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oncé produced " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " in 2008 at Roc the Mic Studios in New York City . Beyoncé arranged & performed the vocals , which Jim Caruana recorded . Eriksen assisted in recording the instrumental track & , along with Hermansen , arranged the music & played the instruments . Mark " Spike " Stent and Matt Green then mixed the track . " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " is included on the double album I Am ... Sasha Fierce as part of the I Am ... disc , which features ballads that describe Beyoncé 's insecurities about love and depict the person she is " underneath all the makeup , underneath the lights and underneath all the exciting star drama " . Beyoncé said she likes to sing ballads because " the music and the emotion in the story is told [ sic ] so much better . It 's a better connection because you can hear it and it 's not all these other distractions . [ On the I Am disc , ] I really wanted people to hear my voice and hear what I had to say . "
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " is a midtempo pop ballad with an emo @-@ soul texture . Beyoncé 's vocals are accompanied by strings , a drum machine beat and a cascading melancholy piano that opens the song . The ballad has a Dm – B ♭ – F ( add9 ) – F – C / E chord progression and a verse @-@ chorus structure . Beyoncé sings the introduction in a low vocal register that heightens her vocal power ; in the song , her voice ranges from F3 to F5 .
According to Beyoncé , the lyrics of " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " concern a woman 's fear of the downsides of love . The protagonist sings about heartache , and the possibility of a breakup due to the decline of her relationship with an unfaithful lover . She wishes that she did not have to experience this emotional hurt . While her lover is out cheating on her , at home the woman wonders if she has the courage to continue the relationship , " now that her rock has turned out to be made of mud " , as interpreted by Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music .
The protagonist accepts that her feelings for her lover are too strong , and that she does not have the courage to leave him . She decides to fight for her love and not become the victim , singing emotively : " I don 't want a broken heart / And I don 't want to play the broken @-@ hearted girl " . Despite the desire to have her lover back , she sings , " I know that I love you but let me just say / I don 't want to love you in no kind of way " . The woman gains confidence , and towards the end of the song , she wants to spend her life with her lover despite the previous letdowns .
= = Release = =
Babyface 's demo was released online on June 15 , 2009 . " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " and " Ego " were initially planned for simultaneous
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began a period of internal economic restructuring , known as perestroika , and agreed to a series of summits with the American president . Matlock was instrumental in preparing Reagan for his first summit with Gorbachev , arranging for specialists within the government to write a “ Soviet Union 101 ” course of 21 papers on Russia for Reagan to study . Matlock also participated in a mock summit , playing the role of Gorbachev , allowing Reagan to practice the encounter in advance .
Speaking at a Chautauqua conference in Jūrmala , Latvia in June 1986 , Matlock told the crowd that the United States did not recognize the incorporation of the Baltic States into the Soviet Union . His remarks are credited by Dainis Īvāns , leader of the Popular Front of Latvia , with galvanizing the independence movement in Latvia .
U.S.-Soviet relations took a turn for the worse with the Soviet ’ s arrest of U.S. reporter Nicholas Daniloff , evidently for use as a bargaining chip in response to the August 30 , 1986 arrest of suspected KGB agent Gennadiy Zakharov . Since Daniloff was not engaged in espionage , Matlock advised taking a hard line with the Soviets . While charges against Daniloff were dropped , a diplomatic row ensued , leading by the end of October , to the expulsion of 100 Soviets , including 80 suspected intelligence officers . The U.S. lost 10 diplomats from Embassy Moscow , along with all 260 of the Russian support staff .
= = Moscow : as Ambassador = =
In April 1987 Reagan appointed Matlock as Ambassador to the Soviet Union . Conditions at the Embassy were tense , as Marine Sergeant Clayton Lonetree had been found to have compromised Embassy security . Within a few months of the Lonetree scandal , all U.S. intelligence assets in the Soviet Union had been exposed . The Americans suspected that the security breach had meant that the Embassy code room was no longer secure and worked frantically to determine how . It was not until 1994 that Aldrich Ames , a mole within the CIA , was caught . Another mole , Robert Hanssen , this time within the FBI , was caught only in 2001 .
During 1987 , relations improved steadily , with U.S. military inspectors present at Soviet military manoeuvres , an agreement to establish centers on Reducing Nuclear Threat , and a first round of negotiations aimed at banning nuclear tests . The thaw in relations was reflected in the cultural sphere . Matlock ’ s invitation to ballerina Maya Plisetskaya to attend a reception at Spaso House provided a way for Matlock to judge Gorbachev ’ s intentions , as earlier Soviet leaders would have considered it a provocation .
A second embassy fire in February 1988 damaged several floors of the chancery .
Improvements in relations continued during the year , with two summit meetings , the first in Moscow and the second on Governor ’ s Island in New York . An earthquake struck Armenia during the second summit , cutting it short . However , a U.S. offer of assistance to the victims was accepted by Gorbachev , and became the first official assistance by the U.S. since World War II .
The Berlin Wall fell on November 9 , 1989 , and on November 15 , the U.S. and U.S.S.R. submitted a joint resolution to the United Nations on the Consolidation of International Peace , Security and Cooperation , the first such joint initiative . A December meeting in Malta brought Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush together for their first summit .
The June 1990 summit in Washington brought several bilateral agreements , covering chemical weapons , trade , aviation , grain , maritime boundaries , peaceful uses of atomic energy , ocean exploration , student exchanges , and customs cooperation . The September meeting in Helsinki provided a venue for discussion of the Persian Gulf War .
A third fire in the embassy occurred in April 1991 , and this time the KGB may have managed to send in agents disguised as firefighters .
In June 1991 , Matlock , received word of a coup planned against Gorbachev , and warned him . It was to no avail ; shortly after his July summit with Bush , Gorbachev was briefly removed from power by the August 1991 coup .
The Soviet Union collapsed by the end of 1991 , just a few months after Matlock , having fulfilled his ambition when he joined the Foreign Service , retired from a diplomatic career spanning 35 years .
= = End of the Soviet Union and the Cold War = =
After retirement from the Foreign Service , Matlock began work on his magnum opus , Autopsy on an Empire : The American Ambassador 's Account of the Collapse of the Soviet Union . This 836 page book details the final years of the Soviet Union , and is considered by many to be the definitive insider 's guide to the subject .
A subsequent book , Reagan and Gorbachev : How the Cold War Ended describes the relationship of the two men and their efforts to reach agreement on arms reductions between the superpowers . Matlock takes the position that the military build @-@ up by Ronald Reagan in the early @-@ 1980s has contributed to the inaccurate characterization of Reagan as a war hawk . The quote atop the first page of Reagan and Gorbachev is by Ronald Reagan , speaking in 1981 during the beginnings of a one trillion dollar defense spending surge , that states " I 've always recognized that ultimately there 's got to be a settlement , a solution . "
Reagan , according to Matlock , never altered from his goals as
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0 m ) of the flight deck and it was the first take @-@ off by a landplane from a Royal Navy ship . On 25 March 1916 Vindex attempted to attack the Zeppelin base at Tondern with three Short Type 184 and two Sopwith Baby floatplanes , but the attack was ineffective . It did , however , draw out elements of the German Navy so it was repeated on 4 May with the addition of HMS Engadine . The two ships carried eleven Babies between them , each armed with 65 @-@ pound ( 29 @.@ 5 kg ) bombs , but eight failed to take @-@ off ; one hit the mast of an escorting destroyer and one had to return due to engine trouble . No damage was inflicted , but one Zeppelin was shot down by a cruiser when it sortied to find the British ships . On 2 August one of her Bristol Scouts unsuccessfully attacked the Zeppelin LZ17 with explosive Ranken darts , the first interception of an airship by a carrier @-@ based aircraft in history . Vindex was to provide aerial reconnaissance with two of her seaplanes for a Coastal Motor Boat raid on 22 October 1916 , but the operation was aborted because of fog .
The ship was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet at Malta in 1918 , where she served until she was paid off in late 1919 . Vindex was originally intended to be retained for service with the fleet after the end of the war , but this proved to be too expensive and she was sold back to her original owners on 12 February 1920 and reverted to her original name . She was requisitioned again in 1939 and served through the Second World War as a troopship , but not as HMS Vindex . The ship was returned to her owners in 1945 and was finally sold for scrap in 1954 .
= Delaware Route 14 =
Delaware Route 14 ( DE 14 ) is a state highway in the southern part of Kent County , Delaware . The route runs from the Maryland border near Burrsville , Maryland , where it continues as Maryland Route 317 ( MD 317 ) , east to DE 1 in Milford . The route passes through Harrington , where it intersects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) , and passes to the north of Houston before coming to Milford , where it intersects DE 15 , US 113 , and DE 1 Business ( DE 1 Bus . ) . DE 14 has a truck bypass of Harrington known as DE 14 Truck .
DE 14 was first designated by 1936 to run from the Maryland border near Burrsville east to DE 26 in Bethany Beach . In 1939 , the road was extended south to Fenwick Island . In the 1940s , the road was realigned to bypass Rehoboth Beach . The route between Nassau and Rehoboth Beach was widened into a divided highway in the 1950s , with all of DE 14 southeast of Milford being upgraded to a divided highway by the 1970s . In 1977 , most of DE 14 east of Milford was replaced with DE 1 , with the eastern terminus being realigned to its current location by 1984 .
= = Route description = =
DE 14 begins at the Maryland border , where it continues west into that state as MD 317 . From the state line , the route heads east on two @-@ lane undivided Vernon Road , passing through a mix of farmland and woodland with occasional homes . The road curves to the northeast before bending east as Walt Messick Road and entering Harrington . DE 14 runs past homes and some businesses before intersecting DE 14 Truck , which bypasses Harrington to the south . At this point , DE 14 heads northeast on Commerce Street into the downtown area . Here , the route turns east onto Clark Street and crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line . On the eastern edge of Harrington , DE 14 intersects US 13 in a commercial area , at which point DE 14 Truck returns to the route .
Past this intersection , the route leaves Harrington and becomes Milford Harrington Highway , heading through a mix of farms and woods with some residential development . The road continues east through more rural areas , passing to the north of Houston . Farther east , DE 14 bends southeast and intersects the southern terminus of DE 15 , crossing into Milford . The road enters commercial areas and gains a center left @-@ turn lane , coming to an
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a have been found in archaeological sites in Colombia dating back to about 2800 BP ; seeds of this species are still consumed and are traded in local markets . Aiphanes horrida is also widely planted as an ornamental , as is A. minima . The fruit or seeds of A. deltoidea , A. eggersii , A. linearis and A. minima are all consumed locally . The palm heart of A. macroloba is consumed by the Coaiquer people of northwestern South America . Aiphanol , a compound isolated from A. horrida , has shown significant inhibitory activity against cyclooxygenases ; inhibition of these enzymes can provide relief from the symptoms of inflammation and pain .
= The Hungry Earth =
" The Hungry Earth " is the eighth episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who , which was first broadcast on 22 May 2010 on BBC One . It was written by Chris Chibnall , who had previously written for Doctor Who and its spin @-@ off series , Torchwood . It is the first episode of a two @-@ part story , the second episode being " Cold Blood " , and features the return of the Silurians , a reptile @-@ like humanoid race last seen in 1984 's Warriors of the Deep .
In the episode , the Doctor — a time travelling alien played by Matt Smith — and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) land in Wales in 2020 , where a drilling operation headed by Nasreen Chaudhry ( Meera Syal ) is drilling deep into the earth and disrupting a civilisation of Silurians who dwell beneath the earth . The Silurians cause holes to open in the earth , one of which consumes Amy . The Doctor and Rory capture one Silurian , Alaya ( Neve McIntosh ) , and the Doctor instructs Rory and a local family to not harm Alaya , as it could spark a war . He then takes Nasreen in the TARDIS to the Silurian civilisation to rescue Amy and a local boy .
Executive producers Steven Moffat and Piers Wenger contacted Chibnall and asked him to write a two @-@ part episode involving Silurians and a drill . Moffat wished to redesign the Silurians and worked together with Chibnall to create the idea of distinguishing prosthetics for their faces . Being in the fourth production block of the series , the episode was filmed in October and November 2009 , with location filming in Llanwynno , Wales . McIntosh then returned in the series as a recurrent actress , portraying Madame Vastra , another Silurian character . The episode was watched by 6 @.@ 49 million viewers on BBC One and BBC HD and received mixed reviews from critics . While some praised the horror , some noted that the story was very simplistic , and critics disagreed about the redesigned Silurians .
= = Plot = =
The Doctor , Amy and Rory land in the small Welsh village of Cwmtaff in 2020 instead of their intended destination , Rio de Janeiro . They encounter a mining operation led by Doctor Nasreen Chaudhry , who is studying minerals deep in the earth that have not been seen for over 20 million years . Nasreen is assisted by a local , Tony Mack , whose daughter and grandson , Ambrose and Elliot , are investigating the disappearance of bodies at the nearby church graveyard . An earth tremor causes the ground to open and sends Tony and Amy falling into it ; Tony is rescued but Amy is pulled under by unknown forces . The Doctor surmises that the minerals form a bio @-@ reactive defence system triggered by the drilling operation . The group is soon alerted to the presence of three life forms travelling up the drilling shaft from 21 kilometres ( 13 miles ) below the earth , and they barricade themselves in the church . The Doctor explains Amy 's disappearance to Rory and assures him he will get her back .
The three beings are discovered to be reptilian humanoids , and in a scuffle , they capture Elliot and strike Tony with a venomous forked tongue ; the Doctor and Rory subdue one while the other two retreat with Elliot back into the earth . The Doctor realises the beings are a new form of Silurians , and that they have relented in their attack since both sides hold a hostage . The captured Silurian calls herself Alaya ; she is a member of the warrior caste , awoken by the drill . Alaya believes , as do all Silurians , that the Earth still belongs to them , that the drilling was a form of attack by the humans , and that they will defeat humanity eventually
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half @-@ brothers .
= = Relations with Russia = =
Another conflicting issue between Darejan and her reigning step @-@ son was Georgia 's relations with the Russian Empire . Darejan had been skeptical of Georgia 's rapprochement with its northern neighbour already in Heraclius 's lifetime , especially after the Russians , bound by the 1783 treaty of Georgievsk to protect Heraclius 's kingdom from external threat , had left the Georgians to their own devices in the face of a disastrous invasion from Iran in 1795 . The queen had repeatedly maintained that the relationship with Russia had brought no benefit to Georgia .
Darejan and her party were resolutely opposed to George XII 's renewed quest for the Russian protection . In 1800 , one of Darejan 's sons , Alexander , openly broke with his half @-@ brother and attempted a coup with the help of his Avar and Iranian allies . The relations in the royal family hit the nadir in July 1800 , when George XII forced Queen Dowager Darejan into confinement at her palace in Avlabari , prompting Darejan 's sons to mobilize their loyal forces around Tbilisi .
= = Downfall and exile = =
After the death of George XII in December 1800 , the Russian general Ivan Lazarev issued the Tsar Paul I 's order to all the members of the royal family , beginning with Darejan , forbidding the nomination of any heir to the throne . After Paul 's death in March 1801 , Darejan applied to the new tsar , Alexander I , to confirm her eldest son , Iulon , as the new king and protect her and her kin from harassment from George XII 's heir Prince David and his supporters . However , the Russian government proceeded with the outright annexation of the Georgian kingdom , bringing the millennium of the Bagratid rule in Georgia to an end .
The Queen Dowager and her sons withdrew into opposition to the new regime ; Iulon , Alexander , and Parnaoz were now in open rebellion . Darejan 's every trip outside Tbilisi was closely watched by the Russian military . Eventually , Tsar Alexander ordered the commander in Georgia , General Karl Knorring , to deport all members of the royal family from Georgia for resettlement in Russia proper on 20 August 1802 . The State Council confirmed the decision and instructed Knorring to " strengthen all measures for the transport of Queen Darejan and other members of the royal family to Russia , because their presence in Georgia will always be a cause and reason [ for the development of ] parties hostile " to the Russian hegemony . Darejan 's relations with Knorring were particularly tense . Once , the general angered her by wearing his hat and coat at her house and interrupting an interview at noon , declaring it was time for his vodka .
The task of deportation was to be fulfilled by Knorring 's successor , General Pavel Tsitsianov , himself of Georgian origin . In vain Darejan cited her illness to avoid exile . Tsitsianov responded that no reason would postpone her departure . She was further accused of " treasonous " correspondence with Russia 's enemies and removing the venerated icon of Ancha from a church in Tbilisi . The Russian military had Darejan escorted on 25 October 1803 out of the estate of her grandson in Mukhrani to her exile in Russia .
Darejan , known to the Russians as the tsaritsa Darya Georgyevna , was allowed to settle down in St. Petersburg , where she lived in a rented house in the parish of the Church of St. Simon and Anna . Later , the ailing queen was permitted to have a house church , which was consecrated on 22 July 1804 and closed following the death of Darejan on 8 November 1807 . Darejan , Queen Dowager of Georgia and Lady of the Russian Order of St. Catherine , Grand Cross , was buried at the Alexander Nevsky Lavra .
= = Children = =
Darejan had 23 children with Heraclius . Of these , only 13 reached adulthood .
Prince Solomon ( died 1765 )
Princess Elene ( 1753 – 1786 )
Princess Mariam ( 1755 – 1828 )
Princess Sophia ( born c . 1756 , died in childhood )
Prince Levan ( 1756 – 1781 )
Prince Ioane ( born c . 1759 , died in childhood )
Prince Iulon ( 1760 – 1816 )
Prince Vakhtang ( Almaskhan ) ( 1761 – 1814 )
Princess Salome ( born 1761 , died in childhood )
Prince Beri ( born 1761 or 1762 , died in childhood )
Prince Teimuraz ( 1762 – 1827 )
Princess Anastasia ( 1763 – 1838 )
Princess Ketevan ( 1764 – 1840 )
Prince Soslan @-@ David ( c . 1764 – 1767 )
Prince Mirian ( 1767 – 1834 )
Princess Khoreshan ( born 1768 , died in childhood )
Prince Alexander ( 1770 – 1844 )
Prince Luarsab ( born 1772 , died in childhood )
Princess Ekaterine ( 1774 – 1818 )
Princess Tekle ( 1776 – 1846 )
Prince Parnaoz ( 1777 – 1852 )
Prince Archil ( born 1780 , died in childhood )
Aslamaz @-@ Khan ( born 1782 , died in childhood )
= = Ancestry = =
= Theodoxus fluviatilis =
Theodoxus fluviatilis , common name the river nerite , is a species of small freshwater and brackish water snail with a gill and an operculum , an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family Neritidae , the nerites .
This widely distributed neritid snail species occurs from Europe to Central Asia . It has a thick shell with a calcified operculum . The coloration pattern on the shell is very variable . Theodoxus fluviatilis lives in freshwater and in brackish water , in rivers and lakes on stones . It feeds mainly by grazing on biofilms and diatoms .
Some of the populations of this species are spreading , and these can reach densities up to thousands of snails per square meter . Females lay egg capsules , each of which contains a large number of eggs , but only one snail hatches from the capsule . The snails reach sexual maturity in a year , and the total lifespan is 2 or 3 years .
= = Taxonomy = =
Theodoxus fluviatilis was originally described under the name Nerita fluviatilis by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . Linnaeus ' original text ( the type description ) in Latin was very short , and reads as follows :
Which means in English : " Nerita fluviatilis , number 632 : the shell is wrinkled , there are no teeth in the aperture . It inhabits rivers in Europe . " Later , this species was moved to the genus Theodoxus Montfort , 1810 . Theodoxus fluviatilis is in fact the type species of the genus Theodoxus . Anistratenko and colleagues designated the lectotype for Theodoxus fluviatilis in 1999 ( an English translation was published by Anistratenko in 2005 ) .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Several subspecies of Theodoxus fluviatilis were
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described and ( inconsistently ) recognized by various authors :
Theodoxus fluviatilis fluviatilis ( Linnaeus , 1789 ) – was described from a freshwater environment
Theodoxus fluviatilis fluviatilis f. fontinalis Brard , 1815 – is sometimes considered as a synonym of Theodoxus fluviatilis
Theodoxus fluviatilis littoralis ( Linnaeus , 1789 ) – was described from brackish water by Linnaeus as a separate species , originally named Nerita littoralis . A study by Zettler ( 2008 ) proved that its status as a subspecies is unjustified , being regarded as a synonym of Theodoxus fluviatilis . Although these so @-@ called forms ( form fluviatilis and form littoralis ) differ in morphology , ecology , reproductive strategy and behaviour , they are probably just ecomorphs .
Theodoxus fluviatilis sardous ( Menke , 1830 )
Theodoxus fluviatilis subthermalis Issel , 1865 – or Theodoxus subthermalis ( Bourguignat in Issel , 1865 )
Theodoxus fluviatilis thermalis ( Dupuy , 1851 )
Theodoxus fluviatilis transversetaeniatus A. J. Wagner , 1928
Theodoxus fluviatilis dalmaticus Sowerby – in Lake Ohrid
Theodoxus fluviatilis euxinus ( Clessin , 1885 ) – has been considered to be a subspecies ( see Theodoxus euxinus )
Bunje ( 2005 ) does not consider Theodoxus velox Anistratenko , 1999 to be a distinct species from Theodoxus fluviatilis .
= = = Cladogram = = =
A cladogram shows the phylogenic relationships within the genus Theodoxus :
This cladogram shows that the sister group to clade B is clade C. They split in 5 – 11 @.@ 5 Ma , when Lake Pannon existed . Theodoxus species living in brackish water include Theodoxus fluviatilis and Theodoxus jordani , but they are apparently not closely related .
= = Distribution = =
The exact type locality for this species is unknown , but it is probably the Main river in Southern Germany . Glöer ( 2002 ) considered the type locality sensu Linnaeus as " Habitat in fluviis , Upsaliae ad molendinam Ulvam & alibi " , but this would suggest a brackish water environment . The distribution of this species was considered to be European , but in reality the species occurs in the western to central Palaearctic . Its occurrence is scattered throughout Europe and in Western Asia except for the Alps and the regions immediately north of the Alps . This species does not live in Norway or Siberia . Theodoxus fluviatilis has the most widespread distribution of all of the species in the genus Theodoxus . It is in fact one of the most widely distributed species in the entire family Neritidae .
This species is threatened mainly by river engineering and water pollution in densely populated regions . The species ' population trend is overall stable , but is declining in some areas ( Germany ) , while in other areas it is expanding ( for example in the Danube river ) . In the Rhine river during the 1970s , Theodoxus fluviatilis came close to local extinction because of water pollution . Subsequently , the water quality improved for more than two decades , leading to a recovery . Even so , the species became extinct in the Rhine for an unknown reason in the late 1990s . Since 2006 , Theodoxus fluviatilis recolonized the Rhine , probably via ship transport through the Main @-@ Danube Canal . An analysis based on cytochrome @-@ c oxidase I ( COI ) gene has shown that the recolonization probably originated in the Danube .
= = = Europe = = =
The species occurs widely in Western Europe , and it is also widespread in the north of Ireland , living in 10 % of Irish streams and rivers . It lives in Great Britain , including the isle of Orkney , as well as in the Netherlands , Belgium , Luxembourg , Liechtenstein , and Monaco . It also is found in France and Switzerland , where it is considered to be critically endangered . More to the south , it occurs in Spain and Portugal , although the species is restricted to karst springs in Central Portugal .
In central Europe , this species lives as neozoon in the Austrian Danube , where it was first recorded in Tulln , Lower Austria in 2001 . In the Czech Republic , it is now extinct in Bohemia ; the only findings were in the Elbe river near Litoměřice in 1917 , and the most recent findings of empty shells took place in 1943 . Theodoxus fluviatilis also occurs in Poland , in Slovakia where it is non @-@ indigenous since 2002 , and in Hungary . Zettler ( 2008 ) provided a detailed bibliography of the distribution of T. fluviatilis in Germany . The indigenous distribution of T. fluviatilis included all of the large rivers : Rhine , Main , Moselle , Neckar , Weser , Elbe and Oder . However , this species is now highly endangered in Germany ( Stark gefährdet ) .
In Northern Europe , this species is found in Denmark ,
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in Sweden as far north as 58 ° N. It can also be found on the coasts of Finland , in the Åland Islands , and is known to be found alive there since 1994 . No other Theodoxus species reaches the Baltic Sea . It has the northernmost distribution of the genus Theodoxus and it is also the northernmost species of all Neritidae . In Eastern Europe this snail occurs in Estonia , Lithuania , and Latvia , as well as Belarus , and in Russia from western Russia to Caucasus . Since 1997 it has been found in the Gulf of Odessa , Ukraine . In Ukraine and in Crimea it is non @-@ indigenous , and was first recorded in the area in 1955 . It also occurs in Moldova . In Southern Europe , Theodoxus fluviatilis lives in Albania , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Romania , Bulgaria , Slovenia , and Croatia . In Macedonia and Albania it occurs in Lake Ohrid ( which spans the border of the two countries ) as the subspecies Theodoxus fluviatilis dalmaticus . It is found on the mainland of Greece and also on Crete . It is known to occur in the mainland of Italy and also in Sardinia . It occurs in Montenegro , and in Serbia .
= = = Asia and Africa = = =
In Asia , Theodoxus fluviatilis is found in Turkey . It can also be found in Iran , in the provinces of Kerman , Gilan , Mazandaran , Fars , Hormozgan , Lorestan and Khorasan . However , until 2012 , all the records from Iran were listed as Theodoxus doriae . In Africa this species occurs in Algeria , and possibly ( or probably ) in Morocco , where there are records which some authors consider to be reliable . However , instead of one species , Theodoxus fluviatilis , Brown ( 1994 ) recognized three species in northwestern Africa : Theodoxus numidicus , Theodoxus maresi , Theodoxus meridionalis .
= = = Prehistoric biogeography = = =
Shells of Theodoxus fluviatilis have been found in an Upper Paleolithic archaeological site in the cave Caldeirão , Pedreira ( Tomar ) , Tomar Municipality , Portugal , and also in a site from about 6000 years B.P. of Litorina age on the Åland Islands . Shells from the Late Neolithic have been found in Divoká Šárka , Czech Republic . Bunje ( 2005 ) hypothetized that the ancestral range of Theodoxus fluviatilis was the Ponto @-@ Pannonian region ( southern Ukraine , Romania and Hungary ) . Bunje suggested that the species first colonized northern Italy , Greece and Turkey ; in the second phase it colonized Spain , France and Germany ; and finally in the Holocene it colonized the British Isles , Sweden and the Baltic Sea . In 2002 , German malacologist Peter Glöer summarized the distribution of
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this species during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs .
= = Description = =
The shell of Theodoxus fluviatilis is somewhat depressed ( with an usually low spire ) , strongly calcified , and has 3 – 3 @.@ 5 whorls ( including the protoconch ) . Larger specimens are usually eroded . The width of an adult shell is usually 5 – 9 mm , but can reach up to 11 – 13 mm . The height of the shell is 4 – 6 @.@ 5 mm , or up to 7 mm . These mean values vary among populations depending on the environment : the maximum width of the shell of brackish water populations is 9 @.@ 3 mm . Brackish water shells are somewhat shorter , reaching up to 5 @.@ 8 mm , and the maximum weight of the shell is 124 mg . In freshwater populations , the maximum recorded shell width is 13 @.@ 1 mm , and maximum height is 9 @.@ 3 mm . The maximum weight of freshwater shells is 343 mg .
The exterior of the shell is basically whitish or yellowish , with a net @-@ like dark reddish or violet pattern . This pattern is very variable ( depending on environmental factors ) , sometimes partly presenting bands , and even occasionally being evenly dark . The shell is very variable in color and color patterns , showing great polymorphism . Shell coloration and patterns are very plastic in all species of the genus Theodoxus and these qualities may be influenced by factors like ionic composition of water , type of substratum and nutrition of individuals in various habitats . Zettler and colleagues ( 2004 ) showed that in the outer coastal waters of the Baltic Sea , the nearly black and often corroded shell form of Theodoxus fluviatilis is predominant , whereas in the inner ( sheltered ) parts of coastal waters , yellowish @-@ green forms prevail . Glöer and Pešić ( 2015 ) observed that specimens from a darker stony substrate were black or dark brown . Shells of specimens of Theodoxus fluviatilis from Northern Europe are ornamented with a pattern of white , drop @-@ like spots on a dark or red background . Specimens from South France and Spain are ornamented with a pattern of zigzag stripes , while specimens from the Balkans show all possible combinations of white drop @-@ like spots and zigzag stripes . Animals from lacustrine habitats show dark or light bands on the shell .
Images showing variability in the color patterns of shells of Theodoxus fluviatilis :
The shell shape of Theodoxus fluviatilis is similar to that of Theodoxus transversalis . The shell shape of Theodoxus danubialis is more spherical . The shape of the aperture of Theodoxus prevostianus is usually descending . However , all of these species display a large morphological plasticity , which makes them difficult to differentiate . The overall outline of the shell is still used for species identification in recent malacological literature . Though the coloration and patterns of the shells cannot be relied upon to identify specimens , opercular characters can be used for a proper identification of Theodoxus fluviatilis . The calcified operculum of T. fluviatilis is D @-@ shaped , light reddish with a red margin , bearing a broad rib ( also called a ridge ) on its inner surface . The columellar muscle is attached to the rib . The rib is long and thin , attenuated at the base , while the callus is thin ; a peg is lacking . The characteristic features of the operculum are already visible in juveniles . There is sexual dimorphism on the border of the rib shield of the operculum , which is straight in females , but curved in males .
Aberrations in the shape of operculum have been observed . In a specimen from Vouvant in France , and another from a spring near Bar in Montenegro , a double rib was present , but the rib shield was reduced ; in a specimen from Ohrid Lake , only the rib shield was reduced . Theodoxus fluviatilis can be distinguished from the other three mentioned species by having a rib pit , which is formed by the rib and the rib shield . The rib shield , and consequently a rib pit , are lacking in Theodoxus transversalis , Theodoxus danubialis and Theodoxus prevostianus . These three species differs in having , in addition to a rib , a peg , which is absent in T. fluviatilis . The visible soft parts of the animal are light yellow with a black head . The tentacles are greyish and long . The eyes are large and black ; the foot is whitish .
= = = Radula = = =
Theodoxus fluviatilis , like all other species in the family Neritidae , has a radula which is of the rhipidoglossan type ( a radula with many small marginal teeth which help " brush " food particles into the gullet ) . Zettler and colleagues ( 2004 ) and Zettler ( 2008 ) made SEM micrographs of the radula of this species .
= = = Reproductive system = = =
Theodoxus fluviatilis has separate sexes ( i.e. these snails are dioecious ) . The diploid number of chromosomes ( 2n ) is 25 in males and 26 in females . There is X0 sex @-@ determination system in Neritidae , and it was confirmed for this species too .
Females have two openings located under the edge of the mantle in the mantle cavity : the opening of the vagina and an opening for laying eggs . The vagina accepts the sperm during copulation . The vagina is connected to the bursa copulatrix and to the spermatheca ( for storing sperm ) . The other opening is for laying eggs . Egg cells originate in the ovary . Egg cells travel through the oviduct to the fertilization chamber , where fertilization occur . Eggs then develop in the glandular uterus . A capsule is formed in the diverticulum next to the uterus . The eggs are then laid .
