url = http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/ \| accessdate = February 19 \| accessyear = 2006 }} {{commons\|Soccer}} {{wikinewsportal\|Football (Soccer)}} ==Further reading== * Stefan Szymanski and Tim Kuypers (1999), ''Winners and Losers: The Business Strategy of Football'', Viking == External links == * [http://www.fifa.com/ Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)] * [http://www.the-afc.com/ Asian Football Confederation (AFC)] * [http://www.cafonline.com/ Confederation of African Football (CAF)] * [http://www.concacaf.com/ Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF)] * [http://www.uefa.com/ Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)] * [http://www.conmebol.com/ South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL)] * [http://www.oceaniafootball.com/ Oceania Football Confederation (OFC)] * [http://www.fifa.com/en/regulations/index.html The Current Laws of the Game (LOTG)] * [http://www.rsssf.com/ The Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF)] * [http://www.11v11.co.uk/ Association of Football Statisticians (AFS)] * [http://www.holycross.edu/departments/economics/vmatheso/research/soccerreview.pdf Economics of Football - Literature Review] ([[PDF]]) [[Category:Ball games]] [[Category:Football (soccer)]] [[Category:Olympic sports]] [[Category:Team sports]] {{Link FA\|cs}} {{Link FA\|sv}} [[af:Sokker]] [[als:Fussball]] [[be:Футбол]] [[bg:Футбол]] [[bn:এসোসিয়েশ
ed to the neighboring city of [[Medina]]. This migration is called the ''[[Hijra (Islam)\|Hijra]]''; it was the first year of Muhammad's "reign" as a secular ruler as well as a religious leader. Following the custom of the time, later historians took that year as the start of the [[Muslim calendar]]. The two cities of Mecca and Medina went to war. Muhammad and his followers won one battle ([[Battle of Badr]]) and managed to stalemate a Meccan attack in the [[Battle of the Trench]]. Through conquest and conversion, Muhammad was able to unite the surrounding tribes behind him and eventually assembled such a large force that Mecca capitulated without a fight. By the time Muhammad died, on [[June 8]], [[632]], he and his followers had united the entire [[Arabian peninsula]] under his leadership, and had started to expand into the areas now known as [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]]. ==The Fitna== {{main\|First Islamic civil war}} Umar was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], another of Muhammad's earliest followers. Under Uthman, the new empire fell into a civil war called the [[Fitna]], or disorder. Many of Muhammad's family and earliest followers were unhappy with Uthman, feeling that he was unduly favoring his kinsfolk and acting less like a religious leader and more like king. Rebellious soldiers killed Uthman and offered the leadership to [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], Muhammad's cousin, foster-son, and son-in-law. Many Muslims (in particular, those who had their own designs on the Caliphate) refused to accept Ali as a leader; he spent his brief caliphate fighting against dissenting factions and Uthman's relatives, the [[Umayyads]]. Ali was killed by a [[Kharijite]] assassin and Uthman's family, the [[Umayyads]], claimed the caliphate. They managed to retain leadership of the majority of Muslims for several generations, but save for a brief period, never again ruled over an undivided Islamic empire. The Islamic faith diverged as well, splitting into the three main traditions of today ([[Sunni]], [[Shi'a]], and [[Ibadi]]). (This is perhaps a gross over-simplification of a complex religious history.) ==The Second Fitna== Ummayad rule was interrupted by a second civil war (the Second Fitna) in 680, re-established, then ended in 758. After this, there would be rival dynasties claiming the caliphate, or leadership of the Muslim world, and many Islamic states and empires offered only token obedience to a caliph unable to unify the Islamic world. ==The zenith of Islamic power== [[Image:Califate 750.jpg\|thumb\|260px\|The territory of the Caliphate in the year 750]] The majority of the population of this new empire was non-Muslim, and aside from a protection tax (''[[jizya]]'') and [[dhimmi\|other restrictions]], the conquered people found their religions tolerated. Indeed, Muslim authorities often discouraged conversions, since this would erode the tax base. Under the Umayyads, would-be converts had to find an Arab patron who would adopt them into his tribe. Once they were honorary Arabs they could convert. Nevertheless, most of the populace eventually converted to Islam. Whether this was a fast or a slow movement is a topic hotly debated in academia, and only to be settled by meticulous country-by-country studies. == The decline of political unity == The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. The emirates, still recognizing the theoretical leadership of the caliphs, drifted into independence, and a brief revival of control was ended with the establishment of two rival caliphates: the [[Fatimid]]s in north Africa, and the Umayyad's [[Caliph of Cordoba\|Caliphate of Cordoba]] in Spain (the emirs there being descended from an escaped member of that family). Eventually the Abbasids ruled as puppets for the [[Buwayhid]] emirs. A series of new invasions swept over the Islamic world. First, the newly converted [[Seljuk Turks]] swept across and conquered most of Islamic Asia, hoping to restore orthodox rule and defeat the Fatimids but soon falling prey to political decentralization themselves. After the disastrous defeat of the Byzantines at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in [[1071]] the west launched a series of [[Crusades]] and for a time captured Jerusalem. [[Saladin]] however restored unity, defeated the Fatimids and recaptured the city. Later crusades were launched with at least the nominal intent to recapture the holy city. But hardly more was ever accomplished than the looting and occupation of [[Constantinople]], leaving the Byzantine Empire severely weakened and ripe for later conquest. During this time, great advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy science and mathematics. By the early 13th century a far more serious threat had arrived. The [[Mongols]], who invaded [[Baghdad]] in [[1258]], had conquered most Islamic territories east of Egypt. The Horde permanently ended the [[Abbasid\|Abbasid caliphate]] and the Golden Age of medieval Islam, leaving the Islamic world damaged and confused. The Mongols later converted to Islam and developed their own sophisticated and diverse trade based culture, integrating elements from every corner of Eurasia. The Islamic world reached a new peak (albeit not comparable to the Golden Age of the Abbasids) under the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The Ottomans migrated from the Central Asian steppe and at first established a tiny state in [[Anatolia]] (modern day [[Turkey]]). After a 1453 siege lasting two months, Ottoman [[janissaries]] and cannons overwhelmed Constantinople. The millennium-old Byzantine Empire was suddenly absorbed by the new Ottoman Empire, which would extend its influence over most of the Islamic world and reach deep into Christian Europe. == The Ottoman empire == {{main\|Ottoman Empire}} The Ottoman empire, which was making great strides in conquering the East, threatened to conquer Central and Western Europe. In [[1529]], the [[Siege of Vienna]] failed, stopping any further advance of the Ottoman Empire into Eastern Europe. The [[Battle of Vienna]] in [[1683]] began the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from many parts of Eastern Europe and later the Balkans. == Three Muslim empires== In the [[18th century]] there were three great Muslim empires: the aforementioned [[Ottoman Empire\|Ottoman]] in Turkey, Mesopotamia, the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean; the [[Safavid Empire\|Safavid]] in Iran; and the [[Mogul Empire\|Mogul]] in India. By the end of the [[19th century]], all three had been weakened or destroyed by massive Western cultural influence or military ambitions. ===The Wahhabi Movement=== During the [[18th century]], [[Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab]] ([[1703]]&ndash;[[1792]]) led a religious movement (the [[Wahhabi Movement]]) in eastern Arabia that sought to purify Islam. Wahhab wanted to return Islam to what he thought were its original principles as taught by the ''as-salaf as-saliheen'' (the earliest converts to Islam) and rejected what he regarded as corruptions introduced by [[Bida]] (religious innovation) and [[Shirk (polytheism)]]. This movement is considered to be the foundation of modern [[Islamic terrorism]] and it should be noted that [[Osama bin Laden]], [[Ayman Al-Zawahiri]], and [[Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi]] have all made claims to follow or have been inspired by [[Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab]]. On the other hand, other claimed followers of Wahhab are non-militant and merely reject [[Fiqh]] (Islamic [[Jurisprudence]]) and [[ijtihad]] (Islamic legal decisions by ''mujtahid''). == The 20th century == The modern age brought radical technological and organizational changes to Europe and Islamic countries found themselves less modern when compared to the many western nations. Europe's state-based government and rampant colonization allowed the West to dominate the globe economically and forced Islamic countries to question change. === The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East === Islamic territories were granted at least nominal independence after the end of the [[First World War]] and full independence after the [[Second World War \| second]]. Many Muslim countries sought to imitate European political organization and [[nationalism]] began to emerge in the Islamic world. Countries like [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], and [[Turkey]] organized their governments with definable polities and sought to develop national pride among their citizens. Other places, like [[Iraq]], weren't as successful due to a lack of unity. ===The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis=== Some Muslim countries, such as [[Turkey]] and [[Egypt]], sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], the new government brought out new religious expression in the reemergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as [[Wahhabism]] which found its way into the [[Saudi royal family]]. ===Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan=== {{main\|Partition of India}} {{expandsect}} ===The creation of the state of Israel=== Many Muslim countries were left looking for answers as their new Westernized governments continued to conflict with their Islamic societies. In most cases this search led to the reassertion of the values of their religious heritage. With the introduction of [[Israel]], Jews who came mainly from Europe displaced the native Muslims and Christians who had lived there for centuries, making Arabs a minority in Israel and leaving millions of them (Palestinians) as refugees in neighboring countries. In order to oppose the Jewish "encroachment", Arab nations became united in their push for [[Pan-Arabism]] instead of [[nationalism]], forming the [[League of Arab States]] in [[1945]]. The coalition grew to 22 countires by [[1992]] with the failure of a series of wars launched against Israel only adding to the sense of common purpose among Muslim countries. ===Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East=== Between [[1953]] and [[19
heir mouth. Elephants also inhale water to spray on their body during bathing. On top of this watery coating, the animal will then spray dirt and mud, which act as a protective sunscreen. This appendage also plays a key role in many social interactions. Familiar elephants will greet each other by entwining their trunks, much like a handshake. They also use them while play-wrestling, caressing during courtship, and for dominance displays - a raised trunk can be a warning or threat, while a lowered trunk can be a sign of submission. Elephants can defend themselves very well by flailing their trunk at unwanted intruders or by grasping and flinging them. An elephant also relies on its trunk for its highly developed sense of smell. Raising the trunk up in the air and swiveling it from side to side, like a periscope, it can determine the location of friends, enemies, and food sources. ====Tusks==== The [[tusk]]s of an elephant are upper [[incisor]]s that are continuously growing. An adult male's tusks will grow about seven inches a year. Tusks are indispensable to an elephant. They are used primarily to dig for water, salt, and roots; to debark trees, in order to get at the tasty pulp inside; and to move downed trees and branches when clearing a path. In addition, they are used for marking trees to establish territory and occasionally as weapons. Like humans who are typically right- or left-handed, elephants are usually right- or left-tusked. The dominant tusk, called the master tusk, is generally shorter and more rounded at the tip from wear. Both male and female African elephants have large, impressive tusks that can reach over ten feet in length and weigh over two hundred pounds. In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks. Female Asians have tusks which are very small or absent altogether. Asian males can have tusks as long as the much larger Africans, but they are usually much slimmer and lighter (the heaviest recorded was only 86 pounds). The tusk of both species is mostly made of [[calcium]] and [[phosphate]]. As a piece of living tissue, it is relatively soft (compared with other minerals such as rock), and the tusk, also known as [[ivory]], is strongly favoured by artisans for its carvability. The desire for elephant ivory has been one of the major factors in the dramatic decline of the world's elephant population. ====Teeth==== Elephants' [[Tooth\|teeth]] are very different from those of most other mammals. Over their lives they have 26 teeth, including two upper incisors (tusks), 12 [[premolar]]s, and 12 [[Molar (tooth)\|molar]]s. Unlike most mammals, which [[Tooth development\|grow]] baby teeth and then replace them with a permanent set of adult teeth, elephants have cycles of tooth rotation throughout their entire life. After one year the tusks are permanent, but the other teeth are replaced six times in an elephant's life. The teeth don't emerge from the jaws vertically like humans' do with new teeth replacing old ones from above or below. Instead, they have a horizontal progression, like a conveyor belt. New teeth grow in at the back of the mouth, pushing older teeth toward the front, where they become brittle and fall out, making room for more teeth. When an elephant becomes very old, the last set of teeth become brittle, and it must rely on softer foods to chew. Very elderly elephants often spend their final years exclusively in marshy areas where they can feed on soft wet grasses. Eventually, when the final teeth fall out, the animal will be unable to eat and will die. However, as more habitat is destroyed, the elephants' living space becomes smaller and smaller; the elderly no longer have the opportunity to roam in search of more appropriate food and will, consequently, die of starvation at an earlier age. ====Skin==== Another name for an elephant is pachyderm, which means "thick skin". An elephant's skin is extremely tough around most parts of its body. However, the skin around the mouth and inside of the ear is paper thin. Normally, the skin of an Asian is covered with more hair than its African counterpart. This is most noticeable in the young. Asian calves are usually covered with a thick coat of brownish red fuzz. As they get older, this hair darkens and becomes more sparse, but it will always remain on their heads and tails. Both species of elephants are typically grayish in colour, but the Africans very often appear brown or reddish from wallowing in mud holes of coloured soil. Wallowing is actually a very important behaviour in elephant society. Not only is it important for socialization, but the mud acts as a sunscreen, protecting their skin from harsh ultraviolet radiation. Though tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive. Without regular mud baths to protect it from burning, as well as from insect bites and moisture loss, an elephant's skin would suffer serious damage. After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dirt on its body to help dry and bake on its new protective coat. As elephants are limited to smaller and smaller areas, there is less water available, and local herds will often come too close over the right to use these limited resources. Wallowing also aids the skin in regulating body temperatures. Elephants spend every day fighting an uphill battle to stay cool. They have a very difficult time releasing heat through the skin because, in proportion to their body size, they have very little of it. The ratio of an elephant's mass to the surface area of its skin is many times that of a human. Elephants have even been observed lifting up their legs to expose the soles of their feet, presumably in an effort to expose more skin to the air. Since wild elephants live in very hot climates, they must have other means of getting rid of excess heat. ====Ears==== [[Image:Anakotta1.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|left\|An [[Elephant Sanctuary]] at [[Punnathur kotta]], [[Kerala]], [[south India]].]] The large flapping ears of an elephant are also very important for temperature regulation. Elephant ears are made of a very thin layer of skin stretched over cartilage and a rich network of blood vessels. On hot days, elephants will flap their ears constantly, creating a slight breeze. This breeze cools the surface blood vessels, and then the cooler blood gets circulated to the rest of the animal's body. The hot blood entering the ears can be cooled as much as ten degrees Fahrenheit before returning to the body. Differences in the ear sizes of African and Asian elephants can be explained, in part, by their geographical distribution. Africans originated and stayed near the equator, where it is warmer. Therefore, they have bigger ears. Asians live farther north, in slightly cooler climates, and thus have smaller ears. The ears are also used in certain displays of aggression and during the males' mating period. If an elephant wants to intimidate a predator or rival, it will spread its ears out wide to make itself look more massive and imposing. During the breeding season, males give off an odor from a gland located behind their eyes. Joyce Poole, a well-known elephant researcher, has theorized that the males will fan their ears in an effort to help propel this "elephant cologne" great distances. Walking at a normal pace an elephant covers about 2 to 4 miles an hour (3 to 6 km/h) but they can reach 24 miles an hour (40 km/h) at full speed. ====Knees==== The elephant is the only animal to have four knees. ===Evolution=== Although the fossil evidence is uncertain, some scientists believe there is genetic evidence that the elephant family shares distant ancestry with the [[Sirenia]]ns (sea cows) and the [[hyrax]]es. In the distant past, members of the hyrax family grew to large sizes, and it seems likely that the common ancestor of all three modern families was some kind of amphibious hyracoid. One theory suggests that these animals spent most of their time under water, using their trunks like [[snorkel]]s for breathing. Modern elephants have retained this ability and are known to swim in that manner for up to 6 hours and 50 km. In the past, there was a much wider variety of elephant genera, including the [[mammoth]]s, [[stegodon]]s and [[deinotherium\|deinotheria]]. ===Varieties=== It has long been known that the [[Savannah Elephant\|African]] and [[Asian Elephant\|Asian]] elephants are separate species. African elephants tend to be larger than the Asian species (up to 4 m high and 7500 kg) and have bigger ears. Male and female African elephants have long tusks, while male and female Asian Elephants have shorter tusks, with tusks in females being almost non-existent. African elephants have a dipped back, smooth forehead and two "fingers" at the tip of their trunks, as compared with the Asian species which have an arched back, two humps on the forehead and have only one "finger" at the tip of their trunks. There are two populations of African elephants, [[Savannah Elephant\|Savannah]] and [[Forest Elephant\|Forest]], and recent genetic studies have led to a reclassification of these as separate species, the forest population now being called ''Loxodonta cyclotis'', and the Savannah (or Bush) population termed ''Loxodonta africana''. This reclassification has important implications for conservation, because it means where there were thought to be two small populations of a single endangered species, there may in fact be two separate species, each of which is even more severely endangered. There's also a potential danger in that if the forest elephant isn't explicitly listed as an endangered species, poachers and smugglers might thus be able to evade the law forbidding trade in endangered animals and their body parts. The Forest elephant and the Savannah elephant can hybridise successfully, though their preference for different terrains reduces the opportunities to hybridise. Many captive African elephants are probably generic African elephants
ire ecologists. Whenever chaparral burns, everything goes, no matter the age. This is characteristic of a crown fire regime as opposed to the surface fire type found in ponderosa forests. A young, 5-year-old stand of chaparral has already produced more than enough material to fuel and carry a catastrophic wildfire across the landscape. Overall, how old a recovered chaparral stand happens to be has very little to do with its chances of burning. There is no question chaparral is extremely flammable, especially during dry weather conditions. As stands grow older, they continue to build up fuel in the form of both dead and living plant material. This is a natural process and part of the normal chaparral life cycle. However, not all chaparral stands are alike and the amount of fuel accumulation varies with the type. For example, a hillside of ceanothus chaparral has the capacity of accumulating more potential biomass in less than 20 years than an expanse of chamise chaparral does in 60 years. In addition, chaparral on north facing slopes may have more biomass accumulation in 10 years than drier, south-facing slopes do at 80 years. The ratio of dead to living material in a chaparral stand is equally complex, with amounts accumulated being determined by multiple environmental factors including prior fire history, direction of slope, and severity of drought periods. Extensive studies by numerous investigators have found 30% dead to living ratios across a range of 20 to 60 year old stands without any significant relationship to age. So automatically assuming an older stand of chaparral is filled with dead fuel ready to burn is not supported by actual field research. ==Species== In [[Southern California]] chaparral forms a dominant habitat. Members of the chaparral biota native to California, all of which tend to regrow quickly after fires, include: [[Ceanothus]] [[Chamise]], ([[Adenostoma fasciculatum]]) [[Scrub oak]] [[Laurel sumac]], ([[Rhus laurina]]) [[Manzanita]] [[Mountain mahogany]] [[Toyon]] [[Yucca]] ==See also== * [[California chaparral and woodlands]] * [[Maquis shrubland\|Maquis]] ==External links== [http://www.californiachaparral.com/ California Chaparral Field Institute] [[Category:Ecology]] [[Category: Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub]] [[fa:خارستان‌های کالیفرنیا]] [[pl:Chaparral]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CJD</title> <id>7456</id> <revision> <id>38694182</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T00:42:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ikkyu2</username> <id>382739</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>gr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''CJD''' can mean: [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] [[chronological]] [[Julian day]] [[Christliches Jugenddorfwerk Deutschlands]], a German Christian educational institution. {{TLAdisambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cl</title> <id>7457</id> <revision> <id>15905523</id> <timestamp>2003-11-08T11:56:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Docu</username> <id>8029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>upd. redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CL]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Citric Acid</title> <id>7458</id> <revision> <id>15905524</id> <timestamp>2002-06-01T18:12:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Karen Johnson</username> <id>1300</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect citric acid</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[citric acid]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clinker</title> <id>7460</id> <revision> <id>41511179</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:26:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kevin Ryde</username> <id>564285</id> </contributor> <comment>add [[Humphry Clinker]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clinker''' has several meanings: * [[Clinker (boat building)]], construction method for wooden boats * [[Slag]], also called clinker, material remaining after smelting metal ore * [[Cement]] manufacturing clinker is a kilned then quenched product primarily composed of tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and calcium aluminoferrite. * Residue from burning [[coal]]. <!-- having trouble finding a specific article on this, I think it's not quite the same as smelting residue --> * [[Humphry Clinker]], title character of Tobias Smollett's 1771 novel ''The Expedition of Humphry Clinker'' See also, * [[Clinker brick]], rough dark coloured bricks {{disambig}} [[de:Klinker]] [[fr:Brique]] [[nl:Klinker (steen)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clipper</title> <id>7461</id> <revision> <id>36054945</id> <timestamp>2006-01-21T05:32:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stan Shebs</username> <id>7777</id> </contributor> <comment>dab</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses\|a type of Ship}} [[Image:Belle_Etoile_1.jpg\|thumb\|A model of a vessel of the clipper type, the four-masted barque named ''Belle Étoile'']] A '''clipper''' was a very fast multiple-masted [[sailing ship]] of the [[19th century]]. Generally narrow for their length, limited in their bulk freight carrying capacities, and small by later 19th century standards, the clippers had a large relative [[sail]] area. "Clipper ships" were mostly products of British and American [[shipyard]]s, though France, the Netherlands (the [[Dutch Clippers\|Dutch-built]] "Telanak", built in 1859 for the tea and passenger trade to Java) and other nations also produced a number of them. Clippers sailed all over the world, primarily on the trade routes between Britain and its [[colony\|colonies]] in the east, in the trans-Atlantic trade, and in the New York-to-San Francisco route round [[Cape Horn\|The Horn]] during the [[Gold Rush]]. ==Origins== [[Image:Forteviot,_Jacobsen.jpg\|thumb\|right\|''"The Forteviot,"'' [[1896]], by Antonio Jacobsen]] The often quoted derivation of the word, that the vessels "clipped" time off a voyage, is probably incorrect. However, the example of the other class of vessel built for speed, the cutter, reminds us that the cutting notion may have been seen as relevant. One of the meanings of clip, from the [[17th century\|seventeenth century]] onward, possibly from the sound of wings, is to fly or move quickly. The term ''clipper'' was originally applied to a fast horse and most likely derives from the term ''clip'', meaning ''speed'', as in "going at a good clip". The term ''clipper'' seems to be much the same as ''flier''. The Oxford English Dictionary gives its earliest English quotation as from 1830. Cutler reports that the first newspaper appearance was in [[1835]], but that by then the term was apparently familiar. In the United States the term "clipper," described the Baltimore Clipper, a topsail [[schooner]] that was developed in [[Chesapeake Bay]] before the Revolution and was lightly armed in the War of 1812, sailing under Letters of Marque and Reprisal, when the type&mdash;exemplified by the ''Chasseur'', launched at Fells Point, Maryland, 1814&mdash; became known for its incredible speed; a deep draft enabled the Baltimore clipper to sail close to the wind (Villiers 1973). Clippers, outrunning the British blockade of Baltimore, came to be recognized as ships built for speed rather than cargo space; while traditional merchant ships were accustomed to average speeds of under 5 knots (9 km/h), clippers aimed at 9 knots (17 km/h) or better. Sometimes these ships could reach 20 knots (37 km/h). [[Image:Prinz_Albert,_Jacobsen.jpg\|thumb\|left\|''"The Prinz Albert,"'' [[1897]], by Antonio Jacobsen]] Clippers were built for seasonal trades such as tea, where an early cargo was more valuable, or for passenger routes. The small, fast ships were ideally suited to low-volume, high-profit goods, such as [[spice]]s, [[tea]], people, and mail. The values could be spectacular. The "Challenger" returned from Shanghai with "the most valuable cargo of tea and silk ($2,000,000) ever to be laden in one bottom." The competition among the clippers was public and fierce, with their times recorded in the newspapers. The ships had low expected lifetimes and rarely outlasted two decades of use before they were broken up for salvage. Given their speed and maneuverability, clippers frequently mounted [[cannon]] or [[carronade]] and were often employed as pirate vessels, privateers, smuggling vessels, and in interdiction service. [[Image:Free_trade.jpg\|thumb\|right\|''Clipper ship sailing card for the "Free Trade,"'' printed by Nesbitt & Co., NY, early 1860s]] Departures of clipper ships, mostly from New York and Boston to San Francisco, were advertised by clipper ship sailing cards. These cards, slightly larger than today’s postcards, were produced by letterpress and wood engraving on coated card stock. Most clipper cards were printed in the 1850s and 1860s, and represented the first pronounced use of color in American advertising art. Relatively few (perhaps 3,500) clipper cards survive today. With their stunning appearance, rarity, and importance as artifacts of nautical, Western, and printing history, clipper cards are highly prized by both private collectors and institutions. See the links below to learn more about clipper ship sailing cards. ==Decline== Decline in the use of clippers started with the economic slump following the [[Panic of 1857]] and continued with the gradual introduction of the [[steamship]]. Although clippers could be much faster than the early steamships, clippers were ultimately dependent on the vagaries of the wind, while steamers could reliably keep to a
-of-seville.com/astdiv/2.html Astrology in Ancient History] ;Tools [http://alabe.com/freechart/ Astrolabe Software] - Calculate your personal natal chart or ''any'' astrological chart for free using this simple online calculation form. [http://www.astrologyweekly.com/dictionary/ A Comprehensive Astrological Dictionary] -- Use this to look up many common astrological terms, both in ancient and modern astrology. [http://www.astrolog.org/astrolog.htm Astrolog 5.40] - Home of the freeware astrology program Astrolog 5.40. [http://uk.geocities.com/astrolog32/ Astrolog32] - Home of the freeware astrology program Astrolog32. [http://www.halloran.com/astwin23.htm Astrology for Windows Public domain astrology software]. [http://www.khaldea.com/ephemcenter.shtml The Original 3,000 Year High-Precision Daily Astrological Online Ephemeris from Khaldea.com] -- 600BC to 2400AD -- Calculated for [[Midnight]] [[GMT]]; also with an [[Astrological aspect\|Aspectarian]] included for years [[1900]] to [[2005]] * [http://skyscript.co.uk/aspects.html Classical Use of the Astrological Aspects] - Learn all about the astrological aspects at this site. [http://www.astrowin.org/ Astrowin - Free Astrology Calculation Programs] - Astro123, AstroWin, MatchMkr, and more. [http://chronosxp.sourceforge.net ChronosXP] - Free [[Planetary Hours]] software for [[Microsoft Windows\|Windows]] [http://www.robhand.com/ Classical Astrology Archives] [http://free-horoscopes.typepad.com Astrology software] - Programs for making [http://free-horoscopes.typepad.com horoscopes]. * [http://ephemeral.info/too/ ephemeral.info Tools] - Many free web-based tools for looking up information about various celestial objects. [http://www.rosicrucianfellowship.org/software.htm RFIntrep, RFAstro, RF ACSS & RF PHour] - Free software & online free [http://www.rosicrucian.com/asthtme1.htm Rosicrucian Astrology book library] [http://www.bodysoulspiritexpo.com/enewsplus/enewsarc.php3?action=category&id=4 Astrological Articles Open Postings] - Open Community Knowledge Base for astrologers to submit articles on astrological related subjects. [http://www.astrologyweekly.com/dictionary/ Astrological Dictionary & Glossary] - Hundreds of specialized astrological terms are accurately explicated here. [http://www.topsynergy.com/ Relationships Analyst] [http://www.aeongroup.com/gc.htm Astrology & Enneagram] ;Western astrology natal reports [http://www.astro.com/ http://www.astro.com/] -- Astrodienst (available in 8 languages) [http://www.stariq.com/ http://www.stariq.com/] -- StarIQ.com, Modern Astrology [http://www.widgetsworld.co.uk/ http://www.widgetsworld.co.uk/] [http://www.astrologie-info.com/indexe.cgi http://www.astrologie-info.com/] -- Astrology Info: Natal chart in graphic/text mode and Interactive Moon calendar ;Natal reports for other systems [http://www.lunarcal.org/ http://www.lunarcal.org] [http://www.suzannewhite.com/newastrology/index.shtml http://www.suzannewhite.com] [http://www.onereed.com/ http://www.onereed.com/] [http://www.astrodreamadvisor.com/free_mayan_readings.html# http://www.astrodreamadvisor.com] [http://www.chaosastrology.com/ http://www.chaosastrology.com/] </div> <!--- See the Talk page (under Categorisation) before changing this ---> <!--- See the Talk page (under Categorisation) before changing this: request required and no feedback given: it as always been an Art/Science studied under "esoteric" schools, movements and traditions ---> <!-- interwiki --> [[Category:Astrology\| ]] [[Category:Divination]] [[Category:Esoteric cosmology]] [[Category:Esotericism]] [[Category:Prediction]] [[Category:Pseudoscience]] [[Category:Superstitions]] [[ar:تنجيم]] [[bg:Астрология]] [[ca:Astrologia]] [[cs:Astrologie]] [[da:Astrologi]] [[de:Astrologie]] [[el:Αστρολογία]] [[eo:Astrologio]] [[es:Astrología]] [[et:Astroloogia]] [[fa:ستاره‌بینی]] [[fi:Astrologia]] [[fr:Astrologie]] [[he:אסטרולוגיה]] [[hr:Astrologija]] [[hu:Asztrológia]] [[ia:Astrologia]] [[id:Astrologi]] [[it:Astrologia]] [[ja:占星術]] [[ko:점성술]] [[lt:Astrologija]] [[nl:Astrologie]] [[no:Astrologi]] [[pl:Astrologia]] [[pt:Astrologia]] [[ro:Astrologie]] [[ru:Астрология]] [[sa:फलज्योतिषं]] [[sk:Astrológia]] [[sl:Astrologija]] [[sr:Астрологија]] [[sv:Astrologi]] [[th:โหราศาสตร์]] [[zh:占星学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abyssinia</title> <id>2123</id> <revision> <id>28313713</id> <timestamp>2005-11-14T17:20:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Abby t</username> <id>579828</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ethiopia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Algebraic extension</title> <id>2125</id> <revision> <id>24413899</id> <timestamp>2005-09-30T17:34:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Unyoyega</username> <id>460372</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+: fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a [[field extension]] ''L'' /''K'' is called '''algebraic''' if every element of ''L'' is [[algebraic element\|algebraic]] over ''K'', i.e. if every element of ''L'' is a [[root (mathematics)\|root]] of some non-zero [[polynomial]] with coefficients in ''K''. Field extensions which are not algebraic, i.e. which contain [[transcendental element]]s, are called '''transcendental'''. For example, the field extension [[real number\|'''R''']]/[[rational number\|'''Q''']] is transcendental, while the field extensions [[complex number\|'''C''']]/'''R''' and '''Q'''(&radic;2)/'''Q''' are algebraic. If ''L'' is regarded as a [[vector space]] over ''K'', one can consider its [[dimension of a vector space\|dimension]] as such. This dimension is also called the '''degree''' of the extension. The extension ''L/K'' can then be further classified as a '''finite''' or '''infinite''' extension according to this dimension. All transcendental extensions are of infinite degree. This in turn implies that all finite extensions are algebraic. The converse is not true however: there are infinite extensions which are algebraic. For instance, the field of all [[algebraic number]]s is an infinite algebraic extension of the rational numbers. If ''a'' is algebraic over ''K'', then ''K''[''a''], the set of all polynomials in ''a'' with coefficients in ''K'', is a field. It is an algebraic field extension of ''K'' which has finite degree over ''K''. In the special case where ''K''='''Q''' is the [[rational number\|field of rational numbers]], '''Q'''[''a''] is an example of an [[algebraic number field]]. A field with no proper algebraic extensions is called [[algebraically closed field\|algebraically closed]]. An example is the field of [[complex number]]s. Every field has an algebraic extension which is algebraically closed (called its [[algebraic closure]]), but proving this in general requires some form of the [[axiom of choice]]. ==Generalizations== [[Model theory]] generalizes the notion of algebraic extension to arbitrary theories: an embedding of M into N is called an '''algebraic extension''' if for every ''x'' in N there is a formula ''p'' with parameters in M, such that ''p''(''x'') is true and the set :{''y'' in ''N'' \| ''p''(''y'')} is finite. It turns out that applying this definition to the theory of fields gives the usual definition of algebraic extension. The [[Galois group]] of N over M can again be defined as the group of automorphisms, and it turns out that most of the theory of Galois groups can be developed for the general case. See also: * [[Abstract algebra]] * [[Field (mathematics)\|Field]] * [[Vector space]] * [[Galois theory]] * [[Algebraic number]] * [[Algebraically closed field]] [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[Category:Algebra]] [[de:Algebraische Erweiterung]] [[es:Extensión algebraica]] [[fr:Extension algébrique]] [[it:Estensione algebrica]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ani DiFranco</title> <id>2126</id> <revision> <id>42138171</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Catamorphism</username> <id>313650</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Biography */ Link to more info on Meldrum -- I hadn't heard of him before, anyway</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ads.jpg\|thumb\|225 px\|Ani DiFranco]] '''Ani DiFranco''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet\|IPA]]: ɑ-ni) (born '''Angela Marie Difranco''' on [[September 23]], [[1970]]) is a [[singer]], [[guitarist]], and [[songwriter]]. DiFranco is prolific, having produced three studio albums of new material and one remix album just in 1999 (see list below). She has released at least one album every year since 1990, with the exception of 2000 (perhaps because she released three albums in 1999 and a double album in 2001.) ==Biography== Born in [[Buffalo, New York]] to a [[Jewish American]] mother and an [[Italian-American]] father, DiFranco, the daughter of two folk music loving parents, started playing Beatles' covers at local bars with her guitar teacher ([http://www.righteousbabe.com/store/prod_albums.asp?id=473 Michael Meldrum]) at the age of nine, and built her career from there. By the time she was fifteen, her family life imploded. At this time, she moved out on her own, supporting herself mainly by her vocal performances, but still managed to graduate from [[The Buffalo Academy for Visual and Performing Arts]] school. In 1989, at the age of eighteen, DiFranco started her own record company, [[Righteous Babe Records]], with just $50, and recorded ''[[Ani DiFranco (album)\|Ani DiFranco]]'', issued in the winter of 1990. Later on she relocated to [[New York, New York\|New York City]] and [[tour]]ed vigorously. She is openly [[bisexuality\|bisexual]] and, in 1998, [[marriage\|married]] [[sound engineer]] Andrew Gilchrist. They separated five yea
o assess cardiac function and to disclose evidence of exertion-related cardiac [[Hypoxia (medical)\|hypoxia]]. [[Radionuclide test]]ing using [[thallium]] or [[technetium]] can be used to demonstrate areas of perfusion abnormalities. ==Medical imaging== ===Coronary catheterization=== ''[[Coronary catheterization]]'' uses [[pressure]] monitoring and blood sampling through a [[catheter]] inserted into the [[heart]] through blood vessels in the leg to determine the functioning of the [[heart]], and, following injections of [[radiocontrast dye]], uses [[X-ray fluoroscopy]], typically at 30 frame/s, to visualize the position and size of blood of within the [[heart]] chambers and [[artery\|arteries]]. [[Coronary angiography]] is used to determine the patency and configuration of the [[coronary artery]] [[lumen]]s. ===Echocardiogram=== ''[[Echocardiography]]'' uses [[ultrasonic]] waves for continuous [[heart]] chamber and [[blood]] movement visualization. ===Intravascular ultrasound=== ''[[Intravascular ultrasound]]'', an imaging methodology using specially designed, long, thin, complex manufactured [[catheter]]s attached to computerized [[ultrasound]] equipment to visualize the [[lumen]] and the interior wall of [[blood vessel]]s. ===Positron emission tomography=== ''[[Positron emission tomography]]'', an imaging methodology for [[positron]] emitting [[radioisotopes]]. PET enables visual image analysis of multiple different metabolic chemical processes and is thus one of the most flexible imaging technologies. Cardiology uses are growing very slowly due to technical and relative cost difficulties. Most uses are for [[research]], not [[clinical]] purposes. Appropriate [[radioisotopes]] of elements within chemical compounds of the [[metabolic]] pathway being examined are used to make the location of the chemical compounds of interest visible in a PET scanner constructed image. ===Computed axial tomography=== [[Computed axial tomography]], an imaging methodology using a ring-shaped machine with an [[X-Ray]] source spinning around the circular path so as to bathe the inner circle with a uniform and known X-Ray density. High sensitivity X-Ray detectors are kept positioned opposite the X-Ray source around the ring. Variations in the intensity of the received X-Rays, as sensed by the detectors, reflect the relative [[radiodensity]] variations of objects within the circle. A high speed computer calculates a cross-sectional, [[tomography\|tomographic]], 2-dimensional image reflecting the relative anatomic [[radiodensity]] of structure within the circle and are best viewed on a monitor. They are also printed on film (though with significant loss of information). If the object being scanned is moved smoothly through the ring as the process continues, then a series of spiraling tomographic data is generated which can be used to compute a 3-dimensional image, viewable on a monitor. Thus this technique is commonly called [[spiral CT]]. Cardiology uses are growing. The principle difficulty with current implementations, for [[Cardiology]] uses, is the difficulty of imaging the ever moving [[heart]] structures. [[Electron beam tomography]] (EBT), provides much faster tomographic imaging; spiral [[Computed axial tomography\|CT]] tends to have better image quality but rotates too slowly, especially for smaller, more rapidly moving structures, such as the mid-section of the right [[coronary artery]]. ===Magnetic resonance imaging=== ''[[Magnetic resonance imaging]]'' (originally called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging), an imaging methodology based on aligning the spin axis of nuclei within [[molecule]]s of the object being visualized using both powerful [[superconducting magnet]]s and [[radio frequency]] [[signals]] and [[detector]]s. [[Cardiology]] uses are growing, especially since MRI differentiates [[soft tissue]]s better than [[Computed axial tomography\|CT]]. The principle difficulty with current implementations, for [[Cardiology]] uses, is the difficulty of imaging the ever moving [[heart]] structures, more so than with CT because MRI is much slower. == See also == * [[Cardiology]] [[Category:Cardiology]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carlo Collodi</title> <id>7437</id> <revision> <id>40818651</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T05:22:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KocjoBot</username> <id>467651</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: tr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Carlo Lorenzini''' ([[November 24]], [[1826]] - [[October 26]], [[1890]]), better known as '''Carlo Collodi''', or simply '''Collodi''', was an Italian [[writer]] and [[journalist]]. His pseudonym, which he used from 1856 onwards, is the name of the [[Tuscany\|Tuscan]] village where his mother, Angela Orzali, was born. Collodi himself was born and died in [[Florence]]. Best known as the creator of [[Pinocchio]], Lorenzini wrote many more novels and comedies. During the Wars of Independence in [[1848]] and [[1860]] he served as a volunteer with the Tuscan army. His active interest in political matters may be seen in his earliest literary works as well as in the founding of the satirical newspaper ''Il Lampione''. This newspaper was censored by order of the Grand Duke of Tuscany in [[1849]] but re-emerged in May [[1860]]. Lorenzini had won fame as early as [[1856]] with his novel ''In vapore'' and had also begun intense activity on other political newspapers such as ''Il Fanfulla''; at the same time he was employed by the Censorship Commission for the Theatre. During this period he composed various satirical sketches and stories (sometimes simply by collating earlier articles), including ''Macchiette'' ([[1880]]), ''Occhi e nasi'' ([[1881]]), ''Storie allegre'' ([[1887]]). In [[1875]] he entered the domain of children's literature with ''Racconti delle fate'', a translation of French fairy tales by [[Charles Perrault\|Perrault]]. In [[1876]] Lorenzini wrote ''Giannettino'' (inspired by [[Alessandro Luigi Parravicini]]'s ''Giannetto''), the ''Minuzzolo'', and ''Il viaggio per l'Italia di Giannettino'', a series which explored the re-unification of Italy through the ironical thoughts and actions of the character Giannettino. Lorenzini became fascinated by the idea of using an amiable, rascally character as a means of expressing his own convictions through allegory. In [[1880]] he began writing ''Storia di un burattino'' ("The story of a [[marionette]]"), also called ''Le avventure di Pinocchio'', which was published weekly in ''Il Giornale dei Bambini'' (the first Italian newspaper for children). Lorenzini died unaware of the fame and popularity that awaited his work; as in the allegory of the story, Pinocchio eventually went on to lead his own independent life, distinct from that of the author. It has been said that this was one of the inspiring themes of [[Luigi Pirandello]]'s ''Sei personaggi in cerca d'autore''. Lorenzini was buried at [[Basilica di San Miniato al Monte\|San Miniato al Monte]] in [[Florence]]. ==External links== * {{gutenberg author\| id=Carlo+Collodi \| name=Carlo Collodi}} [[Project Gutenberg]] e-text of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/500 The Adventures of Pinocchio]'' (translated from the Italian by Carol Della Chiesa) [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=9904286 Find-A-Grave profile for Carlo Collodi ] [[Category:1826 births\|Collodi, Carlo]] [[Category:1890 deaths\|Collodi, Carlo]] [[Category:Italian writers\|Collodi, Carlo]] [[Category:Italian journalists\|Collodi, Carlo]] [[Category:Natives of Tuscany\|Collodi, Carlo]] [[ca:Carlo Collodi]] [[cs:Carlo Collodi]] [[de:Carlo Collodi]] [[eo:Carlo COLLODI]] [[fr:Carlo Collodi]] [[it:Carlo Collodi]] [[he:קרלו קולודי]] [[nl:Carlo Collodi]] [[ja:カルロ・コッローディ]] [[pl:Carlo Collodi]] [[ru:Коллоди, Карло]] [[sl:Carlo Collodi]] [[sv:Carlo Collodi]] [[tr:Carlo Collodi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Childrens literature</title> <id>7438</id> <revision> <id>15905505</id> <timestamp>2002-05-21T20:43:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[children's literature]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[children's literature]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Constructible number</title> <id>7439</id> <revision> <id>40687391</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T08:22:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hede2000</username> <id>284384</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+da:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A [[point (geometry)\|point]] in the [[Euclidean plane]] is a '''constructible point''' if, given a fixed [[coordinate system]] (or a fixed [[line segment]] of [[1 (number)\|unit]] [[length]]), one can construct the point with [[Ruler-and-compass construction\|unruled straightedge and compass]]. A [[complex number]] is a '''constructible number''' if its corresponding point in the Euclidean plane is constructible from the usual ''x''- and ''y''-coordinate axes. Note that this is quite a distinct notion from [[Gödel's constructible universe]], L; though every number that is constructible in the sense of this article is in L, the converse fails badly. It can then be shown that a [[real number]] is constructible [[if and only if]], given a [[line segment]] of [[1 (number)\|unit]] [[length]], one can construct a line segment of length <math>\|r\|</math> with ruler and compass. It can also be shown that a complex number is constructible if and only if its [[real part\|real]] and [[imaginary part]]s are constructible. The set of constructible numbers can be completely [[characterization (mathematics)\|characterized]] in the language of [[field (algebra)\|field theory]]. This has the effect of transforming geo
g to close it is not an automatic door. There are three methods by which an automatic door is activated. 1 - A [[sensor]] detects traffic is approaching. Sensors for automatic doors are generally: A [[pressure sensor]] - a floor mat which reacts to the pressure of someone standing on it. An [[infra-red]] curtain or beam which shines invisible light onto sensors; if someone or something blocks the beam the door can open. A [[motion sensor]] which uses low-power microwave [[radar]]. An electronic sensor (e.g. based on infra red or radio waves) can be triggered by something that someone carries, or is installed inside a vehicle. These are popular for garage doors. 2 - A [[switch]] is operated manualy, perhaps after security checks. This can be a push button switch or a swipe card. 3 - The user pushes, or pulls the door, once the door detects the movement it completes the open and close cycle. These are also known as power-assisted doors. In addition to activate sensors automatic doors are generally fitted with safety sensors. These are usually an infra-red curtain or beam, but can be a pressure mat fitted on the swing side of the door. The purpose of the safety sensor is to prevent the door opening or slow its speed if an object is detected in its path whilst opening and to prevent the door closing or reactivate it if an object is detected in its path whilst closing. [[Heron of Alexandria]] created the first automatic door. '''Blast-proof doors''', '''nuclear-blast proof doors''', etc. ==History== {\| align="left" \|- \|[[Image:old door.jpg\|none\|300px\|thumb\|An old door, [[Kashan]], [[Iran]]]] \|} The earliest records are those represented in the paintings of the [[Ancient Egypt\|Egyptian]] tombs, in which they are shown as single or double doors, each in a single piece of wood. In Egypt, where the climate is intensely dry, there would be no fear of their warping, but in other countries it would be necessary to frame them, which according to Vitruvius (iv. 6.) was done with stiles (sea/si) and rails ''(see: [[Frame and panel]])'': the spaces enclosed being filled with panels (tympana) let into grooves made in the stiles and rails. The stiles were the vertical boards, one of which, [[Mortise and tenon\|tenoned]] or [[hinge]]d, is known as the hanging stile, the other as the middle or meeting stile. The horizontal cross pieces are the top rail, bottom rail, and middle or intermediate rails. The most ancient doors were in timber, those made for [[Solomon's Temple\|King Solomon's temple]] being in olive wood (I Kings vi. 31-35), which were carved and overlaid with gold. The doors dwelt upon in [[Homer]] would appear to have been cased in silver or brass. Besides Olive wood, elm, cedar, oak and cypress were used. All ancient doors were hung by pivots at the top and bottom of the hanging stile which worked in sockets in the [[lintel]] and [[sill]], the latter being always in some hard stone such as [[basalt]] or [[granite]]. Those found at [[Nippur]] by Dr. Hilprecht, dating from [[2000 B.C.]] were in [[dolerite]]. The tenons of the gates at [[Balawat]] were sheathed with bronze (now in the British Museum). These doors or gates were hung in two leaves, each about 8 ft.4 in. wide and 27 ft. high; they were encased with bronze bands or strips, 10 in. high, covered with repouss decoration of figures, etc. The wood doors would seem to have been about 3 in. thick, but the hanging stile was over 14 inches diameter. Other sheathings of various sizes in bronze have been found, which proves this to have been the universal method adopted to protect the wood pivots. In the [[Hauran]] in Syria, where timber is scarce the doors were made in stone, and one measuring 5 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 7 in. is in the British Museum; the band on the meeting stile shows that it was one of the leaves of a double door. At Kuffeir near Bostra in Syria, Burckhardt found stone doors, 9 to 10 ft. high, being the entrance doors of the town. In [[Etruria]] many stone doors are referred to by Dennis. The ancient [[Ancient Greece\|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome\|Roman]] doors were either single doors , double doors or folding doors, in the last case the leaves were hinged and folded back. In [[Eumachia]], is a painting of a door with three leaves. In the tomb of Theron at [[Agrigentum]] there is a single four-panel door carved in stone. In the Blundell collection is a [[bas-relief]] of a temple with double doors, each leaf with five panels. Among existing examples, the bronze doors in the church of SS. Cosmas and Damiano, in Rome, are important examples of Roman metal work of the best period; they are in two leaves, each with two panels, and are framed in bronze. Those of the [[Pantheon, Rome\|Pantheon]] are similar in design, with narrow horizontal panels in addition, at the top, bottom and middle. Two other bronze doors of the Roman period are in the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran\|Lateran Basilica]]. The doors of the [[church of the Nativity]] at [[Bethlehem]] ([[6th century]]) are covered with plates of bronze, cut out in patterns: those of [[Sta Sophia]] at [[Constantinople]], of the [[8th century\|8th]] and [[9th century\|9th]] century, are wrought in bronze, and the west doors of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle ([[9th century]]), of similar manufacture, were probably brought from Constantinople, as also some of those in St. Marks, Venice. Of the [[11th century\|11th]] and [[12th century\|12th]] centuries there are numerous examples of bronze doors, the earliest being one at Hildesheim, Germany ([[1015]]). Of others in South Italy and Sicily, the following are the finest: in Sant Andrea, Amalfi ([[1060]]); Salerno ([[1099]]); Canosa ([[1111]]); Troja, two doors ([[1119]] and [[1124]]); Ravello ([[1179]]), by Barisano of Trani, who also made doors for Trani cathedral; and in Monreale and Pisa cathedrals, by Bonano of Pisa. In all these cases the hanging stile had pivots at the top and bottom. The exact period when the hinge was substituted is not quite known, but the change apparently brought about another method of strengthening and decorating doors, viz, with wrought-iron bands of infinite varieties of design. As a rule three bands from which the ornamental work springs constitute the hinges, which have rings outside the hanging stiles fitting on to vertical tenons run into the masonry or wooden frame. There is an early example of the 12th century in Lincoln; in France the metal work of the doors of Notre Dame at Paris is perhaps the most beautiful in execution, but examples are endless throughout France and England. Returning to Italy, the most celebrated doors are those of the [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)]], which together with the door frames are all in bronze, the borders of the latter being perhaps the most remarkable: the modeling of the figures, birds and foliage of the south doorway, by [[Andrea Pisano]] (1330), and of the east doorway by Ghiberti (1425-1452), are of great beauty; in the north door (1402-1424) Ghiberti adopted the same scheme of design for the paneling and figure subjects in them as Andrea Pisano, but in the east door the rectangular panels are all filled, with bas-reliefs, in which Scripture subjects are illustrated with innumerable figures, these being probably the gates of Paradise of which [[Michelangelo]] speaks. The doors of the mosques in [[Cairo]] were of two kinds; those which, externally, were cased with sheets of bronze or iron, cut out in decorative patterns, and incised or inlaid, with bosses in relief; and those in wood, which were framed with interlaced designs of the square and diamond, this latter description of work being Coptic in its origin. The doors of the palace at Palermo, which were made by Saracenic workmen for the Normans, are fine examples and in good preservation. A somewhat similar decorative class of door to these latter is found in Verona, where the edges of the stiles and rails are beveled and notched. In the Renaissance period the Italian doors are quite simple, their architects trusting more to the doorways for effect; but in France and Germany the contrary is the case, the doors being elaborately carved, especially in the Louis XIV. and Louis XV. periods, and sometimes with architectural features such as columns and entablatures with pediment and niches, the doorway being in plain masonry. While in Italy the tendency was to give scale by increasing the number of panels, in France the contrary seems to have been the rule; and one of the great doors at Fontainebleau, which is in two leaves, is entirely carried out as if consisting of one great panel only. The earliest Renaissance doors in France are those of the cathedral of St. Sauveur at Aix (1503); in the lower panels there are figures 3 ft. high in Gothic niches, and in the upper panels a double range of niches with figures about 2 ft. high with canopies over them, all carved in cedar. The south door of Beauvais cathedral is in some respects the finest in France; the upper panels are carved in high relief with figure subjects and canopies over them. The doors of the church at Gisors (1575) are carved with figures in niches subdivided by classic pilasters superimposed. In St. Maclou at Rouen are three magnificently carved doors; those by Jean Goujon have figures in niches on each side, and others in a group of great beauty in the center. The other doors, probably about forty to fifty years later, are enriched with bas-reliefs, landscapes, figures and elaborate interlaced borders. In England in the 17th century the door panels were raised with bolection or projecting moldings, sometimes richly carved, round them; in the 18th century the moldings worked on the stiles and rails were carved with the egg and tongue ornament. * The oldest door in England can be found in [[Westminster Abbey]] and dates from 1050. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4743899.stm] ==See also== * "[[Suicide door]]" * [[Janus (myt
lo's version gained massive radio play and quickly became a fan favorite, still being constantly played live to this day. For the 25th anniversary of ''Saturday Night Live'', Costello was invited to the program, where he re-enacted his abrupt song-switch: This time, however, he interrupted the [[Beastie Boys]]' "Sabotage", and they acted as his backing group for "Radio, Radio". <div style="clear: both"></div> ===2000 to present=== In 2001, Costello was announced as the featured "artist in residence" at [[UCLA]] (although he ended up making fewer appearances than expected) and wrote the music for a new ballet. He produced and appeared on an album of songs for [[opera]] [[singer]] [[Anne Sofie von Otter]], ''For The Stars''. In 2002 he released a new album, ''[[When I Was Cruel]]'', and toured with a new band, the Imposters (the Attractions with a different bass player, [[Davey Faragher]], formerly of [[Cracker (band)\|Cracker]]). Costello split with second wife Cait O'Riordan toward the end of the year. In March 2003, Elvis Costello & The Attractions were inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]. In May, his engagement to [[Canada\|Canadian]] [[jazz]] singer and [[pianist]] [[Diana Krall]] was announced. September saw the release of ''[[North (Costello)\|North]]'', an album of piano-based ballads concerning the breakdown of his former marriage, and his falling in love with Krall. In December, Costello and Krall married at the London estate of [[Elton John]]. In 2004, the song "Scarlet Tide" (co-written by Costello and T-Bone Burnett and used in the film ''[[Cold Mountain]]'') was nominated for an [[Academy Award]]; he performed it at the awards ceremony with [[Alison Krauss]], who also sang the song on the official soundtrack. In July 2004 Costello's first full-scale orchestral work, ''Il Sogno'', was performed in New York. The work, a ballet after [[William Shakespeare\|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'', was commissioned by Italian dance troupe Aterballeto, and received critical acclaim from the classical music critics, while being scorned by the popular music press. Whilst composing it, Costello deliberately avoided listening to the previous interpretations by [[Felix Mendelssohn\|Mendelssohn]] and [[Benjamin Britten\|Britten]] in order to ensure his own originality. A range of musical moods and styles are used to represent the different elements of the cast - satirical pomp for the courtiers, [[jazz]] for the faeries, and for [[Nick Bottom\|Bottom]] a deliberately intrusive "brass band" motif. It was released on CD in September by [[Deutsche Grammophon]]. Costello released another album that same month: ''The Delivery Man'', a rock album recorded in [[Oxford, Mississippi]]. Mainly blues, country, and folk, ''The Delivery Man'' received early acclaim as one of Costello's best albums, and continues Elvis' personal quest to release an album on each of Universal's record labels. In July 2005, a CD recording of a collaboration with [[Marian McPartland]] on her show [[Piano Jazz]] was released. It featured Costello singing six jazz standards and two of his own songs, accompanied by Marian McPartland on piano. In November 2005 Costello will start recording a new album with [[Allen Toussaint]] and producer [[Joe Henry]] due for release in 2006. Also to be released this year is a live recording of a concert with the Metropole Orchestra at the [[North Sea Jazz Festival]], entitled ''My Flame Burns Blue''. Three of his songs also appeared on the soundtrack to [[Simon Schama's A History of Britain]]. Elvis Costello has a global music publishing deal with [[BMG Music Publishing]] for his back catalogue and current/future works. ==Discography== ===Albums=== # 1977 - ''[[My Aim Is True]]'' (UK #14, US #32) # 1978 - ''[[This Year's Model]]'' (UK #4, US #30) # 1979 - ''[[Armed Forces]]'' (UK #2, US #10) # 1980 - ''[[Get Happy!!]]'' (UK #2, US #11) # 1981 - ''[[Trust (album)\|Trust]]'' (UK #9, US #28) # 1981 - ''[[Almost Blue]]'' (UK #7, US #50) # 1982 - ''[[Imperial Bedroom]]'' (UK #6, US #30) # 1983 - ''[[Punch the Clock]]'' (UK #3, US #24) # 1984 - ''[[Goodbye Cruel World (album)\|Goodbye Cruel World]]'' (UK #10, US #35) # 1986 - ''[[King of America]]'' (UK #11, US #39) # 1986 - ''[[Blood and Chocolate (album)\|Blood and Chocolate]]'' (UK #16, US #84) # 1989 - ''[[Spike (Elvis Costello album)\|Spike]]'' (UK #5, US #32) # 1991 - ''[[Mighty Like a Rose]]'' (UK #5, US #55) # 1993 - ''The Juliet Letters'' (UK #18) # 1994 - ''Brutal Youth'' (UK #2, US #34) # 1995 - ''Kojak Variety'' (UK #21) # 1996 - ''All This Useless Beauty'' (UK #28, US #53) # 1996 - ''Costello & Nieve'' # 1998 - ''[[Painted From Memory]]'', with [[Burt Bacharach]] (UK #32, US #78) # 2002 - ''[[When I Was Cruel]]'' (US #20) # 2002 - ''Cruel Smile'' # 2003 - ''[[North (Costello)\|North]]'' (UK #44, US #57, US Traditional Jazz #1) # 2004 - ''[[The Delivery Man]]'' (US #40) # 2004 - ''Il Sogno'' (US Contemporary Classical #1 for 14 weeks) # 2005 - ''Piano Jazz'' (with [[Marian McPartland]]) # 2006 - ''My Flame Burns Blue'' (live at the [[North Sea Jazz Festival]]) ===Collections=== # 1980 - ''Taking Liberties'' # 1980 - ''Ten Bloody Marys & Ten How's Your Fathers'' # 1987 - ''Out of Our Idiot'' # 1993 - ''2½ Years'' # 1997 - ''Extreme Honey'' # 1999 - ''The Very Best Of Elvis Costello (2-CD)'' (UK #4) # 2003 - ''Singles, Volume 1'' # 2003 - ''Singles, Volume 2'' # 2003 - ''Singles, Volume 3'' This section is incomplete. ===Rhino reissues=== All Costello's studio albums up until 1996 (with the exception, as of this writing, of ''The Juliet Letters'') were reissued from 2001 to 2005 by [[Rhino Records]] (which constituted the second set of re-releases after Ryko (US) and Demon (UK) had done so from 1993 to 1995), under the guidance of Mr. Costello himself and featuring, in each case, a bonus disc of B-sides, outtakes, live tracks, alternate versions and/or demos of songs. The sound was remastered for each album and Costello wrote new liner notes about his thoughts on the music and anecdotes from the period when it was recorded. The ''Almost Blue'' and ''Kojak Variety'' bonus discs were particularly notable as each contained, essentially, an entire new album's worth of material also performed but either not issued, or released as [[B-side]]s on singles originally. The ''Get Happy'' bonus disc was also of note, with 30 additional tracks, bringing the total for the 2-disc set to 50 songs. ===Tribute albums=== # 1998 - ''Bespoke Songs, Lost Dogs, Detours & Rendezvous'' - (various artists) # 2002 - ''Almost You: The Songs of Elvis Costello'' - (various artists) # 2003 - ''The Elvis Costello Songbook'' - [[Bonnie Brett]] # 2004 - ''A Tribute to Elvis Costello'' - [[Patrik Tanner]] ===Singles=== Elvis Costello has issued singles under several names, and with several different backing bands. The key for the ''Artist Credit'' below is as follows: '''Elvis Costello''' (EC); '''Elvis Costello & The Attactions''' (EC+ATT); '''Elvis Costello & The Attactions with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra''' (EC+ATT+RSO); '''The Imposter''' (IMP); '''The Costello Show''' (TCS); '''The MacManus Gang''' (TMG), '''The Coward Brothers''' (TCB); '''[[Jimmy Cliff]] & Elvis Costello & The Attactions''' (JC+EC+ATT); '''Elvis Costello & The Brodsky Quartet''' (EC+BQ); '''Elvis Costello and [[Burt Bacharach]]''' (EC+BB); '''Elvis Costello & The Imposters''' (EC+IMP) [[The Attractions]] played on almost all of Costello's singles from 1978 to 1984 (and sporadcially thereafter), but note that 1980's "New Amsterdam" was a solo single on which Elvis Costello played all instruments -- The Attractions were not credited. Also, although the Attractions played on "Sulky Girl" and "13 Steps Lead Down", these tracks were credited simply to Elvis Costello. {\| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;" ! width="28" rowspan="2"\| Year ! width="220" rowspan="2"\| Title ! width="28" rowspan="2"\| Artist Credit ! colspan="3"\| Chart Positions ! width="150" rowspan="2"\| Album \|- ! width="86"\| <small>[[UK Charts]]</small> ! width="86"\| <small>[[Billboard Hot 100\|US Charts]]</small> ! width="86"\| <small>[[Modern Rock Tracks chart\|US Modern Rock '''(MOD)''' / US Mainstream Rock '''(MAIN)''']]</small> \|- \| 1977 \| "Less Than Zero" \| EC ! - ! - ! - \| ''[[My Aim Is True]]'' \|- \| 1977 \| "Alison" \| EC ! - ! - ! - \| ''[[My Aim Is True]]'' \|- \| 1977 \| "(The Angels Wanna Wear My) Red Shoes" \| EC ! - ! - ! - \| ''[[My Aim Is True]]'' \|- \| 1977 \| "Watching The Detectives" \| EC ! #15 ! #108 ! - \| ''[[My Aim Is True]]'' (US version) \|- \| 1978 \| "(I Don't Want To Go To) Chelsea" \| EC+ATT ! #16 ! - ! - \| ''[[This Year's Model]]'' (UK version) \|- \| 1978 \| "Pump It Up" \| EC+ATT ! #24 ! - ! - \| ''[[This Year's Model]]'' \|- \| 1978 \| "Radio Radio" \| EC+ATT ! #29 ! - ! - \| ''[[This Year's Model]]'' (US version) \|- \| 1979 \| "Oliver's Army" \| EC+ATT ! #2 ! - ! - \| ''[[Armed Forces]]'' \|- \| 1979 \| "Accidents Will Happen" \| EC+ATT ! #28 ! #101 ! - \| ''[[Armed Forces]]'' \|- \| 1980 \| "I Cant Stand Up For Falling Down" \| EC+ATT ! #4 ! - ! - \| ''[[Get Happy!!]]'' \|- \| 1980 \| "High Fidelity" \| EC+ATT ! #30 ! - ! - \| ''[[Get Happy!!]]'' \|- \| 1980 \| "New Amsterdam" \| EC ! #36 ! - ! - \| ''[[Get Happy!!]]'' \|- \| 1980 \| "Clubland" \| EC+ATT ! #60 ! - ! - \| ''[[Trust (album)\|Trust]]'' \|- \| 1981 \| "From A Whisper To A Scream" \| EC+ATT ! - ! - ! #46 (MAIN) \| ''[[Trust (album)\|Trust]]'' \|- \| 1981 \| "Watch Your Step" (US release only) \| E