In males , the semen is forming in the testis . The sperm structure of Theodoxus fluviatilis was examined by Gustaf Retzius . Then semen travels through the prostate , where it mixes with prostatic fluid . Finally it goes through the vas deferens to the penis . The penis is located on the inner side of the right tentacle . The following illustrations show the reproductive system in the female and in the male :
= = = Various organ systems = = =
Circulatory system : The osmotic pressure of the hemolymph of Theodoxus fluviatilis is 95 mOsm . That is much lower value than in marine snails in the subfamily Neritinae . The osmotic pressure and the composiotion of ionts of the hemolymph of the subfamily Neritininae ( where does the Theodoxus belong to ) is similar to the hemolymph of the land snail family Helicinidae .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitat = = =
Theodoxus fluviatilis prefers lowland habitats ( in Switzerland it occurs up to 275 m a.s.l. ) and calcium @-@ rich waters . This small snail inhabits the central and lower parts of rivers ( up to 13 m deep ) , including in brackish water in tidal rivers of estuaries . It sometimes lives in lakes on unvegetated bottoms . Rarely , it lives in springs ( rheocrenes ) , in ground water , and in caves . For example , in the Åland Islands , Theodoxus fluviatilis was found living in lakes with a pH of 7 @.@ 8 – 8 @.@ 9 . In streams and rivers in Ireland , the species lived in water with a pH of 7 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 4 .
The species easily attaches itself to stones , which allows it to live in fast @-@ running waters and in wave zone in lakes . The ability of Theodoxus fluviatilis to live in freshwater and also in brackish water demonstrates
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" DNA Reactor " by Pfeifer Broz . Music .
The film also featured the song " Boys Will Be Boys " by The Ordinary Boys .
= = Differences from the book = =
At 766 pages in the British edition and 870 in the American edition , Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the Harry Potter series . Screenwriter Michael Goldenberg described his task to cut down the novel as searching for " the best equivalent way to tell the story . My job was to stay true to the spirit of the book , rather than to the letter " . Goldenberg said that Rowling told him , the producers , and Yates that " she just wanted to see a great movie , and gave [ them ] permission to take whatever liberties [ they ] felt [ they ] needed to take to translate the book into a movie she would love " . Cutting down the book to meet the time frame of the film , Goldenberg explained , became " clearer when [ he ] figured out that the organising principle of the screenplay was to narrate Harry 's emotional journey " . He and Yates " looked for every opportunity to get everything [ they ] could in there . And where [ they ] couldn 't , to sort of pay homage to it , to have it somewhere in the background or to feel like it could be taking place off @-@ screen " .
One cut Goldenberg had to make , which he " hated " to do , was the absence of Quidditch , the Wizarding sport . " The truth is that any movie made of this book , whoever made it , that had included the Quidditch subplot would have been a lesser film " , he said . In the book , Ron grows as a character by trying out for the Quidditch team . " Ron facing challenges and coming into his own in the same way that Harry is , we tried to get that into the film in other ways , as much as possible . So , you feel like , if not the details of that story , at least the spirit of it is present in the film " . The change disappointed actor Rupert Grint who had been " quite looking forward to the Quidditch stuff " .
In a significant scene in the book , Harry sees a memory of his own father humiliating Snape in their school days , and Snape insulting his mother after she stood up for him . In the film , it is abbreviated to an " idea " , in Goldenberg 's words . " It 's an iconic moment when you realise your parents are normal , flawed human beings . ... Things get trimmed out , but I kept the meat of that in there – and that was what really gave me the coming @-@ of @-@ age story . " Young Lily Potter did not appear at all , but promotional screenshots show unknown teenager Susie Shinner in the role .
The scene at St Mungo 's , the hospital where Harry and friends run into classmate Neville Longbottom and learn that his parents were tortured into insanity by Bellatrix Lestrange , was cut because it required the construction of a new set . The main purpose of the action of the scene was relocated to the Room of Requirement after one of Dumbledore 's Army 's lessons . Also , to speed up the film 's climax , several events in the Ministry leading up to Harry 's battle with Voldemort were removed , including the brain room . Mrs. Weasley 's encounter with a boggart at Grimmauld Place , Ron , Hermione and Malfoy becoming prefects , the appearance of Mundungus Fletcher ( member of the Order , and the thief who eventually steals Slytherin 's locket discarded in Grimmauld Place ) , and Firenze teaching Divination followed suit .
The character of Kreacher the house @-@ elf , who was included in the script only at Rowling 's request , has a larger part in the book than the film . In the novel , he is seen saving some of the Black family 's artefacts which the Order of the Phoenix throw away , one of which is a locket which becomes extremely important in the seventh book . " It was kind of tricky to raise that in our story , because it 's for so much later " , Yates said . " We figured we can probably introduce it later , and that 's the approach we took " . Whilst Kreacher remained , all scenes involving Dobby were cut , and his important actions given to other characters .
Rita Skeeter , the journalist played by Miranda Richardson in Goblet of Fire , was also removed . In the book , Hermione blackmails her into writing an article that supports Harry as the rest of the Wizarding world denies his claims . Richardson noted that " it 's never gonna be the book on film , exactly . ... They 'll take certain aspects from the book and make it something that they hope is going to be commercial and that people want to see " .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Marketing = = =
The first trailer was released on 17 November 2006 , attached to another WB film , Happy Feet . It was made available online on 20 November 2006 , on the Happy Feet website . The international trailer debuted online on 22 April 2007 at 14 : 00 UTC . On 4 May 2007 , the US trailer was shown before Spider @-@ Man 3 .
Three posters released on the Internet that showed Harry accompanied by six classmates , including Hermione Granger , generated some controversy by the media . They were essentially the same picture , though one advertised the IMAX release . In one poster , the profile of Hermione , played by Emma Watson , was made curvier as the outline of her breasts was enhanced . Melissa Anelli , webmistress of noted fan site The Leaky Cauldron , wrote :
Representatives for WB later wrote about the poster under fire , " This is not an official poster . Unfortunately this image was accidentally posted on the IMAX website " .
The video game version , designed by EA UK , was released 25 June 2007 . Lego produced just one set , a model of Hogwarts , the lowest amount of sets for a film so far . NECA produced a series of action figures , while a larger array of smaller figures was also produced by PopCo Entertainment , a Corgi International company .
= = = Theatrical release = = =
The film was the third Harry Potter film to be given a simultaneous release in conventional theatres and IMAX . The IMAX release featured
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promises that largely went unfulfilled once peace had been achieved . Agitation by student organizations led such conservative leaders as Klemens Wenzel , Prince von Metternich , to fear the rise of national sentiment ; the assassination of German dramatist August von Kotzebue in March 1819 by a radical student seeking unification was followed on 20 September 1819 by the proclamation of the Carlsbad Decrees , which hampered intellectual leadership of the nationalist movement .
Metternich was able to harness conservative outrage at the assassination to consolidate legislation that would further limit the press and constrain the rising liberal and nationalist movements . Consequently , these decrees drove the Burschenschaften underground , restricted the publication of nationalist materials , expanded censorship of the press and private correspondence , and limited academic speech by prohibiting university professors from encouraging nationalist discussion . The decrees were the subject of Johann Joseph von Görres 's pamphlet Teutschland [ archaic : Deutschland ] und die Revolution ( Germany and the Revolution ) ( 1820 ) , in which he concluded that it was both impossible and undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures .
= = Economic collaboration : the customs union = =
Another institution key to unifying the German states , the Zollverein , helped to create a larger sense of economic unification . Initially conceived by the Prussian Finance Minister Hans , Count von Bülow , as a Prussian customs union in 1818 , the Zollverein linked the many Prussian and Hohenzollern territories . Over the ensuing thirty years ( and more ) other German states joined . The Union helped to reduce protectionist barriers among the German states , especially improving the transport of raw materials and finished goods , making it both easier to move goods across territorial borders and less costly to buy , transport , and sell raw materials . This was particularly important for the emerging industrial centers , most of which were located in the Rhineland , the Saar , and the Ruhr valleys .
= = = Roads and railways = = =
By the early 19th century , German roads had deteriorated to an appalling extent . Travelers , both foreign and local , complained bitterly about the state of the Heerstraßen , the military roads previously maintained for the ease of moving troops . As German states ceased to be a military crossroads , however , the roads improved ; the length of hard – surfaced roads in Prussia increased from 3 @,@ 800 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 400 mi ) in 1816 to 16 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 10 @,@ 300 mi ) in 1852 , helped in part by the invention of macadam . By 1835 , Heinrich von Gagern wrote that roads were the " veins and arteries of the body politic ... " and predicted that they would promote freedom , independence and prosperity . As people moved around , they came into contact with others , on trains , at hotels , in restaurants , and for some , at fashionable resorts such as the spa in Baden @-@ Baden . Water transportation also improved . The blockades on the Rhine had been removed by Napoleon 's orders , but by the 1820s , steam engines freed riverboats from the cumbersome system of men and animals that towed them upstream . By 1846 , 180 steamers plied German rivers and Lake Constance , and a network of canals extended from the Danube , the Weser , and the Elbe rivers .
As important as these improvements were , they could not compete with the impact of the railway . German economist Friedrich List called the railways and the Customs Union " Siamese Twins " , emphasizing their important relationship to one another . He was not alone : the poet August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote a poem in which he extolled the virtues of the Zollverein , which he began with a list of commodities that had contributed more to German unity than politics or diplomacy . Historians of the Second Empire later regarded the railways as the first indicator of a unified state ; the patriotic novelist , Wilhelm Raabe , wrote : " The German empire was founded with the construction of the first railway ... " Not everyone greeted the iron monster with enthusiasm . The Prussian king Frederick William III saw no advantage in
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traveling from Berlin to Potsdam a few hours faster , and Metternich refused to ride in one at all . Others wondered if the railways were an " evil " that threatened the landscape : Nikolaus Lenau 's 1838 poem An den Frühling ( To Spring ) bemoaned the way trains destroyed the pristine quietude of German forests .
The Bavarian Ludwig Railway , which was the first passenger or freight rail line in the German lands , connected Nuremberg and Fürth in 1835 . Although it was 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) long and only operated in daylight , it proved both profitable and popular . Within three years , 141 kilometres ( 88 mi ) of track had been laid , by 1840 , 462 kilometres ( 287 mi ) , and by 1860 , 11 @,@ 157 kilometres ( 6 @,@ 933 mi ) . Lacking a geographically central organizing feature ( such as a national capital ) , the rails were laid in webs , linking towns and markets within regions , regions within larger regions , and so on . As the rail network expanded , it became cheaper to transport goods : in 1840 , 18 Pfennigs per ton per kilometer and in 1870 , five Pfennigs . The effects of the railway were immediate . For example , raw materials could travel up and down the Ruhr Valley without having to unload and reload . Railway lines encouraged economic activity by creating demand for commodities and by facilitating commerce . In 1850 , inland shipping carried three times more freight than railroads ; by 1870 , the situation was reversed , and railroads carried four times more . Rail travel changed how cities looked and how people traveled . Its impact reached throughout the social order , affecting the highest born to the lowest . Although some of the outlying German provinces were not serviced by rail until the 1890s , the majority of the population , manufacturing centers , and production centers were linked to the rail network by 1865 .
= = = Geography , patriotism and language = = =
As travel became easier , faster , and less expensive , Germans started to see unity in factors other than their language . The Brothers Grimm , who compiled a massive dictionary known as The Grimm , also assembled a compendium of folk tales and fables , which highlighted the story @-@ telling parallels between different regions . Karl Baedeker wrote guidebooks to different cities and regions of Central Europe , indicating places to stay , sites to visit , and giving a short history of castles , battlefields , famous buildings , and famous people . His guides also included distances , roads to avoid , and hiking paths to follow .
The words of August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben expressed not only the linguistic unity of the German people but also their geographic unity . In Deutschland , Deutschland über Alles , officially called Das Lied der Deutschen ( " The Song of the Germans " ) , Fallersleben called upon sovereigns throughout the German states to recognize the unifying characteristics of the German people . Such other patriotic songs as " Die Wacht am Rhein " ( " The Watch on the Rhine " ) by Max Schneckenburger began to focus attention on geographic space , not limiting " German @-@ ness " to a common language . Schneckenburger wrote " The Watch on the Rhine " in a specific patriotic response to French assertions that the Rhine was France 's " natural " eastern boundary . In the refrain , " Dear fatherland , dear fatherland , put your mind to rest / The watch stands true on the Rhine " , and in such other patriotic poetry as Nicholaus Becker 's " Das Rheinlied " ( " The Rhine " ) , Germans were called upon to defend their territorial homeland . In 1807 , Alexander von Humboldt argued that national character reflected geographic influence , linking landscape to people . Concurrent with this idea , movements to preserve old fortresses and historic sites emerged , and these particularly focused on the Rhineland , the site of so many confrontations with France and Spain .
= = Vormärz and nineteenth century liberalism = =
The period of Austrian and Prussian police @-@ states and vast censorship before the Revolutions of 1848 in Germany later became widely known as the Vormärz , the " before March " , referring to March 1848 . During this period , European liberalism gained momentum ; the agenda included economic , social , and political issues . Most European liberals in the Vormärz sought unification under nationalist principles , promoted the transition to capitalism , sought the expansion of male suffrage , among other issues . Their " radicalness " depended upon where they stood on the spectrum of male suffrage : the wider the definition of suffrage , the more radical .
= = = Hambach Festival : liberal nationalism and conservative response = = =
Despite considerable conservative reaction , ideas of unity joined with notions of popular sovereignty in German @-@ speaking lands . The Hambach Festival ( Hambacher Fest )
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with just seven men . Fortunately , the German force , which numbered about 700 , offered to surrender . Pash returned on 3 May with the 3rd Battalion , 142nd Infantry , which took them prisoner , while Pash and his Alsos Mission team took Heisenberg into custody .
By VE day , the Alsos Mission had a strength of 114 men and women . It was officially disbanded on 15 October 1945 .
= = Japan = =
Plans for the invasion of Japan incorporated an Alsos Mission . Japanese fire balloon attacks on the United States had aroused fears that the technique might be used in combination with biological agents , which the Japanese Unit 731 was known to be experimenting with . In March 1945 , the physicist and seismologist L. Don Leet was appointed as head of the scientific section of the Alsos Mission to Japan . Leet had previously worked with the Manhattan Project on the Trinity nuclear test . Plans were drawn up to prepare and equip a T @-@ Force along the lines of the one in Europe , but made up of personnel already in the Pacific . The mission differed from its European counterpart in that it was solely American and consisted of only one intelligence agency . Responsibility for nuclear matters was subsequently handled by a separate Manhattan Project Intelligence Group organized by Groves .
Leet 's group reached Manila in July 1945 , where they met with the intelligence staff of General of the Army Douglas MacArthur 's Army Forces , Pacific . Following the surrender of Japan the mission traveled to Japan and visited various research establishments including Tokyo Imperial University , Waseda University , Tokyo Institute of Technology , the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research , the Institute for Materials Research , Tokyo Shibaura Denki ( Toshiba ) , the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science , the National Research Council , and the Board of Technology . The mission , which included Karl Compton , interviewed over 300 Japanese scientists and produced reports on Japanese research into radar , rockets , and other developments , including chemical and biological warfare . The Manhattan Project Intelligence Group , under the command of Philip Morrison , arrived in Japan in September 1945 and examined Japan 's wartime nuclear weapons program . The group concluded that lack of uranium ore and low priority had doomed the Japanese effort . They reported that , contrary to American belief , Japan 's nuclear physicists were competent .
= = Legacy = =
After seeing the German project at Haigerloch , Goudsmit wrote that :
It was so obvious the whole German uranium set up was on a ludicrously small scale . Here was the central group of laboratories , and all it amounted to was a little underground cave , a wing of a small textile factory , a few rooms in an old brewery . To be sure , the laboratories were well equipped , but compared to what we were doing in the United States it was still small @-@ time stuff . Sometimes we wondered if our government had not spent more money on our intelligence mission than the Germans had spent on their whole project .
In the end , the Alsos Mission contributed little to the Allied defeat of Nazi Germany , because the German nuclear and biological weapons programs that it had been formed to investigate turned out to be smaller and less threatening than had been feared . In the field of nuclear weapons development at least , the underfunded and disorganized German program lagged far behind the Allies ' own efforts . In its appropriation of the accomplishments of European science , the Alsos Mission played a small part in the wartime and subsequent scientific and technological developments that characterized and transformed the postwar world .
= Mother Tucker =
" Mother Tucker " is the second episode of the fifth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy , an episode produced for Season 4 . It originally aired on Fox on September 17 , 2006 . The episode follows Peter 's mother , Thelma , divorcing from Peter 's father , Francis , and dating news anchorman Tom Tucker . Peter becomes closely attached to Tucker , only for his mother to suddenly end the relationship , leaving Peter feeling abandoned . Meanwhile , Stewie and Brian are employed as DJs on a local radio station ,
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but have creative differences over the tone of the show , which eventually forces Brian to quit .
The episode was written by Tom Devanney and directed by James Purdum . It received mixed reviews for its storyline , and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 23 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Jon Benjamin , Max Burkholder , Phyllis Diller , Phil LaMarr , Joe Lomonaco , Tamera Mowry , Anne @-@ Michelle Seiler , Tara Strong , Nicole Sullivan , Gore Vidal , Gedde Watanabe , and Wally Wingert along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Mother Tucker " was released on DVD along with twelve other episodes from the season on September 18 , 2007 .
= = Plot = =
Peter 's mother , Thelma , visits the Griffin family home , and alerts her son , Peter that she has finally left his father , Francis . In an attempt to find her a new husband , Peter 's wife , Lois , takes her to a meeting for " single people , " where she meets local news anchor Tom Tucker . Thelma and Tom begin dating , which upsets Peter , causing him to attempt to sabotage the new relationship . He is eventually persuaded by Tom that he should let his mother be happy , and the two begin bonding . Eventually , his mother suddenly ends the relationship , however , causing Peter to believe it is his fault . The next day , Peter learns that it is important for fathers and sons to spend time together , and tells Tom that he should spend more time with his own son , Jake , instead .
Meanwhile , after interrupting a broadcast of local radio station WQHG 's program " Weenie and the Butt " , Brian gets his own radio talk show , when one of the station 's producers compliments his speaking voice . Attempting to have an intelligent dialogue with his listeners , and distancing himself from " Weenie and the Butt " ' s constant overuse of sound effects , Brian is immediately heckled by Stewie 's prank phone calls . After first planning to cancel Brian 's show , the station 's producer announces that he loved the calls , and eventually decides to hire Stewie as co @-@ host . Stewie then turns Brian 's sophisticated talk show into a lewd , raucous , shock jock @-@ style comedy show called " Dingo and the Baby " , much to Brian 's chagrin , who is reluctant to accept the new format . Upon discovering that people love the new show , however , Brian decides to play along with Stewie 's idea . However , when author Gore Vidal , whom Brian had contacted for an interview on his original show , walks into one of his " Dingo and the Baby " broadcasts and leaves in disgust , Brian quits his job in shame . The show is soon replaced by one featuring Cleveland and Quagmire , entitled " Dark Chocolate and the Rod " .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series regular Tom Devanney , and directed by James Purdum . During the " Weenie and the Butt " scene , several sound effects can be heard . Each of these were recorded individually by people who have sung at such venues as the Academy Awards , and other high publicity events . Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane has commented that these sound effect recordings took much longer than expected , as they did not sound professional enough . The episode featured guest performances by actress Phyllis Diller , who has portrayed Peter 's mother Thelma in various episodes , and Tamera Mowry in her third appearance . Author Gore Vidal appeared as himself in the episode . In the scene involving Thelma trying to convince Peter to accept that she is dating Tucker , she comments , " Tom here has won a local Emmy for his work with the retardeds " . The Fox Broadcasting Company has a specific rule stating that the word " retard " or " retarded " cannot be said on their network , but this scene was nevertheless permitted . MacFarlane has commented that he cannot understand why the word is not permitted on Fox , given that it is allowed on other networks . According to MacFarlane and other episode commentators , the scene provoked an angry reaction among the mental health community .
There were several scenes throughout this episode that were removed from the script , and not broadcast . One of these comes just after Tom Tucker apologizes to Peter about losing his temper ; it was
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portrays Captain America , and emerged as the favorite . On June 23 , 2015 , Sony Pictures and Marvel Studios jointly announced that Holland would play Spider @-@ Man . The following month , Marisa Tomei was in talks for the role of May Parker , later appearing in Civil War .
= = = Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming ( 2017 ) = = =
Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming is scheduled to be released on July 7 , 2017 . The film is directed by Jon Watts , from a screenplay by Jonathan M. Goldstein & John Francis Daley and Watts & Christopher Ford and Chris McKenna & Erik Sommers . Holland , Tomei , and Downey reprise their roles as Peter Parker / Spider @-@ Man , May Parker , and Tony Stark / Iron Man , respectively , and are joined by Michael Keaton , among others . Production began in June 2016 in Atlanta , Georgia .
= = Animation = =
On April 2015 , Sony announced that Phil Lord and Chris Miller were writing and producing a Spider @-@ Man animated comedy in development at Sony Pictures Animation . As revealed by the e @-@ mail leak one year before , the duo had been previously courted by Sony to take over the studio 's animation division . The Spider @-@ Man animation would be independent of any live @-@ action adaptations , and is currently set for release on December 21 , 2018 . Sony Pictures Animation president Kristine Belson unveiled the film 's logo , with the working title " Animated Spider @-@ Man " , at CinemaCon 2016 , and declared that “ conceptually and visually , [ the film ] will break new ground for the superhero genre . ” On June 20 , 2016 , The Hollywood Reporter reported that Bob Persichetti will direct the animated film .
= = Recurring cast and characters = =
Stan Lee , one of the co @-@ creators of Spider @-@ Man , has appeared in all films except the 1977 film . In Spider @-@ Man , he was a bystander who grabs a young girl from falling debris during the battle between Spider @-@ Man and the Green Goblin in Times Square . Also , the gag reel of the film reveals Stan showing Peter Parker some sunglasses that were used for the X @-@ Men film . In Spider @-@ Man 2 , he appears once again as a bystander saving someone from falling debris , during the battle between Spider @-@ Man and Doctor Octopus at a building . In Spider @-@ Man 3 , he was a man on the street talking to Peter Parker , explaining that some people can make a difference . He then says his famous line , " ' Nuff Said ! " . In the Webb series , Lee appears as a librarian in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man listening to music on his headphones while stamping books , oblivious to the ongoing battle , and as a graduation guest in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 . In Captain America : Civil War , Lee plays a FedEx delivery man .
Bruce Campbell , a long @-@ time colleague of Sam Raimi , appeared in all three of his films . In Spider @-@ Man , he was the announcer at the wrestling ring Peter was in and gave him the name " Spider @-@ Man " , instead of the " Human Spider " ( the name with which Peter wanted to be introduced ) . In Spider @-@ Man 2 , he was an usher who refuses to let Peter enter the theater for Mary Jane 's play when arriving late . In Spider @-@ Man 3 , Campbell appears as a French maître d ' .
= = Crew = =
= = Home media = =
The Sam Raimi trilogy was released on DVD , the first two being released exclusively as two @
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It is presumed that he would have officiated over the games in his capacity as pontifex maximus , chief priest of the state cults . Allard accepts that he made no public notice of his private religion , and that he ran the games as a " prince païen " , a " pagan prince " . Pohlsander cites a number of early Christian theologians in support of his contention that " Christians generally condemned ' games ' of any kind . " Tertullian 's de Spectaculis , Novatian 's treatise of the same name ( which does not survive ) , and Cyprian 's disapproving comments in his ad Donatum are offered as examples . The later followers of Jerome , however , like Orosius and Bede , mention Philip 's games approvingly — Orosius even claims that Philip did not sacrifice during the games . Pohlsander concedes that public games continued under Christian emperors throughout the 4th century ( they were eventually outlawed in 404 under Honorius ) .
Zosimus provides the lengthiest account of the games ( at Historia Nova 2 @.@ 1 – 7 ) , but does not mention Philip . The games had a starring role in Zosimus ' scheme of Roman history . To him , the fortune of the empire was intimately related to the practice of the traditional civic rites . Any emperor who revived or supported those rites — Augustus , Claudius , Domitian , Septimius Severus — earns Zosimus ' credit , while the emperor who ended them , Constantine I , earns his condemnation . All the misfortune of the 4th century can be directly attributed to Constantine 's discontinuation of the old rites . In this context , Shahîd argues , Zosimus ' silence on Philip 's Christianity and Philip 's involvement in the games makes sense . First , it would have given lie to his thesis on that the practice of the traditional rites guaranteed the fortunes of empire , since the period following the games was hardly a happy one ( and this argument remains valid even if both Philip 's Christianity and Zosimus ' awareness of the tradition is denied ) . And second , it would have dulled his attack on Constantine by disentangling the potent alignment between imperial disaster , Christianity , and the traditional cult . The last emperor to celebrate the games was also the first emperor to embrace Christianity . The incongruity of this fact proved too much for the historian to handle , so he ignored it .
= = Historiography = =
Because of the continuing popularity of Jerome 's Chronicon and Orosius ' Historia , the medieval writers who wrote about Philip called him the first Christian emperor . The Chronica Gallica of 452 , Prosper of Aquitaine ( d. ca . 455 ) , Cassiodorus ( d. ca . 585 ) , Jordanes ( fl . 551 ) , Isidore of Seville ( d . 636 ) , and Bede ( d . 735 ) all follow Jerome on this point . One early medieval historian writing at the eve of
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Cytokine Storms in the body 's immune system . The series sees the characters struggling against terrible dangers in a world with no society , no police , and no law , led by the de facto matriarch of the group , Abby Grant .
= = Production = =
Sue Hogg , an executive producer at the BBC , was inspired to remake Survivors following the recent increase in concerns about future pandemics and diseases such as SARS . It was decided that the show would be a re @-@ imagining of the 1970s material made by BBC Productions rather than an external production company . The BBC pursued the rights for Survivors from Terry Nation 's estate so that the series could be revived . The agreement , which was signed in 2007 , took months of negotiations . For legal reasons , the new series is billed as being based on Nation 's novelisation of material from his episodes of the 1970s series .
In remaking the series , Adrian Hodges worked to avoid criticisms of the 1970s series , and he felt it was " important that a new version had a cultural and class mix that really represented the country as it is now " ; to meet this needs , they created two new characters , Al and Najid . The writers claimed that the new series retained the " spirit " of the 1970s show , but Hodges concentrated on the hope and the humanity in what was said to be an attempt to make it " less depressing " to watch .
The city scenes in the first series were filmed in Manchester , while city scenes in the second series were filmed in Birmingham .
To help create a world with no people , some scenes were shot very early on a Sunday morning , including a sequence where Al Sadiq drives his car at speed around the city centre . Producer Hugh Warren said this approach reduced the amount of computer @-@ generated imagery required and allowed the budget to be spent on effects such as when the city starts to flood and fires burn . Other locations included a house near Helmshore in Lancashire , which doubled as the survivors ' main base , the disused Earth Centre in the village of Denaby Main near Doncaster , and the Jaguar Cars test track in Nuneaton , which stood in for deserted motorways .
The series was shot using 35 mm film . Warren said this was chosen over high @-@ definition cameras due to the low light levels that would be experienced when filming in a world without electricity and during an autumn filming period , and over Super 16 due to high @-@ definition transmission requirements .
The first series received a mixed critical reception , with some reviewers concerned that it is too derivative and predictable , while others were more positive . The producers were happy to have started well , survived the ratings lull in the middle , and ended with an upward curve in the last two weeks . Audience breakdowns indicate that a higher proportion of younger viewers were tuning in to Survivors than many other shows .
The second season of Survivors was delayed because of the real @-@ life swine flu epidemic in 2009 and thus was broadcast in 2010 .
= = Cast and characters =
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= = = Main cast = = =
Julie Graham as Abby Grant . The protagonist and moral compass of the group , she 's determined to find her missing son Peter , who she insists throughout the series has survived the pandemic . She strives to maintain peace and welcome new arrivals . She and Peter are found to be the only characters to have survived the virus without a pre @-@ existing immunity , which makes them of paramount importance to a shadowy consortium of companies that released the virus and is seeking a cure .
Max Beesley as Tom Price . Tom Price was serving a long prison sentence at Wandsworth prison when the virus struck . He escapes after killing the sole remaining guard and makes his way home , only to discover that his mother had also died during the pandemic . Price 's remorselessness and violent streak provide an element of friction within the group , though he is often proven right about the darker side of human nature . Largely through his relationship with Anya , Tom becomes quite loyal to the group . At the close of the second series ( and the programme ) , Tom had secreted himself aboard a consortium aeroplane bound for parts unknown .
Paterson Joseph as Greg Preston . Greg first encounters Abby on the motorway . His original wish is to be self @-@ sufficient and alone , but as Abby convinces the other survivors to come together he decides to remain within the group . Greg is shown to be better prepared than most to survive in this post @-@ virus world , having immediately assembled a range of necessities . Before the pandemic kill @-@ off , Greg 's wife had left him for a civil servant and had told Greg she was visiting Boston . At that point , she and their two children vanished . Greg later discovered that his wife possibly knew about the virus before the outbreak and might have escaped it .
Zoe Tapper as Dr. Anya Raczynski . Anya was a doctor in a busy city hospital when the virus struck and watched hundreds of patients die of the virus , including her friend and lover Patricia Kelly , and Patricia 's flatmate Jenny Walsh . After treating a badly wounded Tom on the road , she joins the group . She privately discloses that , in the face of the pandemic , her faith in practicing medicine was deeply shaken , and she had initially sought to kill herself . Only later does she regain her confidence to successfully deliver a breech birth infant .
Phillip Rhys as Al Sadiq . The son of an immensely wealthy man , Al lived a life of leisure before the pandemic and has had difficulty adapting to a life without modern conveniences . He finds Najid alone in the city and soon develops a paternal relationship with the boy . He had a close relationship with Sarah and grows despondent when she dies from a mutated strain of the virus near the end of the second series . He volunteers for the experimental vaccine and survives .
Chahak Patel as Najid Hanif . Najid is an 11 @-@ year @-@ old Muslim boy . He awakens in a mosque to find the entire congregation , including his parents , dead . He meets Al , and the pair joins the group . He had relatives in Blackburn but doesn 't know if they survived the pandemic . Shown to be a friendly , considerate child , Najid is adopted into the group with the most ease and forms especially close bonds with Abby and Al .
Robyn Addison as Sarah Boyer . Before the virus , Sarah was an opportunist , manipulating men into supporting her . She joined the group after meeting Greg and eventually began a relationship with Al . After stumbling upon an elderly couple with a new strain of the virus she was quarantined , but was infected and died .
= = = Supporting cast = = =
While some characters were emphasised in the BBC promotional material , such as Freema Agyeman , most only appeared in the first episode as perishing during the viral pandemic .
Nikki Amuka @-@ Bird as The Rt Hon Samantha Willis MP . One of the main antagonists of the first series , Samantha – formerly the Junior Minister responsible for the government 's media response to the virus – is the sole governmental official remaining . She moves into a small ecopolis , and seeks to establish a provisional government and restore order . Abby notes that Samantha 's methods are harsh and , ultimately , corrupt . This is signified , for example , by Samantha 's killing a woman found guilty of invading the ecopolis to steal food as well as by her overruling a jury 's finding of innocence and giving the prisoner over to slave labour . She eventually forms a doomed alliance with Dexter , a violent gang leader who had been threatening her community .
Anthony Flanagan as Dexter . A vicious thug whom the group initially encounters while foraging for supplies . He claims grocery stores and later warehouses as part of his turf . Later he joins with Samantha 's provisional government , seeking to eventually assume leadership of it .
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Cold and ruthless , he is killed by Tom , to whom Samantha has promised an opportunity to " escape " , in return for his eliminating Dexter , who was a threat to her power .
Nicholas Gleaves as Dr. James Whitaker . Whitaker served as the main antagonist of the second series . He is a biochemist leading the research into a cure for the virus from the safety of a biologically secure research & development facility . As the research begins to require increasingly unethical practices , he lies and rationalises in the struggle to maintain the loyalty of his colleagues . Unbeknownst to the other workers ( all of whom had lost loved ones in the pandemic ) , he had secreted his wife ( portrayed by Alisa Arnah ) and young son within the facility , violating protocol . His true motives are suspect , as he answers to someone called Mr. Landry , with whom he communicates over a satellite video link . Until his death he was using stolen anti @-@ virus produced from Abby 's blood for himself , keeping it from the others , who died when the virus got into the lab after Abby infected his wife . At the end of the second series , he is accidentally shot and killed by a sniper in Landry 's employ .
Christopher Fulford as Henry Smithson . A former Oxford professor of Classical History , he has found a new career in managing forced slave labour at an old coal mine near the country manor where he has taken up residence . He was last seen begging for mercy while being beaten to death by the workers released by escaped slave Tom .
Roger Lloyd @-@ Pack as Billy Stringer . An artic driver who kidnaps people he " befriends " along the road to work as slaves in Smithson 's coal mine , in exchange for food and lorry fuel . Tied up and left in the woods by Tom , he is subsequently freed by Peter Grant , one of the children he had been transporting in the back of the truck . Pack is the only actor who appeared in the 2008 version who also appeared in the 1970s series ; he played Wally in the Series 2 episode of the 1970s programme , titled " Lights of London " ( 1976 ) .
Patrick Malahide as Mr. Landry . Part of a company which specialises in pharmaceutical research , which Whitaker was also once a part of ; the pair would meet occasionally over a satellite video link to discuss further advancements . The group , following the details on a mysterious postcard , finds Landry , who admits that the virus is a genetically @-@ engineered attempt to discover a universal cure for all known forms of influenza ; it failed and escaped into the populace , creating the pandemic . Landry plans to take Peter Grant to a place where civilisation had been established months before , but is offered the newly created vaccine as an alternative . At the end of Series Two , he is heading back to this place via aeroplane .
Jack Richardson as Peter Grant . Abby 's young son . Unseen during the first series , he is unknowingly set free from Billy and a group of children his age . Billy finds him again and takes him to Dr. Whitaker , who uses him to find a cure for the virus ( he inherited his mother 's ability to fight off the infection ) . He is reunited with his mother at the cliffhanger ending at the close of the second series .
Freema Agyeman as Jenny Walsh . A young primary school teacher who lived with Patricia and was good friends with Anya before the virus , who dies shortly after discovering the true power of the disease . She appears in the first episode of Series One .
Shaun Dingwall as David Grant . Abby 's husband and Peter 's father . When Abby contracts the virus and collapses , David cares for her until he believes that she has succumbed to the virus . When she awakens three days later , she discovers that David died from the same flu that almost claimed her life .
Sacha Parkinson as Kate . Greg and Tom see a helicopter flying over and they also encounter an uninfected family who have been isolated since the onset of the virus but when the family 's daughter ( Kate ) reaches out to them , she risks infecting them . She appears in the third episode of Series One .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Series 1 ( 2008 ) = = =
= = = Series 2 ( 2010 ) = = =
A second series of six episodes was commissioned and began airing in January 2010 . Adrian Hodges returned to oversee the project , and Julie Graham , Paterson Joseph , Zoe Tapper , Philip Rhys , Robyn Addison , Chahak Patel , and Max Beesley returned to their roles for the next series .
The cliffhanger is quickly resolved , while the story of the lab plays through series two , allowing more about the backstory of the virus and the
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TV " . Zalben loved the serial aspects of the plot , praised Anna Torv 's performance , but disliked how no one has realized Fauxlivia 's true identity . Josh Wigler from MTV enjoyed the episode particularly because although he found the parallel universe a " compelling world , sometimes it 's nice to just kick your feet up on the table and know that you 're home ... Two episodes down , and it 's safe to say that the third season of " Fringe " is off to a very strong start " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly thought it was a terrific episode , with " a tremendously clever game @-@ changer of an ending ... This Fringe was a good example of how far the series has come since its first season , dominated by pre @-@ credits scare @-@ scenarios for Fringe Division to investigate , some of which spilled over into the show 's mythology . Now , Fringe is a seamless whole " .
A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded it with a B + . SFScope contributor Sarah Stegall wrote , " Tightly written , well acted , and directed with a sure hand , this second episode of the season bears out my original prediction : this year is going to rock . " Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times praised the episode 's use of a " Harold " , in which three separate plots working off a central theme converge together . He also loved the climatic scene involving a gunshot @-@ induced deaf Peter and the subway . " I hope more people were watching this episode for so many reasons : To see how good " Fringe " has become , to get addicted to the show and , most important , to see that they quoted my blog in the promo for next week . Thursday night has become " Fringe " night " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
" The Box " was nominated for Best Sound Editing : TV Short Form Music by the Motion Picture Sound Editors for the 2011 Golden Reel Awards . The crew included Supervising Music Editor Paul Apelgren , composers Chris Tilton and Michael Giacchino , and re @-@ recording mixer Rick Norman . " Brown Betty " , a season two Fringe episode , was also nominated for Best Sound Editing : TV Short Form Music in a Musical . " The Box " lost to an episode of Boardwalk Empire .
= SMS Wacht =
SMS Wacht was an aviso of the Imperial German Navy , the lead ship of her class . She had one sister ship , Jagd . Wacht was built by the AG Weser shipyard ; she was laid down in 1886 , launched in August 1887 , and commissioned in August 1888 . She served in the active fleet through the 1890s and participated in numerous training exercises . Her career was cut short on 4 September 1901 , when she collided with the old ironclad SMS Sachsen . The latter 's ram bow holed Wacht under the waterline and caused her to rapidly sink . Her crew was safely rescued , however , and there were no casualties .
= = Design = =
Wacht was 85 @.@ 5 meters ( 281 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 9 @.@ 66 m ( 31 @.@ 7 ft ) and a maximum draft of 3 @.@ 74 m ( 12 @.@ 3 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 499 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 475 long tons ; 1 @,@ 652 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two angled 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 860 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 300 km ; 3 @,@ 290 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Wacht had a crew of 7 officers and 134 enlisted men .
As built , the ship was armed with three 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) K L / 35 guns placed in single pivot mounts . The guns were supplied with a total of 180 rounds of ammunition . Wacht also carried three 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , one mounted submerged in the bow and the other two in deck @-@ mounted launchers on the broadside . In 1891 , four 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns in single mounts were added . The ship was the first German aviso to carry armor : a 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) thick deck , along with 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) of armor plating for the conning tower .
= = Service history = =
Wacht was laid down in 1886 at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen . She was launched on 27 August 1887 and commissioned into the German fleet on 9 August 1888 . In 1889 , Franz von Hipper served aboard the ship as her watch officer . In early 1889 , Wacht was assigned to the Maneuver Squadron , which at the time consisted of the old ironclads Baden , Bayern , and Oldenburg and the protected cruiser Irene . The Squadron was commanded by Prince Heinrich . In May , the Maneuver Squadron conducted mock combat exercises with the Training Squadron in the Baltic Sea .
In late 1889 , Wacht joined a squadron of four old ironclads — Kaiser , Deutschland , Friedrich der Grosse , and Preussen — that cruised the Mediterranean Sea along with Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht Hohenzollern and the protected cruiser Irene , which
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cruise close to shore , as the German submarine U @-@ 151 had been operating in the area since 23 May , and had sunk several ships . Wisconsin reached Annapolis on 7 June , having stopped in the Delaware River to wait for U @-@ 151 to depart . A contingent of 175 midshipmen came aboard Wisconsin on 8 June for a training cruise to the Chesapeake . On 29 August she returned to Annapolis and disembarked the midshipmen before returning to Yorktown the next day . There , she took on 217 men for another round of training . On 11 November , Germany signed the Armistice that ended the fighting in Europe . Wisconsin continued in her training ship duties until 20 December , when she was sent to New York for a naval review for Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt on 26 December .
Following the German surrender in November 1918 , most of the battleships of the Atlantic Fleet were used as transports to ferry American soldiers back from France . Wisconsin and her sisters were not so employed , however , owing to their short range and small size , which would not permit sufficient additional accommodations . Wisconsin instead steamed to Cuba for training with the Atlantic Fleet into 1919 . She went on a midshipmen training cruise to the Caribbean in mid @-@ 1919 . On 15 May 1920 , Wisconsin was decommissioned ; she was reclassified as BB @-@ 9 on 17 July . She was eventually sold on 26 January 1922 and broken up for scrap .
= Muntz Street =
Muntz Street is the popular name of a former association football stadium situated in the Small Heath district of Birmingham , England , taken from the street on which it stood . During its lifetime the ground was known as Coventry Road ; the name " Muntz Street " is a more recent adoption . It was the ground at which the teams of Birmingham City F.C. – under the club 's former names of Small Heath Alliance , Small Heath and Birmingham – played their home games for nearly 30 years . It also served as the headquarters of the Small Heath Athletic Club .
The Muntz Street ground , then situated on Birmingham 's eastern edge and bordered on two sides by farmland , opened in 1877 . It was a field with terracing round it which provided standing accommodation for roughly 10 @,@ 000 spectators . A wooden stand was built and the terracing raised to expand the capacity to around 30 @,@ 000 , but eventually it proved too small for the football club 's needs . They built a new stadium nearer the city centre , St Andrew 's , which hosted its first game in December 1906 . Muntz Street , by then in a heavily built @-@ up area , was demolished in 1907 and the land used for housing . The street of the same name remains .
= = Location and facilities = =
Small Heath Alliance Football Club , founded in 1875 , played their first home games on waste ground off Arthur Street , in the Bordesley Green district of Birmingham , very near the site where the club 's St Andrew 's stadium would be built some thirty years later . In 1876 , they made a temporary move to a fenced @-@ off field in Ladypool Road , Sparkbrook , with a capacity estimated at 3 @,@ 000 ; because the field was enclosed , admission could be charged . A year later they moved again , to a field in Small Heath , rented for an initial £ 5 a year from the family of Sam Gessey , a Small Heath player . The field had a capacity of 10 @,@ 000 spectators , and was situated on the eastern edge of Birmingham 's built @-@ up area , just north of the main road to Coventry . It was bordered on two sides by developed streets , Muntz Street on the western side , Wright Street to the south ; the other two sides of the enclosure adjoined farmland .
When it first opened , the ground had few facilities for either player or spectator . Uncovered terracing surrounded the pitch , and a hut acted as the players ' changing room . A small but well @-@ appointed covered wooden stand was built on the Coventry Road side , and over the years the terracing was enlarged to raise the capacity to around 30 @,@ 000 . In 1895 , the football club bought the lease to the ground , which had 11 years remaining , for a sum of £ 275 . Two years later , they paid £ 90 to their near neighbours , Aston Villa Football Club , for an old grandstand from Villa 's former Wellington Road ground in Perry Barr . The club transported it piece by piece , and re @-@ erected it as a terrace cover behind the goal at the Muntz Street end . No other major improvements were made , nor did the club ever move their administrative offices to the site , instead maintaining premises in Corporation Street , in Birmingham city centre .
Muntz Street was readily accessible by public transport . In the early years , horse @-@ drawn buses ran along the Coventry Road , linking Small Heath with the city centre and with other nearby districts . In 1882 , the building of a tramline along the Coventry Road to Small Heath Park was authorised , and four years later , the Coventry Road steam tramway route was opened to a terminus near Dora Road , a few yards past the ground . In the early years of the 20th century , this line was converted for use by electric trams .
Contemporary reports referred to the ground throughout its lifetime as Coventry Road . Writer and researcher Steve Beauchampé suggests that the Muntz Street name may have been adopted to distinguish it from St Andrew 's , which was also built just off the Coventry Road .
= = Club matches = =
The first game at Muntz Street , a friendly match against Saltley College , was played on 11 September 1877 . Small Heath Alliance won 5 – 0 , in front of " a handful " of spectators who contributed gate receipts of 6s 8d . This marked the start of a run of 22 games unbeaten at the new ground . The playing surface was notorious for its poor quality – bumpy and stony – and was referred to locally as the " celery trenches " . The first meeting between Small Heath and Aston Villa – who went on to become the club 's major rivals – took place in 1879 ; it resulted in a 1 – 0 home win , after which the Villa players described the pitch as " only suitable for pot @-@ holing " . In 1883 , Wednesbury Old Athletic paid Small Heath £ 5 to switch the venue of a Walsall Cup tie away from Muntz Street ; the club took the money , won the match and went on to win the competition , their first ever silverware . Nine years later , The Wednesday offered £ 200 to switch venues in a second @-@ round FA Cup tie ; the money was accepted , but without the success .
Events surrounding the February 1905 First Division match with Aston Villa highlighted the ground 's inadequacies . The official attendance was given as 28 @,@ 000 , though with the gates closed before kick @-@ off , thousands climbed over walls or forced entrances in order to gain admission , and the actual attendance is estimated at anything up to 35 @,@ 000 . The Birmingham Daily Mail reported " a constant stream of vehicles to the ground , while the trams were disgorging their freights at Muntz Street every two or three minutes . " Inside , " the swaying of the mass of spectators rendered the placing of additional supports against the barriers a necessary precaution " , and children were passed overhead and deposited on the pitch for their own safety . The following Monday the same newspaper commented that had space been available , another ten or fifteen thousand spectators might well have attended , as " hundreds of people found the doors closed against them , and probably there were thousands who would not go to the ground in view of the inevitable crush . " The size of the crowd preferring to attend the same day 's Birmingham & District League match between the two clubs ' reserve teams at Villa Park – at least 3 @,@ 000 spectators – lent support to that view .
= = Move to St Andrew 's = =
A month later the club changed its name to Birmingham Football Club , to reflect its position as the only Football League club in the city . Football as a spectator sport was becoming increasing popular : a Birmingham Daily Post editorial pointed out that " Birmingham has not escaped this great wave of popularity , and the club bearing the name of the city has found itself compelled to seek a new home . Its old one at Small Heath was quite inadequate for the requirements of an important match " .
The rent had risen to £ 300 a year , and the landlords refused to sell the freehold , to renew the lease , which was nearing expiry , or to allow extensions to be made to the ground , which was by then surrounded by tightly @-@ packed housing . The directors estimated that remaining at Muntz Street was losing the club as much as £ 2000 a year in revenue ; the March 1906 cup @-@ tie against Newcastle United produced receipts of £ 900 from a crowd restricted to 25
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him becoming president . Following parliamentary elections in 2013 , Baron Waqa was elected president .
Its Supreme Court , headed by the Chief Justice , is paramount on constitutional issues . Other cases can be appealed to the two @-@ judge Appellate Court . Parliament cannot overturn court decisions , but Appellate Court rulings can be appealed to the High Court of Australia . In practice this rarely happens . Lower courts consist of the District Court and the Family Court , both of which are headed by a Resident Magistrate , who also is the Registrar of the Supreme Court . There are two other quasi @-@ courts : the Public Service Appeal Board and the Police Appeal Board , both of which are presided over by the Chief Justice .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
Following independence in 1968 , Nauru joined the Commonwealth of Nations as a Special Member ; it became a full member in 2000 . The country was admitted to the Asian Development Bank in 1991 and to the United Nations in 1999 . Nauru is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum , the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme , the South Pacific Commission , and the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission . The American Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program operates a climate @-@ monitoring facility on the island .
Nauru has no armed forces , though there is a small police force under civilian control . Australia is responsible for Nauru 's defence under an informal agreement between the two countries . The September 2005 Memorandum of Understanding between Australia and Nauru provides the latter with financial aid and technical assistance , including a Secretary of Finance to prepare the budget , and advisers on health and education . This aid is in return for Nauru 's housing of asylum seekers while their applications for entry into Australia are processed . Nauru uses the Australian dollar as its official currency .
Nauru has used its position as a member of the United Nations to gain financial support from both Taiwan ( ROC ) and China ( PRC ) by changing its recognition from one to the other under the One @-@ China policy . On 21 July 2002 , Nauru signed an agreement to establish diplomatic relations with the PRC , accepting $ 130 million from the PRC for this action . In response , the ROC severed diplomatic relations with Nauru two days later . Nauru later re @-@ established links with the ROC on 14 May 2005 , and diplomatic ties with the PRC were officially severed on 31 May 2005 . However , the PRC continues to maintain a representative office on Nauru .
In 2008 , Nauru recognised Kosovo as an independent country , and in 2009 Nauru became the fourth country , after Russia , Nicaragua , and Venezuela , to recognise Abkhazia , a breakaway region of Georgia . Russia was reported to be giving Nauru $ 50 million in humanitarian aid as a result of this recognition . On 15 July 2008 , the Nauruan government announced a port refurbishment programme , financed with US $ 9 million of development aid received from Russia . The Nauru government claims this aid is not related to its recognising Abkhazia and South Ossetia .
A significant portion of Nauru 's income has been in the form of aid from Australia . In 2001 , the MV Tampa , a Norwegian ship that had rescued 438 refugees from a stranded 20 @-@ metre @-@ long boat , was seeking to dock in Australia . In what became known as the Tampa affair , the ship was refused entry and boarded by Australian troops . The refugees were eventually loaded onto Royal Australian Navy vessel HMAS Manoora and taken to Nauru to be held in detention facilities which later became part of the Howard government 's Pacific Solution . Nauru operated two detention centres known as State House and Topside for these refugees in exchange for Australian aid . By November 2005 , only two refugees , Mohammed Sagar and Muhammad Faisal , remained on Nauru from those first sent there in 2001 , with Sagar finally resettling in early 2007 . The Australian government sent further groups of asylum @-@ seekers to Nauru in late 2006 and early 2007 . The refugee centre was closed in 2008 , but , following the Australian government 's re @-@ adoption of the Pacific Solution in August 2012 , it has re @-@ opened it .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Nauru is divided into fourteen administrative districts which are grouped into eight electoral constituencies and are further divided into various villages . The most populous district is Denigomodu with a total of 1 @,@ 804 residents , out of which 1 @,@ 497 reside in NPC settlement called Location . The following table shows population size by district as per 2011 census .
= = Economy = =
The Nauruan economy peaked in the early 1980s , as it was dependent almost entirely on the phosphate deposits that originate from the droppings of sea birds . There are few other resources , and most necessities are imported . Small @-@ scale mining is still conducted by RONPhos , formerly known as the Nauru Phosphate Corporation . The government places a percentage of RONPhos 's earnings into the Nauru Phosphate Royalties Trust . The Trust manages long @-@ term investments , which were intended to support the citizens once the phosphate reserves were exhausted .
Because of mismanagement , the Trust 's fixed and current assets were reduced considerably and may never fully recover . The failed investments included financing Leonardo the Musical in 1993 . The Mercure Hotel in Sydney and Nauru House in Melbourne were sold in 2004 to finance debts and Air Nauru 's only Boeing 737 was repossessed in December 2005 . Normal air service resumed after the aircraft was replaced with a Boeing 737 – 300 airliner in June 2006 . In 2005 , the corporation sold its property asset in Melbourne , the vacant Savoy Tavern site , for $ 7 @.@ 5 million .
The value of the Trust is estimated to have shrunk from A $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in 1991 to $ 138 million in 2002 . Nauru currently lacks money to perform many of the basic functions of government ; for example , the National Bank of Nauru is insolvent . The CIA World Factbook estimated a GDP per capita of $ 5 @,@ 000 in 2005 . The Asian Development Bank 2007 economic report on Nauru estimated GDP per capita at $ 2 @,@ 400 to $ 2 @,@ 715 . The United Nations ( 2013 ) estimates the GDP per capita to 15 @,@ 211 and ranks it 51 on its GDP per capita country list .
There are no personal taxes in Nauru . The unemployment rate is estimated to be 90 percent , and of those who have jobs , the government employs 95 percent . The Asian Development Bank notes that although the administration has a strong public mandate to implement economic reforms , in the absence of an alternative to phosphate mining , the medium @-@ term outlook is for continued dependence on external assistance . Tourism is not a major contributor to the economy .
In the 1990s , Nauru became a tax haven and offered passports to foreign nationals for a fee . The inter @-@ governmental Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering ( FATF ) identified Nauru as one of 15 " non @-@ cooperative " countries in its fight against money laundering . During the 1990s
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, it was possible to establish a licensed bank in Nauru for only $ 25 @,@ 000 with no other requirements . Under pressure from FATF , Nauru introduced anti @-@ avoidance legislation in 2003 , after which foreign hot money left the country . In October 2005 , after satisfactory results from the legislation and its enforcement , FATF lifted the non @-@ cooperative designation .
From 2001 to 2007 , the Nauru detention centre provided a significant source of income for the country . The Nauruan authorities reacted with concern to its closure by Australia . In February 2008 , the Foreign Affairs minister , Dr Kieren Keke , stated that the closure would result in 100 Nauruans losing their jobs , and would affect 10 percent of the island 's population directly or indirectly : " We have got a huge number of families that are suddenly going to be without any income . We are looking at ways we can try and provide some welfare assistance but our capacity to do that is very limited . Literally we have got a major unemployment crisis in front of us . " The detention centre was re @-@ opened in August 2012 .
= = Population = =
= = = Demographics = = =
Nauru had 9 @,@ 378 residents as of July 2011 . The population was previously larger , but in 2006 1 @,@ 500 people left the island during a repatriation of immigrant workers from Kiribati and Tuvalu . The repatriation was motivated by wide @-@ scale reductions @-@ in @-@ force in the phosphate mining industry .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
58 % of people in Nauru are ethnically Nauruan , 26 % are other Pacific Islander , 8 % are European , and 8 % are Chinese . Nauruans descended from Polynesian and Micronesian seafarers . Two of the 12 original tribal groups became extinct in the 20th century .
= = = Languages = = =
The official language of Nauru is Nauruan , a distinct Pacific island language , which is spoken by 96 percent of ethnic Nauruans at home .
English is widely spoken and is the language of government and commerce , as Nauruan is not common outside of the country .
= = = Religion = = =
The main religion practised on the island is Christianity ( two @-@ thirds Protestant , one @-@ third Roman Catholic ) . The Constitution provides for freedom of religion . The government has restricted the religious practices of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints and the Jehovah 's Witnesses , most of whom are foreign workers employed by the government @-@ owned Nauru Phosphate Corporation . The Catholics are pastorally served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tarawa and Nauru , with see at Tarawa on Kiribati .
The original native people believed in a female deity , Eijebong , and a spirit land , an island called Buitani .
There is also a sizeable Bahá 'í population ( 10 % ) – the largest proportion of any country in the world – and Buddhist ( 9 % ) and Muslim ( 2 @.@ 2 % ) populations .
= = Culture = =
Angam Day , held on 26 October , celebrates the recovery of the Nauruan population after the two World Wars and the 1920 influenza epidemic . The displacement of the indigenous culture by colonial and contemporary Western influences is significant . Few of the old customs have been preserved , but some forms of traditional music , arts and crafts , and fishing are still practised .
= = = Media = = =
There are no daily news publications on Nauru , although there is one fortnightly publication , Mwinen Ko . There is a state @-@ owned television station , Nauru Television ( NTV ) , which broadcasts programmes from New Zealand and Australia , and a state @-@ owned non @-@ commercial radio station , Radio Nauru , which carries programmes from Radio Australia and the BBC .
= = = Sport = = =
Australian rules football is the most popular sport in Nauru – it and weightlifting are considered the country 's national sports . There is a football league with eight teams . Other sports popular in Nauru include volleyball , netball , fishing and tennis . Nauru participates in the Commonwealth Games and the Summer Olympic Games .
Rugby sevens popularity has increased over the last two years , so much they have a national team ( Nauru national rugby union team ( sevens ) ) .
Nauru competed in the 2015 Oceania Sevens Championship in New Zealand .
= = Public Services = =
= = = Education = = =
Literacy on Nauru is 96 percent . Education is compulsory for children from six to sixteen years old , and two more non @-@ compulsory years are offered ( years 11 and 12 ) . There is a campus of the University of the South Pacific on Nauru . Before this campus was built in 1987 , students would study either by distance or abroad . Since 2011 , the University of New England , Australia has established a presence on the island with around 30 Nauruan teachers studying for an associate degree in education . These students will continue onto the degree to complete their studies . This project is led by Associate Professor Pep Serow and funded by the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade .
= = = Health = = =
Life expectancy on Nauru in 2009 was 60 @.@ 6 years for males and 68 @.@ 0 years for females .
By measure of mean body mass index ( BMI ) Nauruans are the most overweight people in the world ; 97 percent of men and 93 percent of women are overweight or obese . In 2012 the obesity rate was 71 @.@ 7 % .
Nauru has the world 's highest level of type 2 diabetes , with more than 40 percent of the population affected . Other significant dietary @-@ related problems on Nauru include kidney disease and heart disease .
= Vithoba =
Vithoba , also known as Vi ( t ) thal ( a ) and Panduranga , is a Hindu god predominantly worshipped in the Indian states of Maharashtra , Karnataka , Goa , Telangana and Andhra Pradesh . He is generally considered a manifestation of the god Vishnu or his avatar , Krishna . Vithoba is often depicted as a dark young boy , standing arms akimbo on a brick , sometimes accompanied by his main consort Rakhumai .
Vithoba is the focus of the monotheistic , non @-@ Brahamanical Varkari religion of Maharashtra and the Haridasa faith of Karnataka . Vitthal Temple , Pandharpur is his main temple . Vithoba legends revolve around his devotee Pundalik , who is credited with bringing the deity to Pandharpur , and around Viṭhoba 's role as a saviour to the poet @-@ saints of the Varkari faith . The Varkari poet @-@ saints are known for their unique genre of devotional lyric , the abhang , dedicated to Vithoba and composed in Marathi . Other devotional literature dedicated to Vithoba includes the Kannada hymns of the Haridasa and Marathi versions of the generic aarti songs associated with rituals of offering light to the deity . The most important festivals of Vithoba are held on Shayani Ekadashi in the month of Ashadha , and Prabodhini Ekadashi in the month of Kartik .
The historiography of Vithoba and his cult is an area of continuing debate , even regarding his name . Various Indologists have proposed a prehistory for Vithoba worship where he was previously : a hero stone , a pastoral deity , a manifestation of Shiva , a Jain saint , or even all of these at various times for various devotees . Though the origins of both his cult and his main temple are likewise debated , there is clear evidence that they already existed by the 13th century .
= = Etymology and other names = =
Vithoba ( Marathi : विठोबा , Viṭhobā ) is known by many names , including : Vitthala , Panduranga , Pandharinath , Hari and Narayan .
There are several theories about
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their first defeat in eight league games after losing 2 – 1 at home to Gateshead . Progression to the semi @-@ final of the FA Trophy for the third time in five seasons came after York defeated Grimsby 1 – 0 away in the quarter @-@ final , in which Scott Kerr scored his first goal for the club .
= = = March = = =
Oyebanjo , with his first goal for the club , and Walker scored to give York a 2 – 0 victory at home to Hayes . This was followed by a 0 – 0 home draw with Tamworth . York defeated Luton in the first leg of the FA Trophy semi @-@ final at Bootham Crescent , with Reed scoring a penalty in a 1 – 0 victory . Fyfield scored the winning goal away at Grimsby during stoppage time with a twenty @-@ five yard strike , after Reed and Smith had scored York 's earlier goals in a 3 – 2 victory . York reached the FA Trophy final for the second time in four seasons after drawing 1 – 1 away at Luton in the semi @-@ final second leg , with Blair scoring a ninetieth @-@ minute equaliser , meaning the team went through 2 – 1 on aggregate . Free agent midfielder Eugen Bopp was signed on a contract until the end of the season after a trial . York were beaten 2 – 1 at home to Southport , with Reed 's eighty @-@ fourth @-@ minute goal not being enough to earn York any points , after the visitors had scored twice earlier in the second half . McLaughlin scored for the first time since December with the only goal in a 1 – 0 victory away at Bath , which restored York 's position in the play @-@ offs . A second goal in two games from McLaughlin saw York equalise away at Luton in the eighty @-@ first @-@ minute , before Meredith scored an eighty @-@ sixth @-@ minute winner in a 2 – 1 victory .
= = = April = = =
McLaughlin 's third goal in three games came in a 2 – 1 defeat away at Newport County , with the home side scoring the winner twenty @-@ minutes from time through Romone Rose . York lost the second game in a row when league leaders Fleetwood won 1 – 0 at Bootham Crescent , in which former York striker Richard Brodie scored the only goal in the seventy @-@ third @-@ minute . Blair and Oyebanjo scored in the second half to give York a 2 – 0 victory away at Alfreton . Swallow was prematurely released by the club because of an internal issue . York drew 1 – 1 at home to Newport with Walker scoring a second half equaliser , which was his first goal from open play since 22 October . Musselwhite was forced to make his debut in York 's visit to Cambridge due to an injury to Ingham , with York winning 1 – 0 through a second half Walker goal . York were guaranteed a play @-@ off place after beating Braintree 1 – 0 away , with Tønne scoring his first goal for the club in the seventy @-@ fifth @-@ minute . The league campaign concluded after a 1 – 0 victory at home to Forest Green , with Moké scoring in the eighty @-@ second @-@ minute . The result meant York finished fourth in the Conference table and that they would play third @-@ placed Mansfield in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final . Following the game , Kerr was named as the season 's Clubman of the Year , voted for by the club 's supporters .
= = = May = = =
York drew 1 – 1 with Mansfield at home in the first leg of the play @-@ off semi @-@ final . Mansfield took the lead in the twenty @-@ sixth @-@ minute after Exodus Geohaghon 's long throw was headed in by Ross Dyer , before York equalised on forty @-@ two minutes after Geohaghon scored an own goal from a Challinor cross . York defeated Mansfield 1 – 0 after extra time in the second leg after Blair scored a header from a Walker cross in the 111th @-@ minute . With an aggregate score of 2 – 1 York progressed to the play @-@ off final to play Luton . The club won its first national knockout competition , and first piece of silverware in nineteen years , after Newport were defeated 2 – 0 in the 2012 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium , with Blair and Oyebanjo scoring in the second half . Days after the Trophy victory , plans for a community stadium to be built at Monks Cross , which would be shared by York City and rugby league team York City Knights , were approved by City of York Council .