o Brothers 3]]''. In the mid-[[1990s\|90s]], films for ''[[Super Mario Bros. (film)\|Super Mario Brothers]]'', ''[[Street Fighter (film)\|Street Fighter]]'', ''[[Wing Commander (feature film)\|Wing Commander]]'' and ''[[Mortal Kombat (movie)\|Mortal Kombat]]'' were released. Reviews have generally been poor. Despite the ultimately poor performance of these movies, many studios still want to turn big games into movies, hoping that the popularity of the game will help the movie. However, after the initial bunch, many projects materialized that were never finished, but the success of films like ''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]'' has led to more films materializing. ''[[Doom]]'', a game which film makers were trying to cross over since the mid '90s, finally hit theatres 12 years after its initial release. [[John Woo]] also has producing rights on a movie based on the popular [[Nintendo]] game ''[[Metroid]]''. There is still debate in the movie industry on whether video games can consistently be turned into good, profitable movies. Films like ''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'', which has received mixed responses from audiences, with some saying it is a great movie, and others saying it is a very bad movie with excellent [[computer-generated imagery]], but ultimately flopped in the box office, and [[Uwe Boll]]'s ''[[House of the Dead (film)\|House of the Dead]]'', ''[[Alone in the Dark]]'', and ''[[Bloodrayne]]'' which all ended up being horrible flops both in fan reactions and box office success and both ending up on the [[IMDB]]'s bottom 100 movies, do not, in turn, give much confidence in whether these movies will be handled seriously. The recently released [[Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children]] may change some people's minds though, even though it's a straight to DVD affair. On the other hand, video games get much more success when adapted into cartoons/anime. Some notable examples of major success includes the various [[Super Mario Bros. (TV)\|Mario Bros. cartoons]], [[Sonic the Hedgehog (TV series)\|Sonic SatAM]], [[Captain N: The Game Master]] and ''[[Earthworm Jim]]'' while ''[[Sonic Underground]]'', the American ''[[Mega Man]]'' cartoon and ''[[F-Zero GP Legend]]'' are cited as being poor. Sometime, they even "help" more obscure/Japan-only games pick up popularity in America although rarely; ''[[To Heart]]'' would be the best example of such thing. Movies have had far more success moving the other direction, onto video games. Most summer blockbuster films now have a simultaneous video game release; some of the most lucrative video games of recent times are based on movies, such as [[Electronic Arts]]' and [[Stormfront Studios]]' ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (video game)\|The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'' and the series of EA ''LotR'' games that followed it, and [[Activision]]'s two ''[[Spider-Man]]'' movie games. Even though movies have had more success in game conversion, not all movie games are popular amongst the gaming community. Some publishers believe that the success of the movie will help the game sell, and so may not have as lengthy a development schedule as needed to make a compelling game. Some examples of this are the ''[[Catwoman (movie)\|Catwoman]]'' and ''[[King Arthur (movie)\|King Arthur]]'' movie games along with the entire television-to-game franchise. Also, video games have found themselves on [[MTV2]], in a popular show called ''[[Video Mod]]'', where characters from popular video games perform songs from hit artists, such as characters from ''[[The Sims 2]]'' performing the song "Stacy's Mom" by [[Fountains Of Wayne]]. On the Internet, gaming has also become a popular subject of many [[webcomics]]. Currently there are two varieties. The first one is the [[sprite comic]], such as [[8 Bit Theatre]], in which the artist uses [[sprite (computer graphics)\|sprites]] from the earlier Final Fantasy games to tell stories. Sometimes these are original stories, but are often parodies of the game in which the sprite came from. The other is a more traditional comic strip, containing original art, like [[Penny Arcade (comic)\|Penny Arcade]]. Here, the storylines or jokes revolve around current events in video gaming. The success of Penny Arcade has attracted many people in the industry, including [[Ubisoft]]. Other parodies have come in the form of amateur videos on Tetris or Ghosts and Goblins, such as those of [[Mega 64]]. Online shows are fast becoming the place to view live action gaming broadcasts such as Gamespot's 'On the Spot' ===What the Player Gains=== Computer and videogames differ from other forms of [[entertainment]] in that the person experiencing them is in control, one way or another. In order to experience the game, the player must first determine the objective(s), as well as how to complete them. S/he must then learn the game controls and how the human-machine interface works, including menus and [[HUD]]s. An experienced player will be able to do all this in a very short period of time upon first discovering a new game- such quick learning skills can easily be transferred to other areas of mental application. To win at a game, the player may devote his/her entire attention to it, and utilise newly-learnt skills or tactics. It could be said that when players stare at a screen with a blank expression, it isn't one of hopeless mesmerization, but one of intense concentration. More obvious benefits to the player is education on the game's subject matter. For example an [[RTS]] game set in the past may require use of ancient armies or outwitting a famous world leader of the time. Games which encourage strategic thinking have well-honed rule sets that the player needs to thoroughly grasp. A well-designed game will be easy to pick up but difficult to master, like [[chess]]. Development of techniques are tested against an advanced computer player or online against other human players. Despite the popular image of videogames being manic tests of the player's [[reflexes]], some successful games do the opposite- stealth games, for example, reward patience. ===Controversy=== {{main\|Video game controversy}} Computer and video games have been the subject of frequent controversy and [[censorship]], due to the depiction of graphic [[violence]], [[sex]]ual themes, [[advertising]], consumption of illegal [[recreational drug use\|drugs]], consumption of [[alcoholic beverage\|alcohol]] or [[tobacco]], [[propaganda]] or [[profanity]] in some games. Among others, critics of video games sometimes include parents' groups, [[politician]]s, [[prostitutes]], organized [[religion]] groups, and other [[special interest]] groups, even though all these can be found in all forms of entertainment and media. ''Video game censorship'' is defined as the use of state or group power to control the playing, distribution, purchase, or sale of video games or computer games. Video game controversy comes in many forms, and censorship is a controversial subject, as well as a popular topic of debate. Proponents and opponents of censorship are often very passionate about their individual views. Historically, this type of controversy and criticism is not unique to video games. The same situation has been applied to [[Comic books]], [[PMRC\|music]], and [[Production Code\|motion pictures]]. Moreover, it appears to be a question of age. Since these art forms have been around longer, the backlash against them occurred farther in the past, beyond the remembrance of today's youth. In both cases, the attempts at censorship in the [[United States]] were struck down as a violation of [[First Amendment]] [[rights]], and they have gone on to become fully integrated facets of society. ==Development== {{main\|Game development}} Video games are made by [[video game developer\|developers]], who used to do this as individuals or small teams in the 80's. Now, development commonly requires a large team consisting of [[game designer\|designers]], [[graphic design]]ers and other [[artist]]s, [[game programmer\|programmer]]s, [[sound design]]ers, [[musician]]s, and other technicians; all of which are managed by [[game producer\|producers]]. The visionary for any game may come from any of the roles outlined. Development by committee rarely works. Video games are developing fast in all areas, but the problem is of cost, and how developers intend to keep the costs low enough to attract publisher investment. Most video game console development teams number anywhere from 20 to 50 people, with some teams exceeding 100. The average team size as well as the average development time of a game have grown along with the size of the industry and the technology involved in creating games. This has led to regular occurrences of missed deadlines and unfinished products; ''[[Duke Nukem Forever]]'' is the quintessential example of these problems. ''See also: [[video game industry practices]]''. ===Game modifications=== {{main\|Mod (computer gaming)}} Games running on a PC are often designed with end-user modifications in mind, and this consequently allows modern computer games to be modified by gamers without much difficulty. These [[mod (computer gaming)\|mod]]s can add an extra dimension of replayability and interest. The [[Internet]] provides an inexpensive medium to promote and distribute mods, and they have become an increasingly important factor in the commercial success of some games. Developers such as [[id Software\|id]], [[Valve Software\|Valve]], and [[Epic Games\|Epic]] ship their games with the very development tools used to make the game in the first place, along with documentation to assist mod developers, which allows for the kind of success seen by popular mods such as ''[[Counter-Strike]]''. Popular mods are very occasionally bought by the developers of the game. This was the case with Valve's ''[[Half-Life]]''. Valve bought a number of popular mods including ''Counter-Strike'' and ''[[Day of
energies) of photon that correspond to the differences in its energy levels. The resulting pattern of gaps is called the [[absorption spectrum]]. In spectroscopic analysis, scientists can use a [[spectrometer]] to study the atoms in [[star]]s and other distant objects. Due to the distinctive spectral lines that each element produces, they are able to tell the chemical composition of distant [[planet]]s, stars and [[nebula]]e. Not all parts of the atomic spectrum are in visible light part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]. For example, the [[hyperfine transition]]s (including the important [[21 cm line]]) produce low-energy [[radio wave]]s. When electrons deep inside large atoms are knocked out (for example by [[beta radiation]]), replacement atoms fall deep into the [[electric potential]] of the [[nucleus]], producing high-energy [[x-ray]]s. ==Atoms and antimatter== :''see main article [[antimatter]] [[Antimatter]] can also form atoms, composed of [[positron]]s, antiprotons, and antineutrons. Since antimatter is very difficult to produce and store, only a small amount [[antihydrogen]] has ever existed on Earth. This was produced at [[CERN]] in the [[ATHENA]] and [[ATRAP]] experiments using the [[Antiproton Decelerator]]. ==Atoms and the Big Bang== In models of the [[Big Bang]], [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]] predicts that within one to three minutes of the Big Bang almost all atomic material in the universe was created. During this process, [[nucleus\|nuclei]] of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] formed abundantly, but almost no elements heavier than [[lithium]]. Hydrogen makes up approximately 75% of the atoms in the universe; helium makes up 24%; and all other elements make up just 1%. However, although nuclei (fully-[[ion]]ized atoms) were created, neutral atoms themselves could not form in the intense heat. Big Bang chronology of the atom continues to approximately 379,000 years after the Big Bang when the cosmic temperature had dropped to just 3,000&nbsp;[[kelvin\|K]]. It was then cool enough to allow the nuclei to capture [[electron]]s. This process is called [[recombination]], during which the first neutral atoms took form. Once atoms become neutral, they only absorb [[photon]]s of a discrete [[absorption spectrum]]. This allows most of the photons in the universe to travel unimpeded for billions of years. These photons are still detectable today in the [[cosmic microwave background]]. After Big Bang nucleosynthesis, no heavier elements could be created until the [[star formation\|formation of the first stars]]. These stars [[nuclear fusion\|fused]] heavier elements through [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] during their lives and through [[supernova nucleosynthesis]] as they died. The seeding of the [[interstellar medium]] by heavy elements eventually allowed the formation of [[terrestrial planet]]s like the [[Earth]]. ==History of atomic theory== {{main\|Atomic theory}} ===Early atomism=== From the [[6th century BC]], [[Hindu]], [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]]a philosophers in [[ancient India]] developed the earliest atomic theories. The first philosopher who formulated ideas about the atom in a systematic manner was [[Kanada]] who lived in the 6th century BC. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana who also lived in the 6th century BC and was a contemporary of [[Gautama Buddha]], had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. Indian atomists believed that an atom could be one of upto six elements, with each element having upto 24 properties. They developed detailed theories of how atoms could combine, react, vibrate, move, and perform other actions, and had particularly elaborate theories of how atoms combine, which explains how atoms first combine in pairs, and then group into trios of pairs, which are the smallest visible units of matter. This parallels with the structure of modern atomic theory, in which pairs or triplets of supposedly fundamental quarks combine to create most typical forms of matter. They had also suggested the possibility of splitting an atom which, as we know today, is the source of atomic energy. (See [[Atomism#Indian atomism\|Indian atomism]] for more details.) [[Democritus]] and [[Leucippus]], [[Greek philosophers]] in the [[5th century BC]], presented a theory of atoms. (See [[Atomism]] for more details.) The Greeks believed that atoms were all made of the same material but had different shapes and sizes, which determined the physical properties of the material. For instance, the atoms of a [[liquid]] were thought to be smooth, allowing them to slide over each other. None of these ideas, however, were founded in [[scientific method\|scientific experimentation]]. During the [[Middle Ages]] (the [[Islamic Golden Age]]), [[Islam]]ic atomists develop atomic theories that represent a synthesis of both Greek and Indian atomism. (See [[Atomism\|Islamic atomism]] for more details.) Older Greek and Indian ideas were further developed by Islamic atomists, along with new Islamic ideas, such as the possibility of there being particles smaller than an atom. As Islamic influence began spreading through Europe, the ideas of Islamic atomism, along with the older ideas of Greek and Indian atomism, spread throughout Europe by the end of the Middle Ages, where modern atomic theories began taking shape. ===Birth of modern atomic theory=== In 1808, [[John Dalton]] proposed that an [[element]] is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and that although their shape and structure was immutable, atoms of different elements could combine to form more complex structures ([[chemical compound]]s). He deduced this after the experimental discovery of the [[law of multiple proportions]] — that is, if two elements form more than one compound between them, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small [[whole number]]s. The experiment in question involved combining [[nitrous oxide]] (NO) with [[oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>). In one combination, these gases formed [[dinitrogen trioxide]] (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), but when he repeated the combination with double the amount of oxygen (a ratio of 1:2), they instead formed [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO<sub>2</sub>). 4NO + O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 2N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> 4NO + 2O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 4NO<sub>2</sub> Atomic theory conflicted with the theory of [[infinite divisibility]], which states that [[matter]] can always be divided into smaller parts. In 1827, biologist [[Robert Brown]] observed that pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] theorised that this [[Brownian motion]] was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about, and developed a mathematical theory around it. This theory was validated experimentally in 1911 by French physicist [[Jean Perrin]]. ===Discovery of subatomic particles=== For much of this time, atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter. However, in 1897, [[J.J. Thomson]] published his work proving that [[cathode ray]]s are made of negatively charged particles ([[electron]]s). Since cathode rays are emitted from matter, this proved that atoms are made up of [[subatomic particles]] and are therefore divisible, and not the indivisible ''atomos'' postulated by [[Democritus]]. Physicists later invented a new term for such indivisible units, "[[elementary particle]]s", since the word atom had come into its common modern use. ===Study of atomic structure=== At first, it was believed that the electrons were distributed more or less uniformly in a sea of positive charge (the [[plum pudding model]]). However, an experiment conducted in 1909 by colleagues of [[Ernest Rutherford]] demonstrated that atoms have a most of their mass and positive charge concentrated in a [[nucleus]]. In the [[gold foil experiment]], [[alpha particle]]s (emitted by [[polonium]]) were shot through a sheet of [[gold]]. Rutherford observed that most of the particles passed straight through the sheet with little deflection (striking a [[fluorescence\|fluorescent screen]] on the other side). About 1 in 8000 of the alpha particles, however, were heavily deflected (by more than 90 degrees). This led to the planetary model of the atom in which pointlike electrons orbited in the space around a massive compact nucleus like planets orbiting the Sun. The nucleus was later discovered to contain [[proton]]s, and further experimentation by Rutherford found that the nuclear mass of most atoms surpassed that of the protons it possessed; this led him to postulate the existence of [[neutron]]s, whose existence would be proven in 1932 by [[James Chadwick]]. The planetary model of the atom still had shortcomings. Firstly, a moving [[electric charge]] emits [[electromagnetic wave]]s; according to [[classical electromagnetism]], an orbiting charge would steadily lose energy and spiral towards the nucleus, colliding with it in a tiny fraction of a second. Secondly, the model did not explain why excited atoms emit light only in certain [[emission spectrum\|discrete spectra]]. [[Quantum theory]] revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century when [[Max Planck]] and [[Albert Einstein]] postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in fixed amounts known as [[quanta]]. In 1913, [[Niels Bohr]] used this idea in his [[Bohr model]] of the atom, in which the electrons could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed [[angular momentum]] and energy. They were not allowed to spiral into the nucleus, because they could not lose energy in a continuous manner; they could only make [[quantum leap]]s between fixed [[energy level]]s. Bohr's model was extended by [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] in
the United States to establish a Jewish Hospital in 1850. It is where America's [http://www.cincyfiremuseum.com/history.html first municipal fire department]was established in 1853. Established in 1867, the Cincinnati Red Stockings (later, the [[Cincinnati Reds]]) became the world's first professional (all paid, no amateurs) baseball team in 1869. In 1935, major league baseball's first night game was played at [[Crosley Field]]. Cincinnati was the first to build and own a [[Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific Railway\|major railroad]] in 1880. In 1902, the world's first reinforced concrete skyscraper was built, the [[Ingalls Building]]. [http://www.bartleby.com/65/be/Beard-Da.html "The Sons of Daniel Boone"], a forerunner to the [[Boy Scouts of America]], began in Cincinnati in 1905. Because of the city's rich German heritage, the pre-prohibition era allowed Cincinnati to become a national forerunner in the [http://www.citybeat.com/2004-04-28/socincinnati.shtml brewing industry.] During experimentation for 6 years (until 1939), Cincinnati's AM radio station, [[WLW]] was the first to broadcast at an astounding 500,000 watts. In 1943, [[King Records]] (and it's subsidiary, [[Queen Records]]) was founded, and went on to record early music by artists who became highly successful and influential in [[Country music\|Country]], [[R&B]], and [[Rock and roll\|Rock]]. [http://www.cetconnect.org/50/index.asp#documents WCET TV] was the first licensed public television station, established in 1954. In 1976, the [[Cincinnati Stock Exchange]] became the nation's first all-electronic trading market. As a pioneer-era city, it compared with [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania\|Pittsburgh]] and [[Nashville, Tennessee\|Nashville]]. As a "[[Riverboat]]" and [[canal]]-era city, it compared with [[Louisville, Kentucky\|Louisville]], [[St. Louis, Missouri\|St. Louis]] and [[New Orleans, Louisiana\|New Orleans]]. As an immigrant, industrial city it compared with [[Brooklyn, New York\|Brooklyn]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\|Philadelphia]], [[Cleveland, Ohio\|Cleveland]], [[Chicago, Illinois\|Chicago]], and [[Detroit, Michigan\|Detroit]]. Because of its river setting and extensive park system, many commentators have remarked on Cincinnati's beauty, including Winston Churchill, who called it "the most beautiful of America's inland cities." The city's picturesque skyline was used as a backdrop for the fictional city of Monticello on the [[soap opera]] ''[[The Edge of Night]]'', one of the many soap operas sponsored by Cincinnati soap maker [[Procter & Gamble]]. In fact, [[Procter & Gamble]] created the genre of the "soap opera" when it helped launch the [[Ma Perkins]] radio program in 1933. ==Politics== Currently, the City of Cincinnati generally votes [[Democratic Party (United States)\|Democratic]], the rest of the metropolitan area generally votes [[Republican Party (United States)\|Republican]]. The city is governed by a [[Election Results, City Council of Cincinnati, Ohio\|nine-member city council]], whose members are elected at large. Prior to 1924, city council was elected through a system of [[Ward (politics)\|wards]]. The ward system lent itself to corruption and Cincinnati was run by the [[Republican Party (United States)\|Republican]] [[political machine]] of Boss Cox from the 1880's through the 1920's with a few brief interludes. A reform movement arose in 1923, led by another [[Republican Party (United States)\|Republican]], [[Murray Seasongood]]. Seasongood eventually founded the Charter Committee, which used ballot initiatives in 1924 to eliminate the ward system and replace it with the current at-large system and also to introduce a [[council-manager government\|city manager]]. From 1924 to 1957, the council was selected by [[proportional representation]]. As of 1957, all candidates run in a single race and the top nine vote-getters are elected (the "9-X system"). The mayor was selected by the council. Starting in 1987, the top vote-getter in the city council race automatically became mayor. Starting in 1999, the [[List of Mayors of Cincinnati, Ohio\|mayor]] was chosen in a separate election and the city manager accepted a lesser role in government; these reforms were referred to as the "strong mayor" reforms. Cincinnati politics includes the participation of the [[Charter Party of Cincinnati, Ohio\|Charter Party]], the third-party with the longest history of winning in local elections. ==Race relations== Ohio was a border state to the Southern slavery states. It was a focal point for huge commerce to the South as well as being a well known goal for runaway slaves as once they set foot in Cincinnati, they were officially out of slavery. Many local laws and incidents in history confound the pristine concept of it being a truly "free" city, as there were very famous incidents of riots, racial purges and tragic confrontations of runaway slaves or freeman kidnapped into bondage. The neighborhoods in Cincinnati are highly segregated. This separation does not appear explicitly created in lawbooks or social procedures but is easily seen when considering the density of one racial domination of a particular area. Typical distribution is most Blacks are closer to downtown (such as Over-the-Rhine and Avondale) with White clusters (such as Mount Adams, University Heights, and Clifton). There are neighborhoods of high integration between Whites and Blacks but these are usually surrounded by other areas which are much more polarized. ===Underground Railroad=== Cincinnati was an important port for the [[Underground Railroad]] in pre-Civil War times. It borders a slave state, [[Kentucky]], and is often mentioned as a destination for many people escaping the bonds of slavery. There are many harrowing stories involving abolitionists, runaways, slave traders and free men. The [[National Underground Railroad Freedom Center]], located in downtown Cincinnati on the banks of the Ohio River, largely focuses on the history of slavery in the U.S., but has an underlying mission of promoting freedom in a contemporary fashion for the world. Its grand opening ceremony was a gala event involving many national stars, musical acts, fireworks, and a visit from the current First Lady of the U.S. It is physically located between Great American Ballpark and Paul Brown Stadium, which were both built and opened shortly before the Freedom Center was opened. ===History of race riots=== There is a long history of racial tension between White and Black citizens in Cincinnati that have erupted violently. * 1829 Riots begun by Whites to terrorize the Black community resulted in thousands of Blacks leaving for Canada. * 1836 a pro-slavery riot took place * 1841 Irish dock workers rioted against Black dock workers. When the Black dock workers banded together to defend their community from the approaching Whites, the White riotors retreated and then commandeered a 6-pound cannon and shot it through the streets of Cincinnati. * 1884 The deadliest riot in U.S. history took place. It was started by a White mob in reaction to their anger over a murder trial involving a Black and White defendant. 56 people were killed and the city's courthouse was burned down. * 1967 the first riot initiated by Blacks occurred. The incident which sparked the violence was a domestic dispute between a Black couple which had gunfire involved but turned quickly into a race riot. * 1968 After [[Martin Luther King Jr]]'s death riots raged nationwide. In the riots in Cincinnati two people died. * 2001 ''Main article: [[2001 Cincinnati Riots]]'' After 15 consecutive deaths of young Black males during police confrontations, during which time no other race or gender died, riots broke out in downtown Cincinnati. The death of [[Timothy Thomas]] occurred on the backdrop of a federal case brought against the city and police department alleging racial profiling rallying around [[Roger Owensby, Jr]] while the civil trial investigating the police involved in Owensby's death ''See:'' [[Roger Owensby Jr Criminal Trial]]. That combination is considered the catalyst for what some refer to as riots and others an uprising. Please see the main article for details. ==Geography and climate== ===Geography=== [[Image:Cincinnati-skyline-from-kentucky-shore-night.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|Cincinnati skyline at night, from the [[Kentucky]] shore.]] Cincinnati is located at {{coor dms\|39\|8\|10\|N\|84\|30\|11\|W\|region:GR}} (39.136160, -84.503088).{{GR\|1}} According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 206.1 [[square kilometre\|km²]] (79.6 [[square mile\|mi²]]). 201.9 km² (78.0 mi²) of it is land and 4.1 km² (1.6 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 2.01% water. The Cincinnati &ndash; [[Middletown, Ohio\|Middletown]] [[United States metropolitan area\|Metropolitan Statistical Area]] (MSA), the [[List of United States metropolitan statistical areas by population\|25th largest]] in the United States, has a population of 2,009,632. It includes the [[Ohio]] counties of [[Hamilton County, Ohio\|Hamilton]], [[Butler County, Ohio\|Butler]], [[Warren County, Ohio\|Warren]], [[Clermont County, Ohio\|Clermont]] and [[Brown County, Ohio\|Brown]], as well as the [[Kentucky]] counties of [[Boone County, Kentucky\|Boone]], [[Bracken County, Kentucky\|Bracken]], [[Campbell County, Kentucky\|Campbell]], [[Gallatin County, Kentucky\|Gallatin]], [[Grant County, Kentucky\|Grant]], [[Kenton County, Kentucky\|Kenton]], and [[Pendleton County, Kentucky\|Pendleton]], and the [[Indiana]] counties of [[Dearborn County, Indiana\|Dearborn]], [[Franklin County, Indiana\|Franklin]], and [[Ohio County, Indiana\|Ohio]]. ===Climate=== Cincinnati's weather is temperate and seasonal. [[summer\|Summers]] are hot and humid with cool evenings. The mean annual temperature is 54&nbsp;[[Fahrenheit\|°F]] (12&nbsp;[[Celsius\|°C]]), with an average annual snowfall of 32
in Italy in April, Cicero formed a plan to play him against Antony. In September he began attacking Antony in a series of speeches he called the [[Philippic]]s. Praising Octavian to the skies, he labeled him a "God-Sent Child" and said he only desired honor and that he would not make the same mistake as his Uncle. Meanwhile, his attacks on Antony, whom he called a "sheep," rallied the Senate in firm opposition to Antony. During this time, Cicero became an unrivaled popular leader and, according to the historian Appian, "had the power any popular leader could possibly have." He was at the height of his fame. As popular leader, Cicero heavily fined the supporters of Antony for petty charges and had volunteers forge arms for the Republicans. It turned out to be so insulting that a right hand man of Antony was preparing to march on Rome to arrest Cicero. Cicero fled the city and the plan was abandoned. Appian is the only one to give this tale of a march on Rome for the arrest of Cicero. Cicero supported [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] as governor of [[Cisalpine Gaul]] (''Gallia Cisalpina'') and urged the Senate to name Antony an enemy of the state. One [[tribune]], a certain [[Salvius]], delayed these proceedings and was "reviled," as Appian put it, by Cicero and his party. The speech of [[Lucius Piso]], Caesar's father-in-law, delayed proceedings against Antony. Antony was later declared an [[enemy of the state]] when he refused to lift the siege of [[Mutina]], which was in the hands of one of Caesar's assassins, Decimus Brutus, who also was named a second son in Caesar's will. Cicero described his position in a letter to [[Gaius Cassius Longinus\|Cassius]], one of Caesar's [[assassin]]s, that same September: "I am pleased that you like my motion in the Senate and the speech accompanying it... Antony is a madman, corrupt and much worse than Caesar - whom you declared the worst of evil men when you killed him. Antony wants to start a bloodbath..." Cicero's plan to drive out Octavian and Antony failed, however. The two reconciled and allied with [[Lepidus]] to form the [[Second Triumvirate]] after the successive battles of Mutina. Immediately after legislating their alliance into official existence for a five-year term with consular ''[[imperium]]'', the Triumviri began [[proscription\|proscribing]] their enemies and potential rivals. Cicero and his younger brother [[Quintus Tullius Cicero]], formerly one of Caesar's [[legatus\|legates]], and all of their contacts and supporters were numbered among the enemies of the state. Antony hunted for Cicero most viciously among the proscribed. Many men fell bravely, with many stories of bravery and virtue according to historical accounts. One victim turned out to be the tribune Salvius, who, after siding with Antony, moved his support directly and fully to Cicero. Salvius held a dinner party for his friends because he knew he would not be around for long and wished to have one last gathering to say goodbye. The legionaries burst into the party and beheaded Salvius in front of his friends. Cicero was viewed with pity by many, and many claimed not to have seen him. He fled, but was caught at one of his [[villa]]s after going to retrieve money. He fled by the coast of the nearby villa. When the executioners arrived, his slaves said they did not see him, yet a dependent of Clodius said otherwise. His last words were said to have been "there is nothing proper about what you are doing, soldier, but do try to kill me properly." He was decapitated by his pursuers on [[December 7]], [[43 BC]]; his head and hands were displayed on the [[Rostra]] in the [[Forum Romanum]] according to the tradition of [[Marius]] and [[Sulla]], both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. He was the only victim of the Triumvirate's proscriptions to have been so displayed after death. According to Cassius Dio (often mistakenly attributed to Plutarch), Antony's wife [[Fulvia]] took Cicero's head, pulled out his tongue, and jabbed the tongue repeatedly with her hairpin, taking a final revenge against Cicero's power of speech. Even after both his death and the death of the Republic, however, Cicero's memory survived. He was declared a "Righteous Pagan" by the early Catholic Church, and therefore many of his works were deemed worthy of preservation. Saint Augustine and others quoted liberally from his works "The Republic" and "The Laws," and it is due to this that we are able to recreate much of the work from the surviving fragments. Another story of his fame may suffice as well: Caesar's heir Octavian was to become [[Augustus]], Rome's first emperor, and it is said that in his later life he came upon one of his grandsons reading a book by Cicero. The boy, fearing his grandfather's reaction, tried to hide the book in the folds of his tunic. Augustus saw this, however, and took the book from him, standing as he read the greater part of it. He then handed the volume back to his grandson with the words "he was a learned man, dear child, a learned man who loved his country." == Works == === Books === Of Cicero's books, six on rhetoric have survived, as well as parts of seven on philosophy. === Speeches === Of his speeches, eighty-eight were recorded, but only fifty-eight survive. (Some of the items below are more than one speech.) ==== Judicial speeches ==== * (81 BC) ''[[Pro Quinctio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Publius Quinctius]]'') * (80 BC) ''[[Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino]]'' (''On behalf of [[Sextus Roscius of Ameria]]'') * (77 BC) ''[[Pro Q. Roscio Comoedo]]'' (''On behalf of [[Quintus Roscius the Actor]]'') * (70 BC) ''[[Divinatio in Caecilium]]'' (''Spoken against [[Caecilius]] at the inquiry concerning the prosecution of [[Verres]]'') * (70 BC) ''[[In Verrem]]'' (''Against [[Gaius Verres]]'', or ''The Verrines'') * (69 BC) ''[[Pro Tullio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Tullius]]'') * (69 BC) ''[[Pro Fonteio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Marcus Fonteius]]'') * (69 BC) ''[[Pro Caecina]]'' (''On behalf of [[Aulus Caecina]]'') * (66 BC) ''[[Pro Cluentio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Aulus Cluentius]]'') * (63 BC) ''[[Pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo]]'' (''On behalf of [[Rabirius]] on a Charge of Treason'') * (63 BC) ''[[Pro Murena]]'' (''On behalf of [[Lucius Murena]]'') * (62 BC) ''[[Pro Sulla]]'' (''On behalf of [[Sulla]]'') * (62 BC) ''[[Pro Archia Poeta]]'' (''On behalf of the poet [[Archias]]'') * (59 BC) ''[[Pro Flacco]]'' (''On behalf of [[Flaccus]]'') * (56 BC) ''[[Pro Sestio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Sestius]]'') * (56 BC) ''[[In Vatinium]]'' (''Against [[Vatinius]] at the trial of [[Sestius]]'') * (56 BC) ''[[Pro Caelio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Marcus Caelius Rufus]]'') * (56 BC) ''[[Pro Balbo]]'' (''On behalf of [[Cornelius Balbus]]'') * (54 BC) ''[[Pro Plancio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Plancius]]'') * (54 BC) ''[[Pro Rabirio Postumo]]'' (''On behalf of [[Rabirius Postumus]]'') ==== Political speeches ==== ; Early career (before exile) * (66 BC) ''[[Pro Lege Manilia]]'' or ''[[De Imperio Cn. Pompei]]'' (''in favor of the [[Manilian Law]] on the command of [[Pompey]]'') * (63 BC) ''[[De Lege Agraria contra Rullum]]'' (''Opposing the [[Agrarian Law]] proposed by [[Rullus]]'') * (63 BC) ''[[In Catilinam I-IV]]'' (''[[Catiline Orations]]'' or ''Against [[Catiline]]'') [http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/claslattexts/cicero/incatilinam.html] * ([[59 BC]]) ''[[Pro Flacco]]'' (''In Defense of Flaccus'') ; Mid career (after exile) * (57 BC) ''[[Post Reditum in Quirites]]'' (''To the Citizens after his recall from exile'') * (57 BC) ''[[Post Reditum in Senatu]]'' (''To the [[Roman Senate\|Senate]] after his recall from exile'') * (57 BC) ''[[De Domo Sua]]'' (''On his House'') * (57 BC) ''[[De Haruspicum Responsis]]'' (''On the Responses of the [[Haruspices]]'') * (56 BC) ''[[De Provinciis Consularibus]]'' (''On the Consular Provinces'') * (55 BC) ''[[In Pisonem]]'' (''Against [[Piso]]'') ; Late career * ([[52 BC]]) ''[[Pro Milone]]'' (''On behalf of [[Titus Annius Milo]]'') * ([[46 BC]]) ''[[Pro Marcello]]'' (''On behalf of [[Gaius Claudius Marcellus\|Marcellus]]'') * (46 BC) ''[[Pro Ligario]]'' (''On behalf of [[Ligarius]] before Caesar'') * (46 BC) ''[[Pro Rege Deiotaro]]'' (''On behalf of [[King Deiotarius]] before Caesar'') * ([[44 BC]]) ''[[Philippicae]]'' (''consisting of the 14 [[philippic]]s ''[[Philippica]] I-XIV'' against ''[[Marc Antony\|Marcus Antonius]]) [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0021] (The ''Pro Marcello'', ''Pro Ligario'', and ''Pro Rege Deiotaro'' are collectively known as "The Caesarian speeches"). === Philosophy === ==== Rhetoric ==== * ([[84 BC]]) ''[[De Inventione]]'' (''The composition of arguments'') * ([[55 BC]]) ''[[De Oratore]]'' (''The orator'') * ([[54 BC]]) ''[[De Partitionibus Oratoriae]]'' (''The subdivisions of oratory'') * ([[52 BC]]) ''[[De Optimo Genere Oratorum]]'' (''The Best Kind of Orators'') * (46 BC) ''[[Brutus (Cicero)\|Brutus]]'' (''The Brutus, a short history of Roman oratory'') * (46 BC) ''[[Orator ad M. Brutum]]'' (''The Orator, also dedicated to Brutus'') * (44 BC) ''[[Topica]]'' (''Topics of argumentation'') * (?? BC) ''[[Rhetorica ad Herennium]]'' (traditionally attributed to Cicero, but currently disputed) ==== Other philosophical works ==== * ([[51 BC]]) ''[[De Republica]]'' (''On the Republic'') * ([[45 BC]]) ''[[Hortensius]]'' (''Hortensius'') * (45 BC) ''[[Lucullus or Academica Priora]]'' (''The Prior Academics'') * (45 BC) ''[[Academica Posteriora]]'' (''The Later Academics'') * (45 BC) ''[[De Finibus, Bonorum et Malorum]]'' (''About the Ends of Goods and Evils''). [http://www.epicurus.info/etexts/De_Finibus.html] Source of [[Lorem ipsum]] * (45 BC) ''[[Tusculanae Quaestiones]]'' (''Questions debated at Tusculum'') * (45 BC) ''[[De Natura Deorum]]'' (''The Nature of the Gods'') * (45 BC) ''[[De
[[River Lyn]] [[River Otter]] [[River Tamar]] (the border between Devon and Cornwall) [[River Tavy]] [[River Taw]] [[River Teign]] [[River Torridge]] [[River Yeo]] ==Devon as a descriptor== The [[cream tea]], involving [[scones]], [[jam]] and [[clotted cream]], is a local speciality and may well have originated in Devon (neighbouring counties also claim it); in other countries such as [[New Zealand]] it is known as a '''Devonshire tea'''. Devon is the name of a variety of [[ham (meat)\|ham]], which (presumably) comes from Devon. In [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], Devon is a name for luncheon meat (processed ham). The name changes in different states of Australia (eg 'Fritz' in [[South Australia]], 'Polony' in [[Western Australia]]) but all describe the same type of meat. The [[Devon Rex]] [[cat breed]] originated here. [[Devon cattle\|Devon]] and [[South Devon cattle\|South Devon]] are breeds of [[cattle]] that originated in the county. The [[Devonian]] is a period in the [[geologic timescale]]. ==See also== [[West Country dialects]] [[England]] [[English (people)]] ==External links== General information about Devon * [http://www.devoncam.co.uk Devon CAM Regularly updated photos of Devon] [http://www.devon24.co.uk Devon24] All the local Devon news, sport and leisure The [[BBC]] [http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/ Devon information page] Extensive general historical and geographical as well as genealogical information at the [http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/genuki/DEV/ UK and Ireland Genealogy website] [http://www.southwestcoastpath.com/ The South West Coast Path National Trail] [http://www.thereabouts.co.uk/devon/ Devon & thereabouts] [http://www.devon.gov.uk/ Devon County Council] [http://www.passagehousegroup.co.uk/places.asp Places of interest in Devon] [http://www.devon-self-catering.net/ A guide to self catering in Devon] [[Alternative Devon]] - [http://www.alternativedevon.co.uk/ Devon musicians and photography.] [http://users.senet.com.au/~dewnans/ Celtic aspects of Devon] [http://www.holywells.com/ The Holy Wells of Devon] [http://www.devonlink.co.uk/ DevonLink.co.uk] - A growing human edited link directory, photograph and area review Information Companion! Tourist information: [http://www.cornwall-devon.com/ Devon & Cornwall] (DACOM) Devon and Cornwall Overseas Marketing website provides information in French, German and Dutch [http://www.discoverdevon.com Discover Devon - County Council tourist site] [http://www.beautiful-devon.co.uk Beautiful Devon] [http://www.devonaccommodation.com Devon Accommodation Guide] [http://www.devon24.co.uk/flatfiles/holidayguide/holidayguide.aspx East Devon Holiday Guide]Tourist Guide for the East Devon area, includes town guide, beach guide and epostcards! [http://www.northdevongazette.co.uk/northdevongazette/flatfiles/scene/scene.aspx North Devon Scene]Tourist Guide for the North Devon area <!-- Currently unavailable: [http://www.broadwayhouse.com/tourist.html Broadway House Tourism Directory] --> Devon news and sport: [http://www.midweekherald.co.uk Midweek Herald] Local newspaper covering the Honiton, Axminster and Seaton areas of East Devon. [http://www.northdevongazette.co.uk North Devon Gazette] Free local newspaper covering the Barnstaple, Bideford, Ilfracombe and South Molton areas of North Devon. [http://www.exmouthjournal.co.uk Exmouth Journal] Local newspaper covering the Exmouth, Budleigh Salterton, Woodbury and Topsham areas of East Devon [http://www.exmouthherald.co.uk Exmouth Herald] Free local newspaper covering the Exmouth, Budleigh Salterton, Woodbury and Topsham areas of East Devon [http://www.sidmouthherald.co.uk Sidmouth Herald] Local newspaper covering the Sidmouth and Ottery St Mary areas of East Devon [http://www.thisisdevon.co.uk This is Devon] The website of the Western Morning News, Mid Devon Gazette and North Devon Journal. [http://www.thisissouthdevon.co.uk/ This Is South Devon] Website of the Herald Express newspaper covering the Torbay area, based in Torquay. [http://www.thisisexeter.co.uk Exeter Express and Echo] Local newspaper covering Exeter. [http://www.thisisplymouth.co.uk Plymouth Evening Herald] Local newspaper covering Plymouth. [http://www.phototropic.co.uk/landscapeleaps/ Dartmoor Virtual Tour] Landscape Leaps: Dartmoor 360°. Interactive Virtual Tour of Dartmoor National Park, Devon, England. {{England ceremonial counties}} <br /> {{England traditional counties}} [[Category:Devon\| ]] [[cy:Dyfnaint]] [[de:Devon (England)]] [[es:Devon]] [[eo:Devon]] [[fr:Comté de Devon]] [[kw:Dewnens]] [[nl:Devon]] [[ja:デヴォン州]] [[no:Devon]] [[pl:Devon]] [[pt:Devon]] [[simple:Devon]] [[sk:Devon (Anglicko)]] [[sv:Devon, England]] [[uk:Девон, графство]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dartmoor</title> <id>8167</id> <revision> <id>41734724</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:46:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>125.22.1.180</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Myths and literature /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:High_Willhays.jpg\|right\|thumb\|300px\|[[High Willhays]], the highest point on Dartmoor and southern [[England]] at 621 m (2037 ft) above sea level, with [[Yes Tor]] beyond.]] '''Dartmoor''' is an area of moorland protected by a [[National park\|National Park]] in the centre of the English county of [[Devon]]. It covers 368 square miles (953 km²). The [[granite]] upland dates from the [[Carboniferous]] period of [[geology\|geological]] history, and the landscape is both dramatic, and bleak. The rolling [[heath (habitat)\|moorland]] is capped with hundreds of exposed granite hilltops (known as [[tor]]s), and provides rich and diverse habitats for [[Dartmoor wildlife]]. The highest point is [[High Willhays]], 621 m above sea level. The entire area is rich in antiquities. Parts of Dartmoor have been used as a military firing range for over 200 years. Today, the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)\|Ministry of Defence]] uses three areas of the northern moor, totalling 108.71 km² (41.9 mile²), or just over 11 % of Dartmoor National Park. Red and white posts mark the boundaries of these military areas, which are shown on Ordnance Survey 1:25,000 maps. The public enjoy extensive access rights to the rest of Dartmoor, and it is a very popular tourist destination. The Park was featured on the TV programme [[Seven Natural Wonders]] as the top natural wonder in [[South West England]]. ==History== ===Pre-history=== The majority of the prehistoric remains on Dartmoor date back to the late [[Neolithic]] and early [[Bronze Age]]. Indeed, Dartmoor contains the largest concentration of Bronze Age remains in the United Kingdom, which suggests that this was when a larger population moved onto the hills of Dartmoor. The climate at the time was warmer than today, and much of today's moorland was covered with trees. The prehistoric settlers began clearing the forest, and established the first farming communities. The nature of the soil, which is highly acidic, means that no organic remains have survived. However, by contrast, the high durability of the natural granite means that their homes and monuments are still to be found in abundance, as are their flint tools. [[Image: Beardown_man_dartmoor.jpg \|thumb\|200px\|Beardown Man, Dartmoor]] Numerous [[menhir]]s (more usually referred to locally as [[standing stone]]s or longstones), [[stone circle]]s, [[kistvaen]]s, [[cairn]]s and [[stone row]]s are to be found on the moor. The most significant sites include: Beardown Man, near [[Devil&#8217;s Tor]] - isolated standing stone (3.5 m high, said to have another 1 m below ground). {{gbmapping\|SX596796}} Challacombe, near the prehistoric settlement of [[Grimspound]] - triple stone row. {{gbmapping\|SX689807}} [[Drizzlecombe]], east of [[Sheepstor]] village - stone circles, rows, standing stones, kistvaens and cairns. {{gbmapping\|SX591669}} [[Grey Wethers]], near [[Postbridge, Devon\|Postbridge]] - double circle, aligned almost exactly north south. {{gbmapping\|SX638831}} Laughter Tor, near [[Two Bridges]] - standing stone (2.4 m high) and two double stone rows (one 164 m long). {{gbmapping\|SX652753}} [[Merrivale]], between [[Princetown]] and [[Tavistock]] - includes a double stone row (182 m long, 1.1 m wide, aligned almost exactly east-west), stone circles and a kistvaen. {{gbmapping\|SX554747}} Scorhill, west of [[Chagford]] - circle (26.8 m in circumference) and stone rows. {{gbmapping\|SX654873}} *Shovel Down, north of [[Dartmoor reservoirs\|Fernworthy reservoir]] - double stone row (approx 120 m long). {{gbmapping\|SX660859}} There are also an estimated 5,000 hut circles still surviving today, despite the fact that many have been raided over the centuries by the builders of the traditional dry stone walls. These are the remnants of Bronze Age houses. The smallest are around 6 ft (1.8 m) in diameter, and the largest may be up to five times this size. Some have L-shaped porches to protect against wind and rain - some particularly good examples are to be found at Grimspound. It is believed that they would have had a conical roof, supported by timbers and covered in turf or thatch. ===The historical period=== The climate worsened over the course of a thousand years from around 1000 BC, so that much of high Dartmoor was largely abandoned by its early inhabitants. It was not until the early medieval period that the weather again became warmer, and settlers moved back onto the moors. Like their ancient forebears, they also used the natural granite to build their homes, preferring a style known as the [[Dartmoor longhouse\|longhouse]] - some of which are still inhabited today, although they have been clearly adapted over the centuries. Many are now being used as farm buildings, while others were abandoned and fell into ruin. The earliest surviving farms, still in operatio
decreased from 36% in 1960 to 25% in 2000. Among developing countries, illiteracy and percentages without schooling in [[2000]] stood at about half the 1970 figures. Among developed countries, illiteracy rates decreased from 6 % to 1 %, and percentages without schooling decreased from 5 to 2. Illiteracy rates in less economically developed countries ([[LEDC]]s) surpassed those of more economically developed countries ([[MEDC]]s) by a factor of 10 in 1970, and by a factor of about 20 in 2000. Illiteracy decreased greatly in LDCs, and virtually disappeared in MDCs. Percentages without any schooling showed similar patterns. Percentages of the population with no schooling varied greatly among LDCs in 2000, from less than 10 % to over 65 %. MDCs had much less variation, ranging from less than 2 % to 17 %. {{Education by country}} == Challenges == :''"I think the big mistake in schools is trying to teach children anything, and by using fear as the basic motivation. Fear of getting failing grades, fear of not staying with your class, etc. Interest can produce learning on a scale compared to fear as a nuclear explosion to a firecracker."'' <br>- [[Stanley Kubrick]] The goal of education is the transference of [[ideas]] and skills from one to one, one to many, many to many and many to one with the possible high transfer rate and volume of knowledge under the possible shortest time duration at any place and circumstance. Current education issues include which teaching method(s) are most effective, how to determine what knowledge should be taught, which knowledge is most relevant, and how well the pupil will retain incoming knowledge. Educators such as [[George Counts]] and [[Paulo Freire]] identified education as an inherently political process with inherently political outcomes. The challenge of identifying ''whose'' ideas are transferred and what goals they serve has always stood in the face of formal and informal education. In addition to the "Three R's", [[reading (activity)\|reading]], [[writing]], and [[arithmetic]], Western primary and secondary schools attempt to teach the basic knowledge of [[history]], [[geography]], [[mathematics]] (usually including [[calculus]] and [[algebra]]), [[physics]], [[chemistry]] and sometimes [[politics]], in the hope that students will retain and use this knowledge as they age or that the skills acquired will be transferrable. The current education system measures competency with tests and assignments and then assigns each student a corresponding grade. The grades usually come in the form of either a letter grade or a percentage, which are intended to represent the amount of all material presented in class that the student understood. Educational progressives or advocates of [[unschooling]] often believe that grades do not necessarily reveal the strengths and weaknesses of a student, and that there is an unfortunate lack of [[youth voice]] in the educative process. Some feel the current grading system lowers students' [[self-confidence]], as students may receive poor marks due to factors outside their control. Such factors include poverty, [[child abuse]], and [[prejudice]]d or incompetent teachers. By contrast, many advocates of a more traditional or "back to basics" approach believe that the direction of reform needs to be the opposite. Students are not inspired or challenged to achieve success because of the dumbing down of the curriculum and the replacement of the "canon" with inferior material. Their view of self-confidence is that it arises not from removing hurdles such as grading, but by making them fair and encouraging students to gain pride from knowing they can jump over these hurdles. On the one hand, [[Albert Einstein]], the most famous [[physicist]] of the twentieth century, credited with helping us understand the universe better, was not a model school student. He was uninterested in what was being taught, and he did not attend classes all the time. However, his gifts eventually shone through and added to the sum of human knowledge. On the other hand, for millennia those who have been challenged and well-educated in traditional schools have risen to great success and to a lifelong love of learning because their minds were made better and more powerful, as well as because of their mastery of a wide range of skills. There are a number of highly controversial issues in education. Should some knowledge be forgotten? What should be taught, are we better off knowing how to build nuclear bombs, or is it best to let such knowledge be forgotten? There are also some philosphies, for example [[Transcendentalism]], that would probably reject conventional education in the belief that knowlegde should be gained through purely personal experience. The cost of higher education in developed countries is increasingly becoming an issue. === Developing countries === In developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced is naturally greater. People are sometimes unaware of the importance of education, and there is economic pressure from those parents who prioritize their children's making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested, however, that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value of the children's work has increased since their return to school. Teachers are often paid less than other similar [[profession]]s. A lack of good universities, and a low acceptance rate for good universities is evident in countries with a relatively high population density. In some countries there are uniform, overstructured, inflexible centralized programs from a central agency that regulates all aspects of education. Due to [[globalization]], increased pressure on students in curricular activities Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practised in schools, after 10th grade) India however is starting to develop technologies that will skip land based phone and internet lines. Instead, they have launched a special education satellite that can reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative started by a group out of MIT and supported by several major corporations to develop a [[$100 laptop]]. The laptops should be available by late 2006 or 2007. The laptops, sold at cost, will enable developing countries to give their children a digital education, and to close the digital divide across the world. In Africa, [[NEPAD]] has launched an "[[NEPAD e-school programme\|e-school programme]]" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. Private groups, like [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], are working to give more individuals opportunities to receive education in developing countries through such programs as the [[Perpetual Education Fund]]. == Parental involvement == [[Parent\|Parental]] involvement is a necessary thing when it comes to a child's educational [[development]]. Early and consistent parental involvement in the child's life is [[critical]] such as reading to children at an early age, teaching patterns, [[interpersonal communication]] skills, exposing them to diverse cultures and the [[community]] around them, educating them on a healthy [[lifestyle]], etc. The socialization and academic education of a child are aided by the involvement of the [[student]], [[parent\|parent(s)]], [[teacher\|teachers]], and others in the community and extended family. Academic achievement and parental involvement are strongly linked in the research. Many schools are now beginning program of parental involvement in a more organized fashion, in part due to the [[No Child Left Behind]] legislation from the [[US Department of Education]]. == Prominent educationalists == {{col-begin}} {{col-4}} [[Mortimer J. Adler]] [[F. Matthias Alexander]] [[Aristotle]] [[Catherine Baker]] [[Benjamin Bloom]] [[Garth Boomer]] [[Comenius]] [[Jim Cummins]] [[Caroline Middleton DeCamp]] [[Charles-Michel de l'Épée]] [[John Dewey]] [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] {{col-4}} [[Erasmus]] [[Moshe Feldenkrais]] [[Paulo Freire]] [[Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel]] [[Robert M. Gagne]] [[Howard Gardner]] [[John Taylor Gatto]] [[Paul Goodman (writer)\|Paul Goodman]] [[Kurt Hahn]] [[John Caldwell Holt]] [[Ivan Illich]] [[Hugo Kołłątaj]] {{col-4}} [[Janusz Korczak]] [[Jonathan Kozol]] [[Joseph Lancaster]] [[Horace Mann]] [[Alexander Meiklejohn]] [[Maria Montessori]] [[A.S. Neill]] [[Seymour Papert]] [[Helen Parkhurst]] [[Frank Parsons]] [[Ivan Pavlov]] [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] {{col-4}} [[Alec Peterson]] [[Jean Piaget]] [[Plato]] [[Neil Postman]] [[Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan]] [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] [[Ted Sizer]] [[B.F. Skinner]] [[Socrates]] [[Rudolf Steiner]] [[Jesse Stuart]] [[Lev Vygotsky]] [[Ted Wragg]] [[Gustav Wyneken]] {{col-end}} == See also == * [[Glossary of education-related terms]] * [[List of academic disciplines]] * [[List of education articles by country]] * [[List of education topics]] * [[Public Education]] == References == [http://gsociology.icaap.org/report/socsum.html Brief review of world socio-demographic trends] shows world illiteracy trends. {{cite book \| author=Dharampal \| title= The Beautiful Tree \| publisher=Other India Press \| year=2000 }} * Lucas, J. L., Blazek, M. A., & Raley, A. B. (2005). The lack of representation of educational psychology and school psychology in introductory psychology textbooks. ''Educational Psychology, 25'', 347-351. *{{cite book \| author=Siljander, Pauli \| ti
[boffin\|Boffin]] * [[Freaks and Geeks]] * [[Geek Code]] * [[Geek chic]] * [[Geek Squad]] * [[Geek canon]] * [[Geekcorps]] * [[gling gling\|Gling Gling]] * [[hacker\|Hacker]] * [[leet\|Leet]] * [[nerd\|Nerd]] * [[otaku\|Otaku]] * [[Social anxiety]] * [[whiz kid\|Whiz Kid]] == External links== * [http://www.geekfuactiongrip.com Geek Fu Action Grip] A podcast by Mur Lafferty about geeks and geeky things * [http://www.geekculture.com Geek Culture] Home of the Joy of Tech cartoon * [http://www.innergeek.us/geek.html The Original Geek Test] 507 questions to determine how much of geek you are * [http://www.geekcode.com The Geek Code] A part of geek history * [http://www.geekoftheday.com Geek Of The Day] Real profiles of real geeks * [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/appendixb.html A Portrait of J. Random Hacker] A detailed description of the programming variety of geek {{Link FA\|he}} [[Category:Subcultures]] [[Category:Pejorative terms for people]] [[category:stock characters]] [[ca:Friqui]] [[de:Geek]] [[es:Geek]] [[fr:Geek]] [[he:חנון]] [[it:Geek]] [[nl:Geek]] [[pl:Geek]] [[pt:Geek]] [[fi:Friikki]] [[sv:Geek]] [[lt:Geek]] [[zh:极客]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>George Washington</title> <id>11968</id> <revision> <id>42111570</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:18:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zaui</username> <id>35247</id> </contributor> <comment>Change nationality back to American from "Chinese"</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherpeople\|George Washington}} {{Infobox_President \| name=George Washington \| nationality=American \| image=Portrait of George Washington.jpeg \| wh image=Gw1.gif \| order=1st President \| term_start=[[April 30]] [[1789]] \| term_end=[[March 3]] [[1797]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on [[March 3]]. --> \| predecessor=None \| successor=[[John Adams]] \| birth_date=[[February 22]] [[1732]] \| birth_place=[[Westmoreland County, Virginia\|Westmoreland]], [[Virginia]] \| death_date=[[December 14]] [[1799]] \| death_place=[[Mount Vernon (plantation)\|Mount Vernon]], Virginia \| spouse=[[Martha Washington\|Martha Custis Washington]] \| Brothers=Lawrence Washington and Augustine Washington (Half Brothers) \| party=None (1789-93) [[Federalist]] (1793-1797) \| vicepresident=[[John Adams]] }} '''George Washington''' ([[February 22]] [[1732]] &ndash; [[December 14]] [[1799]]) was the successful [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[Continental Army]] in the [[American Revolutionary War]] from 1775 to 1783, and later became the first [[President of the United States]], an office to which he was elected, unanimously, twice and remained in from 1789 to 1797. Washington first gained prominence as an officer during the [[French and Indian War]] and as a leader of colonial militia supporting the [[British Empire]]. After leading the American victory in the Revolutionary War, he refused to lead a [[militarism\|military regime]], though encouraged by some of his peers to do so. He returned to civilian life at [[Mount Vernon (plantation)\|Mount Vernon]]. In 1787, he presided over the [[Philadelphia Convention\|Constitutional Convention]] that drafted the current [[United States Constitution]], and, in 1789, was the unanimous choice to become the first President of the United States. His two-term administration set many policies and [[tradition\|traditions]] that survive today. After his second term expired, Washington again voluntarily relinquished [[Political power\|power]], thereby establishing an important precedent that was to serve as an example for the United States and also for other future [[republic]]s. Because of his [[Founding Fathers of the United States\|central role in the founding]] of the [[United States]], Washington is often called the [[Father of the Nation\|"Father of his Country"]]. {{ref\|father}} Scholars [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents\|rank]] him with [[Abraham Lincoln]] among the greatest of United States presidents. ==Early life== According to the [[Julian calendar]], Washington was born on [[February 11]] [[1731]]; according to the [[Gregorian calendar]], which was adopted during Washington's life and is used today, he was born on [[February 22]] [[1732]] ([[Washington's Birthday]] is celebrated on the Gregorian date.) At the time of his birth, the English year began [[March 25]] ([[Annunciation]] Day, or [[Lady Day]]), hence the difference in his birth year. His birthplace was Popes Creek Plantation, on the Potomac River southeast of modern-day [[Colonial Beach, Virginia\|Colonial Beach]] in {{USCity\|Westmoreland County\|Virginia}}. George Washington was the oldest child from his father's second marriage. Washington had two older half-brothers: Lawrence and Augustine, Jr. "Austin" and four younger siblings: Betty, Samuel, John Augustine "Jack", and Charles. Washington's parents [[Augustine Washington]] "Gus" (1693&ndash;[[April 12]] [[1743]]) and [[Mary Ball Washington]] (1708&ndash;[[August 25]] [[1789]]) were of [[British]] descent. Gus Washington was a [[slavery\|slave]]-owning planter in [[Virginia]} who later tried his hand in iron-mining ventures. Considered members of the gentlemen class they were not nearly as wealthy as the neighboring Carters and Lees. Washington spent much of his boyhood at [[Ferry Farm]] in [[Stafford County, Virginia\|Stafford County]], near [[Fredericksburg, Virginia\|Fredericksburg]] and visited his Washington cousins at [[Chotank]] in King George County. One of Gus Washington's properties where the family resided from about 1735-1737 was Little Hunting Creek Farm. This property was later taken over by Gus's oldest son, Lawrence, and renamed Mount Vernon. The death of Gus Washington left the family in difficult circumstances and prevented young George from receiving an education in England as his older brothers Lawrence and Austin did. George Washington would never travel to Europe. [[Image:Parsonweemsfable.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|right\|[[Grant Wood]]'s 1939 painting pokes gentle fun at Parson Weems' tale of Washington's childhood]] An early biography of Washington by Parson Weems, who met Washington and interviewed people who knew Washington as a young man, included a story about his honesty as a child. In the story, he wanted to try out a new axe, so he chopped the bark of his father's [[cherry]] tree; when questioned by his father, he admitted responsibility and uttered the famous words: "I can't tell a lie.” The story first appeared in 1800 in Weems's biography (titled "Life of Washington")[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=kQEJhFWnyLUC&dq=&lpg=PA3&pg=PA5&printsec=2]. The work of Parson Weems is believed to be pure allegory, though the story indeed depicted the strict integrity that was a hallmark of Washington's life. He was home schooled, often tutored by his older brothers, and eventually trained as a [[surveyor]], obtaining his certificate from the [[College of William and Mary]]. He surveyed the [[Shenandoah Valley]] in western Virginia for Lord Fairfax, a relative of Washington's brother Lawerence by marriage, and retained a lifelong interest in western lands, particularly the areas reached from the [[Potomac River]] as his thinking was that this water source was the central entrance for oceanic ships. His only foreign trip was a short visit to [[Barbados]] [http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/NewViewNewsleft.cfm?Record=22728] with Lawrence in 1751, during which George Washington survived an attack of [[smallpox]] although his face was scarred by the disease. He was initiated as a [[Freemasonry\|Freemason]] in Fredericksburg on [[February 4]] [[1752]]. Upon Lawrence Washington's death from tuberculosis in July 1752, George Washington rented and eventually inherited the estate, [[Mount Vernon (plantation)\|Mount Vernon]], in [[Fairfax County, Virginia\|Fairfax County]] (near [[Alexandria, Virginia\|Alexandria]]). Washington would spend the next thirty years adding on to the house and the surrounding acerage. ==French and Indian War: 1754-1763== [[Image:Washington 1772.JPG\|thumb\|left\|225px\|This, the earliest portrait of Washington, was painted in 1772 by [[Charles Willson Peale]], and shows Washington in uniform as colonel of the First Virginia Regiment.]] At twenty-two years of age, Washington fired some of the first shots of what would become a war between colonial powers. The trouble began in 1753, when [[France]] began building a series of forts in the [[Ohio Country]], a region also claimed by Virginia. This was part of an overall strategy by the French, with the support of the indigenous population, to destabilize the American frontier and tie up British military forces in the American colonies. [[Robert Dinwiddie]], the governor of Virginia, had young Major Washington deliver a letter to the French commander, asking them to leave. After the publication of Washington's accounts of this tale appreared in local newspapers, he became a legend. The French refused, and so, in 1754, Dinwiddie sent Washington, now promoted to [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in the First Virginia Regiment, on another mission to the Ohio Country. There, Washington and his troops ambushed a [[French Canadian]] scouting party. After a short skirmish, Washington's [[Native Americans in the United States\|American Indian]] ally [[Tanacharison]] killed the wounded French commander [[Joseph Coulon de Jumonville\|Ensign Jumonville]]. Washington then built [[Fort Necessity]], which soon proved inadequate, as he was [[Battle of the Great Meadows\|compelled to surrender]] to a larger French and American Indian force. The surrender terms that Washington signed included an admission that he had "assassinated" Jumonville. (The document was written in French, which Washington could not read.) The [[Battle of Jumonvil