On 20 May 2012 , York regained their Football League status with promotion to League Two after a 2 – 1 win over Luton in the 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley . Luton took the lead when Andre Gray scored in the second minute , before Chambers scored the equaliser on twenty @-@ six minutes with a low shot from a Smith hooked cross . The winner came two minutes into the second half after Blair , despite being in an offside position , scored from close range after latching onto Parslow 's header . After the match , Blair was quoted as saying " I scored the goal and it feels unbelievable but I 'm not taking anything away from the other lads today . The back five , and Daniel Parslow in front , defended like heroes and were brilliant all game " . Mills summarised York 's achievements by saying " To come to Wembley two weeks running and do the double is an incredible feeling . In fact , with the ground announcement , it ’ s been a terrific treble and probably the best hat @-@ trick ever at York City Football Club " .
The day after the play @-@ off final thousands turned out to witness the club 's players , management , staff and directors ride through York city centre on an open @-@ topped bus , in celebration of what The Press described as " an unsurpassed nine days in the Minstermen 's proud existence " .
= = Summary and aftermath = =
York occupied a play @-@ off position for the majority of the season , briefly rising as high as first place during the first month of the season while never dropping below fourteenth . For the third time in the space of six seasons , York had a better record away than at home in the league . The team won twelve matches , drew eight and lost three away , compared to winning eleven , drawing six and losing six at home . Ingham , McLaughlin and Meredith recorded the highest number of appearances during the season , each appearing in fifty @-@ five of York 's fifty @-@ eight games
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full @-@ size pitches , an indoor facility and a medical and rehabilitation centre .
Constructed after manager Arsène Wenger campaigned for Arsenal to replace its existing University College London groundshare site , it opened in October 1999 at a cost of £ 10 million . The training centre was financed by the transfer of Nicolas Anelka to Real Madrid .
As well as accommodating Arsenal 's first team and youth teams , the centre from 2003 to 2012 acted as the training base for the England national football team before home internationals and friendlies . It has attracted criticism from local residents over environmental and catchment issues .
= = History and development = =
When Arsène Wenger joined Arsenal in October 1996 , he attempted to organise an extra training session at the club 's University College London Union ( UCLU ) Shenley Sports grounds , for the benefit of getting to know his players . Wenger was told that the ground – owned by UCL , was reserved for its students , which left him not knowing “ whether to laugh or cry ” . A few weeks after , a fire partially burnt down the training centre , costing £ 50 @,@ 000 in damages . Arsenal temporarily rehoused their training base to Sopwell House Hotel in St Albans . Wenger , dismayed by the arrangement , campaigned for a purpose @-@ built , Arsenal @-@ owned ground that housed the latest training equipment . This was one of the " important decisions " he wanted to make for the club – " Without an assurance of that freedom and control I would not have stayed . "
By February 1998 , Hertsmere Borough Council granted consent for Arsenal to build a training centre on the greenfield land , adjacent to a local school in the Bell Lane area , London Colney . It is situated adjacent to the former facilities at Shenley Sports grounds , which Watford Football Club use for training purposes . They concluded it was “ … essential to support the training facility ” , that it would replace an existing building used by the club and that Arsenal ’ s community work “ constituted exceptional circumstances ” . The plans were referred to the Environment Secretary John Prescott , who ratified it , in spite of the area 's position on the green belt . Planning permission was obtained in September 1998 .
Richard Marshall and Dearle & Henderson designed the training ground and its facilities . Wenger was " heavily involved " in the process – “ even down to the kitchens ” and shared ideas from his time as Nagoya Grampus manager , where the club itself was building its own training centre . As part of a fact @-@ finding mission , club representatives visited other training facilities from around Europe , such as Bayern Munich and Auxerre . Arsenal 's physiotherapist Gary Lewin and fitness coach Tony Colbert were involved in their respective areas . The project , transforming a 140 @-@ foot site , was completed in 45 weeks at a cost of £ 10 million . Arsenal financed this through the transfer of Nicolas Anelka to Real Madrid for £ 22 @.@ 5 million in August 1999 .
The Arsenal Training Centre was opened by Sports Minister Kate Hoey on 11 October 1999 . Chairman Peter Hill @-@ Wood described it as “ simply superb ” , while Wenger felt it acted as a " big attraction " for players to come to Arsenal . Unlike before , the training centre was open to the first team squad and youth teams for training simultaneously , which in Wenger ’ s words gave Arsenal a “ stronger feeling of togetherness ” . The club have since expanded its training centre to include a press briefing building , as well as an indoor pitch facility . During development work in August 2006 , an artillery shell was found near the site which led to the surrounding area being evacuated .
= = Facilities = =
The training centre covers an area of 143 acres ( 0 @.@ 58 km2 ) . In all , there are ten full @-@ size pitches at the site . Inside the complex there are training and rehabilitation areas , physiotherapy and massage rooms and remedial and hydrotherapy pools . There are also squash / basketball courts , sauna , steam and weight rooms , a restaurant for staff and players , conference rooms , offices , classrooms and a TV studio to interview players and staff for Arsenal TV .
All ten pitches have undersoil drainage and an automated sprinkler system . In addition , two have undersoil heating . Each pitch is built to match the playing surface specifications of the Emirates Stadium . Three of the pitches are reserved for the Arsenal youth team , three for the reserves and three for the first team . The tenth pitch is where first team friendlies and Under @-@ 18 league fixtures take place .
A medical and rehabilitation centre was completed in October 2011 , tailored to meet the needs of the Arsenal players . The centre houses apparatus such as an anti @-@ gravity treadmill and a range of screening equipment . Players returning from injury are able to focus on their rehabilitation " in a separate , specialised space " , with medical staff on hand . Extra training pitches are also set to be laid . In February 2015 Arsenal ordered 1 @,@ 400 m2 of artificial grass from the Swiss company called Tisca Tiara for the training pitch .
In March 2015 , Arsenal announced plans for a major redevelopment of its training centre . The plans include expanding and upgrading the main building , constructing a player performance centre , and refurbishing the visitors , educational and media centre . Specific gym improvements include new 40m running tracks and dedicated space for Yoga and Pilates . New offices and meeting rooms will be built for the scouting team , academy staff , and data analysis personnel . Upgraded training medical and training facilities include a spa , a cryochamber , and ice baths . To accommodate the changes , a two @-@ storey extension will be built , the equipment shed will be moved , and 280 trees will be planted ( to replace the 140 that will be removed during the redevelopment process ) . The project was supported by the Sport England with planning approval given by the Hertsmere borough council planning committee . Project completion is scheduled for the beginning of the 2017 – 18 season .
= = Criticism = =
The ground has attracted criticism from local residents . A parish council meeting in October 2001 revealed that Arsenal players had not been involved with local initiatives , despite claims during its planning phase that the ground would allow the club to develop links with the local community . Shenley Primary School reportedly failed to receive any visits from players despite repeated requests . The club responded by pointing to initiatives by its Ladies team to organise competitions at local grounds . Plans to develop new buildings and road links to the site were challenged by residents four years later ; they believed it would lead to increased traffic and noise pollution in the area .
In March 2006 , The Daily Telegraph noted Arsenal 's failure to develop young English players following a UEFA Champions League tie against Juventus , in which they did not use a single English player . According to desk research , youth team opportunities was a main reason the club obtained planning permission for the centre . Arsenal cited in a statement : " The Bell Lane site is within the Arsenal ' catchment area ' and the club already has a very active youth policy in the area . In particular , the club currently works closely with 12 local clubs which would be maintained and enhanced if the Bell Lane proposal were to go ahead . "
= = Other uses = =
The England national football team frequently trained at the ground when preparing for games in London ; the agreement with Arsenal began in March 2003 . They have since 2012 relocated their training base to St George 's Park National Football Centre . Arsenal 's training ground was used by the national team in November 2013 , for the friendlies against Chile and Germany after St George 's Park reported a stomach bug .
For the UEFA Champions League finals that took place at Wembley Stadium in 2011 and 2013 , Barcelona and Borussia Dortmund respectively used the centre 's facilities to train . American Football side St. Louis Rams trained at London Colney in preparation for the 2012 NFL International Series in London . Arsenal had previously " priced " themselves out of hosting the New York Giants or the Miami Dolphins .
In November 2009 , the ground held a tournament between teams of colleagues from eight local organisations , which raised £ 1 @,@ 500 for charity .
= Hurricane Otto ( 2010 ) =
Hurricane Otto produced days of torrential rain over much of the northeastern Caribbean in October 2010 . Otto originated as a subtropical cyclone lingering north of Puerto Rico on October 6 , and transitioned into a tropical storm the next day , the fifteenth of the 2010 hurricane season . Accelerating toward the northeast , Otto strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson scale on October 8 , attaining peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h )
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hook " and " disavows ( and sometimes mocks ) the conventional post @-@ Nirvana wisdom " . He highlighted Ranaldo and Moore 's guitar interplay on every track , commenting that " they 've developed an attack that is astonishingly intricate and jazzlike in its extreme flexibility " . Prominent music critic Robert Christgau also praised the album and compared some songs favorably to the Grateful Dead and The Fleetwoods . Los Angeles Times writer Lorraine Ali stated that the album " finds Sonic Youth taking no radical new steps but instead holding onto its original groundbreaking formula and watching the big pop world come to it " . In contrast , David Browne of Entertainment Weekly felt that the band explored new challenges and wrote that Washing Machine was their " most audacious step yet " .
In a mixed review , Spin reviewer Erik Davis criticized the album for its aimless structure , stating that each of the band 's members " wanders off in a different direction " . Despite this , he heavily praised " The Diamond Sea " , calling it " a gorgeous tapestry buried in Washing Machine 's uneven load " . He wrote that the band " drifts into a beautiful ambient sea glittering with overtones . Then a metallic storm brews on the horizon , before a string of four riveting notes unleashes a festival of Hendrix necromancy ... It 's easy to make guitar noise harsh and grating — but Sonic Youth can make it glow . It 's easy to use noise as an orgasmic peak — but Sonic Youth can make it plateau , restraining their distortion only to intensify its monstrous serenity " . He also said that the song showed that Sonic Youth " may get better the farther out they go " , while NME magazine remarked that it " is probably the best song Sonic Youth have ever written " . In 1996 , the album was ranked at No. 18 in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 1995 . Similarly , editors for NME placed the album at No. 31 in their albums of the year list for 1995 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Sonic Youth unless otherwise noted .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
Album
Singles
= Lusitano =
The Lusitano , also known as the Pure Blood Lusitano or PSL ( Puro Sangue Lusitano ) , is a Portuguese horse breed , closely related to the Spanish Andalusian horse . Both are sometimes called Iberian horses , as the breeds both developed on the Iberian peninsula , and until the 1960s they were considered one breed , under the Andalusian name . Horses were known to be present on the Iberian Peninsula as far back as 20 @,@ 000 BC , and by 800 BC the region was renowned for its war horses . When the Muslims invaded Iberia in 711 AD , they brought Barb horses with them that were crossed with the native horses , developing a horse that became useful for war , dressage and bull fighting . In 1966 , the Portuguese and Spanish stud books split , and the Portuguese strain of the Iberian horse was named the Lusitano , after the word Lusitania , the ancient Roman name for Portugal . There are three main breed lineages within the breed today , and characteristics differ slightly between each line . There is also the Alter Real strain of Lusitano , bred only at the Alter Real State Stud .
Lusitanos can be any solid color , although they are generally gray , bay or chestnut . Horses of the Alter Real strain are always bay . Members of the breed are of Baroque type , with convex facial profiles , heavy muscling , intelligent and willing natures , with agile and elevated movement . Originally bred for war , dressage and bullfighting , Lusitanos are still used today in the latter two . They have competed in several Olympics and World Equestrian Games as part of the Portuguese and Spanish dressage teams . They have also made a showing in driving competitions , with a Belgian team of Lusitanos winning multiple international titles . Members of the breed are still used in bloodless bullfighting today , where it is expected that neither horse or bull will be injured .
= = History = =
Horses were known to humans on what is now the Iberian Peninsula as far back as 25 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 BC , as shown by cave paintings in the area . Among the local wild horses originally used by humans were the probable ancestors of the modern Lusitano , as studies comparing ancient and modern horse DNA indicate that the modern " Lusitano C " group contains maternal lineages also present in wild Iberian horses from the Early Neolithic period . These ancient horses were used for war , with clear evidence of their use by Phoenicians around 1100 BC and Celts around 600 BC . It is believed that these invaders also brought horses with them , contributing outside blood to the ancestry of the modern Iberian breeds . By 800 BC , the alliance known as Celtiberians had been formed by the Iberians and Celts , and from this point on the horses bred in this area were renowned as war horses . Xenophon , writing around 370 BC , admired the advanced horsemanship and riding techniques used by Iberian horsemen in war , made possible in part by their agile horses . Legend claimed that mares of the area were sired by the wind ( hence their amazing swiftness , passed onto their foals ) , and one modern hypothesis suggests that the bond between Iberian humans and horses was the initial inspiration for the centaur , which was believed to come from the area of the Tagus River . Later invasions into the area by Carthaginians and Romans resulted in these civilizations establishing stud farms that bred cavalry horses for the Roman army from local stock .
When the Umayyad Muslims invaded the Iberian peninsula in 711 AD , their invasion brought Barb horses , which were crossed with native Iberian horses . The cross between these two breeds produced a war horse superior even to the original Iberian horse , and it was this new type that the Conquistadors introduced to the Americas . Called the Iberian war horse , this ancestor of the Lusitano was used both on the battlefield and in major riding academies throughout Europe . Bullfighting on horseback and displays of high school dressage were common entertainment for the Portuguese gentry .
Mitochondrial DNA studies of the closely related modern Andalusian horse , compared to the Barb horse of North Africa , present convincing evidence that Barbs and Iberian horses crossed the Strait of Gibraltar in each direction , were crossbred with each other , and thus each influenced the other 's maternal bloodlines . While Portuguese historian Ruy d 'Andrade hypothesized that the ancient Sorraia breed was an ancestor of the Southern Iberian breeds , including the Lusitano , genetic studies using mitochondrial DNA show that the Sorraia is part of a genetic cluster that is largely separated from most Iberian breeds . One maternal lineage is shared with the Lusitano , however , Sorraia lineages in Iberian breeds are relatively recent , dating to the Middle Ages , making the Sorraia an unlikely prehistoric ancestor of the Lusitano .
Prior to modern times , horse breeds throughout Europe were known primarily by the name of the region where they were bred . The Lusitano takes its name from Lusitania , an ancient Roman name for the region that today is Portugal . A very similar horse , the Spanish Andalusian , originally described the horses of distinct quality that came from Andalusia in Spain . Some sources state that the Andalusian and the Lusitano are genetically the same breed , and the only difference is the country in which individual horses are born . The Lusitano is also known as the Portuguese ,
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Peninsular , National or Betico @-@ lusitano horse .
During the 16th and 17th centuries , horses moved continually between Spain and Portugal , and horses from the studs of Andalusia were used to improve the Portuguese cavalry . Portugal 's successful restoration war against Spain ( 1640 – 1668 ) was in part based on mounted troops riding war horses of Spanish blood . During the reign of Philip III of Portugal ( also Philip IV of Spain ) , Portuguese horse breeding reached its lowest point . The Spanish passed laws to halt the country 's production of cavalry horses , and what stud farms did exist were run in secrecy with horses smuggled or stolen from Spain . These secret farms , however , provided the base for the modern Lusitano . In 1662 , when Charles II of England married Catherine of Braganza of Portugal , the royal dowry included Portugal 's Tangier and Bombay garrisons . These garrisons included large groups of Portuguese cavalry , mounted on Iberian horses .
Prior to the 1960s , the Iberian @-@ type horse was called the Andalusian in both Portugal and Spain . In 1966 , the Lusitano name was adopted by Portugal after a studbook separation by the two countries . The revolutions of Portugal 's African colonies resulted in the near economic collapse of Portugal . The landed class attracted political agitators , estates were vacated , and stud farms were broken up and their horses sold to Spain . However , the best lines were saved through the efforts of breeders , and breeding soon increased . Today , Lusitanos are bred mainly in Portugal and Brazil , but maintain a presence in many other countries throughout the world , including Australia , the United States , Great Britain , South Africa , and other European countries . Crossbred horses of partial Lusitano blood are popular , especially when crossed with Andalusian , Arabian or Thoroughbred blood .
= = = Strains and sub @-@ types = = =
The Portuguese stud book recognizes six horses ( five stallions and one mare ) that are called the " heads of lineage " . These six horses are the foundation horses of the three main breed lineages : Andrade , Veiga and Coudelaria Nacional ( Portuguese State Stud ) . Although each line meets breed standards , they differ from each other in individual characteristics . The six foundation horses are :
Agareno , a 1931 Veiga stallion , out of Bagocha , by Lidador
Primorosa , a 1927 Dominquez Hermanos stallion , out of Primorosa II , by Presumido
Destinado , a 1930 Dominquez Hermanos stallion , out of Destinada , by Alegre II
Marialva II , a 1930 Antonio Fontes Pereira de Melo stallion , out of Campina , by Marialva
Regedor , a 1923 Alter Real stallion , out of Gavina , by Gavioto
Hucharia , a 1943 Coulderaria Nacional mare , out of Viscaina , by Cartujano
= = = = Alter Real = = = =
The Alter Real is a strain of the Lusitano which is bred only at the Alter Real State Stud in Portugal . The stud was founded in 1748 by the Portuguese royal family to provide horses for the national riding academy and royal use . The Portuguese School of Equestrian Art ( Escola Portuguesa de Arte Equestre ) uses these horses exclusively in their performances . The strain was developed from 300 Iberian mares imported from Spain in 1747 . When Napoleon invaded Spain in the early 19th century , the Alter Real strain deteriorated due to the introduction of Arabian , Thoroughbred , Spanish @-@ Norman and Hanoverian blood . However , in the 19th and 20th centuries the strain was re @-@ established with the further introduction of Spanish blood . In the early 20th century , with the 1910 revolution that ended the monarchy , the Alter Real strain faced extinction , as records were
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Nagasaki was opened as a treaty port and the Dutch abandoned Dejima for a consulate in the capital city Edo ( modern Tokyo ) . Siebold received a pardon and returned to Nagasaki 4 August that year with his 13 @-@ year @-@ old son Alexander , from his German marriage . Shūzō became Siebold 's student , translator , and personal assistant , and Alexander 's Japanese teacher . Ine lived at first in her father 's house , but the relationship was strained , in part over her command of Dutch , and in part over Siebold 's impregnating a maid ; Ine soon moved out . She worked closely with Shūzō , who assisted her communications with his advanced Dutch ability . Her father 's reputation helped her gain patients of her own . In April 1862 Siebold was made to return to Europe again and never returned to Japan .
Ine continued to learn from Dutch physicians in the Nagasaki community such as J. L. C. Pompe van Meerdervoort , who lauded her skills in print . Van Meerdervoort founded in 1861 the first Western @-@ style hospital and medical school in Japan , the Nagasaki Yōjōsho , with the support of the military government , and Ine attended classes in the women 's ward and assisted in operations there . She was the first woman in Japan to witness the dissection of a human corpse , carried out by Van Meerdervoort .
Her reputation and connections in the Western @-@ learning community won Ine the patronage of Date Munenari , whose favour extended to her daughter , now named Takako . As her mixed German – Japanese blood could lead her to suffer discrimination , Munenari had her change her name to Kusumoto Itoku . He extended a modest official rice stipend to Ine , and she was expected to be ready to serve in the women 's quarters at the castle ; she was one of three doctors present when Munenari 's wife Yoshiko gave birth in 1867 . Ine had a busy practice in Uwajima and made frequent travel between Nagasaki and Uwajima during the 1860s . Munenari made effort on behalf of her father and Shūzō , who were arrested in 1861 in Edo by anti @-@ foreign factions . Shūzō was released in 1865 and returned to Uwajima , where in 1866 he married Takako .
Ine 's mother died in 1869 . About this time Ine studied obstetrics in Nagasaki with Antonius Bauduin , who pioneered ovariotomy there and was appointed to the Tōkō national medical school in Tokyo , which had just been renamed from Edo and where the Emperor had moved after his restoration . After other moves Ine also settled in Tokyo . There she became acquainted with Takako 's half @-@ brother Ishii Kendō , the son of Ishii Sōken . Ine maintained contact in Tokyo with her half @-@ brother Alexander , who worked for the British legation , and another half @-@ brother Heinrich , who had worked there as an interpreter for the Austro @-@ Hungarian legation since 1869 .
= = = Later career and death = = =
Kendō and Shūzō won prestigious appointments in the capital , and in 1873 , through her connections with Fukuzawa Yukichi and other Western scholars , she attended the birth of the child of Emperor Meiji 's concubine Hamuro Mitsuko ; the child was stillborn and Mitsuko died four days later . Ine received the considerable sum of 100 yen for her effort . Shūzō and Takako moved to Osaka in 1876 , where Shūzō worked for the Osaka Hospital . In 1877 he became sick and died there . Takako became pregnant from an acquaintance and gave birth to a boy in 1879 , whom Ine adopted as her heir and named Shūzō . Takako married the doctor Yamawaki Taisuke , with whom she had a further three children before his death in 1886 .
Ine returned to Nagasaki , where she earned her midwife 's license in 1884 . She returned to Tokyo in 1889 and may have retired by 1895 , at which time the family moved into a Western @-@ style house Heinrich had had built in Azabu . She died there on 27 August 1903 after eating freshwater eel and watermelon , which are said to have given her food poisoning . She enjoyed the social support of the Western @-@ style medical and scholarly communities , the high regard of her students and fellow practitioners , and the financial support of her father .
Ine was said to have had fair skin , somewhat curly brown hair , and blue eyes . She never married . In later life she preferred not to reveal her mixed ancestry .
= = Legacy = =
Ine appears as a leading character in the novels Kashin ( 1972 ) by Ryōtarō Shiba and Akira Yoshimura Von Siebold no Musume ( 1979 ) , and in the television dramas Oranda no Ine ( " Ine of Holland " ) in 1970 , Kashin in 1977 ( based on Shiba 's novel ) , and O @-@ Ine : Chichi no na wa Siebold ( " O @-@ Ine : Her Father 's Name is Siebold " ) in 2000 . Musicals based on Ine 's life include Bakumatsu Gāru : Dokutoru O @-@ Ine Monogatari ( " Bakumatsu Girl : The Tale of Doktor O @-@ Ine " ) , which opened in Ehime in 2012 .
A volume written by Hamada Keiko and illustrated by Takashi Yorimitsu titled Nihon de Hajim
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wave trough accelerated the depression northeastward across the western Bahamas . Thereafter , the wind field of the depression began expanding and lost all tropical characteristics while located northeast of The Bahamas on June 2 .
Heavy rainfall in Cuba caused flooding in the central and eastern portions of the country , forcing the evacuation of 40 @,@ 000 people , destroying 1 @,@ 860 homes and damaging an additional 16 @,@ 500 . Additionally , crops suffered severe impact from the flooding , just two months after significant agricultural damage in Cuba from the Storm of the Century in March . Overall , the depression left seven fatalities and another five people were listed as missing . In Haiti , flooding from the outerbands of the storm killed thousands of livestock and resulted in 13 deaths . Heavy precipitation in Florida peaked at nearly 10 in ( 250 mm ) , though it caused little impact other than bringing drought relief . Impact , if any in The Bahamas , is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Arlene = = =
A tropical wave was tracked in the Caribbean Sea beginning on June 9 and subsequently moved across Central America . Eventually , the system entered the Gulf of Mexico , though further development was interrupted by unfavorable wind shear . After conditions became somewhat more favorable , the wave developed into Tropical Depression Two on June 18 . The depression slowly strengthened as it tracked west @-@ northwestward and eventually north @-@ northwestward across the western Gulf of Mexico . By June 19 , the depression became Tropical Storm Arlene . At 09 : 00 UTC on the following day , Arlene made landfall on Padre Island , Texas with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The storm quickly weakened inland and degenerated into a remnant low pressure area on June 21 .
In El Salvador , rainfall from the precursor tropical wave caused mudslides throughout the country , which in turn resulted in 20 fatalities . Immense amounts of precipitation in Mexico caused flooding in the states of Veracruz , Campeche , Yucatán , San Luis Potosí , Quintana Roo , Nuevo León , and Jalisco . Five deaths and $ 33 million in damage was reported in Mexico . Arlene also dropped torrential rainfall in Texas , peaking at 15 @.@ 26 in ( 388 mm ) Angleton , while precipitation amounts elsewhere was mainly between 9 and 11 in ( 230 and 280 mm ) . Throughout the state , numerous roads were inundated and more than 650 houses , including 25 mobile homes , suffered water damage . Agriculture losses in eastern Texas include 20 % of cantaloupe , 10 % of watermelon , and 18 % of tomatoes . One fatality occurred and damage in Texas reached $ 22 million . Overall , Tropical Storm Arlene caused 26 deaths and $ 55 million in losses .
= = = Tropical Storm Bret = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Three while located about 1 @,@ 150 miles ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) west of Cape Verde on August 4 . The depression strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bret on the following day . It strengthened slightly and reached winds of 60 mph (
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95 km / h ) and maintained that intensity until crossing Trinidad on August 7 . Later that day , Bret made landfall near Macuro , Venezuela , before briefly re @-@ emerging into the Caribbean Sea . Bret made another landfall in Venezuela on August 8 and crossed northern Colombia . It weakened over the mountainous terrain and fell to tropical depression intensity over the southwestern Caribbean Sea . Bret re @-@ strengthened to a 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) tropical storm before making landfall in southern Nicaragua on August 10 . It crossed into the Pacific Ocean and dissipated , although it later regenerated into Hurricane Greg .
In Trinidad , winds left 35 @,@ 000 people without electricity , while rainfall caused minor damage to crops and roads , with losses totaling to about $ 909 @,@ 000 . Rainfall in Venezuela reached 13 @.@ 3 in ( 340 mm ) in some areas . As a result , widespread mudslides were reported , which in turn destroyed 10 @,@ 000 houses and caused 173 deaths . One fatality was reported in neighboring Columbia . In Nicaragua , the storm destroyed 850 houses and damaged an additional 1 @,@ 500 . Overall , 35 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in that country . In addition , the destruction of 25 medical centers , 10 schools , and 10 churches occurred . Road infrastructure damage was also reported , with 12 bridges collapsing during the passage of Bret . There were 10 fatalities in Nicaragua , 9 of which were drowning victims after a Spanish vessel sank . Overall , Tropical Storm Bret caused 184 deaths and about $ 25 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Cindy = = =
A tropical wave entered the Atlantic Ocean from northwest Africa on August 8 . It traversed the Atlantic and organized into Tropical Depression Four on August 14 , while located within 100 mi ( 160 km ) to the north of Barbados . After six hours , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cindy , while crossing the island of Martinique . Due to a poor upper @-@ level structure , Cindy barely intensified as it tracked west @-@ northwestward across the eastern Caribbean Sea . Nonetheless , the storm peaked with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) on August 16 . However , interaction with the terrain of Hispaniola caused Cindy to weaken . Late on August 16 , the storm had been reduced to a tropical depression , around the time of landfall near Barahona , Dominican Republic . Cindy rapidly weakened inland and dissipated by early on August 17 .
The storm dropped torrential rainfall in Martinique , peaking at 15 @.@ 55 in ( 395 mm ) in Saint @-@ Joseph , which fell in only two hours . Further , 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) fell in just six minutes . Several rivers overflowed as a result , which in turn caused widespread flooding and mudslides . Several roads were washed out , numerous cars were swept away , and at least 150 houses were destroyed , leaving about 3 @,@ 000 people homeless . Overall , the storm caused two fatalities , 11 injuries , and ₣ 107 million ( US $ 19 million ) in damage . On other Lesser Antilles , the storm caused minimally impact , limited to mostly small amounts of precipitation , light winds , and minor beach erosion , especially on Puerto Rico . In Dominican Republic , street and minor river flooding was reported , which affected hundreds of residents . In addition , Cindy left two deaths in the Dominican Republic .
= = = Hurricane Emily = = =
A tropical wave passed through Cape Verde on August 17 . The system moved northwestward and slowly acquired a low @-@ level center of circulation . At 18 : 00 UTC on August 22 , Tropical Depression Six developed while located several hundred miles east @-@ northeast of the Lesser Antilles on August 22 . Initially , it headed northwestward while minimal intensification , though by August 25 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Emily . The storm then became nearly stationary while southeast of Bermuda and steadily strengthened during that time . Late on August 26 , Emily briefly became a hurricane , though it weakened back to a tropical storm early on the following day . However , by late on August 27 , Emily was a hurricane once again . The storm then moved northwestward and maintained Category 1 intensity until becoming a Category 2 hurricane on August 31 . By 18 : 00 UTC , Emily became a Category 3 hurricane while just offshore Cape Hatteras .
However , the storm veered out to sea later on August 29 and weakened , falling to tropical storm intensity while located northeast of Bermuda on September 3 . After curving southward and then back to the northeast , Emily weakened to a tropical depression on September 4 . The storm lost all tropical characteristics on September 6 , while located several hundred miles southeast of Newfoundland . The outerbands of Emily lashed the Outer Banks of North Carolina with heavy rainfall , high tides , and strong winds . The combination of those effects damaged 553 homes beyond repair . Sinkholes formed along North Carolina Highway 12 and strong winds uprooted trees , downed power lines , and tore off roofs . Further north , two fishermen near Nags Head drowned , while a 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy also drowned . Light rainfall was also reported in Maryland and Delaware . Losses reached $ 45 million , with all damage in North Carolina .
= = = Tropical Storm Dennis = = =
A tropical wave and its associated low pressure area emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August 21 . By the following day , two METEOSAT satellites indicated that the system had a distinct cyclonic rotation and increasing deep convection . At 12 : 00 UTC on August 23 , Tropical Depression Five developed while located about 415 mi ( 670 km ) west @-@ southwest of Brava , Cape Verde . Initially , a weak deep
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but the Conqueror himself attacks Athlum in their absence . He kills Emma , who had remained behind to defend the city and takes the massive Remnant of Athlum , shrinking it to a normal @-@ sized sword . The party then returns to Elysion to rescue Irina from Wagram . Irina is revealed to have a special power , that of unbinding bound Remnants , and it was for this reason that she was kidnapped . They discover that Hermeien is trying to use the Conqueror and Wagram to spark distrust in the people for Remnants and the city @-@ states ' ability to control them , so that he can then use Irina and her power to prop himself up as supreme ruler . While the party are successful in retaking Irina and killing Hermeien , Wagram escapes while revealing that he and the Conqueror never planned to support Hermeien . Confronted by the Conqueror , Irina uses Nagapur 's Remnant to protect her brother , destroying half of the city in the process .
Four months later , the player learns that the council city @-@ states are now trying to find Remnants all around the world to use to fight the Conqueror , who is in turn binding and transforming the Remnants of the city @-@ states , even those that are already bound . Rush and Irina 's parents , once found , reveal that their research at the academy had been to create tablets that can transform Remnants and it is through one of these that Wagram stole that the Conqueror is able to do so . When the party travels to the God @-@ Emperor 's city , Undelwalt , to try to determine why he is supporting the Conqueror , they find Wagram , who tells them that the Conqueror is a Remnant himself . Wagram and the God @-@ Emperor are supporting him in his quest to destroy the people of the world , who are misusing Remnants and destroying the balance of the world .