ging this and that Pinochet was one of their favored alternatives to take power. Still, they deny having taken any active role in the events in Chile after Allende took office. This matter is discussed more extensively in the article "[[U.S. intervention in Chile]]". Following the coup in 1973, Chile was ruled by a military regime which lasted until 1990. The army established a junta, made up of the army commander, General [[Augusto Pinochet]]; the navy commander, Admiral [[José Toribio Merino]]; the air commander, [[Gustavo Leigh]]; and the director of the ''carabineros''; [[César Mendoza]]. Resigning after disagreements with Pinochet on [[July 24]], [[1978]], Leigh was replaced by General [[Fernando Matthei]]. Mendoza resigned after the carabineros were blamed for the deaths of three communists in [[1985]] and was replaced by [[Rodolfo Stange]]. The [[military dictatorship]] pursued decidedly [[laissez-faire]] economic policies. During Pinochet's 16 years in power, Chile moved away from a largely state controlled economy towards a free-market economy, increasingly controlled by a few large economic groups that fostered an increase in domestic and foreign private investment — as well as numerous controversial effects. ===Chile under Pinochet=== ====1973–1978==== {{main\|Chile under Pinochet}} [[Image:pinochetjunta.jpg\|thumb\|Pinochet (seated) as Chairman of the Junta following the coup (1973)]] After the coup, Chileans witnessed and large-scale repression, which started as soon as [[October]] [[1973]], with at least 70 persons murdered by the infamous [[Caravan of Death]]. The four-man junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet abolished civil liberties, dissolved the national congress, banned union activities, prohibited strikes and collective bargaining, and erased the Allende administration's agrarian and economic reforms. The junta jailed, tortured, and executed thousands of Chileans. According to the [[Rettig Report\|Rettig commission]] and the [[Valech Report]], close to 3,200 were executed, murdered or "disappeared", and at least 29 000 imprisoned and tortured; higher estimates exist. According to the Latin American Institute on Mental Health and Human Rights (ILAS), "situations of extreme trauma" affected about 200,000 persons; this figure includes individuals killed, tortured or exiled, and their immediate families. The [[secret police]], [[DINA]] (''Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional'') spread its network throughout the country and carried out targeted [[assassination]]s abroad. This was dubbed [[Operation Condor]], a campaign of assassination and intelligence-gathering, conducted by the security services of [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Paraguay]], and [[Uruguay]] in the mid-1970s. The [[junta]] also set up at least six [[concentration camp]]s. The regime outlawed or suspended all political parties and suspended dissident labour and peasant leaders and clergymen. [[Eduardo Frei]] and other Christian Democratic leaders initially supported the coup. Later, they assumed the role of a loyal opposition to the military rulers, but soon lost most of their influence. Meanwhile, left-wing Christian Democratic leaders like Radomiro Tomic were jailed or forced into exile. The church, which at first expressed its gratitude to the armed forces for saving the country from the danger of a "Marxist dictatorship," became increasingly critical of the regime's social and economic policies. In [[1974]], the country was divided into 13 regions (it had previously been divided into provinces). This design has continued until today. The junta embarked on a radical program of [[liberalization]] and [[privatization]], slashing [[tariff]]s as well as government welfare programs and [[deficit]]s. The new economic program was designed by a group of technocrats known as the [[Chicago boys]] because many of them had been trained or influenced by [[University of Chicago]] professors. The junta's efforts to restore the market economy created extreme hardship. The regime's wage controls did not abate the world's highest rate of inflation; between [[September]] [[1973]] and [[October]] [[1975]], the [[consumer price index]] rose over 3,000%. [[Exchange rate]] depreciations and cutbacks in government spending produced a depression. Industrial and agricultural production declined. Massive unemployment, estimated at 25% in 1977 (it was only 3% in 1972), and inflation eroded the living standard of workers and many members of the middle class to subsistence levels. The underemployed informal sector also mushroomed in size. The economy grew rapidly from [[1976]] to [[1981]], fueled by the influx of private foreign [[loan]]s until the debt crisis of the early [[1980s]]. But despite high growth in the late [[1970s]], [[income distribution]] became more regressive. While the upper 5% of the population received 25% of the total national income in [[1972]], it received 50% in [[1975]]. Wage and salary earners got 64% of the national income in 1972 but only 38% at the beginning of 1977. [[Malnutrition]] affected half of the nation's children, and 60% of the population could not afford the minimum [[protein]] and [[food energy]] per day. [[Infant mortality]] increased sharply. Beggars flooded the streets. The junta's economics also ruined the Chilean small business class. Decreased [[demand]], lack of [[credit (finance)\|credit]], and monopolies engendered by the regime pushed many small and medium size enterprises into bankruptcy. The curtailment of government expenditures created widespread white-collar and professional unemployment. The middle class began to rue its early support of the junta but appeared reluctant to join the working class in resistance to the regime. The junta relied on the army, the police, the oligarchy, huge foreign corporations, and foreign loans to maintain itself. As a whole, the armed services received large salary increases and new equipment. The oligarchy recovered most of its lost industrial and agricultural holdings, for the junta sold to private buyers most of the industries expropriated by Allende's Popular Unity government. This period saw the expansion of monopolies and widespread speculation. Financial conglomerates became major beneficiaries of the liberalized economy and the flood of foreign bank loans. Large foreign banks received large sums in repayments of interest and principal from the junta; in return, they lent the government millions more. International lending organizations such as the [[World Bank]], the [[IMF]], and the [[Inter-American Development Bank]] lent vast sums. Foreign multinational corporations such as [[International Telephone and Telegraph]] (ITT), [[Dow Chemical]], and [[Firestone]], all expropriated by Allende, returned to Chile. ====1978–1990==== Chile's main industry, copper mining, remained in government hands, but new mineral deposits were open to private investment. Capitalist involvement was increased, pension funds and healthcare were privatized, and Superior Education was also placed in private hands. One of the junta's economic moves was fixing the exchange rate in the early 1980s, leading to a boom in imports and a collapse of domestic industrial production; this together with a world recession caused a serious economic crisis in 1982, where GDP plummeted by 14%, and unemployment reached 33%. At the same time a series of massive protests were organized trying to cause the fall of the regime, without success. After the economic crisis of 1982, Hernan Buchi became Minister of Finance from 1985 to 1989. He allowed the peso to float and reinstated restrictions on the movement of capital in and out of the country. He introduced banking legislation, simplified and reduced the corporate tax. Chile pressed ahead with privatizations, including public utilities plus the re-privatization of companies that had returned to the government during the 1982–1983 crisis. Under these new policies, the rate of inflation dropped from about 1,000% per year to about 10% per year. While this was still a high rate of inflation, it allowed the economy to start recovering. From 1984 to 1990, Chile's gross domestic product grew by an annual average of 5.9%, the fastest on the continent. Chile developed a good export economy, including the export of fruits and vegetables to the northern hemisphere when they were out of season, and commanded high prices. The military junta began to change during the late [[1970s]]. Due to problems with Pinochet, Leigh was expelled from the junta in [[1978]] and replaced by General [[Fernando Matthei]]. Due to a scandal, Mendoza resigned in [[1985]] and was replaced by [[Rodolfo Stange]]. Problems with Argentina coming from the [[19th century]] reached a high in [[1978]], with disagreements over the Beagle Canal. The two countries agreed to papal mediation over the canal. Chilean-Argentine relations remained bad, however, and Chile helped the United Kingdom during the [[Falklands War]]. Chile's [[Constitution of Chile\|constitution]] was approved in a fraudulent national plebiscite held in September 1980. It came into force in March [[1981]]. It established that in 1988 there would be another plebiscite in which the voters would accept or reject a single candidate proposed by the Military Junta. Pinochet was, as expected, the candidate proposed, and he was denied a second 8 year term by 55% of the vote. ===Return to Democracy=== [[Image:Patricio_Aylwin.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|Patricio Aylwin]] After Pinochet's defeat in the [[1988]] plebiscite, the constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the constitution, create more seats in the senate, diminish the role of the National Security Council and equalize the number of civilian and military members (four members each). Many among Chile's political class consider these and other provisions as "authoritarian enc
(23,000 m²) Ohio Historical Center, located just four miles (6 km) north of downtown. * The [[Columbus Metropolitan Library]] is arguably the nation's top-ranked library system ([[Hennen’s American Public Library Ratings]]). * The [[Franklin Park Conservatory]] is an excellent Victorian-era [[greenhouse\|conservatory]]. * The [[Columbus Zoo]] is world-renowned, and its director emeritus, [[Jack Hanna]], frequently appears on national television, including [[The Tonight Show]] and [[The Late Show with David Letterman]]. * The tallest building in Columbus is the 629-foot, 41-story [[Rhodes State Office Tower]]. * Founded in 1975, [http://www.thejeffersoncetner.org The Jefferson Center for Learning and the Arts] is a campus of nonprofit organizations and a center for research, publications and seminars on nonprofit leadership and governance. Located at the eastern edge of downtown Columbus, Ohio, The Jefferson Center has restored eleven turn-of-the-century homes as locations for nonprofits in human services, education and the arts and recently obtained a twelfth property to renovate. ===Fairs and Festivals=== Annual festivities in Columbus include the [[Ohio State Fair]]&mdash;one of the largest state fairs in the country; the Columbus Arts Festival and the Jazz and Ribs Festival, both of which occur on the downtown waterfront. [http://www.comfest.com/ ComFest] (short for "community festival") is an immense three-day gathering in Goodale Park (just north of downtown Columbus) with art vendors and live music on multiple stages, hundreds of local social and political organizations, body painting, and enough beer to quench anyone's thirst. Coinciding with the weekend of ComFest is the large [[Gay Pride Parade]], reflective of the sizeable gay population in Columbus. Around the Fourth of July, Columbus hosts [http://columbusoh.about.com/library/bljul01.htm Red, White, and Boom], the largest fireworks display in the [[midwest]] on the riverfront downtown to crowds of over 500,000 people, as well as the popular "Doo Dah Parade", a nonsensical satire of ordinary parades. The [[Origins International Game Expo]] is held around the first week of July. The Short North is host to the monthly "Gallery Hop", which attracts hundreds to the neighborhood's art galleries (which all open their doors to the public until late at night) and street musicians. Each September, [[German Village]] throws an annual Oktoberfest celebration that features authentic German food, beer, music, and crafts. The [http://www.hilltopbusinessassociation.org/beandinner.htm Hilltop Bean Dinner] is an annual event held on Columbus' West Side that celebrates the city's Civil War heritage near the historic Camp Chase Cemetery. Festival Latino (http://www.festivallatino.net) is held in June and celebrates Latino culture with music, food and activities. This free event is held downtown and draws over 300,000. The Jazz and Rib Fest (http://musicintheair.org/jazzfest.htm) is a free downtown event held each July festuring jazz artists and rib vendors from around the country. Columbus also hosts many conventions in the Greater Columbus Convention Center, a pastel-colored building on the north edge of downtown that resembles jumbled blocks, or a train yard from overhead. The convention center was designed by famed architect [[Peter Eisenman]], who also designed the renowned [[Wexner Center]], also located in Columbus at the campus of The Ohio State University. Completed in 1993, the convention center spanned nearly 600,000 square feet (56,000 m²) at the time, and has recently been expanded. ===Sports=== By far, the sports team that draws the most attention in Columbus is the [[Ohio State Buckeyes]] football team. Games are played from late August through late November (and fairly frequently in early January, due to tournament play), with home games at [[Ohio Stadium]] in front of over 100,000 rabid Buckeye fans. Tailgating at OSU home games has become an event in and of itself, with as many as 30,000 more people partying during the game in the parking lots and at controlled events on Lane Avenue such as Hineygate and the Varsity Club. The [[Ohio State Buckeyes\|OSU]]-[[University of Michigan\|Michigan]] football game is the final game of the regular season and is played in November each year (alternating between Columbus and [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]). It is easily the biggest annual event in the city, with an estimated 80% to 90% share of television viewers in the Columbus market. [[ESPN]] and Fox Sports even recognized it as the greatest [[college rivalry\|rivalry]] in all of sports. {\| style="border: 1px solid #ADADAD; margin-bottom: 66px; padding-bottom: 19px;" \|- bgcolor=#ADADAD align=left ! width=150px \| Club ! width=100px \| Sport ! width=200px \| League ! width=110px \| Stadium ! width=60px \| Logo \|- \| [[Columbus Blue Jackets]] \| [[Ice Hockey]] \| [[National Hockey League]] \| [[Nationwide Arena]] \| [[Image:ColumbusBlueJackets 100.png\|30px\|Columbus Blue Jackets Logo]] \|- \| [[Columbus Crew]] \| [[Soccer]] \| [[Major League Soccer]] \| [[Columbus Crew Stadium]] \| [[Image:Columbus Crew logo.gif\|30px\|Columbus Crew Logo]] \|- \| [[Columbus Destroyers]] \| [[American football\|Football]] \| [[Arena Football League]] \| [[Nationwide Arena]] \| [[Image:ColumbusDestroyers.png\|60px\|Columbus Destroyers Logo]] \|- \| [[Columbus Clippers]] \| [[Baseball]] \| [[International League]] \| [[Cooper Stadium]] \| [[Image:ColumbusClippers 100.png\|30px\|Columbus Clippers Logo]] \|} For a city of its size, Columbus notably does not have a major league baseball, basketball, or football team. This can be explained, in part, by the city's proximity to both [[Cincinnati, Ohio\|Cincinnati]] (100 miles) and [[Cleveland, Ohio\|Cleveland]] (125 miles), which have five major league teams between them and from the popularity of Ohio State sporting events within Columbus. Since 1976, the Columbus suburb of [[Dublin, Ohio\|Dublin]] is the location of the [[PGA Tour]]'s [[Memorial Tournament]] at the [[Muirfield Village]] golf course, which is closely associated with [[Jack Nicklaus]]. In 1987, the course hosted the [[Ryder Cup]]. From [[1985]] to [[1988]], Columbus hosted major league [[auto racing]], with the [[International Motor Sports Association\|IMSA]] ''Columbus Ford Dealers 500''. The event was only moderately successful, and discontinued after only four years. Columbus hosts the annual [[Arnold Classic]] weightlifting and fitness exposition in late February, as well as the annual Quarterhorse Congress. Both of these conventions are very large tourist draws to the city. ===Performing Arts=== There are several major concert venues in Columbus, including arenas such as [[Nationwide Arena]], [[Value City Arena]], and [[Ohio Stadium]]. Columbus also has a number of medium-sized venues downtown, including the historic [[LeVeque Tower\|Palace Theatre]], the [[Ohio Theatre]], the Southern Theatre, Franklin County Veterans Memorial Hall, and the Lifestyle Communities Pavilion (the LC for short) (formerly the PromoWest Pavilion). The [[Newport Music Hall]], located in the OSU campus neighborhood, is a smaller venue, but highly respected by the alternative music scene. Performers such as [[U2]], [[Smashing Pumpkins]], and [[Sarah McLachlan]] honed their live acts at the Newport before achieving wider fame. Performing artists hailing from Columbus include [[Joe McCreary\|Foley]] (bass player with [[Miles Davis]]), [[Bizzy Bone]], [[The Sun (band)\|The Sun]], [[Dwight Yoakam]], [[Bow Wow]], [[Fatty Koo]], [[Rascal Flatts]], and [[RJD2]]. Much of the growth in entertainment capacity in Columbus has been recent. The expansion of Ohio Stadium to over 100,000 in capacity, and the construction of the Crew Stadium (the first [[soccer-specific stadium]] in the United States), Nationwide Arena, Value City Arena, the Greater Columbus Convention Center, and the Lifestyle Communities Pavilion are all projects completed since 1990. Columbus is the home of many renowned performing arts institutions, including Opera Columbus, BalletMet, the [[Columbus Symphony Orchestra]], the Contemporary American Theatre Company (CATCo), and the Columbus Jazz Orchestra. ===Media=== Columbus's sole remaining daily newspaper is the ''[[Columbus Dispatch]]''; its main competitor, the ''[[Columbus Citizen-Journal]],'' ceased publication on [[December 31]], 1985. There are also a number of weekly newspapers, including neighborhood/suburb specific papers such as Suburban News Publications which serves 23 suburbs and Columbus, ''[[ThisWeek]]'', and "alternative" arts/culture/politics-oriented papers such as ''[[The Other Paper]]'' and ''[[aLIVE]]'' (formerly Columbus Alive). ''[[Columbus Monthly]]'' is the city magazine. Among Columbus's notable radio stations are ([[WTVN]]) (610) and WBNS (1460), both among the oldest AM stations in the country; WOSU (820 AM and 89.7 FM), operated by The Ohio State University; WCBE (90.5 FM), a [[National Public Radio]] affiliate run by the Columbus Board of Education; WLVQ (96.3 FM), a long-running classic-rock station; and [[WWCD]] (101.1 FM), Columbus's locally-owned alternative rock station. Columbus's television stations include [[WCMH-TV\|WCMH 4]] ([[NBC]]), [[WSYX\|WSYX 6]] ([[American Broadcasting Company\|ABC]]), [[WBNS-TV\|WBNS 10]] ([[CBS]]), [[WTTE\|WTTE 28]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company\|Fox]]), [[WOSU-TV\|WOSU 34]] ([[Public Broadcasting Service\|PBS]]), [[WSFJ-TV\|WSFJ 51]] (a Christian-oriented independent station), and [[WWHO\|WWHO 53]] ([[UPN]]). [[Image:Columbus-ohio-leveque-tower.jpg\|thumb\|220px\|[[LeVeque Tower]], the oldest [[skyscraper]] in Columbus.]] ==Economy== ===Public sector=== As Columbus is the capital of the state of [[Ohio]], there is a large government presence in the city. Including city, state, and jobs at the public [[Ohio State University]], government jobs provide the largest single source of employment within Co
e part of gay culture. Using it to describe an object, such as an item of clothing, suggests that it is particularly flamboyant, often on the verge of being gaudy and garish. This usage pre-dates the association of the term with homosexuality, but has acquired different connotations since the modern usage developed. Using the term ''gay'' as an adjective where the meaning is akin to "related to gay people, culture, or homosexuality in general" is a widely accepted use of the word. By contrast, using ''gay'' in the pejorative sense, to describe something solely as negative, can cause offence. ==Pejorative usage== When used with a derisive attitude (e.g. "that film was so gay"), the term ''gay'' is [[pejorative]]. The derogatory implication is that the object (or person) in question is inferior, worthless, effeminate, or stupid. This usage has its origins in the [[1980s]], when homosexuality had already become mainstream but was still [[taboo]]. Beginning in the [[1990s]] and especially in the [[2000s]] the usage became common among young people, who may or may not link the term to homosexuality. ==References== 1995. ''The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories'', Merriam-Webster, 189-191. ISBN 0877796033. Harper, Douglas (2001). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=gay Online Etymology Dictionary: ''gay'']. URL accessed [[13 February]] [[2006]]. ==See also== [[Anti-gay slogan]] [[Bisexuality]] [[Civil rights]] [[Coming out]] [[Dyke (lesbian)\|Dyke]] [[Faggot (epithet)\|Fag]] [[Gay pride]] [[Gay rights]] [[Homosexuality]] [[Lesbian]] [[List of LGBT-related organizations]] [[List of gay-related topics]] [[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]] [[Pride flag]] [[Queer]] [[Religion and sexuality]] [[Sexual orientation]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} [http://www.gayrightswatch.com Gay Rights Watch] * [http://www.pinknews.co.uk Gay News] [[Category:LGBT]] [[Category:LGBT]] [[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]] [[ar:مثلية]] [[ast:Gai]] [[bg:Хомосексуалност]] [[ca:Gai]] [[cs:Gay]] [[da:Homoseksualitet]] [[de:Gay]] [[de:Schwul]] [[et:Gei]] [[es:Gay]] [[eo:Gejo]] [[fr:Gay (homosexualité)]] [[it:Gay]] [[nl:Homoseksualiteit]] [[ja:ゲイ]] [[pl:Gej]] [[pt:Gay]] [[ru:Гей]] [[simple:Gay]] [[sv:Gay]] [[zh:Gay]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>G</title> <id>12255</id> <revision> <id>42054937</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:15:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TheKoG</username> <id>367124</id> </contributor> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ\|uc=G\|lc=g}} '''G''' is the seventh letter in the [[Roman alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language\|English]] is ''gee'' ([[IPA]] [ʤi:]). ==History== The letter '''G''' was created by the Romans because they felt that [[C]] was not an adequate letter to represent both /k/ ''and'' /g/. {\| align="center" cellspacing="10" \|- align="center" \|[[Image:gimel.png\|Hebrew "gimel"]]<br />Hebrew ''gimel''<br /> \|[[Image:Phoenician_G.gif\|Phoenician "gimel"\|49px]]<br />Phoenician ''gimel''<br /> \|[[Image:G 17162.gif\|Classical Greek]]<br />Classical Greek ''gamma''<br /> \|[[Image:Early Latin G2.gif\|Early Latin]]<br />Early Latin<br /> \|[[Image:Capital_C.svg\|Late Latin\|75px]]<br />Late Latin<br /> \|} The recorded inventor of the letter G is [[Spurius Carvilius Ruga]], who taught around 230 BC: :The first derived letter of the Latin alphabet can be dated to the 3rd century BCE. Latin phonology was different again from Etruscan; while Q was used for the labiovelar /k<sup>w</sup>/, C continued to represent /k/ before /e/ and /i/ as well as in other environments (K had become unpopular and fallen out of general use in favour of C). Latin had a voiced velar /ɡ/, however, which also had to be represented by C. The first Roman to open a fee-paying school, a freedman named Spurius Carvilius Ruga, amended the Latin script by replacing the seventh letter, Z, which represented the unneeded Greek sound /dz/, with a new letter, LATIN LETTER C WITH STROKE, which we have come to know as G. [...] Note that Ruga’s positioning of G shows that alphabetic order was a concern even in the 3rd century BCE. Sampson (1985) suggested that: “Evidently the order of the alphabet was felt to be such a concrete thing that a new letter could be added in the middle only if a ‘space’ was created by the dropping of an old letter.” LATIN LETTER G is a derived letter which has become a basic letter of the Latin alphabet.[http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyogh/thorn.html] As the sound /k/ [[did]], /g/ also developed [[palatal consonant\|palatal]] and [[velar consonant\|velar]] [[allophone]]s which is why today, G has different sound values in all Romance languages, as well as [[English language\|English]] (due to [[French language\|French]] influence). The modern [[minuscule]] (lower-case) G has two basic shapes: the "opentail G" [[Image:Opentail g.PNG\|10px]] and the "looptail G" [[Image:Looptail g.PNG\|10px]]. The opentail version derives from the majuscule (capital) form by raising the [[serif]] that distinguishes it from a C to the top of the loop, thereby closing the loop, and extending the vertical stroke downward and to the left. The looptail form developed similarly, except that some ornate forms then extended the tail back to the right, and to the left again, forming a loop. The initial extension to the left was absorbed into the upper loop. The looptail version became popular when printing switched to "Roman type" because the tail was effectively shorter, making it possible to put more lines on a page. And in the looptail version, there is a tiny flick at the upper right which in typography is called its "ear." Generally, the two minuscule forms are interchangeable, but occasionally the difference has been exploited to make a contrast. The 1949 ''Principles of the [[International Phonetic Association]]'' recommends using [[Image:Opentail g.PNG\|10px]] for advanced [[voiced velar plosive]]s and [[Image:Looptail g.PNG\|10px]] for regular ones where the two are contrasted, but this suggestion was never accepted by [[phonetics\|phoneticians]] in general, and today [[Image:Opentail g.PNG\|10px]] is the symbol used in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], with [[Image:Looptail g.PNG\|10px]] acknowledged as an acceptable variant. ==Usage== In English, the letter can be pronounced as a "soft G" ([[IPA chart for English\|IPA]] {{IPA\|/d[[Voiced postalveolar fricative\|ʒ]]/}}), as in: ''[[giant (disambiguation)\|giant]]'', ''[[ginger]]'', ''[[geology]]'', or as a "hard G" (IPA {{IPA\|/g/}}), as in: ''goose'', ''gargoyle'', ''game''. In some words of French origin, as in [[French language\|French]] generally, the "soft G" is pronounced as IPA {{IPA\|/ʒ/}}, as in ''rouge'', ''beige'', and ''genre''. Generally, G is soft before E, I, and Y, and hard otherwise, but there are many English words of non-Romance origin where G is hard regardless of position, and three (''gaol,'' ''margarine,'' and the name ''[[Sacagawea]]'') in which it is soft even before an A. Most non-Romance languages pronounce G as {{IPA\|/g/}} regardless of position (however the [[Dutch language]] does not have a /g/ sound in its native words, and instead G is pronounced {{IPA\|/[[Voiced velar fricative\|ɣ]]/}}, a sound that does not occur in English) while in Romance languages the soft value varies, such as {{IPA\|/ʒ/}} in French, Catalan, and Portuguese, {{IPA\|/ʤ/}} in Italian, and {{IPA\|/x/}} in Castillian Spanish and {{IPA \|/h/}} in other dialects of Spanish. The general rule is that soft G is pronounced the same as the J of the same language. Several [[Digraph (orthography)\|digraph]]s are common in English. GH originally represented the letter [[yogh]] which English adopted from [[Old Irish]], and took various values including {{IPA\|/g/}}, {{IPA\|/ɣ/}}, {{IPA\|/x/}}, and {{IPA\|/j/}}. It now has a great variety of values, including {{IPA\|/f/}} in ''enough'', {{IPA\|/g/}} in loan words like ''spaghetti'', and silence in words like ''eight'' and ''night''. GN, with value {{IPA\|/n/}}, is also common, as in ''sign''. In Italian, GH is used to force a {{IPA\|/g/}} value before E and I where G would take a soft value, and GN is used for {{IPA\|/[[Palatal nasal\|ɲ]]/}} (rather like English NY in ''canyon''). In Spanish, G before I or E is pronounced as the same as J. The Spanish poet [[Juan Ramón Jiménez]] proposed to simplify the Spanish spelling by using just the versions with [[j]]. The rest of Spanish speakers did not follow him, but his works, and the translations of [[Rabindranath Tagore]] made by Jiménez's wife [[Zenobia Camprubí]], are published in his spelling. ==Codes for computing== {{Letter \|NATO=Golf \|Morse=––· \|B1=● \|B2=● \|B3=○ \|B4=● \|B5=● \|B6=○ }} In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule\|capital]] G is codepoint U+0047 and the [[minuscule\|lowercase]] g is U+0067. The [[ASCII]] code for capital G is 71 and for lowercase g is 103; or in [[Binary numeral system\|binary]] 01000111 and 01100111, correspondingly. The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital G is 199 and for lowercase g is 135. The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&amp;#71;</tt>" and "<tt>&amp;#103;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively. ==Meanings for G== * In [[architecture]], often seen in elevators, '''G''' stands for the "Ground Floor" or "General Floor", usually the main entrance floor. * In [[astronomy]], ** G stands for an April 1 through 15 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1901 G1]], the Great Comet of 1901) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl\|(3795) 1986 GV\|1}}). * In [[biochemistry]], ** G is the symbol for [[glycine]] and [[guanosine]].
1 X2) comprise a large common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by sleeping-apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse and bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has a kitchen and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and stables for their horses. There is also an "hospitium" for strange monks, abutting on the north wall of the church (Y). Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent area to the south, stands the "factory" (Z), containing workshops for [[shoemaker]]s, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders, [[trencher]]-makers, [[tanner]]s, curriers, fullers, [[smith]]s and [[goldsmith]]s, with their dwellings in the rear. On this side we also find the farm buildings, the large granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malthouse (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds (f), goatstables (gl, piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i), together with the servants' and labourers' quarters (k). At the south-east corner we find the hen and duck house, and poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n). Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery, lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, etc., eighteen in all. In the same way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs, and the cemetery (p) those of the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, etc., planted there. <!-- ==[[Canterbury Cathedral]]== --> ==[[Westminster Abbey]]== Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they can be traced, with those described above. The cloister and monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church. Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept. The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the cloister. The small cloister lay to the south-east of the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have the remains of the infirmary with the table hall, the refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers. The abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the west entrance, close to the inner gateway. Considerable portions of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, celebrated as "the Jerusalem Chamber," his hall, now used for the Westminster King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond. ==York== [[St Mary's Abbey, York]], of which the ground-plan is annexed, exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides, the river [[Ouse]] being sufficient protection on the fourth side. The entrance was by a strong gateway (U) to the north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now the church of St Olaf (W), in which the new-comers paid their devotions immediately on their arrival. Near the gate to the south was the guest-hall or hospitium (T). The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains to enable us to identify the grand cruciform church (A), the cloister-court with the chapterhouse (B), the refectory (I), the kitchen-court with its offices (K, O, O) and the other principal apartments. The infirmary has perished completely. FIG. 4 St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine).--Churton's Monnastic Ruins. A. Church. O. Offices. B. Chapter-house. P. Cellars. C. Vestibule to ditto. Q. Uncertain. E. Library or scriptorium. R. Passage to abbot's house. F. Calefactory. S. Passage to common house. G. Necessary. T. Hospitium. H. Parlour. U. Great gate. I. Refectory. V. Porter's lodge. K. Great kitchen and court. W. Church of St Olaf. L. Cellarer's office. X. Tower. M. Cellars. Y. Entrance from Bootham. N. Passage to cloister. The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay and revival. With growth in popular esteem came increase in material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The first religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was relaxed, until by the [[10th century]] the decay of discipline was so complete in France that the monks are said to have been frequently unacquainted with the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at all. The reformation of abuses generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic orders, with new and more stringent rules, requiring a modification of the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took its name from,the little village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon, near which, about A.D. [[909]], a reformed Benedictine abbey was founded by William, duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the order. The fame of Cluny spread far and wide. Its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine abbeys, who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society, while new foundations sprang up in large numbers, all owing allegiance to the "archabbot," established at Cluny. By the end of the 12th century the number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in the various countries of western Europe amounted to 2000. The monastic establishment of Cluny was one of the most extensive and magnificent in France. We may form some idea of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, in A.D. [[1245]], [[Pope Innocent IV]], accompanied by twelve cardinals, a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders and emperor of Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and six lords, visited the abbey, the whole party, with their attendants, were lodged within the monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in number. Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including the magnificent church, were swept away at the close of the 18th century. When the annexed ground-plan was taken, shortly before its destruction, nearly all the monastery, with the exception of the church, had been rebuilt. The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resemblance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It was 656 ft. high. The nave (G) had double vaulted aisles on either side. Like Lincoln, it had an eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept was 213 ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft. The choir terminated in a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also semicircular. The western entrance was approached by an ante-church, or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of no mean dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross. To the south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of immense size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the case. On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory (P), an immense building, 100 ft (30 m) long and 60 ft (18 m) wide, accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. It was adorned with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects. The end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We are unhappily unable to identify any other of the principal buildings (N). The abbot's residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the entrance-gate. The guest-house (L) was close by. The bakehouse (M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size. ==English Cluniac== The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of [[Lewes]], founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077. Of this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist. The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre, Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire. Ground-plans of both are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They show several departures from the Benedictine arrangement. In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor become "abbeys" till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived. The celebrity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral ruin. With their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed. ==Cistercian== [[Image:Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg\|thumb\|\|200px\|right\|Cistercian Abbey of Senanque]] The next great monastic revival, the [[Cistercian]], arising in the last years of the 11th century, had a wider diffusion, and a longer and more honourable existence. Owing its real origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed [[Benedictines]], in the year [[1098]], to [[Stephen Harding]] (a native of [[Dorset]], educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of [[Champagne, France\|Champagne]] and [[Burgundy]], the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order are undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of St Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the first Cistercian houses, the far-famed abbey of [[Clairvaux]] (de Clara Valle), A.D. [[1116]]. The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, extended itself to the churches and other buildings erected by them.
lt;/math> # <math>\widehat{\theta}</math> is an ''[[bias (statistics)\|unbiased estimator]]'' of &theta; [[iff]] <math>B(\widehat{\theta}) = 0</math> for all &theta;, or, equivalently, iff <math>\operatorname{E}(\widehat{\theta}) = \theta</math> for all &theta;. # The ''mean squared error'' of <math>\widehat{\theta}</math> is defined as <math>\operatorname{MSE}(\widehat{\theta}) = \operatorname{E}[(\widehat{\theta} - \theta)^2].</math> # <math>\operatorname{MSE}(\widehat{\theta}) = \operatorname{var}(\widehat\theta) + (B(\widehat{\theta}))^2,</math> :i.e. mean squared error = variance + square of bias. where var(''X'') is the [[variance]] of ''X'' and E(''X'') is the [[expected value]] of ''X''. The [[standard deviation]] of an estimator of &theta; (the [[square root]] of the variance), or an estimate of the standard deviation of an estimator of &theta;, is called the ''[[Standard error (statistics)\|standard error]]'' of &theta;. ==Consistency== A '''consistent estimator''' is an estimator that [[convergence in probability\|converges in probability]] to the quantity being estimated as the sample size grows. An estimator <math>t_n</math> (where ''n'' is the sample size) is a consistent estimator for [[parameter]] <math>\theta</math> if and only if, for all <math>\epsilon > 0</math>, no matter how small, we have :<math> \lim_{n\to\infty}{\rm Prob}\left\{ \left\| t_n-\theta\right\|<\epsilon \right\}=1. </math> It is called ''strongly consistent'', if it [[Convergence_in_probability#Almost_sure_convergence\|converges almost surely]] to the true value. ==Efficiency== The quality of an estimator is generally judged by its [[mean squared error]]. However, occasionally one chooses the unbiased estimator with the lowest variance. [[efficiency (statistics)\|Efficient estimators]] are those that have the [[Cramer-Rao inequality\|lowest possible variance among all unbiased estimators]]. In some cases, a biased estimator may have a uniformly smaller mean squared error than does any unbiased estimator, so one should not make too much of this concept. For that and other reasons, it is sometimes preferable not to limit oneself to unbiased estimators; see [[bias (statistics)]]. Concerning such "best unbiased estimators", see also [[Cramér-Rao inequality]], [[Gauss-Markov theorem]], [[Lehmann-Scheffé theorem]], [[Rao-Blackwell theorem]]. ==Other properties== Often, estimator are due to restrictions (''restricted estimators''). ==See also== * [[Maximum likelihood]] * [[Method of moments]], [[generalized method of moments]] * [[Cramér-Rao inequality]] * [[Minimum mean squared error]] (MMSE) * [[Maximum a posteriori]] (MAP) * [[Minimum variance unbiased estimator]] (MVUE) * [[Best linear unbiased estimator]] (BLUE) * Unbiased estimators &mdash; see [[bias (statistics)]]. * [[Particle filter]] * [[Markov chain Monte Carlo]] (MCMC) * [[Kalman filter]] * [[Wiener filter]] == External links == [http://www.ds.unifi.it/VL/VL_EN/point/point1.html A maths course on estimators] [[Category: Statistics]] [[de:Schätzer]] [[pl:Estymator]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emerald</title> <id>10045</id> <revision> <id>41990343</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:01:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PunkPuke</username> <id>215705</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {\| border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpadding="0" width="300" valign="top" style="margin-left:1em" \|- !colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="green"\| Emerald \|- !colspan="2" align="center"\|<br/>[[Image:emerald_rough_300x422.jpg\|200px\|center\|Emerald with inclusions]]<br/><small>Emerald with inclusions</small> \|- !colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="green"\|General \|- \|Category\|\|[[Mineral]] \|- \|[[Chemical formula]]\|\| [[Beryllium]] [[aluminium]] [[silicate]] with [[chromium]], Be<sub>3</sub>Al<sub>2</sub>(SiO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>6</sub>::Cr \|- !colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="green"\|Identification \|- \| Color \|\| Green \|- \| [[Crystal habit]] \|\| Hexagonal Crystals \|- \| [[Crystal structure\|Crystal system]] \|\| Hexagonal \|- \| [[Cleavage (crystal)\|Cleavage]]\|\| Poor Basal Cleavage (Seldom Visible) \|- \| [[Fracture]]\|\| Conchoidal \|- \| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness \|\| 7.5 - 8.0 \|- \| Luster\|\| Vitreous \|- \| [[Refractive index]]\|\| 1.576 - 1.582 \|- \| [[Pleochroism]]\|\| Distinct, Blue-Green/Yellow-Green \|- \| [[Streak]]\|\| White \|- \| [[Specific gravity]]\|\| 2.70 - 2.78 \|- \|} '''Emerald''' (Be<sub>3</sub>Al<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>6</sub>) is a variety of the [[mineral]] [[beryl]], colored green by trace amounts of [[chromium]] and sometimes [[iron]]. It is highly prized as a [[gemstone]] and by weight is the most valuable gemstone in the world, often made less so by [[inclusion (mineral)\|inclusions]], which all emeralds have. Beryl has a [[hardness]] of 7.5 on the 10 point [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness\|Mohs scale]] of hardness. However, this Mohs rating is often adversly affected and can decrease, depending on the number and severity of inclusions in a particular stone. Many countries import emeralds, [[Colombia]] being the preeminent exporter of emeralds in the world. Emeralds have a tendency to appear fuzzy, dull and more included on television or in pictures than they really are. [[Image:Emerald.png\|thumb\|100px\|left\|Emerald showing its hexagonal structure]] ==Synthetic emerald== Emerald is a rare and valuable gemstone and, as such, provided the incentive for developing synthetic emeralds. Both hydrothermal and ''flux-growth'' synthetics have been produced and a method has been developed for producing an emerald overgrowth on colorless beryl. Synthetic emeralds [[Fluorescence\|fluoresce]] a dull red with long wave [[UV]] light due to an indicator added during the process of synthesizing the emerald, whereas natural specimens do not. Also both the [[specific gravity\|specific gravities]] (natural: 2.70 - 2.78, synthetic: 2.66) and [[refractive index\|refractive indices]] (natural: 1.576 - 1.582, synthetic: 1.565) of synthetics are slightly lower. Wispy inclusions are common in flux-grown synthetic emeralds. ==Culture and historical/mythical usage== Emerald is regarded as the traditional [[Birthstone#Birthstones\|birthstone]] for May. According to legend, the emerald has the power to protect the [[chastity]] of the wearer and to ward off evil spirits. Furthermore, it was used as a cure for [[epilepsy]] and [[dysentery]] as well as to aid weak eyesight. According to [[Bahya_ben_Asher\|Rebbenu Bachya]], the word "Nofech" in the verse [[Exodus]] 28:18 means "Emerald" and was the stone on the [[Ephod]] representing the tribe of [[Judah]]. In some cultures the emerald is the traditional gift for the 55th wedding anniversary. It is also used as the 20 and 35th wedding anniversary stone. [[Image:Gachala Emerald.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|right\|The [[Gachala Emerald]] is one of the largest emeralds in the world at 858 carats. This stone was found in 1967 at Vega de San Juan mine in [[Colombia]]. It is currently on display at the [[National Museum of Natural History]].]] == References == Cooper, J.C. (Ed.) (1992). ''Brewer's Myth and Legend''. New York: Cassell Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-304-34084-7. Sinkankas, John (1994). ''Emerald & Other Beryls''. Geoscience Press. ISBN 0801971144 Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis (1985). ''Manual of Mineralogy'' (20th ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471805807 *Weinstein, Michael (1958). ''The World of Jewel Stones''. Sheriden House. [[Category:Beryllium minerals]] [[Category:Aluminium minerals]] [[Category:Silicate minerals]] [[Category:Gemstones]] [[ar:زمرد]] [[bg:Изумруд]] [[da:Smaragd]] [[de:Smaragd]] [[et:Smaragd]] [[es:Esmeralda]] [[fr:Émeraude]] [[he:ברקת]] [[id:Zamrud]] [[ja:エメラルド]] [[lt:Smaragdas]] [[nl:Smaragd]] [[no:Smaragd]] [[pl:Szmaragd]] [[pt:Esmeralda]] [[ru:Изумруд]] [[sv:Smaragd]] [[tr:Zümrüt]] [[vi:Ngọc lục bảo]] [[zh:祖母綠]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Erie Canal</title> <id>10046</id> <revision> <id>41422884</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T05:29:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pollinator</username> <id>22743</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.213.227.129\|68.213.227.129]] ([[User talk:68.213.227.129\|talk]]) to last version by 69.204.132.220</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Erie Canal''' (later replaced by part of the [[New York State Barge Canal]] system, which was renamed the Erie Canal) is a [[canal]] in [[New York State]], [[United States]], that runs from the [[Hudson River]] to [[Lake Erie]], connecting the [[Great Lakes (North America)\|Great Lakes]] with the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Although the canal was first proposed in 1699, it was not until 1798 that the Niagara Canal Company was incorporated and commenced preparations for building. The first section of canal was completed in 1819, and the entire canal was opened on [[October 26]], [[1825]]. It was 363 miles (584 km) long, 40 feet (12 m) wide, and 4 feet (1.2 m) deep. There were 83 [[Canal lock\|locks]] along the canal, each 90 feet by 15 feet (27 m by 4.5 m). Maximum [[barge\|canal-boat]] displacement was 75 tons (68 tonnes). The Erie Canal was the first transportation route faster than carts pulled by draft animals between the Eastern Seaboard of the [[United States]] and the western interior, and cut transport costs into what was then [[wilderness]] by abo
nkee Stadium]], home of the [[New York Yankees]] baseball club of the American League; the [[Bronx Zoo]], [[Bronx High School of Science]], [[DeWitt Clinton High School]], [[Morris Park]], the [[New York Botanical Garden]], [[Wave Hill (New York)\|Wave Hill]], [[Little Italy of the Bronx\|Little Italy]] on [[Arthur Avenue]], [[Walton High School (New York City)\|Walton High School]], [[Fordham University]] and [[Manhattan College]]. It includes two of the largest parks in NYC, [[Pelham Bay Park]] and [[Van Cortlandt Park]]. Pelham Bay Park also has a large man made public beach called [[Orchard Beach, New York\|Orchard Beach]] created by [[Robert Moses]]. The Bronx also has The [[Hall of Fame for Great Americans]]: a national landmark which overlooks the [[Harlem River\|Harlem]] and [[Hudson River]]s. It was designed by the renowned architect [[Stanford White]]. The Bronx is also the only Borough that has a freshwater river (the [[Bronx River]]) running through it. A smaller river, the [[Hutchinson River (New York)\|Hutchinson River]], passes through the northeast Bronx to empty into [[Eastchester Bay]]. [[Woodlawn Cemetery]] is one of the largest cemeteries in New York City. Opened in 1863, at a time when The Bronx was still considered as being out in "the country." Built on gentle, rolling hills, its tree-lined roads provide a beautiful setting in today's bustling city. The [[Edgar Allan Poe]] Cottage, the Bronx, New York. Edgar Allan Poe spent the last years of his life, from 1846 to 1849, in The Bronx at Poe Cottage, now located at Kingsbridge Road and the [[Grand Concourse]]. A small wooden farmhouse built about 1812, the cottage once commanded unobstructed vistas over the rolling Bronx hills to the shores of Long Island. The Bronx now has the distinction of being the Birthplace of [[Hip-hop music]], circa 1973. Though it has a great deal of attractions, the Bronx is known for being particularly "anti-tourist", not so much in the sense of hostility to outsiders but insofar as its reputation nationally keeps tourists to New York as far from the borough as possible. This characteristic is actually what many in the New York area actually enjoy about visiting the Bronx; it has been claimed that the Little Italy on Arthur Avenue is more authentic than the more famous Little Italy in Manhattan on Mulberry Street. ==Famous Bronxites== Famous people who resided in The Bronx at some time in their lives include: [[Danny Aiello]], [[Sholom Aleichem]], [[Woody Allen]], [[June Allyson]], [[Christopher Aponte]], [[Anne Bancroft]], [[David Berkowitz]], [[Joey Bishop]], [[Mary J. Blige]], [[Red Buttons]], [[James Caan]], [[George Carlin]], [[Diahann Carroll]], [[Paddy Chayefsky]], [[Tony Curtis]], [[Lauren Conrad]], [[Cus D'Amato]], [[Bobby Darin]], [[Gray Davis]], [[Don DeLillo]], [[Art Donovan]], [[Chris Eubank]], [[Ace Frehley]], [[Lou Gehrig]], [[Stan Getz]], [[Marty Glickman]], [[Cuba Gooding Jr.]], [[John Gotti]], [[Hank Greenberg]], [[Fat Joe]], [[Billy Joel]], [[Helen Kane]], [[Max Kellerman]], [[Felix Lugo]], [[Afrika Bambaataa]], [[Edward Koch]], [[Stanley Kubrick]], [[Fiorello La Guardia]], [[Jake LaMotta]], [[Ralph Lauren]], [[Miles Marshall Lewis]], [[Tom Leykis]], [[Jennifer Lopez]], [[Linda Lovelace]], [[Sonia Manzano]], [[Garry Marshall]], [[Penny Marshall]], [[Sal Mineo]], [[Laura Nyro]], [[Carroll O'Connor]], [[KRS One]], [[Grandmaster Flash]], [[Grandmaster Melle Mel]], [[Grand Wizard Theodore]], [[Grandmaster Caz]], [[Kool Herc]], [[Jerry Orbach]], [[Al Pacino]], [[Justin Pierce]], [[Regis Philbin]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Chaim Potok]], [[Colin Powell]], [[Tito Puente]], [[Big Pun]], [[Carl Reiner]], [[Vin Scully]], [[Tupac Shakur]], [[Carly Simon]], [[Neil Simon]], [[Elliot Spitzer]], [[Lionel Stander]], [[Vanessa Lynn Williams\|Vanessa Williams]], [[Kool Keith]]. ==Law and government== {\| align="right" border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" \|- bgcolor=lightgrey ! Year ! [[GOP]] ! [[Democratic Party (United States)\|Dems]] \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 2004\|2004]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|16.5% ''56,701 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''82.8%''' ''283,994 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 2000\|2000]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|11.8% ''36,245 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''86.3%''' ''265,801 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 1996\|1996]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|10.5% ''30,435 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''85.8%''' ''248,276 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 1992\|1992]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|20.7% ''63,310 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''73.7%''' ''225,038 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 1988\|1988]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|25.5% ''76,043 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''73.2%''' ''218,245 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 1984\|1984]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|32.8% ''109,308 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''66.9%''' ''223,112 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 1980\|1980]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|30.7% ''86,843 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''64.0%''' ''181,090 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 1976\|1976]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|28.7% ''96,842 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''70.8%''' ''238,786 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 1972\|1972]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|44.6% ''196,756 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''55.2%''' ''243,345 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 1968\|1968]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|32.0% ''142,314 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''62.4%''' ''277,385 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 1964\|1964]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|25.2% ''135,780 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''74.7%''' ''403,014 \|- \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|[[U.S. presidential election, 1960\|1960]] \|align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"\|31.8% ''182,393 \|align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"\|'''67.9%''' ''389,818 \|} Like the other counties which are contained within New York City, the Bronx is nominally presided over by a borough president. The borough is also served by various county [[Court (judicial)\|courts]], as well as a district attorney (public prosecutor). ==Geography== As a part of New York City, Bronx County contains no other political subdivisions. It is located at 40&deg;42'15" North, 73&deg;55'5" West (40.704234, -73.917927){{GR\|1}}. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the borough has a total area of 148.7 [[square kilometre\|km&sup2;]] (57.4 [[square mile\|mi&sup2;]]). 108.9 km&sup2; (42.0 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 39.9 km&sup2; (15.4 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 26.82% water. The Bronx has four large low peninsulas or "necks" of low-lying land that jut into the waters of the East River and were once saltmarsh: Hunt's Point, Clason's Point, Screvin's Neck and Throg's Neck. In the northeast corner of the Bronx, [[Rodman's Neck]] lies in Long Island Sound. [[Image:E_200_st007.jpg\|thumb\|A store awning on the assumed 200th Street]] ==Street Layout== Many of the Bronx's streets are numbered, but unlike the street numbering systems in [[Brooklyn]] and [[Queens]], the Bronx's system is a continuation of the [[Manhattan]] street grid. Because of this, the lowest numbered street in the borough is 132nd Street in the South Bronx, and the highest is 263rd Street in the Riverdale section. The numbered street grid is far from perfect as some numbers are just skipped altogether in Riverdale; other neighborhoods have no numbered streets at all. As in Manhattan, 200th Street is also missing, since it was renamed Bedford Park Boulevard in 1906 (although many local businesses, people and other places have continued to call it 200th Street since the renaming [like the New York Botanical Garden] and the USPS recognizes E 200 ST addresses as an alternative address). In Manhattan, there was never a "200th Street" until the Independent Subway System (IND) used numeric tiling in the Dyckman Street station calling it 200th Street (or DYCKMAN-200TH ST). This unofficially designated Dyckman Street as "200th Street" (the USPS somehow also recognizes W 200 ST addresses even though it never existed officially). In addition, some north-south thoroughfares also continue from Manhattan into the Bronx; examples include Third Avenue &mdash; above which a famous elevated line once ran (in Manhattan until [[1955]] and in the Bronx until [[1973]]) &mdash; Park Avenue, and Broadway. Other major roads, such as the [[Grand Concourse]] and Fordham Road are located only in the Bronx. Like Manhattan, the streets are designated either "East" or "West," with the divider being Jerome Avenue (the divider in Manhattan is Fifth Avenu
the older version, although it may provide an irreversible upgrade capability for the old files. This situation has often been used strategically by software vendors to force customers to purchase upgrades since, over time, the number of data files usable by an old version diminishes at a rate proportional to the number of other customers that have upgraded. Levels of compatibility vary. In software, ''binary compatibility'' and ''[[source-compatibility]]'' are distinguishable. Binary compatibility means that programs can work correctly with the new version of this library without requiring [[compiler\|recompilation]]. Source compatibility requires recompilation but no changes to the source code. Many platforms rely on [[emulation]], the simulation of an older platform in software, to achieve backward compatibility. == Examples == A [[computer system]] is backward compatible if it is able to work with software or accessories designed for the system it is meant to replace. * The [[Atari 7800]] is backward compatible with most [[Atari 2600]] games. The [[Game Boy Advance]] is backward compatible with previous [[Game Boy]] systems, meaning all [[Game Boy]] & [[Game Boy Color]] titles are playable on this system. The [[PlayStation 2]] is backward compatible with the original [[PlayStation]]. The [[Nintendo DS]] is backward compatible with [[Game Boy Advance]] games only. The [[PlayStation 3]] will be backward compatible with PlayStation 1 & 2 games. The [[Intel 80486]] processor is backward compatible with the [[Intel 80386\|80386]] because it can execute programs written for the 80386. The [[Xbox 360]] is backward compatible with some [[Xbox]] games. Support for this function will improve over time. ** The [[Nintendo Revolution]] will be backward compatible with every [[Nintendo]] system. The [[GameCube]] discs can go in the Revolution, but older games ([[Nintendo Entertainment System\|NES]], [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System\|SNES]] and [[Nintendo 64]]) will be available through download. Other examples of backward-compatible software * [[Microsoft Word]] 2000 was backward compatible with Word '97 because it could read and write files in Word '97 format, with the understanding that features unique to Word 2000 would not appear in Word '97. By adding the proper external software, many consoles can become backwards compatible. This includes: * The [[Atari 5200]] can play [[Atari 2600]] games by adding the "Atari VCS Cartridge Adapter". * The [[Colecovision]] can play [[Atari 2600]] games by adding an "Expansion Module #1". * The [[Sega Genesis]] can play [[Sega Master System]] games by adding a "Power Base Converter". * The [[Sega Game Gear]] can play [[Sega Master System]] games by adding a "Master Gear". * The [[Super Nintendo]] can play [[Game Boy]] games by adding a "[[Super Game Boy]]" cartridge *** The [[Nintendo Gamecube]] can play any existing game from the [[Game Boy]] line by adding a "[[Game Boy Player]]" add-on and disc. ==See also== [[Forward compatibility]] [[Legacy system]] [[Category:Computing terminology]] [[io:Retro konciliebla]] [[ja:下位互換]] [[ru:Обратная совместимость]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bacterial conjugation</title> <id>4460</id> <revision> <id>41978670</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:32:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Spaully</username> <id>284087</id> </contributor> <comment>addition + section header + see also links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bacterial conjugation''' is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through cell-to-cell contact. It is a mechanism of [[horizontal gene transfer, as are [[transformation (genetics)\|transformation]] and [[transfection]], although these mechanisms do not involve cell contact. This is a rare occurrance in bacteria, but is more common in [[panmictic\|panmictic populations]]. Bacterial conjugation is often incorrectly regarded as the [[bacterium\|bacteria]]l equivalent of [[sexual reproduction]] or [[mating]]. It is not actually sexual, as it does not involve the fusing of [[gamete]]s and the creation of a [[zygote]]. It is merely the transfer of genetic information from a donor cell to a recipient. In order to perform conjugation, one of the bacteria, the ''donor'', must play host to a conjugative or mobilizable genetic element, most often a conjugative [[plasmid]]. Most conjugative plasmids have systems ensuring that the ''recipient'' cell does not already contain a similar element. The genetic information transferred can be beneficial to the recipient, such as in conferring [[antibiotic resistance]], or an enzyme that allows it to better digest its medium. However these elements can also be viewed as genetic parasites on the bacterium, and conjugation as a mechanism evolved by the element to spread itself into new hosts. ==Mechanism== [[image:conjugative_plasmids.png\|right\|frame\|Schematic drawing of bacterial conjugation. 1 <font color="#009900">Chromosomal DNA</font>. 2 <font color="#990000">Plasmids</font>. 3 [[Pilus]].]] The [[prototype]] for conjugative plasmids is the '''[[F-plasmid]]''', also called the F-factor. The F-plasmid is an [[episome]] (a plasmid that can integrate itself into the bacterial [[chromosome]] by [[genetic recombination]]) of about 100 kb length. (One kb is one thousand [[base pair]]s) It carries its own [[origin of replication]], called ''oriV''. There can only be one copy of the F-plasmid in a bacterium (which is then called ''F-positive''), either free or integrated. Among other genetic information, the F-plasmid carries a ''tra'' and a ''trb'' [[locus]], which together are about 33 kb long and consist of about 40 [[gene]]s. The ''tra'' locus includes the ''pilin'' gene and regulatory genes, which together form [[pilus\|pili]] on the cell surface, polymeric [[protein]]s that can attach themselves to the surface of ''F-negative'' bacteria and initiate the mating. Though there is some debate on the issue, the pili themselves do not seem to be the structures through which the actual exchange of DNA takes place; rather, some proteins coded in the ''tra'' or ''trb'' loci seem to open a channel between the bacteria. When conjugation is initiated, via a mating signal, a complex of proteins called the '''relaxosome''' creates a [[nick (DNA)\|nick]] in one plasmid DNA strand at the origin of transfer, or ''oriT''. In the F-plasmid system, the relaxosome consists of proteins TraI, TraY, TraM, and the integrated host factor, IHF. The transferred, or ''T-strand'', is unwound from the duplex and transferred into the recipient bacterium in a 5'-terminus to 3'-terminus direction. The remaining strand is replicated, either independent of conjugative action (vegetative replication, beginning at the ''oriV'') or in concert with conjugation (conjugative replication similar to the [[rolling circle]] replication of [[lambda phage]]). If the F-plasmid becomes integrated into the host genome, donor chromosomal DNA may be transferred along with plasmid DNA. The amount of chromosomal DNA that is transferred depends on how long the bacteria remain in contact; for common laboratory strains of ''[[Escherichia coli\|E. coli]]'' the transfer of the entire bacterial chromosome takes about 100 minutes. The transferred DNA can be integrated into the recipient genome via recombination. A culture of cells containing non-integrated F plasmids usually contains a few that have accidentally become integrated, and these are responsible for the low-frequency of chromosomal gene transfer by such cultures. Strains of bacteria with an integrated F-plasmid can be isolated and grown in pure culture. Because such strains transfer chromosomal genes very efficiently, they are called '''Hfr''' ('''h'''igh '''f'''requency of '''r'''ecombination). The ''E. coli'' [[genome]] was originally mapped by interrupted mating experiments, in which various Hfr cells in the process of conjugation were sheared from recipients after less than 100 minutes (initially using a Waring blender) and investigating which genes were transferred. ==See also == [[biology]] [[genetics]] [[horizontal gene transfer]] [[transformation (genetics)\|transformation]] [[transfection]] [[antibiotic resistance]] [[plasmid]] [[Category:Molecular biology]] [[Category:Biotechnology]] [[he:קוניוגציה]] [[de:Konjugation_(Biologie)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Black bream</title> <id>4461</id> <revision> <id>40978435</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:27:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bcasterline</username> <id>750386</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[Animalia]] disambiguation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox \| color = pink \| name = Black bream \| regnum = [[Animal\|Animalia]] \| phylum = [[Chordata]] \| classis = [[Actinopterygii]] \| ordo = [[Perciformes]] \| familia = [[Dichistiidae]] \| genus = ''[[Dichistius]]'' \| species = '''''D. capensis''''' \| binomial = ''Dichistius capensis'' }} A '''black bream''' is a kind of marine [[fish]] (''Dichistius capensis'', synonym ''Coracinus capensis'') that is found only along the coast of [[South Africa]]. Length up to 55 cm, weight up to 7 kg. The fish is also known as '''blackfish''' and '''galjoen'''. The black bream is the national fish of South Africa. ==References== {{ITIS\|ID=645499\|taxon=Dichistius capensis\|year=2006\|date=30 January}} * {{FishBase_species\|genus=Dichistius\|species=capensis\|year=2005\|month=10}} {{fish-stub}} [[Category:Dichistiidae]] [[ja:クロダイ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Blue Crane</title> <id>4462</id> <revision> <id>37904555</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T22:09:39Z</timestamp> <contributor>
to consumers."[http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/files/32/who2003.pdf]Lastly any specific findings are specific to foods that contain triglycerides excluding many foods commonly irradiated from such concerns altogether. FDA has asked for repeated and conclusive testing of mutagenicity of 2DCBs in irradiated meat and the study performed by Sommers, C.H. and published in October 2005 under the title "Toxicology Testing of the Unique Radiolytic Product 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone" concluding that "No 2-DCB induced mutagenesis was observed in any of the test systems, both with and without exogenous metabolic activation" confirming previous findings [http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/Publications.htm?seq_no_115=185057]. == Labeling == Labeling laws differ from country to country. In the US as in many other countries labeling regulations require the usage of the Radura symbol at the point of sale together with usage of the word "irradiated" or "treated by irradiation". However, the meaning of the label is not consistent. The amount of irradiation used can vary and since there are no published standards, the amount of pathogens effected by irradiation can be variable as well. In addition, there are no regulations regarding the levels of pathogen reduction that must be achieved. Food that is processed as an ingredient by a restaurant or food processor is exempt from the labeling requirement. == Economics == Widespread food irradiation is credited for some economic benefits. Some foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, are naturally restricted from sale on the global market, unless they are irradiated to prolong quality for transportation. Less spoilage at the receiving end means less discards, lowering the unit cost Irradiation has also been used to reduce bacteria counts in seafood that is shipped over long distance. Critics point out that the greatest food losses occur in warm, moist, lesser-developed countries, where the capital is lacking for existing storage technologies such as refrigeration, and other atmospheric controls. It might therefore be questionable if the most affected countries possess the resources to employ this technology. According to the IAEA registry, however, more and more facilities are licenced in such regions. Food irradiation does not provide a convenient total solution to food safety, it is in fact one alternative in a variety of food processing techniques; Furthermore irradiation can not undo the effects of spoilage that has already occurred prior to treatment. Most national regulations therefore do not permit a decrese in higenic standards in food handling if product is to be irradiated, but rather demand the same high quality prior to treatment. Food irradiation therefore can add to the complexity and cost of food processing if it does not replace any more costly alternative process. It should also be noted that irradiation does not prevent re-infestation or contamination of a product if exposed to the pathogen after treatment. Insect pests can have a devastating effect on crop production. They can also transmit diseases that destroy crops and kill livestock and people. But, heavy reliance on pesticides raises environmental concerns and problems of pest adaptation and resistance. Hence, in many countries, minimizing insecticide use through the application of environmentally friendly and cost effective irradiation techniques has been given a priority. == Alternatives == There are many alternative methods of [[Food preservation\|food preservation]], such as [[Ultra-high temperature processing]], [[Vacuum Packing]] and [[Flash freezing]] however none can be so uniformly applied to such a wide range of foods as irradiation. Critics have stated that changes in Western dietary habits, and a seasonal availability of fresh produce could eliminate the need for irradiation. Irradiation is sometimes used to facilitate the long distance shipments of food that, as with most other food, may contain bacteria which could eventually cause spoilage if the food is not sold quickly. In that sense it is feared by some critics that irradiation may negatively contribute in the effects of [[globalization]] claiming that a local and seasonal production may be a more effective, safer approach toward food safety. == References == Sipher, A.T. Food Irradiation: An FDA Report. FDA Papers, Oct. 1968 Delincee, H. and Pool-Zobel, B. Genotoxic properties of 2-dodecylcyclobutanone, a compound formed on irradiation of food containing fat. Radiation Physics and Chemistry WHO Statement on 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone and Related Compounds Sommers, C.H. 2005. Toxicology Testing Of The Unique Radiolytic Product 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone == See also == [[Deinococcus radiodurans]] [[irradiated mail]] == External links == [http://www.phytosan.com/en/faq.php Irradiation FAQ provided by PHYTOSAN S.A. de C.V.(www.phytosan.com)] [http://www.phytosan.com/en/technology.php Irradiation technology provided by PHYTOSAN S.A. de C.V. (www.phytosan.com)] [http://www.mnbeef.org/opinion_on_the_expert_affidavit_.htm Comment by Dr. Henry Delincee on an Affidavit misrepresenting the conclusions of his study on unique radiolytical byproducts.] [http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/99f4372/99f-4372-bkg0001-Tab-56-Delincee.pdf Comment by Dr. Henry Delincee on Activists interpretations of work on 2-dodecyclcyclobutaneone] [http://www.mnbeef.org/statement_to%20public%20citizen.delincee.htm Comment by Dr. Henry Delincee towards public citizen publications] [http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/files/32/who2003.pdf WHO Statement on 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone and Related Compounds] [http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/Publications.htm?seq_no_115=185057 Sommers, C.H. 2005. Toxicology Testing Of The Unique Radiolytic Product 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone.] [[Category:Food preservation]] [[fr:Irradiation de la nourriture]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Internal Revenue Service</title> <id>15375</id> <revision> <id>41549585</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:18:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Famspear</username> <id>600513</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert unsourced material having attenuated materiality to this article.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This is the most common use of IRS. For other uses, see [[IRS (disambiguation)]]''. [[image:IRSSeal.JPG\|thumb\|Seal of the Internal Revenue Service]] The '''Internal Revenue Service''' ('''IRS''') is the [[United States]] [[government agency]] that collects [[tax]]es and enforces the [[tax law]]s. It is a bureau of the [[United States Department of the Treasury\|Department of the Treasury]]. ==History== In 1862, during the [[American Civil War\|Civil War]], [[President of the United States\|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln\|Lincoln]] and [[Congress of the United States\|Congress]] created the [[Commissioner of Internal Revenue]] and enacted an [[income tax]] to pay [[war]] expenses. The Commissioner is the head of the Internal Revenue Service. The agency created to enforce these taxes was named for the internal revenue to be collected (and was formerly called the "Bureau of Internal Revenue"), in contrast to U.S. government institutions that collected external revenue through [[duty\|duties]] and [[tariff]]s. The income tax was repealed 10 years later. In 1894, Congress revived the income tax, but the following year the [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled, in ''[[Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.]],'' that taxes on [[capital gains]], [[dividends]], [[interest]], [[Economic_rent\|rent]]s and the like were direct taxes on property, and that the statute in question was unconstitutional because it had not apportioned the direct taxes among the states according to population. In 1913, however, the states ratified the [[Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\|16th Amendment]], which removed the requirement that income taxes (whether considered direct or indirect taxes) be apportioned by population. In 1918, to finance [[World War I]], the top rate of the income tax rose to 77%. During the post-war years, the top rate was lowered to 24%, but rose again during the [[Great Depression]]. During [[World War II]], Congress introduced [[payroll withholding]] and quarterly tax payments, ostensibly as an emergency measure. In the 1950s, career professional [[Employment\|employees]] replaced the [[patronage]] system. Currently, only the IRS Commissioner and Chief Counsel are selected by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Bureau of Internal Revenue name also was changed to the Internal Revenue Service to emphasize "service" to taxpayers. As a by-product of the ''[[Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998]]'', Pub. L. No. 105-206, 112 Stat. 685 (July 22, 1998), the IRS now functions under four major operating divisions: Large & Mid-Size Business (LMSB), Small Business / Self-Employed (SB/SE), Wage and Investment (W&I), and Tax Exempt & Government Entities (TE/GE). [[Image:IRS building on constitution avenue in DC.jpg\|frame\|right\|IRS building on [[Constitution Avenue]] in [[Washington, D.C.]].]] The main headquarters of the IRS is located at 1111 [[Constitution Avenue, N.W.]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Summary of Collections before Refunds by Type of Return, Fiscal Year 2003: {\| class="wikitable" ! Type of Return \|\| Number of Returns \|\| Gross Collections (Millions of [[United States dollar\|US$]]) \|- \| Individual Income Tax \|\| 130,728,360 \|\| 987,209 \|- \| Corporate Income Tax \|\| 5,890,821 \|\| 194,146 \|- \| Employment Taxes \|\| 29,916,033 \|\| 695,976 \|- \| Gift Tax \|\| 287,456 \|\| 1,939 \|- \| Excise Taxes \|\| 812,483 \|\| 52,771 \|- \| Estate Tax \|\| 91,679 \|\| 20,888 \|} In fiscal year 2004, the IRS collecte
nsive end]] who retired early from football to pursue a career in [[piano]] and song writing. Reid has written several [[grammy]] winning [[song]]s. Coy Bacon (1976-1977) - Coy was an expert pass rusher. He earned a [[pro bowl]] spot by setting the single season team record for [[quarterback sack]]s in 1976 with 22. [[Ken Riley]] (1969-1983) - Ken was one of the best [[cornerback]]s of all time. He set the team single season record for interceptions (9) and the career record (65). In his last season of play, Riley led the [[American Football Conference\|AFC]] with eight interceptions. At the time of his retirement, Ken Riley was number three in the [[NFL]] record book for all-time career interceptions with 65. Ken Riley has not been voted into the [[NFL]]'s [[Hall of Fame]]. [[Lemar Parrish]] (1970-1977) - An 8 time [[pro bowl]]er (six times with the Bengals) at [[cornerback]], Lemar had 25 interceptions with the Bengals and 47 total in his career. In addition to being a great defensive back, he excelled at kick and punt returning of special teams. Parrish is the Bengals all time leader in touchdowns scored by "return or recovery" with 13 (4 on punt returns, 4 on interception returns, 3 on fumble returns, 1 on a kickoff return, and 1 on a blocked field goal return). He was is the only player in franchise history ever to score 2 "return or recovery" touchdowns in a single game, a feat he accomplished 3 times Tommy Casanova (1972-1977) - A three time [[pro bowl]] hard hitting [[free safety]], Tommy collected 17 career interceptions. ====1970s Games of Note==== [[November 28]], [[1971]] - The Bengal defense earns its first shutout as Cincinnati shorted the [[San Diego Chargers]] 31-0. [[December 17]], [[1972]] - The Bengals set a team scoring record as they massacred the [[Tennessee Titans\|Houston Oilers]] 61-17. In the game, Bengals' defensive back Lemmar Parrish set a single game team record by intercepting three passes, returning two of them for touchdowns. [[December 2]], [[1973]] - The Bengal defense earns another shutout as Cincinnati defeats the [[Minnesota Vikings]] 27-0. [[December 16]], [[1973]] - Traveling to [[Houston]], the Bengals defeat the [[Tennessee Titans\|Oilers]] 27-24 to clinch its second [[AFC Central]] division crown. Cincinnati won its final six games (the last two of which were on the road) to finish 10-4 in the '73 season, edging out the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] for the division championship. [[December 22]], [[1973]] - In their second playoff game, the Bengals are once again on the road and fall again to the eventual [[Super Bowl]] champions. In the [[Miami Orange Bowl]], the [[Miami Dolphins]] defeat the Bengals 34-16. [[November 10]], [[1974]] - Precision [[quarterback]] Ken Anderson completes 20 of 22 passes (a single game team completion percentage record) as Cincinnati defeats the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] 17-10. [[December 14]], [[1974]] - Though his team lost the season finale 27-3 to the [[Steelers]] in [[Pittsburgh]], Bengals [[quarterback]] [[Ken Anderson]] finished the season winning the [[NFL]] passing title (the highest [[quarterback rating]]). [[September 28]], [[1975]] - The Bengal defense earns its third shutout, drumming the [[New Orleans Saints]] 21-0 [[November 17]], [[1975]] - Ken Anderson vs. O.J. Simpson In one of the more memorable games in the history of [[Monday Night Football]], the [[Buffalo Bills]]' [[running back]] O.J. Simpson runs for 197 yards, but the Bengals' [[quarterback]] Ken Anderson passes for 447 yards as the Bengals defeat the [[Buffalo Bills\|Bills]] 33-24 in front of a sellout crowd in [[Cincinnati]]'s [[Riverfront Stadium]]. [[December 7]], [[1975]] - The 1975 season is the only one that sees the Bengals shutout two opponents. [[Cincinnati]] shutout the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] 31-0. [[December 21]], [[1975]] - In the regular season's final game, the Bengals blew up the [[San Diego Chargers]] 47-17. Despite their 11-3 season record, the Bengals finished second in the [[AFC Central]] division to the defending and eventual [[Super Bowl]] champion [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], who finished 12-2. The 11-3 record enabled the Bengals to capture the AFC [[Wild Card]]. [[Ken Anderson]] won his second consecutive [[NFL]] passing title. [[December 28]], [[1975]] - In the organization's third playoff game, the Bengals once again had to travel. Despite a 14-10 victory over the [[Oakland Raiders]] in week five of the regular season, the Raiders top the Bengals in Oakland, 31-28. [[October 10]], [[1976]] - [[Cincinnati]] shutout the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] 21-0. [[December 12]], [[1976]] - During the final game of the season in [[New York]]'s [[Shea Stadium]], Bengals' defensive end Coy Bacon sacked [[New York Jets]]' [[quarterback]] [[Joe Namath]] four times in a 42-7 Bengals' rout. Coy got to the opposing passer 22 times in 1976, but the [[NFL]] did not record [[quarterback]] sack statistics until 1982. [[October 22]], [[1978]] - In the lowest scoring game in Cincinnati Bengals history, the [[Buffalo Bills]] pitch a 5-0 shutout. [[October 19]], [[1980]] - The Bengals shutout the [[Minnesota Vikings\|Vikings]] again, 14-0. [[December 21]], [[1980]] - Bengals defensive end Eddie Edwards set a single game team record by sacking [[Cleveland Browns]]' quarterback [[Brian Sipe]] five times. the [[Browns]], needing a win to qualify for the playoffs, came out ahead 27-24. ===The 1980s=== The Bengals were an entertaining and successful team reaching the Super Bowl twice, but overall, the 1980s was a decade of missed opportunities for the team. ====1980s Coaches==== [[Forrest Gregg]] continued to coach the Bengals through the 1983 season winning 28 and losing 17. Former Bengals' backup [[quarterback]] [[Sam Wyche]] began coaching the Bengals in 1984. Sam would stay on as head coach through the rest of the decade, winning 61 and losing 57. Famous quote: “The next person that throws anything onto this field, point ‘em out and get ‘em outta here! You don’t live in [[Cleveland]], you live in [[Cincinnati]]!” ====Memorable players from the 1980s==== Eddie Edwards (1977-1988) - [[Defensive end]] who holds the team single game record for [[quarterback sack]]s (5) and career record (83.5). [[Eddie Brown]](1985-1991) - Superb deep threat [[Wide Receiver]] who finished his career with 363 receptions for 6,134 yards (an impressive 16.9 yards per catch average) and 41 touchdowns. Brown was selected as the NFL's offensive rookie of the year in 1985. In 1988 he recorded 53 receptions for 1,273 yards and 9 touchdowns, assisting the Bengals to Super Bowl XXIII and setting franchise single season records for receiving yards and yards per catch. [[Chad Johnson]] surpassed Brown's receiving record with 1,355 yards in 2003, but it took him 37 more receptions then Brown(90) to do so Ross Browner (1978-1986) - [[Defensive end]] who collected 59 [[quarterback sack]]s. Reggie Williams (1976-1989) – played effectively at outside [[linebacker]] and served on [[Cincinnati]] city council. Williams intercepted 14 passes in his career. [[Louis Breeden]] (1978-1987) – Breeden is second on the list for all-time career [[interceptions]] with 33. [[Jim Breech]] (1980-1992) - Breech was the Bengals [[place kicker]] for 13 seasons. He is the team's all time leading scorer with 1,151 points, and was a perfect 9 for 9 in overtime field goals during his career, an NFL record. Breech was also perfect in both of the Bengals Super Bowl appearances in the 1980s, not missing a field goal or extra point in either one. [[Tim Krumrie]] (1983-1994) - All-Pro nose tackle who lead the team in tackles in five seasons. He returned as DL position coach until 2002. Suffered a gruesome broken leg in Super Bowl XXIII. [[David Fulcher]] (1986-1992) - hard-hitting, all-pro linebacker-sized strong safety. Fulcher had 31 career [[interceptions]]. He also led the team in [[Tackle (American football)\|tackles]] and caused a [[fumble]] in [[Super Bowl XXIII]]. [[Rodney Holman]] (1982-1992) - A 3 time pro bowl (1988-1990) tight end, Holman's superb blocking and pass catching was a key reason for the Bengals' success in the 1980s and assisted them to [[Super Bowl XXIII]]. Career stats are 365 receptions for 4,771 yards and 36 touchdowns. As of 2005, Holman's 318 receptions with the Bengals ranks him as their 6th all time leading receiver. [[Dan Ross]] (1979-1985) - Pro bowl tight end who assisted the Bengals to [[Super Bowl XVI]]. Ross recorded a Super Bowl record 11 receptions for 104 yards and 2 touchdowns in the game, which would have likely earned him the [[Super Bowl MVP]] award if his team had won. Career stats are 290 receptions for 3,419 receiving yards and 19 touchdowns. Eric Thomas (1987-1992) – [[Pro Bowl]] [[cornerback]]. Thomas was a vital part of the [[Defense (sport)\|defense]] on Bengals 1988 [[Super Bowl]] team. In his career, Thomas collected 15 [[interceptions]]. [[Anthony Muñoz]] (1980-1992) - Considered by many peers and fans alike to be one of the finest offensive tackles ever, Anthony Muñoz was a perennial [[Pro Bowl]] selection, a three-time Offensive Lineman of the Year (1981, 1987, and 1988), and was named to the team 11 consecutive times. In 1994, Muñoz was named to the National Football League's 75th anniversary all-time team. In 1998, Anthony Muñoz was enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. [[Cris Collinsworth]] (1981-1988) - Tall, lanky, affable wide receiver and three-time Pro Bowler. His initial foray into broadcasting was substituting for former Bengals tight end Bob Trumpy on Trumpy's WLW radio show. Has done commentary for HBO, NBC, and Fox Sports. *[[James Brooks]](1984-1991) – In his eight years as a Bengal [[running back]], Brooks rushed for 6447 yards averaging 4.8 yards per carry. Brooks earned spots on four [[pro bowl]]s. He left the team as the team’s all-time leading rusher, a rec
hile writing any of his DUNE novels. Likewise, in writing their DUNE novels (beginning with DUNE: HOUSE ATREIDES), Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson have exclusively used, and will continue to use, Frank Herbert's original notes as well as their own imaginations, and not THE DUNE ENCYCLOPEDIA. "We hope that the millions of DUNE fans will continue to enjoy all of the works written in Frank Herbert's marvelous universe." ==Film adaptations== A film of the novel ''[[Dune (film)\|Dune]]'' was directed by [[David Lynch]] in 1984. Although panned by many fans and film critics, Frank Herbert was pleased with the movie. It has done well on video and DVD. ''Dune'' was made into a TV mini-series by the [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)]] in 2000. This was commercially successful and the Sci-Fi channel continued the Dune saga with a further mini-series in 2003 entitled ''Children of Dune'', which merges the plots of the novels ''Dune Messiah'' and ''Children of Dune'' ==Bibliography== ===Fiction=== ====Novels==== ''[[The Dragon in the Sea]]'': Serial publication: Astounding, November 1955 &ndash; January 1956 First edition: New York: Doubleday, 1956, under the title The Dragon in the Sea. Also titled Under Pressure. ''[[Dune (novel)\|Dune]]'': Serial publication: Analog, December 1963 &ndash; February 1964 (Part I, as "Dune World"), and January &ndash; May 1965 (Parts II and III, as "The Prophet of Dune").First edition: Philadelphia: Chilton Books, 1965 ''[[The Green Brain]]'': Serial publication: Amazing, March 1965, under the title "Greenslaves." First edition: New York: Ace, 1966 ''[[Destination: Void]]'': Serial publication: Galaxy, August 1965, as "Do I Wake or Dream?"First edition: New York: Berkley, 1966 revised in 1978 ''[[The Eyes of Heisenberg]]'': Serial publication: Galaxy, June &ndash; August 1966, as "Heisenberg's Eyes."First edition: New York: Berkley, 1966 ''[[The Heaven Makers]]'': Serial publication: Amazing, April &ndash; June 1967. First edition: New York: Avon, 1968 ''[[The Santaroga Barrier]]'': Serial publication: Amazing, October 1967 &ndash; February 1968. First edition: New York: Berkley, 1968 ''[[Dune Messiah]]'': serial publication: Galaxy, July &ndash; November 1969. First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1970. ''[[Whipping Star]]'': Serial publication: Worlds of If, January &ndash; April 1970. First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1970. ''[[Soul Catcher]]'': Serial publication: none First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1972. ''[[The Godmakers]]'': Serial publication: Astounding, May 1958, "You Take the High Road," Astounding, May 1959 "Operation Haystack," and Fantastic, February 1960, "The Priests of Psi." First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1972. ''[[Hellstrom's Hive]]'': Serial publication: Galaxy, November 1972 &ndash; March 1973, "Project 40." First edition: New York: Doubleday, 1973. ''[[Children of Dune]]'': Serial publication: Analog, January &ndash; April 1976, "Children of Dune" First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1976. ''[[The Dosadi Experiment]]'': Serial publication: Galaxy, May &ndash; August 1977 "The Dosadi Experiment" First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1977. ''[[The Jesus Incident]]'' (with Bill Ransom): Serial publication: Analog, February 1979 ''[[Direct Descent]]'': Serial publication: Astounding, December 1954 "Packrat Planet" First edition: New York: Ace Books, 1980. ''[[God Emperor of Dune]]'': Serial publication: none First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1981. ''[[The White Plague]]'': First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1982. ''[[The Lazarus Effect]]'' (with Bill Ransom): First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1983. ''[[Heretics of Dune]]'': First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1984. ''[[Chapterhouse: Dune]]'': First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1985. ''[[Man of Two Worlds]]'' (with Brian Herbert): First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1986. ''[[The Ascension Factor]]'' (with Bill Ransom): First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1988. ====Short fiction collections==== ''The Worlds of Frank Herbert'': First edition: New York: Ace, 1971 *Contains: "The Tactful Saboteur," "By the Book," "Committee of the Whole," "Mating Call," "Escape Felicity," "The GM Effect," "The Featherbedders," "Old Rambling House," and "A-W-F Unlimited." ''The Book of Frank Herbert'': First edition: New York: DAW Books, 1973 (paper) *Contains: "Seed Stock," "The Nothing," "Rat Race," "Gambling Device," " Looking for Something," "The Gone Dogs," "Passage for Piano," "Encounter in a Lonely Place," "Operation Syndrome," and "Occupation Force." ''The Best of Frank Herbert'', also published as:''The Best of Frank Herbert 1952 - 1964'' and ''The Best of Frank Herbert 1965 - 1970'' Contains: "Looking for something?," "Nightmare Blues," "Dragon in the Sea (extract)," "Cease Fire," ""Egg and Ashes," "Marie Celeste Move." "Committee of the Whole," "Dune (extract)," "By the book," "The Primitives," "The Heaven Makers (extract)," "Seed Stock." ''The Priests of Psi'' Contains: "Try to Remember," "Old Rambling House," "Murder Will In," "Mindfield," "The Priests of Psi." ''Eye'', (Jim Burns (Illustrator)): First edition: New York: Berkley, 1985. *Contains: "Rat Race," "Dragon in the Sea," "Cease Fire," "A Matter of Traces," "Try to Remember," 'The Tactful Saboteur," "The Road to Dune," "By the Book," Seed Stock," Murder Will In," "Passage for Piano," "Death of a City," and "Frogs and Scientists." ====Short fiction==== ''Survival of the Cunning'' Esquire, March 1945. ''Yellow Fire'' Alaska Life (Alaska Territorial Magazine), June 1947. ''Looking for Something?'' Startling Stories, April 1952. ''Operation Syndrome'' Astounding, June 1954. also in T.E. Dikty's Best Science Fiction Stories and Novels, 1955 series ''The Gone Dogs'' Amazing, November 1954. ''Packrat Planet'' Astounding, December 1954. ''Rat Race'' Astounding, July 1955. ''Occupation Force'' Fantastic, August 1955. ''The Nothing'' Fantastic Universe, January 1956. ''Cease Fire'' Astounding, January 1956. ''Old Rambling House'' Galaxy, April 1958. ''You Take the High Road'' Astounding, May 1958. ''A Matter of Traces'' Fantastic Universe, November 1958. ''Missing Link'' Astounding, February 1959. also in Author's Choice Ed. Harry Harrison, New York: Berkley, 1968 ''Operation Haystack'' Astounding, May 1959. ''The Priests of Psi'' Fantastic, February 1960. ''Egg and Ashes'' Worlds of If, November 1960. ''A-W-F Unlimited'' Galaxy, June 1961. ''Try to Remember'' Amazing, October 1961. ''Mating Call'' Galaxy, October 1961. ''Mindfield'' Amazing, March 1962. ''The Mary Celeste Move'' Analog, October 1964. ''[[The Tactful Saboteur]]'' Galaxy, October 1964. ''Greenslaves'' Amazing, March 1965. ''Committee of the Whole'' Galaxy, April 1965. ''The GM Effect'' Analog, June 1965. ''Do I Wake or Dream?'' Galaxy, August 1965. ''The Primitives'' Galaxy, April 1966. ''Escape Felicity'' Analog, June 1966. ''By the Book'' Analog, August 1966. ''The Featherbedders'' Analog, August 1967. ''The Mind Bomb'' Worlds of If, October 1969. ''Seed Stock"'' Analog, April 1970. ''Murder Will In'' The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, May 1970. ''Project 40'' (three installments) Galaxy, November 1972 &ndash; March 1973. also in Five Fates by Keith Laumer, Poul Anderson, Frank Herbert, Gordon Dickson and Harlan Ellson. New York: Doubleday, 1970 ''Encounter in a Lonely Place'' in The Book of Frank Herbert New York: DAW Books, 1973. ''Gambling Device'' in The Book of Frank Herbert New York: DAW Books, 1973. ''Passage for Piano'' in The Book of Frank Herbert New York: DAW Books, 1973. ''The Death of a City'' in Future City, ed. Roger Elwood. Trident Press: New York, 1973. ''Come to the Party'' with F.M Busby, Analog, December 1978. ''Songs of a Sentient Flute'' Analog, February 1979. ''Feathered Pigs'' Destinies, Oct/Dec 1979. ''The Road to Dune'' in Eye New York: Berkley 1985 ''Frogs and Scientists'' in Eye New York: Berkley 1985 ===Nonfiction=== '''Non Fiction Books:''' ''New World or No World'' (editor) First edition: New York: Ace Books, 1970 (paper) ''Threshold: The Blue Angels Experience'' First edition: New York: Ballantine, 1973 (paper) (companion to documentary of same name about [[Blue Angels]] flight team) ''Without Me, You're Nothing (with Max Barnard)'' First edition: New York: Pocket Books, 1981 (trade paper) '''Essays and introductions''' ''Introduction to Saving Worlds,'' by Roger Elwood and Virginia Kidd. New York: Doubleday, 1973 (reissed by Bantam Books under the title The Wounded Planet) ''Introduction: Tomorrow's Alternatives?'' in Frontiers 1: Tomorrow's Alterntives, ed. Roger Elwood. New York: Macmillan, 1973. ''Introduction to Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow''. Heitz, Herbert, Joor McGee. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973. ''Listening to the Left Hand.'' Harper's Magazine, December 1973, pg. 92&ndash;100 ''Science Fiction and a World Crisis'' in Science Fiction: Today and Tomorrow, ed. Reginald Bretnor. New York: Harper and Row, 1974. ''Men on Other Planets'' in The Craft of Science Fiction, ed. Reginald Bretnor. New York: Harpe
* [http://www.dmtworld.org/ DMT World message board - Discuss all things related to DMT] * [http://www.rickstrassman.com/ Rick Strassman - "DMT: The Spirit Molecule " - A book on the effects of DMT] === Brazilian ayahuasca churches === [http://www.santodaime.org/indexy.htm Santo Daime] (in English) [http://www.udv.org.br/english/index.html União do Vegetal] (in English) * BBC News story: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4458873.stm US church's illegal tea faces ban] {{Hallucinogenic tryptamines}} {{Tryptamines}} ==References== * {{cite book \| author=[[Clifford A. Pickover]] \| title=Sex, Drugs, Einstein, and Elves: Sushi, Psychedelics, Parallel Universes, and the Quest for Transcendence \| publisher=Smart Publications \| year=[[August]], [[2005]] \| id=ISBN 1890572179 }} (''discusses DMT and implications for our understanding of reality'') [[Category:Psychedelic tryptamines]] [[Category:Neurotransmitters]] [[de:Dimethyltryptamin]] [[fi:Dimetyylitryptamiini]] [[fr:Diméthyltryptamine]] [[hr:Dimetiltriptamin]] [[nl:DMT]] [[pl:Dimetylotryptamina]] [[sv:DMT]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Da capo</title> <id>8750</id> <revision> <id>40366903</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T02:19:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kleinzach</username> <id>547500</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1\|the music term}} '''Da Capo''' is a musical term in [[Italian language\|Italian]], meaning ''from the beginning'', often abbreviated '''D.C.'''. It is a [[composer]] or publisher's directive to repeat the previous part of music. In small pieces this might be the same thing as a [[repeat]], but in larger works D.C. might occur after one or more repeats of small sections, indicating a return to the very beginning. Sometimes the [[composer]] describes the part to be repeated, for example: ''Menuet da capo''. In [[opera]] the repeated piece is often adorned with [[grace note]]s. Variations of the direction are: * '''Da Capo al fine''' (D.C. al fine): repeat from beginning up to the word '''''fine'''''. * '''Da Capo al coda''' (D.C. al Coda): repeat from beginning to an indicated place and then play the tail part (the [[coda (music)\|coda]]). ==See also== [[Dal Segno]] [[Category:Musical notation]] [[category:Opera terminology]] [[ca:Da capo]] [[da:Da capo]] [[de:Da capo]] [[es:Da capo]] [[nl:Da Capo]] [[pl:Da capo al fine]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dominatrix</title> <id>8751</id> <revision> <id>41904670</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:37:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stephenb</username> <id>292494</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 39505799 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups\|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date\|November 2005}} A '''dominatrix''' or '''mistress''' is a woman who takes the [[Dominant_(BDSM)\|dominant]] role in [[Bondage_(BDSM)\|bondage]] and [[Discipline_(BDSM)\|discipline]], [[domination and submission]] and/or [[Sadism_and_masochism\|sado-masochistic]] sexual practices, which are commonly abbreviated as [[BDSM]]. The male equivalent is [[Master_(BDSM)\|master]]. A common form of address for a [[Submissive_(BDSM)\|submissive]] to a dominatrix is "Mistress" or "Ma'am". Note that a dominatrix does not necessarily dominate a male partner; a dominatrix may well have a female submissive. The term '''domme''' is a coined pseudo-French female variation of the slang ''dom'' (short for ''dominant''). There is confusion on its pronunciation, with some pronouncing it identically to ''dom'' and some pronouncing the final ''e'' as a second syllable, e.g. saying ''dom-MAY'' or ''DOM-may''. It appears that more [[BDSM]] authorities prefer the first pronunciation (identical to ''dom''), by analogy to one-syllable French-derived words like ''femme'' or ''blonde''. [http://mistressmatisse.blogspot.com/2004/05/bdsm-word-of-day-domme.html] [http://www.fhp-inc.com/writings/essential_domme.html] [http://www.sensuoussadie.com/sadiescolumns/writing/internetwriting.htm] [http://www.soulshaven.f2s.com/intro_terms.php3]. Older woman-younger man relationships are much more common in female dominant relationships than among vanilla couples. ==Professional versus lifestyle dominatrices== The term ''dominatrix'' is most commonly used to describe a [[professional dominant]] woman (or ''pro-domme'') who charges money to engage in fantasy play with [[submissive (BDSM)\|submissive]] clients, but in reality most dominatrices are not professionals, but [[Dominant_(BDSM)\|lifestyle dominant]]s. A lifestyle dominant is a person who is assertive and in control of their relationships both inside and outside the bedroom. Women who engage in female domination recreationally are known as Dommes, Dominatrices, or simply Dominants, but are rarely referred to as Dominatrixes. A high percentage of dominatrices are lifestyle dominants, but some simply play the dominatrix role because it is a high-paying profession. The rates charged by professional dominatrixes vary depending on geographic location, skill and experience level, fame and reputation, activities requested by the client and physical appearance. Dominatrixes who have appeared in [[female domination]] videos tend to be well-known and can, therefore, command higher fees. Typical session fees range from $100 to $350 per hour in the United States, making them comparable to fees charged by attorneys. One such high-powered Dominatrix in Boston who has garnered great notoriety is [[Barbara Asher]]. It is common for professional dominatrixes who are also lifestyle Dommes to have both paying clients and a "personal slave" or slaves, who are not paying clients. A personal slave will typically perform a Domme's housework and run errands for her. A personal slave may or may not live with his Domme. Most Dommes engage in sexual activity with personal slaves, but this is not always the case. Some Dommes limit the sexual activity to the slave performing oral sex on them, while others engage in the full gamut of sexual activities. Most professional dominatrixes do not consider themselves to be prostitutes. The slogan "domination is not prostitution" is displayed on the web sites of many professional dominatrixes. Professional dominatrixes differ from other women in the sex industry in that they come in all shapes and sizes and ages, while most other sex workers tend to be young and slender. There are professional dominatrixes who are heavier and in their 40s, 50s or even 60s. Most ''famous'' dominatrices (with a few notable exceptions) are professional dominants, since most other people's sex lives remain private. The stereotyped image of a dominatrix is of a woman wearing a rubber [[catsuit]] and [[thigh-length boots]] with high heels. Many professional dominatrices do indeed wear similar outfits for their work in order to meet client expectations. However, for non-professional dominatrices, the question "what does a dominatrix wear" is best answered "whatever she likes". ==Notable dominatrices== The [[19th century\|19th-century]] British dominatrix Mrs [[Theresa Berkley]], inventor of the [[Berkley Horse]]. * The American author, sex therapist, and counsellor [[Gloria Brame]] is also a lifestyle dominant. * The French professional dominatrix [[Maîtresse Françoise]] (real name [[Annick Foucault]]) has written a book about her experiences as a dominatrix * [[Ilsa Strix]] is a Los Angeles based professional dominatrix who has appeared in female domination videos and has been romantically linked to ''[[The Matrix]]'' creator [[Wachowski brothers\|Larry Wachowski]]. * Professional dominatrix [[Mistress Matisse]] is also a columnist for the Seattle weekly alternative newspaper ''[[The Stranger (newspaper)\|The Stranger]]'' and a noted blogger. ==Fictional dominatrices== * The novel ''[[Venus in Furs]]'', by [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]], deals with a man who is so besotted with a woman he becomes her sex slave. Also, the song of the same name by [[the Velvet Underground]] deals with the same subject matter. * The film ''[[Preaching to the Perverted]]'', starring Guinevere Turner, depicts a dominatrix. * The [[television]] drama ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]]'' has featured a recurring professional dominatrix character, [[Lady Heather]], who is depicted in a sympathetic manner. * The film ''[[Eating Raoul]]'' features Doris the Dominatrix, who, when off the job, is a married mother. * The film ''[[Maîtresse]]'', starring [[Gérard Depardieu]] and [[Bulle Ogier]], depicted a professional dominant. * The 1999 film ''[[Payback (movie)\|Payback]]'', features [[Lucy Liu]] as the dominatrix Pearl. * Several of the stories in the comic book series [[Sin City]] feature the character of Gail, a [[prostitute]] and dominatrix whose speciality is knot-tying. She is one of the authority figures in Old Town, a part of the city run by female prostitutes. In the movie adaptation, she is played by [[Rosario Dawson]]. * The popular [[DC comics\|DC]] [[comic books]] character [[Catwoman]] bears a strong dominatrix [[Motif (literature)\|motif]]: her stylized mask, the skintight outfit and the whip, in combination with her strong-willed and at the same time sultry personality are the most striking of these characteristics. ==See also == * [[Female domination]] * [[Professional dominant]] * [[Fetishes (documentary)]] * [[Humiliatrix]] ==External links== * [http://www.sexuality.org/l/bdsm/femdom.html The Dominatrix in Print and Other Media] &mdash; detailed bibliography * [http://www.smileandactnice.com/life/itsaliving/dominatrix/ It's a living: Dominatrix] &mdash; professional domme article * [http://dir.salon.com/people/feature/2000/04/20/teendom/index.html "I Was a Teenage Dominatrix&qu
hout dying. The encoded cheats are: '''Original Game mode:''' Press Fire, Jump, Fire, Jump, Fire, Jump, Right, Start (all on player one's side) at the title screen. The message "Original Game" in blue letters will be displayed at the bottom of the screen to confirm correct code entry. Note: Enabling this code may be prevented with a DIP switch setting. '''Power Up mode:''' Press Left, Jump, Left, Start, Left, Fire, Left, Start (all on player one's side) at the title screen. The message "Power Up" in red letters will appear in the lower left corner to confirm correct code entry. Unlimited running and rapid fire are available in this mode. Note: Enabling this code may be prevented with a DIP switch setting. '''Super mode:''' Press Fire, Jump, Fire, Jump, Fire, Jump, Right, Start (all on player two's side) at the title screen. The word "Super" will appear above the title to confirm correct code entry. Opponents are more difficult in this mode, and enemies are swapped with their counterparts as specified on the enemy list. The colors of the rounds' tiles also change. Note: Enabling this code may be prevented with a DIP switch setting, or it can be always enabled. '''Alternate bonus effects:''' Enter one of the following initials on the high score screen, then start another game. New effects will appear when certain bonuses are collected during the game. SEX, TAK, STR, KTT, I.F, MTJ, NSO, KIM, YSH, LSD === Techniques === A relatively unknown and obscure part of Bubble Bobble gameplay has always been the way the various bonuses appear. While most of them may appear completely random, the game actually keeps a series of internal (and unseen) counters about events such as number of jumps, jumps over bubbles, bubble bursts, bubbles blown etc. during a round or in the whole game, maximum number of monsters blown in a certain round etc. and these events are actually used to determine which bonuses will appear, and to a certain extent ''when'' they will appear. Some known events and the effect they have on bonuses are: The number of ''distinct'' EXTEND bubbles that will appear on a round depend on the maximum number of monsters killed during the round, or on a previous round if said previous round didn't have "openings" for EXTEND bubbles to fly in, or was completed before they could appear. In general, killing '''N+1''' monsters will make '''N''' distinct EXTEND bubbles appear. Since the game actually can have only 7 monsters per round, killing 7 monsters in a single bubble cluster will make all 6 EXTEND letters appear. In Taito's PC port, however, killing '''N''' monsters will cause the '''N-th''' letter of the word to appear - making the N extremely hard to get because there's only few levels where you can easily pop five enemies simultaneously. This is probably a bug. Another known event-triggered event is the appearance of ''candy cane'' bonuses: if a player '''rides a bubble''' more than 20 times, then a candy cane will surely appear in that round. Other bonuses can be made to appear in similar manners, and there are lists of events and effects around the internet. For a special bonus on the NES version, a player must enter the password HIJID, select 2 player continue, and finish round FO (last level) with both players alive. After the entire ending has run and the player is prompted to press start, the player will receive a reward. The reward is a sound test for the whole game. ===Playing techniques and styles=== ''Bubble Bobble'' is a game heavily relying on [[gameplay]] and precise [[technique]] rather than graphics, and it features a series of special techniques and tricks a player can perform to maximize his or her score, make some rounds of the game easier or faster to finish or just to be able to survive or even finish a round. Some of these techniques have special nicknames, which may differ from player to player and from country to country. * '''Kissing monsters''' or just '''kissing''' means killing a monster by blowing a bubble at almost contact distance: the monster will be instantly bubbled and the bubble will be instantly popped, giving the visual effect of the player killing a monster with a "kiss". Some players flip their joysticks in the opposite direction after pressing the bubble buttons, giving more chances of an "instant pop" and changing flight direction for the dead monster. This technique is useful in stages where monsters move too fast, bubbles last for too short of a time or it's otherwise hard to bubble them normally. Of course good timing is required for this technique to work. * '''Riding bubbles''' means keeping the jump button pressed when dropping on a bubble: if done correctly, instead of popping the bubble, your dragon will instead jump on it, possibly continuously, enabling him to "ride" bubbles in order to reach otherwise unreachable areas. Some stages can't be finished without this technique. '''Bubbling oneself through''' means "riding a bubble" through the opening at the top of a stage or even just through the ceiling of a stage in order to appear at the lower part, like some flying monsters can do. This technique is required to finish some stages or to get unstuck from some places, or just to save time. '''Blowing against the wall''' means blowing bubbles against wall at contact distance: the bubbles will pop immediately thus giving the player 10 points per bubble pop. This can be used to either increase a player's score, or to set a player's score to a specific amount, in order to do other tricks. '''Two equal digits''' means using the "blowing against the wall" technique or other score-adjusting techniques in order to make the two penultimate (100s and 10s places) digits of at least one player equal, e.g., 456<b>77</b>0, before the last enemy bubble is burst. If done correctly and the score is not modified when this occurs, then all remaining non-special bubbles on screen will be turned to 700-point bonuses, whose appearance depends on the digit picked. E.g., 7 gives Chocolate Ice Creams, 3 gives Hamburgers, and so on. This trick is easier to do with two players (one player adjusts his score and the other bursts the bubbles), but it can also be done with only one player, although calculating exactly how much (and if) one's score will be modified when bursting the last enemy bubbles can be extremely complex, if not unpredictable, especially if there are very large and clustered bubble bunches. *Rounds with numbers ending with <b>5</b> and <b>0</b> generate bonuses from bubbles automatically, though, and some rounds (including round 1) do it by default. == Ports == The popularity of ''Bubble Bobble'' led Taito (or its licensees) to [[porting\|port]] to many [[home computer]]s and [[video game console]]s. Ports of the game were released for the [[Commodore 64]], [[ZX Spectrum]], [[Commodore Amiga]], [[Atari ST]], [[MSX]], [[Amstrad CPC]], [[X68000]], [[Personal computer\|PC]] ([[MS-DOS]], 1989 and 1996), [[Apple II]], [[Sega Master System]], [[Game Boy]], [[Game Boy Color]], [[Game Boy Advance]], [[Nintendo DS]], [[PlayStation]], [[Sega Saturn]], [[Nintendo Entertainment System]], [[Famicom Disk System]], [[Sega Game Gear]], [[mobile phone]] ([[Sprint PCS]]), and [[UltraCade]]'s Taito Arcade Classics. In [[October 2005]], a version was released for the [[Xbox]], [[PlayStation 2]], and [[Personal computer\|PC]] as part of the ''[[Taito Legends]]'' compilation of [[retrogaming\|classic arcade games]]. ===Game mechanics in conversions and ports=== ''Bubble Bobble'' has been widely regarded as one of the most [[gameplay\|playable]] games of all time, owing much of its success to its previously described game mechanics, which are only apparently simple, and its many hidden features and secrets. Also, most Bubble Bobble players usually manage to master techniques such as riding bubbles, 'bubbling' oneself through the screen or 'kissing' monsters, and expect them to work all the time. Some ''Bubble Bobble'' ports however, from the date of release of the arcade version up today, have been heavily criticized for their mechanics deviating significantly from the arcade version, adversely affecting the gameplay. For example, in many versions of the game the two-digit trick to make extra bonuses appear at the end of the stage just doesn't work, or the score and bonus awarding system is entirely different, in part due to the complexity of the original one, and most of the aforementioned techniques can be much harder or impossible to reproduce, thus completely changing (arguably ruining) the gaming experience. Examples include even comparatively recent versions such as the (1996) [[personal computer\|PC]]/[[PlayStation]]/[[Sega Saturn]] versions by [[Acclaim Entertainment\|Acclaim]]: they either have different game mechanics (too fast dropping speed, barely working shoes, bubbles going through walls, different jumping physics and many non-implemented techniques) or different behaviour for some monsters (especially the time-up monster). Another example is the early 1989 PC version by [[Novalogic]], which had the possibility of diagonal jumps with a single keystroke (thus enabling players to go through walls), lacked completely the ability of kissing monsters, and had different rules governing the appearance of some bonuses (most notably the orange-yellow sweet). The various Nintendo NES and Game Boy ports and sequels are very different, often featuring scrolling screens, different enemies, and the ability for the dragons to fly. In general, there are as many variations to the game mechanics as there are versions, with some being more faithful to the arcade version than others and some resulting in noticeably different gameplay experience. Although that is a general rule regarding ports of any game, in Bubble Bobble it can become very noticeab
ics)\|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)\|fields]], [[Galois theory]]. This list could be expanded to include most fields of mathematics, including [[axiomatic set theory]], [[measure theory]], [[ergodic theory]], [[probability]], [[representation theory]], and [[differential geometry]]. =====Arithmetic===== The [[Peano axioms]] are the most widely used ''axiomatization'' of [[arithmetic]]. They are a set of axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about [[number theory]] and they allowed Gödel to establish his famous [[Gödel's second incompleteness theorem\|second incompleteness theorem]]. We have a language <math>\mathfrak{L}_{NT} = \{0, S\}\,</math> where <math>0\,</math> is a constant symbol and <math>S\,</math> is a [[unary function]] and the following axioms: # <math>\forall x. \lnot (Sx = 0) </math> # <math>\forall x. \forall y. (Sx = Sy \to x = y) </math> # <math>((\phi(0) \land \forall x.\,(\phi(x) \to \phi(Sx))) \to \forall x.\phi(x)</math> for any <math>\mathfrak{L}_{NT}\,</math> formula <math>\phi\,</math> with one free variable. The standard structure is <math>\mathfrak{N} = \langle\N, 0, S\rangle\,</math> where <math>\N\,</math> is the set of natural numbers, <math>S\,</math> is the [[successor function]] and <math>0\,</math> is naturally interpreted as the number 0. =====Euclidean geometry===== Probably the oldest, and most famous, list of axioms are the 4 + 1 [[Euclid's postulates]] of [[plane geometry]]. This set of axioms turns out to be incomplete, and many more postulates are necessary to rigorously characterize his geometry ([[David Hilbert\|Hilbert]] used 23). The axioms are referred to as "4 + 1" because for nearly two millennia the [[parallel postulate\|fifth (parallel) postulate]] ("through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel") was suspected of being derivable from the first four. Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four. Indeed, one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist, that exactly one exists, or that infinitely many exist. These choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior [[angle]]s of a [[triangle]] add up to less than, exactly, or more than a straight line respectively and are known as [[elliptic geometry\|elliptic]], [[Euclidean geometry\|Euclidean]], and [[hyperbolic geometry\|hyperbolic]] geometries. =====Real analysis===== The object of study is the [[real numbers]]. The real numbers are uniquely picked out (up to [[isomorphism]]) by the properties of a ''complete ordered field''. However, expressing these properties as axioms requires use of [[second-order logic]]. The [[Löwenheim-Skolem theorem]]s tell us that if we restrict ourselves to [[first-order logic]], any axiom system for the reals admits other models, including both models that are smaller than the reals and models that are larger. Some of the latter are studied in [[non-standard analysis]]. ===<span id="role">Role in mathematical logic</span>=== ====Deductive systems and completeness==== A '''deductive system''' consists, of a set <math>\Lambda\,</math> of logical axioms, a set <math>\Sigma\,</math> of non-logical axioms, and a set <math>\{(\Gamma, \phi)\}\,</math> of ''rules of inference''. A desirable property of a deductive system is that it be '''complete'''. A system is said to be complete if, for all formulas <math>\phi</math>, <center> if <math>\Sigma \models \phi</math> then <math>\Sigma \vdash \phi</math> </center> that is, for any statement that is a ''logical consequence'' of <math>\Sigma</math> there actually exists a ''deduction'' of the statement from <math>\Sigma\,</math>. This is sometimes expressed as "everything that is true is provable", but it must be understood that "true" here means "made true by the set of axioms", and not, for example, "true in the intended interpretation". [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] establishes the completeness of a certain commonly-used type of deductive system. Note that "completeness" has a different meaning here than it does in the context of [[Gödel's first incompleteness theorem]], which states that no ''recursive'', ''consistent'' set of non-logical axioms <math>\Sigma\,</math> of the Theory of Arithmetic is ''complete'', in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement <math>\phi\,</math> such that neither <math>\phi\,</math> nor <math>\lnot\phi\,</math> can be proved from the given set of axioms. There is thus, on the one hand, the notion of '''''completeness of a deductive system''''' and on the other hand that of '''''completeness of a set of non-logical axioms'''''. The completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem, despite their names, do not contradict one another. ===Further discussion=== Early [[mathematician]]s regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of [[physical space]], and obviously there could only be one such model. The idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and the developers of systems such as [[Boolean algebra]] made elaborate efforts to derive them from traditional arithmetic. [[Évariste Galois\|Galois]] showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted, but that the grand parallels between axiomatic systems could be put to good use, as he algebraically solved many classical geometrical problems. Ultimately, the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and [[abstract algebra\|modern algebra]] was born. In the modern view we may take as axioms any set of formulas we like, as long as they are not known to be inconsistent. ==See also== * [[Axiomatic system]] * [[Peano axioms]] * [[Axiom of choice]] * [[Axiom of countability]] * [[Axiomatic set theory]] * [[Parallel postulate]] * [[Continuum hypothesis]] * [[Axiomatization]] * [[List of axioms]] ==External links== * [http://us.metamath.org/mpegif/mmset.html#axioms ''Metamath'' axioms page] [[Category:Mathematical axioms\|]] [[Category:Logic]] [[bg:Аксиома]] [[be:Аксіёма]] [[ca:Axioma]] [[cs:Axiom]] [[da:Aksiom]] [[de:Axiom]] [[et:Aksioom]] [[es:Axioma]] [[eo:Aksiomo]] [[fa:اصل موضوع]] [[fr:Axiome]] [[ko:공리]] [[hr:Aksiom]] [[io:Axiomo]] [[id:Aksioma]] [[it:Assioma (matematica)]] [[he:אקסיומה]] [[lt:Aksioma]] [[hu:Axióma]] [[nl:Axioma]] [[ja:公理]] [[no:Aksiom]] [[pl:Aksjomat]] [[pt:Axioma]] [[ru:Аксиома]] [[sl:Aksiom]] [[sr:Аксиома]] [[fi:Aksiooma]] [[sv:Axiom]] [[vi:Tiên đề]] [[tr:Aksiyom]] [[uk:Аксіома]] [[zh:公理]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alpha (letter)</title> <id>929</id> <revision> <id>41077797</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:27:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Unyoyega</username> <id>460372</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing interwikis +: als</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Greekletters\|letter=alpha}} {{WikisourceEBD1897\|A (entry)}} :''For other uses, see [[Alpha]].'' '''Alpha''' (uppercase Α, lowercase α) is the first letter of the [[Greek alphabet]]. In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 1. It derives from the [[Phoenician alphabet\|Phoenician]] letter [[Aleph (letter)\|'Aleph]][[Image:phoenician_aleph.png\|20px\|Aleph]]. Letters that arose from Alpha include the Latin [[A]] and the Cyrillic letter [[A (Cyrillic)\|A]]. [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' presents a discussion on the question of why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet. Plutarch's speaker suggests that [[Cadmus]], the [[Phoenician]] who reputedly settled in [[Thebes]] and introduced the alphabet to Greece, "placed ''alpha'' first because it is the Phoenician name for [[ox]], which they, like [[Hesiod]], considered not the second or third, but the first of necessities." This refers to a passage in ''[[Works and Days]]'' by Hesiod, who advised the early Greek farmers, "First get an ox, then a woman." A simpler explanation is that it was the first letter in the Phoenician alphabet. According to Plutarch's natural order of attribution of the [[vowel]]s to the [[planet]]s, alpha was connected with the [[Moon]]. Oxen were also associated with the Moon in both early [[Sumerian]] and [[Ancient Egypt\|Egyptian]] religious symbolism due to the crescent shape of their horns. Alpha, both as a symbol and term, is used to refer to or describe a variety of things, including the first or most significant occurrence of something. [[Jesus]] declares himself to be the "Alpha and [[Omega]], the beginning and the end, the first and the last." ([[Book of Revelation\|Revelation]] 22:13, KJV, and see also 1:8). The uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase [[A\|latin A]]. The lower-case letter α is used as the symbol for the following in physics: [[Angular acceleration]]. * The [[alpha particle]] and [[alpha decay]]. * Molecular polarisability. ==Other uses== Alpha is also used to describe the strongest male in a pack of animals, known as the alphamale. [[Category:Greek letters]] [[als:Α]] [[an:Alfa]] [[ast:Alpha]] [[ca:Alfa]] [[da:Alfa (bogstav)]] [[de:Alpha]] [[el:Άλφα]] [[es:Α]] [[fr:Alpha]] [[ga:Alfa]] [[gl:Alfa (letra)]] [[ko:Α]] [[id:Alpha]] [[he:אלפא]] [[la:Alpha]] [[nl:Alfa (letter)]] [[nds:Alpha]] [[ja:Α]] [[no:Alfa]] [[pl:Alfa]] [[pt:Α]] [[ru:Альфа (буква)]] [[sk:Alfa (písmeno)]] [[sl:Alfa]] [[sr:Алфа]] [[fi:Alfa]] [[sv:Alfa]] [[zh:Α]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title
t it in his book ''[[Anti-Semite and Jew]]: An Exploration of the Etiology of Hate''. As the title suggests, the book relates the way Jews receive a world marred with [[anti-Semitism]]. That Jewish life in such a world, Sartre argues, is similar to the way Joseph K experienced it, and the way Kafka may have experienced it as well. According to Sartre:</p> <p>"This is perhaps one of the meanings of ''The Trial'' by the Jew, Kafka. Like the hero of that novel, the Jew is engaged in a long trial. He does not know his judges, scarcely even his lawyers; he does not know what he is charged with, yet he knows that he is considered guilty; judgment is continually put off -- for a week, two weeks -- he takes advantage of these delays to improve his position in a thousand ways, but every precaution taken at random pushes him a little deeper into guilt. His external situation may appear brilliant, but the interminable trial invisibly wastes him away, and it happens sometimes, as in the novel, that men seize him, carry him off on the pretense that he has lost his case, and murder him in some vague area of the suburbs." [88, Schocken Books].</p> ==Comparisons with other works== {{spoiler}} The novel with the most obvious resemblance to ''The Trial'' is [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' ([[1949]]). Both tales describe the struggle of an ordinary man against a faceless [[bureaucracy]]. Each tale also concludes with, in one way or another, the protagonist accepting (or simply feeling resigned to) his fate. ==Relations between ''The Trial'' and ''Crime and Punishment''== In [[1983]] Guillermo Sánchez Trujillo, professor of UNAULA ("Universidad Autónoma Latinoamericana" of [[Medellín]], [[Colombia]]), decided to retake the project he had in his youth to find out "where did Kafka get his stories". He dedicated twenty years of his life to the investigations, and finally in [[2002]] he published the final results in ''Crimen y castigo de Franz Kafka, anatomía de El proceso'' ("Crime and Punishment by Franz Kafka, anatomy of The Trial"), edited by UNAULA. In his investigation, Sánchez discovered that Kafka had used ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' and other works by [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], as [[palimpsest]] to write his works, including ''The Trial''. By comparing word-to-word ''Crime and Punishment'' and ''The Trial'', Sanchez discovered that Kafka used the first three chapters of the second part of Crime and Punishment (in the order 3, 2, 1), to write and organize ''The Trial''. With this, Sánchez also discovered the order of the chapters of the novel, which has been a mystery due to the cryptic way in which Kafka stored the chapters. Kafka bequeathed his works to his friend [[Max Brod]]. After Kafka died, Brod started to organize and edit Kafka's works to publish them, but with ''The Trial'' Brod couldn't decipher Kafka's system, so he organized the chapters in an intuitive and arbitrary way. The new order found in the study reestablishes the logic of the plot and fits on it the chapters that were relegated to the appendix by Brod and the editors. But the study also finds that the work ''[[A Dream]]'', published as an independent short story, was an essential chapter of the novel. The investigation also confirmed the [[autobiography\|autobiographic]] contents that Kafka put in the novel, and the identity of the real persons and the historical events that inspired some of the characters and events of the novel. A critic edition of the novel with the new order was published in [[2005]] by UNAULA, containing an introduction detailing the most important points of the investigation and its results and also, side notes explaining the creative process of the author and the use of the palimpsest of Dostoevsky's works. The following is the new order of the chapters: # The Arrest # Conversation with Frau Grubach then Fräulein Bürstner # B.’s Friend # Initial Inquiry # In the Empty Courtroom - The Student - The Offices # The Flogger # To Elsa # Public Prosecutor # The Uncle - Leni # Lawyer- Manufacturer - Painter # In The Cathedral # Block, the Merchant - Dismissal of the Lawyer # Struggle with the Vice President # The Building # A Dream # Journey to His Mother # The End More info see: {{es icon}} [http://www.kafka.org/index.php?id=184,198,0,0,1,0] ==Published editions== [[Penguin books\|Penguin]] Twentieth-Century Classics, ISBN 0-14-018113-X ==External links== Freely available at [http://www.digbib.org/Franz_Kafka_1883/Der_Prozess DigBib.Org] (German version, text, pdf, html) [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=240&format=movie&theme=guide ''The Trial'' movie at liketelevision.com] [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108388/ ''The Trial''] 1993 Version at [[IMDB]] [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0057427/ ''The Trial''] 1962 Welles Version at [[IMDB]] {{es icon}} [http://lau.unaula.edu.co/ElProcesoGS/WebForm1.aspx Critic Edition in Spanish in UNAULA] *{{es icon}} [http://www.elprocesodekafka.com Critic Edition in Spanish] [[Category:1925 books\|Trial, The]] [[Category:Dystopian novels\|Trial, The]] [[Category:Unfinished books\|Trial, The]] [[cs:Proces (román)]] [[da:Processen]] [[de:Der Process]] [[es:El proceso]] [[fr:Le Procès]] [[it:Il processo (romanzo)]] [[nl:Het Proces]] [[pl:Proces (powieść)]] [[pt:O Processo]] [[sr:Процес (роман)]] [[sv:Processen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>The Metamorphosis</title> <id>10862</id> <revision> <id>41694446</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:45:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.151.100.61</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:FKV.jpg\|thumb\|The Metamorphosis - First edition 1915<br>Illustration: Ottomar Starke]] '''''The Metamorphosis''''' (in [[German language\|German]], '''''Die Verwandlung''''') is a [[novella]] by [[Franz Kafka]], first published in [[1915]], and arguably the most famous of his works along with the longer works ''[[The Trial]]'' and ''[[The Castle]]''. The story begins with a traveling salesman, [[Gregor Samsa]], waking to find himself transformed into a giant insect-like creature (see [[#Lost in translation\|Lost in translation]], below). It is widely regarded as a highly symbolic tale with various [[#Interpretations\|interpretations]]. ==The storyline== {{spoiler}} The story is sometimes comic &ndash; for example, near the start, Gregor's main concern is that, despite what has happened, he must nevertheless get to work on time. Gregor is unable to speak in his insect form, and never successfully communicates with his family at all after his physical appearance is revealed to them. However, he seems to retain his thinking faculties, which is unknown to his family. Curiously, his condition does not arouse a sense of surprise or incredulity in the eyes of his family, who merely despise it as an indication of impending burden. However, most of the story revolves around his interactions with his family, with whom he lives, and their shock, denial, and repulsion whenever he reveals his physical condition. Horrified by his appearance, they take to shutting Gregor into his room, but do try to care for him by providing him food and water. The sister takes charge of caring for Gregor, initially working hard to make him comfortable. Nevertheless, they seem to want as little to do with him as possible. The sister and mother shrink back whenever he reveals himself, and Gregor's father pelts him with apples when he emerges from his room one day. One of the apples becomes imbedded in his back, causing an infection. Time passes as, confined to his room, Gregor's only activities are looking out of his window, and crawling up the walls and over the ceiling. Financial hardship befalls the family, and the sister's caretaking deteriorates. Devoid of human contact, one day Gregor emerges to the sound of his sister's violin in the hopes to get his much-loved sister to join him in his room and play her violin for him. But her rejection of him is total, when she says to the family: :''We must try to get rid of it. We've done everything humanly possible to take care of it and to put up with it, no one can blame us in the least.'' The sister then determines with finality that the insect is no longer Gregor, since Gregor would have left them out of love and taken their burden away. Gregor returns to his room, lies down, and dies from neglect and infection caused by the festering apple his father threw at him months before. The point of view shifts as, upon discovery of his corpse, the family feel an enormous burden has been lifted from them, and start planning for the future again. Fantastically, the family suddenly discovers that they aren't doing bad at all, both socially and financially, and the brief process of forgetting Gregor and shutting him from their lives is quickly accomplished. ==Interpretation== As with all of Kafka's works, ''The Metamorphosis'' is open to a wide range of interpretations; in fact, [[Stanley Corngold]]'s book, ''The Commentator's Despair'', lists over 130 interpretations. Most obvious are themes relating to society's treatment of those who are different. Other themes include the loneliness of being cut off and the desperate and unrealistic hopes that such isolation brings. Some also feel the book deals with the absurdity of human existence, leading some literary critics to associate it with [[existentialism]]. <!-- weasel term? feel free to remove preceding sentence moved down from intro. - AySz88, 01:53, 3 October 2005 (UTC) --> It is also possible to apply [[Freud]]ian and other forms of [[literary criticism]] to the book. ==Lost in translation== The [[opening line]] of the book is famous in English: :''As Gregor Samsa woke one morning from uneasy dreams he found himself transformed in his bed into a monstrous insect.'' However,