The group heads to Elysion , which is under attack by the Conqueror 's forces . The Conqueror ascends the Ark and binds it so that no one can follow him ; after defeating his army , the protagonists find a second Ark , even though no duplicate Remnants have ever been found . After defeating Wagram , the party chases the Conqueror through the Sacred Lands , which are revealed to be the birthplace of Remnants and confronts him . He informs them that he is trying to release Remnants from the control of man and that the task was originally supposed to be Rush 's , as he is also a Remnant . He believes that their purpose is to take back the Remnants from the world that in his opinion is misusing them for warfare and destruction and allow them in turn to destroy the people of the world . Rush disagrees and instead destroys the source of the Remnants , sacrificing himself . The game ends with all of the Remnants disappearing around the world , but after the credits , Rush is heard talking with the Conqueror , saying : " I 'm going back . They 're waiting for me . "
= = Development = =
The Last Remnant was created by developers who had previously worked on games in the SaGa and Final Fantasy series . It was directed by Hiroshi Takai and produced by Nobuyuki Ueda . The game was written by Masato Yagi and Miwa Shoda whose work was based on a scenario concept by executive producer Akitoshi Kawazu . Kimihiko Miyamae was the chief artist , while Yusuke Naora served as both art producer and character designer . The game was the first game by Square Enix to use the Unreal
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Engine 3 . Because they used a licensed engine rather than making their own , the production time it took to see graphical resources onscreen was cut significantly , allowing the team to begin illustrating and experimenting at an early stage . The decision to use a licensed engine , rather than develop their own as was traditional at Square Enix , was made due to concerns in the company of the rising production costs of making a game , and the direct development time savings possible from using an existing engine . Over a year after the game was released , on February 17 , 2010 , Square @-@ Enix 's chief technology officer Julien Merceron claimed in an interview that most of the game 's perceived technical shortcomings were caused by a decision to use the Unreal Engine to try to replace having as many skilled programmers as would be used otherwise .
The development team planned to distinguish The Last Remnant from the Final Fantasy series and other role @-@ playing games through its focus on the battle system . The art direction of the game was focused on making all of the characters stand out on the battlefield , and in making the Remnants stand out in the world screens . The cities were designed to not look very fantastical , so as to make the Remnants more prominent , and were designed early on in the development process to give the impression that the people of the city were living both literally and figuratively under the power of the gigantic Remnants . The game marked several firsts for Square Enix , as it was their first game to be released on the same day in both Japan and internationally , as well as the first to use motion captures of Western actors . This resulted in the characters ' lips speaking English synced to the spoken dialogue , rather than Japanese . The game had always been intended to be released simultaneously worldwide and was to be targeted to players worldwide , which impacted the character design and art direction . The design and dialogue were created to appeal to international players as well as Japanese players , rather than being focused on the norms of the Japanese video game market alone .
The Last Remnant was announced at a press conference at Shinjuku , Tokyo on May 10 , 2007 . It was shown as a playable demo at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2008 . It was then released on the Xbox 360 on November 20 , 2008 , and released in late March 2009 for PC . The PC version of the game featured numerous improvements and changes from the original , including the integration of the downloadable content from the 360 version into the main game , enhanced graphical settings , a " Turbo Mode " that increases battle speed , and a New Game Plus option that allows the player to start a new game with the gold and unique items from their first play @-@ through . Though originally announced to be released on the PlayStation 3 at the same time as the Xbox 360 , no PlayStation version of the game has been released . Square Enix has not commented on why , though director Hiroshi Takai has said that he found developing for the 360 " a lot easier " than for the PlayStation 3 . The PlayStation 3 version has remained with a " to be determined " release date on Square Enix 's official Japanese website .
= = = Music = = =
The music for the game was composed by Tsuyoshi Sekito , with assistance from Yasuhiro Yamanaka , who composed 10 of the 97 total tracks and co @-@ composed 2 . Prior to The Last Remnant , Sekito had spent the previous decade primarily arranging the work of other composers for remakes and re @-@ releases of various Square Enix games such as the Final Fantasy series and the Mana series . The soundtrack features the heavy use of orchestral elements , arranged for orchestration by Natsumi Kameoka , and guitar playing by Sekito . The orchestrated pieces were played by musicians from several different orchestras , rather than by a single group . Unlike most role @-@ playing games , the battle music was designed by Sekito to switch between three songs depending on how well the player was doing in the battle . A soundtrack album was released on December 10 , 2008 , through Sony Music Distribution . It contains 97 tracks across three discs , and has a total length of 3 : 10 : 21 .
= = Reception = =
Square Enix reported that the game had sold 580 @,@ 000 copies , including both PC and Xbox 360 versions , by March 31 , 2009 , which was less than two weeks after the game was first released on PC . By January 2016 , the PC version of the game had sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies , according to Steam Spy . The Last Remnant received a largely mixed reception . It received a more positive reception in Japan than elsewhere , something which the developers credit to different styles of reviewing between cultures . They also felt that the Japanese reviewers scored the game too high . It received a 38 / 40 from Famitsu magazine ; the review praises the battle system for its unique , massive @-@ scale battles reminiscent of Romancing SaGa but refined to a wholly new class ; however , they criticized the learning curve as well , the length of battles , and the inability to choose specific skills for individual units . Famitsu later gave the game their 2008 " Rookie Title Grand @-@ Prize " award .
A common complaint from reviewers was graphical issues . IGN stated in its review of the Xbox 360 version that the game suffered from extreme technical problems , while GameTrailers named the " persistent graphical issues " as one of the Xbox 360 version 's weakest points . GameSpot , IGN , and 1UP.com cited in their Xbox 360 version reviews abysmal frame @-@ rate problems and awful " texture pop @-@ in " , where the textures were displayed as low resolution for several seconds before being replaced with higher @-@ resolution ones , as some of its main failings . However , all three review sites gave a higher score for the PC version , citing drastically improved graphical performance , but still with texture pop @-@ in and slow loading times when moving between areas and when entering or exiting a battle as well as unskippable cut scenes . Other issues raised by reviewers included " cluttered screens and annoying ' quests ' " noted by GamePro , " over the top " and stereotypical characters opined by Game Informer , a poor and generic story according to IGN and 1UP , and long loading screens and cutscenes which were criticisms brought by G4 , 1UP , and the Australian Official Xbox Magazine .
Another common complaint among reviewers was the battle system , which were described as " repetitive " by GamePro , frustrating by IGN in their Xbox review , and " boring " and the worst part of the game by 1UP . G4 also criticized the battle system , saying that the game played itself . This criticism was not universal , as GameTrailers cited its " unique battle system " as providing " a lot to enjoy " , IGN called it " the most interesting part of The Last Remnant " in their PC review , and GameSpot called it " intriguing " and especially fun in the larger @-@ scale battles . The game 's visual style was praised across many reviews , such as those by GameTrailers , 1UP , and GamePro , who described the style as " an innovative ' East @-@ meets @-@ West ' " , while GameSpot called it a " distinctive fantasy world " that is " beautifully constructed " . The music was also a source of praise , and was noted as such in the IGN reviews and the GameSpot reviews , which called it an " excellent symphonic soundtrack " with terrific melodies . GameSpot , in their review , also praised the game 's story as " epic " , in contrast to many of the other reviews , though they noted that Rush wasn 't " the most interesting leading man " and preferred when the story focused on the Conqueror .
= Ministry of Justice ( Soviet Union ) =
The Ministry of Justice of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) ( Russian : Министерство юстиции СССР , Ministerstvo Yustitsii SSSR ) , formed on 15 March 1946 , was one of the most important government offices in the Soviet Union . It was formerly ( until 1946 ) known as the People 's Commissariat
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48 were rerouted . Portions of the former route of Highway 48 and Highway 12 were renumbered as Highway 48B . However , the segment between Port Bolster and what is now Brock Sideline 17 was decommissioned entirely . The original route of Highway 48 , prior to 1954 , is now part of Durham Regional Road 23 .
On June 28 , 1967 , the routing of Highway 46 was shifted in the vicinity of Balsam Lake on to a new inland bypass ; the old route became known as West Bay Drive . On 1975 , Highway 46 was truncated at Bolsover ; the severed section was renumbered as an extension of Highway 48 , bringing it to its peak length of 129 @.@ 2 km ( 80 @.@ 3 mi ) . The new section of highway between Highway 12 and Bolsover was reconstructed over the following year , opening to traffic on August 19 , 1976 .
The section between Highway 401 and the then @-@ unopened Highway 407 interchange was turned over to the Region of York and the City of Toronto on April 1 , 1995 , and is known as Markham Road south of Highway 407 , and Main Street thereafter to Sixteenth Avenue , where the name Markham Road resumes for 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) until Major Mackenzie Drive . The section within York Region is also designated as York Regional Road 68 .
On January 1 , 1998 , the section of Highway 48 between its southern junction with Highway 12 and Coboconk was transferred to the Regional Municipality of Durham and Victoria County ( now Kawartha Lakes ) , removing the concurrency with Highway 12 in the process . The section from Highway 12 to Highway 35 is now known as Portage Road and signed as Durham Regional Highway 48 and Kawartha Lakes Road 48 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 48 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Transit Authority of River City =
The Transit Authority of River City ( TARC ) is the major public transportation provider for the Louisville , Kentucky , United States metro area , which includes parts of Southern Indiana . This includes the Kentucky suburbs of Oldham County , Bullitt County , Clark County , and Floyd County in southern Indiana . TARC is publicly funded and absorbed various earlier private mass transit companies in Louisville , the largest of which was the Louisville Transit Company .
TARC operates a fleet of 225 accessible buses , including numerous hybrids . Starting in 2004 , TARC purchased hybrids , and by 2008 started purchasing clean diesel buses for a cleaner , greener fleet . By late Winter 2013 , TARC added 16 more clean diesels . Then , by mid @-@ Summer 2013 , 11 hybrids were added bringing TARC 's hybrid total to 32 . By Fall 2013 , TARC added
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21 clean diesel commuter buses , then as of Fall 2014 TARC added 12 more clean diesels some of them are WiFi @-@ enabled and have comfortable seating . TARC has recently put 12 additional ( updated buses on the road with 13 more due to arrive by late 2016 . This brings their clean diesel total to 82 when the other 13 arrive . There will be 96 @.@ all @-@ electric buses have been circulating downtown Louisville since early 2015 , and eight more will be hitting the road on one local route serving the Iroquois neighborhood , and Iroquois park . These buses will not be fare free , and will have a 42 passenger capacity , and they will share the 8th street charging station with one of the trolley routes. according to The Courier @-@ Journal . There are also two charging stations in downtown Louisville , one at 3rd and York , the other at 8th and Market . These buses will have a 30 @-@ passenger seating capacity , and be able to operate for up to two hours on a single charge . These buses , like the old trolleys , will be fare free .
TARC provides service 365 days a year . It also operates many specialized routes providing transportation to major local employers , educational institutions and recreational events . It began bus operations in 1974 . TARC has explored other forms of public transit , including light rail , but as of 2009 provides only bus service .
= = History = =
The transit authority was created in 1971 after 1970 legislation authorized city and county governments to operate mass @-@ transit systems using local funding . At the time , public transit was still being provided in Louisville by the private Louisville Transit Company . The Louisville Transit Company had long operated mass transit lines in Louisville , converted from electric trolleys to diesel buses in the late 1940s , and changing its name from the Louisville Railway Company in 1947 .
Following a trend seen in cities across America , the company had seen annual ridership decline from 84 million in 1920 to 14 million in 1970 . The ridership was no longer enough for to cover operating expenses and in 1971 it posted its first @-@ ever loss . In 1972 the company announced it would cease operations on September 1 , 1974 .
The local government began subsidizing fares in July 1973 , but this was not enough to make Louisville Transit Company profitable . At about the same time , Bridge Transit Co . , which provided mass transit between Louisville and Jeffersonville , ceased operations due to lack of revenue , clearly setting the stage for a metropolitan area without any private mass transit companies .
In 1974 , voters approved a controversial referendum allowing for an increased occupational tax to fund mass transit , which was pushed for by then @-@ mayor Harvey Sloane . Combined with a federal grant , this was enough for TARC to purchase the Louisville Transit Company , buy new buses , reduce fares , and extend new service lines . TARC bought up the remaining mass transit companies in the area ; Blue Motor Coach Lines , which served outlying areas , in 1976 and the Daisy Line , connecting New Albany and Louisville , in 1983 .
In 1993 , TARC experimented with a " water taxi " service connecting the Belle of Louisville wharf and Towboat Annie 's Restaurant in Jeffersonville . During the 1990s and early 2000s , TARC advocated extensive funding to build and operate light rail system in the Louisville area , but despite wide press coverage , the plans never went past planning stages .
In February 1994 , an audit committee headed by future political candidate Bruce Lunsford revealed TARC had been mismanaging funds and was on pace to deplete its once @-@ large trust fund due to skyrocketting expenses such as door @-@ to @-@ door services for the disabled as well as rates of spending on personal services and fringe benefits for administrators
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that was much higher than in transit companies for similar sized cities . In the fallout of the audit , TARC 's executive director resigned and fares were nearly doubled before year 's end .
In August 2011 , TARC 's new $ 4 @.@ 5 million , 17 @,@ 700 square @-@ foot , Maintenance and Training building received Gold LEED ( Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ) Certification .
= = Administration = =
TARC purchased Louisville 's Union Station for $ 2 million in 1977 , the year after the former train station had ceased rail operations . The trainyard was replaced with a large maintenance facility for TARC buses and the former train station is now TARC 's administrative headquarters . In 2003 , TARC did a major remodeling of Union Station for the first time since it purchased the facility . The renovation cost $ 2 @.@ 1 million .
TARC is administered by an eight @-@ member board . TARC had a budget of $ 67 @.@ 8 million for the 2008 – 09 fiscal year . Fares only cover about 12 % of TARC 's operating expenses ; the rest is paid for by Jefferson County 's occupational tax , federal aid and some other minor sources . The occupational tax is 0 @.@ 20 % , it makes up about two @-@ thirds of TARC 's operating expenses in any given year . The actual total varies due to availability of federal grants and fares collected . In 2002 , TARC had 710 employees , 460 of whom were bus drivers .
Some funding comes from a transportation trust fund kept by TARC . In 1992 , the fund contained $ 28 million , which a local alderman claimed made TARC the " Cadillac " of America 's bus systems , and unsuccessfully proposed raiding it to fund the Louisville Free Public Library . The fund declined from $ 34 million in 1989 to $ 13 million in 1994 , prompting severe cutbacks and rate hikes that year .
= = Fleet = =
As of 2014 , TARC has a fleet of 225 buses . 32 are hybrid buses , which combine a traditional diesel engine and an electric motor to reduce emissions and eliminate tailpipe exhaust during acceleration , but cost nearly twice as much as a conventional bus . The hybrids were provided through Federal highway bill earmarks by U.S. Senator Jim Bunning . In 2007 , a new TARC bus cost $ 285 @,@ 000 , while a hybrid bus cost $ 504 @,@ 000 . Now a New clean diesel costs $ 405 @,@ 000 dollars a bus while a hybrid costs $ 600 @,@ 000 dollars a bus .
In October 2010 , TARC announced that the hybrid bus fleet would grow to 21 , with the addition of 9 new buses , with a grant of $ 3 @.@ 9 million , from the Federal Transit Authority 's Clean
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Fuels Bus and Bus Facilities Program . A previous grant through the federal stimulus program paid for nine hybrid buses that arrived in July 2010 .
All buses are equipped with " kneeling " bus technology that makes them easier to board , and a wheelchair lift . TARC once required disabled riders to use a special service with smaller buses that had to be scheduled in advance , but all regular buses were made accessible following protests in 1986 .
= = Current bus fleet = =
= = Services = =
TARC operates a series of city buses that serve throughout the Louisville area . TARC claims over 7 @,@ 000 bus stops , although only about 200 of them have benches and rain shelters — the rest simply have a sign indicating the location is a bus stop . The stops are served by 32 weekday and weekend routes , 12 express routes with weekday service only , totalling 44 routes . The daily routes are named for the primary road they serve . On the daily routes , there is no more than hour between scheduled buses at any stop , and on weekdays on the busiest routes have even less time between stops . Most of the daily routes have existed under the same name and number for decades , although their routes have almost all been extended to provide access to suburban locations .
TARC operates various circulators providing access to hospitals , Downtown Louisville and art galleries . Since 1999 , TARC has operated a shuttle service for the University of Louisville 's main campus . It operates two routes shuttling workers to Worldport , the hub of United Parcel Service and one of Louisville 's largest employers . In 2007 , TARC launched a program called " Ride to Safety " which allows domestic abuse victims to board TARC buses to be given transportation to a shelter .
They also operate a system of diesel @-@ powered rubber @-@ tired buses designed in the style of early 20th century streetcars that act as circulators in the downtown hotel and shopping districts and on certain days are used to provide special shuttle services in other shopping and entertainment areas . The tourist trolleys began operation in November 1987 and their role and fare has varied over the years as funding has allowed . By the end of 2014 , 10 new all @-@ electric buses will be in operation . The first of 10 has arrived already , and is slated to begin testing soon .
TARC and its predecessor provided shuttle access to the Kentucky Derby and Kentucky Oaks since the 1950s , but in 2008 new federal rules required the racetrack , Churchill Downs , to negotiate with private companies to provide service . The shuttle operation transported tens of thousands of people each year and provided TARC with over $ 200 @,@ 000 of annual revenue . TARC provides service to some other local events , including Thunder over Louisville and the Kentucky State Fair .
Through a program called " Bikes on Board " , TARC has bike racks installed on the front of all its full @-@ size buses , each with the capacity to hold two bicycles . The program began in 2001 , and by 2004 all buses were equipped . In 2005 , TARC reported an average of 6 @,@ 000 riders a month used the bike racks .
= = = Fares = = =
The standard fare became $ 1 in 1994 , up from $ 0 @.@ 85 for peak hours and $ 0 @.@ 50 for off @-@ peak hours . On July 1 , 2007 , it was raised to $ 1 @.@ 25 . In June 2008 the adult fare was raised to $ 1 @.@ 50 to help defray the increased cost of fuel . Since July 1 , 2012 , the adult fare has been $ 1 @.@ 75 . Since Spring 2015 , fareboxes were updated . The amount for a one @-@ way adult fare was unchanged . Smartcards will be accepted for payment , with the fare discounted to $ 1 @.@ 50 , while those without smartcards will have to provide exact change . Discounts are offered to senior citizens and high school students . A " day tripper " one @-@ day pass can be purchased for $ 3 @.@ 50 while boarding the bus ( TARC3 is currently not participating but will be phased in at a later time ) . Express fares are $ 2 @.@ 75 , or $ 1 with a bus pass currently . Children under 6 with a
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Fallujah , under direct orders from President George W. Bush and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld . General Conway and his staff initially urged caution , pointing out that the MEF had already developed a more nuanced long @-@ term plan to reestablish control over Fallujah and that using overwhelming force would most likely further destabilize the city . They noted that the insurgents were specifically trying to " bait us into overreaction . " Despite these objections , General Sanchez wanted a sustained Marine presence in the city within 72 hours .
The Marines began their attack , codenamed Operation Vigilant Resolve , on 5 April . The overall ground commander in Anbar , 1st Marine Division commander General James Mattis , initially planned to use his only available units , 1st Battalion 5th Marines and 2nd Battalion 1st Marines . They would push in from the east and west and methodically contain the insurgents . This plan was underway when on 9 April , General Sanchez ordered an immediate halt .
The main reason behind this order was the coverage by the Al Jazeera and Al Arabiya television networks . The two networks had the only access to the city . They repeatedly reported that Marines were using excessive force and collective punishment , and their footage of dead babies in hospitals inflamed both Iraqi and world opinion . General Conway later summed up their effect on the battle by saying , " Al Jazeera kicked our ass . " When the 2nd Iraqi Battalion was ordered to Fallujah , 30 percent of its soldiers refused or deserted , and within days over 80 percent of the police force and Iraqi National Guard in Anbar Province had deserted . After two members of the Iraqi Governing Council resigned over the attack and five more threatened to do so , CPA Leader Paul Bremer and CENTCOM commander General John Abizaid were worried that Fallujah might bring down the Iraqi government and ordered a unilateral ceasefire .
Following the ceasefire , the Marines held their positions and brought in additional units , waiting for what they assumed would be the resumption of their attack . General Mattis launched Operation Ripper Sweep while the Marines waited , pushing the 1st Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion ( LAR ) and 2nd Battalion 7th Marines into the farmlands around Fallujah and neutralizing many armed gangs operating along the local highways . The 3rd Battalion 4th Marines also conducted a raid into nearby insurgent @-@ held Karmah , which expanded into a major engagement lasting the rest of the month . The Marines were able to keep their supply lines open , but withdrew for political reasons . President Bush refused to allow the resumption of the attack , but was also unhappy with the status quo , asking his commanders for " other options " .
Finally , General Conway proposed what was a workable compromise in his opinion : the Fallujah Brigade . Led by former Iraqi Sunni Ba 'athists , such as Jasim Mohammed Saleh and Muhammed Latif , and made up largely of insurgents who had been fighting the Marines , the brigade was supposed to maintain order in the city while allowing the US to withdraw and save face . On 10 May , General Mattis formally turned the city over and withdrew the following day . The First Battle for Fallujah had resulted in 51 US servicemen killed and 476 wounded . Iraqi losses were much higher . The Marines estimated that about 800 Iraqis were killed . Reports differed on how many were civilians : the Marines counted 300 , whereas the independent organization Iraq Body Count argued that 600 civilians had been killed .
Four Marines and soldiers were awarded either the Navy Cross or Distinguished Service Cross for the battle . Another Marine , Captain Douglas A. Zembiec of Echo Company 2nd Battalion 1st Marines , became known as the " Lion of Fallujah " for his actions during the assault .
= = = Ramadi and western Anbar in 2004 = = =
Outside of Fallujah , there were additional attacks on American positions in Anbar throughout the spring and summer of 2004 . They were part of a larger " jihad wave " that swept across the Province in mid @-@ April . Gangs of armed youths took to the streets , setting up impromptu roadblocks and threatening supply routes in eastern Anbar Province and around Baghdad . At one point General Mattis feared a general uprising by the Sunni community , similar to the 1978 Tehran protests . On 6 April , a force of 300 insurgents attacked Marine patrols throughout Ramadi in an attempt to relieve pressure on Fallujah . Sixteen US Marines and an estimated 250 insurgents were killed in heavy street fighting over four days .
Nearly all members of a squad from 2nd Battalion 4th Marines were killed when they drove into an ambush in unarmored Humvees , the first time the Marines had lost a firefight in Iraq . On 17 April , insurgents attacked a Marine patrol in the border city of Husaybah , leading to a series of engagements that lasted the whole day and resulted in five Marines and at least 120 insurgents killed . Around the same time , on 14 April , a squad led by Corporal Jason Dunham was operating near Husaybah when one member of a group of Iraqis who were being searched by Dunham 's squad threw a grenade at the squad . Dunham immediately threw himself on the grenade , receiving a mortal wound from the blast but saving his fellow squad members . He later became the first Marine since the Vietnam War to be awarded the Medal of Honor .
Attempting to emulate the perceived success in Fallujah , US commanders in Ramadi responded to the 28 June transfer of sovereignty from the CPA to the Iraqi Interim Government by pulling most forces back to camps outside the city and focusing on securing a highway that ran through its center . Fighting continued to escalate throughout Anbar Province . On 21 June , a four @-@ man Scout Sniper team operating with 2nd Battalion
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4th Marines in Ramadi was executed by a group of insurgents who had infiltrated their observation post . In mid @-@ July , General Mattis predicted that Anbar would " [ go ] to hell " if the Marines could not hold Ramadi . On 5 August , Anbar Provincial Governor Abd al @-@ Karim Barjas resigned following the kidnapping of his two sons by Abu Musab al @-@ Zarqawi . Barjas appeared on television and publicly apologized for " cooperation with the infidel " . He was replaced by an interim governor until January 2005 . The head of the Ramadi police force was subsequently arrested for complicity with the kidnappings .
That same month , an Iraqi battalion commander was captured by insurgents in Fallujah and beaten to death . After his death , two Iraqi National Guard battalions near Fallujah promptly deserted , leaving their weapons and equipment to the insurgents . Counterinsurgency expert John Nagl , serving in nearby Khaldiyah , said that his unit knew the local police chief was supporting the insurgency , " but assessed that he had to do so to stay alive . " Suicide bombers killed seven Marines from 2nd Battalion 1st Marines on 6 September , eleven Iraqi police near Baghdadi on 23 October , and eight Marines from the newly arrived 1st Battalion 3rd Marines one week later . More than 100 Americans were killed in Anbar from May 2004 to October 2004 .
Prior to November , Iraqi Prime Minister Ayad Allawi invited representatives from Ramadi and Fallujah in an attempt to negotiate an end to the fighting , similar to his previous dealings with Shia leader Muqtada al @-@ Sadr . In September , with the blessings of the Americans , Allawi disbanded the discredited Fallujah Brigade and privately gave the Marines permission to begin planning an offensive to retake Fallujah . In early October , Allawi stepped up his efforts , demanding that the representatives of Fallujah hand over Zarqawi or face a renewed assault . They refused . Shortly before the Marine offensive began , Sheikh Harith al @-@ Dhari , leader of the pro @-@ insurgent Association of Muslim Scholars , said that " the Iraqi people view Fallujah as the symbol of their steadfastness , resistance and pride . "
= = = Insurgency in 2004 = = =
Despite the return of sovereignty to the Iraqi Interim Government on 28 June , the insurgency was still viewed by many Iraqis as legitimate and the Iraqi government as agents of the United States . In late 2004 , a CIA officer said that insurgents in Ramadi were receiving financing via Syria " to the tune of $ 1 @.@ 2 million a month " . The insurgency continued to enjoy broad @-@ based support throughout Iraqi society , showing few of the sectarian divisions which would become pronounced following the 2006 al @-@ Askari Mosque bombing . Shia Iraqis attacked Iraqi military units moving towards Fallujah , Shia leaders called on their supporters to donate blood for insurgents , and Muqtada al @-@ Sadr referred to the insurgents in Fallujah as " holy warriors " . Some Shi 'ia attempted to join the fighting .
The first in a series of execution videos was released on 11 May by AQI , of its leader al @-@ Zarqawi executing American citizen Nick Berg . Many of these hostages , such as Kim Sun @-@ il , Eugene Armstrong , Jack Hensley , and Kenneth Bigley , were taken to Zarqawi 's base in Fallujah for execution .
After the initial push into Fallujah , the US argued that Zarqawi was behind a series of car bombings throughout Iraq . There had been no large car bombings in Baghdad during the siege , and enough munitions and contraband had been uncovered to conclude that many " bombs and car bombs detonated elsewhere in Iraq may have been manufactured in Fallujah . " In contrast , there were 30 large car bombs in the two months following the creation of the Fallujah Brigade , and the Brigade was now seen by the US and Iraqi governments as a front for the insurgency . The suicide bombings and the hostage videos made Zarqawi the public face of the Iraqi insurgency in 2004 , even though his leadership was disputed by many Sunni nationalist commanders . By late 2004 the US government 's bounty on his head matched Osama bin Laden 's . However , a senior US military intelligence official described the core of the insurgency in December 2004 as " the old Sunni oligarchy using religious nationalism as a motivating force . "
= = = Second Battle of Fallujah = = =
" Hundreds of thousands of the nation 's sons are being slaughtered . "
The order by Allawi to attack Fallujah again came on 6 November , just four days after George W. Bush was reelected as president . 1st Marine Division commander General Richard F. Natonski assembled an ad @-@ hoc force of six Marine battalions , three Army battalions , three Iraqi battalions , and the British Black Watch Regiment . The insurgents , loosely led by Zarqawi , Abdullah al @-@ Janabi , and Zarqawi 's lieutenant Hadid , had replaced their losses and reportedly now had between 3 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 000 men in the city . They planned to hinder the Marine advance with roadblocks , berms , and mines , while conducting attacks outside the city to tie down Marine units .
The attack began on 7 November when General Natonski had the 3rd LAR and 36th Iraqi battalions seize the city 's hospital , located on a peninsula just west of the city . The main attack began the night of 8 November . Coalition forces attacked from the north , achieving complete tactical surprise .
The insurgents responded by attacking the Marines in small groups , often armed with RPGs . According to General Natonski , many insurgents had seen pictures of the Abu Ghraib scandal and were determined not to be taken alive . By 20 November , Marines had reached the southern boundary of the city , but pockets of insurgents still remained . The assault battalions divided the city into areas and crisscrossed their assigned areas in an attempt to find the insurgents . Four days later Zarqawi released an audiotape condemning Sunni Muslim clerics for their lack of support , claiming " hundreds of thousands of the nation 's sons are being slaughtered . " The fighting slowly eb
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and its north end was where it connected to the larger mill buildings . The building was where rags arriving at the mill were processed at the start of the papermaking operation .
In 1930 the northern facade was given a proper entranceway with transomed doors and Doric columns below a frieze identifying the building as the Crane Museum . Above this doorway a circular window was also added . The slate roof and its support beams were also replaced in 1930 , but without altering the exterior lines of the building . A late 19th century brick addition to the east side of the building ( not a part of the landmark designation ) is screened from view by plantings . The interior of the building is a single large space in which artifacts from the company 's history are displayed . Displays include tools used by Zenas Crane and a replica of the early vat process equipment used to make paper .
The museum is open weekday afternoons from June to October ; there is no charge .
= U.S. Route 64 in Oklahoma =
U.S. Route 64 ( US @-@ 64 ) is a U.S. highway running from the Four Corners area to the Outer Banks of North Carolina . Between these two points , the highway passes through the entire width of Oklahoma ; a total of 591 @.@ 17 miles ( 951 @.@ 40 km ) of US @-@ 64 lies in the state of Oklahoma . US @-@ 64 enters the state from New Mexico , crossing the line between the two states between Clayton , New Mexico , and Boise City in Cimarron County . The route runs the full length of the Oklahoma Panhandle , then serves the northernmost tier of counties in the main body of the state before dipping southeastward to Tulsa , the state 's second @-@ largest city . From Tulsa , the highway continues southeast , leaving Oklahoma just west of Fort Smith , Arkansas . In addition to Tulsa , US @-@ 64 serves fifteen Oklahoma counties and the cities of Guymon , Woodward , Enid , and Muskogee .
US @-@ 64 has been a part of the United States Numbered Highways system from the program 's inception in 1926 . US @-@ 64 's route has remained roughly the same since then , although it has undergone alterations several times , many changing its course through towns and moving the highway designation to higher @-@ capacity expressways and freeways .