s will continue to be based in Germany. \|- \| [[Gibraltar]] \|\| [[1704]]- \|\| One infantry battalion \|\| British Army garrison is provided by an indigenous regiment, the [[Royal Gibraltar Regiment]], which has been on the Army regular establishment since the last British regiment left in [[1991]]. \|- \|[[Iraq]] \|\| [[2003]]- \|\| 8,500 troops\|\| As part of [[Operation Telic]] (Gulf War 2), the British Army participated in the invasion of Iraq. Following the decision for continued security operations, the UK commands the Multi-National Division (South-East) with a headquarters unit, National Support Element, and a combat brigade (at the moment 4 Armoured Brigade), along with troops from Italy, Norway, Romania, Denmark, the Netherlands, Czech Republic, Portugal, and Lithuania. A large number of [[Territorial Army]] soldiers have been used for a variety of tasks, both as individuals serving and as formed units. \|- \| [[Kenya]] \|\| \|\| British Army Training and Liaison Staff Kenya\|\| The Army has a training centre in Kenya, under agreement with the Kenyan government. It provides training facilities for three infantry battalions per year \|- \| [[Kosovo]] \|\| [[1999]] \|\| 3,500 troops\|\| After the [[Kosovo War]] in 1999, the British Army led the NATO deployment in Kosovo to restore peace to the province. Since then, the UK has withdrawn some forces, as other nations provided troops.. \|- \| Rest of [[Middle East]] \|\| [[1990]] \|\| 3,700 troops \|\|Since the [[Gulf War]] 1 in 1991, the UK has had a considerable military presence in the Middle East. Besides Iraq, there are also an additional 3,500 troops in [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Kuwait]], as well as regular training missions in [[Oman]]. \|- \| [[Sierra Leone]] \|\| [[1999]] \|\| around 100\|\| The British Army were deployed to Sierra Leone, a former British colony, in 1999 to aid the government in quelling violent uprisings by militiamen, under [[United Nations]] resolutions. Troops remain in the region to provide military support and training to the Sierra Leone government. \|- \|[[Northern Ireland]] \|\|[[1969]]- \|\| 11,000 troops \|\|First deployed after communal violence broke out between [[Roman Catholic Church\|Catholic]]s and [[Protestant]]s. They were initially welcomed by the Catholic community as a protection against Protestant mobs but most eventually came to oppose their continued presence, following internment without trial (that was used entirely on Catholics) and the events of [[Bloody Sunday (1972)\|Bloody Sunday]], when members of the [[The Parachute Regiment\|Parachute Regiment]] shot dead 14 unarmed civil rights marchers. The Army became involved in a conflict with the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army\|PIRA]], smaller republican splinter groups and loyalist terrorists. 763 soldiers have been killed in Northern Ireland since 1969, mostly in [[Belfast]] and [[Armagh]]. Counter-terrorist experience in Northern Ireland later proved useful in Iraq. \|} ==Equipment== ===Firearms=== [[P226]] [[Sig-Sauer]] Pistol [[Browning L9A1]] Pistol [[Heckler & Koch MP5\|MP5 Sub-Machine Gun]] [[SA80\|L85 A1 Carbine]] [[SA80#L85A2\|L85 A2 Assault Rifle]] [[SA80#L86_Light_Support_Weapon\|L86 Light Support Weapon]] [[L96\|L96 Sniper Rifle]] [[Accuracy_International_AWM\|L115A1 LRR Sniper Rifle]] [[L7 (machine gun)\|L7 GPMG "Gimpy"]] [[British 2-inch mortar\|2-inch Medium Mortar]] [[British 81 mm mortar\|L16 81mm Mortar]] [[MILAN\|MILAN Anti Tank Weapon]] [[LAW_80\|LAW Anti Tank Weapon]] [[FGM-148 Javelin\|FGM-148 Javelin Anti Tank Weapon]] ===Armour=== [[Image:FV 432-series armored personnel carrier.jpg\|thumb\|FV 432 in 1991]] [[Challenger 2]] - [[Main Battle Tank]] [[FV101 Scorpion]] - Armoured Combat Reconnaissance Vehicle [[FV107 Scimitar]] - Armoured Combat Reconnaissance Vehicle [[Sabre (tank)\|Alvis Sabre]] - Armoured Combat Reconnaissance Vehicle [[Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle\|Alvis Warrior]] - [[Infantry Fighting Vehicle]] [[Saxon (vehicle)\|Alvis Saxon]] - [[Armoured Personnel Carrier]] [[FV103 Spartan]] - Armoured Personnel Carrier [[FV102 Striker]] - [[Anti-tank guided missile]] Carrier [[GKN plc\|GKN]] [[FV 432 AFV\|FV 432]] - Armoured Personnel Carrier [[FV106 Samson]] - Armoured Mineclearer [[FV109 Workhorse]] - Armoured Personnel Carrier [[FV104 Samaritan\|Alvis Samaritan]] - Armoured Ambulance [[FV105 Sultan]] - Command and Control Vehicle [[Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)\|Alvis Streaker]] - High Mobility Carrier ===Logistics=== [[Land Rover]] Truck Utility Light (TUL) Land Rover Truck Utility Medium (TUM) Land Rover Battlefield Ambulance (BFA) Alvis Supacat All Terrain Mobile Platform (ATMP) Hagglund BV206 [[Harley Davidson]] MT350E Motorcycle [[Honda]] R250 Motorcycle [[Oshkosh]] Heavy Equipment Transporter (HET) [[Bedford Vehicles\|Bedford]] 14 tonner [[Leyland Trucks\|Leyland]] 4 tonner Bedford 8 tonner [[Pinzgauer High Mobility All-Terrain Vehicle\|Pinzgauer]] 716M ===Artillery=== [[M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System\|MLRS]] [[BAE Systems Land Systems]] [[L118 Light Gun]] [[AS90]] [[FH-70\|L121]] [[M110 howitzer\|M110A2]] [[MBDA]] [[Rapier missile\|Rapier Missile System]] [[Starstreak\|Starstreak High Velocity Missile]] ===Aircraft=== [[Westland Lynx]] Helicopter [[Westland Gazelle]] Helicopter [[Westland WAH-64 Apache]] Helicopter [[Bell 212]] [[Britten-Norman Islander]] ===Landing Craft=== Alvis Mk 5 Assault Boat Vickers Rigid Raider Vickers Ramped Landing Craft Logistic Vickers Combat Support Boat Vickers Landing Craft Vehicle Vickers Mexeflote ==Formation and structure== '' See main article: [[Structure of the British Army]]'' The structure of the British Army is complex, due to the different [[British Army\|origins]] of its various constituent parts. In terms of the nature of its servicemen, it is divided into the '''Regular Army''' (full-time professional soldiers) and the '''[[Territorial Army]]''' (part-time paid soldiers). In terms of its military structure it is divided into [[corps]] (administrative groupings by common function), and [[division (military)\|divisions]] and [[brigade]]s (large [[formation]]s, somewhat fluid in nature). The [[regiment]] is in some respects the most important unit of the British Army. It is the largest "permanent" tactical unit in most corps, although it is only an administrative and ceremonial grouping of [[battalion]]s in the [[infantry]]. Typically, a regiment or battalion consists of around 700 soldiers and is commanded by a [[Lieutenant Colonel]]. Many infantry regiments today consist of only one regular battalion, although many also contain another Territorial Army battalion. [[Brigade]] [[battalion]] or [[regiment]] commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel * [[Company (military unit)\|Company]] (or [[Squadron]]) of about 100 soldiers, commanded by a [[Major]]. * [[Platoon]] (or [[Troop]]) of about 30 soldiers, commanded by a [[Lieutenant]] ** [[Section (military unit)\|Section]] of about 8 soldiers, commanded by a [[Corporal]] Sections can be subdivided into two fire teams for tactical purposes. ===Battlegroups=== The main tactical formation in the British Army is the [[battlegroup (army)\|battlegroup]]. This is a mixed formation of armour, infantry, artillery, engineers and support units, and is structured according to whatever task it is called on to perform ; it is formed around the core of either an armoured regiment or infantry battalion, and has other units added or removed from it as necessary. A battlegroup will typically consist of between 600 and 700 soldiers under the command of a Lt. Colonel. ===Recruitment=== [[Image:ArmyCareersOxford20051022 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg\|thumb\|right\|A [[British armed forces]] - including British Army - [[recruitment]] centre in [[Oxford]].]] The Army mainly recruits within the United Kingdom, and normally has a recruitment target of around 25,000 soldiers per year. Low unemployment in Britain has resulted in the Army having difficulty in meeting its target, and in the early years of the 21st century there has been a marked increase in the number of recruits from other (mostly [[Commonwealth of Nations\|Commonwealth]]) countries, who as of mid-2004 comprised approximately 7.5% of the Army's total strength. In July 2004 there were 5,620 foreign soldiers from 42 countries in the Army (not counting over 3,000 [[Nepal]]ese [[Gurkha]]s). After Nepal, the nation with most citizens in the British Army is [[Fiji]], with 1,895, followed by [[Jamaica]] with 960; soldiers also come from more prosperous countries such as [[Australia]] and [[South Africa]]. In 2003, nearly 10,000 teenagers joined the army, including more than 3000 16-year-olds.[http://www.newstatesman.com/200412060006.htm] ==Oath of Allegiance== All soldiers must take an oath of allegiance on joining the Army: this is known as "attestation". Those who believe in God use the following words: :''I swear by Almighty God that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, her heirs and successors and that I will as in duty bound honestly and faithfully defend Her Majesty, her heirs and successors in person, crown and dignity against all enemies and will observe and obey all orders of Her Majesty, her heirs and successors and of the generals and officers set over me.'' [http://www.army.mod.uk/servingsoldier/usefulinfo/valuesgeneral/adp5milcov/ss_hrpers_values_adp5_3_w.html#selfless] Others replace the words "swear by Almighty God" with "solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm". ==Flags and ensigns== [[image:Army_Flag.gif\|thumb\|250px\|The non-ceremonial flag of the British Army. Sometimes the word "Army" in gold letters appears below the badge.]] The British Army does not have its own specific ensign, unlike the Royal Navy, which uses the [[White Ensign]], and the RAF, which uses the [[Royal Air Force Ensign]]. Instead, the Army has different flags and ensigns, for the e
der is still under investigation, and symptoms may differ significantly from person to person. Typically, symptoms include periods of euphoria, which alternate with periods of profound depression. In most cases, periods of mood stability complement these periods of instability. ==Diagnostic criteria== The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\|DSM-IV-TR]] details two general profiles of bipolar disorder, Bipolar I and Bipolar II. Bipolar I is characterized by alternating episodes of full-blown mania and depression, while Bipolar II, the less severe and more common type of the disorder, is characterized by episodes of [[hypomania]] and depression. ===Criteria for a ''manic episode'' (DSM-IV-TR)=== # A distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting at least 1 week (or any duration if hospitalization is necessary). # During the period of mood disturbance, three (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted (four if the mood is only irritable) and have been present to a significant degree: ## inflated self-esteem or grandiosity ## decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after only 3 hours of sleep) ## more talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking ## flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing ## distractibility (i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external stimuli) ## increase in goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or school, or [[sex]]ually) or psychomotor agitation ## excessive involvement in pleasurable activities that have a high potential for painful consequences (e.g., engaging in unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish business investments) # The symptoms do not meet criteria for a Mixed Episode. # The mood disturbance is sufficiently severe to cause marked impairment in occupational functioning or in usual social activities or relationships with others, or to necessitate hospitalization to prevent harm to self or others, or there are psychotic features. # The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, or other treatment) or a general medical condition (e.g., [[hyperthyroidism]]). ===Criteria for a ''major depressive episode'' (DSM-IV-TR)=== # Five (or more) of the following symptoms have been present during the same 2-week period and represent a change from previous functioning; at least one of the symptoms is either (1) or (2). ## depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as indicated by either subjective report (e.g., feels sad or empty) or observation made by others (e.g., appears tearful). Note: In children and adolescents, can be irritable mood. ## markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the day, nearly every day (as indicated by either subjective account or observation made by others) ## significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain (e.g., a change of more than 5% of body weight in a month), or decrease or increase in appetite nearly every day. Note: In children, consider failure to make expected weight gains. ## [[Insomnia]] or [[Hypersomnia]] nearly every day ## [[psychomotor agitation]] or [[psychomotor retardation\|retardation]] nearly every day (observable by others, not merely subjective feelings of restlessness or being slowed down) ## fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day ## feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate [[guilt]] (which may be delusional) nearly every day (not merely self-reproach or guilt about being sick) ## diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day (either by subjective account or as observed by others) ## recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide # The symptoms do not meet criteria for a Mixed Episode. # The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. # The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition (e.g., hypothyroidism). # The symptoms are not better accounted for by [[Bereavement]], i.e., after the loss of a loved one, the symptoms persist for longer than 2 months or are characterized by marked functional impairment, morbid preoccupation with worthlessness, suicidal ideation, psychotic symptoms, or psychomotor retardation. ===Criteria for a ''mixed episode''=== # The criteria are met both for a Manic Episode and for a Major Depressive Episode (except for duration) nearly every day during at least a 1-week period. # The mood disturbance is sufficiently severe to cause marked impairment in occupational functioning or in usual social activities or relationships with others, or to necessitate hospitalization to prevent harm to self or others, or there are psychotic features. # The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a illicit drugs, a medication, or other treatment) or a general medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism). ===Criteria for a ''hypomanic episode''=== # A distinct period of persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting throughout at least 4 days, that is clearly different from the usual non depressed mood. # During the period of mood disturbance, three (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted (four if the mood is only irritable) and have been present to a significant degree: ## inflated self-esteem or grandiosity ## decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after only 3 hours of sleep) ## more talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking ## flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing ## distractibility (i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external stimuli) ## increase in goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or school, or sexually) or psychomotor agitation ## excessive involvement in pleasurable activities that have a high potential for painful consequences (e.g., the person engages in unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish business investments) # The episode is associated with an unequivocal change in functioning that is uncharacteristic of the person when not symptomatic. # The disturbance in mood and the change in functioning are observable by others. # The episode is not severe enough to cause marked impairment in social or occupational functioning, or to necessitate hospitalization, and there are no psychotic features. # The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, or other treatment) or a general medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism). According to the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\|DSM-IV-TR]], a diagnosis of bipolar I disorder requires at least one manic or mixed episode, but may also include hypomanic or depressive episodes. A depressive episode is not required for a diagnosis of bipolar I disorder. A diagnosis of bipolar II disorder requires neither a manic nor mixed episode, but requires at least one hypomanic episode ''and'' one major depressive episode. A diagnosis of cyclothymic disorder requires the presence of numerous hypomanic episodes, intermingled with depressive episodes that do ''not'' meet the criteria for major depressive episodes. If an individual clearly seems to be suffering from some type of bipolar disorder but does not meet the criteria for one of the conditions laid out above, he or she receives a diagnosis of ''Bipolar, Not Otherwise Specified'' (NOS). ==Causes of Relapse of Symptoms and Behaviors to Avoid== A combination of medication and therapy is often used to somewhat '''suppress''' the symptoms of Bipolar disorder. Even when on medication, some people might still experience weaker episodes or have a complete manic or depressive episode. There are several factors that could cause someone to relapse into mania or depression: Failure to continue taking the appropriate dose of medication Under or over medicated or on the wrong medication. Generally, taking a lower dosage of a mood stabilizer will cause the patient to relapse into mania. Taking a lower dosage of an antidepressant can cause the patient to relapse into depression, while overdosing can cause the patient to experience mania. Overdosing on either medication can cause serious liver problems and possibly other health problems. During treatment, blood levels are often checked to ensure the appropriate concentrations of the drug(s). Taking other medications that affect brain activity, or using recreational drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, or heroin. For Bipolar patients, mind-altering drugs can cause severe damage. Not getting enough sleep can cause the patient to relapse into mania. It is also important that patients follow a consistent sleep schedule that includes 7-8 hours each night. Avoid caffeine. Excessive amounts can cause relapses into mania. Stress must also be managed appropriately. When not on medication, excessive stress can cause the patient to relapse into mania or depression. Medication raises the stress threshold somewhat, but too much stress can still cause relapses. Also, patients should not consume excessive amounts of alcohol because that can cause liver damage. ==Suicide Warning== Patients with Bipolar disorder sometimes become [[suicidal]]. Suicidal symtoms include: talking about feeling suicidal or wanting to die feeling hopeless, that nothing will ever change or get better feeling helpless, that nothing one does makes any difference feeling like a burden to family and friends abusing alcohol or drugs putting affairs in order (e.g., organizing finances or giving away possessions to prepare for o
ined was due to the various important duties gradually entrusted to it, and especially to its possessing the ''regimen morum'', or general control over the conduct and the morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this power, they were regulated solely by their own views of duty, and were not responsible to any other power in the state (Dionys. in Mai, Nova Coll. vol. ii p516; Livy iv.24, xxix.37; Valerius Maximus vii.2 §6). The censors possessed of course the "curule seat" (''sella curulis'') (Livy xl.45), but there is some doubt with respect to their official dress. From a well-known passage of Polybius (vi.53) describing the use of the ''imagines'' at funerals, we may conclude that a consul or praetor wore the purple-bordered ''[[toga praetexta]]'', one who triumphed the embroidered ''[[toga picta]]'', and the censor a purple toga peculiar to him; but other writers speak of their official dress as the same as that of the other higher magistrates (Zonar. vii.19; Athen. xiv. p660c). The funeral of a censor was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a "censorial funeral" (''funus censorium'') was voted even to the emperors ([[Tacitus]] [[Annales]] iv.15, xiii.2). ==Abolition== The censorship continued in existence for 421 years, from [[443 BC]] to [[22 BC]]; but during this period many ''lustra'' passed by without any censor being chosen at all. According to one statement, the office was abolished by [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla\|Sulla]] (Schol. Gronov. ''ad Cic. Div. in Caecil.'' 3, p384, ed. [[Johann Caspar Orelli]]). Although the authority on which this statement rests is not of much weight, the fact itself is probable, since there was no census during the two ''lustra'' which elapsed from Sulla's dictatorship of [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus\|Pompey]] ([[82 BC\|82]]&ndash;[[70 BC]]), and any strict "imposition of morals" would have been found very inconvenient to the aristocracy in whose favour Sulla legislated. If the censorship was done away with by Sulla, it was at any rate restored in the consulship of Pompey and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus\|Crassus]]. Its power was limited by one of the laws of the tribune [[Clodius]] ([[58 BC]]), which prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding before the censors in expelling a person from the [[Roman Senate]], and required that the censors be in agreement to exact this punishment ([[Cassius Dio]] xxxviii.13; Cicero ''[[pro Sestio]]'' 25, ''de Prov. Cons.'' 15). This law, however, was repealed in the third consulship of Pompey (52 BC), on the proposition of his colleague [[Caecilius Metellus Scipio]] (Cassius Dio xl.57), but the censorship never recovered its former power and influence. During the [[Roman civil wars\|civil wars]] which followed soon afterwards, no censors were elected; it was only after a long interval that they were again appointed, namely in [[22 BC]], when [[Augustus]] caused [[Lucius Munatius Plancus]] and [[Paulus Aemilius Lepidus]] to fill the office ([[Suetonius]] ''[[Life of Augustus]]'' 37, ''[[Life of Claudius]]'' 16; Cassius Dio liv.2). This was the last time that such magistrates were appointed; the emperors in future discharged the duties of their office under the name of [[Praefectura Morum]] ("prefect of the morals"). Some of the emperors sometimes took the name of censor when they actually held a census of the Roman people, as was the case with [[Claudius]], who appointed the elder [[Vitellius]] as his colleague (Suetonius ''[[Life of Claudius]]'' 16; Tacitus Annales xii.4, [[Histories (Tacitus)\|Historia]] i.9), and with [[Vespasian]], who likewise had a colleague in his son Titus (Suet. Vesp. 8, Tit. 6). Domitian assumed the title of "perpetual censor" (''censor perpetuus'') (Cassius Dio liii.18), but this example was not imitated by succeeding emperors. In the reign of [[Decius]] we find the elder [[Valerian]] nominated to the censorship (Symmach. ''Ep.'' iv.29, v.9), but this design was never carried into effect. ==Duties== The duties of the censors may be divided into three classes, all of which were closely connected with one another: #The [[Roman census\|Census]], or register of the citizens and of their property, in which were included the reading of the [[Roman Senate\|Senate]]'s lists (''lectio senatus'') and the recognition of who qualified for [[Equites\|equestrian]] rank (''recognitio equitum''); #The Regimen Morum, or keeping of the public morals; and #The administration of the finances of the state, under which were classed the [[superintendence]] of the public buildings and the erection of all new public works. The original business of the censorship was at first of a much more limited kind, and was restricted almost entirely to taking the census (Livy iv.8), but the possession of this power gradually brought with it fresh power and new duties, as is shown below. A general view of these duties is briefly expressed in the following passage of Cicero (''de Leg.'' ii.3): "Censores populi aevitates, soboles, familias pecuniasque censento: urbis templa, vias, aquas, aerarium, vectigalia tuento: populique partes in tribus distribunto: exin pecunias, aevitates, ordines patiunto: equitum, peditumque prolem describunto: caelibes esse prohibento: mores populi regunto: probrum in senatu ne relinquunto." <!-- Needs translation! --> ===Census=== The Census, the first and principal duty of the censors, was always held in the [[Campus Martius]], and from the year [[435 BC]] in a special building called [[Villa Publica]], which was erected for that purpose by the second pair of censors, [[Gaius Furius Pacilus]] and [[Marcus Geganius Macerinus]] (Livy iv.22; [[Varro]] ''[[de Re Rustica]]'' iii.2). An account of the formalities with which the census was opened is given in a fragment of the [[Tabulae Censoriae]], preserved by Varro (''L.L.'' vi.86, 87, ed. Müller). After the [[auspex\|auspices]] had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up separately (Dionys. v.75), and the names in each tribe were probably taken according to the lists previously made out by the tribunes of the tribes. Every [[paterfamilias]] had to appear in person before the censors, who were seated in their [[curule chair]]s, and those names were taken first which were considered to be of good omen, such as [[Valerius]], [[Salvius]], [[Statorius]], etc. (Festus, ''s.v. Lacus Lucrinus''; Schol. Bob. ''ad Cic. pro Scaur.'' p374, ed. Orelli). The census was conducted according to the judgment of the censor (''ad arbitrium censoris''), but the censors laid down certain rules (Livy iv.8, xxix.15), sometimes called ''leges censui censendo'' (Liv. xliii.14), in which mention was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census, and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these laws, each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, and of his property upon oath, "declared from the heart" ([[Dionysius]] iv.15; Livy xliii.14). First he had to give his full name ([[praenomen]], [[nomen]], and [[cognomen]]) and that of his father, or if he were a [[Libertus\|freedman]] that of his [[Patronus\|patron]], and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked, "You, declaring from your heart, do you have a wife?" and if married he had to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and ages of his children, if any (Gell. iv.20; Cicero ''[[de Oratore]]'' ii.64; Tab. Heracl. 142 (68); ''[[Digesta Iustiniani]]'' 50 tit.15 s3). Single women and orphans were represented by their guardians; their names were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the sum total of heads (cf. Livy iii.3, ''[[Periochae]]'' 59). After a citizen had stated his name, age, family, etc., he then had to give an account of all his property, so far as it was subject to the census. Only such things were liable to the census (''censui censendo'') as were property according to the [[Quiritarian]] law. At first each citizen appears to have merely given the value of his whole property in general without entering into details (Dionysius iv.15; Cicero ''[[de Legibus]]'' iii.3; Festus, s.v. ''Censores''); but it soon became the practice to give a minute specification of each article, as well as the general value of the whole (cf. Cicero ''pro Flacc.'' 32; Gell. vii.11; Plutarch ''[[Life of Cato the Elder]]'' 18). Land formed the most important article in the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen<!-- ??? -->, was excluded as not being [[Quiritarian]] property. If we may judge from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law. He had to state the name and situation of the land, and to specify what portion of it was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and to the land thus minutely described he had to affix his own valuation (''Digesta Iustiniani'' 50 tit.15 s4). [[Slave]]s and cattle formed the next most important item. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages (Livy xxxix.44; Plutarch ''Life of Cato the Elder'' 18). It has been doubted by some modern writers whether the censors possessed the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the citizens themselves had put, but when we recollect the discretionary nature of the censors' powers, and the necessity almost that existed, in order to prevent fraud, that the right of making a surcharge should be vested in somebody's hands, we can hardly doubt that the censors had this power. It is moreover expressly stated that on one occasion they made an extravagant surcharge on articles of luxury (Livy xxxix.44; Plutarch ''Life o
fortune tellers, the Philistines put the ark, and additional offerings, on a cow driven cart, and send it off, driverless, it getting to [[Beth Shemesh]]. The locals celebrate, and ask the people of [[Kiriath-jearim]] to collect the ark, which they do, taking it to the house of [[Abinadab]]. '''The [[battle of Ebenezer]]''' (1 Samuel 7:3-14). The Philistines attack the Israelites who have gathered at Mizpah. Samuel appeals to Yahweh, and so the Philistines are decisively beaten. Samuel sets up a stone at Ebenezer in memory. The Israelites then attack Ekron and Gath, freeing the people, and make peace with the Amorites. ;The period of Saul's life before he meets David involves: '''The [[Saul's appointment\|appointment of Saul]]''' (1 Samuel 8:1-11:15) - In Samuel's old age, he appoints his sons as Judges, but they don't follow his example, so the people clamour for a king. God begrudgingly acceeds and Samuel gives the people a list of regulations about the king. Meanwhile, Saul, who is handsome, is searching for the donkeys of his family and when his search takes him to [[Zuph]], he seeks out the wise man who lives there, on the advice of his servant and some girls. Samuel comes toward Saul as he enters the town, and realises that Saul is the man that God has chosen to be king, so he is hospitable to him. The next day, Samuel anoints him, and gives three prophecies of events on Saul's journey home. The third prophecy, that Samuel will meet a band of prophets preceded by musical instruments, comes true, leading to the phrase ''Is Saul among the Prophets'' (cf. 1 Samuel 19:24). After calling the people together at Mizpah, Samuel whittles them down by lot to Saul, and announces that he is king. Saul tries to hide but is much taller than everyone else. Some people criticise the decision. '''The story of [[Nahash]]''' (1 Samuel 11:1-11) - Nahash, an [[Ammonite]], lays siege to [[Jabesh-gilead]], so its people request a treaty, but Nahash is harsh and requires that each person must have their right eye gouged out. The people consequently stall for time, while sending messengers out to get help. After hearing of this, Saul orders the people of Israel to join him in an attack on Nahash, and threatens them with violence if they do not. Saul consequently gathers an army and attacks that of Nahash, obliterating it. The people take this as evidence of Saul's ability to lead, and so consequently they are told by Samuel to appoint him king, which they do. '''[[Saul's rejection]]''' (1 Samuel 12:1-13:15, and 15:1-35) - Samuel gives a speech reminding the Israelites not to fall into heathenism like their previous generations have done. The Hebrews/Jonathan (depending on the text - [[Masoretic text\|Masoretic]] has ''Jonathan'', [[Septuagint]] has ''Hebrews'') overcome the Philistines in Gibeah. Saul sounds the trumpet to tell all Israel that he (Saul) has overcome the Philistines there. The Philistines assemble for battle, frightening the Israelites, but, in accordance with Samuel's instructions, Saul waits seven days for Samuel to arrive, before giving up his wait and making a sacrifice. Samuel turns up and castigates Saul for not waiting, telling him that as a result his kingdom will not last. Saul, successful and brave, defeats Amalek. Samuel orders Saul to exterminate [[Amalek]], but although Saul subsequently slaughters the Amalekites, he doesn't slaughter the animals, and captures the king, [[Agag]], alive. Saul also erects a ''trophy'' at Carmel in his own honour. Samuel berates him for not carrying out the mass extermination completely, so Saul repents and begs Samuel to go with him. Samuel refuses, and leaves, but Saul grabs at him, tearing part of Samuel's mantle, for which Samuel says that part of Saul's kingdom will be torn off and given to another. Samuel kills Agag himself, by hacking him into pieces (''wa-yeshassef''). '''The [[Battle of Michmash]]''' (1 Samuel 13:16-14:46) - While Saul and his son occupy Geba, the philistines raid the nearby land. Previously, the Philistines had ensured that there were no smiths in the land, causing the people of Israel to be devoid of weaponry, excepting Saul and Jonathan. Jonathan secretly heads to the Philistine outpost at [[Michmash]] with his armour bearer, first crossing a ravine, and manage between them to slaughter large numbers of Philistines who panic and scatter. Saul notices and eventually sends his army to help. The Hebrews were previously on the Philistine side (some translations add the words ''some of'', making this refer only to a sub group of Hebrews), but decide to join the forces of Israel. In a moment of foolishness, Saul curses anyone that eats anything before the evening, but Jonathan doesn't notice and consumes some honey he finds. This rapidly leads to others following suit, and ignoring Saul's curse. Saul builds an altar, insisting that it be used to sacrifice before the food is eaten, and condemns the whomever God decides is at fault, for violating his curse, to death. Saul uses [[Urim]] and [[Thummim]] to find out that God has pointed the finger at Jonathan, so reluctantly condemns him, but the army say they will revolt if Saul kills him, so he doesn't. ;The period of Saul's interaction with David involves: '''[[David's rise from obscurity]]''' (1 Samuel 16:1-17:58) - Samuel is told to go to [[Bethlehem]] by Yahweh, to find a replacement for Saul. Each of the sons of [[Jesse]] are rejected in turn, except [[David]], the youngest, whom Samuel is told to anoint. A demon is sent by Yahweh to torment Saul, so Saul's servants try to find a [[harpist]] to sooth his temper. David is known for his skill in the art and so is brought to court. The Philistines rally against Israel, and the, imposing, [[Goliath]] of [[Gath]] steps out and suggests that rather than fight a battle, the Israelites should just send a champion to fight him. David, who is bringing provisions to his brothers in Israel's army, speaks against Goliath to his brothers, and Saul overhears him. David persuades a reluctant Saul to let him challenge Goliath. David kills Goliath with a single stone from a [[sling shot]], and so the philistines flee. '''Details of [[David in Saul's court]]''' (1 Samuel 18:1-20:42) - [[Jonathan]] takes a shine to David, and since David succeeds in everything Saul tasks him with, women praise David as greater than Saul. To get rid of this perceived threat, Saul promises David the hand of his daughter, [[Merob]], in marriage if he becomes Saul's champion, but Merob is married off to someone else before David accepts. Saul notices that [[Michal]], his other daughter, is in love with David, so, in order to send him on to his death, offers her to him in exchange for 200 foreskins of the Philistines, but David successfully kills 200 Philistines, so weds Michal. Saul talks to Jonathan about his plans to kill David, but owing to [[David and Jonathan\|Jonathan's relationship with David]], Jonathan disuades Saul and informs David. While David is in Saul's court, Saul throws a spear at David, but misses. Saul then sends guards to David's house, but Michal makes David escape, and places a statue in the bed and pretends to the guards that it is him. On discovering David's location, Saul sends out successive guards, but they all meet a group of prophets and join them instead, as does Saul when he eventually decides to go himself, hence the phrase ''Is Saul among the prophets?'' (c.f. 1 Samuel 10). David then meets Jonathan and asks him to secretly find out Saul's intentions, but Saul tells Jonathan that he knows that Jonathan is David's ''companion'', and that he intends to kill David. Jonathan is so hurt that he stops eating, and then later goes off to tell David. '''The story of [[Ahimelech]]''' (1 Samuel 21:2-9, and 22:6-23) David flees to Ahimelech, priest of Nob, who only has holy bread. As David abstains from the company of women on such journeys, Ahimelech allows David to take the bread, and Goliath's sword which Ahimelech had been keeping. David then flees. Saul's chief henchman, Doeg, witnessed Ahimelech assisting David, so Saul has Doeg kill him, and all the people in Nob, though Ahimelech's son, Abiathar, escapes to tell David. '''[[Saul's pursuit of David]]''' (1 Samuel 22:1-5, and 23:1-28) David has fled to the cave of [[Adullam]], where he amasses a band of outlaws. David decides to leave his parents in the care of the king of Moab, where the prophet, Gad, tells him to flee, so David moves to the forest of Hereth. The people of Keilah are attacked by the Philistines so David rescues them, but Saul hears of it and sets out against him, so David flees. Jonathan briefly visits David at Horesh, and returns home. The people of Ziph tell Saul where David is, so Saul chases David into a gorge, but is forced to break off pursuit when the Philistines invade elsewhere and he must fight them. The gorge becomes known as [[Sela-hammahlekoth]] (''gorge of divisions'') '''[[David's reconciliation with Saul]]''' (1 Samuel 24:1-25:1a, and 26:1-27). David hides in the caves near Engedi, and Saul hears of this and pursues him. Saul enters the cave where David hides, and David sneaks up on him and cuts off the end of his mantle (coincidentally, Saul has also done this to Samuel, above). As Saul has been anointed, David regrets this, and forbids his men from harming Saul, and then steps out of the cave to show himself. David convinces Saul that he isn't a threat, and the two reconcile. The two depart from one another, and Samuel dies. Men from Ziph tell Saul that David is hiding at Hachilah, so goes to search for him. David, and Abishai, sneak into Saul's camp and steal Saul's spear. They then go a long way away and shout back what they have just done, and persuade Saul that David isn't a threat, the two consequently being reconciled. *'''The story of [[Abigail]]''' (1 Samuel 25:1b-43) - David tries to get hospitality from a man at [[Maon]], named [[Nabal]], who ow
mbers called [[UIN]], distributed in sequential order (though it is rumored there are gaps in the sequence). New users are now given a UIN of well over 300,000,000, and low numbers (six digits or fewer) have been auctioned on [[eBay]] by users who signed up in ICQ's early days. == History == ICQ was developed in 1996 by [[Mirabilis (company)\|Mirabilis]], the creators of the first fully functional internet-wide Instant messenger comprising presence, buddy list and rapid messaging was founded by four young Israelis: [[Yair Goldfinger]], [[Arik Vardi]], [[Sefi Vigiser]] and [[Amnon Amir]]. After AOL bought it, it was managed by [[Ariel Yarnitsky]] and Avi Shechter. [[America Online]] (AOL) acquired Mirabilis on [[June 8]], [[1998]] for $287 million in cash. On [[December 19]], [[2002]], [[AOL Time Warner]] announced that ICQ had been issued a [[United States]] [[patent]] for instant messaging. In [[June]] [[2004]] ICQ celebrated its 300 millionth [[Uploading and downloading\|download]] from [[download.com]] where it remained the most popular program for 7 consecutive years. ICQ 5, released on Monday, [[February 7]], [[2005]], was an upgrade on ICQ Lite - a divergence from the main ICQ program that has a big addition - Xtraz, which now offers games and features appealing to the younger users of the internet. ICQ Lite was originally an idea to offer the lighter users of instant messaging an alternative client which was a smaller download and less resource-hungry for the (then) relatively slow computers. Although innovative at the start, the general trend of ICQ updates has been towards [[bloatware]]. Users have by and large migrated to the competition: [[MSN Messenger]], [[Yahoo Messenger]], [[AIM]], [[Skype]], and [[Google Talk]]. == Other products == ICQ Pro came about since the emergence of ICQ Lite to differentiate between the two available clients. However, ever since AOL's involvement, development of ICQ Pro 2003 had effectively been left abandoned, to the disappointment of veteran users of ICQ. Spinoffs of ICQ included a corporate version for the workplace (named ICQ Groupware), and ICQ Surf, which displayed a list of other ICQ users who also happened to be surfing on the same website as you were. Both programs are no longer available to download. ==Clients== [[AOL]]'s [[OSCAR protocol\|OSCAR]] [[network protocol]] used by ICQ is [[proprietary]], but a number of people have created more or less compatible third-party clients, including: * [[Adium]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, Google Talk, and Jabber, for [[Mac OS X]] * [[Ayttm]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, and Jabber * [[centericq]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC and Jabber, text-based * [[Easy Message]] (http://www.easymessage.net/) - Small instant messenger (250kb), supports MSN, AOL, ICQ, and Yahoo. * [[Fire (instant messenger)\|Fire]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, and Jabber, for [[Mac OS X]] * [[Gaim]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Jabber, Gadu-Gadu, Google Talk, and SILC * [[GnomeICU]] (previously ''GtkICQ'') * [[Jabber]] ([http://www.jabber.com/ Official site]) / ([http://www.jabber.org/ More competing Jabber-powered clients]) [[Jimm]] (http://www.jimm.org/) ([[Java ME]] client, previously "Mobicq") * [[Kopete]] * [[Licq]] * [[mICQ]] - text-based * [[Miranda IM]] - plugin based, open source, supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Google Talk, Jabber, Gadu-Gadu, BNet, and others. For MS Windows only. * [[Proteus (instant messenger)\|Proteus]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, Yahoo Japan!, AIM, MSN, Jabber and iChat Rendezvous, for [[Mac OS X]] * [[stICQ]] - supports ICQ, for [[Symbian OS]] * [[Trillian (instant messenger)\|Trillian]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Google Talk, Jabber and others * [[QIP]] ([http://www.qip.ru/ Official site]) Quiet Internet Pager - ICQ only * [[Yeemp]] - supports ICQ, AIM, and Yeemp * [[YSM (ICQ)\|YSM]] - text-based * [[&RQ (ICQ)]] - Support ICQ only , available in Russian and English only. AOL has recently begun making its ICQ software more [[AOL Instant Messenger\|AIM]]-like by adding [[AOL Instant Messenger\|AIM]] [[Smilies]], as well as introducing cross AIM/ICQ communication. Users on ICQ are able to communicate with AIM users; however, such capability is in [[development stage\|beta]] stages. ==Films== A short film about ICQ was written in 2001 called ICQ and was written by Greg McLean, who later wrote [[Wolf Creek (film)\|Wolf Creek]]. The film was described by its writer as a mystery/drama, and it concerns a man who while surfing the ICQ network comes across a woman whose acquaintance he could well have done without. The relationship runs the gauntlet of intrigue through to the sinister. The short film took out the "Best Director" award in October 2001 at the [[International and Independent Film and Video festival]] in [[New York]]. On return to his home soil in [[Australia]], McLean's film was nominated for [[Best Sound Design]] (short film) for the prestigious AFI ([[Australian Film Institute]]) awards in 2002. ==See also== * [[List of instant messengers]] * [[Comparison of instant messengers]] * [[QQ]] - a separate Chinese instant messenger and network which had its previous name, '''OICQ''', in conflict with '''ICQ'''. * [[Yamigo]] - a service that allows ICQ chat via mobile phones over GPRS or other wireless data protocols ==External links== [http://www.icq.com The Official ICQ Website] [http://www.icq.com/legal/policy.html ICQ Use Policy - anything you post on icq belongs to icq] [http://company.icq.com/info/icqstory.html The History of ICQ] [http://mythunderbay.ezthemes.com/pcenhance/icq/main.phtml Free ICQ Skins] [http://www.cynet.ac.cy/general/IPv6presentations/P/Chown-Messaging/renater-messaging-04.pdf Unified Instant Messaging over IPv6]: A brief introduction on Instant Messaging and its products, followed by a description of some Peer-to-Peer systems and platforms. Then the IETF standards on Instant Messaging are presented. Finally, a framework for Agent-based Unified Instant Messaging over [[IPv6]] is proposed. [http://diamond-back.com/icqlies3.html The ICQ/AOL acquisition page] [[Icqz\|ICQz.Net Unofficial icq-related Forum]] [http://www.mirabiliz.com Internation ICQ Forum] *[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0298924/ ICQ movie (2001)] {{Time Warner}} [[Category:Mac OS instant messengers]] [[Category:Windows instant messengers]] [[Category:Instant messaging]] [[bg:ICQ]] [[cs:ICQ]] [[da:ICQ]] [[de:ICQ]] [[es:ICQ]] [[eo:ICQ]] [[fr:ICQ]] [[gl:ICQ]] [[ia:ICQ]] [[it:ICQ]] [[he:ICQ]] [[lt:ICQ]] [[nl:ICQ]] [[ja:ICQ]] [[no:ICQ]] [[pl:ICQ]] [[pt:ICQ]] [[ru:ICQ]] [[sk:ICQ]] [[sv:ICQ]] [[tr:ICQ]] [[uk:ICQ]] [[zh:ICQ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Impressionism</title> <id>15169</id> <revision> <id>42015212</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:50:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tachyon01</username> <id>344432</id> </contributor> <comment>Reverted edits made by 68.7.0.112 to last version by Etacar11</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4\|the art movement\|people who imitate famous figures\|Impressionist (entertainment)}} ---- [[image:impressionism_monet.jpg\|right\|Paintings by Monet]] '''Impressionism''' was a [[19th century]] [[art movement]] that began as a loose association of [[Paris]]-based [[artist]]s who began publicly [[art exhibition\|exhibiting]] their art in the [[1860s]]. The name of the movement is derived from [[Claude Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, Sunrise]] (Impression, soleil levant)''. Critic [[Louis Leroy]] inadvertently [[word coinage\|coined]] the term in a satiric review published in ''[[Le Charivari]]''. The influence of Impressionist thought spread beyond the art world, leading to [[Impressionist music]] and [[Impressionism (literature)\|Impressionist literature]]. Characteristics of impressionist painting include visible brushstrokes, light colors, open composition, emphasis on light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, and unusual visual angles. '''Impressionism''' also describes art done in this style, but outside of the late [[19th century]] time period. ==Overview== Radicals in their time, early impressionists broke the picture-making rules of academic painting. They began by painting driven by colours, rather than by line, drawing from the work of painters such as [[Eugene Delacroix]]. They also began from unique working methods, such as painting outside of the studio for subjects such as the [[still life]] and [[portrait]]. The techniques of impressionism gradually grew more specific to the movement, and encompassed what its adherents argued was a different way of seeing. They painted "[[en plein air]]" (outdoors) rather than in a studio as was the custom, capturing the momentary and transient aspects of sunlight. By the last years of the 19th century, the public came to believe that these artists had captured a fresh and original vision that was highly skilled, even if it did not meet with approval of the artistic establishment. The impressionists looked to beauty in candid poses and compositions, in the play of light and in a bright and varied use of colour. Impressionist paintings feature short, "broken" brush strokes of pure, untinted and unmixed colour. Compositions are simplified and innovative, and the emphasis is on overall effect rather than upon details. The brushstrokes increasingly became visible and part of the composition, as opposed to the then current technique of having an almost smooth surface of the canvas without visible brush strokes. Impressionism rose at the same time that other painters were also exploring methods of painting that moved away from the subjects, forms and norms that dominated the art market at that time, for example [[Edvard Munch]]. By placing the center of artistic creation as
ntury. It is the name used in the [[Book of Common Prayer]] and the [[King James Version of the Bible]], and is still used by those who prefer more traditional language, or whose religious vocabulary is largely derived from the King James Version — including many [[Anglicans]], conservative [[Pentecostal]] groups, the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], and various others. In [[1901]] the [[American Standard Version]] of the Bible translated the name as ''Holy Spirit'', as had the [[English Revised Version]] of 1881-1885 upon which it was based. Almost all modern English translations have followed suit, as the word ''[[ghost]]'' has lost its former meaning of the spirit or [[soul]] that is inside man, and has come to be identified almost exclusively with the concept of disembodied spirits, usually of the dead, which may "haunt" the living &mdash; an idea far from that intended by the King James translators. Some languages still use a word that overlaps both English words, such as the [[German language\|German]] ''Geist''. [[Image:Stpetersbasilicaholyspiritwindow.jpg\|thumb\|left\|The Holy Spirit depicted as a dove in the stained glass window behind the ''[[Cathedra\|Cathedra Petri]] in [[St Peter's Basilica]], [[Rome]].]] In the [[United Kingdom]], Religious Education teachers are told to avoid using "Holy Ghost" as it ''"suggests a trivial and spooky element to the third part in the Trinity"'' [http://education.guardian.co.uk/faithschools/story/0,13882,1457028,00.html]. ==Gifts and fruits of the Holy Spirit== Christians believe the "Fruits of the Spirit" are virtues engendered in an individual by the acceptance of the Spirit and His actions in one's life. They can be found in the [[New Testament]] (Gal 5:22 KJV): "But the fruit of the Spirit is [[love]], [[joy]], [[peace]], [[patience]], [[kindness]], [[Goodness and value theory\|goodness]], [[Trust\|faithfulness]], [[Politeness\|gentleness]], [and] [[Anger#Religious perspective on anger\|self-control]]." The Tradition of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], (''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', Section 1832), lists 12 Fruits of the Holy Spirit: "charity, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, generosity, gentleness, faithfulness, modesty, self-control, [and] chastity." Many Christians believe that these fruits of the Holy Spirit are enhanced over time by exposure to the [[written word of God]] and by the experience of leading a Christian life. They further believe that the Fruits of the Holy Spirit are products of the Gifts of the Holy Spirit: "wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord." ==The powers of the Holy Spirit== Some Christians claim the ability to tap into powers from the Holy Spirit, while others claim to be expressly granted powers by the [[deity]]. Claims of divine inspiration stemming from the Holy Spirit have been occurring throughout the history of Christianity (see [[Montanism]]). Many have claimed that the Holy Spirit has given them the power to: Cure diseases with prayer Speak a foreign language that he or she had not learned before Hear God speaking Expel evil spirits that are possessing a person Have a strong, personal connection to God Speak in a heavenly language unto God Prophesize Have visions Some Christians, especially of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], believe that early fathers were guided by the Holy Spirit, making their works and scriptures almost as canonical as the Testaments. Numerous other supernatural happenings have been linked to the Holy Spirit, and it is often claimed that the power of the Holy Spirit is manifested more in some than it is in others. The belief in powers stemming from the Holy Spirit is not totally unlike powers claimed to be granted by working with [[Qi\|Chi]]. As well as a listing of fruit of the Spirit, there are three listings of gifts of the Spirit. [[I Corinthians 12]]:8-10, [[Ephesians 4]]:11-12, and [[Romans 12]]:6-8. In each of these references it is made clear that these gifts are for the building up of the Body of Christ, or the Church. Eighteen gifts are mentioned in these three lists: wisdom, knowledge, teaching, leadership, shepherding, prophecy, exhortation, discernment, faith, evangelism, apostleship, miracles, tongues and interpretations of tongues. There is no absolute way of knowing whether this is a definitive list or not, St. Paul is aware of spiritual power that manifests itself in at least these ways and is teaching the church of their presence, role and importance. These are to be distinguished from talents which all of God's children enjoy and are for the believers in Jesus Christ - spiritual gifts to provide the power and abilities needed to do the work of Christ in the world. ==Depiction in art== The Holy Spirit is often [[Icon\|depicted]] as a [[dove]], based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when He was baptized in the [[Jordan River\|Jordan]]. In many paintings of the [[Annunciation]], the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove whispering into [[Mary, the mother of Jesus\|Mary]]'s ear. The dove also parallels to the one which brought the branch of olive tree to [[Noah]] after the cataclysm (also a symbol of peace), and the Rabbinic traditions according to which doves above the water signify the presence of God. The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the [[apostle]]s at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire. ==Non-Trinitarian Christian views== In the belief of many [[nontrinitarian]] religions — [[Unitarianism\|Unitarians]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], for instance — the Holy Spirit is God's spirit or God's active force, and not an actual person. In [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] the Holy Spirit is considered a third and individual member of the Godhead, a different being from the Father and the Son, having a body of spirit (whereas the Father and the Son are believed to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone). [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] point out [http://www.watchtower.org/library/ti/article_07.htm] that personification in the Bible occurs often, including terms such as ''wisdom'', ''sin and death'', ''water'' and ''blood'', and does not indicate that the subject is a person. The fact that the Holy Spirit is referred to impersonally several times is used to assert that references of this manner would not occur in such frequency if this was a divine member of God, just as it does not occur with the Father or the Son. Additionally, at Jesus' baptism in Matthew 3:16, Jesus received God's spirit at that time, which Witnesses say conflicts with the idea that the Son was always one with the Holy Spirit. Jesus relates in Mark 13:32 "But of that day and [that] hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." The Witnesses note that the Holy Spirit is conspicuously missing from this statement, just as it is missing from Stephen's vision in Acts 7:55, 56 where he sees only the Son and God in heaven. Also noted, in regards to the mentions of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit together (as in 2 Cor 13:14; 1 Cor 12:4-6; Matt 28:19), nontrinitarians bring out that none of these verses offer any evidence of the equality of nature or authority among them, just as the numerous simultaneous references to "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob" or "Peter, James and John", or "Tom, Dick and Harry" do not infer an equality in any manner. Alvan Lamson says in ''The Church of the First Three Centuries'': "The modern popular doctrine of the Trinity . . . derives no support from the language of [[Justin_Martyr\|Justin [Martyr]]]: and this observation may be extended to all the ante-[[Nicene]] Fathers; that is, to all Christian writers for three centuries after the birth of Christ. It is true, they speak of the Father, Son, and . . . holy Spirit, but not as co-equal, not as one numerical essence, not as Three in One, in any sense now admitted by Trinitarians. The very reverse is the fact." There are many Roman Catholic writings that support the idea of the Holy Spirit not being an actual person. One, the ''[[New Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' states: "The O[ld] T[estament] clearly does not envisage God's spirit as a person . . . God's spirit is simply God's power. If it is sometimes represented as being distinct from God, it is because the breath of [[Yahweh]] acts exteriorly. ... The majority of N[ew] T[estament] texts reveal God's spirit as something, not someone; this is especially seen in the parallelism between the spirit and the power of God." (''New Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1967, Vol. 14, pp. 574, 575) According to those who hold the minority view of [[Binitarianism]], the Holy Spirit is not a separate being, but the Father and the Son are. One such group, the [[Living Church of God]] teaches this about the Holy Spirit, "The Holy Spirit is the very essence, the mind, life and power of God. It is not a Being. The Spirit is inherent in the Father and the Son, and emanates from Them throughout the entire universe (1 Kings 8:27; Psalm 139:7; Jeremiah 23:24). It was through the Spirit that God created all things (Genesis 1:1-2; Revelation 4:11). It is the power by which Christ maintains the universe (Hebrews 1:2-3). It is given to all who repent of their sins and are baptized (Acts 2:38-39) and is the power (Acts 1:8; 2 Timothy 1:6-7) by which all believers may be "overcomers" (Romans 8:37, KJV; Revelation 2:26-27) and will be led to eternal life" (Official Statement of Fundamental Beliefs). The view that the Holy Spirit is not a distinct person has been co
''Пасха'' (''Paskha'') * [[Scottish Gaelic language\|Scottish Gaelic]] ''Casca'' * [[Spanish language\|Spanish]] ''Pascua'' * [[Swedish language\|Swedish]] ''Påsk'' * [[Turkish language\|Turkish]] ''Paskalya'' * [[Welsh language\|Welsh]] ''Pasg'' ====Names used in other languages==== * [[Belarusian language\|Belarusian]] ''Вялікдзень'' or ''Vialikdzen’'' (literally "the Great Day") * [[Bulgarian language\|Bulgarian]] ''Великден'' (''Velikden'', literally "the Great Day") * {{zh-stp\|s=复活节\|t=復活節\|p=Fùhuó Jié}} (literally "Resurrection Festival") * [[Croatian language\|Croatian]] ''Uskrs'' (literally "resurrection") * [[Czech language\|Czech]] ''Velikonoce'' (literally "Great Nights" [plural, no singular exists]) * [[Estonian language\|Estonian]] ''Lihavõtted'' (literally "meat taking") * [[Hungarian language\|Hungarian]] ''Húsvét'' (literally "taking, or buying meat") * [[Japanese language\|Japanese]] 復活祭 (''Fukkatsu-sai'', literally "resurrection festival") * [[Korean language\|Korean]] 부활절 (''Puhwalchol'', literally "Resurrection season") * [[Latvian language\|Latvian]] ''Lieldienas'' (literally "the Great Days", no singular exists) * [[Lithuanian language\|Lithuanian]] ''Velykos'' (derived from Slavic languages, no singular exists) * [[Polish language\|Polish]] ''Wielkanoc'' (literally "the Great Night") * [[Serbian language\|Serbian]] ''Ускрс'' (''Uskrs'') or ''Васкрс'' (''Vaskrs'', literally "resurrection") * [[Slovak language\|Slovak]] ''Veľká Noc'' (literally "the Great Night") * [[Slovenian language\|Slovenian]] ''Velika noč'' (literally "the Great Night") * [[Tongan language\|Tongan (South-pacific)]] ''Pekia'' (literally "death (of a lord)") * [[Ukrainian language\|Ukrainian]] ''Великдень'' (''Velykden’'', literally "the Great Day") or ''Паска'' (''Paska'') ==External links== ===Liturgical=== [http://www.liturgies.net/Easter/Easter.htm Liturgical Resources for Easter] ===Traditions=== [http://www.orthodox.net/pascha/ Eastern Orthodox views on Easter] [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05224d.htm Roman Catholic view of Easter] (from the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]) [http://www.ucg.org/booklets/HH/easterbiblicaltruth.htm Easter: Masking a Biblical Truth] ===Calculating=== [http://www.ely.anglican.org/cgi-bin/easter Calculator for the date of Festivals (Anglican)] [http://www.noeticspace.com/paschalion Paschal Calculator (Eastern Orthodox)] ===National traditions=== [http://virtual.finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=26050&LAN=ENG Easter traditions in Finland] [http://www.osterkartenausstellung.at Easter-postcards from 1898 to today from 32 countries all over the world] [http://brazilpostcard.com/pascoapg.html Easter Vintage Postcards] {{Holy Week}} [[FR:Pâques]] [[Category:Christian festivals]] [[Category:Easter]] [[Category:Holidays]] {{Link FA\|cs}} [[bg:Великден]] [[ca:Pasqua de Resurrecció]] [[cs:Velikonoce]] [[de:Ostern]] [[el:Πάσχα]] [[eo:Pasko]] [[es:Pascua]] [[fa:عید پاک]] [[fi:Pääsiäinen]] [[he:פסחא]] [[id:Paskah]] [[it:Pasqua]] [[ja:復活祭]] [[ka:აღდგომა]] [[li:Paosje]] [[lt:Velykos]] [[nl:Paasfeest]] [[no:Påske]] [[pl:Wielkanoc]] [[pt:Páscoa]] [[ro:Paşti]] [[ru:Пасха]] [[sv:Påsk]] [[uk:Великдень]] [[vi:Lễ Phục Sinh]] [[zh-tw:復活節]] [[zh-min-nan:Koh-oa̍h-cheh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Euphoria</title> <id>9328</id> <revision> <id>42098490</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:43:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>217.144.2.115</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar\|euphoria}} '''Euphoria''' is a state of intense [[happiness]]. "Euphoria" may also refer to: In '''entertainment''': [[Euphoria (band)]], a U.S. psychedelica music group [[Euphoria (music project)]], a music project comprised mostly of Canadian and British musicians including Anne Dudley, Roy Babbington, Geddy Lee, Ken Ramm, and B.J. Cole [[Euphoria (Australian band)]], an Australian pop/dance music act from the 1990s [[Euphoria (Indian band)]], a popular Indian band ''[[Euphoria (Def Leppard album)]]'' (1999), an album by British rock band [[Def Leppard]] ''[[Euphoric (album)]]'' (1999), an album by Canadian industrial/electronic band [[Delerium]] ''[[Euphoria (Leftover Salmon album)]]'' (1997), an album by U.S. bluegrass/rock band [[Leftover Salmon]] ''[[Euphoria (compilations)]]'', a line of compilation albums consisting mainly of [[trance music\|trance]] and chillout genres ''[[Euphoria (movie)]]'', a movie directed by Brad Armstrong (see {{imdb title \| id = 0306790 \| title = Euphoria}}) ''[[Euphoria (Jordanian rock band)]], formed in 2005. performed at the doors cafe on 2/3/2006. In '''computing''': [[Euphoria programming language\|Euphoria]], an interpreted programming language Euphoria, an [[XMMS]] plugin made with the [[Enlightenment foundation libraries]] {{disambig}} [[ja:ユーフォリア]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>EucliD</title> <id>9330</id> <revision> <id>15907226</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euclid]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Euclid</title> <id>9331</id> <revision> <id>42153673</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:19:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bcrowell</username> <id>6286</id> </contributor> <comment>replace link to Greek-only PDF with a more useful one that has English translations on facing pages</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[Euclid (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Euklid2.jpg\|thumb\|Euclid]] '''Euclid of Alexandria ''' ([[Greek language\|Greek]]: {{polytonic\|Εὐκλείδης}}) (ca. [[325 BC]]&ndash;[[265 BC]]) was a [[Hellenistic]] [[mathematician]] who lived in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]] almost certainly during the reign of [[Ptolemy I]] ([[323 BC]]&ndash;[[283 BC]]). Often considered as the "father of [[geometry]]", his most popular work is ''[[Euclid's Elements\|Elements]]'', which is often considered to be one of the most successful [[textbook]]s in the [[history of mathematics]]. Within it, the properties of [[geometry\|geometrical]] objects and [[integer]]s are deduced from a small set of [[axiom]]s, thereby anticipating (and partly inspiring) the [[axiomatic method]] of modern [[mathematics]]. Euclid also wrote works on [[Perspective (visual)\|perspective]], [[conic section]]s, [[spherical geometry]], and possibly [[Quadric\|quadric surfaces]]. Neither the year nor place of his birth have been established, nor the circumstances of his death. == ''The Elements'' == {{main\|Euclid's Elements}} Although many of the results in ''Elements'' originated with earlier mathematicians, one of Euclid's accomplishments was to present them in a single, logically coherent framework. In addition to providing some missing [[mathematical proof\|proof]]s, Euclid's text also includes sections on [[number theory]] and [[three-dimensional geometry]]. In particular, Euclid's proof of the infinitude of [[prime number]]s is in Book IX, Proposition 20. The geometrical system described in ''Elements'' was long known simply as "the" geometry. Today, however, it is often referred to as [[Euclidean geometry]] to distinguish it from other so-called [[Non-Euclidean geometry\|''non-Euclidean'' geometries]] which were discovered in the [[19th century]]. These new geometries grew out of more than two [[millennium\|millennia]] of investigation into Euclid's [[Parallel postulate\|fifth postulate]], one of the most-studied [[axiom]]s in all of mathematics. Most of these investigations involved attempts to prove the relatively complex and presumably non-intuitive fifth postulate using the other four (a feat which, if successful, would have shown the postulate to be in fact a [[theorem]]). ==Other works== In addition to the ''Elements'', four works of Euclid have survived to the present day. ''[[Data]]'' deals with the nature and implications of "given" information in geometrical problems; the subject matter is closely related to the first four books of the ''Elements''. * ''On Divisions of Figures'', which survives only partially in [[Arabic language\|Arabic]] translation, concerns the division of geometrical figures into two or more equal parts or into parts in given [[ratio]]s. It is similar to a [[third century]] (AD) work by [[Heron of Alexandria]], except Euclid's work characteristically lacks any numerical calculations. * ''Phaenomena'' concerns the application of [[spherical geometry]] to problems of [[astronomy]]. * ''Optics'', the earliest surviving [[Greek language\|Greek]] treatise on [[perspective]], contains propositions on the apparent sizes and shapes of objects viewed from different distances and angles. All of these works follow the basic logical structure of the ''Elements'', containing definitions and proved propositions. There are four works credibly attributed to Euclid which have been lost * ''Conics'' was a work on [[conic section]]s that was later extended by [[Apollonius of Perga]] into his famous work on the subject. * ''[[Porism]]s'' might have been an outgrowth of Euclid's work with conic sections, but the exact meaning of the title is controversial. * ''Pseudaria'', or ''Book of Fallacies'', was an elementary text about errors in [[reasoning]]. * ''Surface Loci'' concerned either [[Locus (mathematics)\|loci]] (sets of points) on surfaces or loci which were themselves surfaces; under the latter interpretation, it has been hypothesized that the work might have dealt with [[Quadric\|quadric surfaces]]. [[Image:Euklid-von-Alexandria 1.jpg\|right\|150px]]
among the ten most heavily gay counties in America. There are several predominantly and largely [[gay]] neighborhoods, mostly in the Midtown area of the city. There are 168,147 households out of which 22.4% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 24.5% are [[Marriage\|married couples]] living together, 20.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.5% are non-families. 38.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 8.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 3.16. In the city the population is spread out with 22.3% under the age of 18, 13.3% from 18 to 24, 35.2% from 25 to 44, 19.4% from 45 to 64, and 9.7% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 98.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 97.6 males. The median income for a household in the city is $51,482 and the median income for a family is $55,939. Males have a median income of $36,162 compared to $30,178 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $29,772, and 24.4% of the population and 21.3% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. 38.8% of those under the age of 18 and 20.7% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. :''See also: [[population of Atlanta]]'' ===Crime=== <!--See talk page before re-adding 'Crime Index' or Olympics commentary-->For several decades, Atlanta had been among the most violent cities in North America but in recent years the city has reduced violent crime considerably. While still high, the murder rate in 2004 was half that of [[New Orleans]]. In 2005, Atlanta recorded 93 homicides — the lowest total since 1963, and an almost 40% decrease from the 151 killings reported in 2002. However, in 2005 Atlanta received embarrassing media attention for the high-profile [[Brian Nichols]] manhunt, who became internationally known as the "Courthouse Killer". In addition, broadcast media focused attention on a standoff involving a murder suspect (not an Atlanta resident) who perched himself on top of a construction crane for several days in the upscale [[Buckhead (Atlanta)\|Buckhead]] district. * The latest Uniform Crime Reports can be downloaded at the [http://www.atlantapd.org/index.asp?nav=crime Atlanta Police Department's Website]. ===Attractions, events, and recreation=== [[Image:King_Tomb.gif\|thumb\|right\|300px\|The Sweet Auburn district is preserved as the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site.]] [[Image:TheVarsity Atlanta-GA.jpg\|right\|thumb\|300px\|The Varsity has been an Atlanta landmark for over 75 years.]] [[Image:Piedmont Park, Atlanta, GA, USA field.jpg\|300px\|thumbnail\|Atlanta's Piedmont Park is the city's largest park.]] Atlanta boasts a variety of museums on subjects ranging from history to fine arts, natural history, and beverages. Prominent among them are sites honoring Atlanta's participation in the civil rights movement. Reverend Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] was born in the city, and his boyhood home on Auburn Avenue in the Sweet Auburn district is preserved as the [[Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site]]. Meetings with other civil rights leaders, including Hosea Williams and current [[Congressman]] [[John Lewis (politician)\|John Lewis]], often happened at Paschal's, a diner and motor inn which was a favorite for "colored" people, banned from "white" restaurants in an era of racial segregation and intolerance. King's final resting place is in the tomb at the center of the reflecting pool at the King Center. Other history museums and attractions include the [[Atlanta History Center]]; the [[Atlanta Cyclorama\|Atlanta Cyclorama and Civil War Museum]] (a huge painting and [[diorama]] in-the-round, with a rotating central audience platform, that depicts the [[Battle of Atlanta]] in the Civil War); the [[Carter Center\|Carter Center and Presidential Library]]; and the [[Margaret Mitchell House and Museum]]. The arts are represented by several theaters and museums, including the [[Fox Theatre (Atlanta)\|Fox Theatre]]. The [[Woodruff Arts Center]] is home to the Alliance Theatre, Atlanta Symphony, [[High Museum of Art]], and Atlanta College of Art. Museums geared specifically towards children include the [[Fernbank Science Center]] and Imagine It! Atlanta's Children's Museum. The High Museum of Art is the city's major fine/visual arts venue, with a significant permanent collection and an assortment of traveling exhibitions. The [[Atlanta Opera]], which was founded in 1979 by members of two struggling local companies, is arguably the most important opera company in the southeastern United States and enjoys a growing audience and international reputation. Atlanta features the world's largest aquarium, the [[Georgia Aquarium]], which officially opened to the public on November 23, 2005. The aquarium features over 100,000 specimens in tanks holding approximately eight million gallons of water. One unique museum is the [[World of Coca-Cola]] featuring the history of the world famous soft drink brand and its well-known advertising. Adjacent is [[Underground Atlanta]], a historic shopping and entertainment complex situated under the streets of downtown Atlanta. In addition the [[Atlantic Station]], a huge new urban renewal project on the northwestern edge of Midtown Atlanta, officially opened in October of 2005. While not a museum per se, [[The Varsity]] is the main branch of the long-lived fast food chain, featured as the world's largest drive-in restaurant. The heart of the city's festivals is [[Piedmont Park]]. In 1887, a group of prominent Atlantans purchased 189 acres (0.76 km²) of farmland to build a horse racing track, later developed into the site of the Cotton States International Exposition of 1895. In 1904, the city council purchased the land for $99,000, and today it is the largest park in metro Atlanta, with more than 2.5 million visitors each year. The grounds were part of the [[Battle of Peachtree Creek]] &ndash; a Confederate division occupied the northern edge on [[July 20]], [[1864]] as part of the outer defense line against Sherman's approach. Next to the park is the [[Atlanta Botanical Garden]]. [[Zoo Atlanta]], home to its own [[panda]] exhibit, is located in [[Grant Park (Atlanta)\|Grant Park]]. Just east of the city, [[Stone Mountain]] is the largest piece of exposed [[granite]] in the world. On its face are giant carvings of [[Jefferson Davis]], [[Robert E. Lee]], and [[Thomas J. Jackson\|Stonewall Jackson]]. It is also the site of impressive [[laser]] shows in the [[summer]]. A few miles west of Atlanta on [[I-20]] is the [[Six Flags Over Georgia\|Six Flags Over Georgia Theme Park]], which opened near the city in 1967, and was the second [[theme park]] in the [[Six Flags chain]]. Popular annual cultural events include: [[Atlanta Dogwood Festival]], a Spring arts and crafts festival at Piedmont Park. [[Music Midtown]] - Three-day music festival in early summer. (Now on hiatus) Atlanta Gay Pride [http://www.atlantapride.org] Atlanta Jazz Festival [http://www.atlantafestivals.com/], largest free jazz festival in the USA Sweet Auburn SpringFest Inman Park Festival [http://www.inmanpark.org/festival.php] Virginia-Highlands Summerfest [http://www.vahi.org/summerfest.html] Georgia Renaissance Festival [http://www.garenfest.com/] ===Media=== The major daily newspaper in Atlanta is ''[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]''. Other weekly papers include ''[[Creative Loafing]]'' and ''[[Atlanta Nation]]''. The Atlanta metro area is served by a wide variety of local television stations, and is the ninth largest designated market area (DMA) in the U.S. with 2,059,450 homes (1.88% of the total U.S.). The major network television affiliates are [[WXIA-TV\|WXIA]] 11 ([[National Broadcasting Company\|NBC]]), [[WSB-TV\|WSB]] 2 ([[American Broadcasting Company\|ABC]]), [[WGCL-TV\|WGCL]] 46 ([[Columbia Broadcasting Service\|CBS]]), [[WAGA (TV)\|WAGA]] 5 ([[Fox Broadcasting Company\|FOX]]), [[WATL (TV)\|WATL]] 36 ([[The WB Television Network\|WB]]), [[WUPA\|WUPA]] 69 ([[UPN]]), [[WUVG-TV\|WUVG]] 34 ([[Univision]]), [[WPXA (TV)\|WPXA]] 14 ([[I (TV network)\|i]]), and [[WHSG-TV\|WHSG]] 63 ([[Trinity Broadcasting Network\|TBN]]). There are also two [[PBS]] stations: [[WGTV (TV)\|WGTV]] 8 ([[Public Broadcasting Service\|PBS]]) and [[WPBA (TV)\|WPBA]] 30 ([[Public Broadcasting Service\|PBS]]), and one independently operated station: [[WATC (TV)\|WATC]] 57, which carries religious programming, as well as [[TBS (TV network)\|TBS]]'s Atlanta transmitter, [[WTBS]]. Atlanta's radio stations include AM stations [[WSB-AM\|WSB]] 750 (News/Talk), [[WGST-AM\|WGST]] 640 (News/Talk), [[WCNN-AM\|WCNN]] 680 (Sports/talk "The Fan"), [[WQXI-AM\|WQXI]] 790 (Sports/talk "The Zone"), and several other religious and spanish-language stations. Atlanta's FM stations include [[WRAS-FM\|WRAS]] 88.5 (college Radio "Album 88"), [[WBCX-FM\|WBCX]] 89.1 (jazz/classical), [[WRFG-FM\|WRFG]] 89.3 (indie "Radio Free Georgia"), [[WABE-FM\|WABE]] 90.1 (NPR), [[WREK-FM\|WREK]] 91.1 (Diverse "Wreck"), [[WWEV-FM\|WWEV]] 91.5 (christian "Victory 91.5"), [[WCLK-FM\|WCLK]] 91.9 (jazz "Jazz 92"), [[WZGC-FM\|WZGC]] 92.9 (AAA "Dave FM"), [[WSTR-FM\|WSTR]] 94.1 (top 40 "Star 94"), [[WLTM-FM\|WLTM]] 94.9 (AC "94.9 Lite FM"), [[WBTS-FM\|WBTS]] 95.5 (urban top 40 "95.5 the Beat"), [[WKLS-FM\|WKLS]] 96.1 (classic rock "96 Rock"), [[WFOX-FM\|WFOX]] 97.1 (classic hits "97.1 the River"), [[WPZE-FM\|WPZE]] 97.5 (black gospel "Praise 97.5"), [[WSB-FM\|WSB-FM]] 98.5 (AC "B98.5FM"), [[WNNX-FM\|WNNX]] 99.7 (alternative rock "99X"), [[WWWQ-FM\|WWWQ]] 100.5 (top 40 "Q100"), [[WKHX-FM\|WKHX]] 101.5 (country "Kicks 101.5"), [[WAMJ-FM\|WAMJ]] 102.5 (urban AC "W
the start of the game; as more pieces are captured, the board frees up and multiple captures can often take place in one move. In this game, two or more players can participate. There is no upper limit to the number of players in this game, but if there are more than six players, not everyone will get a fair turn. The fast-paced version of this game allows the game pieces to catapult over multiple empty spots (just as described in hop-across above). The original version only allows small hops like in checkers. ==See also== [[Star number]] [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Chinese_Checkers_strategy_guide Chinese Checkers strategy guide] ==External links== * Chinese checkers is played at [http://games.yahoo.com/cc Yahoo! Games] * [http://puzzle.roxr.com/portal/modules/news/ Chinese Checkers Website] [[de:Halma]] [[es:damas chinas]] [[nl:Halma]] [[sv:Kinaschack]] {{commons\|Chinese checkers}} [[Category:Abstract strategy games]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Child sexual abuse</title> <id>6636</id> <revision> <id>41702776</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:04:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Guanaco</username> <id>47960</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.82.115.8\|68.82.115.8]] ([[User talk:68.82.115.8\|talk]]) to last version by ArcticFrog</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''child sexual abuse''' ('''CSA''') is commonly defined in contemporary western culture as any sexual acts engaged in by prepubescent minors and adults. A perpetrator of child sexual abuse is known as a '''child sex offender'''. Most child sex offenders are male; the number of female offenders is usually reported to be between 10% and 20%, although in some studies it was found to be as high as 70%. Most states force offenders to register with a national database, and releases the information to the public. It has a special status among forms of [[abuse]], because it includes not only '''a)''' what is considered [[Sexual abuse#Sexual abuse in general\|sexual abuse]] between adults, but also '''b)''' ''all'' forms of [[sexual activity]] involving children and adults as partners, even if a child gives [[simple consent]]<sup> [http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/abstract/140/1/54] [http://www.ipce.info/library_3/files/rind/rtbval_8.htm] </sup> (see [[Sexual abuse#Definition based on Informed Consent\|Definition based on Informed Consent]]). The term has both moral and legal implications. As with the definition of sexual abuse in general, the definition of this term in legal, moral, and scientific literature varies in both criteria and specificity. The term includes also the [[Commercial sexual exploitation of children\|commercial sexual exploitation of children]] (CSEC), defined by the [[International Labour Organization]] in the text of the [[Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention]]. ==List of activities considered CSA== In countries and jurisdictions where child/adult sexual behavior is illegal, it is a criminal offense, although the list (range) of activities that are prosecuted varies between countries. Activities which are often defined as abuse only when children are involved include the following: * penetrative intercourse (oral, anal or vaginal) between a child below a predefined [[age of consent]] (generally between 12 and 18 years) and an adult (or a much older child), * asking a child to give consent to any kind of penetrative intercourse, * fondling a child's genitals, * asking, forcing, or inducing a child to fondle genitals (either his or her own, an adult's, or another child's), * acting as a [[pimp]] for [[Prostitution of children\|child prostitution]] (including a parent acting as a pimp), * inducing a child to behave sexually in a [[performance]], or to appear in [[child pornography]], * asking, forcing, or inducing a child to watch any kind of sexual behavior (including [[masturbation]]), * asking, forcing, or inducing a child to look at adult genitals (in many countries if a child is not intentionally directed to look at adult genitals in public baths or [[nudism\|nudistic]] settings, the mere presence of them is not considered CSA), * lewd action towards children, including [[disseminating pornography to a minor]], * asking, forcing, or inducing a child to undress for any reason other than to help a child who is too young or otherwise unable to [[washing\|wash]], [[dress]] exclusively to keep hygiene for himself or herself, * observing a child's genitals for any reason other than for examining existing health problems. * any sexual interaction of a child with an adult or other child where coercion or a power differential is present * purposefully undressing in front of or being seen nude around one's children after they have reached the age of awareness (often estimated as early as four or five and as late as ten years of age) * bathing a child who is old enough and capable enough to bathe himself/herself ==Effects of sexual abuse on children== The majority of experts believe that CSA is innately harmful to children. A wide range of psychological, emotional, physical, and social effects has been attributed to child sexual abuse, including [[anxiety]], [[clinical depression\|depression]], [[obsession]], [[compulsion]], [[grief]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] symptoms such as [[flashbacks]], emotional numbing, pseudo-maturity symptoms, and other more general dysfunctions such as sexual dysfunction, social dysfunction, dysfunction of relationships, poor education and employment records, eating disorders, self-mutilation, and a range of physical symptoms common to some other forms of [[PTSD]], such as sensual numbness, loss of appetite (see Smith et al., [[1995]]). Additionally, young girls who are victims of abuse may encounter additional trauma by [[pregnancy]] and birth complications. See [[Pregnancy after childhood sexual abuse]]. Some studies have reached other conclusions about CSA. For example, a 1982 meta-analysis by Mary DeYoung reported that 20% of her "victims" appeared to be "virtually indifferent to their molestation" and instead tended to be traumatized by the reaction of adults to its discovery. [http://www.ipce.info/ipceweb/Library/nelson.htm] Most notably, a controversial meta-analytic study of other various studies of CSA, [[Rind et al.]] ([[1998]]), found only a weak correlation between sex abuse in childhood and the later stability of the child's adult psyche, noted that a not insignificant percentage reported their reactions to sex abuse as positive in the short term, and found the confounding variable of poor family environment as a plausible cause for the majority of negative effects. Although the study stated in its conclusion that "the findings of the current review do not imply that moral or legal definitions of or views on behaviors currently classified as CSA should be abandoned or even altered," (Rind et al., 1998, p. 47), it on one hand drew widespread outrage from conservative activists, and on the other hand was often cited as supporting evidence by [[pedophile advocacy\|pedophile advocates]]. The authors' defense of it can be found here[http://home.wanadoo.nl/ipce/library_two/rbt/skept.htm]. The percentage of adults suffering from long-term effects is unknown. Smith quotes a British study that showed that 13% of adults sexually abused as children suffered from long-term consequences. Wakefield and Underwager ([[1991]]) note the difference between CSA experiences of boys and girls, where more boys than girls report the experience as neutral or positive, saying that "It may be that women perceive such experiences as sexual violation, while men perceive them as sexual initiation." Much of this has been challenged, the effects of sexual abuse on men being seen by some researchers as similar to the effects on women, "initiation" being considered part of the myth of male socialisation that men are the initiators of sex and cannot be abused (Draucker 1992). However, even accepting that the notion that males ''cannot'' be abused is a myth does not prove that there is no difference between early sexual initiation and sexual abuse for males (or for females for that matter.) Forty to 71 percent of [[Borderline Personality Disorder]] patients report having been sexually abused. More recent studies conducted in the new mellenium indicate that sexual abuse in children can lead to the overexitation of an undeveloped [[limbic system]]; causing damage [http://www.annafoundation.org/stwh.html]. This could explain the problems sexual abuse victims have with regulation of mood and other limbic functions. Other studies also indicate sexual abuse can lead to [[temporal lobe]] epilepsy, damage to the [[cerebellar vermis]], along with reduced size of the [[corpus callosum]] [http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/36/5/36] == Offenders == Most offenders are situational offenders (pseudopedophiles) rather than [[pedophilia\|pedophiles]]. They are rarely strangers, but relatives or acquaintances like trainers or playmates. Most offenders are male, the number of female perpetrators is usually reported to be between 10% and 20%, however in some studies it was found to be as high as 70%. ===Typology === There are three categorizations of child sex offenders studied in the field of [[criminal psychology]]. The first two are major while the third is minor. ====Regressed offenders ==== Regressed offenders are primarily attracted to their own age group but are passively aroused by minors (pseudo-pedophiles). The sexual attraction in children is not manifested until adulthood. Their sexual conduct until adulthood is aligned with that of their own age group. *Their interest in children is either not cognitively realized until well into adulthood or it was recognized early on and simply
ear} has the same cardinality as {yellow, red, green}. With infinite sets such as the set of [[integer]]s or [[rational number]]s, things are more complicated to show. Consider the set of all rational numbers. One might naively suppose that there are more rational numbers than integers, and fewer rational numbers than real numbers, thus disproving the continuum hypothesis. However, it turns out that the rational numbers can be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the integers, and therefore the set of rational numbers is the same size as the set of integers: they are both [[countable set]]s. [[Cantor's diagonal argument]] shows that the integers and the continuum do not have the same cardinality. The continuum hypothesis states that every [[subset]] of the continuum (= the [[real number\|real numbers]]) which contains the integers either has the same cardinality as the integers or the same cardinality as the continuum. == Impossibility of proof and disproof == Cantor believed the continuum hypothesis to be true and tried for many years to [[mathematical proof\|prove]] it, in vain. It became the first on [[David Hilbert]]'s list of important [[Hilbert's problems\|open questions]] that was presented at the International Mathematical Congress in the year [[1900]] in Paris. [[Kurt Gödel]] showed in 1940 that the continuum hypothesis (CH for short) cannot be disproved from the standard [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]], even if the [[axiom of choice]] is adopted. [[Paul Cohen]] showed in 1963 that CH cannot be proven from those same axioms either. Hence, CH is ''[[independence (mathematical logic)\|independent]]'' of [[ZFC]]. Both of these results assume that the Zermelo-Fr&auml;nkel axioms themselves do not contain a contradiction; this assumption is widely believed to be true. It is not surprising that there should be statements which cannot be proven nor disproven within a given axiom system; in fact the content of [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] is that such statements always exist if the axiom system is strong enough and without contradictions. The independence of CH was still unsettling however, because it was the first concrete example of an important, interesting question of which it could be proven that it could not be decided either way from the universally accepted basic system of axioms on which mathematics is built. The continuum hypothesis is closely related to many statements in [[mathematical analysis\|analysis]], point set [[topology]] and [[measure theory]]. As a result of its independence, many substantial [[conjecture]]s in those fields have subsequently been shown to be independent as well. ==Arguments pro and con== Gödel believed strongly that CH is false. To him, his independence proof only showed that the prevalent set of axioms was defective. Gödel was a [[platonist]] and therefore had no problems with asserting truth and falsehood of statements independent of their provability. Cohen, however, was a formalist, but even he tended towards rejecting CH. Historically, mathematicians who favor a "rich" and "large" [[universe (mathematics)\|universe]] of sets were against CH, while those favoring a "neat" and "controllable" universe favored CH. More recently, some experts (e.g. [[Matthew Foreman]]) have pointed out that ontological maximalism can actually be taken as a point in ''favor'' of CH, given that between models that have all the same reals, it's the one with ''more'' sets of reals that has more chance of satisfying CH. See ([[Penelope Maddy\|Maddy]], p. 500). Chris Freiling in 1986 presented an [[Freiling's axiom of symmetry\|argument against CH]]: he showed that the negation of CH is equivalent to a statement about probabilities which he calls "intuitively true", but others have disagreed. A difficult argument developed by [[W. Hugh Woodin]], against CH, has attracted considerable attention since about the year 2000. See the references in ''Notices of the AMS''. The Foreman reference does not reject Woodin's argument outright but urges caution. == The generalized continuum hypothesis == The ''generalized continuum hypothesis'' (GCH) states that if an infinite set's cardinality lies between that of an infinite set ''S'' and that of the [[power set]] of ''S'', then it either has the same cardinality as the set ''S'' or the same cardinality as the power set of ''S''. That is, for any [[infinite]] [[cardinal number\|cardinal]] <math>\lambda</math> there is no cardinal <math>\kappa</math> such that <math>\lambda <\kappa <2^{\lambda}.</math> An equivalent condition is that <math>\aleph_{\alpha+1}=2^{\aleph_\alpha}</math> for every [[ordinal number\|ordinal]] <math>\alpha.</math> Another equivalent condition is that <math>\aleph_\alpha=\beth_\alpha</math> for every ordinal <math>\alpha.</math> This is a generalization of the continuum hypothesis since the continuum has the same cardinality as the [[power set]] of the integers. Like CH, GCH is also independent of ZFC, but note that ZF + GCH ⊦AC, so that choice and GCH are not independent in ZF; there are no models of ZF in which GCH holds and AC fails. ==References== * {{cite book \| first = P. J. \| last = Cohen \| title = Set Theory and the Continuum Hypothesis \| publisher = W. A. Benjamin \| year = 1966 }} * {{cite journal \| first = Paul J. \| last = Cohen \| title = The Independence of the Continuum Hypothesis \| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume = 50 \| issue = 6 \| year = Dec. 15, 1963 \| pages = 1143–1148 \| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0027-8424%2819631215%2950%3A6%3C1143%3ATIOTCH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 }} * {{cite journal \| first = Paul J. \| last = Cohen \| title = The Independence of the Continuum Hypothesis, II \| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume = 51 \| issue = 1 \| year = Jan. 15, 1964 \| pages = 105–110 \| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0027-8424%2819640115%2951%3A1%3C105%3ATIOTCH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U }} * {{cite book \| first = H. G. \| last = Dales \| coauthors = W. H. Woodin \| title = An Introduction to Independence for Analysts \| publisher = Cambridge \| year = 1987 }} * {{cite web \| author = Foreman, Matt \| year = 2003 \| url = http://www.math.helsinki.fi/logic/LC2003/presentations/foreman.pdf \| title = Has the Continuum Hypothesis been Settled? \| format = PDF \| accessdate = February 25 \| accessyear = 2006 }} * {{cite journal \| first = Chris \| last = Freiling \| title = Axioms of Symmetry: Throwing Darts at the Real Number Line \| journal = Journal of Symbolic Logic \| volume = 51 \| issue = 1 \| year = 1986 \| pages = 190–200 }} * {{cite book \| first = K. \| last = Gödel \| title = The Consistency of the Continuum-Hypothesis \| publisher = Princeton University Press \| year = 1940 }} * Gödel, K.: ''What is Cantor's Continuum Problem?'', reprinted in Benacerraf and Putnam's collection ''Philosophy of Mathematics'', 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983. An outline of Gödel's arguments against CH. * {{cite journal \| first = Penelope \| last = Maddy \| journal = Journal of Symbolic Logic \| title = Believing the Axioms, I \| volume = 53 \| issue = 2 \| year = June 1988 \| pages = 481–511 }} * {{cite web \| author = McGough, Nancy \| url = http://www.ii.com/math/ch/ \| title = The Continuum Hypothesis }} * {{cite journal \| first = W. Hugh \| last = Woodin \| title = The Continuum Hypothesis, Part I \| journal = Notices of the AMS \| volume = 48 \| issue = 6 \| year = 2001 \| pages = 567–576 \| url = http://www.ams.org/notices/200106/fea-woodin.pdf }} * {{cite journal \| first = W. Hugh \| last = Woodin \| title = The Continuum Hypothesis, Part II \| journal = Notices of the AMS \| volume = 48 \| issue = 7 \| year = 2001 \| pages = 681–690 \| url = http://www.ams.org/notices/200107/fea-woodin.pdf }} {{planetmath\|id=1184\|title=Generalized continuum hypothesis}} ==See also== * [[Aleph number]] * [[Beth number]] * [[Cardinality]] [[Category:Set theory]] [[Category:Model theory]] [[Category:Hilbert's problems]] [[Category:Infinity]] [[Category:Hypotheses]] [[de:Kontinuumshypothese]] [[es:Hipótesis del continuo]] [[fr:Hypothèse du continu]] [[he:השערת הרצף]] [[hu:Kontinuumhipotézis]] [[it:Ipotesi del continuo]] [[ja:連続体仮説]] [[ko:연속체 가설]] [[nl:Continuümhypothese]] [[pl:Hipoteza continuum]] [[ru:Континуум-гипотеза]] [[sk:Hypotéza kontinua]] [[sv:Kontinuumhypotesen]] [[th:สมมติฐานความต่อเนื่อง]] [[tr:Süreklilik Hipotezi]] [[zh:连续统假设]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cevik Bir</title> <id>5706</id> <revision> <id>36093172</id> <timestamp>2006-01-21T15:23:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ugur Basak</username> <id>298337</id> </contributor> <comment>removed (in [[Turkish language\|Turkish]] spelling)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:CevikBir.jpg\|frame\|Gen.Cevik Bir, ret., Turkish Army. Image circa 1997]] --> '''Çevik Bir''' was a member of the [[Turkey\|Turkish]] general staff in the [[1990s]]. He took a major part in several important international missions in the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]]. After the dictator [[Siad Barre]]’s ouster, conflicts between the General [[Mohammed Farah Aidid\|Farah Aidid]]'s party and other clans in [[Somalia]] had led to [[famine]] and lawlessness throughout the country. An estimated 300,000 people had died from starvation. A combined [[military]] force of [[United States]] and [[United Nations]] (under the name UNISOM) were deployed to [[Mogadishu]], to monitor the ceasefire and deliver food and supplies to the starving people of Somali. Çevik Bir, who was then a lieutenant-general of [[Turkey]], became the force commander of UNISOM in [[19
ce connected Amsterdam to [[Liège (city)\|Liège]] via Eindhoven and [[Valkenswaard]], but the service was discontinued and the line broken up. Recently, talks have resumed to have a service to [[Neerpelt]], [[Belgium]] via [[Weert]]. The A2 national highway from [[Amsterdam]] to [[Maastricht]] passes Eindhoven to the west and south of the city. The A2 connects here with the A58 to [[Tilburg]] and [[Breda (Netherlands)\|Breda]] and to the A67/E34 to [[Antwerp]]. In 2004, the A50 was completed connecting Eindhoven to [[Nijmegen]] and [[Zwolle]]. === Born in Eindhoven === * [[Frits Philips]] (April 26, 1905), businessman († 2005) * [[Hugo Brandt Corstius]] (August 29, 1935), writer * [[Peter Koelewijn]] (December 29, 1940), musician * [[Jan de Bont]] (October 22, 1943), film director * [[Jan Borren]] (September 27, 1947), New Zealand field hockey player and coach * [[Lenny Kuhr]] (February 22, 1950), singer * [[Paul Haarhuis]] (February 19, 1966), tennis player * [[Rik Smits]] (August 23, 1966), basketball player * [[Patrick Lodewijks]] (February 21, 1967), soccer player * [[Philip Cocu]] (October 29, 1970), soccer player * [[Christijan Albers]] (April 16, 1979), racing driver * [[Klaas-Erik Zwering]] (May 19, 1981), swimmer * [[Lonneke Engel]] (June 14, 1981), (fashion) model * [[Rob Reckers]] (August 29, 1981), field hockey player * [[Kelum]] (October 24, 1984), (fashion) model === See also === [[PSV Eindhoven]] [[FC Eindhoven]] [[Eindhoven Airport]] == External links == {{Commons\|Eindhoven}} [http://www.eindhoven.nl The city of Eindhoven on the Internet] * [http://www.gemeenteeindhoven.com InternetGemeentegids Eindhoven over 1450 links] * [http://www.vanabbe.nl The Van Abbe Museum of Modern Art] * [http://w3.tue.nl Eindhoven University of Technology] * [http://Eindhoven-eertijds.tk Eindhoven-eertijds.tk] {{Province North Brabant}} [[Category:North Brabant]] [[Category:Cities in the Netherlands]] [[da:Eindhoven]] [[de:Eindhoven]] [[fr:Eindhoven]] [[id:Eindhoven]] [[it:Eindhoven]] [[li:Eindhove]] [[nl:Eindhoven]] [[ja:アイントホーフェン]] [[pl:Eindhoven]] [[pt:Eindhoven]] [[ro:Eindhoven]] [[fi:Eindhoven]] [[sv:Eindhoven]] [[tr:Eindhoven]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elsinore</title> <id>9421</id> <revision> <id>41541078</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:09:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellsworth</username> <id>63086</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>byp redir Kronborg Castle</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Helsingor Kronborg.jpg\|thumb\|350px\|Kronborg castle]] '''Elsinore''', also known by its [[Danish language\|Danish]] name '''Helsingør''' {{IPA\|[hɛlseˈŋøɔ̯ˀ]}}, is a city in [[Helsingør municipality]] on the northeast coast of the island of [[Zealand]] (''Sjælland'') in eastern [[Denmark]]. It is known internationally as the setting of [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Hamlet]]''. The name is derived from ''Hals'' meaning "narrow strait" and it referred to the narrow passage between what is now Elsinore and [[Helsingborg]]. The ''Rerum Danicarum Historica'' (1631) claims that the history of Elsinore can be traced back to 70 BC, but this information is highly dubious. The people were mentioned, as ''Helsinger'', for the first time in [[Valdemar II of Denmark\|King Valdemar the Victorious]]'s book from 1231, but they should not be confused with the Helsings of [[Hälsingland]] in [[Sweden]]. Prior to the Middle Ages it was just a marketplace where people sold goods, including women. About 1200 AD the first church, Sct Olai Church, was built. A number of convents once surrounded the church, but now all that remains is the church building, today the cathedral of the Diocese of Elsinore. Elsinore as we know it today was founded in the 1420s by the Danish king [[Eric of Pomerania]]. He established the [[Sound Toll]] in 1429 and built the castle 'Krogen', which was made bigger in the 1580s and named Kronborg. The oldest parts of the cathedral of Elsinore date back to the 1200s and tell us that the fishermen's village, as Elsinore was then, was a town of a certain importance. At least, there have always been some form of ferryboats crossing between Elsinore and Helsingborg. [[Kronborg Castle]] is a main tourist attraction. ''Hamlet'' has been performed a number of times in its courtyard. The [[Sweden\|Swedish]] city of [[Helsingborg]] lies a short distance across the [[Oresund\|Øresund]] from Elsinore. [[European route E55]] traverses the two cities; [[ferry\|ferries]] connect the two ends. ==See also== [[Tourism in Denmark]] * [[Lake Elsinore, California]] is named for a local lake that was named after the Danish city in honor of Shakespeare's Hamlet. ==External links== * [http://www.visithelsingor.dk Helsingør Tourist Bureau website] * [http://www.helsingor.dk/ Helsingør municipality's official website (in Danish only)] * [http://drokov.narod.ru/photos/helsinghor200505/index.htm Photos] [[Category:Cities and towns in Denmark]] [[cs:Helsingør]] [[da:Helsingør]] [[de:Helsingør]] [[es:Elsinor]] [[fr:Elseneur]] [[it:Helsingør]] [[no:Helsingør]] [[pl:Helsingør]] [[pt:Helsingor]] [[fi:Helsingør]] [[sv:Helsingør]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European route E4</title> <id>9422</id> <revision> <id>37776824</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T02:12:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Litany</username> <id>621174</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>All "cities" with over 20 000 inhabitants should be added to the list</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{European route number sign\|4}} '''European route E4''' passes through [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]]. It begins in [[Tornio]] in northern Finland, then goes south along the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] to [[Gävle]], then on a more inland route southwards. It ends between [[Helsingborg]] in Sweden, and [[Elsinore]] in Denmark. In the new system of [[European route]]s, it should have been a part of [[European route E55\|E55]], but it remains in the pre-1992 designation (E4) within Sweden, because the expenses connected with re-signing this extremely long road portion would be too large. South of the city of Uppsala, E4 is almost a continuous motorway. While in Sweden, this route passes through or nearby the cities<br /> [[Haparanda]], [[Luleå]], [[Skellefteå]], [[Umeå]], [[Örnsköldsvik]], [[Härnösand]], [[Sundsvall]], [[Hudiksvall]], [[Söderhamn]], [[Gävle]], [[Uppsala]], [[Märsta]], [[Stockholm]], [[Nyköping]], [[Norrköping]], [[Linköping]], [[Jönköping]], [[Ljungby]], [[Helsingborg]]. [[Category:International E-road network\|04]] [[Category:Roads in Sweden\|European route E04]] [[Category:Roads in Finland\|European route E04]] [[da:E4]] [[fr:E04]] [[sv:E4]] [[fi:E4]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European routes</title> <id>9423</id> <revision> <id>15907315</id> <timestamp>2005-04-17T00:31:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SPUI</username> <id>113059</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[international E-road network]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ericsson</title> <id>9424</id> <revision> <id>41563085</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:16:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.19.205.238</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company \| company_name = Ericsson \| company_logo = [[Image:Ericsson-Logo.svg\|200px]] \| company_type = [[Public company\|Public]]<br/>{{nasdaq\|ERICY}}\| company_slogan = Taking You Forward \| foundation = [[Stockholm, Sweden]] ([[1876]]) \| location = [[Stockholm]],[[Sweden]] \| key_people = [[Michael Treschow]], Chairman<br />[[Carl-Henric Svanberg]], President and CEO \| num_employees = 56,055 ([[2006]]) \| industry = [[Telecommunications]] \| products = see [http://www.ericsson.com/solutions/] \| revenue = [[image:green up.png]] $54.8 billion [[SEK]] ([[2006]]) \| homepage = [http://www.ericsson.com/ www.ericsson.com] }} '''Ericsson''' (''Telefonaktiebolaget L. M. Ericsson'') {{nasdaq\|ERICY}} is a [[Sweden\|Swedish]] [[telecommunication]]s equipment manufacturer, founded in [[1876]] as a [[Telegraphy\|telegraph]] equipment repair shop by [[Lars Magnus Ericsson]]. In the early [[20th century]], Ericsson dominated the world market for manual [[telephone exchange]]s but was late to introduce automatic equipment. The world's largest ever manual telephone exchange, serving 60,000 lines, was installed by Ericsson in [[Moscow]] in [[1916]]. In the [[1990s]], Ericsson held a 35-40 percent market share of installed [[cellular telephone]] systems. Headquartered in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]], Ericsson is considered to be part of the so-called [[Wireless Valley]]. Like most of the telecommunications equipment industry, Ericsson suffered heavy losses after the telecommunications crash in the early years of the 2000s. The company had to lay off tens of thousands of staff worldwide in an attempt to staunch the losses. [[As of 2004]], Ericsson is making an operational profit again. The loss making handsets division was divested into a joint venture with [[Sony]], called [[Sony Ericsson]]. Ericsson now concentrates on its core systems: supplying infrastructure for all major wireless technologies and modernizing existing copper lines for broadband services. In addition, it has one of the largest services divisions in the telecom industry and is steadily growing in new areas such as managed services. ==History== ===Beginnings=== Lars Magnus Ericsson's mechanical repair shop was started together with his friend Carl Johan Andersson. The company was situated at Drottninggatan 15, central [[Stockholm]]. In [[1878]] Ericsson was given the task to modify some [[telephone]]s from the [[Bell Labs \| Bell
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:54:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>12.108.99.34</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Atanasoff-Berry Computer''' was the first electronic digital computer [http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/books/burks/overview.shtml] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC] and was a major step in the history of computing . It was built by [[John Vincent Atanasoff\|Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff]] and [[Clifford E. Berry]] at [[Iowa State University]] during 1937-42. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer represented several innovations in computing, including a binary system of arithmetic, [[parallel processing]], [[DRAM\|regenerative memory]], and a separation of memory and computing functions. It is sometimes referred to by its initials, ABC. John Vincent Atanasoff was awarded the [[National Medal of Technology]] by President [[George H. W. Bush]] in a Ceremony at the White House on November 13, 1990. [[Image:ABC.GIF\|thumb\|300px\|]] The Atanasoff-Berry Computer, constructed in the basement of the Physics building at Iowa State University, took over two years to complete due to lack of funds. The prototype was first demonstrated in November of 1939. The computer weighed more than seven hundred pounds (320 kg). It contained approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) of wire, 280 dual-triode [[vacuum tube]]s, 31 [[thyratron]]s, and was about the size of a desk. It was not a [[Turing complete]] computer, which distinguishes it from later, more general machines, such as the 1946 [[ENIAC]], 1949 [[EDVAC]], the [[Victoria University of Manchester\|University of Manchester]] designs, or [[Alan Turing]]'s post-War designs at [[National Physical Laboratory\|NPL]] and elsewhere. Nor did it implement the [[stored program architecture]] that made practical fully general-purpose, reprogrammable computers. The machine was, however, the first to implement three critical ideas that are still part of every modern computer: #Using [[binary_numeral_system\|binary]] digits to represent all numbers and data #Performing all calculations using [[electronics]] rather than wheels, ratchets, or mechanical switches #Organizing a system in which [[computation]] and [[computer storage\|memory]] are separated. In addition, the computer pioneered the use of regenerative capacitor memory, as in the [[DRAM]] still widely used today. The memory of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer was a pair of drums, each containing 1600 [[capacitor]]s that rotated on a common shaft once per second. The capacitors on each drum were organized into 32 "bands" of 50 (30 active bands and 2 spares in case a capacitor failed), giving the machine a speed of 30 additions/subtractions per second. Data was represented as 50-bit binary fixed point numbers. The electronics of the memory and arithmetic units could store and operate on 60 such numbers at a time (3000 bits). The [[alternating current\|AC]] power line frequency of 60 [[Hertz\|Hz]] was the primary clock rate for the lowest level operations. The logic functions were fully electronic, implemented with vacuum tubes. The family of [[logic gates]] ranged from inverters to two and three input gates. The input and output levels and operating voltages were compatible between the different gates. Each gate consisted of one inverting vacuum tube amplifier, preceded by a resistor divider input network that defined the logical function. Although the Atanasoff-Berry Computer was an important step up from earlier computing machines, it was not a ''[[stored program]] computer''. An operator was needed to operate the control switches to set up its functions, much the way [[Booting\|boot]] programs would be entered in later computers. Selection of the operation to be performed, reading, writing, converting to or from binary to decimal, or reducing a set of equations was made by front panel switches and in some cases jumpers. There were two forms of input and output. Primary user input and output and an intermediate results output and input. The intermediate results storage allowed operation on problems too large to be handled entirely within the electronic memory. Intermediate results were written onto paper sheets by electrostatically modifying the resistance at 1500 locations to represent 30 of the 50 bit numbers. Each sheet could be written or read in one second. The reliability of the system was limited to about 1 error in 100,000 calculations by these units, primarily attributed to lack of control of the sheets' material characteristics. In retrospect a solution could have been to add a parity bit to each number as written. This problem was not solved by the time Atanasoff left the university for war-related work. Primary user input was via standard [[punched card]]s and output via a front panel display. The ABC was designed for a fairly specific purpose, the solution of systems of simultaneous linear equations. It could handle systems with up to twenty-nine equations, which was large for the time. Problems of this scale were becoming common in physics, the department in which John Atanasoff worked. Basically, it could be fed two linear equations with up to twenty-nine variables and a constant term and eliminate one of the variables. This process would have to be repeated manually for each of the equations, which would result in a system of equations with one fewer variables. Then the whole process would have to be repeated to eliminate another variable. The initial funds to start development and demonstrate the circuits involved was from the [[Agronomy]] department which was also interested in such problems for economic and research analysis. Further funding to complete the machine came from [[Research Corporation]] of America, in [[New York]]. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were the first to patent a digital computing device, their [[ENIAC]] computer. ABC had been examined by [[John Mauchly]] in June [[1941]], and is alleged to have influenced his later work on ENIAC, although Mauchly denied this. In [[1967]] [[Honeywell]] started a court case against Sperry Rand in an attempt to break their patent, based on the ABC being [[prior art]]. The court released its final judgement on October 19, 1973. In [http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/court-papers/ Sperry Rand Vs. Honeywell] the court voided the ENIAC patent as a derivative of John Atanasoff's invention. The decision was not appealed. Atanasoff was quite generous in stating, "there is enough credit for everyone in the invention and development of the electronic computer." Eckert and Mauchly received most of the credit for inventing the first electronic-digital computer. Historians now say that the Atanasoff-Berry computer was the first. The original ABC was eventually dismantled, when the University converted the basement to classrooms, and all of its pieces except for one memory drum were discarded. In [[1997]], a team of researchers from [[Ames Laboratory]] (located on the Iowa State campus) finished building a working replica of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer for a cost of $350,000. This replica dispelled any doubt over whether or not the ABC actually could perform the tasks it was designed to do. The new ABC is now on permanent display in the first floor lobby of the Durham Center for Computation and Communication at Iowa State University. ==See also== * [[History of computing hardware]] ==References== * Anthony Ralston and Edwin D. Reilly (ed), '' Encyclopedia of Computer Science, 3rd Ed. '', 1993, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York ISBN 0442276796 * [[Clark R. Mollenhoff]], ''Atanasoff: Forgotten Father of the Computer'', [[1988]], ISBN 0-8138-0032-3 ==External links== [http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/jva-archive.shtml The Birth of the ABC] [http://www.scl.ameslab.gov/ABC/ Rebuilding the ABC] [http://www.scl.ameslab.gov/Projects/ABC/Trial.html The ENIAC patent trial] [http://www.cbi.umn.edu/collections/inv/cbi00001.html Honeywell, Inc., Honeywell vs. Sperry Rand Records, 1846-1973] [[Category:Early computers]] [[Category:History of computing]] [[Category:One-of-a-kind computers]] [[Category:Iowa State University]] [[bg:Компютър на Атанасов-Бери]] [[de:Atanasoff-Berry-Computer]] [[es:Atanasoff Berry Computer]] [[it:Atanasoff Berry Computer]] [[ja:アタナソフ&ベリー・コンピュータ]] [[zh:阿塔纳索夫-贝瑞计算机]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A Midsummer Nights Dream</title> <id>1350</id> <revision> <id>15899839</id> <timestamp>2002-03-07T01:05:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eclecticology</username> <id>372</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Association of C and C++ Users</title> <id>1352</id> <revision> <id>33944428</id> <timestamp>2006-01-05T06:45:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Netoholic</username> <id>41995</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>plus now allowed</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Association of C and C++ Users''' ('''ACCU''') is a worldwide organisation of people interested in programming languages. Originally, the association was primarily for [[C programming language\|C]] programmers (it was then called the CUG), but it has since added [[C++]], [[C Sharp programming language\|C#]], [[Java programming language\|Java]], [[Perl]], and [[Python programming language\|Python]] programmers to its membership. The long form of the organisation's name is thus historical and seldom used, the name '''ACCU''' is preferred. Members of ACCU include professional programmers and companies as well as amateur programmers. The association is operated by a volunteer [[committee]], which is responsible for the organisation of an ACCU [[conference]] each spring in or near Oxford, as well as the publication of a number of journals. The associati
emembered as one of the preeminent voices of [[Modernist poetry in English\|20th century poetry]]. [[Image:EECummings pd2.jpg\|thumb\|150px\|right\|Graduation photo from Harvard College, 1915.]] ==Education and early career== From [[1911]] to [[1916]] Cummings attended [[Harvard]], from which he received a [[Bachelor of Arts\|B.A.]] degree in [[1915]] and a [[Master's degree]] for English and Classical Studies in 1916. While at Harvard, he befriended [[John Dos Passos]]. Several of Cummings' poems were published, beginning in [[1912]], in the ''Harvard Monthly'', a school newspaper on which Cummings worked with fellow [[Harvard Aesthetes]] Dos Passos and [[S. Foster Damon]], and in 1915 in the ''Harvard Advocate''. From an early age, Cummings studied the classical languages of Greek and Latin. His affinity for both can be seen in his later works, such as ''XAIPE'' (the title of one of his collections and "Rejoice!" in [[Greek language\|Greek]]), ''Anthropos'' (the title of one of his plays and "mankind" in Greek), and "Puella Mea" (the title of his longest poem, and "My Girl" in [[Latin]]). In his final year at Harvard, he came under the influence of the works of [[avant garde]] writers, such as [[Gertrude Stein]] and [[Ezra Pound]]. Cummings graduated ''[[magna cum laude]]'' from Harvard in 1915, and delivered a controversial commencement address, entitled "The New Art". This speech gave him his first taste of notoriety as he managed to give the impression that he thought the well-liked [[imagist]] poet, [[Amy Lowell]] was "abnormal," when his intention was to praise her. Cummings was lambasted in the newspapers. In 1917, Cummings' first published poems appeared in a collection of poetry entitled ''Eight Harvard Poets''. That same year Cummings went to [[France]] as a volunteer for the Norton-Harjes Ambulance Corps in [[World War I]]. Due to an administrative mix-up, Cummings was not assigned to an ambulance unit for five weeks, during which time he stayed in [[Paris]]. Cummings became enamored with the city, which he would return to throughout his life. [[Image:EECummings pd3.jpg\|thumb\|150px\|right\|Cummings as a Private at Fort Devens, Massachusetts, 1918.]] On [[September 21]] [[1917]], just five months after his belated assignment, he and a friend, [[William Slater Brown]], were arrested on suspicion of [[espionage]] (the two openly expressed [[pacifism\|pacifist]] views on the war). They were sent to a concentration camp, the ''Dépôt de Triage'', in La Ferté-Macé, [[Orne]], [[Normandy]], where they languished for 3½ months. Cummings' experiences in the camp were later related in his novel ''[[The Enormous Room]]'' about which [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] opined, "Of all the work by young men who have sprung up since 1920 one book survives- 'The Enormous Room' by E. E. Cummings...Those few who cause books to live have not been able to endure the thought of its mortality." He was released from the detention camp on December 19, [[1917]], after much intervention from his politically connected father. Cummings returned to the United States on New Year's Day [[1918]]. Later in 1918, he was drafted into the [[United States Army\|army]]. He served in the 73rd Infantry Division at [[Fort Devens, Massachusetts\|Camp Devens, Massachusetts]], until [[November]] [[1918]]. Cummings returned to Paris in [[1921]] and remained there for two years before returning to [[New York]]. During the rest of the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] he returned to Paris a number of times, and traveled throughout [[Europe]], meeting, among others, [[Pablo Picasso]]. In [[1931]] Cummings traveled to the [[Soviet Union]] and recounted his experiences in ''[[Eimi]]'', published two years later. During these years Cummings also traveled to [[Northern Africa]] and [[Mexico]] and worked as an essayist and portrait artist for ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)\|Vanity Fair]]'' magazine ([[1924]] to [[1927]]). ==Poetry== As well as being influenced by notable [[Modernism\|modernists]] including Stein and Pound, Cummings early work drew upon the imagist experiments of Amy Lowell. Later his visits to Paris exposed him to [[Dada]] and [[surrealism]], which in turn permeated his work. While some of his poetry is [[free verse]] (with no concern for [[rhyme]] and [[scansion]]), many of his poems have a recognizable [[sonnet]] structure of 14 lines, with an intricate rhyme scheme. A number of his poems feature a typographically exuberant style, with words, parts of words, or punctuation symbols scattered across the page, often making little sense until read aloud&mdash;at which point the meaning and emotion become clear. As a painter, Cummings understood the importance of presentation, and used typography to "paint a picture" with some of his poems.{{ref\|Landles}} Even in his earliest work the seeds of Cummings' unconventional style seem well established. At age six Cummings wrote to his father: FATHER DEAR. BE, YOUR FATHER-GOOD AND GOOD,<br> HE IS GOOD NOW, IT IS NOT GOOD TO SEE IT RAIN,<br> FATHER DEAR IS, IT, DEAR, NO FATHER DEAR,<br> LOVE, YOU DEAR,<br> ESTLIN.<br> Cummings' first published work following The Enormous Room was a collection of poems entitled ''Tulips and Chimneys'' (1923). The collection was the public's first encounter with his characteristic eccentric use of grammar and punctuation. An example: l(a<br> le<br> af<br> fa<br> ll<br> s)<br> one<br> l<br> iness<br> Some of Cummings's most famous poems do not involve much if any odd typography or punctuation at all, but still carry his unmistakable style. For example, one famous poem begins: ''anyone lived in a pretty how town'' <br> ''(with up so floating many bells down)'' <br> ''spring summer autumn winter'' <br> ''he sang his didn't he danced his did'' <br> ''Women and men(both little and small)'' <br> ''cared for anyone not at all''<br> ''they sowed their isn't they reaped their same'' <br> ''sun moon stars rain'' <br> Another poem begins as follows: ''why must itself up every of a park'' <br> ''anus stick some quote statue unquote to'' <br> ''prove that a hero equals any jerk'' <br> ''who was afraid to dare to answer'' "''no''"?'' <br> [[Image:TheDialJan1920-Cummingspoem.jpg\|thumb\|right\|150px\|Cummings' unusual style can be seen in his poem "[[Buffalo Bill]]'s/ defunct" from the January 1920 issue of ''[[The Dial]]''.]] Readers sometimes experience a jarring, incomprehensible effect because the poems do not accord with the conventional combinatorial rules that generate typical English sentences. (For example "Why must itself..." or "they sowed their isn't [...]"). His readings of [[Gertrude Stein]] in the early part of the century probably functioned as a springboard into this aspect of his artistic development (in the same way that [[Robert Walser]]'s work acted as a springboard for [[Franz Kafka]]). In some respects, Cummings's work shows more stylistic continuity with Stein's than with any other poet or writer. In addition, a number of Cummings' poems feature in part or in whole intentional misspellings; several feature phonetic spellings intended to represent particular dialects. Cummings also made use of inventive formations of compound words, as in [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/images/modeng/public/Cum2Dia/CumDi580.jpg "in Just-"], which features words such as "mud-luscious" and "puddle-wonderful". Many of Cummings' poems address social issues and satirize society (see "why must itself up every of a park", above), but have an equal or even stronger bias toward romanticism: time and again his poems celebrate love, sex and spring (see "anyone lived in a pretty how town" in its entireity). His talent extended to children's books, novels, and painting. A notable example of his versatility is an [[Introduction (essay)\|Introduction]] he wrote for a collection of the [[comic strip]] ''[[Krazy Kat]]''. An example of Cummings' unorthodox typographical style can be seen in his poems "[http://infocom.cqu.edu.au/Courses/2002/T3/MMST11001/course_site/images/readings/Cummings.gif the sky was candy luminous...]" and "[http://home.mn.rr.com/akhara/images/l.gif a leaf falls loneliness]". ==Criticisms== Cummings has been criticized for allowing himself to become static in [[technique]], and accordingly showing a lack of artistic growth. He has also been labeled by some as a [[misanthropy\|misanthrope]] due to his sometimes harsh [[satire]]. <!-- Some critics say his depictions of [[society]]'s [[hypocrisy]] are [[monotony]] [[elitist\|elitism]] and [[self-indulgence\|self-indulgent]]. (this sentence should be rewritten for clarity)-->For a time there was a claim that some of his early works feature [[racism\|racist]] and [[Anti-Semitism\|anti-semitic]] overtones.{{ref\|empzine}} However, it is more often noted by critics that although his approach to form did not often vary, his messages grew stronger, harsher, and more effortlessly romantic in his final years. ==Cummings as a painter== <div style="float: right; margin-left: 20px;"> <gallery> Image:EECummings pd4.jpg\|Self-portrait sketch by Cummings, circa 1920 Image:TheDialJan1920-Cummingssketch.jpg\|Sketch by Cummings, from the January 1920 ''Dial''</gallery> </div>Cummings always considered himself just as much a painter as he was a poet or writer. Especially in his later years, spent at his home in [[New Hampshire]], Cummings would paint during the day and then write at night. Beginning with his years at Harvard and continuing on into the 1920s, Cummings identified with the artistic movements of [[Cubism]], [[Dada]], and [[Surrealism]]. He
als to consume. In certain cultures, efforts are made to retard the decay processes before burial (resulting even in the retardation of decay processes after the burial), as in [[mummification]] or [[embalming]]. This happens during or after a [[funeral]] ceremony. Many [[funeral\|funeral customs]] exist in different cultures. In some fishing or navy communities, the body is sent into the water, in what is known as [[burial at sea]]. Several mountain villages have a tradition of hanging the coffin in woods. A new alternative is [[ecological burial]]. This is a sequence of deep-freezing, pulverisation by vibration, [[freeze-drying]], removing [[metal]]s, and burying the resulting powder, which has 30% of the body mass. [[Space burial]] uses a rocket to launch the cremated remains of a body into orbit. This has been done at least 150 times. Graves are usually grouped together in a plot of land called a ''[[cemetery]]'' or ''graveyard'', and burials can be arranged by a [[funeral home]], [[mortuary]], [[undertaker]] or by a religious body such as a [[church]] or (for some [[Jew\|Jews]]) the community's [[Burial Society]], a charitable or voluntary body charged with these duties. In some places this has created a land-use problem. For example, in Japan all people are cremated after death. About 10% of the arable land in [[China]] is taken up by graves.{{fact}} ===Funerals of Note=== * [[Hunter S. Thompson]] had his ashes shot out of a cannon to the tune of "[[Mr. Tambourine Man]]". == Personification of death == {{main\|Death (personification)}} [[Image:Allisvanity.jpg\|right\|thumb\|250px\|"All is Vanity" by [[C. Allan Gilbert]], suggesting an intertwinement between life and death.]] '''[[Death (personification)\|Death]]''' is also a [[mythology\|mythological]] figure who has existed in popular culture since the earliest days of storytelling. The traditional Western image of Death, known as the [[Grim Reaper]]&mdash;usually resembling a skeleton, wearing black robes and carrying a [[scythe]]&mdash;is employed on a [[tarot]] card and in various [[television]] shows and [[film]]s. Some examples: [[Death (Discworld)\|Death]] is a major character in the ''[[Discworld]]'' series by [[Terry Pratchett]]. Humorous depictions of Death, often with a Grim Reaper-esque feel, are common during the [[Día de los Muertos]] in Mexico, especially in the state of Michoacán. An [[Death (Sandman)\|unusual personification of Death]] appears in [[Neil Gaiman]]'s ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)\|Sandman]]'' graphic novels. In [[Ingmar Bergman]]'s ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'', a [[knight]] plays a game of [[chess]] against Death. Death is portrayed as a neurotic Grim Reaper-esque character who still lives with his mother in ''[[Family Guy]]''. He appeared in several episodes to date and in one episode, Peter Griffin must take on the responsibilities of Death after Death sprains his ankle. In the film ''[[Meet Joe Black]]'', a remake of ''[[Death Takes a Holiday]]'' (written by Alberto Casella), Death (Brad Pitt) inhabits the body of a young man to experience life firsthand. In the film ''[[Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey]]'', Death is the bassist for Wyld Stallyns. In the TV series ''[[Dead Like Me]]'', the main characters are all Grim Reapers as part of a post-life bureaucracy. The series ''[[Touched by an Angel]]'' featured the [[Angel of Death]] as a regular character, depicted as a kindly, soft-spoken man in his mid-30s. The [[Angel of Death]] also appeared in the show [[Charmed]] as a man who appeared before those who had died to take them to the afterlife. He was neither good nor evil. Death is also a recurring character in the [[Castlevania]] video games. He is usually described as Dracula's servant, and is therefore evil. He is almost always a boss, and appears usually near the end of the game. He uses the scythe, and often transforms into more hideous forms. Plus, he has one trademark attack: Often during the whole battle, he will constantly summon small sickles/scythes out of thin air to attack the player. Death 'stalks' people who avoided their demises in the [[Final Destination]] series. Death appears as a character in a sketch in the [[Monty Python]] film ''[[The Meaning of Life]]''. In the cartoon ''[[Futurama]]'', Death is represented by the "Sunset Squad", a group of [[robots]] who take people away to an unknown destination when they reach the [[longevity\|age of 160]]. In the book ''[[On a Pale Horse]]'' the main character becomes Death himself after killing the previous Death. In the cartoon''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]'', death is The Grim Reaper, usually called Grim (the character speaks with a Jamaican/Rastifarian accent), and is the forced best friend of Billy and Mandy. The Finnish band [[Children of Bodom]] use the Grim Reaper as a mascot or symbol of sorts. In America, Death is usually personified as one person. In Japanese culture, there are many Shinigami (Death Gods) that sometimes work together to collect souls, as seen in many manga, such as Death Note, or Descendants of Darkness. In the video game [[The Sims 2]], if a Sim dies, the Grim Reaper appears so the sim could purchase their [[life]] back. [[Peter Kay]] talked about death in one of his [[stand up comedy\|stand up]] shows. He suggested that the Grim Reaper was very camp - "Hold me scythe, me wrists are aching! Is it hot in here or is it me?" In the game [[Grim Fandango]], the main character - Manuel Calavera - is one of several Grim Reapers working for "The Department of Death". Death, depicted as a perky young lady dressed in black, is a recurring character in the [[Sandman]] comic book series by british author [[Neil Gaiman]]. ==Unwritten customs and superstitions== Since writing someone's name with a range of years, such as John Doe (1950 - 2000), implies that the subject has died, it would be a [[faux pas]] to do this on someone's birthday cake or card. This is unlike an anniversary of ''something''. In [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Taiwan]] the number 4 is often associated to death due to the sound of the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean words for ''four'' and ''death'' being similar. For this reason, hospitals and hotels often omit the 4th, 14th, etc. floors. However, [[ISO 3166-2:JP\|ISO 3166-2 codes for Japan]] does have JP-04 for [[Miyagi Prefecture]]. {{seealso\|List of faux pas}} ==See also== {\| \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| [[-cide]] [[Afterlife]] [[Agent Smith Moment]] [[Apoptosis]] [[Ars moriendi]] ("The Art of Dying") [[Autopsy]] [[Bible and reincarnation]] [[Brain death]] [[Burial]] [[Cemetery]] [[Clinical death]] [[Coffin]] [[Coma]] [[Cremation]] [[Danse Macabre]] [[Death (band)]] ''[[Death, Desire and Loss in Western Culture]]'' by [[Jonathan Dollimore]] [[Death rattle]] [[Embalming]] [[Euthanasia]] [[Fascination with Death]] (The fascination with death and the culture surrounding it) [[Famous last words]] \| [[Funeral]] [[Hearse]] [[Human body disposal]] [[Immortality]] [[Karoshi]] [[Life extension]] [[List of wars and disasters by death toll]] [[Maternal death]] [[Mortician]] [[Mot]] [[Near-death experience]] [[Persistent vegetative state]] [[Post Mortem Interval]] [[Quantum immortality]] [[Reincarnation]] [[Rigor Mortis]] [[Terminal illness]] [[Thanatology]] (The scientific study of death, its causes and phenomena.) [[Lists of people by cause of death]] [[Yama]] \|} == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.nsc.org/lrs/statinfo/odds.htm Odds of dying due to various injuries or accidents] Source: National Safety Council, United States, 2001 * [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dying.htm Dying, Yamaraja and Yamadutas + terminal restlessness] (Vedic/Hindu view) * [http://www.quranichealing.com/bp.asp?caid=65 Death & Dying in Islam] Muslim attitudes towards death. * [http://www.zyworld.com/jamus/LifeCycle.htm The Cycle of Life] In context of the page [[New Age]] of [[Aquarius]]. * [http://www.quotesandpoem.com/poems/SelectedPoetryTopic/Death Poems on Death and Dying] * [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/death_suffering.asp Why is there death and suffering?] From a [[creationist]] point of view. * [http://www.ogrish.com Deaths and death scenes. WARNING: very explicit] [http://www.faerie-world.org/tales/deathgoddess.html A mythological view of the Morrigan, the Celtic goddess of death] [http://www.elijahwald.com/origin.html George Wald: The Origin of Death] A biologist explains life and death in different kinds of organisms in relation to evolution. * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/death/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on death] * [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=281541 The Jewish Way in Death and Mourning] By Maurice Lamm [[Category:Biology]] [[Category:Death\|*]] [[ca:Mort]] [[cs:Smrt]] [[da:Død]] [[de:Tod]] [[es:Muerte]] [[eo:Morto]] [[fr:Mort]] [[gl:Morte]] [[io:Morto]] [[ia:Morte]] [[it:Morte]] [[he:מוות]] [[la:Mors]] [[lv:Nāve]] [[lt:Mirtis]] [[hu:Halál]] [[ms:Ajal]] [[nl:Dood]] [[ja:死]] [[no:Død]] [[pl:Śmierć]] [[pt:Morte]] [[ru:Смерть]] [[simple:Death]] [[sr:Смрт]] [[su:Paéh]] [[fi:Kuolema]] [[sv:Döden]] [[vi:Chết]] [[zh:死亡]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Deseret alphabet</title> <id>8222</id> <revision> <id>40733540</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T17:29:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Big Adamsky</username> <id>468840</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deseret second book.jpg\|right\|frame\|Sample from the Deseret Second Book, printed in 1868. The first three (and part of the fourth) words read "One of the worst habit..." (The first three words phonetically read "Wu-o-en ah-vee thee wu-o-er-es-tee")]] '''The Deseret alphabet''' is a [[phonetics\|phonetic]] [[alphabet]] developed in
ign [[Moab]], which had been conquered by his father, remained tributary; [[kingdom of Judah\|Judah]], with whose king, [[Jehoshaphat]], he was allied by marriage, was probably his vassal; only with [[Damascus]] is he said to have had strained relations. The one event mentioned by external sources is the [[Battle of Karkar]] (perhaps at [[Apamea]]), where [[Shalmaneser III]] of [[Assyria]] fought a great confederation of princes from [[Cilicia]], Northern [[Syria]], Israel, [[Ammon]] and the tribes of the Syrian desert ([[853 BC]]). Here Ahab (''A-ha-ab-bu <sup>mat</sup>Sir-'i-la-a-a'' or "Ahab the Israelite") joined [[Baasha]], son of [[Ruhub]] (Rehob) of Ammon and nine others are allied with [[Hadadezer]] (''Bir-'idri''), Ahab's contribution being reckoned at 2,000 chariots and 10,000 men. The numbers are comparatively large and possibly include forces from [[Tyre]], Judah, [[Edom]] and [[Moab]]. The Assyrian king claimed a victory, but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in [[849 BC]] and [[846 BC]] against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to show that he met with no lasting success. According to the [[Old Testament]], however, Ahab with 7,000 troops had previously overthrown [[Ben-hadad]] and his thirty-two kings, who had come to lay siege to Samaria, and in the following year obtained a remarkable victory over him at [[Aphek]], probably in the [[plain of Sharon]] (''1 Kings'' 20). A treaty was made whereby Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from Ahab's father (that is, Omri, but see 15:20, ''[[Books of Kings\|2 Kings]]'' 13:25), and trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were granted. A late popular story (20:35-42, akin in tone to 12:33-13:34) condemned Ahab for his leniency and foretold the destruction of the king and his land. Three years later, war broke out on the east of the [[Jordan River]], and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of Judah went to recover [[Battle of Ramoth-Gilead\|Ramoth-Gilead]] and was mortally wounded (ch. 22). He was succeeded by his sons ([[Ahaziah]] and [[Jehoram]]). It is very difficult to obtain any clear idea of the order of these events (the [[Septuagint]] places ''1 Kings'' 21 immediately after 19). How the hostile kings of Israel and Syria came to fight a common enemy, and how to correlate the Assyrian and Biblical records, are questions which have perplexed all recent writers. The reality of the difficulties will be apparent from the fact that it has been suggested that the Assyrian scribe wrote "Ahab" for his son "Jehoram", and that the very identification of the name with Ahab of Israel has been questioned. Whilst the above passages from ''1 Kings'' view Ahab not unfavourably, there are others which are less friendly. The murder of [[Naboth]] (see [[Jezebel (biblical)\|Jezebel]]), an act of royal encroachment, stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused the opposition of certain of the prophets. The latter found their champion in Elijah, whose history reflects the prophetic teaching of more than one age. His denunciation of the royal dynasty, and his emphatic insistence on the worship of Yahweh and Him alone, form the keynote to a period which culminated in the accession of [[Jehu]], an event in which Elijah's chosen disciple [[Elisha]] was the leading figure. The allusions to the statutes and works of Omri and Ahab in ''[[Book of Micah\|Micah]]'' 6:16 may point to legislative measures of these kings, and the reference to the incidents at the building of [[Jericho]] (''1 Kings'' 16:34) may be taken to show that foundation sacrifices, familiar in nearly all parts of the world, were not unknown in Israel at this period, which have in fact been confirmed by excavation in [[Palestine (region)\|Palestine]]. {\| align="center" cellpadding="2" border="2" \|- \| width="30%" align="center" \| Preceded by:<br />'''[[Omri]]''' \| width="40%" align="center" \| '''[[Kingdom of Israel\|King of Israel]]''' \| width="30%" align="center" \| Succeeded by:<br />'''[[Ahaziah of Israel\|Ahaziah]]''' \|} Another '''Ahab''' is known only as an impious [[prophet]] in the time of the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah\|Babylonian exile]] (''[[Book of Jeremiah\|Jeremiah]]'' 29:21). Another '''[[Captain Ahab\|Ahab]]''' is the monomanical captain of the [[whaling]] [[ship]] ''[[Pequod (Moby-Dick)\|Pequod]]'' in the novel [[Moby-Dick]]. ==References== {{1911}} [[Category:853 BC deaths]] [[Category:850 BC deaths]] [[Category:Kings of ancient Israel]] [[ca:Acab]] [[de:Ahab (König)]] [[eo:Ahabo]] [[he:אחאב]] [[no:Akab]] [[sv:Ahab]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ASIC</title> <id>1391</id> <revision> <id>35924252</id> <timestamp>2006-01-20T06:55:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Botryoidal</username> <id>814230</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Automated text replacement (-{{4LA}} +{{4LC}})</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The acronym '''ASIC''', depending on context, may stand for: [[Application-specific integrated circuit]] * [[ASIC programming language]] * [[Australian Securities and Investments Commission]] {{4LC}} [[de:ASIC]] [[pt:ASIC (desambiguação)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dasyproctidae</title> <id>1392</id> <revision> <id>37289371</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:09:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox \| color = pink \| name = Dasyproctidae \| fossil_range = Late [[Oligocene]] - Recent \| image = Paka (Coelogenys Paca).png \| image_width = 200px \| image_caption = ''[[Agouti paca]]'' \| regnum = [[Animal\|Animalia]] \| phylum = [[Chordate\|Chordata]] \| classis = [[Mammal]]ia \| ordo = [[Rodent]]ia \| familia = '''Dasyproctidae''' \| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray\|Gray]], 1825 \| subdivision_ranks = Genera \| subdivision = ''[[Dasyprocta]]<br />[[Myoprocta]]<br />[[Agouti]]'' }} The '''Dasyproctidae''' are a family of [[South America]]n [[rodent]]s, comprising three [[genus\|genera]]. ==Classification== '''Family Dasyproctidae''' Genus ''[[Dasyprocta]]'' [[Azara's Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta azarae]]'' [[Coiban Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta coibae]]'' [[Crested Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta cristata]]'' [[Black Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta fuliginosa]]'' [[Orinoco Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta guamara]]'' [[Kalinowski Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta kalinowskii]]'' [[Brazilian Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta leporina]]'' [[Mexican Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta mexicana]]'' [[Black-rumped Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta prymnolopha]]'' [[Central American Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta punctata]]'' [[Ruatan Island Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta ruatanica]]'' Genus ''[[Myoprocta]]'' *[[Green Acouchi]], ''[[Myoprocta pratti]]'' [[Red Acouchi]], ''[[Myoprocta acouchy]]'' Genus ''[[Agouti (genus)\|Agouti]]'' [[Paca]], ''[[Agouti paca]]'' [[Mountain Paca]], ''[[Agouti taczanowskii]]'' The [[Pacas]] (''Agouti'' genus) are sometimes placed in a separate family ''Agoutidae'' or as the subfamily ''Agoutinae''. Note that the animals commonly known as Agoutis are not the same as those with the scientific name ''Agouti''. Adding to the confusion, the name Agoutis is sometimes used to refer to the whole family Dasyproctidae, including or excluding the ''Agouti'' genus. To avoid misunderstandings, some authors refer to the Pacas as the genus ''Cuniculus''. ==External links== [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/rodentia/rodentia.dasyproctidae.html Dasyproctidae at Johns Hopkins Univ.] *[http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/ammammals/agouti.shtml Black agouti photo and natural history] {{Rodents}} [[Category:Rodents]] [[Category:Hystricognath rodents]] [[de:Pakas und Agutis]] [[fr:Dasyproctidae]] [[lt:Agutiniai]] [[nl:Agoeti's en acouchi's]] [[pl:Aguti]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Æesop</title> <id>1393</id> <revision> <id>15899881</id> <timestamp>2005-04-27T21:22:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aesop]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Algol</title> <id>1394</id> <revision> <id>38653070</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T19:40:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RJHall</username> <id>91076</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}} {{Starbox begin \| name=Beta Persei A/B/C }} {{Starbox image \| image=[[Image:Position Beta Per.png\|250px]] \| caption=The position of Algol. }} {{Starbox observe \| epoch=J2000 \| ra=03<sup>h</sup> 08<sup>m</sup> 10.1<sup>s</sup> \| dec=+40&deg; 57&prime; 20.3&Prime; \| appmag_v=1.58 \| constell=[[Perseus]] }} {{Starbox character \| class=B5-8 V/K02 IV/A5 V \| b-v=-0.05 \| u-b=-0.37 \| variable=[[Eclipsing binary]] }} {{Starbox astrometry \| radial_v=3.7 \| prop_mo_ra=2.39 \| prop_mo_dec=-1.44 \| parallax=35.14 \| p_error=0.90 \| dist_ly=92.8 \| dist_pc=28.5 \| absmag_v=-0.69 }} {{Starbox detail\| mass=3.59/0.79/1.67 \| radius=2.88/3.54/1.7 \| luminosity=98/3.4/4.1 \| temperature=12,500/4,500 \| metal=? \| rotation=65 km/sec. \| age=? }} {{Starbox catalog \| names=Algol, Gorgona, Gorgonea Prima, Demon Star, El Ghoul, 26 Per, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue\|GJ]] 9110, [[Harvard Revised catalogue\|HR]] 936, [[Bonner Durchmusterung\|BD]] +40&deg;673, [[Henry Draper catal