= = Route description = =
= = = The Panhandle = = =
U.S. Route 64 crosses the New Mexico – Oklahoma state line northeast of Clayton , New Mexico , concurrent with US @-@ 56 and US @-@ 412 . The three highways enter the state just north of the extreme southwest corner of Cimarron County , the westernmost tip of the Oklahoma Panhandle . The highways head northeast , passing through disconnected parcels of the Rita Blanca National Grassland . The first town US @-@ 56 , US @-@ 64 , and US @-@ 412 encounter in Oklahoma is unincorporated Felt , of which they skirt the northern edge . The highways then cross the Beaver River before intersecting US @-@ 385 , which joins the other three highways in a concurrency as they approach Boise City , the county seat . In Boise City , the highways reach a traffic circle which surrounds the Cimarron County Courthouse . At this traffic circle , US @-@ 56 , US @-@ 64 , and US @-@ 412 all turn east , while US @-@ 385 splits away to the north . State Highway 3 ( SH @-@ 3 ) enters the circle from the north and leaves from the east , following US @-@ 64 , while SH @-@ 325 begins at the circle and heads west toward Kenton . East of town , US @-@ 56 / US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 412 / SH @-@ 3 have an interchange with US @-@ 287 , which bypasses Boise City to the east . Six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) northeast of here , US @-@ 56 splits away from the other highways ; it continues northeast , while US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 412 / SH @-@ 3 turn onto a due east course . The routes intersect SH @-@ 171 eight miles ( 13 km ) east of the split .
Approximately twelve miles ( 19 km ) east of the SH @-@ 171 junction , US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 412 / SH @-@ 3 cross into Texas County . Seven miles ( 11 km ) east of the county line , at unincorporated Four Corners , SH @-@ 95 joins the concurrency ; it splits away after following the other three routes for five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) . The next major highway junction lies eighteen miles ( 29 km ) miles to the east , where SH @-@ 136 joins with US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 412 / SH @-@ 3 as the highways turn south toward Guymon . The four highways cross the Beaver River once again before entering that city , Texas County 's seat and the largest city in the Panhandle , on Main Street . In Guymon , US @-@ 64 splits away to the east along NE 12th Street , while US @-@ 412 and state highways 3 and 136 continue south . US @-@ 64 is accompanied on 12th Street by truck routes for the latter three highways . At the intersection with US @-@ 54 , the truck routes turn southwest , while US @-@ 64 turns northeast , following US @-@ 54 out of town US @-@ 54 / US @-@ 64 continue northeast through eastern Texas County , running parallel to a Union Pacific rail line . After crossing the Beaver River ( the only crossing for US @-@ 54 , but the third for US @-@ 64 ) , the highways cut through the northwest corner of the town of Optima . Continuing northeast , US @-@ 54 and US @-@ 64 run just southeast of Panoma before coming to Hooker . There , US @-@ 54 / US @-@ 64 serve as the northern terminus of SH @-@ 94 . After the SH @-@ 94 junction , US @-@ 54 continues northeast toward Tyrone and Liberal , Kansas , while US @-@ 64 splits off onto a due east course . The road passes south of Baker before leaving Texas County .
Next , US @-@ 64 passes through Beaver County , the easternmost of the three counties forming the Oklahoma Panhandle . About four miles ( 6 @.@
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4 km ) east of the county line , US @-@ 64 reaches the town of Turpin ; here , the highway begins a concurrency with US @-@ 83 . Approximately three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Turpin , the two highways come to a junction with US @-@ 270 . US @-@ 83 and westbound US @-@ 270 continue north from this junction toward Liberal , while US @-@ 64 and US @-@ 270 eastbound form a concurrency heading due east . Passing north of Floris , the highways proceed east for about 18 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 29 @.@ 8 km ) without any curves or junctions with other highways before reaching Forgan . East of Forgan lies a highway junction with SH @-@ 23 — here , US @-@ 270 splits away from US @-@ 64 , turning south along SH @-@ 23 en route to the county seat , Beaver . SH @-@ 23 joins US @-@ 64 to form a one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) concurrency before also splitting away toward its northern terminus at the Kansas line . US @-@ 64 does not intersect any other highways in the 29 @-@ mile ( 47 km ) segment of highway in Beaver County east of the SH @-@ 23 junction . As it zig @-@ zags southeastward , the highway passes through the towns of Knowles and Gate . Three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of Gate , the highway crosses the Beaver – Harper county line , the eastern boundary of the Oklahoma Pandhandle , and enters the main body of the state .
= = = Northern Oklahoma = = =
Just two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of its entry into Harper County , US @-@ 412 begins a concurrency with US @-@ 283 . The two highways pass through Rosston , then US @-@ 283 splits away to the south toward Laverne . US @-@ 64 continues alone on a due east course for eight miles ( 13 km ) before reaching the northern terminus of SH @-@ 46 . The highway continues east , then veers northeast , and turns back to the east before meeting up with US @-@ 183 on the south side of Buffalo , the county seat . US @-@ 64 turns north at this intersection , overlapping US @-@ 183 through town . The two routes part ways northeast of town , with US @-@ 183 continuing on a northerly course toward Kansas and US @-@ 64 turning east once again . On the east end of the county , US @-@ 64 begins another concurrency , this time with SH @-
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@ 34 . About 2 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) east of the junction , the two highways cross the Cimarron River , which forms the northeastern boundary of Harper County .
As US @-@ 64 and SH @-@ 34 cross the Cimarron River , the two highways enter Woods County . SH @-@ 34 splits off to the north shortly thereafter . US @-@ 64 continues on east , passing through unincorporated Plainview and turning southeast to intersect SH @-@ 50 at its northern terminus at Camp Houston , north of Freedom . The next highway junction is just over thirteen miles ( 21 km ) east of Camp Houston , and is the northern terminus of SH @-@ 14 as signed ; however , ODOT documents show SH @-@ 14 continuing east along US @-@ 64 from this point for slightly less than thirteen miles ( 21 km ) . The two highways proceed into the Woods County seat , Alva , where they join US @-@ 281 . This concurrency lasts about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before US @-@ 281 splits off to the north on the east side of town ; at this point , SH @-@ 14 ends . US @-@ 64 continues east by itself for six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) before reaching the eastern limit of Woods County .
The next county that US @-@ 64 serves on its path across Oklahoma is Alfalfa County . After passing eight miles ( 13 km ) through rural Alfalfa county , it approaches the unincorporated Ingersoll , whereupon it continues another two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) until the route intersects state highways 8 , 11 , and 58 . All three of these highways extend north from the intersection , while SH @-@ 11 continues east . US @-@ 64 turns south at this intersection , overlapping SH @-@ 8 and SH @-@ 58 . They then pass through Cherokee , seat of Alfalfa County . About five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of town , SH @-@ 8 splits away to the southwest , while US @-@ 64 and SH @-@ 58 turn due east . Approximately six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) east of that intersection , SH @-@ 58 also splits away , headed south toward Helena . US @-@ 64 proceeds east to Jet , where it forms the southern terminus of SH @-@ 38 . Four miles west of Jet , the highway exits Alfalfa County .
Upon leaving Alfalfa County , US @-@ 64 passes into Grant County . The first town the highway passes through in Grant County is Nash , where it begins a concurrency with SH @-@ 132 . This concurrency lasts for two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before SH @-@ 132 splits away . Eight miles ( 13 km ) east of this junction , US @-@ 64 intersects US @-@ 60 and US @-@ 81 in a T junction . US @-@ 81 northbound and US @-@ 60 eastbound continue straight , while US @-@ 64 eastbound turns south along with southbound US @-@ 81 and westbound US @-@ 60 ( creating a wrong @-@ way concurrency with US @-@ 60 ) . The three highways continue south into Garfield County . Fourteen miles ( 23 km ) south of the T junction , US @-@ 60 / US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 81 serve as the eastern terminus of SH @-@ 45 . This junction marks the highways ' entry into the Enid area . The highways serve as the city limit boundary between Enid ( to the west ) and North Enid ( to the east ) . About 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) south of the SH @-@ 45 junction , US @-@ 64 splits away from the other two highways at an interchange where US @-@ 64 continues south and US @-@ 60 / US @-@ 81 take a southwesterly tack . US @-@ 64 heads south from the interchange on North 4th Street . At Willow Road , US @-@ 64 turns due east ; it follows Willow Road for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before turning south on North 30th Street . This street has an parclo interchange with Owen K. Garriott Road , which carries US @-@ 412 ; here , US @-@ 64 joins US @-@ 412 , and the two highways head due east out of Enid as a four @-@ lane expressway . East of Enid , the two routes pass between Breckenridge and Fairmont . South of Garber lies an interchange between US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 412 and SH @-@ 74 . SH @-@ 15 also begins here , extending north along SH @-@ 74 . US @-@ 64 / US @-@ 412 continue east out of Garfield County .
US @-@ 64 and US @-@ 412 next enter Noble County . The two highways ' first junction with another highway in the county is a cloverleaf interchange at I @-@ 3
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v. United States ( 1835 ) involved 1804 and 1806 conveyances in Florida under Spanish rule . However , in both cases , the Marshall Court continued to apply the rule that aboriginal title was inalienable , except to The Crown . This inalienability principle — whether embodied by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , the Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783 , the Nonintercourse Acts of 1790 , 1793 , 1796 , 1799 , 1802 , or 1833 , or the federal common law — remains the crux of the modern Indian land claim litigation .
Several other cases involved disputes between non @-@ Indians holding land grants from different states or state nonintercourse acts ; federal courts had subject @-@ matter jurisdiction over such disputes as " Controversies . . . between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States . " For example , Preston v. Browder ( 1816 ) , Danforth 's Lessee v. Thomas ( 1816 ) , and Danforth v. Wear ( 1824 ) involved conflicting land grants from the states of North Carolina and Tennessee .
= = Background = =
= = = Earlier Supreme Court decisions = = =
Sims ' Lessee v. Irvine ( 1799 ) was the first Supreme Court decision to discuss aboriginal title ( albeit briefly ) , and the only such decision before the Marshall Court . The Court found ejectment jurisdiction over certain lands , notwithstanding the defendant 's claim ( in the alternative to the claim that the defendant himself held title ) that the lands were still held in aboriginal title because :
Without confessing the aboriginal title of the Indian tribes , it is enough for the lessor of the Plaintiff to allege . . . that before the year 1779 , they had abandoned and relinquished all the lands . . . and that in pursuance of treaties , they have since receded very distantly from that boundary . Lands may be acquired by conquest ; and a relinquishment , in consequence of hostilities , is tantamount to conquest .
= = = State court decisions = = =
The " first known American case to address the issue " of the validity of state land grands to land over which the aboriginal title had not been extinguished was Marshall v. Clark ( Va . 1791 ) , decided by the Virginia Supreme Court . The plaintiff was John Marshall 's father , Thomas Marshall , challenging ( on behalf of the state militia 's claim to the same land ) the validity of a land grant to Revolutionary War veteran George Rogers Clark . Marshall argued that the grant could not be valid because the aboriginal title was not extinguished ; the Virginia Supreme Court disagreed :
The Indian title did not impede . . . the power of the legislature to grant the land . [ The grantee ] must risque the event of the Indian claim , and yield to it , if finally established , or have the benefit of a former or future extinction thereof .
The Pennsylvania Supreme Court and Tennessee Supreme Court soon issued opinions to the same effect , holding that states could grant land that the federal government had not yet purchased from Indians . Such transactions , already common , increased in the wake of these decisions ; the assumption was that the Indians held fee simple to their land , but that future executory interests could be sold , representing a promise of the state to transfer the land should it ever come into their possession .
A second , competing view was that the Indians possessed only a possessory right of occupancy , not fee simple to their land . " The first reported American court decision holding that unsold Indian land was owned by the government , subject only to the lesser right of ' possession ' or ' occupancy ' held by Indians " was Strother v. Cathey ( N.C. 1807 ) , decided by the North Carolina Supreme Court . There , the North Carolina court decided that the fee title to the land was held by the state , subject to the tribe 's right of occupancy , and that — while the federal government could terminate that right occupancy — the federal government could not acquire fee title by doing so .
In Jackson v. Hudson ( N.Y. 1808 ) held that the nature of Indian title was an undecided question in New York , and avoided deciding the issue because neither party claimed its chain of title traced to Indians . The next term , when a party before the court claimed to derive title deeds from Indian sellers , the New York court held that such deeds were insufficient in Van Gorden v. Jackson ( N.Y. 1809 ) :
Though Indian deeds were obtained for the purpose of proving that the rights of the natives were extinguished , [ such deeds ] were never admitted , as of themselves , to be a source of legal title . [ Indian deeds ] were presented to government as an inducement to extend its boundary by grant , but the firm and unbending principle has uniformly been , that all titles must be derived , either mediately or immediately , actually or presumptively , from the crown .
Following Fletcher v. Peck ( 1810 ) , the latter view prevailed over the former in additional state courts . Other state courts disagreed .
= = Opinions = =
= = = Fletcher v. Peck ( 1810 ) = = =
Oral arguments
Fletcher v. Peck ( 1810 ) is famous as the " first of the great nineteenth @-@ century Contract Clause cases " ; Marshall 's majority , at the very end , " included only two sentence about the Indians , but they would prove to be influential . " Fletcher was " [ t ] he first of the Marshall Court decisions to consider the relative rights of an Indian people and a state government in aboriginal lands , " and " the first time the Supreme Court of the United States was called on to consider this issue . " In the oral argument , Peck 's lawyer " launched into the first discussion of the nature of Indian landownership ever to take place before the U.S. Supreme Court " :
What is the Indian title ? It is a mere occupancy for the purpose of hunting . It is not like our tenures ; they have no idea of a title to the soil itself . It is overrun by them , rather than inhabited . It is not a true and legal possession . Vattel , b . 1 . § 81 @.@ p . 37 @.@ and § 209 @.@ b . 2 . § 97 . Montesquieu , b . 18 @.@ c . 12 . Smith 's Wealth of Nations , b . 5 @.@ c . 1 . It is a right not to be transferred but extinguished . It a right regulated by treaties , not by deeds of conveyance . It depends upon the law of nations , not upon municipal right .
Although the power to extinguish this right by treaty , is vested in congress , yet Georgia had a right to sell subject to the Indian claim . The point has never been decided in the courts of the United States , because it has never before been questioned .
Peck 's lawyer raised the point in response to a question from the bench , almost certainly from Justice Johnson . Vattel , Montesquieu , and Smith all had two things in common : they falsely believed that Native Americans did not practice agriculture ; and , they had never travelled to North America . Marshall did not cite these sources in his opinion in Fletcher , but he would cite all three in Johnson .
Marshall 's majority
Marshall addressed the arguments raised by Peck 's lawyers and Johnson 's dissent at the very end of his majority opinion :
It was doubted whether a state can be seised in fee of lands , subject to the Indian title , and whether a decision that they were seised in fee , might not be construed to amount to a decision that their grantee might maintain an ejectment for them , notwithstanding that title .
The majority of the court is of opinion that the nature of the Indian title , which is certainly to be respected by all courts , until it be legitimately extinguished , is not such as to be absolutely repugnant to seisin in fee on the part of the state .
Marshall 's formulation is actually a compromise : responding to Johnson 's concern that Georgian land owners with such grants could evict Indians , while still trying to preserve the validity of the dominant form of land grant in the United States at the time . In doing so , Marshall in effect adopted the newer view of Indian title promulgated in state courts for two decades that the Indians did not own fee simple to their lands . Marshall 's opinion did not spell out which methods could legitimately extinguish Indian title , or even whether the power resided with the state or federal government .
Johnson 's dissent
Dissents were rare on the Marshall Court ; Justice William Johnson dissented more frequently than most , but still quite rarely by modern standards . First , although Johnson agreed that the Georgia legislature could not revoke its land grant , he located such a prohibition in natural law ,
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3 @.@ 2 km ) east @-@ southeast of St. Pauls , North Carolina in Robeson County , one of which sustained severe damage . Afterwords , the tornado traveled towards the north @-@ northeast and crossed North Carolina Highway 20 . An auto repair shop located along the highway sustained significant damage with all of the bay windows being blown out and 17 nearby storage sheds were destroyed . Several trees were knocked down onto railroad tracks before the tornado damaged another mobile home and dissipated . No injuries were reported as a result of the tornado and damages amounted to $ 50 @,@ 000 . The tornado was rated as an EF0 with winds up to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The third tornado touched down around 2 : 15 a.m. EST near the town of Autryville in Sampson County . Several trees were damaged along the tornado 's path and one home sustained notable damage . A carport near the home was blown down and twisted into nearby trees . No injuries were reported as a result of the tornado and damages amounted to $ 25 @,@ 000 . The tornado was rated as an EF0 by the National Weather Service .
The fourth tornado of the outbreak touched down around 2 : 45 a.m. EST near Peacocks Crossroads in Johnston County , knocking down several trees , some of which were mature . Significant roof damage occurred after the tornado struck a double @-@ wide mobile home and destroyed the porch of another home . Another mobile home had some of its siding torn off before the tornado dissipated . No injuries were reported as a result of the tornado and damages amounted to $ 30 @,@ 000 . The tornado was rated as an EF1 by the National Weather Service . The fifth tornado of the outbreak touched down around 3 : 03 a.m. EST near U.S. Route 70 , damaging several pine trees and causing minor roof damage . Tracking towards the northeast , the tornado destroyed a carport and the car inside . A trailer was rolled on its side and a nearby home sustained siding and shingle damage . Afterwords , the tornado struck a horse farm where it destroyed a small barn and damaged a stable . Before dissipating , the tornado blew out the windows in the garage of one home . No injuries were reported as a result of the tornado and damages amounted to $ 75 @,@ 000 . The tornado was rated as a high @-@ end EF0 by the National Weather Service .
The sixth and first killer tornado of the outbreak touched down around 3 : 10 a.m. EST and snapped several trees . After traveling for three quarters of a mile , it produced significant structural damage along North Carolina Highway 222 where a brick home was destroyed . A nearby trailer was rolled 30 ft down the driveway of the home . The four residents sustained no injures despite having not taken shelter before the tornado . A double @-@ wide mobile home was blown off its foundation and flipped for 50 ft before falling to the ground . One of the occupants , a 61 @-@ year @-@ old woman was killed and her husband sustained major injuries . Three other mobile homes were destroyed by the tornado before it crossed into Wilson County . Once in Wilson County , several more mobile homes sustained significant damage before the tornado lifted . Damages from the tornado in both counties amounted to $ 700 @,@ 000 . The tornado was rated as an EF2 by the National Weather Service .
The most significant tornado during the outbreak touched down around 3 : 30 a.m. EST near Harrison Drive where a tree was snapped . Traveling towards the northeast , the tornado blew a home off its foundation and completely destroyed it near Route 1330 . Local firefighters and rescue responders estimated that the home rolled four times before being destroyed . At the time the tornado struck , three people were in the home , one of which was killed . After destroying the home , the tornado caused major damage to the upper portion of another home and tore off the roof of another . Afterwords , the tornado tracked into Elm City where numerous trees were damaged and a porch was blown off a home . An estimated 8 @,@ 000 residents in Wilson County were left without power following the tornado . Four other people were injured as a result of the tornado and damages amounted to $ 1 @.@ 2 million . About 100 people were also displaced due to the tornado . The tornado was rated as a low @-@ end EF3 along its discontinuous 8 mi ( 13 km ) track .
The final tornado of the outbreak touched down near U.S. Route 64 around 4 : 30 a.m. EST . The tornado traveled towards the northeast , damaging two mobile homes and a chapel . Several outbuildings were also damaged or destroyed near a farm before the tornado dissipated . The tornado was rated as an EF1 along its 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) track . No injuries were reported as a result of the tornado and damages amounted to $ 50 @,@ 000 .
= = Aftermath = =
The estimated cost to clean up debris from the two killer tornadoes was estimated at $ 500 @,@ 000 . The governor of Wilson County requested that the areas struck by the EF3 tornado and the EF2 prior as disaster areas to allow federal assistance . In Kenly , hospital staff raised about
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$ 300 to help a family whose home was completely destroyed . Up to 125 personnel were deployed to check on residents who were still at home and to assist those in need . Several volunteers helped remove trees and debris off roads to make way for aid . Two Red Cross teams set up a shelter at the Kenly Free Will Baptist Church . During church ceremonies , volunteers organized outside the church to feed residents who lost their homes . A Methodist church group from Virginia arrived in Johnston and Wilson counties the day after the tornadoes to assist with cleanup efforts . A fund was set up for the 11 @-@ year @-@ old boy , Joshua Wiggens , who was killed by the Elm City tornado . By November 17 , the Red Cross funds were depleted funds needed to keep the organization out of debt were $ 38 million below what was required . About $ 20 @,@ 000 was spent in the charity effort in Kenly and the governor of Wilson County urged residents who were no affected by the storm to send donations to the Red Cross . The lack of funding for the Red Cross prompted the governor to allow up to $ 28 @,@ 000 in the state 's emergency funds to be used for assistance by the Red Cross . On November 21 , low @-@ interest loans were approved for residents in the affected counties . Homeowners in Johnston , Franklin , Harnett , Nash , Sampson , Wake , Wayne and Wilson counties were able to apply for loans up to $ 200 @,@ 000 to repair storm damage and businesses were allowed to apply for loans up to $ 2 million . On November 24 , an unknown member of the 82nd Airborne Division donated 50 cases of non @-@ perishable food and water to assist victims of the tornado . The relief goods were dropped off at the J.S. Waters School in Goldston without notice .
= George McGovern =
George Stanley McGovern ( July 19 , 1922 – October 21 , 2012 ) was an American historian , author , U.S. Representative , U.S. Senator , and the Democratic Party presidential nominee in the 1972 presidential election .
McGovern grew up in Mitchell , South Dakota , where he was a renowned debater . He volunteered for the U.S. Army Air Forces upon the country 's entry into World War II and as a B @-@ 24 Liberator pilot flew 35 missions over German @-@ occupied Europe . Among the medals bestowed upon him was a Distinguished Flying Cross for making a hazardous emergency landing of his damaged plane and saving his crew . After the war he gained degrees from Dakota Wesleyan University and Northwestern University , culminating in a PhD , and was a history professor . He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1956 and re @-@ elected in 1958 . After a failed bid for the U
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.S. Senate in 1960 , he was a successful candidate in 1962 .
As a senator , McGovern was an exemplar of modern American liberalism . He became most known for his outspoken opposition to the growing U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War . He staged a brief nomination run in the 1968 presidential election as a stand @-@ in for the assassinated Robert F. Kennedy . The subsequent McGovern – Fraser Commission fundamentally altered the presidential nominating process , by greatly increasing the number of caucuses and primaries and reducing the influence of party insiders . The McGovern – Hatfield Amendment sought to end the Vietnam War by legislative means but was defeated in 1970 and 1971 . McGovern 's long @-@ shot , grassroots @-@ based 1972 presidential campaign found triumph in gaining the Democratic nomination but left the party badly split ideologically , and the failed vice @-@ presidential pick of Thomas Eagleton undermined McGovern 's credibility . In the general election McGovern lost to incumbent Richard Nixon in one of the biggest landslides in American electoral history . Re @-@ elected Senator in 1968 and 1974 , McGovern was defeated in a bid for a fourth term in 1980 .
Throughout his career , McGovern was involved in issues related to agriculture , food , nutrition , and hunger . As the first director of the Food for Peace program in 1961 , McGovern oversaw the distribution of U.S. surpluses to the needy abroad and was instrumental in the creation of the United Nations @-@ run World Food Programme . As sole chair of the Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs from 1968 to 1977 , McGovern publicized the problem of hunger within the United States and issued the " McGovern Report " , which led to a new set of nutritional guidelines for Americans . McGovern later served as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Agencies for Food and Agriculture from 1998 to 2001 and was appointed the first UN Global Ambassador on World Hunger by the World Food Programme in 2001 . The McGovern @-@ Dole International Food for Education and Child Nutrition Program has provided school meals for millions of children in dozens of countries since 2000 and resulted in McGovern 's being named World Food Prize co ‑ laureate in 2008 .
= = Early years and early education = =
McGovern was born in the 600 ‑ person farming community of Avon , South Dakota . His father , Rev. Joseph C. McGovern , born in 1868 , was pastor of the local Wesleyan Methodist Church there . Joseph – the son of an alcoholic who had immigrated from Ireland – had grown up in several states , working in coal mines from the age of nine and parentless from the age of thirteen . He had been a professional baseball player in the minor leagues , but had given it up due to his teammates ' heavy drinking , gambling and womanizing , and entered the seminary instead . George 's mother was the former Frances McLean , born c . 1890 and initially raised in Ontario ; her family had later moved to Calgary , Alberta , and then she came to South Dakota looking for work as a secretary . George was the second oldest of four children . Joseph McGovern 's salary never reached $ 100 per month , and he often received compensation in the form of potatoes , cabbages , or other food items . Joseph and Frances McGovern were both firm Republicans , but were not politically active or doctrinaire .
When George was about three years old , the family moved to Calgary for a while to be near Frances ' ailing mother , and he formed memories of events such as the Calgary Stampede . When George was six , the family returned to the United States and moved to Mitchell , South Dakota , a community of 12 @,@ 000 . McGovern attended public schools there and was an average student . He was painfully shy as a child and was afraid to speak in class during first grade . His only reproachable behavior was going to see movies , which were among the worldly amusements forbidden to good Wesleyan Methodists . Otherwise he had a normal childhood marked by visits to the renowned Mitchell Corn Palace and what he later termed " a sense of belonging to a particular place and knowing your part in it " . He would , however , long remember the Dust Bowl storms and grasshopper plagues that swept the prairie states during the Great Depression . The McGovern family lived on the edge of the poverty
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Ron Killings , the NWA World Tag Team Championship match , and the main event all received a 7 out of 10 by Kapur in his review . Regarding the main event , Kapur said that " Sting looked good , but it remains to be seen if his return will be a turning point for the company in the long run . " Kapur commented on the X Division Championship match stating it was a " good match " that " reinforced Joe 's dominance , and left the door open for another match with either Daniels or Styles . " He thought the World Tag Team Championship bout had a " stupid ending " that " marred what was otherwise a good tag match . "
James Caldwell of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter reviewed the show and stated that the debut of Sting " answered a few questions " but that Sting " wasn 't involved in the match long enough to see how he 'll hold up over twelve months . However , he surpassed initial expectations with a strong effort and good energy . It was an encouraging return to TNA . " He also commented on the match that the " effectiveness of the finish was hurt by the usual interference and shortcuts . " Caldwell discussed the X Division Championship bout by praising it as the " best story told in the ring tonight " but that it was " too short of a match for the featured X Division . " As for the No Disqualification match , Caldwell said that it " set up the next chapter of the story " and that the " hardcore aspect had a place on the card . "
TNA released a DVD counting down the top 50 moments in their history in 2007 , with Sting 's debut at Final Resolution ranking at number 2 on the compilation .
= = Aftermath = =
Christian Cage and Jeff Jarrett continued their feud after Final Resolution . Since Cage had defeated Monty Brown at Turning Point to become number one contender he was in line for an NWA World Heavyweight Championship match . On the January 21 episode of Impact ! , Larry Zybysko revealed an open contract for a future title match at Against All Odds . On the January 28 episode of Impact ! , it was announced that Cage would face Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at Against All Odds . Cage defeated Jarrett to win the title at the event . He held the championship until TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event on June 18 when Jarrett won a King of the Mountain match for the title that also involved Cage , Sting , Abyss , and Ron Killings .
Sting signed a one @-@ year contract and appeared on the January 28 episode of Impact ! where he announced his scripted retirement . Sting did not appear in TNA until their Destination X PPV event on March 12 when he appeared after the main event to save Cage from an assault by America 's Most Wanted , Abyss , Alex Shelley , Team Canada , Jarrett , and Brown before being attacked himself by the debuting Scott Steiner . Sting then teamed with Styles , Killings and Rhino as part of a team referred to as Sting 's Warriors against Jarrett 's Army , composed of Jarrett , Steiner , and America 's Most Wanted in a Four @-@ on @-@ Four Lethal Lockdown match at TNA 's Lockdown PPV event on April 23 . Sting 's Warriors won the contest at the event .
Samoa
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Joe went on to defend the TNA X Division Championship in a Three Way match against A.J. Syles and Christopher Daniels at Against All Odds in a rematch of their bout at Unbreakable in October 2005 . On the January 21 episode of Impact ! , it was announced that Styles would face Joe for the title at Against All Odds . In the same telecast , Daniels accused Styles of trying to take his spot as the contender for the championship due to Styles having thrown in the towel for Daniels . Styles argued that he was instead looking out for Daniels ' health in the storyline . The following week on the January 28 episode of Impact ! , Zybysko announced that the three would compete in a Three Way match for the title at the show . Joe retained the title at the spectacle .
Following Final Resolution , Team 3D faced Team Canada at Against All Odds in order to exact revenge for their actions at the event . Team 3D demanded a match against America 's Most Wanted and Team Canada from Zybysko on the January 21 episode of Impact ! with Zybysko granting the request but only against one of the teams , leaving it up to Team 3D to decide . Brother Ray announced on the January 28 episode of Impact ! that they were leaving the decision up to the TNA fans to decide who they faced at Against All Odds . On the February 4 episode of Impact ! , Team 3D announced that the fans voted for them to face Team Canada . Team 3D defeated Team Canada at the show .
As for other rivalries after Final Resolution , Rhino and Abyss fought in a rematch on the January 28 episode of Impact ! that ended in a no contest . TNA commentator Mike Tenay announced on the February 4 episode of Impact ! that Rhino and Abyss would face in a Falls Count Anywhere match at Against All Odds . Rhino went on to win the contest . America 's Most Wanted went on to successfully defend the NWA World Tag Team Championship at Against All Odds against the team of Chris Sabin and Sonjay Dutt . Raven did not appear in TNA for several months after the event due to his scripted firing . Sean Waltman was also not used by TNA following Final Resolution since TNA wanted to be " cautious about using him long @-@ term giving his track record . "
= = Results = =
= Tropical Storm Dorothy ( 1970 ) =
Tropical Storm Dorothy was the deadliest tropical cyclone of the 1970 Atlantic hurricane season . The fourth named storm and fifth tropical storm or hurricane of the season , Dorothy developed on August 17 from a tropical wave to the east of the Lesser Antilles . It tracked west @-@ northwestward throughout its entire duration , and despite forecasts of attaining hurricane status , Dorothy reached peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / ) – slightly below hurricane status . The storm struck Martinique on August 20 , and subsequently began a gradual weakening trend in the Caribbean Sea . On August 23 , Dorothy dissipated south of Hispaniola .
Most significantly affected by the storm was Martinique , which received 26 @.@ 8 in ( 680 mm ) of rainfall in a 24 ‑ hour period . The rainfall caused flooding and mudslides , resulting in about $ 34 million in damage ( 1970 USD ) ; 186 homes were destroyed , and 700 people were left homeless . The flooding killed up to 50 people on the island . Elsewhere in the Lesser Antilles , the storm killed one person on Dominica from heavy rainfall , and in Guadeloupe heavy damage to the banana crop was reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Dorothy were from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on August 13 . It tracked generally westward , developing into a tropical depression on August 17 about 1375 mi ( 2210 km ) east of Tobago in the Lesser Antilles . Two days later , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Dorothy , while located about 500 mi ( 800 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles , with its intensity confirmed by the Hurricane Hunters .