9]], when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best-of-five series to determine who would advanced to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven. In [[1981]], a divisional series was held due to split-season caused by [[1981 baseball strike\|strike action]]. In [[1994]], the league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and a wild-card team advancing to a best-of-five playoff round, the [[National League Division Series]] (NLDS). The winners of that round then advance to the best-of-seven NLCS. This is the system currently in use. A Most Valuable Player (MVP) award is given to the outstanding player in each series. No MVP award is given for Division Series play. The [[Warren Giles]] Trophy is awarded to the NLCS winner. For National League pennant winners prior to 1969, see [[National League pennant winners 1901-68]] and [[National League pennant winners 1876-1900]]. {{expandsect}} == NLCS results (1969-present) == {\| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="3" \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" ! Year ! Winner ! Loser ! Wins ! Losses ! Series MVP ! Notable \|- \| [[1969 National League Championship Series\|1969]] \| [[New York Mets]] \|\| [[Atlanta Braves]] \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| align="center" \| 0 \|\| &nbsp; \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1970 National League Championship Series\|1970]] \| [[Cincinnati Reds]] \|\| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| align="center" \| 0 \|\| &nbsp; \|- \| [[1971 National League Championship Series\|1971]] \| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] \|\| [[San Francisco Giants]] \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| align="center" \| 1 \|\| &nbsp; \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1972 National League Championship Series\|1972]] \| [[Cincinnati Reds]] \|\| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| align="center" \| 2 \|\| &nbsp; \| After [[Johnny Bench]] hit a Game 5-tying home run, [[Bob Moose]] threw a 9th-inning wild pitch to send the Reds to the World Series. \|- \| [[1973 National League Championship Series\|1973]] \| [[New York Mets]] \|\| [[Cincinnati Reds]] \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| align="center" \| 2 \|\| &nbsp; \| This series is probably best remembered for a fight between [[Pete Rose]] and [[Bud Harrelson]]. \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1974 National League Championship Series\|1974]] \| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] \|\| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| align="center" \| 1 \|\| &nbsp; \|- \| [[1975 National League Championship Series\|1975]] \| [[Cincinnati Reds]] \|\| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| align="center" \| 0 \|\| &nbsp; \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1976 National League Championship Series\|1976]] \| [[Cincinnati Reds]] \|\| [[Philadelphia Phillies]] \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| align="center" \| 0 \|\| &nbsp; \|- \| [[1977 National League Championship Series\|1977]] \| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] \|\| [[Philadelphia Phillies]] \| align="center" \| 3 \| align="center" \| 1 \|\| [[Dusty Baker]], Los Angeles \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1978 National League Championship Series\|1978]] \| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] \|\| [[Philadelphia Phillies]] \| align="center" \| 3 \| align="center" \| 1 \|\| [[Steve Garvey]], Los Angeles \|- \| [[1979 National League Championship Series\|1979]] \| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] \|\| [[Cincinnati Reds]] \| align="center" \| 3 \| align="center" \| 0 \|\| [[Willie Stargell]], Pittsburgh \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1980 National League Championship Series\|1980]] \| [[Philadelphia Phillies]] \|\| [[Houston Astros]] \| align="center" \| 3 \| align="center" \| 2 \|\| [[Manny Trillo]], Philadelphia \| Numerous surveys and articles rank this as one of the best postseason series of all time; the final four games went to extra innings. \|- \| [[1981 National League Championship Series\|1981]] \| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] \|\| [[Montreal Expos]] \| align="center" \| 3 \| align="center" \| 2 \|\| [[Burt Hooton]], Los Angeles \| A key home run by [[Rick Monday]], off [[Steve Rogers]], eliminated the Expos in their only postseason appearance. \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1982 National League Championship Series\|1982]] \| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] \|\| [[Atlanta Braves]] \| align="center" \| 3 \| align="center" \| 0 \|\| [[Darrell Porter]], St. Louis \|- \| [[1983 National League Championship Series\|1983]] \| [[Philadelphia Phillies]] \|\| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] \| align="center" \| 3 \| align="center" \| 1 \|\| [[Gary Matthews]], Philadelphia \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1984 National League Championship Series\|1984]] \| [[San Diego Padres]] \|\| [[Chicago Cubs]] \| align="center" \| 3 \| align="center" \| 2 \|\| [[Steve Garvey]], San Diego \| After Garvey hit a walk-off home run in Game 4, the Padres finished their 2-0 comeback in Game 5 after [[Leon Durham]] made a crucial error. \|- \| [[1985 National League Championship Series\|1985]] \| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] \|\| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 2 \|\| [[Ozzie Smith]], St. Louis \| Smith ended Game 5 with his first ever [[switch hitting\|left-handed]] home run, and in Game 6 [[Tom Niedenfuer]] surrendered his second big homer in as many games when [[Jack Clark (baseball)\|Jack Clark]] struck the deciding blow. \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1986 National League Championship Series\|1986]] \| [[New York Mets]] \|\| [[Houston Astros]] \| align="center" \| 4 \|\| align="center" \| 2 \| [[Mike Scott (baseball player)\|Mike Scott]], Houston \| Scott pitched two complete games, but [[Lenny Dykstra]] and [[Gary Carter]] provided game-winning heroics for the Mets before an epic 16-inning classic in Game 6 closed out the series. \|- \| [[1987 National League Championship Series\|1987]] \| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] \|\| [[San Francisco Giants]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| [[Jeff Leonard]], San Francisco \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1988 National League Championship Series\|1988]] \| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] \|\| [[New York Mets]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| [[Orel Hershiser]], Los Angeles \| The series MVP pitched 24 2/3 innings, an LCS record. \|- \| [[1989 National League Championship Series\|1989]] \| [[San Francisco Giants]] \|\| [[Chicago Cubs]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 1 \|\| [[Will Clark]], San Francisco \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1990 National League Championship Series\|1990]] \| [[Cincinnati Reds]] \|\| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] \| align="center" \| 4 \|\| align="center" \| 2 \| [[Rob Dibble]] and [[Randy Myers]], Cincinnati \|- \| [[1991 National League Championship Series\|1991]] \| [[Atlanta Braves]] \|\| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| [[Steve Avery]], Atlanta \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1992 National League Championship Series\|1992]] \| [[Atlanta Braves]] \|\| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| [[John Smoltz]], Atlanta \| Down in the 9th inning, [[Francisco Cabrera]] singled home two runs to win Atlanta their second pennant in a row. \|- \| [[1993 National League Championship Series\|1993]] \| [[Philadelphia Phillies]] \|\| [[Atlanta Braves]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 2 \|\| [[Curt Schilling]], Philadelphia \| [[Kim Batiste]], in his only postseason at-bat ever, hit the game-winning single in the 10th inning of Game 1 after making a 9th-inning throwing error that lead to the tying run. \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| 1994 \| colspan="5" align="center" \| ''Not held due to [[1994 baseball strike\|player strike]].'' \|- \| [[1995 National League Championship Series\|1995]] \| [[Atlanta Braves]] \|\| [[Cincinnati Reds]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 0 \|\| [[Mike Devereaux]], Atlanta \|- \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1996 National League Championship Series\|1996]] \| [[Atlanta Braves]] \|\| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 3 \|\| [[Javy López]], Atlanta \| Atlanta came back from a 3-1 deficit by winning their next three games in blowout fashion. The combined score in those games was 32-1. \|- \|- \| [[1997 National League Championship Series\|1997]] \| [[Florida Marlins]]&dagger; \|\| [[Atlanta Braves]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 2 \|\| [[Liván Hernández]], Florida \|- \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[1998 National League Championship Series\|1998]] \| [[San Diego Padres]] \|\| [[Atlanta Braves]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="center" \| 2 \|\| [[Sterling Hitchcock]], San Diego \|- \|- \| [[1999 National League Championship Series\|1999]] \| [[Atlanta Braves]] \|\| [[New York Mets]]&dagger; \| align="center" \| 4 \|\| align="center" \| 2 \| [[Eddie Pérez (baseball player)\|Eddie Pérez]], Atlanta \| The Mets scored a [[pyrrhic victory]] on a [[Robin Ventura]] hit in the 15th inning of a rainy Game 5. In Game 6, [[Kenny Rogers (baseball player)\|Kenny Rogers]] walked [[Andruw Jones]] with the bases loaded to give the Braves the pennant in extra innings. \|- \|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;" \| [[2000 National League Championship Series\|2000]] \| [[New York Mets]]&dagger; \|\| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] \| align="center" \| 4 \| align="cen
ects in almost every scene. Other critics focused on the failings of the animation itself. While the [[rendering]] is intended to be photorealistic, the characters' motions and expressions are actually quite stiff and unexpressive compared to actual human motion. This is most notable in the "doll-eyed stare" of the characters, which many viewers found particularly unnerving, but also in the rigid poses and gaits of the characters, and the lack of deformation in skin and tissue accompanying character motion such as speech and grasping. The modelling of lighting on skin and hair (which in reality are subtly translucent) is also limited, giving the characters a "painted statue" look. As a result, the film is often cited as an example of animation that falls into the [[uncanny valley]]. Poor box office performance ([[United States dollar\|$]]32 million in North America), combined with the astronomical cost of production ($137 million, plus a further $30 million for marketing), essentially [[bankruptcy\|bankrupted]] [[Square Pictures]], the subsidiary of Square that produced it, although Square Pictures did survive long enough to produce an animated tie-in to ''[[The Matrix]],'' ''[[Final Flight of the Osiris]]''. The film made only $55 million more in overseas box office, meaning total losses were approximately $123 million (the studio typically receives half the box office gross). The domestic box office loss was at the time apparently the largest in film history. There is speculation that the failure of this film, coupled with other circumstances at the time and following years, proved to be the catalyst that inspired [[Square Co., Ltd.]]'s merger with [[Enix]]. ==Technology== [[Image:Akihot100.jpg\|thumb\|right\|[[Aki Ross]] in ''Maxim'' magazine]] ''Final Fantasy'' quickly, though briefly, became a benchmark of CGI graphics realism to which performance of computer graphics hardware and quality of images in computer games is compared. The basic movie was rendered at a home-made render farm which consisted of 960 Pentium III-933MHz workstations. The render farm was made by [[Square Pictures]] located in Hawaii. Later in 2001 [[nVidia]] released a [[technology demo]] for the [[NVIDIA Quadro DCC]], rendering several scenes from the movie in real-time (compared with 1.5 hours per frame for the movie), albeit at only 10 [[frame rate\|frames per second]] and with lower quality (simpler model with noticeable polygons, clipping problems, less realistic skin and textile with no/poor shaders &ndash; "plastic" look, unrealistic lighting, poor specular highlighting and very limited self-shadowing). The Square Pictures render farm and the nVidia demo used completely different and unrelated [[rendering]] algorithms -- [[ray tracing]] and other pixel-by-pixel [[CPU]]-based techniques never intended interactive speeds by the former, and a [[Graphics processing unit\|GPU]]-based rasterized [[polygon mesh]] by the later. The render farm also rendered at resolutions far higher than the [[GeForce 3]] is capable of. This makes frame-rate comparisons between the two uninformative. Rather, the demo showed the high quality that [[raster graphics]] had achieved. Prior to the film's release (and subsequent box office failure), Square had indicated plans for the Aki Ross "synthetic actress" to appear in other films, possibly even interacting with live actors. A sample of what this might have looked like can be seen on the introduction to the second DVD in the Special Edition release, which shows Aki "breaking character" after filming a scene and walking through the studio, interacting with both CGI and real people. Shortly after the release of the film, the character of Aki Ross broke new ground by becoming the first computer-generated entry in ''[[Maxim (magazine)\|Maxim]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Hot 100. ==Cast (voice actors)== [[Aki Ross]]: [[Ming-Na]] Dr. Cid: [[Donald Sutherland]] Gray Edwards: [[Alec Baldwin]] Ryan Whittaker: [[Ving Rhames]] Jane Proudfoot: [[Peri Gilpin]] Neil Fleming: [[Steve Buscemi]] General Hein: [[James Woods]] ==Images from the Movie== <gallery> Image:Aki8.jpg\|Aki Ross in the opening of The Spirits Within. Image:Deepeyes.jpg\|Deep Eyes soldier Image:Beasts.jpg\|The Phantoms Image:Aki3.jpg\|Aki must discover the meaning behind the vivid dreams she keeps having of the Phantoms. </gallery> ==External links== {{imdb title\|id=0173840\|title=Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within}} * [http://arstechnica.com/wankerdesk/01q3/ff-interview/ff-interview-1.html Behind Scenes Interview by Ars Technica] ==See also== [[Uncanny Valley]] [[Category:2001 films]] [[Category:Computer-animated films]] [[Category:Final Fantasy in film and television]] {{Final Fantasy series}} [[da:Final Fantasy - The Spirits Within]] [[de:Final Fantasy: Die Mächte in dir]] [[fr:Final fantasy, les créatures de l'esprit]] [[ja:ファイナルファンタジー (映画)]] [[sk:Final Fantasy: Esencia Života]] [[fi:Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Filter</title> <id>11243</id> <revision> <id>41547494</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:00:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gflores</username> <id>153556</id> </contributor> <comment>cleanup</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}} The term '''filter''' may refer to: In chemistry, engineering, or household usage, a device to separate mixtures. See [[filter (chemistry)]] [[filter (water)]] [[filter (air)]] [[pneumatic filter]]. * In optics and photography, a device to remove or block certain wavelengths (colors) of light. See [[filter (optics)]] [[filter (photography)]] *[[infrared filter]] In computing, a program to process a data stream. See [[filter (software)]] [[filter (Unix)]] [[mail filter]] [[Internet filter]] *[[lameness filter]]. In [[signal processing]] applications such as telecommunications and music, an electronic or mechanical device, or mathematical algorithm, to modify the harmonic content of signals. See [[electronic filter]] [[audio filter]]. * In mathematics, a certain kind of [[subset]] of a [[partially ordered set]]. See *[[filter (mathematics)]]. In psychology, a type of learning blockage. See *[[affective filter]]. '''Filter''' may may also be the name of: [[Filter (band)]], an industrial rock band of the 1990s * ''[[Filter (television)]]'', a show on the G4 channel: * ''[[Filter (magazine)]]'', an off-beat indie music magazine ==See also== * [[Filter coffee]], a hot drink * [[Filter feeder]], an animal that strains food particles from water * [[Potion\|Philter]], a magical potion * [[Filtration]] * [[Conversion]] {{disambig}} [[Category:Filters\| ]] [[da:Filter]] [[de:Filter]] [[es:Filtro]] [[eo:Filtro]] [[fr:Filtre]] [[it:Filtro]] [[nl:Filter]] [[ja:フィルター]] [[pl:Filtr]] [[pt:Filtro]] [[fi:Suodatus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Free Methodist Church</title> <id>11244</id> <revision> <id>41884086</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:01:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>192.85.50.1</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FMClogo.jpg\|right]] The '''Free Methodist Church''' is a denomination of [[Methodism]], which is a branch of [[Protestantism]]. It was founded in [[1860]] in [[New York]]'s [[Burned-over district]] by a group, led by [[B. T. Roberts]], who was defrocked in the [[Methodist Episcopal Church]] for criticisms of the spiritual laxness of the church hierarchy. The Free Methodists are so named because they believed it was improper to charge for better seats in pews closer to the pulpit. They also opposed [[slavery]] and supported freedom for all slaves in the [[United States]], while many Methodists in the [[U.S. Southern states\|South]] at that time did not actively oppose slavery. Beyond that, they advocated "freedom" from secret societies, which had allegedly undermined parts of the Methodist Episcopal Church. An example would be [[Free Masons]]. At first the church consisted of many former Methodist Episcopal people who had been actively involved in the [[Underground Railroad]] just prior to the [[American Civil War]], which had sought to aid escaped slaves gain safety and freedom in [[Canada]]. Some of the stations are still centers of Free Methodist activity today, such as [[North Chili, New York]], site of present-day [[Roberts Wesleyan College]], a Free Methodist school named after the founder. From there fugitive slaves were taken to [[Lake Ontario]] and boated across to Canada. Another Underground Railroad site was [[Pekin, New York]], near the [[Niagara River]], where slaves also crossed. This tiny town was the site of a [[Holiness movement\|Holiness]] [[camp meeting]], as well, and the site of the organizational conference of the church in 1860. The denomination also has numerous churches in the [[Midwest]], some of the oldest ones also being in communities that were [[Abolitionism\|abolitionist]] centers and Underground Railroad stops along the southern shore of [[Lake Michigan]]. Today, the Free Methodist Church is considered to be a part of [[Evangelicalism\|Evangelical]] Protestant Christianity, and its [[theology]] is similar to that of the [[Wesleyan Church]], the [[Church of the Nazarene]] and other [[Holiness]] churches. Members have traditionally abstained from [[alcoholic beverage\|alcohol]] and [[tobacco]], but many today drink in moderation. The denomination is more conservative, smaller and not as well organized as the United Methodist Church. Many young church planters are also starting [[emerging church]] ministries. ''Light and Life'' is the official [[magazine]] of the Free Methodist Church in the United States. It has about 77,000 members in the United States and an average attenda
5 that the last of the handful of survivors were [[repatriated]]. The German public was not officially told of the disaster until the end of January 1943, though positive reports in the German propaganda media about the battle had stopped in the weeks before the announcement. It was not the first major setback of the German military, but the crushing defeat at Stalingrad was unmatched in scale. On [[February 18]] the [[minister]] of [[propaganda]], [[Joseph Goebbels]], gave his famous [[Sportpalast speech]] in Berlin, encouraging the Germans to accept a [[total war]] which would claim all resources and efforts from the entire population. By any measure the battle of Stalingrad was arguably the largest single battle in human history. It raged for 199 days. Numbers of casualties are difficult to compile owing to the vast scope of the battle and the fact the Soviet government didn't allow estimates to be run for fear the cost would have proven too high. In its initial phases, the Germans inflicted heavy casualties on Soviet formations, however, the Soviet counter strike cut off and annihilated the entire 6th Army (which was exceptionally strong) and parts of the 4th Panzer Army. Various [[scholar]]s have estimated the Axis suffered 850,000 casualties of all types among all branches of the German armed forces and its allies: 400,000 Germans, 200,000 Romanians, 130,000 Italians, 120,000 Hungarians were killed, wounded or missing. An unusually high proportion of total German casualties were killed and captured (96,000 of whom were prisoners). In addition, and as many as 50,000 [[turncoat]] Soviets were killed or captured by the Red Army. Soviet military losses are disputed. According to archival figures, the Red Army suffered 478,741 men killed and 650,878 wounded (for a total of 1,129,619). These numbers, however, include a wide scope of operations. More than 40,000 Soviet civilians died in Stalingrad and its suburbs during a single week of aerial bombing as the 6th and 4th armies approached the city; the total number of civilians killed in the regions outside the city is unknown. In all, a total of anywhere from 1.7 million to 2 million Axis and Allied casualties resulted from the battle, making it by far the largest in human history. For the heroism of the Soviet defenders of Stalingrad, the city was awarded the title [[Hero City]] in 1945. After the war, in the 1960s, a colossal [[monument]] of "[[Mother Motherland\|Mother Russia]]" was erected on [[Mamayev Kurgan]], the hill overlooking the city. The statue forms part of a [[War memorial\|memorial]] complex which includes ruined walls deliberately left the way they were after the battle. The Grain Elevator, as well as [[Pavlov's House]], the apartment building whose defenders eventually held out for two months until they were relieved, can still be visited. One may, even today, find bones and rusty metal splinters on Mamayev Kurgan, symbol of both the human suffering during the battle and the successful yet costly resistance against the German invasion. [[Image:Mutter Heimat.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|The 85-meter-tall statue of [[Mother Motherland]] crowns the [[Mamayev Kurgan]].]] ==External links== [http://www.stalingrad-info.com Stalingrad-info.com, many Pictures from the battle and the city] [http://panorama.volgadmin.ru/ Volgograd State Panoramic Museum official homepage] {{ru icon}} [http://www.stalingrad.ws/ Stalingrad Battle] This site is sponsored by the main historical and culture organizations of Volgograd. {{en icon}} {{de icon}} [http://www.stalingrad.com.ru/ Stalingrad] (in English and German). Many photos and various information on the battle. [http://www.columbia.edu/~lnp3/mydocs/culture/Battle_of_Stalingrad.htm The Battle of Stalingrad in Film and History] Written with strong Socialist/Communist political under and overtones. [http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/wwii/stalingrad/default.aspx The Battle of Stalingrad] The Battle of Stalingrad in detail. [http://www.katardat.org/marxuniv/2002-SUWW2/Images/images05-stalingrad.html Stalingrad 1942-1943: Photos from the Soviet photographer Georgii Anatolyevian Zelma] [http://katardat.org/marxuniv/2002-SUWW2/Images/images06-stalingrad.html Stalingrad 1942-1943: Pictures by Soviet photographers] [http://katardat.org/marxuniv/2002-SUWW2/Images/images10-Stalingrad.html Stalingrad 1942-1943: Photos from the Archive of Stalingrad (Volgograd)] [http://www.geocities.com/roav1945/koby.html Soviet Artilleryman's Story Of Stalingrad: Isaak Kobylyanskiy] ==Dramatization== * ''[[Stalingrad: Dogs, Do You Want to Live Forever?]]'' (''Hunde, wollt ihr ewig leben?''), a 1958 [[West Germany\|West German]] film directed by [[Frank Wisbar]] * ''[[Stalingrad (1993 movie)\|Stalingrad]]'', a 1993 [[Germany\|German]] film directed by [[Joseph Vilsmaier]] * ''[[Enemy at the Gates]]'', a 2001 British film which dramatized and in some cases fictionalized elements of real exploits by [[sniper]] [[Vasily Alexandrovich Zaitsev\|Vasily Zaitsev]]. Directed by [[Jean-Jacques Annaud]] and starring [[Jude Law]], [[Joseph Fiennes]], [[Ed Harris]] and [[Rachel Weisz]] * The [[Feindflug]] song ''[[Roter Schnee]]'' * ''[[War Of The Rats]]'', a 1999 novel by David L. Robbins, which was later to be the foundation of the 2001 film, ''[[Enemy at the Gates]]'' ==References== * [[Antony Beevor]] (1998), ''[[Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege 1942-1943]]'', Viking, 1998, hardcover, ISBN 0670870951; paperback, 1999, ISBN 0140284583 * [[William Craig (author)\|William Craig]] (1973), ''Enemy at the Gates: the Battle for Stalingrad''. New York, Penguin Books. ISBN 0142000000 * Joachim Wieder et al, ''Stalingrad - Memories and Reassessments'', Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1998. ISBN 1854094602 {{World War II}} [[Category:Battle of Stalingrad\|*]] [[Category:Battles of Germany\|Stalingrad]] [[Category:Battles of Italy\|Stalingrad]] [[Category:Battles of Romania\|Stalingrad]] [[Category:Battles of the Soviet Union\|Stalingrad]] [[Category:Soviet-German War\|Stalingrad]] [[Category:Battles of Russia\|Stalingrad]] <!-- interwiki --> [[bg:Битка при Сталинград]] [[cs:Bitva u Stalingradu]] [[da:Slaget om Stalingrad]] [[de:Schlacht von Stalingrad]] [[es:Batalla de Stalingrado]] [[fa:نبرد استالينگراد]] [[fr:Bataille de Stalingrad]] [[gl:Batalla de Stalingrado]] [[hr:Bitka za Staljingrad]] [[io:Stalingrad-batalio]] [[id:Pertempuran Stalingrad]] [[it:Battaglia di Stalingrado]] [[he:הקרב על סטלינגרד]] [[nl:Slag om Stalingrad]] [[ja:スターリングラード攻防戦]] [[pl:Bitwa stalingradzka]] [[pt:Batalha de Estalinegrado]] [[ro:Bătălia de la Stalingrad]] [[ru:Сталинградская битва]] [[sl:Bitka za Stalingrad]] [[sr:Стаљинградска битка]] [[fi:Stalingradin taistelu]] [[sv:Slaget vid Stalingrad]] [[th:ยุทธภูมิสตาลินกราด]] [[vi:Trận Stalingrad]] [[tr:Stalingrad Savaşı]] [[zh:斯大林格勒战役]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bodhidharma</title> <id>4285</id> <revision> <id>42112484</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sunil vasisht</username> <id>783033</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|'''Bodhidharma''', [[woodblock]] print by [[Yoshitoshi]], [[1887]].]] '''Bodhidharma''' ([[Sanskrit]]: बोधिधर्म [[Chinese language\|Chinese]] &#33769;&#25552;&#36948;&#25705;, [[pinyin]] '''Pútídámó''' or simply '''Dámó'''; [[Wade-Giles]] '''Tamo'''; [[Japanese language\|Japanese]] &#12480;&#12523;&#12510;, '''[[Daruma]]''', [[Vietnamese language\|Vietnamese]]: ''Bồ-đề-đạt-ma''), also known as the '''[[Tripitaka]] [[Dharma]] Master''', was a legendary [[Buddhist]] [[monk]]. Bodhidharma is traditionally held in Shaolin mythology to be the founder of the [[Chan]] school of [[Buddhism]] (known in [[Japan]] and the West as [[Zen]]), and the [[Shaolin]] school of [[Chinese martial arts]]. ==Biography== The major sources about Bodhidharma's life conflict with regard to his origins, the chronology of his journey to [[China]], his death, and other details.One proposed set of birth and death dates is c. [[440]]&ndash;[[528]] CE; another is c. [[470]]&ndash;[[543]] CE. ===Biographical details from the ''Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang'' (547) by Yang Xuanzhi=== The earliest historical record of Bodhidharma was compiled in 547 by [[Yang Xuanzhi]], the ''[[Luoyang Qielanji\|Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang]]'', in which Yang identifies Bodhidharma as a [[Persians\|Persian]] Central Asian ([[Wade-Giles]]: ''po-szu kuo hu-jen'') (Broughton, 1999, p. 54, p.138). <blockquote>At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, a Persian Central Asian. He traveled from the wild borderlands to China. Seeing the golden disks [on the pole on top of Yung-ning's [[stupa]]] reflecting in the sun, the rays of light illuminating the surface of the clouds, the jewel-bells on the stupa blowing in the wind, the echoes reverberating beyond the heavens, Bodhidharma sang its praises. He exclaimed: "Truly this is the work of spirits." He said: "I am 150 years old, and I have passed through numerous countries. There is virtually no country I have not visited. But even in India there is nothing comparable to the pure beauty of this monastery. Even the distant Buddha realms lack this." He chanted homage and placed his palms together in salutation for days on end.</blockquote> Yongning was built in 516 and destroyed in 526, dating Bodhidharma's exultation to these years. ===Biographical details from the ''Biography'' of Bodhidharma by Tanlin=== Bodhidharma's disciple [[Tanlin]] identifies his master as [[South_India#The people\|South Indian]] (Broughton, 1999, p. 8). <blockquote>The Dharma Master was a South Indian of the Western Region. He was the third son of a great Indian King....His ambition lay in the Mahayana path, and so he put as
Hellenistic period]], [[Greek language\|Greek]] replaced Egyptian as the written language of [[Egyptian people\|Egyptian]] scholars, and from this point Egyptian mathematics merged with Greek and Babylonian mathematics to give rise to Hellenistic mathematics. Mathematical study in [[Egypt]] later continued under the [[Islamic Caliphate]] as part of [[Islamic mathematics]], when [[Arabic]] became the written language of Egyptian scholars. The oldest mathematical text discovered so far is the [[Moscow papyrus]], which is an [[Egyptian]] [[Middle Kingdom]] papyrus dated circa 2000 BC - 1800 BC. Like many ancient mathematical texts, it consists of what are today called "word problems" or "story problems", which were apparently intended as entertainment. One problem is considered to be of particular importance because it gives a method for finding the volume of a [[frustrum]]: "If you are told: A truncated pyramid of 6 for the vertical height by 4 on the base by 2 on the top. You are to square this 4, result 16. You are to double 4, result 8. You are to square 2, result 4. You are to add the 16, the 8, and the 4, result 28. You are to take one third of 6, result 2. Your are to take 28 twice, result 56. See, it is 56. You will find it right." The [[Rhind papyrus]] (circa 1650 BC) is another major Egyptian mathematical text, an instruction manual in arithmetic and geometry. In addition to giving area formulas and methods for multiplication, division and working with unit fractions, it also contains evidence of other mathematical knowledge (see [http://mathpages.com/home/rhind.htm]), including [[composite number\|composite]] and [[prime number]]s; [[arithmetic mean\|arithmetic]], [[geometric mean\|geometric]] and [[harmonic mean]]s; and simplistic understandings of both the [[Sieve of Eratosthenes]] and [[Perfect number\|perfect number theory]] (namely, that of the number 6)[http://mathpages.com/home/rhind.htm]. It also shows how to solve first order [[linear equation]]s [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Egyptian_papyri.html] as well as [[arithmetic series\|arithmetic]] and [[geometric series]] [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egypt_algebra.html#areithmetic%20series]. Also, three geometric elements contained in the Rhind papyrus suggest the simplest of underpinnings to [[analytical geometry]]: (1) first and foremost, how to obtain an approximation of <math>\pi</math> accurate to within less than one per cent; (2) second, an ancient attempt at [[squaring the circle]]; and (3) third, the earliest known use of a kind of [[cotangent]]. Finally, the [[Berlin Papyrus]] (circa 1800 BC) shows that ancient Egyptians could solve a second-order [[algebraic equation]] [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin]. ==Ancient Babylonian mathematics (1900 BC - 312 BC) == {{Main\|Babylonian mathematics}} [[Babylonia]]n mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of [[Mesopotamia]] (present-day [[Iraq]]) from the days of the early [[Sumer\|Sumerians]] until the beginning of the [[Hellenistic period]]. It is named Babylonian mathematics due to the central role of [[Babylon]] as a place of study, which ceased to exist during the Hellenistic period. From this point, Babylonian mathematics merged with Greek and Egyptian mathematics to give rise to Hellenistic mathematics. Later under the [[Islamic Caliphate]], mathematical study continued in [[Baghdad]] (near the ruins of [[Babylon]]) as part of [[Islamic mathematics]], when [[Arabic]] became the written language of scholars throughout the Islamic world. In contrast to the sparsity of sources in [[Egyptian mathematics]], our knowledge of Babylonian mathematics is derived from more than 400 clay tablets unearthed since the 1850s. Written in [[Cuneiform script]], tablets were inscribed whilst the clay was moist, and baked hard in an oven or by the heat of the sun. Some of these appear to be graded homework. The majority of recovered clay tablets date from 1800 to 1600 BC, and cover topics which include fractions, algebra, quadratic and cubic equations, and the calculation of [[Pythagorean triple]]s (see [[Plimpton 322]]).{{rf\|2\|Hoff}} The tablets also include multiplication tables, [[trigonometry]] tables and methods for solving [[linear equation\|linear]] and [[quadratic equation]]s. The Babylonian tablet YBC 7289 gives an approximation to &radic;2 accurate to nearly six decimal places. Babylonian mathematics was written using a [[sexagesimal]] (base-60) [[numeral system]]. From this we derive the modern day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 x 6) degrees in a circle. Babylonians advances in mathematics were facilitated by the fact that 60 has many divisors. Also, unlike the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where digits written in the left column represented larger values, much as in the [[decimal]] system. They lacked, however, the use of zero, or any other place holder, and so the place value of a symbol often had to be inferred from the context. ==Ancient Indian mathematics (900 BC - 200 BC)== {{main\|Indian mathematics}} After the collapse of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] in [[1500 BC]], writing disappears from [[South Asia]] for a long time. There is considerable controversy regarding the dates when both writing re-emerges in India and the [[Brahmi]] script is developed.[http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/position/salomon.html] Some scholars, such as [[Georg Bühler]], date the Brahmi script as early as the [[8th century BC]], others from the [[Maurya dynasty]] in the [[4th century BC]]. Recent archeological evidence dates it to [[600 BC]] (see [[Brāhmī]]), while some scholars even suggest [[1000 BC]].[http://www.hindu.com/2005/04/03/stories/2005040301931400.htm] If the earlier dates are correct, then perhaps, as historians such as [[Florian Cajori]] have claimed, [[Pythagoras]] traveled to India and learned mathematics there. But if the later date is correct, then Indian mathematics may have benefited from contact with Greece following the invasion of [[Alexander]]. It is also possible that the two mathematical traditions developed independently, which is the view currently supported by most scholars. After the onset of the [[Iron Age]], the progress of Indian mathematics is fairly continuous until the [[16th century\|16th century AD]], but it can be divided into roughly two periods of development. This section summarizes the period between [[800 BC]] and [[200 BC]], when Indian mathematics was not studied for the sole purpose of science, but there are still advanced mathematics papers scattered throughout a large body of Indian texts from this period (many are of uncertain date and authorship, however, and do not follow a serious mathematical tradition). The [[Yajurveda\|Yajur-Veda]] composed by [[900 BC]], first explained the concept of numeric [[infinity]]. [[Yajnavalkya]] (circa [[900 BC\|900]]-[[800 BC]]) computed the value of [[π]] to 2 decimal places. The [[Sulba Sutras]] (circa [[800 BC\|800]]-[[600 BC]]) were [[geometry]] texts that first used [[irrational numbers]], [[prime numbers]], the [[rule of three (mathematics)\|rule of three]] and [[cube root]]s; computed the [[square root]] of 2 to five decimal places; gave the method for [[squaring the circle]]; solved [[linear equation]]s and [[quadratic equations]]; discovered [[Pythagorean triples]] algebraically and gave a statement and numerical proof of the [[Pythagorean theorem]]. The [[linguist]] [[Pāṇini\|Panini]] formulated the [[grammar]] rules for [[Sanskrit]] in the [[5th century BC]]. His notation was similar to modern mathematical notation, and used metarules, [[transformation]]s, and [[recursion]]s with such sophistication that his grammar had the [[computing]] power equivalent to a [[Turing machine]]. Panini's work is also the forerunner to modern [[formal language theory]] (precursor to [[computing]]), while the [[Panini-Backus form]] used by most modern [[programming language]]s is also significantly similar to Panini's grammar rules. [[Pingala]] ([[4th century BC\|4th]]-[[3rd century BC]]) invented the [[binary numeral system\|binary number system]], [[Fibonacci series]] and [[Pascal's triangle]], and also used a dot to denote [[0 (number)\|zero]] and described the formation of a [[matrix (mathematics)\|matrix]]. The works of Panini and Pingala were foundational to the development of [[computing]]. ==Greek and Hellenistic mathematics (550 BC - 200 BC)== {{main\|Greek mathematics}} Greek mathematics studied before the [[Hellenistic period]] refers only to the mathematics of [[Greece]]. Greek mathematics studied from the time of the [[Hellenistic period]] (from [[323 BC]]) refers to all mathematics of those who wrote in the [[Greek language]], since Greek mathematics was now not only written by [[Greeks]] but also non-Greek scholars throughout the [[Hellenistic world]], which was spread across the Eastern end of the [[Mediterranean]]. Greek mathematics from this point merged with Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics to give rise to Hellenistic mathematics. Most mathematical texts written in Greek were found in [[Greece]], [[Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Asia Minor]], [[Sicily]] and [[Southern Italy]]. Although the earliest found [[Greek language\|Greek]] texts on mathematics were written after the Hellenistic period, many of these are considered to be copies of works written during and before the Hellenistic period. Nevertheless, the dates of Greek mathematics are more certain than the dates of earlier mathematical writing, since a large number of chronologies exist that, overlapping, record events year by year up to the present day. Even so, many dates are uncertain; but the doubt is a matter of decades rather than centuries. Greek mathematics is thought to have begun from the late [[500s BC]], when
re production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The dating of the First Industrial Revolution is not exact. [[T.S. Ashton]] held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of [[George III of the United Kingdom\|George III]], The [[English Regency\|Regency]], and part of [[William IV of the United Kingdom\|William IV]]). There was no cut-off point for the First Revolution as it merged into the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered [[ship]]s and [[railway]]s, and later in the nineteenth century, of the [[internal combustion engine]] and [[Electric power\|electrical power generation]]. The effects spread throughout [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]], eventually affecting the rest of the world. The impact of this change on [[society]] was enormous and is often compared to the [[Neolithic revolution]], when mankind developed [[agriculture]] and gave up its [[nomad\|nomadic lifestyle]]. The term ''[[revolution]]'' applied to technological change was introduced by [[Friedrich Engels]] and [[Louis-Auguste Blanqui]] in the second half of the 19th century. [[Image:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|A Watt steam engine in [[Madrid]]. The development of the [[steam engine]] started the industrial revolution in Great Britain. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened.]] ==Causes== The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complex and remain a topic for debate, with some historians seeing the Revolution as an outgrowth of social and institutional changes wrought by the end of [[feudalism]] in [[Great Britain]] after the [[English Civil War]] in the 17th century. As national border controls became more effective, diseases spread less, therefore preventing the epidemics common in previous times. The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose significantly as well, leading to a larger workforce. The [[Enclosure]] movement and the [[British Agricultural Revolution]] made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the surplus population who could no longer find employment in [[agriculture]] into [[cottage industry]], such as [[weaving]], and in the longer term into the cities and the newly-developed [[factories]]. The [[colonial expansion]] of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international [[trade]], creation of [[financial markets]] and accumulation of [[Capital (economics)\|capital]] are also cited as factors, as is the [[scientific revolution]] of the 17th century. [[Technology\|Technological]] innovation was another important factor, in particular the new invention and development of the [[steam engine]] (which later was developed by Fulton into a steam boat) during the 18th century. The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important catalyst of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as [[France]], markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and [[tariff]]s on goods traded among them. ===Causes for occurrence in Europe=== One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not other parts of the world, particularly [[China]] and [[India]]. Numerous factors have been suggested, including [[ecology]], [[government]], and [[culture]]. [[Benjamin Elman]] argues that China was in a [[high level equilibrium trap]] in which the nonindustrial methods were efficient enough to prevent use of industrial methods with high costs of capital. [[Kenneth Pomeranz]], in the ''Great Divergence'', argues that Europe and China were remarkably similar in 1700, and that the crucial differences which created the Industrial Revolution in Europe were: sources of [[coal]] near manufacturing centres and raw materials such as food and wood from the New World, which allowed Europe to expand economically in a way that China could not. However, modern estimates of per capita income in Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 of 1990 dollars (and England had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars) and China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. Also, the average [[interest rate]] was about 5% in England and over 30% in China, which illustrates how much more abundant capital was in England, capital that was available for investment. Some historians believe it was the different belief systems in China and Europe that dictated where the industrial revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of [[Christianity]], [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], and [[Aristotle]]. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like [[Confucius]], [[Mencius]], [[Han Feizi]] ([[Legalism]]), [[Laozi]] ([[Taoism]]), and [[Buddha]] ([[Buddhism]]). The key difference between these belief systems was that European beliefs focused on the individual, while Chinese beliefs centered around relationships between people. The family unit was more important than the individual for the large majority of Chinese history, and this may have played a role in why the industrial revolution took much longer to occur in China. There was the additional difference as to whether people looked backwards to a reputedly glorious past for answers to their questions or looked hopefully to the future. Western European peoples had experienced the [[Renaissance]] and [[Reformation]]; other parts of the world had not had a similar intellectual breakout, a condition that holds true even into the 21st century. In [[India]], the noted historian Rajni Palme Dutt has been quoted as saying, " The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in [[England]]." In direct contrast to [[China]], India was split up into many different kingdoms all fighting for supremacy, with the three major ones being the [[Marathas]], [[Sikhs]] and the [[Mughals]]. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors--agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and technical innovation was non-existent. The vast amounts of wealth were stored away in palace treasuries, and as such, were easily moved to [[England]]. ====Causes for occurrence in Great Britain==== [[Image:Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg d. J. 002.jpg\|thumb\|right\|330px\|[[Coalbrookdale]] at night, 1801 :<br> Artist: [[Philip James de Loutherbourg\|Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg the Younger]]]] The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the lead of 30 to 100 years that Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that the [[United Kingdom]] received from its many overseas [[colonies]] or that profits from the British [[slave trade]] between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. Alternatively, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to utilise emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, such as China and Russia. Great Britain emerged from the [[Napoleonic Wars]] as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and possessing the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets having been destroyed during the war by the [[Royal Navy]]). The United Kingdom's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The nature of conflict in the period resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position&mdash; an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe. Another theory is that Great Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. [[Inclosure\|Enclosure]] of common land and the related [[British Agricultural Revolution\|Agricultural revolution]] made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the [[North of England]], the [[English Midlands]], [[South Wales]] and the [[Scottish Lowlands]]. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. The stable political situation in Great Britain from around 1688, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (when compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. ====Protestant work ethic==== Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.<sup>[[#Notes\|1]]</sup> The existence of this class is often linked to the [[Protestant work ethic]] (see [[Max Weber]]) and the particular status of dissenting Protestant sects, such as the [[Religious Society of Friends\|Quakers]], [[Baptists]] and [[Presbyterians]] that had flourished with the [[English Civil War]]. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Great Britain in the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]], and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the [[National debt\|national debt]] by the [[Bank of England]], contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures. Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two Universities at the time, Oxford and Cambridge,
where water flows as a sheet down any gradient carrying soil particles. Where precipitation rates exceed soil infiltration rates, runoff occurs. Surface runoff turbulence can often cause more erosion than the initial raindrop impact. [[Gully]] erosion results where water flows along a linear depression eroding a trench or gully. Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The erosion is both downward, deepening the valley, and headward, extending the valley into the hillside. In the earliest stage of stream erosion the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical '''V''' cross-section, and the stream gradient is relatively steep. When some [[base level]] is reached the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream [[meander]]s across the valley floor. In all stages of stream erosion by far the most erosion occurs during times of flood when more and faster moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load. ===Shoreline erosion=== [[image:Coastal_Erosion.jpg\|thumb\|225px\|Coastal erosion at [[Happisburgh]], [[Norfolk]], [[England]].]] Shoreline erosion, on both exposed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs through the action of currents and waves, but sea level change can also play a role. Sediment is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (longshore drift). When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form. These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline. ===Ice erosion=== Ice erosion is caused by movement of ice, typically as glaciers. [[Glacier]]s can scrape down a slope and break up rock and then transport it, leaving [[moraine]]s, [[drumlin]]s, and [[glacial erratic]]s in its wake typically at the terminus or during [[glacier retreat]]. ''Ice wedging'' is the weathering process where water trapped in tiny rock cracks freezes and expands, causing the breakup of the rock. This can lead to gravity erosion on steep slopes. The [[scree]] which form at the bottom of a steep mountainside is mostly formed from pieces of rock broken away by this means. It is a common engineering problem wherever rock cliffs are alongside roads and morning thaws can drop hazardous rock pieces onto the road. ===Wind erosion=== '''Wind erosion''', also known as [[eolian]] erosion is the movement of rock and/or sediment by the wind. Windbreaks are often planted by farmers to reduce wind erosion. This includes the planting of trees, shrubs, or other vegetation, usually perpendicular or nearly so to the principal wind direction. The wind causes dust particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often areas where there is not enough rainfall to support vegetation. ==Tectonic effects of erosion== The removal by erosion of large amounts of rock from a particular region, and its deposition elsewhere, can result in a lightening of the load on the lower crust and mantle. This can cause [[tectonic uplift\|tectonic]] or [[isostasy\|isostatic uplift]] in the region. ==Figurative use== The concept of erosion is commonly employed in [[analogy]] to various forms of perceived&#8212;or real&#8212;homogenization, "leveling out", collusion, or even the decline of anything from [[morality\|morals]] to [[Indigenous peoples\|indigenous cultures]]. It is quite a usual [[trope]] of the English language to describe as ''erosion'' the gradual, organic mutation of something thought of as distinct, more complex, harder to pronounce, or more refined into something indistinct, less complex, [[sound change\|easier to pronounce]], or (disparagingly) less refined. ==Orgin of term== The first known occurrence of the term "erosion" was in the [[1541]] translation by [[Robert Copland]] of [[Guido de Cauliaco]]'s medical text ''The Questyonary of Cyrurygens''. Copland used erosion to describe how [[ulcer]]s developed. By [[1774]] "erosion" was used outside medical subjects. [[Oliver Goldsmith]] employed the term in the more contemporary geological context in his book ''Natural History'': "''Bounds are thus put to the erosion of the earth by water''." == See also == {{wiktionary}} [[Erosion control]] [[Erosion prediction]] [[Badland]] [[Riparian strips]] [[Weathering]] [[Bioerosion]] ==Reference== * World Bank 2001: China: Air, Land, and Water. [[Category:Geomorphology]] [[Category:Geological processes]] [[Category:Soil science]] [[Category:Agronomy]] [[Category:Environmental threats]] [[cs:Eroze]] [[cy:Erydiad]] [[da:Erosion (geologi)]] [[de:Erosion]] [[et:Erosioon]] [[es:Erosión]] [[eo:Erozio]] [[fr:Érosion]] [[gl:Erosión]] [[hr:Erozija]] [[it:Erosione]] [[ja:浸食]] [[lt:Erozija]] [[nl:Erosie]] [[no:Erosjon]] [[pl:Erozja]] [[pt:Erosão]] [[sl:Erozija]] [[fi:Eroosio]] [[sv:Erosion]] [[tr:Erozyon]] [[zh:水土流失]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Euclidean space</title> <id>9697</id> <revision> <id>41008410</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:11:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Metric]] to [[Metric (mathematics)]] - ([[WP:DPL\|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Euclidean space''' is a generalization of the 2- and 3-dimensional spaces studied by [[Euclid]]. The generalization applies Euclid's concept of [[distance]], and the related concepts of [[length]] and [[angle]], to a [[coordinate system]] in any number of [[dimension]]s. It is the "standard" example of a [[finite-dimensional]], [[real number\|real]], [[inner product space]]. A Euclidean space is a particular [[metric space]] that enables the investigation of [[topology\|topological]] properties such as [[Compact space\|compactness]]. An [[inner product space]] is a generalization of a Euclidean space. Both inner product spaces and metric spaces are explored within [[functional analysis]]. Euclidean space plays a part in the definition of a [[manifold]] which embraces the concepts of both [[Euclidean geometry\|Euclidean]] and [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. One mathematical motivation for defining a distance function is the ability to define an [[Ball (mathematics)\|open ball]] around points in the space. This fundamental concept justifies a [[differential calculus]] between a Euclidean space and other manifolds. [[Differential geometry]] brings such a differential calculus into play, together with a technique of launching a mobile, local Euclidean space, to explore the properties of non-Euclidean manifolds. ==Real coordinate space== Let '''R''' denote the [[field (mathematics)\|field]] of [[real number]]s. For any non-negative [[integer]] ''n'', the space of all ''n''-[[tuple]]s of real numbers forms an ''n''-dimensional [[vector space]] over '''R''' sometimes called '''real coordinate space''' and denoted '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>. An element of '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> is written '''x''' = (''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>, &hellip;, ''x''<sub>''n''</sub>) where each ''x''<sub>''i''</sub> is a real number. The vector space operations on '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> are defined by :<math>\mathbf{x} + \mathbf{y} = (x_1 + y_1, x_2 + y_2, \ldots, x_n + y_n)</math> :<math>a\,\mathbf{x} = (a x_1, a x_2, \ldots, a x_n)</math> Real coordinate space '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> comes with a [[standard basis]]: :<math>\mathbf{e}_1 = (1, 0, \ldots, 0)</math> :<math>\mathbf{e}_2 = (0, 1, \ldots, 0)</math> :<math>\vdots</math> :<math>\mathbf{e}_n = (0, 0, \ldots, 1)</math> An arbitrary vector in '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> can then be written in the form :<math>\mathbf{x} = \sum_{i=1}^n x_i \mathbf{e}_i</math> Real coordinate space is the prototypical example of a real ''n''-dimensional vector space. In fact, every real ''n''-dimensional vector space ''V'' is [[isomorphic]] to '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>. This isomorphism is not [[Canonical#Mathematics\|canonical]] however. A choice of isomorphism is equivalent to a choice of [[basis (linear algebra)\|basis]] for ''V'' (by looking at the image of the standard basis for '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> in ''V''). The reason for working with arbitrary vector spaces instead of '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> is that it is often preferable to work in a ''coordinate-free'' manner (i.e. without choosing a preferred basis). ==Euclidean structure== Euclidean space is more than just real coordinate space. In order to do [[Euclidean geometry]] one needs to be able to talk about the [[distance]] between points and the [[angle]]s between lines or vectors. The natural way in which to do this is to introduce what is called an [[inner product]] or ''dot product'' on '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>. This product is defined by :<math>\mathbf{x}\cdot\mathbf{y} = \sum_{i=1}^n x_iy_i = x_1y_1+x_2y_2+\cdots+x_ny_n.</math> The dot product of any two vectors '''x''' and '''y''' gives a real number. This product allows us to define the "length" of a vector ''x'' in the following way :<math>\\|\mathbf{x}\\| = \sqrt{\mathbf{x}\cdot\mathbf{x}} = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_i)^2}</math> This length function satisfies the required properties of a [[norm (mathematics)\|norm]] and is called the '''Euclidean norm''' on '''R
ment - creating the Canadian National Railway Company, which continues today. Meighen was re-appointed [[Minister of Mines]] on the last day of [[1920]]. In [[1919]], as acting [[Minister of Justice (Canada)\|Minister of Justice]] and senior Manitoban in the government of Sir [[Robert Laird Borden]], Meighen helped put down the [[Winnipeg General Strike of 1919\|Winnipeg General Strike]] by force. ==First Term== Meighen became leader of the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)\|Conservative]] and [[Unionist Party (Canada)\|Unionist]] Party and [[Prime Minister]] on [[July 7]], [[1920]], when Borden resigned. He would quickly call an election. Meighen fought the [[Canadian federal election, 1921\|1921 election]] under the banner of the [[National Liberal and Conservative Party]] in an attempt to keep the allegiance of Liberals who had supported the [[World War I\|wartime]] Unionist government. However, his actions in implementing Conscription hurt his party's already-weak support in Quebec, while the Winnipeg General Strike and farm tariffs made him unpopular among labour and farmers alike. The party was defeated by the [[Liberal Party of Canada\|Liberals]] led by [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], and Meighen was personally defeated in [[Portage La Prairie]], falling to third place behind the newly-formed Progressive Party. He continued to lead the Conservative Party (which had reverted to its traditional name), and returned to parliament in [[1922]] for the eastern [[Ontario]] riding of [[Grenville County, Ontario\|Grenville]]. ==Opposition leader== [[Image:Meighen biopg1 large.jpg\|right\|thumb\|200px\|Meighen was cast by opponents, especially in Quebec, as beholden to Britain's colonial actions.]] Meighen's term as opposition leader would be most marked by his response to the [[Chanak Affair\|crisis at Chanak]], in which Colonial secretary [[Winston Churchill]] leaked to the newspapers that the Dominions may be called upon to help British forces in the area. King refused to commit to sending troops, resenting the way Churchill went above the Dominion leader's heads. King used the rationale that Parliament should decide, and that the matter was not important enough to recall Parliament. Meighen strongly condemned his action, saying in a Toronto hotel, "When Britain's messgage came, then Canada should have said, 'Ready, aye ready, we stand by you.'" When the crisis died down within days, Meighen was left with a reputation as blindly in favour of Britain's interests. Meighen and King, unlike Laurier and Borden, had a very personal distrust and hatred for each other. Megihen looked down on King, whom he called "Rex" (King's old University nickname), and considered him unprinicpled. The Liberal government of Mackenzie King was soon beset with scandals and corruption. Much of this was uncovered in a Royal Commission established to probe wrongdoing in Quebec, and in particular, in connection with building the Beauharnois Canal. The [[Tories]] won a plurality of seats in the [[Canadian federal election, 1925 \|inconclusive election of 1925]], but King was able to hold onto to power until [[1926]] through an alliance with the [[Progressive Party of Canada\|Progressives]]. Meighen denounced King staying in power, saying he was holding on to office like a "lobster with lockjaw." ==Second term== A scandal in the Customs department was soon found, making the Progressives wary of supporting King. When King was on the verge of losing a vote in the Commons in 1926, he asked the Governor General, [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy\|Lord Byng]], to call an election. Despite every effort to cling to power, Mackenzie King's shaky government was defeated in the House of Commons. King resigned and Meighen was invited to form a government, having secured a measure of support from the opposition farm parties. This became known as the "[[King-Byng Affair]]", an attack by Mackenzie King on the Governor General's right to refuse an election where an alternative government is capable of commanding the support of the House of Commons. Because of the possibility of losing a vote in Commons while Megihen and his ministers were re-elected (a relic of British law dating to 1701 that was repealed in Canada in 1938), Meighen made his ministers "acting" ones, and did not give them the oath of office. King made an uproar about the situation, attracting Progressive support to take down the government. The government would lose confidence by one vote. There being no other Parliamentary grouping to call upon, Byng called an election. Meighan's party was swept from office, and Meighen was again defeated in [[Portage La Prairie]]. He resigned as Conservative Party leader shortly thereafter. ==Afterward== [[Image:Meighen56.jpg\|thumb\|right\|150px\|Meighen in 1956.]] Meighen was appointed to the [[Senate of Canada\|Senate]] in 1932 by [[R.B. Bennett]]. He served as Leader of the Government in the Senate and Minister without Portfolio from [[February 3]], [[1932]], to [[October 22]], [[1935]]. In 1941, Meighen was prevailed upon to become leader of the Conservative Party again. He resigned his Senate seat on [[January 16]], [[1942]], and campaigned in a by-election for the [[Toronto]] riding of [[York South]]. According to custom, the Liberals would not run a candidate in the riding. But King, still harbouring a deep hatred for Meighen and thinking that the ardently conscriptionist Meighen coming back into Commons would further imflame the [[Conscription Crisis of 1944\|conscription crisis]], would send resources to the [[Cooperative Commonwealth Federation\|CCF]]'s [[Joseph Noseworthy]]. Meighen would go down to defeat, and once again withdrew from public life. Arthur Meighen died in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], aged 86, on [[August 5]], [[1960]], and was buried in St. Mary's Cemetery, St. Mary's, Ontario, near his birthplace. == External links == [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=42122 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''] [http://www.freewebtown.com/stmarysont/ Arthur Meighen Statue, St. Mary's, Ontario] {{start box}} {{succession box three to two \| title1=[[Prime Minister of Canada]] \| before=[[Robert Laird Borden\|Robert Borden]] \| years1=1920&ndash;1921 \| after1=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King\|Mackenzie King]] \| title2=[[Secretary of State for External Affairs (Canada)\|Secretary of State for External Affairs]] \| years2=1920 &ndash; 1921 \| title3=[[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)\|Leader of the Conservative Party]] \| years3=1920 &ndash; 1926 \| after2=[[Hugh Guthrie]]}} {{succession box two to two \| title1=[[Prime Minister of Canada]] \| before=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King\|Mackenzie King]] \| years1=1926 \| after=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King\|Mackenzie King]] \| title2=[[Secretary of State for External Affairs (Canada)\|Secretary of State for External Affairs]] \| years2=1926}} {{succession box\| before=[[John Alexander Macdonald (Canadian Senator)\|John Alexander Macdonald]]\| title=[[Leader of the Government in the Senate (Canada)\|Government Leader in the Senate]]\| after=[[Raoul Dandurand]]\| years=1932 &ndash; 1935 }} {{succession box \| title=[[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)\|Leader of the Conservative Party]] \| before=[[Richard Hanson]] \| years=1941&ndash;1942 \| after=[[John Bracken]]}} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box\| before=John Crawford\| title=[[Portage la Prairie (electoral district)\|MP for Portage la Prairie, MB]]\| after=Harry Leader\| years=1908 &ndash; 1921 }} {{succession box\| before=Azra Casselman\| title=[[Grenville (electoral district)\|MP for Grenville, ON]]\| after=Abolished\| years=1922 &ndash; 1925 }} {{succession box\| before=Harry Leader\| title=[[Portage la Prairie (electoral district)\|MP for Portage la Prairie, MB]]\| after=Ewen Alexander McPherson\| years=1925 &ndash; 1926 }} {{end box}} {{canPM}} {{Conservative Leaders}} [[Category:1874 births\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:1960 deaths\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Canadian lawyers\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Historical Members of the Canadian Senate\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Leaders of the Conservative Party of Canada\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Manitoba politicians\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Members of the Canadian House of Commons from Manitoba\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Members of the Canadian House of Commons from Ontario\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:People from Manitoba\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Prime Ministers of Canada\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:University of Toronto alumni\|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Irish Canadians\|Meighen, Arthur]] {{Persondata \|NAME=Meighen, Arthur \|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= \|SHORT DESCRIPTION=9th Prime Minister of Canada (1920 - 1921, 1926) \|DATE OF BIRTH=[[June 16]], [[1874]] \|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[[[Anderson, Ontario]] \|DATE OF DEATH=[[August 5]], [[1960]] \|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Toronto, Canada]] }} [[fr:Arthur Meighen]] [[pl:Arthur Meighen]] [[pt:Arthur Meighen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arianism</title> <id>1252</id> <revision> <id>39247296</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T20:55:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Str1977</username> <id>244946</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}} :'' This article is about theological views like those of Arius. [[Aryan]] is an unrelated ethnic concept.'' :''Arians may also refer to [[Polish brethren]].'' '''Arianism''' was a [[Christology\|Christological]] view held by followers of [[Arius]], a Christian priest who lived and taught in [[Alexandria]], Egypt, in the early [[4th century]]. Arius taught that [[God the Father#God the Father in Christianity\|God the Father]] and [[Godhead (Christianity)\|the Son]] were not co-eternal, seeing the [[I