With light vertical wind shear and warm water temperatures , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) remarked on August 19 that " hurricane status would probably be attained this afternoon or tonight . " Its track was expected to continue generally west @-@ northwestward , influenced by a ridge near the Bahamas , and within 60 hours Dorothy was forecast to be north or over Puerto Rico . However , a subsequent Hurricane Hunters flight reported a more westerly motion , which would bring its track through the central Lesser Antilles . Tropical Storm Dorothy gradually intensified , reaching peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on August 20 just east @-@ northeast of Barbados . Hurricane Hunters confirmed the intensity , though the flight also reported a weakness of low @-@ level inflow . Despite maintaining winds of just below hurricane @-@ force , there was no evidence of an eyewall on radars as the storm approached the Lesser Ant
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) of buildings . On 5 June , 473 B @-@ 29s struck Kobe by day and destroyed 4 @.@ 35 square miles ( 11 @.@ 3 km2 ) of buildings for the loss of 11 bombers . A force of 409 B @-@ 29s attacked Osaka again on 7 June ; during this attack 2 @.@ 21 square miles ( 5 @.@ 7 km2 ) of buildings were burnt out and the Americans did not suffer any losses . Osaka was bombed for the fourth time in the month on 15 June when 444 B @-@ 29s destroyed 1 @.@ 9 square miles ( 4 @.@ 9 km2 ) of the city and another 0 @.@ 59 square miles ( 1 @.@ 5 km2 ) of nearby Amagasaki ; 300 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed in Osaka . This attack marked the end of the first phase of XXI Bomber Command 's attack on Japan 's cities . During May and June the bombers had destroyed much of the country 's six largest cities , killing between 112 @,@ 000 and 126 @,@ 762 people and rendering millions homeless . The widespread destruction and high number of casualties from these raids caused many Japanese to realize that their country 's military was no longer able to defend the home islands . American losses were low compared to Japanese casualties ; 136 B @-@ 29s were downed during the campaign . In Tokyo , Osaka , Nagoya , Yokohama , Kobe , and Kawasaki , " over 126 @,@ 762 people were killed ... and a million and a half dwellings and over 105 square miles ( 270 km2 ) of urban space were destroyed . " In Tokyo , Osaka and Nagoya , " the areas leveled ( almost 100 square miles ( 260 km2 ) ) exceeded the areas destroyed in all German cities by both the American and English air forces ( approximately 79 square miles ( 200 km2 ) ) . "
= = Attacks on small cities = =
In mid @-@ June Arnold visited LeMay 's headquarters at Saipan . During this visit he approved a proposal for XXI Bomber Command to attack 25 relatively small cities with populations ranging from 62 @,@ 280 to 323 @,@ 000 while also continuing precision raids on major targets . This decision was made despite a recommendation from the United States Strategic Bombing Survey ( USSBS ) team , which was assessing the effectiveness of air attacks on Germany , that operations against Japan should focus on the country 's transportation network and other targets with the goal of crippling the movement of goods and destroying food supplies . LeMay 's plan called for precision attacks on important industrial targets on days when the weather over Japan was clear and incendiary attacks guided by radar on overcast days . As both the cities and industrial facilities targeted were relatively small , the B @-@ 29 force would be sent against multiple locations on days in which attacks were conducted . This targeting policy , which was labeled the " Empire Plan " , remained in force until the last days of the war .
Five major precision bombing attacks were conducted as part of the Empire Plan . On 9 June , two groups of B @-@ 29s bombed an aircraft factory at Narao and another two groups raided a factory in Atsuta ; both facilities were badly damaged . A single group of Superfortresses also attempted to bomb a Kawasaki Aircraft Industries factory at Akashi but accidentally struck a nearby village instead . The next day , XXI Bomber Command bombers escorted by 107 P @-@ 51s successfully attacked six different factories in the Tokyo Bay region . Precision bombing raids were also conducted on 22 June , when 382 B @-@ 29s attacked six targets at Kure , Kakamigahara , Himeji , Mizushima and Akashi in southern Honshu . Most of the factories targeted were badly damaged . Four days later , 510 B @-@ 29s escorted by 148 P @-@ 51s were sent against nine factories in southern Honshu and Shikoku . Heavy clouds over the region meant that many bombers attacked targets of opportunity individually or in small groups , and little damage was done to the raid 's intended targets . Cloudy weather prevented any further large @-@ scale precision attacks until 24 July , when 625 B @-@ 29s were dispatched against seven targets near Nagoya and Osaka . Four of the factories attacked suffered heavy damage . Renewed cloudy weather prevented any further Empire Plan precision attacks in the last weeks of the war .
XXI Bomber Command began incendiary raids against small cities from 17 June . On that night , Hamamatsu , Kagoshima , Ōmuta , Yokkaichi were each attacked by a wing of B @-@ 29s using similar tactics to those employed in the firebombing raids against the major cities . Of the 477 B @-@ 29s dispatched , 456 struck their targets and Hamamatsu , Kagoshima , Yokkaichi suffered extensive damage ; overall 6 @.@ 073 square miles ( 15 @.@ 73 km2 ) of buildings were destroyed . The cities were almost undefended and no B @-@ 29s were lost to Japanese actions . This operation was judged a success , and set the pattern for XXI Bomber Command 's firebombing attacks until the end of the war . As the campaign continued and the most important cities were destroyed , the bombers were sent against smaller and less significant cities . On most nights that raids were conducted , four cities were attacked , each by a wing of bombers . Two @-@ wing operations were conducted against Fukuoka on 19 June and Ōmuta on 26 July , however . Sixteen multi @-@ city incendiary attacks had been conducted by the end of the war ( an average of two per week ) , and these targeted 58 cities . The incendiary raids were coordinated with precision bombing attacks during the last weeks of the war in an attempt to force the Japanese government to surrender . As the small cities were not defended by anti @-@ aircraft guns and Japan 's night @-@ fighter force was ineffective , only a single B @-@ 29 was shot down during this campaign ; a further 66 were damaged and 18 crashed as a result of accidents .
The firebombing campaign against small cities continued through June and July . On the night of 19 June B @-@ 29s struck Fukuoka , Shizuoka and Toyohashi . On 28 June Moji , Nobeoka , Okayama and Sasebo were attacked . Kumamoto , Kure , Shimonoseki and Ube were bombed on 1 July . Two nights later , Himeji , Kōchi , Takamatsu and Tokushima were attacked . On 6 July , attacks were conducted against Akashi , Chiba , Kōfu and Shimizu . Gifu , Sakai , Sendai and Wakayama were struck on 9 July . Three nights later , the B @-@ 29s targeted Ichinomiya , Tsuruga , Utsunomiya and Uwajima . On 16 July , Hiratsuka , Kuwana , Namazu and Ōita were attacked . Chōshi , Fukui , Hitachi , Okazaki were bombed on 19 July . After a break of almost a week , Matsuyama , Omuta and Tokuyama were firebombed on 26 July .
XXI Bomber Command also conducted an intensive propaganda campaign alongside its firebombing raids . It has been estimated that B @-@ 29s dropped 10 million propaganda leaflets in May , 20 million in June and 30 million in July . The Japanese government implemented harsh penalties against civilians who kept copies of these leaflets . On the night of 27 / 28 July , six B @-@ 29s dropped leaflets over 11 Japanese cities warning that they would be attacked in the future ; this was intended to lower the morale of Japanese civilians and convince them that the United States was seeking to minimize civilian casualties . Six of these cities ( Aomori , Ichinomiya , Tsu , Uji @-@ Yamada Ōgaki and Uwajima ) were attacked on 28 July . No B @-@ 29s were lost in the raids on these cities , though six were damaged by attacks from between 40 and 50 fighters and another five were hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire .
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to Lodge at the embassy in Saigon , marking a change in American policy . The message advised Lodge to seek the removal of the Nhus from power , and to look for alternative leadership options if Diệm refused to heed American pressure for reform . As the probability of Diệm sidelining the Nhus was seen as virtually nil , the message effectively meant the fomenting of a coup . The Voice of America broadcast a statement blaming Nhu for the raids and absolving the army of responsibility . Aware that the Americans would neither oppose a coup nor respond with aid cuts or sanctions , the generals deposed the Ngô brothers , who were arrested and assassinated the next day , 2 November 1963 .
= Charles Villiers Stanford =
Sir Charles Villiers Stanford ( 30 September 1852 – 29 March 1924 ) was an Irish composer , music teacher , and conductor . Born to a well @-@ off and highly musical family in Dublin , Stanford was educated at the University of Cambridge before studying music in Leipzig and Berlin . He was instrumental in raising the status of the Cambridge University Musical Society , attracting international stars to perform with it .
While still an undergraduate , Stanford was appointed organist of Trinity College , Cambridge . In 1882 , aged 29 , he was one of the founding professors of the Royal College of Music , where he taught composition for the rest of his life . From 1887 he was also Professor of Music at Cambridge . As a teacher , Stanford was sceptical about modernism , and based his instruction chiefly on classical principles as exemplified in the music of Brahms . Among his pupils were rising composers whose fame went on to surpass his own , such as Gustav Holst and Ralph Vaughan Williams . As a conductor , Stanford held posts with the Bach Choir and the Leeds triennial music festival .
Stanford composed a substantial number of concert works , including seven symphonies , but his best @-@ remembered pieces are his choral works for church performance , chiefly composed in the Anglican tradition . He was a dedicated composer of opera , but none of his nine completed operas has endured in the general repertory . Some critics regarded Stanford , together with Hubert Parry and Alexander Mackenzie , as responsible for a renaissance in music from the British Isles . However , after his conspicuous success as a composer in the last two decades of the 19th century , his music was eclipsed in the 20th century by that of Edward Elgar as well as former pupils .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Stanford was born in Dublin , the only son of John James Stanford and his second wife , Mary , née Henn . John Stanford was a prominent Dublin lawyer , Examiner to the Court of Chancery in Ireland and Clerk of the Crown for County Meath . His wife was the third daughter of William Henn , Master of the High Court of Chancery in Ireland . Both parents were accomplished amateur musicians ; John Stanford was a cellist and a noted bass singer who was chosen to perform the title role in Mendelssohn 's Elijah at the Irish premiere in 1847 . Mary Stanford was an amateur pianist , capable of playing the solo parts in concertos at Dublin concerts .
The young Stanford was given a conventional education at a private day school in Dublin run by Henry Tilney Bassett , who concentrated on the classics to the exclusion of other subjects . Stanford 's parents encouraged the boy 's precocious musical talent , employing a succession of teachers in violin , piano , organ and composition . Three of his teachers were former pupils of Ignaz Moscheles , including his godmother Elizabeth Meeke , of whom Stanford recalled , " She taught me , before I was twelve years old , to read at sight . ... She made me play every day at the end of my lesson a Mazurka of Chopin : never letting me stop for a mistake . ... By the time I had played through the whole fifty @-@ two Mazurkas , I could read most music of the calibre my fingers could tackle with comparative ease . " One of the young Stanford 's earliest compositions , a march in D ♭ major , written when he was eight years old , was performed in the pantomime at the Theatre Royal , Dublin three years later . At the age of seven , Stanford gave a piano recital for an invited audience , playing works by Beethoven , Handel , Mendelssohn , Moscheles , Mozart and Bach . One of his songs was taken up by the University of Dublin Choral Society and was well received .
In the 1860s Dublin received occasional visits from international stars , and Stanford was able to hear famous performers such as Joseph Joachim , Henri Vieuxtemps and Adelina Patti . The annual visit of the Italian Opera Company from London , led by Giulia Grisi , Giovanni Matteo Mario and later Thérèse Tietjens , gave Stanford a taste for opera that remained with him all his life . When he was ten , his parents took him to London for the summer , where he stayed with his mother 's uncle in Mayfair . While there he took composition lessons from the composer and teacher Arthur O 'Leary , and piano lessons from Ernst Pauer , professor of piano at the Royal Academy of Music ( RAM ) . On his return to Dublin , his godmother having left Ireland , he took lessons from Henrietta Flynn , another former Leipzig Conservatory pupil of Moscheles , and later from Robert Stewart , organist of St Patrick 's Cathedral , as well as from a third Moscheles pupil , Michael Quarry . During his second spell in London two years later , he met the composer Arthur Sullivan and the musical administrator and writer George Grove , who later played important parts in his career .
John Stanford hoped that his son would follow him into the legal profession but accepted his decision to pursue music as a career . However , he stipulated that Stanford should have a conventional university education before going on to musical studies abroad . Stanford tried unsuccessfully for a classics scholarship at Trinity Hall , Cambridge , but gained an organ scholarship , and later a classics scholarship , at Queens ' College . By the time he went up to Cambridge in 1870 he had written a substantial number of compositions , including vocal music , both sacred and secular , and orchestral works ( a rondo for cello and orchestra and a concert overture ) .
= = = Cambridge = = =
Stanford immersed himself in the musical life of the university to the detriment of his Latin and Greek studies . He composed religious and secular vocal works , a piano concerto , and incidental music for Longfellow 's play A Spanish Student . In November 1870 he appeared as piano soloist with the Cambridge University Musical Society ( CUMS ) , and quickly became its assistant conductor and a committee member . The society had declined in excellence since its foundation in 1843 . Its choir consisted solely of men and boys ; the lack of women singers severely limited the works that the society could present . Stanford was unable to persuade the members to admit women , and so he staged what The Musical Times called " a bloodless revolution . " In February 1872 he co @-@ founded a mixed choir , the Amateur Vocal Guild , whose performances immediately put those of the CUMS singers in the shade . The members of CUMS rapidly changed their minds , and agreed to a merger of the two choirs , with women given associate membership of the society .
The conductor of the combined choir was John Larkin Hopkins , who was also organist of Trinity College . He became ill , and handed over the conductorship to Stanford in 1873 . Stanford was also appointed Hopkins 's deputy organist at Trinity , and moved from Queens ' to Trinity in April 1873 . In the summer of that year Stanford made his first trip to continental Europe . He went to Bonn for the Schumann Festival held there , where he met Joachim and Brahms . His growing love of the music of Schumann and Brahms marked him as a classicist at a time when many music @-@ lovers were divided into the classical or the modernist camps , the latter represented by the music of Liszt and Wagner . Stanford was not constrained by the fashion for belonging to one camp or the other ; he immensely admired Die Meistersinger though he was unenthusiastic about some of Wagner 's other works . After leaving Bonn he returned home by way of Switzerland and then Paris , where he saw Meyerbeer 's Le prophète .
Hopkins 's illness proved fatal , and after his death the Trinity authorities invited Stanford to take
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over as organist of the college . He accepted with the proviso that he was to be released each year for a spell of musical study in Germany . The fellows of the college resolved on 21 February 1874 :
Charles Villiers Stanford ( undergraduate of the College ) be appointed organist at a salary of £ 100 p. a. for the next two years in addition to rooms and Commons when in residence . The organist to be allowed to be abroad during the two years mentioned for one term and the vacations for the purpose of studying music in Germany , the college undertaking to find a substitute in his absence .
Two days after his appointment , Stanford took the final examinations for his classics degree . He ranked 65th of 66 , and was awarded a third @-@ class degree .
= = = Leipzig = = =
On the recommendation of Sir William Sterndale Bennett , former professor of music at Cambridge and now director of the Royal Academy of Music , Stanford went to Leipzig in the summer of 1874 for lessons with Carl Reinecke , professor of composition and piano at the Leipzig Conservatory . The composer Thomas Dunhill commented that by 1874 it was " the tail @-@ end of the Leipzig ascendancy , when the great traditions of Mendelssohn had already begun to fade . " Nevertheless , Stanford did not seriously consider studying anywhere else . Neither Dublin nor London offered any comparable musical training ; the most prestigious British music school , the Royal Academy of Music ( RAM ) , was at that time hidebound and reactionary . He was dismayed to find in Leipzig that Bennett had recommended him to a German pedant no more progressive than the teachers at the RAM . Stanford said of Reinecke , " Of all the dry musicians I have ever known he was the most desiccated . He had not a good word for any contemporary composer ... He loathed Wagner ... sneered at Brahms and had no enthusiasm of any sort . " Stanford 's biographer Paul Rodmell suggests that Reinecke 's ultra @-@ conservatism may have been unexpectedly good for his pupil " as it may have encouraged Stanford to kick against the traces . " During his time in Leipzig Stanford took piano lessons from Robert Papperitz ( 1826 – 1903 ) , organist of the city 's Nikolaikirche , whom he found more helpful .
Among Stanford 's compositions in 1874 was a setting of part one of Longfellow 's poem The Golden Legend . He intended to set the entire poem , but gave up , defeated by Longfellow 's " numerous but unconnected characters . " Stanford ignored this and other early works when assigning opus numbers in his mature years . The earliest compositions in his official list of works are a four @-@ movement Suite for piano and a Toccata for piano , which both date from 1875 .
After a second spell in Leipzig with Reinecke in 1875 , which was no more productive than the first , Stanford was recommended by Joachim to study in Berlin the following year with Friedrich Kiel , whom Stanford found " a master at once sympathetic and able ... I learnt more from him in three months , than from all the others in three years . "
= = = Rising composer = = =
Returning to Cambridge in the intervals of his studies in Germany , Stanford had resumed his work as conductor of CUMS . He found the society in good shape under his deputy , Eaton Faning , and able to tackle demanding new works . In 1876 the society presented one of the first performances in Britain of the Brahms Requiem . In 1877 CUMS came to national attention when it presented the first British performance of Brahms 's First Symphony .
During the same period , Stanford was becoming known as a composer . He was composing prolifically , though he later withdrew
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some of his works from these years , including a violin concerto which , according to Rodmell , suffered from " undistinguished thematic material . " In 1875 his First Symphony won the second prize in a competition held at the Alexandra Palace for symphonies by British composers , although he had to wait a further two years to hear the work performed . In the same year Stanford directed the first performance of his oratorio The Resurrection , given by CUMS . At the request of Alfred Tennyson , he wrote incidental music for Tennyson 's drama Queen Mary , performed at the Lyceum Theatre , London in April 1876 .
In April 1878 , despite the disapproval of his father , Stanford married Jane Anna Maria Wetton , known as Jennie , a singer whom he had met when she was studying in Leipzig . She was the daughter of Henry Champion Wetton of Joldwynds in Surrey , who had died in 1870 . They had a daughter , Geraldine Mary , born in 1883 and a son , Guy Desmond , born in 1885 .
In 1878 and 1879 Stanford worked on his first opera , The Veiled Prophet , to a libretto by his friend William Barclay Squire . It was based on a poem by Thomas Moore with characters including a virgin priestess and a mystic prophet , and a plot that culminates in poisoning and stabbing . Stanford offered the work to the opera impresario Carl Rosa , who refused it and suggested that the composer should try to have it staged in Germany : " Its success will ( unfortunately ) have much greater chances here if accepted abroad . " Referring to the enormous popularity of Sullivan 's comic operas , Rosa added , " If the work was of the Pinafore style it would be quite another matter . " Stanford had greatly enjoyed Sullivan 's Cox and Box , but The Veiled Prophet was intended to be a serious work of high drama and romance . Stanford had made many useful contacts during his months in Germany , and his friend the conductor Ernst Frank got the piece staged at the Königliches Schauspiel in Hanover in 1881 . Reviewing the premiere for The Musical Times , Stanford 's friend J A Fuller Maitland wrote , " Mr. Stanford 's style of instrumentation ... is built more or less on that of Schumann ; while his style of dramatic treatment bears more resemblance to Meyerbeer than to that of any other master . " Other reviews were mixed , and the opera had to wait until 1893 for its English premiere . Stanford nevertheless continued to seek operatic success throughout his career . In his lifelong enthusiasm for opera he differed strikingly from his contemporary Hubert Parry , who made one attempt at composing opera and then renounced the genre .
By the early 1880s , Stanford was becoming a major figure in the British musical scene . His only major rivals were seen as Sullivan , Frederic Hymen Cowen , Parry , Alexander Mackenzie and Arthur Goring Thomas . Sullivan was by this time viewed with suspicion in high @-@ minded musical circles for composing comic rather than grand operas ; Cowen was regarded more as a conductor than as a composer ; and the other three , though seen as promising , had not so far made a clear mark as Stanford had done . Stanford helped Parry in particular to gain recognition , commissioning incidental music from him for a Cambridge production of Aristophanes ' The Birds and a symphony ( the " Cambridge " ) for the musical society . At Cambridge Stanford continued to raise the profile of CUMS , as well as his own , by securing appearances by leading international musicians including Joachim , Hans Richter , Alfredo Piatti and Edward Dannreuther . The society attracted further attention by premiering works by Cowen , Parry , Mackenzie , G
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. The tropical wave ultimately entered the Eastern Pacific Basin on August 17 . Rapidly organizing , the system was classified using the Dvorak technique at 1800 UTC on August 18 . Although a broad closed circulation was present on August 19 , the system became less organized and thus was not immediately classified as a tropical depression .
Over the next two days , however , the system became much more organized . Early on August 21 , the National Hurricane Center had initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E. After the existence of banding features was noted , the intensity was increased to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , indicating that the system had intensified into a tropical storm , which was named Fausto by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) . Although no further strengthening initially occurred , Fausto began to intensify after a burst in convection early on August 22 . Rapid deepening began to occur thereafter , and the NHC noted that Fausto exhibited a classic @-@ type banding feature and also noted that the outflow was increasing . The large size and widespread convection closely resembled a system that would become a major hurricane , Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The associated banding features began to wrap completely around the system , and evidence of a developing eye was seen via weather satellite . Simultaneously , satellite estimates made via the Dvorak technique indicated that intensity of Fausto was 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , and as a result , the NHC upgraded it to a hurricane .
= = Intensification and peak intensity = =
Although the eye feature became obscured and banding features appeared to be dissipating six hours after becoming a hurricane , the NHC predicted rapid intensification . As the eye became visible on satellite imagery early on August 23 , winds increased to 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , and Fausto became a Category 2 hurricane . Although the convective cloud tops had warmed slightly late that day , wind speeds continued to increase , and intensity estimates made at the University of Wisconsin were as high as 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) , though the National Hurricane Center was in agreement with estimates from all three Dvorak Technique agencies ( the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB ) , the Satellite Analysis Branch ( SAB ) , and the Air Force Weather Agency ( AFWA ) ) , which estimated winds at 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Based on this , Hurricane Fausto had intensified into a Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
The hurricane continued to intensify , although the NHC anticipated strengthening to cease , because the hurricane was expected to move into areas of colder sea surface temperatures . During this period , the winds of the system increased and Fausto became a Category 4 hurricane . Becoming a Category 4 hurricane , Fausto attained its peak intensity , with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 936 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 64 inHg ) . After attaining peak intensity , the NHC again noted that it was very likely that Fausto attained its peak intensity , as it was nearing a region of sea surface temperatures less than 78 ° F ( 26 ° C ) .
= = Weakening and re @-@ development = =
Deep convection around the eyewall began to diminish , and Fausto then weakened to a Category 3 hurricane . After quickly dropping in strength to a Category 2 hurricane , Fausto weakened at nearly the same rate as it had intensified . Although Fausto held steady as a Category 2 hurricane for 18 hours , it then began to rapidly weaken back into a Category 1 hurricane , then a tropical storm six hours later early on August 26 . Upon weakening into a tropical storm , Forecaster Miles Lawrence at NHC noted " ... there is no longer any deep convection associated with its circulation ... " , although Fausto still remained a tropical cyclone . On August 27 , the NHC issued its final advisory on Fausto , although not for dissipation , but rather that the storm crossed 140 ˚ W , and had entered the area of responsibility for the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) . While post @-@ storm analysis from the CPHC indicated that Fausto was a tropical storm upon emerging into the CPHC 's area of responsibility ( AOR ) , the storm was operationally classified as a tropical depression upon entering the AOR . With no deep convection remaining , the CPHC downgraded Fausto into a tropical depression at 0000 UTC August 28 . Fausto degenerated into a remnant low while located over 800 mi ( 1287 km ) north of Hilo , Hawaii on August 28 at 1200 UTC .
Although Fausto headed generally northwest while a tropical cyclone , it curved west @-@ northwest after degenerating into a remnant low . Passing several hundred miles north of Hawaii , deep convection began to re @-@ develop as the remnants of Fausto interacted with a tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough . By 1800 UTC on August 28 , the low had enough deep convection to be reclassified as a tropical depression while located roughly 635 mi ( 1020 km ) north of Oahu . No further re @-@ intensification occurred for almost 48 hours , and then Fausto became a tropical storm again at 1800 UTC September 1 . This regeneration at high latitude was attributed to a temperature anomaly with waters 3 @.@ 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) above normal and a favorable upper @-@ level atmospheric pattern . Although sea surface temperature anomalies are usually attributed to the development of an El Niño , the El Niño had no effect with atmospheric conditions . A mid @-@ latitude cyclone approached Tropical Storm Fausto and caused the system to accelerate northward . The mid @-@ latitude cyclone eventually absorbed Fausto , and the combined system reached the Aleutian Islands of Alaska shortly thereafter .
Hurricane Fausto 's regeneration north of Hawaii was unusual but not unprecedented . The other time this happened since 1966 was in the 1975 season . That time , another TUTT absorbed the remnant of Hurricane Ilsa , which led to the formation of an unnamed hurricane at high latitude . Other tropical cyclones have strengthened north of Hawaii , but the actual formation of one is rare .
= = Impact = =
Fausto did not have any effect on land , and only one ship named Jo Lonn reported minimal gales on August 24 , and again the next day . No reports of damage or casualties were attributed to Fausto . The mid @-@ latitude cyclone that absorbed Fausto passed over the Aleutian Islands . Impact from the remnants of Fausto in the Aleutian Islands or mainland Alaska is unknown .
= Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão , Marquis of Paraná =
Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão , Marquis of Paraná ( 11 January 1801 – 3 September 1856 ) was a politician , diplomat , judge and monarchist of the Empire of Brazil . Paraná was born to a family of humble means in São Carlos do Jacuí , in what was then the captaincy of Minas Gerais . After attending the University of Coimbra in Portugal and having returned to Brazil , Paraná was appointed a judge in 1826 and later elevated to appellate court justice . In 1830 , he was elected to represent Minas Gerais in the Chamber of Deputies ; he was re @-@ elected in 1834 and 1838 , and held the post until 1841 .
In the aftermath of Dom Pedro I 's abdication in 1831 , a regency created to govern Brazil during the minority of the former Emperor 's son , Dom Pedro II , soon dissolved into chaos . Paraná formed a political party in 1837 that became known as the Reactionary Party , which evolved into the Party of Order in the early 1840s and in the mid @-@ 1850s into the Conservative Party . He and his party 's stalwart and unconditional defence of constitutional order allowed the country to move beyond a regency plagued by factious disputes and rebellions that might easily have led to a dictatorship . Appointed president of Rio de Janeiro Province in 1841 , Paraná helped put down a rebellion headed by the opposition Liberal Party the following year . Also in 1842 , he was elected senator for Minas Gerais and appointed by Pedro II to the Council of State . In 1843 , he became the de facto first president ( prime minister ) of the Council of Ministers , but resigned after a quarrel with the Emperor .
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After years in opposition , in 1849 , Paraná was appointed by the national government as president of Pernambuco Province to investigate a Liberal rebellion that had taken place a year earlier , and seek a fair trial for the rebels . Blamed by his party colleagues for the years in opposition and having lost much of his influence within his own party , Paraná accepted the post , believing he could regain his place among his peers . With the nation internally pacified , he was sent to Uruguay in 1851 to forge an alliance with that country , and with the rebel Argentine provinces of Corrientes and Entre Ríos , against the Argentine Confederation . The alliance triumphed , and the Emperor elevated Paraná to the ranks of the titled nobility .
In 1853 Paraná was again appointed president of the Council of Ministers , at the head of a highly successful cabinet , and became the most powerful politician in the country . The electoral reform he ushered in was credited with undermining national political processes and causing severe harm to the system of parliamentary government . For his role in pushing through restructuring , Paraná met with fierce opposition from the majority of his colleagues , leading to a virtual split in the Conservative Party over his policies . On 3 September 1856 , while still in office and at the height of his political career , he died unexpectedly of an unknown febrile condition . He is widely regarded by historians as one of the most influential statesmen of his time .
= = Early years = =
= = = Birth and childhood = = =
Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão was born on 11 January 1801 , in the freguesia ( civil parish ) of São Carlos do Jacuí , Minas Gerais , then a captaincy ( later province ) of the Portuguese colony of Brazil . Named after Saint Honorata , Honório Hermeto was the son of Antônio Neto Carneiro Leão and Joana Severina Augusta de Lemos . On his father 's side , he was descended from Portugal 's powerful Carneiro Leão clan , which had settled in Brazil in the 17th century . Antônio Neto , however , was much less prosperous than his relatives . An impoverished military officer in 1801 , he held the rank of furriel ( third sergeant ) . Advancement of his career was thwarted by his character flaws . Antônio Neto was hotheaded and had a strong personality which once led to his arrest for insubordination .
Honório Hermeto first lived in Paracatu , then moved to Vila Rica ( now Ouro Preto ) , at that time the capital of Minas Gerais , where he spent his childhood and adolescence . His father was widowed on 10 February 1806 ; on 11 January 1807 he wed Rita de Cássia Soares do Couto , the daughter of his late wife 's sister . Honório Hermeto regarded Rita de Cássia as his mother and her father , Colonel Nicolau Soares Couto , actually raised him . Honório Hermeto had an elder sister , Balbina , and three half @-@ sisters and a half @-@ brother , Nicolau Neto Carneiro Leão ( later Baron of Santa Maria ) , from his father 's second marriage .
= = = Education = = =
At age 16 , Honório Hermeto was commissioned as a lieutenant and standard @-@ bearer of the 2nd Militia Cavalry Regiment , 1st Company , in Vila Rica . Antônio Neto made great efforts to provide Honório Hermeto with an education of much higher quality than would normally have been expected in a family of their limited financial means . The promotion to captain in 1819 increased Antônio Neto 's income , allowing his eldest son to go to Portugal and enroll in the University of Coimbra 's law school in 1820 , thus ending Honório Hermeto 's brief military career . He was an excellent student and struck up acquaintances among his fellow Brazilians in Coimbra , including Paulino Soares de Sousa ( who would become one of his greatest allies and later the 1st Viscount of Uruguai ) and Aureliano de Sousa Oliveira Coutinho ( later Viscount of Sepetiba ) .
During the Portuguese Liberal Revolution of 1820 , he supported the constitutionalists , who advocated a national constitution to limit the powers of the Portuguese monarchy , against the absolutists , who preferred an absolute monarchy . It is unknown whether he actively took part in the uprising , however , and if so , to what degree . Honório Hermeto was a member of a secret society called A Gruta ( The Den ) , founded by Brazilian students at Coimbra with the primary goal of changing Brazil from a monarchy into a republic . His republicanism would fade with time and eventually be replaced by staunch support for monarchism .
Honório Hermeto received a bachelor 's degree in Law in 1824 , and his masters diploma on 18 June 1825 . He was also employed in a law firm for a few months . He returned to Brazil on 8 August 1825 aboard a ship with other Coimbra graduates , among them Aureliano Coutinho and Joaquim Rodrigues Torres ( who would later found the Conservative Party with Honório Hermeto and become the Viscount of Itaboraí ) . During Honório Hermeto 's time in Europe his native country had gained independence from Portugal and become the Empire of Brazil .