ng many good schools, he never earned a diploma. He attended the [[Fessenden School]] in [[Newton, Massachusetts\|West Newton, Massachusetts]] (near Boston), and the [[Thacher School]] in [[Ojai, California\|Ojai]], [[California]]. His father subsequently arranged for him to audit math and engineering classes at the [[California Institute of Technology]]. He then enrolled at the Rice Institute (later known as [[Rice University]]). ==Hollywood== Hughes used his fortune to become a [[movie producer]]. He was at first dismissed by Hollywood insiders as a rich man's son. However, his first two films released in 1927, ''[[Everybody's Acting]]'' and ''[[Two Arabian Knights]]'' were financial successes, the latter winning an Academy Award for Best Director of a Comedy Picture. ''[[The Racket]]'' in 1928 and ''[[The Front Page]]'' in 1931 were nominated for [[Academy Award]]s. He spent a then-unheard-of $4 million of his own money to make ''[[Hell's Angels (film)\|Hell's Angels]]'', which he wrote and directed and which became a smash hit, along with his 1932 film ''[[Scarface (1932 film)\|Scarface]]'' (which he produced). Hughes's best-known film may be ''[[The Outlaw]]'' starring [[Jane Russell]], for whom Hughes designed a special [[Brassiere\|brassière]]. ''Scarface'' and ''The Outlaw'' received attention from industry censors; ''Scarface'' for its violence, ''The Outlaw'' for Russell's physical charms. He signed an unknown actor [[David Bacon]] in 1942 to play [[Billy The Kid]]. He later replaced Bacon with [[Jack Buetel]], who he had turned to sexually according to [[Cubby Broccoli]] and [[Lucien Ballard]], both of whom worked on ''The Outlaw''. Bacon's murder the following year sparked an investigation which brought to light allegations of a sexual affair between Bacon and Hughes which may have indirectly led to Bacon's death. [[Greta Keller]], Vienna-born cabaret singer and actress and Bacon's widow, claimed later that Bacon wanted to get out of his contract with Hughes and had been prepared to reveal intimate details about their relationship in order to secure a release from the studio. Hughes was a notorious ladies' man, and allegedly had affairs with many famous women including [[Katharine Hepburn]], [[Bette Davis]], [[Gene Tierney]], and [[Ava Gardner]]. [[Bessie Love]] was a mistress during his first marriage. [[Jean Harlow]] accompanied him to the premiere of ''Hell's Angels,'' although it's uncertain if they were an item. Less-significant affairs are rumored to have occurred between Hughes and a long list of celebrities. ==Aviator and engineer== Hughes was a lifelong aircraft enthusiast, pilot, and self-taught aircraft engineer. He set many world records, and designed and built several [[aircraft]] himself while heading [[Hughes Aircraft]]. The most important aircraft he designed was the [[Hughes H-1 Racer]]. On [[September 13]], [[1935]], Hughes, flying the H-1, set the world speed record of 352 mph (588 km/h) over his test course near Santa Ana, California. (The previous record was 314 mph (502 km/h). A year and a half later ([[January 19]], [[1937]]), flying a somewhat re-designed H-1 Racer, Hughes set a new trans-continental speed record by flying non-stop from [[Los Angeles, California\|Los Angeles]] to [[New York City]] in 7 hours, 28 minutes and 25 seconds (beating his own previous record of 9 hours, 27 minutes). His average speed over the flight was 322 mph (515 km/h). [http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Explorers_Record_Setters_and_Daredevils/Hughes/EX28.htm] The H-1 Racer featured a number of design innovations: It had retractable landing gear and all rivets and joints set flush into the body of the plane, to reduce drag. The H-1 Racer influenced the design of a number of World War II fighter airplanes such as the [[Mitsubishi Zero]], the [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190\|Focke-Wulf FW190]], and the [[F6F Hellcat]].[http://www.wrightools.com/hughes/h1_history.htm (see Wright Tools web site.)] The H-1 Racer was donated to the [[Smithsonian Institution\|Smithsonian]] in 1975 and is on display at the [[National Air and Space Museum]]. On [[July 10]], [[1938]] Hughes set another record by completing a flight around the world in just 91 hours (3 days, 19 hours), beating the previous record by more than four days. For this flight he did not fly a plane of his own design but a [[Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra\|Lockheed Super Electra]] (a twin engine plane with a four man crew). In 1938, the [[William P. Hobby Airport]] in [[Houston, Texas\|Houston]], Texas, known at the time as Houston Municipal Airport, was re-named "Howard Hughes Airport," but the name was changed back after people objected to naming the airport after a living person. Hughes received many awards as an aviator, including the [[Harmon Trophy]] in 1936 and 1938, the [[Collier Trophy]] in 1939, the [[Octave Chanute Award]] in 1940, and a special Congressional medal for his round-the-world flight. According to his obituary in the New York Times, he never bothered to come to Washington to pick up the medal, and it was eventually mailed to him by President Harry S. Truman. [[Image:Xf11 usaf.jpg\|thumb\|left\|The second [[XF-11]] prototype (with conventional propellers).]] In 1938, [[William John Frye]], a former Hollywood stunt flier and the first director of operations of Transcontinental and Western Air (T&WA), put in an order for the new 33-passenger [[Boeing 307]] Stratoliner, the first commercial plane with a pressurized passenger cabin. He convinced Hughes, also enamored of avant-garde aircraft technology, to finance this purchase. By doing so, Hughes became the principal stockholder of T&WA in April 1939. Throughout the 1940s and into the 1950s, T&WA (which became [[Trans World Airlines]]) continued to bet on the most advanced planes available, largely due to Hughes' own interest in aircraft development. In particular, Hughes helped specify the design of the [[Lockheed Constellation]], with its pressurized cabin and distinctive tail, buying several planes for TWA in order to be able to fly high altitude (20,000 ft/6600 m) long distance routes above the turbulence of low altitude weather. The airline would grow significantly under his leadership. [[Image:H-4 Hercules 2.jpg\|thumb\|The [[Spruce Goose\|H-4 Hercules]] with Hughes at the controls.]] ==Air crash== Hughes was involved in a near-fatal aircraft accident on [[July 7]], [[1946]], while piloting the experimental [[U.S. Army]] spy plane [[XF-11]] over [[Los Angeles]]. An oil leak caused one of the counter-rotating propellers to reverse its pitch, making the plane yaw sharply. Hughes tried to save the craft by landing it on the [[Los Angeles Country Club]] [[golf course]], but seconds before he reached his attempted destination the plane started dropping dramatically and [http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/XF-11_crash_site.htm crashed] in the [[Beverly Hills, California\|Beverly Hills]] neighborhood surrounding the country club. When the plane finally skidded to a halt after mowing down three houses, the fuel tanks exploded, setting fire to the plane and a nearby home. Hughes lay wounded beside the burning airplane until he was rescued by [[United States Marine Corps\|Marine]] [[master sergeant]] [[William L. Durkin]] who happened to be in the area visiting nearby friends. The injuries Hughes sustained in the crash&nbsp;&mdash; including a crushed [[collar bone]], six broken [[ribs]] and numerous third-degree [[burn (injury)\|burn]]s&nbsp;&mdash; affected him for the rest of his life. Many attribute his long-term addiction to [[opioid\|opiates]] to his use of [[morphine]] as a painkiller during his convalescence, during which he developed refinements to his hospital bed. The trademark [[mustache]] he wore afterwards was meant to cover a scar on his upper lip resulting from the accident. ==Spruce Goose== One of his greatest endeavors was the H-4 Hercules, nicknamed the [[Spruce Goose]] (although its frame was built predominantly of birch), a massive flying boat completed just after the end of [[World War II]]. The Hercules flew only once (with Hughes at the controls) on [[November 2]], [[1947]]. The plane was originally commissioned by the U.S. government for use in [[World War II]], but was not completed until after the war. Hughes was called to testify before the [[Senate War Investigating Committee]] to explain why the plane had not been delivered to the [[United States Army Air Forces]] during the war, but the committee disbanded without releasing a final report. Because the U.S. government denied him the use of aircraft aluminum, which had been rationed, Hughes built the plane largely from birch in his [[Westchester, California\|Westchester]], California facility to fulfill his contract. The plane was on display alongside [[RMS Queen Mary\|RMS ''Queen Mary'']] in [[Long Beach, California\|Long Beach]], California for many years before being moved to [[McMinnville, Oregon\|McMinnville]], [[Oregon]], where it is now part of the [[Evergreen Aviation Museum]]. ==RKO== Hughes acquired [[RKO]] in 1948, a struggling major Hollywood studio. He interfered with production and even shut down shooting for weeks or months. RKO was sold in 1955 to Desilu Productions. [[Image:Hughes_hac.jpg\|right\|100px]] After the war, Hughes fashioned his company Hughes Aircraft into a major defense contractor. Portions of the company wound up with [[McDonnell Douglas]], and eventually Boeing when those two companies merged. The remainder of Hughes Aircraft was sold to [[Raytheon]] in 1998. ==Howard Hughes Medical Institute== In 1953, Hughes launched the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]] in [[Delaware]], formed with the express goal of basic biomedical research including trying to understand, in Hughes' words, the "genesis of life itself." It was viewed by many as a tax haven for his wealth: Hughes gave all his stock of the Hughes Aircraft Company to the in
t of the Lord be poured out upon you; and may he grant unto you eternal life, through the redemption of Christ, whom he has prepared from the foundation of the world." ([[Book of Mosiah\|Mosiah]] 18:13). Later in the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'', the resurrected Jesus Christ visited the inhabitants of the Americas and eliminated all confusion related to the method of baptism: :"Verily I say unto you, that whoso repenteth of his sins through your words, and desireth to be baptized in my name, on this wise shall ye baptize them—Behold, ye shall go down and stand in the water, and in my name shall ye baptize them. And now behold, these are the words which ye shall say, calling them by name, saying: Having authority given me of Jesus Christ, I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen. And then shall ye immerse them in the water, and come forth again out of the water. And after this manner shall ye baptize in my name; for behold, verily I say unto you, that the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost are one; and I am in the Father, and the Father in me, and the Father and I are one. And according as I have commanded you thus shall ye baptize. And there shall be no disputations among you, as there have hitherto been; neither shall there be disputations among you concerning the points of my doctrine, as there have hitherto been."([[Third Book of Nephi\|3 Nephi]] 11:23-28). [[Latter Day Saint]]s do not generally believe that the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]] occurs immediately after baptism; rather, the gift is given by the laying on of hands in a separate ''confirmation'' ritual after baptism. This ritual is confirmed by Paul's actions in Acts 19:6, where, following the baptism of several followers of Christ, he "laid his hands upon" those who were baptized and they then received the Holy Ghost. The process of repentance and sanctification continues by partaking of the [[Sacrament (Mormonism)\|Sacrament]] every Sunday which [[Latter Day Saints]] consider to be a renewal of one's baptismal covenant with God. They also believe that baptism is symbolic both of [[Jesus]]'s death, burial and [[resurrection]] and of the death and burial of the natural or sinful man and rebirth as a disciple of Jesus of the one baptized. ===Baptism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints=== In [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], baptism and confirmation are only the first of several [[ordinance (Mormonism)\|ordinances]] believed to be required for [[exaltation]]. Membership into the LDS Church is granted only by baptism whether a person has been raised in the Church or not. The person being baptized must be at least eight years old. The church also practices [[baptism for the dead]] along with all other Church ordinances members of the LDS Church perform "vicariously" or "by proxy" in their [[Temple (Mormonism)\|temples]] for everyone who has not received these ordinances while living. Baptisms inside and outside the temples are usually done in a font although they can be performed in any body of water in which the person may be completely immersed. In Latter-day Saint temples the fonts are laid out on the sculptures of twelve oxen representing the twelve tribes of Israel. Great care is taken in the execution of the baptism; if the baptism is not executed properly it must be redone. The person administering the baptism must recite the prayer exactly, and immerse every part, limb, hair and clothing of the person being baptised. If there are any mistakes, or if any part of the person being baptised is not fully immersed, the baptism must be redone. In addition to the baptizer, two authorized priesthood officers witnesses to ensure that the baptism is conducted properly. == Jehovah's Witnesses == Baptism is also done by [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], who believe that baptism is required to wash their sins away and to show that they serve Jehovah. They become baptised only when they are old enough to make the decision that they want to be baptized and are ready to dedicate their life to Jehovah. ==Baptism in Churches of Christ== Maintaining that [[Alexander Campbell]], [[Barton Stone]] and their associates restored the true church of Christ after the pattern of the first century church, as founded on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2), the churches popularly known as [[Churches of Christ]] believe they are following the exact practice as established in the first century Church and as commanded in the New Testament. They teach the following about baptism: :* Baptism, as commanded in the great commission (Matthew 28:18-20) is a full immersion in water (Acts 8:38) and is for the remission of sins (Acts 2:38). :* Baptism is valid only after the belief and confession that "Jesus is the Son of God" and repentance of sin. :* As stated in Matthew 28:19, baptism is performed in the name of "the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit". This does not, however, mean that this phrase must be recited verbatim at baptism, but that it is done "by the authority of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit." Reciting the phrase "in the name of Jesus Christ" is also Biblical and has the same meaning, since the Son shares the same authority as the Father and the Holy Spirit. :* Upon baptism the believer receives the "Gift of the Holy Spirit." This wording from Acts 2:38 is believed by some to mean that the Holy Spirit as given to the new Christian either literally or symbolically as a gift, and believed by others to refer to salvation as the gift from the Holy Spirit. The Church of Christ does not teach that believers receive miraculous gifts, such as [[glossolalia\|speaking in tongues]]. :* When one is baptized he or she is saved and added by the Lord to the church. According to Church of Christ interpretation, Acts 2:38 teaches that repentance and baptism precede the remission of sins. This belief is further explained by 1 Peter 3:21 in which Peter says that "Baptism doth also now save us", seemingly indicating that it is essential to salvation. Romans 6:3 also states that baptism puts one "into Christ". Valid baptism may be administered by any member of the Church as long as it is administered according to the scriptures and church teaching. Some members would assert that even a non-Christian may perform baptism, leading to the possibility that two isolated non-Christians could baptize each other, or even that a single non-Christian might baptize himself. Most would concur that the important actor in baptism is God, not the person doing the baptizing. Baptism is therefore a salvific ordinance in the Churches of Christ, though no mention is made of "baptismal regeneration" as is known in the Roman Catholic Church. There is a movement within Churches of Christ recently which acknowledges that while God did in fact command baptism, He saves us at the point of faith. To understand baptism in the 'classic' Church of Christ sense is painfully close to a works based salvation and that view is beginning to fade. ==Other baptisms== ===Non-Christian religions=== Although ''baptism'' as a rite, is Christian, many cultures practice or have practiced rites similar to baptism, including the [[ancient Egyptian]], the [[Hebrews\|Hebraic]]/[[Judaism\|Jewish]], the [[Babylonian]], the [[Maya civilization\|Mayan]] and the [[Japan]]ese cultures. In some, such evidence may be [[archaeology\|archaeological]] and descriptive in nature, rather than a modern practice. [[Mandaeanism\|Mandaeans]], who abhor Jesus and Moses as [[false messiah\|false prophets]], revere [[John the Baptist]] and practice frequent baptism. The [[Sikh]] baptism ceremony, dating to [[1699]], was established when the religion's tenth leader ([[Guru Gobind Singh]]) baptised 5 followers of his faith and then was baptised himself by his followers, similar to [[Jesus]]' baptism by [[John the Baptist]]. The Sikh baptism ceremony is called Amrit Sanskar or Amrit Sanchar. The Sikh is said to have taken [[Amrit]] once they have been baptised. In [[Sikhism]], the baptised Sikh is also called an Amritdhari literally meaning ''Amrit Taker'' or one who has ''Taken on Amrit''. ===Methaphorical Baptisms=== ====Baptism of objects==== The term is sometimes applied, technically improperly, to other ceremonies, inclding pious Christian, but non-sacramental ceremonies: * The name Baptism of Bells has been given to the blessing of (musical, especally church) bells, at least in France, since the eleventh century. It is derived from the washing of the bell with holy water by the bishop, before he anoints it with the oil of the infirm without and with chrism within. A fuming censer is then placed under it. The bishop prays that these sacramentals of the Church may, at the sound of the bell, put the demons to flight, protect from storms, and call the faithful to prayer. * Baptism of Ships: at least since the time of the Crusades, rituals have contained a blessing for ships. The priest begs God to bless the vessel and protect those who sail in it, as He did the ark of Noah, and Peter, when the Apostle was sinking in the sea. The ship is then sprinkled with holy water ====Non-religious baptism==== Although even the use of water is often absent, the term baptism is also used for various initiations as rate of passage to a walk of secular life. In the Flemish variety of Dutch, for example, one word for academic [[hazing]] is ''schachtendoop'' ('pledge baptism'), while it generally involved more soiling ("baptizing" with objects such as rotten food) and other abuse than cleansing. See also [[baptised by fire]] ==See also== ===Related articles and subjects=== [[Baptism of Jesus]] [[Believers Baptism]] [[Baptism by desire]] [[Infant baptism]] [[Christianity]] [[Theophany]] [[Prevenient Grace]] [[Conditional baptism]] *[[Whitsun
mes: Asteroids, Battlezone, Black Widow, Millipede, Missile Command, Red Baron, Lunar Lander and Super Breakout, and features an exclusive interview with Nolan Bushnell. Atari Masterpieces Volume II is scheduled to be released in March 2006. ==Atari's New Titles and Direction== Recently, Atari's top-selling titles have been the [[Dragon Ball Z]] games based on the popular anime license from [[Toei Animation]] in [[Japan]]. These include the [[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai]] series of games for next-generation console systems and the [[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku]] series of games for the Game Boy Advance. These games have topped the [[List of best selling computer and video games\|best-seller charts]] for numerous console platforms since the release of Atari's first [[Dragon Ball Z]] game, [[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku\|The Legacy of Goku]] in 2002, which was the first [[Dragon Ball]] game to be made by an American company, [[Webfoot Technologies]], and is one of the [[List of best selling computer and video games\|best-selling]] Game Boy Advance games of all time (#16). The best selling [[Budokai]] series is developed in Japan by [[Dimps]] and includes [[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai]], [[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 2]], [[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 3]] and [[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi]]. Following the success of the Budokai and Legacy of Goku series, Atari has released numerous other Dragon Ball titles including [[Dragon Ball Z: Supersonic Warriors]], [[Dragon Ball Z: Super Sonic Warriors 2]], [[Dragon Ball Z: Sagas]], [[Dragon Ball GT: Transformation]] and [[Dragon Ball GT: Final Bout]]. Atari also released a series of games based on the smash-hit [[The Matrix]] movie trilogy including [[Enter the Matrix]] and [[The Matrix: Path of Neo]]. These titles represent some of the most expensive video games ever developed. [[Enter the Matrix]] which was developed by [[Shiny Entertainment]] sold 1.38 million units for the Sony [[PlayStation 2]] and 1 million units for the [[Nintendo GameCube]], therefore it made the [[List of best selling computer and video games]]. Other currently popular titles for Atari include the [[RollerCoaster Tycoon]] and [[Driver (video game)\|Driver]] series. ==Major products== ===Historical=== ''[[PONG]]'' (several versions) [[Atari 2600]] [[Atari 5200]] [[Atari 7800]] [[Atari 8-bit family\|Atari XEGS]] [[Atari Lynx]] [[Atari Jaguar]] [[Atari 8-bit family]] [[Atari ST]], [[Atari STE]] [[Atari MEGA ST]], [[Atari MEGA STE]] professional line [[Atari TT]] [[Atari Falcon]] [[Atari Transputer Workstation]] [[Atari Portfolio]] palmtop computer ===Current=== ''[[Act of War: Direct Action]]'' ''[[Alone in the Dark (series)\|Alone in the Dark]]'' ''[[Boiling Point: Road to Hell]]'' ''[[Backyard Sports]]'' ''[[Dark Earth]]'' ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai]]'' ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Sagas]]'' ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Supersonic Warriors]]'' ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Super Sonic Warriors 2]]'' ''[[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku]]'' ''[[Dragon Ball GT: Final Bout]]'' ''[[Dragon Ball GT: Transformation]]'' ''[[Driver (video game)\|Driver]]'' (1999) ''[[Driver 2]]'' (2000) ''[[DRIV3R]]'' (2004) ''[[Enter the Matrix]]'' ''[[Chris Sawyer's Locomotion]]'' ''[[Neverwinter Nights]]'' ([[Neverwinter Nights 2]] in development) ''[[RollerCoaster Tycoon 3]]'' ''[[Test Drive (video game)\|Test Drive]]'' (1987) ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'' ''[[Godzilla: Destroy All Monsters Melee]]'' ''[[Godzilla: Save the Earth]]'' ''[[Transformers]]'' ''[[TimeShift]]'' ''[[Atari Flashback]]'' ''[[Atari Flashback 2]]'' ''[[Mission Impossible: Operation Surma]]'' ''[[Terminator 3: The Redemption]]'' [http://www.tcny.co.uk/ Tycoon City : New York] ==External links== [http://www.atarihq.com/ Atari Headquarters] [http://www.atari.com/ Official worldwide Atari portal] [http://www.atari.com/us/ Atari North America] [http://www.ataricommunity.com Official Atari Forums] [http://www.ataritimes.com/ Atari Times], Supporting all Atari consoles. [http://www.atari.org/ Atari.org] [http://www.atariage.com/ AtariAge.com] [http://www.atarimuseum.com Atari Museum] [http://www.atarihistory.de The official site of the Atari Museum for continental Europe] [http://www.heartbone.com/comphist/Atari.htm heartbone.com] Condensed Atari History [http://movieprop.com/videogames/atari/index.htm Atari Corporate History], a site about the History of Atari from a corporate perspective [http://www.retromadness.com/ Computer History Museum] - Museum of home computing and gaming. [http://www.atari8.info/index.php?lang=en Atari XL/XE Scene Information Page] - News and infos from the Atari XL/XE fans world. [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play1sta2.htm Atari article on The Dot Eaters], covering the birth of Atari [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta1.htm Atari VCS/2600 article on The Dot Eaters], early console history, including a complete history of the VCS [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta5.htm Atari 5200/7800 article on The Dot Eaters], later pre-crash consoles, including Atari's 8-bit death throes [http://www.atarichile.com/ Amazing page in South America about Atari 8 bits], the Atarichile.com is an interesting page about the Atari in Chile/South America ''See also:'' [[Atari Games]] [[Category:1972 establishments]] [[Category:1980s fads]] [[Category:Atari\| ]] [[Category:Computer and video game companies]] [[Category:Home computer hardware companies]] [[cs:Atari]] [[de:Atari]] [[es:Atari]] [[fi:Atari]] [[fr:Atari]] [[it:Atari]] [[ja:アタリ (ゲーム)]] [[nl:Atari]] [[pl:Atari]] [[pt:Atari]] [[sv:Atari]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afghan</title> <id>2235</id> <revision> <id>33804171</id> <timestamp>2006-01-04T03:28:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brockzilla</username> <id>147131</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar\|Afghan}} '''Afghan''' can refer to any of the following: [[Afghanistan]] [[Afghan people\|People of Afghanistan]] A [[Pashtun]] (ethnicity) The [[Afghan hound]] An [[Afghan blanket]] *An [[Afghan carpet]] ''For etymology of Afghan/Afghanistan see [[List of country name etymologies]]'' {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Acadia University</title> <id>2236</id> <revision> <id>40359483</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:18:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{bias}} {{Infobox_University \|name = \|native_name = \|latin_name = \|image = [[Image:AcadiaUniversityLogo.png\|300px]] \|motto = ''In pulvere vinces'' <br> ([[Latin]]: "In dust, you conquer") \|established = 1838 \|type = [[Public university\|Public]] \|city = [[Wolfville, Nova Scotia\|Wolfville]] \|state = [[Nova Scotia]] \|country = [[Canada]] \|students= 3894 ([[as of 2004]]) \|undergrad = \|postgrad = \|doctoral = \|staff = 211 full and 37 part-time \|president = [[Gail Dinter-Gottlieb]] \|rector = \|chancellor = \|vice_chancellor = \|dean = \|campus = 250 [[acres\|Acre]] (100 [[hectares\|Hectare]]) \|colors = \|colours = \|mascot = \|affiliations = \|free_label = Sports teams \|free = [[Acadia Axemen\|Axemen]] and [[Acadia Axewomen\|Axewomen]] \|website = http://www.acadiau.ca \|footnotes = Logo &copy; Acadia University }} '''Acadia University''' is a [[university]] located in [[Wolfville, Nova Scotia\|Wolfville]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]]. It began as Horton Academy (1828), which was founded by [[Baptists]] from Nova Scotia. The two major Universities of the day in Nova Scotia were heavily controlled by Denominational structures. King's College ([[University of King's College]]) was an [[Anglican]] School and [[Dalhousie University]], which was originally non-denominational, had placed itself under the control and direction of the [[Church of Scotland]]. It was the failure of Dalhousie to appoint a prominent Baptist pastor and scholar, Edmund Crawley, to the Chair of [[Classics]], as had been expected, that really thrust into the forefront of Baptist thinking the need for a College established and run by the Baptists. In 1838, the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society founded Queen's College (named for Queen Victoria). The College began with 21 students in January 1839. The name "Queen's College" was denied to the Baptist school, so it was renamed "Acadia College" in 1841, in reference to the history of the area as an [[Acadian]] settlement. It became a university in 1891. The Granville Street Baptist Church (now [[First Baptist Church Halifax]]) was an instrumental and determining factor in the founding of the University. It has played a supporting role throughout its history, and shares much of the credit for its survival and development. "Together, we should feel a great sense of pride in what we have built," said former AU President Dr. [[Kelvin Ogilvie]] in some remarks to the congregation on April 16, 2000. In marking the 50th anniversary of the latest church building, Dr. Ogilvie delivered a fitting tribute to the congregation. Many members are graduates of Acadia University and have been associated with the [[Acadia Divinity College]]. "This unique relationship between [[Acadia Divinity College]] and Acadia University is an important one; one which we must work to preserve," commented Dr. Ogilvie. Many individuals who have made significant contributions to Acadia University, including the first president [[John Pryor]], were members of the [[First Baptist Church Halifax]] congregation. The original charter as a college stated: ''And be it further enacted, that no r
:잉카 문명]] [[is:Inkaveldið]] [[it:Impero Inca]] [[he:אינקה]] [[lt:Inkai]] [[nl:Inca's]] [[ja:インカ帝国]] [[no:Inkariket]] [[nn:Inkariket]] [[pl:Inkowie]] [[pt:Inca]] [[qu:Tawantin Suyu]] [[fi:Inkat]] [[sv:Inkariket]] [[uk:Інки]] [[zh:印加文明]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Inka</title> <id>15320</id> <revision> <id>15912798</id> <timestamp>2004-12-13T20:19:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dryazan</username> <id>75150</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:WS\|Please return the favour by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inca Empire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Inca (disambiguation)</title> <id>15321</id> <revision> <id>21543387</id> <timestamp>2005-08-22T02:43:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Retodon8</username> <id>275884</id> </contributor> <comment>Added "Inca (game)"</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Sapa Inca]]''' (or "Inka") was the title of the main ruler of [[Tawantinsuyu]], or [[Inca Empire]]. [[Inca, Spain]] is a town on the [[island]] of [[Majorca]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. [http://www.inca.org.br/ INCA] is a [[Brazil]]ian association against [[cancer]]. '''[[Inca Kola]]''' is popular carbonated [[soft drink]] in [[Peru]]. It is fluorescent yellow and flavored with lemon grass. [[Inca (game)\|Inca]] is an adventure game by [[Coktel Vision]] published by [[Sierra Entertainment]]. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Incans</title> <id>15322</id> <revision> <id>15912800</id> <timestamp>2004-12-13T20:18:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dryazan</username> <id>75150</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:WS\|Please return the favour by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inca Empire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Internet Protocol</title> <id>15323</id> <revision> <id>40694833</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T10:17:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ixfd64</username> <id>6284</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.219.35.5\|212.219.35.5]] ([[User talk:212.219.35.5\|talk]]) to last version by 134.99.138.6</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}} <!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --> The '''Internet Protocol''' ('''IP''') is a data-oriented protocol used by source and destination [[server\|hosts]] for communicating data across a [[packet-switched]] [[internetwork]]. Data in an IP internetwork are sent in blocks referred to as [[packet]]s or [[datagram]]s (the terms are basically synonymous in IP). In particular, in IP no setup of "path" is needed before a host tries to send packets to a host it has previously not communicated with. The Internet Protocol provides an ''unreliable'' datagram service (also called ''best effort''); i.e. it makes almost no guarantees about the packet. The packet may arrive damaged, it may be out of order (compared to other packets sent between the same hosts), it may be duplicated, or it may be dropped entirely. If an [[application software\|application]] needs reliability, it is provided by other means, typically by upper level protocols transported on top of IP. Internetwork [[router]]s forward IP datagrams across interconnected [[layer 2]] networks. The lack of any delivery guarantees means that the design of packet switches is made much simpler. (Note that if the network does drop, reorder or otherwise damage a lot of packets, the performance seen by the user will be poor, so most network elements do try hard to not do these things - hence the ''best effort'' term. However, an occasional error will produce no noticeable effect.) IP is the common element found in today's public [[Internet]]. The current and most popular network layer protocol in use today is [[IPv4]]; this version of the protocol is assigned version 4. [[IPv6]] is the proposed successor to IPv4: the Internet is slowly running out of IPv4 addresses, as IPv4 uses 32 bits for addressing (giving ~4 billion addresses); IPv6 uses 128 bits for the source and destination addresses, providing a maximum of ~3.4&times;10<sup>38</sup> addresses (though see the IPv6 article for details). Versions 0 through 3 were either reserved or unused. Version 5 was used for an experimental stream protocol. Other version numbers have been assigned, usually for experimental protocols, but have not been widely used. == IP addressing and routing == Perhaps the most complex aspects of IP are addressing and [[routing]]. Addressing refers to how end hosts become assigned [[IP address]]es and how subnetworks of IP host addresses are divided and grouped together. IP routing is performed by all hosts, but most importantly by internetwork routers, which typically use either [[interior gateway protocol]]s (IGPs) or [[external gateway protocol]]s (EGPs) to help make '''IP datagram''' forwarding decisions across IP connected networks. == See also == [[Connectionless protocol]] * [[Internet protocol suite]] * [[IPv4]] * [[IPv6]] * [[IP address]] * [[Packet#IP_packets\|IP packet]] * [[TCP and UDP port numbers]] * [[IANA]] == External links == * RFC 791, [http://www.rfcsearch.org/rfcview/RFC/791.html RFC791 in html] * [http://www.iana.org Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)] [[Category:Internet protocols\| ]] [[Category:Internet standards]] [[Category:Internet architecture]] [[Category:Computer networks]] [[Category:Information technology]] [[cs:IP protokol]] [[bg:Internet Protocol]] [[da:Internetprotokol]] [[de:Internet Protocol]] [[hr:Internet protocol]] [[es:Protocolo IP]] [[fr:Protocole Internet]] [[ko:IP]] [[it:Internet Protocol]] [[he:IP]] [[hu:IP-szám]] [[nl:Internetprotocol]] [[ja:Internet Protocol]] [[pl:IP (protokół)]] [[pt:Protocolo IP]] [[ru:IP]] [[sk:Internet Protocol]] [[sv:Internetprotokoll]] [[th:Internet Protocol]] [[vi:IP]] [[zh:互联网协议]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>I think therefore I am</title> <id>15327</id> <revision> <id>15912804</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cogito ergo sum]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Impeachment</title> <id>15328</id> <revision> <id>41947706</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:41:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Thesocialistesq</username> <id>652778</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the concept of impeachment of political figures; for the concept of casting doubt on the testimony of a [[witness]] at [[trial (law)\|trial]], see [[Witness impeachment]]''. [[Image:3a05488v.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|Depiction of the impeachment trial of [[Andrew Johnson]], then President of the [[United States]], in 1868.]] '''Impeachment''' is the process by which a legislative body formally levels charges against a high official of [[government]]. Impeachment does not necessarily mean removal from office; it comprises only a formal statement of charges, akin to an [[indictment]] in [[criminal law]], and thus is only the first step towards possible removal. Once an individual is impeached, he or she must then face the possibility of conviction via legislative vote, which then entails the removal of the individual from office. Conviction of officials involves an overturning of the normal [[constitution]]al procedures by which individuals achieve high office, whether by [[election]], [[ratification]] or [[appointment]], and because it generally requires a [[supermajority]], typically only those deemed to have seriously abused their offices will suffer impeachment. One tradition of impeachment has its origins in the [[English law \| law of England and Wales]], where the procedure last took place in [[1806]]. Impeachment exists under constitutional law in many nations around the world, including the [[United States]], [[Brazil]], [[Russia]], the [[Philippines]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]]. Etymologically, the word "impeachment" derives from Latin roots expressing the idea of becoming caught or entrapped, and has analogues in the modern French verb ''empêcher'' (to prevent) and the modern English ''impede''. Mediaeval popular etymology also associated it (wrongly) with derivations from the Latin ''impetere'' (to attack). Impeachment of a [[witness]] means challenging his or her honesty or credibility. ==United Kingdom== ===Procedure=== In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[British House of Commons\|House of Commons]] holds the power of initiating an impeachment. Any member may make accusations of [[high treason]] or [[high crimes and misdemeanours]]. The member must support the charges with evidence and [[motion (democracy)\|move]] for impeachment. If the Commons carries the motion, the mover receives orders to go to the bar at the [[House of Lords]] and to impeach the accused "in the name of the House of Commons, and all the commons of the United Kingdom." The mover must tell the Lords that the House of Commons will, in due time, exhibit particular articles against the accused, and make good the same. The Commons then usually selects a committee to draw up the charges and create an "Article of Impeachment" for each. (In the case of [[Warren Hastings]], however, the drawing up of the articles preceded the formal impeachment.) Once the committee has delivered the articles to the Lords, replies go between the accused and the Commons
/www.anatomyatlases.org/ Anatomy Atlases - a digital library of anatomy information] {{Biology-footer}} [[Category:Anatomy]] [[be:Анатомія]] [[bg:Анатомия]] [[bs:Anatomija]] [[ca:Anatomia]] [[cs:Anatomie]] [[cy:Anatomeg]] [[da:Anatomi]] [[de:Anatomie]] [[eo:Anatomio]] [[es:Anatomía]] [[et:Anatoomia]] [[eu:Anatomia]] [[fa:کالبدشناسی]] [[fi:Anatomia]] [[fr:Anatomie]] [[fy:Anatomy]] [[he:אנטומיה]] [[ia:Anatomia]] [[id:Anatomi]] [[io:Anatomio]] [[is:Líffærafræði]] [[it:Anatomia]] [[ja:解剖学]] [[ko:해부학]] [[ku:Anatomî]] [[la:Anatomia]] [[lt:Anatomija]] [[mk:Анатомија]] [[nds:Anatomie]] [[nl:Anatomie]] [[no:Anatomi]] [[os:Анатоми]] [[pl:Anatomia]] [[pt:Anatomia]] [[ru:Анатомия]] [[scn:Anatumìa]] [[simple:Anatomy]] [[sk:Anatómia]] [[sl:Anatomija]] [[sr:Анатомија]] [[su:Anatomi]] [[sv:Anatomi]] [[th:กายวิภาคศาสตร์]] [[tl:Anatomiya]] [[tr:Anatomi]] [[uk:Анатомія]] [[vi:Giải phẫu học]] [[zh:解剖學]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Affirming the consequent</title> <id>675</id> <revision> <id>34703526</id> <timestamp>2006-01-11T03:07:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.240.10.188</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Affirming the consequent''' is a [[logical fallacy]] in the form of a hypothetical proposition. Propositionally speaking, Affirming the Consequent is the logical equivalent of assuming the converse of a statement to be true. The fallacy of affirming the consequent occurs when a hypothetical proposition comprising an [[Antecedent (logic)\|antecedent]] and a [[consequent]] asserts that the truthhood of the consequent implies the truthhood of the antecedent. This is fallacious because it assumes a bidirectionality when it does not necessarily exist. This fallacy has the following [[argument form]]: :If P, then Q. :Q. :Therefore, P. This logical error is called the fallacy of affirming the consequent because it is mistakenly concluded from the second premise that the affirmation of the consequent entails the truthhood of the antecedent. One way to demonstrate the invalidity is to use a counterexample. Here is an argument that is obviously incorrect: :If [[Stephen King]] wrote the [[Bible]] (P), then Stephen King is a good writer (Q). :Stephen King is a good writer (Q). :Therefore, Stephen King wrote the Bible (P). The previous argument was obviously incorrect, but the next argument may be more deceiving: :If someone is human (P), then she is mortal (Q). :Anna is mortal (Q). :Therefore Anna is human (P). But in fact Anna can be a cat; very much a mortal, but not a human one. However, be aware that a similar [[argument form]] is [[validity\|valid]] in which the first premise asserts "[[if and only if]]" rather than "if". Similarly, the converse of a statement can be validly assumed to be true so long as the "[[if and only if]]" phrase is attached. ==See also== [[Modus ponens]] [[Modus tollens]] [[Denying the antecedent]] [[Fallacy of the undistributed middle]] [[Category:Logical fallacies]] [[he:%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8]] [[tl:pinapatibayan ang kasunod]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andrei Tarkovsky</title> <id>676</id> <revision> <id>41655113</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:58:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: ca Modifying: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Tarkovsky.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|right\|Andrei Tarkovsky]] '''Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky''' (Андре́й Арсе́ньевич Тарко́вский) ([[April 4]], [[1932]] - [[December 28]], [[1986]]) was a [[Russia]]n movie director, writer, and actor. He is regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers of the [[Soviet Union\|Soviet]] era in Russia and one of the greatest in the [[history of film\|history of cinema]]. ==Biography== Tarkovsky, son of the prominent poet [[Arseniy Tarkovsky]], was a product of the golden era of Soviet arts education. He received a classical education in [[Moscow]], studying [[Music]] and [[Arabic language\|Arabic]], before training for over five years at the [[VGIK]] film school, studying directly under [[Mikhail Romm]] among others. He also worked as a geologist in Siberia. Although the [[Orthodox Christian]] symbolism of his films led to prevarication and occasional suppression of the finished product by the Soviet authorities, the Soviet [[Mosfilm]] studio system enabled him to make films that would not have been commercially viable in the West. However, Tarkovsky's principal complaint about his treatment by the authorities was that he had many more ideas in him than he was allowed to bring to the screen, and in [[1984]], after shooting ''[[Nostalghia]]'' in [[Italy]], he decided not to return to Russia. He made only one more film, ''[[The Sacrifice]]'', a European co-production filmed in [[Sweden]], before dying of [[cancer]] in the suburb of [[Paris]] at the early age of 54. Andrei Tarkovsky was buried in a graveyard for Russian émigrés in the town of [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois]], [[Île-de-France (région)\|Île-de-France]], [[France]]. ==Work== Tarkovsky's films are characterised by [[metaphysics\|metaphysical]] themes, extremely long takes, and memorable images of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs in his films are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera. Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called "sculpting in time". By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time. (The speedy jump-cutting style that is prevalent in MTV videos and Hollywood movies, by contrast, overrides any sense of time by imposing the editor's viewpoint.) By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another. Up to and including his film [[The Mirror (1975 film)\|Mirror]], Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory. After Mirror, he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by [[Aristotle]]: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day. [[The Sacrifice]] is the only film that truly reflects this ambition; it is also considered by many to be a near-perfect reflection of the sculpting in time theory. ==Filmography== * ''[[The Killers (1958 film)\|The Killers]]'' (1958) - Tarkovsky's first student film at VGIK, the Soviet State Film School. * ''[[Concentrate (1958 film)\|Concentrate]]'' (1958) - Tarkovsky's second student film at VGIK, the Soviet State Film School. * ''[[There Will be No Leave Today]]'' (1959) - Tarkovsky's final student film at VGIK, the Soviet State Film School. * ''[[The Steamroller and the Violin]]'' (1960) - Tarkovsky's graduation film from VGIK, the Soviet State Film School, cowritten with [[Andrei Konchalovsky]]. * ''[[My Name is Ivan]] / [[Ivan's Childhood]]'' (1962) - Winner of Golden Lion for "Best Film" at [[1962]] [[Venice Film Festival]]. Set in the Second World War, this is Tarkovsky's most conventional feature film, although it still has moments of lyrical beauty. * ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)\|Andrei Rublev]]'' (1966) - An epic based on the life of [[Andrei Rublev]], the most famous medieval Russian painter of icons. * ''[[Solaris (film)\|Solaris]]'' (1972) - based on the [[science fiction]] [[Solaris (novel)\|novel]] by [[Stanisław Lem]]. * ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)\|Mirror]]'' (1975) - A loosely autobiographical reconstruction of key scenes in Tarkovsky's life, the film he'd tried to make earlier but abandoned for ''Solaris'' (we can note thematic ties between them). Said by Tarkovsky to be closest to his own vision of cinema. * ''[[Stalker (film)\|Stalker]]'' (1979) - inspired by the novel ''[[Roadside Picnic]]'' by [[Boris and Arkady Strugatsky]]. * ''[[Tempo di Viaggio/Italian Journey]]'' (1982) - a documentary made for Italian television while scouting locations for [[Nostalghia]] with Italian co-writer (and frequent screenwriter for [[Antonioni \|Michelangelo Antonioni]]) [http://imdb.com/name/nm0346096/ Tonino Guerra]. * ''[[Nostalghia]]'' (1983) - A Russian scholar retraces the footsteps of an 18th century Russian composer in Italy. An encounter with a local lunatic - a man who believes he can save humanity by carrying a lit candle across an empty swimming pool - crystalizes the poet's melancholic sense of longing for his family, faith, and homeland. * ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' (1986) - The film is about the prospect of nuclear annihilation and man's spiritual response to this and other dilemmas set in counterpoint to a minor fable of failed adultery. ==Bibliography== ''[[Sculpting in Time : Reflections on the Cinema]]'', translated by Kitty Hunter-Blair (1987) ''[[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970-1986]]'', translated by Kitty Hunter-Blair (1993) ==External links== * {{imdb name\|name=Andrei Tarkovsky\|id=0001789}} * {{senses\|id=directors/02/tarkovsky\|name=Andrei Tarkovsky}} [http://tarkovskyzone.proboards27.com/ 'Stalker: we're now into the Zone' - the one and only Fan Forum] [http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/%7Etstronds/nostalghia.com/index.html Nostalghia.com: A comprehensive site about Tarkovsky] [http://www.museum.ru/museum/tarkovsky/begine.htm Tarkovsky museum] [http://www.talkingpix.co.uk/Article_Tarkovsky2.html The Genius of Andrei Tarkovsky by Alan Pavelin] {{tarkovsky}} [[Category:1932 births\|Tarkovsky, Andrei]] [[Category:1986 deaths\|Tarkovsky, Andrei]] [[Category:Russian actors\|Tarkovsky, Andrei]] [[Category:Russian and Soviet film directors\|Tarkovsky, Andrei]] [[ca:Andrei Tarkovsk
cientific fields have emerged. Three examples will be given here: [[Communication studies]] combines [[animal communication]], [[information theory]], [[marketing]], [[public relations]], [[telecommunication]]s and other forms of communication. [[Computer science]], built upon a foundation of [[theoretical linguistics]], [[discrete mathematics]], and [[electrical engineering]], studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include [[computability]], [[Computational complexity theory\|computational complexity]], [[database]] design, [[computer networking]], [[artificial intelligence]], and the design of [[computer hardware]]. Computer science provides much of the theoretical basis for [[software engineering]]. [[Materials science]] has its roots in [[metallurgy]], [[minerology]], and [[crystallography]]. It combines chemistry, physics, and several engineering disciplines. The field studies metals, ceramics, plastics, [[semiconductors]], and [[composite material]]s. ==See also== [[History of science and technology]] (academic field of study) [[Philosophy]] and [[Logic]] [[Epistemology]] (branch of philosophy concerning the nature, origin and scope of knowledge) [[History of history]] [[Historiography]] [[Indian science]] [[Obsolete scientific theory]] [[Science studies]] [[List of timelines\|Timelines]] of [[List of themed timelines#Science\|science]] [[List of famous experiments]] [[List of scientists]] [[List of Nobel laureates]] [[List of years in science]] Philosophy of science [[Imre Lakatos]] [[Naïve empiricism]] ==Notes== {{fnb\|1}}Alpher, Herman, and Gamow. ''[[Nature (journal)\|Nature]]'' '''162''',774 (1948). {{fnb\|2}}[http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf Wilson's [[1978]] Nobel lecture] {{fnb\|3}}[http://www.nature.com/genomics/human/watson-crick/ James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick. "Letters to ''Nature'': Molecular structure of Nucleic Acid." ''Nature'' '''171''', 737&ndash;738 (1953).] {{fnb\|4}}[http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Wu,_Chien_Shiung@841234567.html C.S. Wu's contribution to the overthrow of the conservation of parity &ndash; see also the CWP, below] ==References== * [[Thomas S. Kuhn]] (1996). ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' (3rd ed.). [[University of Chicago Press]]. ISBN 0226458075 * Howard Margolis (2002). ''It Started with Copernicus''. New York: [[McGraw-Hill]]. ISBN 0-07-138507-X * [[Joseph Needham]]. ''Science and Civilisation in China''. Multiple volumes (1954&ndash;2004). * [[Bertrand Russell]] (1945). ''A History of Western Philosophy: And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day''. New York: [[Simon and Schuster]]. * [[Leonard C. Bruno]] (1989), ''The Landmarks of Science''. ISBN 0-8160-2137-6 * John L. Heilbron, ed., ''The Oxford companion to the history of modern science'' (New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 2003). ==External links== [http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/catalogs/bysubject-sci-history.html A History of Science, Vols 1&ndash;4], online text [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/STS-002Toward-the-Scientific-RevolutionFall2003/CourseHome/index.htm MIT STS.002 &ndash; Toward the Scientific Revolution]. From MIT OpenCourseWare, class materials for the history of science up to and including [[Isaac Newton]]. [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/STS-042JEinstein--Oppenheimer--Feynman--Physics-in-the-20th-CenturyFall2002/CourseHome/index.htm MIT STS.042 &ndash; Einstein, Oppenheimer, Feynman: Physics in the 20th Century]. Class materials for the history of physics in the 20th century. [http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/ Contributions of 20th century Women to Physics ("CWP")] [http://nobelprize.org/ The official site of the Nobel Foundation]. Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates [http://www.imss.fi.it/ The Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy] [[Category:History of science\| ]] [[bn:বিজ্ঞানের ইতিহাস]] [[de:Wissenschaftsgeschichte]] [[eo:Historio de scienco kaj teknologio]] [[es:Historia de la ciencia]] [[fr:Histoire des sciences]] [[gl:Historia da ciencia]] [[he:היסטוריה של המדע]] [[it:Storia della scienza]] [[ja:科学史]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van wetenschap en techniek]] [[pl:Historia nauki]] [[sl:Zgodovina znanosti in tehnologije]] [[ta:அறிவியல், தொ.நுட்ப வரலாறு]] [[th:ประวัติศาสตร์ของวิทยาศาสตร์และเทคโนโลยี]] [[tl:Kasaysayan ng agham at teknolohiya]] [[tr:Bilim ve teknoloji tarihi]] [[zh:科学史]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hydrogen peroxide</title> <id>14403</id> <revision> <id>42128966</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:33:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>86.17.156.251</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Storage */ - it's -> its</comment> <text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --> {\| align="right" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;" ! {{chembox header}} \| {{PAGENAME}} \|- \| align="center" colspan="2" \| [[Image:{{PAGENAME}}.png\|160px\|{{PAGENAME}}]] \|- ! {{chembox header}} \| General \|- \| [[IUPAC nomenclature\|Systematic name]] \| hydrogen peroxide \|- \| Other names \| hydrogen dioxide<br/>hydroperoxide \|- \| [[Chemical formula\|Molecular formula]] \| H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> \|- \| [[Molar mass]] \| 34.01 g/mol \|- \| [[pH]] \| 4.5 \|- \| Appearance \| clear liquid \|- \| [[CAS registry number\|CAS number]] \| [7722-84-1] \|- ! {{chembox header}} \| Properties \|- \| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)\|phase]] \| 1.4 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, liquid \|- \| [[Soluble\|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)\|water]] \| [[Miscible\|miscible]] \|- <!-- \| Other solvents e.g. [[ethanol]], [[acetone]] --> <!-- \| solubility info on other solvents --> <!-- \|- --> \| [[Melting point]] \| -11 °C (262 K) \|- \| [[Boiling point]] \| 141 °C (414 K) \|- \| [[Acid dissociation constant\|Acidity]] (p''K''<sub>a</sub>) \| 11.65 \|- \| [[Viscosity]] \| 1.245 c[[Poise\|P]] at 20 °C \|- ! {{chembox header}} \| Structure \|- \| [[Orbital_hybridisation#Molecule_shape\|Molecular shape]] \| [[:Image:H2O2_structure.jpg\|skewed]] \|- \| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles\|Dipole moment]] \| 2.26 [[Debye\|D]] \|- ! {{chembox header}} \| Hazards \|- \| [[Material safety data sheet\|MSDS]] \| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Material Safety Data Sheet\|External MSDS]] \|- \| [[Directive 67/548/EEC\|EU classification]] \| Oxidant ('''O''')<br/>Corrosive ('''C''') \|- \| [[List of R-phrases\|R-phrases]] \| {{R5}}, {{R8}}, {{R20}}/{{R22}}, {{R35}} \|- \| [[List of S-phrases\|S-phrases]] \| {{S1}}/{{S2}}, {{S17}}, {{S26}},<br/>{{S28}}, {{S36}}/{{S37}}/{{S39}}, {{S45}} \|- \| [[NFPA 704]] \| [[Image:nfpa_h3.png]][[Image:nfpa_f0_ox.png]][[Image:nfpa_r1.png]] \|- \| [[Flash point]] \| not flammable \|- \| [[RTECS]] number \| MX0900000 \|- ! {{chembox header}} \| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement\|Supplementary data page]] \|- \| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Structure and properties\|Structure and<br/>properties]] \| [[Refractive index\|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant\|''&epsilon;<sub>r</sub>'']], etc. \|- \| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Thermodynamic properties\|Thermodynamic<br/>data]] \| Phase behaviour<br>Solid, liquid, gas \|- \| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Spectral data\|Spectral data]] \| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy\|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy\|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy\|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry\|MS]] \|- ! {{chembox header}} \| Related compounds \|- \| Other [[Ion\|cation]]s \| [[sodium peroxide]] \|- \| Related [[peroxide]]s \| [[methyl peroxide]]<br/>[[hydrogen trioxide]] \|- \| Related compounds \| [[water (molecule)\|water]]<br/>[[oxygen]], [[ozone]]<br/>[[hydrazine]] \|- \| {{chembox header}} \| <small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br> materials in their [[standard state\|standard state (at 25&deg;C, 100 kPa)]]<br/>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox\|Infobox disclaimer and references]]</small> \|- \|} '''Hydrogen peroxide''' ('''H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>''') is a clear liquid, slightly more viscous than water, that has strong [[oxidation\|oxidizing]] properties and is therefore a powerful [[bleaching agent]] that has found use as a [[disinfectant]], as an [[oxidizer]], and in [[rocket]]ry (particularly in high concentrations as [[high-test peroxide]] (HTP) as a [[monopropellant]], and in [[bipropellant]] systems. ==Uses== ===Domestic uses=== It is commonly used (in very low concentrations, typically around 5%) to bleach human [[hair]], hence the phrases '''peroxide blonde''' and '''bottle blonde'''. It burns the skin upon contact in sufficient concentration. In lower concentrations (3%), it is used medically for cleaning wounds and removing dead tissue. The [[Food and Drug Administration]] has approved 3% hydrogen peroxide ("Food-Grade," or without added chemical stabilisers) for use as a mouthwash. Commercial peroxide solutions (most H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> bought over the counter from pharmacies) are not suitable for ingestion as they contain additional harmful chemicals. Some gardeners and [[hydroponics]] implementers have professed the value of hydrogen peroxide in their watering solutions. They claim its spontaneous decomposition releases oxygen to the plant that can enhance root development and also help treat root rot, which is cellular root death due to lack of oxygen. Commercial peroxide, as bought at the drugstore in a 2.5%-3% solution, can be used to remove bloodstains from carpets and clothing. If a few tablespoons of peroxide are poured onto the stain, they will bubble up in the area of the bl
links: [http://slashdot.org/articles/04/05/12/2221254.shtml?tid=126&tid=95 Slashdot], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3707313.stm BBC], [http://macworld.co.uk/news/main_news.cfm?NewsID=8671 Macworld UK], [http://www.investors.com/breakingnews.asp?journalid=21170833&brk=1 Investors.com] <!--[http://www.pcpro.co.uk/?http://www.pcpro.co.uk/news/news_story.php?id=57424 PC Pro]--> '''[http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20040514.wfrank15/BNStory/Entertainment FrankenArt: The mix and mash future]''', ''The Globe and Mail'', May 15, 2004. "Wikipedia is a so-called "open content" on-line encyclopedia where visitors can contribute content to the articles, albeit at the discretion of editors." The [[Australia]]n [[technology]] magazine ''[[Australian Personal Computer]]'' have listed Wikipedia.com [''sic''] as their chosen site of the month in their Workship section (page 119, June 2004 edition - released in May) '''[http://www.computerworld.com.au/pp.php?id=854351844&pp=1&fp=16&fpid=0 Chinese Internet users work to make knowledge free]''', IDG News Service, May 17, 2004. "Chinese Wikipedia ([http://zh.wikipedia.org/ http://zh.wikipedia.org]) is a Chinese-language offshoot of Wikipedia, an online English-language encyclopedia that is also available in a host of other languages." '''[http://www.delawareonline.com/newsjournal/life/2004/05/18janitorshelpkee.html 'Janitors' help keep Wikipedia reliable]'''. The News Journal, May 18, 2004. "If the concept is idealistic, then it also is a bit mad: a bottomless, evolving database of human knowledge, with articles mundane and profound, which anyone with an Internet connection has access to create and edit. That's the notion behind Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org)..." * '''"Hit the web as you hit the books: A roundup of reference sites for swamped students"''' (St. John's Telegram (Newfoundland), May 21, 2004 - article not online) recommends "www.wikipedia.com" (''sic''): "Wikipedia -- which I hope to write about in detail in an upcoming column -- is an open-ended encyclopedia that is constantly being revised and amended by readers, but which is addictive for surfers." '''[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_22/b3885044.htm Out-Googling The Top Search Engine: Online encyclopedias yield more specialized results]'''. BusinessWeek Online, May 31, 2004. "WIKIPEDIA IS ONE of the more remarkable projects on the Web. The online encyclopedia (www.wikipedia.com) is the work of 6,000-odd volunteers covering a huge range of subjects, even though it does better on science and technology than on arts and culture." Even though it incorrectly states, "If you find an error, you are welcome to suggest a correction. And if you find a topic that isn't covered, you are welcome to create a new article. (An editorial group decides which corrections and contributions merit posting.)" '''[http://www.dailykos.com/ Daily Kos]''', one of the largest political blogs, cites us favorably, saying: ::"Ahh, this is a cool day in dKos history -- a team of Kosmopolitans has put together the dKosopedia -- a Daily Kos wiki. ::I can almost hear you all thinking, "what the heck is a wiki?" It's a collaborative website that will allow this community to build a political encyclopedia (from a liberal standpoint, of course). In short, anyone will be able to contribute encyclopedia entries on a variety of political subjects. ::The best example of a wiki is the Wikipedia, which is an open source, collaborative encyclopedia with over 274,000 entries, all of them community submitted. ::We hope the dKosopedia will become the progressive-political version of the Wikipedia." ===June=== '''[http://icwales.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0200wales/tm_objectid=14292033&method=full&siteid=50082&headline=-name_page.html Untitled review]''' ic Wales, June 1, 2004. Wikipedia is "the web's most stunning and exciting site." '''[http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/fo/20040603/bs_fo/e81976d1c5a2d1d8620bdd2922f73edd Veni, Vidi ...Wiki?]''' Forbes.com, June 3, 2004. "Wikipedia, a Web encyclopedia run by a nonprofit, boasts 274,000 articles written by 'experts' in its English edition." '''[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_23/b3886141.htm Wikis' Winning Ways]'''. BusinessWeek Online, June 7, 2004. "With etiquette out of the way, there's no better place to start a wiki tour than the big kahuna of wikis: Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia with 280,000 articles in English and more than 380,000 more in 49 other languages." '''[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_23/b3886138.htm Something Wiki This Way Comes]'''. BusinessWeek Online, June 7, 2004. "On the site, a free online encyclopedia called Wikipedia, thousands of volunteers had written a breathtaking 500,000 articles in 50 languages since 2001 -- all thanks to the defining feature of wikis." '''[http://www.webpronews.com/insiderreports/searchinsider/wpn-49-20040602WikiBackLinkSpamTactic.html Wiki Back Link Spam Tactic]'''. Webpronews.com, June 2004. "Of course wikis emerged not as an SEO tool but as a means of collaborating on content. The Wikipedia is one example of how this can work. For their entry on 'wiki' you simply click edit and see a page similar to a forum posting page where you can alter the text." '''[http://www.investors.com/editorial/tech01.asp?v=6/5 Need To Do Research? Go Further Than Google]''' Investors.com, June 7, 2004. "One increasingly popular online tool is wikipedia.org, a collaborative encyclopedia that lets any user edit an entry." '''[http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=2747734 Open source -- Beyond capitalism?]''' Economist, June 10, 2004 (Subscription only). "The surprisingly good open-source encyclopedia (see Wikipedia.org) is another example [of open source]. Like software, it is modular, which allows different people to work on different bits." '''Reporter's nose for news discovers foul play''', Virginian-Pilot (Norfolk, VA), June 11, 2004 (story not online). Wikipedia is the victim of a cruel hoax: "The online encyclopedia "Wikipedia" created a version of [[Chesapeake, Virginia\|Chesapeake]]'s history that was literally a bunch of bull." The edit in question was put in on [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Chesapeake%2C_Virginia&diff=3860769&oldid=3414810 May 2] and not removed until June 3. '''[http://www.theinquirer.net/?article=16551 WordIQ's use of Wikipedia content crosses licence line]''' the Inquirer, June 13, 2004. "Take for instance a search for the 'Iran-Contra affair', a subject the mass media appears to have forgotten in recent times. The results page from Wikipedia.org for such a search is [[Iran-Contra Affair\|here]], and the one from wordIQ.com is [[Iran-Contra Affair\|here]]. Notice any similarities?" UPDATE: [http://www.theinquirer.net/?article=16564] Wikipedia blocked in China, related news stories below: '''[http://www.chinatechnews.com/index.php?action=show&type=news&id=1316 Wikipedia Inaccessible In China]''' ChinaTechNews.com, June 14, 2004. "According to several Internet reports both the Chinese and English-language versions of Wikipedia have now been blocked and are inaccessible from the Chinese mainland." '''[http://www.itworld.com/Tech/2987/040614wikipedia Chinese censors block access to Wikipedia]''' ITworld.com, June 14, 2004. "Chinese censors have blocked access to an online encyclopedia called Chinese Wikipedia that was created as a free and open source of information for Chinese Internet users, according to several contributors to the site." '''[http://arstechnica.com/news/posts/1087234431.html China blocks Wikipedia]''' arstechnica.com, June 14, 2004. "Ten days ago the Chinese government blocked Internet access to the Chinese version of the Wikipedia, a community-built encyclopedia that polices itself with a policy of political neutrality." '''[http://yro.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/06/15/0122201 China Blocks Wikipedia]''' Slashdot.org, June 14, 2004. "China government is, again, restraining the access to internet. Ars Technica says they are now blocking the Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. How much time will it take for to Slashdot be blocked?" * Wikipedia has '''[http://www.aec.at/en/prix/winners2004.asp won a Golden Nicas award 2004]''' in the "Digital Communities" category. '''[http://www.time.com/time/asia/tga/article/0,13673,501040621-650769,00.html Everyone's an expert]''' Time Asia, June 14, 2004. "Called Wikipedia.org (wiki means 'superfast' in Hawaiian and is also the name of the collaborative software upon which the site is built), the encyclopedia features more than 700,000 hypertexted articles on everything from 'Anthrax (band)' to 'Zeppelin.'" "COOL WEB SITE OF THE WEEK" - ''Albuquerque Journal'' (New Mexico), June 17, 2004: "Sometimes when you read an online encyclopedia, you know the information is wrong. With that in mind, Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger started Wikipedia in 2001. Three years later, more than 6,000 contributors have written about 600,000 articles." * '''[http://www.time.com/time/europe/magazine/article/0,13005,901040719-653780,00.html Everyone's an Expert]''' Time Europe, June 20, 2004. Same as the above article for Time Asia, but with a different picture. '''[http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/biz/archives/2004/06/27/2003176755 The jury is still out on open source]''' The Guardian, June 27, 2004, p. 11 (available online with subscriber access, link is to a reprint by The Taipei Times). Mentions Wikipedia as an example of volunteer efforts in contrast with open source business models. Even mentioned in a small, central Wisc

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