= = Entry into politics = =
= = = Magistrate and politician = = =
On 20 May 1826 , Honório Hermeto married his 17 @-@ year @-@ old first cousin Maria Henriqueta Neto , the daughter of his father 's brother João Neto Carneiro Leme . Unlike his brother , João Neto was a rich and influential man . Honório Hermeto and Maria Henriqueta had five children : Honório , Henrique ( later Baron of Paraná ) , Maria Emília , Maria Henriqu
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State Railways ( NSB ) and the Swedish state @-@ owned SJ , Linx operated the routes from Oslo , Norway , to Stockholm , Sweden , and from Oslo via Gothenburg , Sweden , to Copenhagen , Denmark . Services were provided up to ten times per day . However , slow speeds caused by curvy infrastructure in Norway , combined with competition from low @-@ cost airlines , caused the company to lose money , and eventually grounded operations . The services were taken over by NSB and SJ . Linx . The main rolling stock were eleven X2 electric multiple units , although it used Rc @-@ hauled trains on the Gothenburg – Oslo service . The company was based in Gothenburg .
= = History = =
Linx was established following an informal agreement between the ministers of transport in Norway , Sweden and Denmark to establish high @-@ speed rail connection between the countries ' capitals . Linx was the train operating part of the agreement , while the governments would have to invest in better rail infrastructure to allow higher speeds .
The company was introduced by NSB and SJ on 12 May 2000 . The stated plans were to start with the service from Gothenburg to Copenhagen in January 2001 , from Oslo to Gothenburg in June , and from Oslo to Stockholm in January 2002 . The company would have its head office in Gothenburg and would lease rolling stock from SJ . NSB 's chief executive officer , Osmund Ueland , became the company 's first chair . The company had a share capital of 10 million Swedish krona ( SEK ) and was owned in equal shares by NSB and SJ . The company 's first train ran on 7 January , from Gothenburg to Copenhagen . Service from Oslo to Gothenburg started on 17 June .
Because Linx was only to operate profitable routes , it was decided that the company not take over the night train service from Oslo to Copenhagen . NSB stated that they wanted all inter @-@ Scandinavian passenger transport to be operated by the new company , and therefore decided to terminate the night train as of September 2 . Although the night trains were filled during the summer and parts of the winter , there was a low ridership during the rest of the year . However , it was a lack of engineers that forced NSB to terminate the night train service as of 20 June . There were protests against the ending of the service , particularly in Norway . Marketing Director Øyvind Rørslett of Linx stated that " we are concentrating on the day trains . We want to develop a holistic concept , where new modern trains are a major part . Night trains do not fit into this concept " .
X2 trains were never introduced on the section from Gothenburg to Oslo . Linx stated that investments for NOK 2 billion were needed on the Østfold Line to reach a travel time from Oslo to Gothenburg of 3 hours and 30 minutes , rather than the more than 4 hours at the time . In contrast , the Norway / Vänern Line on the Swedish side of the border meets the necessary standards .
The first service from Oslo to Stockholm ran on 16 June 2002 . Initially there were only three daily services , but later that year , two more daily services were introduced . At the same time , travel time was reduced by 20 minutes , as the trains stopped at only three intermediate stations . Linx operated with different prices on the same route , depending on if the ticket was bought in Norway or Sweden . The company stated that this was in part because of a strong Norwegian krone , in part because Norwegians were willing to pay more , and in part because the sales system in
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, but he was pulled from the car by NASCAR personnel . At the lap 250 restart , Edwards was the leader , ahead of Johnson , Kenseth , and Harvick . On the following lap , Harvick passed Kenseth for third , as Hamlin fell to 21st . By lap 254 , Edwards had less than a one @-@ second lead over Johnson , while Harvick was 2 @.@ 59 seconds behind . Edwards continued to increase his lead , as Hamlin passed Martin for 15th . With seven laps remaining , Edwards had a 1 @.@ 67 second lead over Johnson . As Edwards crossed the finish line to win the race , Johnson won his fifth consecutive championship . Harvick finished third , ahead of Almirola and Allmendinger in fourth and fifth . Kahne , Newman , Stewart , Kenseth and Biffle rounded out the top ten finishers in the race .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Race winner Carl Edwards appeared in victory lane after his victory lap . He celebrated his second consecutive win , in front of a crowd of 67 @,@ 000 people . After winning the race , he said " Why didn 't you set the cars up like this before , Bob [ Osbourne ] ? That was the best performance down the straightaway I 've had in a long time . "
Afterward , Johnson began celebrating his fifth consecutive Sprint Cup Series championship . During the celebration , Johnson 's crew chief , Chad Knaus commented , " I think finally , finally after pulling this off Jimmie will get the respect that he deserves . Knowing what we had to do — come down here and beat them — and we beat them . " Hamlin , the points leader before the race , described his disappointment by saying , " I ’ m disappointed . Our car was lightning fast until that last wreck . When we hit the 16 ( Biffle ) that knocked the toe @-@ in out . It wasn ’ t as fast after that . It ’ s just circumstances but we had a great year . We won the most races ( 8 ) and we contended like we have never contended before but circumstances took us out of this one . I don ’ t think the 48 ( Johnson ) showed the strength this year like they did in the past and that opened the door for the rest of us . " Harvick , who finished third in points , stated :
" We went down swinging and that is what we came here to do . Those guys outran us on that last restart there . All in all I ’ m proud of all my guys . We did everything we wanted to do today but win the race . This is a great spot to start building for consistent championship runs next year . We had a top three car but they got by us on the restarts . All in all , it was a good day . What can you do ? "
During the post @-@ race press conference , Harvick and Busch commented on their accident during the race . " Harvick pulled a slide job on my earlier in the day , I crossed over and passed him clean . My guys worked way too hard to be in this position to have a wrecked race car at the end of the year . It means so much to me to finish the year strong . I talked to him in the driver ’ s meeting but Kevin is such a two @-@ faced guy it doesn ’ t really matter , " Busch said . Afterward , Harvick said " Kyle raced me like a clown all day . "
In the Drivers ' Championship , Johnson finished first with 6 @,@ 622 points , 39 ahead of Hamlin in second . Harvick followed in third with 6 @,@ 581 points . Edwards and Kenseth rounded out the first five positions with 6 @,@ 393 and 6 @,@ 294 . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet won with 261 points , 44 ahead of Toyota and 85 ahead of Ford . Dodge finished fourth with 138 points . 5 @.@ 605 million people watched the race on television . The race took three hours , nine minutes and fifty seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 1 @.@ 608 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
= Garden warbler =
The garden warbler ( Sylvia borin ) is a common and widespread small bird that breeds in most of Europe and in western Asia . It is a plain , long @-@ winged and long @-@ tailed typical warbler with brown upperparts and dull white underparts ; the sexes are similar and juveniles resemble the adults . Its two subspecies differ only slightly and interbreed where their ranges overlap . Due to its lack of distinguishing features , this species can be confused with a number of other unstreaked warblers . The garden warbler 's rich melodic song is similar to that of the blackcap , its closest relative , which competes with it for territory when nesting in the same woodland .
The preferred breeding habitat in Eurasia is open woodland with dense low cover for nesting ; despite its name , gardens are rarely occupied by this small passerine bird . The clutch of four or five blotched cream or white eggs is laid in a robust cup @-@ shaped nest built near the ground and concealed by dense vegetation . The eggs are incubated for 11 – 12 days . The chicks are altricial , hatching naked and with closed eyes , and are fed by both parents . They fledge about 10 days after hatching . Only about a quarter of young birds survive their first year . The garden warbler is strongly migratory , wintering in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . A wide range of habitats are used in Africa , but closed forest and treeless Sahel are both shunned . Insects are the main food in the breeding season , although fruit predominates when birds are fattening prior to migration , figs being a particular favourite where available . These warblers have a mixed diet of insects and fruit in their African wintering grounds .
The garden warbler is hunted by Eurasian sparrowhawks and domestic cats , and its eggs and nestlings are taken by a variety of mammalian and avian predators . It may be host to various fleas , mites and internal parasites , and it is a host of the common cuckoo , a brood parasite . The large and fairly stable numbers and huge range of the garden warbler mean that it is classed as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Despite a small population decline in much of its European range , the bird 's breeding distribution is expanding northwards in Scandinavia .
= = Taxonomy = =
The genus Sylvia , the typical warblers , forms part of a large family of Old World warblers , the Sylviidae . Fossils from France show that the genus dates back at least 20 million years . The garden warbler and its nearest relative , the blackcap , are an ancient species pair which diverged very early from the rest of the genus , between 12 and 16 million years ago . In the course of time , these two species have become sufficiently distinctive that they have been placed in separate subgenera , with the blackcap in subgenus Sylvia and the garden warbler in Epilais . These sister species have a breeding range which extends farther northeast than all other Sylvia species except the lesser whitethroat and common whitethroat .
The nearest relatives of the garden warbler outside the sister group are believed to be the African hill babbler and Dohrn 's thrush @-@ babbler , both of which should probably be placed in Sylvia rather than their current genera , Pseudoalcippe and Horizorhinus respectively .
The garden warbler was first described by Pieter Boddaert in 1783 . The current genus name is from Modern Latin silvia , a woodland nymph , related to silva , a wood . The specific borin is derived from a local name for the bird in the Genoa area of Italy ; it derives from the Latin bos , ox , because the warbler was believed to accompany oxen .
There are two recognised subspecies .
Sylvia borin borin ( Boddaert , 178
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3 ) , the nominate subspecies , breeds in western , northern and central Europe to Finland , central Poland , western Hungary and Bosnia .
S. b. woodwardi ( Sharpe , 1877 ) , named for Sharpe 's collaborator Bernard Barham Woodward , breeds in eastern Europe and temperate Asia east to western Siberia .
Intermediate birds occur where the recognised forms meet and interbreed , and have sometimes been given subspecies status , including S. b. kreczmeri in Poland and S. b. pateffi in Bulgaria , but these are not generally accepted as valid taxa .
= = Description = =
The garden warbler is 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long with a 7 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 4 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 3 in ) wing length . The weight is typically 16 – 22 g ( 0 @.@ 56 – 0 @.@ 78 oz ) , but can be up to 35 @.@ 5 g ( 1 @.@ 25 oz ) for birds preparing to migrate . It is a plain , long @-@ winged and long @-@ tailed bird with unstreaked olive @-@ brown upperparts and dull white underparts . It has a whitish eyering and a faint pale supercilium , and there is a buff wash to the throat and flanks . The eye is black , the legs are bluish @-@ grey and the strong bill has a grey upper and paler grey lower mandible . The male and female are indistinguishable by external appearance including size . Juveniles have a looser plumage than an adult , with paler and greyer upperparts and a buff tone to the underparts . The eastern subspecies S. b. woodwardi is slightly larger and paler than the nominate form with a greyer tone to the upperparts and whiter underparts . The subspecies are hard to distinguish visually where they occur together in Africa , but a wing length greater than 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) confirms S. b. woodwardi when birds are trapped .
The plain appearance of the garden warbler means that it can be confused with several other species . The melodious and icterine warblers usually have long bills and a yellowish tint to their plumage . The booted warbler is similar in colour , although it is smaller , more delicately built and has a flesh @-@ coloured bill . Western and eastern olivaceous warblers are also relatively small , and have white outer tail feathers as well as a pinkish bill . Juvenile barred warblers , which lack the obvious barring of adults , are much larger than garden warblers and have a pale double wingbar .
Juvenile garden warblers have a partial moult mainly involving the body plumage between June and September prior to migration . Adults also have a similar , but sometimes more extensive , partial moult in late summer , and a complete moult in their African wintering areas before the return migration .
= = = Voice = = =
The male 's song , usually delivered by birds in dense cover , is a rich musical warbling usually delivered in bursts of a few seconds duration , but sometimes for longer periods . The song is confusable with that of the blackcap , although compared to that species it is slightly lower @-@ pitched , less broken into discrete song segments and more mellow . Both species have a quiet subsong , a muted version of the full song , which is much more difficult to separate . The most frequent call of the garden warbler is a sharp kek @-@ kek , which is repeated rapidly when the bird is alarmed . A quiet rasping tchurr @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r resembling the main call of the common whitethroat is also sometimes heard . The juvenile has a quia alarm vocalisation . The garden warbler will occasionally mimic other birds , and is itself frequently mimicked by the blackcap . Both Sylvia warblers will also sing against common nightingales , which have a similar song despite being unrelated . Subsong may be heard on the wintering grounds in Africa , developing into the full song in March and April prior to the return to Europe .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The garden warbler breeds in most of Europe between the 12 – 28 ° C ( 54 – 82 ° F ) isotherms and east across temperate Asia to the Yenisei River in Siberia . Its range extends further north than any other Sylvia warbler . All populations are migratory , wintering in sub @-@ Saharan Africa as far south as South Africa . Birds from central Europe initially migrate to the southwest
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rewards for athletes . Blažeković justified the new laws by saying : " Croatian sport is an amateur sport , and as such it will remain " . Attempting to tackle the problem of unruly crowds , he introduced new laws banning disorderly spectators from ever entering football stadiums . Warnings by Blažeković and the DVTOŠ were regularly printed in daily party newspapers , calling for citizens and athletes to abide by the new laws .
= = = Capture and execution = = =
As Allied forces descended on Zagreb , Blažeković left the city on 6 May 1945 and fled from Slovenia into Austria . He was subsequently placed in a refugee camp in Salzburg . On 28 August , American forces arrested him and sent him to a detainment camp before having him extradited to Yugoslavia on 12 February 1946 . Blažeković was tried in Zagreb on 12 January 1947 , sentenced to death , and executed the same day .
= Maryland Route 355 =
Maryland Route 355 ( MD 355 ) is a 36 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 59 @.@ 14 km ) north – south road in western central Maryland in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at the Washington , D.C. border in Friendship Heights , Montgomery County , where it continues south as Wisconsin Avenue into Washington . The northern terminus is just north of an overpass with Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) and U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) in the city of Frederick in Frederick County , where the road continues north through Frederick towards MD 26 . MD 355 serves as a major thoroughfare through Frederick and Montgomery counties , passing through Bethesda , Rockville , Gaithersburg , Germantown , Clarksburg , Hyattstown , Urbana , and Frederick , roughly parallel to I @-@ 270 . The southern portion of the route from the D.C. border to Germantown is a suburban four- to six @-@ lane divided highway lined with many businesses . North of Germantown , the route is predominantly a two lane rural road until it reaches Frederick , where it passes through commercial areas in the southern part of the city .
MD 355 is the original route of US 240 , which was planned in 1926 to run from Washington , D.C. north to Harrisburg , Pennsylvania ; however , the route was designated a part of US 15 north of Frederick . This route served as the primary connector linking Frederick and points west to Washington , D.C. During the 1950s , US 240 was relocated in stages to the Washington National Pike , a freeway between Bethesda and Frederick shared with I @-@ 70S ( now I @-@ 270 ) . MD 355 was designated onto the former alignment of US 240 between Bethesda and Frederick as each stage of freeway was built . MD 355 was also designated through Frederick along Market Street , which was the former alignment of US 15 through the city before it was moved to a bypass in 1959 . US 240 was decommissioned in 1972 , and MD 355 was extended south along the former US 240 to the Washington , D.C. border . In 2006 , the interchange with US 15 at the route ’ s northern terminus was removed , resulting in MD 355 ending just short of US 15 at a dead end . By 2009 , a four lane divided bypass of Urbana for MD 355 , funded by private developers , was completed . The former alignment of MD 355 through Urbana was designated as MD 355 Business ( MD 355 Bus . ) The same year , the portion of MD 355 north of I @-@ 70 was transferred to the city of Frederick and is no longer considered part of the route .
= = Route description = =
MD 355 is a part of the main National Highway System from the District of Columbia in Friendship Heights to I @-@ 495 in Bethesda . The highway is also a part of the National Highway System as an intermodal connector from I @-@ 495 to Shady Grove Road in Rockville and as a principal arterial from Shady Grove Road to MD 27 in Germantown .
= = = Montgomery County = = =
MD 355 begins in Friendship Heights , Montgomery County at the intersection with Western Avenue NW and Military Road NW on the border of Washington D.C .. It heads north from this point on Wisconsin Avenue , a six @-@ lane divided highway . Wisconsin Avenue continues south into Washington , ending in Georgetown at an intersection with K Street underneath the Whitehurst Freeway just north of the Potomac River . From the D.C. border , MD 355 heads north through areas of retail and high @-@ rise buildings in Friendship Heights including The Shops at Wisconsin Place that are served by the Red Line of the Washington Metro . Past Friendship Heights , the route continues into wooded residential areas of Somerset before passing the Chevy Chase Country Club on the east side of the road and residential areas of Chevy Chase to the west . It comes to an intersection with MD 191 ( Bradley Boulevard / Bradley Lane ) . Past this intersection , MD 355 enters Bethesda , where it heads back into commercial areas with high @-@ rise buildings .
In downtown Bethesda , the road intersects MD 410 ( Montgomery Avenue ) one @-@ way eastbound and the westbound direction of MD 410 ( East West Highway ) and MD 187 ( Old Georgetown Road ) a short distance further on , near the Bethesda Metro station . The road continues through the community and passes by Bethesda Theatre , a 1938 Art Deco cinema . It leaves the downtown area of Bethesda and becomes Rockville Pike at the intersection with Glenbrook Parkway / Woodmont Avenue . From here , the road passes the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center , one of the United States ' most prominent military hospitals , and the National Institutes of Health , which is home to the United States National Library of Medicine , the world ’ s largest medical library .
Past the naval hospital and the NIH , the road intersects Cedar Lane . After this intersection , it heads north into wooded areas , passing near residences as well as the Bethesda Meeting House , an 1850 wood @-@ frame church . MD 355 continues north through more suburban residential areas before coming to an interchange that provides access to I @-@ 495 ( Capital Beltway ) and the southern terminus of I @-@ 270 . Past this interchange , the road skirts the edge of Rock Creek Park , passing by the Linden Oak at the Grosvenor Lane intersection . MD 355 continues into residential areas of North Bethesda , where the Metro Red Line briefly comes above the surface and parallels
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into League Two after they beat Luton Town 2 – 1 at Wembley in the 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final , marking the club 's return into the Football League after an eight @-@ year absence .
York only secured survival from relegation late into 2012 – 13 , their first season back in the Football League . They made the League Two play @-@ offs the following season , and were beaten 1 – 0 on aggregate by Fleetwood Town in the semi @-@ final . However , York were relegated into the National League four years after returning into the Football League , with a bottom @-@ place finish in League Two in 2015 – 16 .
= = Club identity = =
York are nicknamed " the Minstermen " , in reference to York Minster . It is believed to have been coined by a journalist who came to watch the team during a successful cup run , and was only first used officially in literature in 1972 . Before this , York were known as " the Robins " , because of the team 's red shirts . They were billed " the Happy Wanderers " , after a popular song , at the time of their run in the 1954 – 55 FA Cup .
For most of the club 's history , York have worn red shirts . However , in the club 's first season , 1922 – 23 , the kit comprised maroon shirts , white shorts and black socks were worn . Maroon and white striped shirts were worn for three years in the mid 1920s , before the maroon shirts returned . In 1933 , York changed their maroon jerseys to chocolate and cream stripes , a reference to the city 's association with the confectionery industry . After four years they changed their colours to what were described as " distinctive red shirts " , with the official explanation that the striped jerseys clashed with opponents too often . York continued to don red shirts before a two @-@ year spell of wearing all @-@ white kits from 1967 to 1969 .
York resumed wearing maroon shirts with white shorts in 1970 . To mark their promotion into the Second Division in 1974 , a bold white " Y " was added to the shirts , which became known as the " Y @-@ fronts " . Red shirts returned in 1978 , along with the introduction of navy blue shorts . In 2004 , the club dropped navy from the kits and instead used plain red and white , until 2008 when a kit mostly of navy was introduced . For 2007 – 08 , the club brought in a third kit , which comprised light blue shirts and socks , with maroon shorts . A kit with purple shirts was introduced for a one @-@ off appearance in the 2009 FA Trophy Final . Red shirts returned in 2010 , and have been worn with red , navy blue , light blue and white shorts .
York adopted the city 's coat of arms as their crest upon the club 's formation , although it only featured on the shirts from 1950 to 1951 . In 1959 , a second crest was introduced , in the form of a shield that contained the York Minster , the White Rose of York and a robin . This crest never appeared on the shirts , but from 1970 to 1973 they bore the letters " YCFC " running upwards from left to right , and from 1974 to 1978 the " Y @-@ fronts " shirts included a stylised badge in which the " Y " and " C " were combined . The shirts bore a new crest in 1978 , which depicted Bootham Bar , two heraldic lions and the club name in all @-@ white
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" . The episode also included a portion of an original song , " Nice to Meet You , Have I Slept with You ? " — written by Brennan and Adam Anders and sung by Chenoweth and Morrison — which was not released . " The Chain " , also from Rumours , was used as backing music in the second motel stakeout scene .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Rumours " was first broadcast on May 3 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 3 @.@ 7 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 8 @.@ 85 million American viewers during its initial airing . It was the third most @-@ watched scripted show of the week among adults aged 18 – 49 . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were slightly up from those of the previous episode , " Born This Way " , which was watched by 8 @.@ 62 million American viewers and acquired a 3 @.@ 4 / 11 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic upon first airing .
The episode 's Canadian broadcast , also on May 3 , 2011 , drew 1 @.@ 49 million viewers and was the eighteenth most @-@ watched program of the week . It dropped three places from the previous episode , which attained 82 @,@ 000 more viewers . In Australia , " Rumours " was watched by 959 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the twelfth most @-@ watched show of the night . The episode was the thirty @-@ second most @-@ watched program of the week , but ranked fifth in the 16 – 39 demographic . Viewership again increased from " Born This Way " , which drew 805 @,@ 000 viewers and ranked fourteenth on the night of broadcast . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 50 million viewers — 2 @.@ 07 million on E4 , and 432 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 . It was the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the second most @-@ watched on cable . Here , viewership registered a slight decline on the previous episode , which attained 20 @,@ 000 more viewers and ranked first on cable .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Rumours " was met with mixed to favorable reviews from the critics , though many of the latter listed significant caveats . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times wrote that " the episode had its moments that made lovin ' Glee fun " . MTV 's Aly Semigran said " It wasn 't a perfect episode , but it was certainly an improvement over the last few " . Lisa Respers France of CNN " had a whole ball of tissue " in her hand by the time the cast sang the " Don 't Stop " finale , and concluded , " Well played , Glee . "
Time 's James Poniewozik said " while ' Rumours ' had its flaws ... the structure allowed the show to serve the stories , rather than feeling like the stories were there to service the songs " , and particularly praised how " the songs were integrated into the drama " . Semigran and Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone concurred with the latter point , and Futterman wrote that " despite a forced theme premise , the songs of Rumours fit the New Directions ' drama in an organic way . " The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon called the episode 's focus on the Fleetwood Mac songs " a refreshing change of pace " . Robert Canning of IGN liked the album concept , but felt it " didn 't fully deliver " . He gave " Rumours " a " good " rating of 7 out of 10 , and wrote , " What made the episode at least mildly entertaining were the comedy bits . Brittany 's ' Fondue For Two ' segments were fantastic " . Most other reviewers were similarly smitten with the " Fondue for Two " segments , including the aforementioned Reiter , Poniewozik , Semigran , and Respers France .
Futterman praised the return of Chenoweth 's character April Rhodes , and The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez said that she " brings such lightness , humor and zaniness that 's endearingly button @-@ nose cute " . Fallon wrote , " Chenoweth 's every sly smirk , eyebrow tick , and note sung — well , that was my week 's highlight . " Reiter was unenthusiastic : she acknowledged " Chenoweth 's amazing pipes " , but added " her character , which was thin to start with , has kind of worn out its welcome " . The subplot of Will thinking about going to Broadway with April was roundly criticized : both Meghan Brown of The Atlantic and Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle said there was no tension at all because the viewer knows that he will stay . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen called the entire scenario " ludicrous " , made even more so by the highly compressed time frame , and their dress rehearsal " bizarre " , criticisms echoed by Brown .
Sue 's scenes were generally not well @-@ liked . Although Canning wrote that the newspaper " delivered on the laughs " , Entertainment Weekly 's Sandra Gonzalez characterized the newspaper subplot was " neither important nor substantive " and was unimpressed with the " random , frightening costume changes " , and Reiter said Sue 's storyline was one that " felt as tired as secondhand news " . Poniewozik said that the episode " recognized that she is not really a character but a human obstacle " , which he suggested was " a better way for the show to use her " .
According to Hankinson , " One of the best parts of the episode centered around Brittany and Santana , but I think all the principals — Artie , Finn , Rachel , and Quinn too — did a great job portraying the tension and distrust pervading the team . " Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times felt the show was " absurdly preachy " on the matter of rumors , though he said the episode was " decent " . The scene in the motel room with Sam , Rachel , Finn and Sam 's brother and sister was called " arguably the most affecting scene of the entire episode " by Handlen , and Poniewozik wrote that " Chord Overstreet sold Sam 's feeling of loss " . Canning felt otherwise : " It may have had a better impact if we cared more about Sam or if Chord Overstreet had delivered more believable tears , but as things were , it was just some ordinary , blah drama . "
The developments in the relationship between Brittany and Santana received considerable attention . John Kubicek of BuddyTV thought the plot was pointless , and said it " boiled down to : I 'm not ready to come out . I 'm ready . Now I 'm not again . " He added , " If you 're going to have Santana question herself , at least show it and don 't have it all happen off screen . " Both Hankinson and Respers France were impressed by the acting of both Morris and Rivera . Hankinson wrote , " It feels like their relationship is developing organically " , while Respers France commended Morris for Brittany 's breakup scene with Artie , and Rivera for far surpassing her expectations .
= = = Music and performances = = =
All of the musical numbers were generally praised , though not every number was received with the same enthusiasm . Benigno was disappointed that there was " nothing special " in any of the arrangements , but Futterman saw the performances from a different perspective : " They 're not as visually stunning , but they 're vocally some of the more impressive renditions Glee has done all season . " She said of the " Dreams " rendition by Chenoweth with Morrison , " The harmonies and bare @-@ bones arrangement make for one of Glee 's most faithful covers yet . " Most critics welcomed the Chenoweth version . Gonzalez gave the song a " B + " and Brett Berk of Vanity Fair awarded it four stars of five ; both praised Chenoweth but criticized Morrison . Semigran and Kubicek simply gave kudos to Chenoweth alone . Benigno wondered why the pair were trying to imitate Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham when he felt they were better singers than those two , and gave the song a " B " .
Hankinson wrote , " I enjoyed all the smaller numbers tonight because I felt like the kids really sold the performances and infused some nice emotional context . " Of these , " Never Going Back Again " received the most consistent approval . Futterman said it was " better than Artie 's post @-@ Tina ' Stronger ' " , and Kubicek declared it " proof that he 's quite good at hitting emotional notes " , while Semigran said she was " blown away " . Both Gonzalez and Benigno gave it an " A − " , while Berk gave it all five stars . Berk also gave five stars to " Songbird " , which Gonzalez again gave an " A − " , while Benigno was slightly less generous with a " B + " . Futterman described Santana 's vocals as " raw and restrained
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Trial versions of the game , released to about 95 select retailers , were disclosed by 0verflow on December 26 and at Comiket 75 .
On January 8 , 2009 , 0verflow announced that starting that day , Lantis would be airing a weekly , episodic internet radio drama of the game 's characters , titled Radio Cross Days . Broadcasts were made regularly on Thursdays , finishing up on March 25 , 2010 with 64 sessions aired .
Cross Days was originally scheduled to come out on February 27 , 2009 , but its release was postponed six times : to April 24 , June 26 , November 20 , December 18 , January 29 , 2010 , and to March 19 , 2010 , when it finally came out . The much @-@ anticipated game was released to several promotional campaigns , many of which were intercity screening venues that spanned operation from March 5 to 14 .
= = = Release history = = =
On March 29 , 2010 0verflow announced that an outdated DLL had been released with retail versions of the game . A 372 KB replacement was provided via download . The following day another patch was released to bring copies of the game up to version 1.00a.
Cross Days was ported to two other platforms . AiCherry , an interactive movie developer , re @-@ released Cross Days as a DVD game on April 28 , 2011 , as did PalaceGame , a UMD publisher , for the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) on July 29 , 2011 .
= = = Trojan scare = = =
On April 15 , 2010 , roughly a month after Cross Days was released , BBC News reported on the spread of a virus named Kenzero masquerading on peer @-@ to @-@ peer ( P2P ) networks as unlicensed copies of erotic games ; one of which , according to software developer SPAMFighter , included Cross Days . Users tricked into installing the virus , termed a form of " ransomware " in the report , were asked for personal information and then had all of their web history posted to a blog , operated by shell corporation Romancing Inc . , for public access . NetAgent , a property rights company , reported that at least 5 @,@ 510 people were collectively infected . Those wishing to have their information removed could do so after acknowledging to viewers that they had attempted to download the game illegally . SPAMfighter has noted that the intrusive nature of the trojan was " in fact explained in [ the software 's ] terms of service " .
= = Sales = =
Cross Days for Windows premiered as the third most sold game on Getchu.com , a major redistributor of visual novel and domestic anime products , during the month of its release , ranking twelfth for the first half of 2010 , and thirty @-@ first for the whole year . The DVD game ranked as the most sold DVDi for the first half of 2011 , and forty @-@ seventh most from November 26 to December 27 . Cross Days for the PSP additionally ranked as the fifteenth most sold UMD game during that time as well .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Based on the story of the game , Cross Days was published into a manga , written by Yoko Kagura and illustrated by Homare Sakazuki . 0verflow announced on April 4 , 2010 that it would
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make its serialization debut in Monthly Comp Ace on April 26 . The series was circulated until August 2010 , published by Kadokawa Shoten into a first and second volume , released November 26 , 2010 and June 25 , 2011 , respectively .
= = = Books and publications = = =
In addition to the manga , Cross Days was made into other print . The first of these was a strategy guide and artwork book by Junji Goto , character artist for 0verflow , titled Cross Days Visual Fanbook ( ビジュアル ・ ファンブック , Vijuaru Fanbukku ) and published by Kinema Junpousha in August 2010 . The subsequent three releases were light novels by different authors but whose cover art was drawn by Goto and illustrated by Jet Yowatari ; each book retold the story of the game . Cross Days , a novel , was published by Harvest Books on September 15 , written by Mutsuki Mizusaki . Another novel , titled Cross Days ~ Kasanaru uso , Kasanaru omoi ~ ( クロスデイズ ~ 重なる嘘 , 重なる想い ~ ) , was released on October 22 , 2010 by Shueisha , authored by Hiro Akizuki . The final novel , Cross Days Kitsuregawa Roka no koi no Ruru ( Cross Days 喜連川路夏の恋のルール ) was written by Yoko Kagura , author of the manga adaption , and was published on October 29 by Kill Time Communication .
= = = Audio CDs = = =
As was the case for School Days and Summer Days , the original soundtrack of Cross Days was reproduced for distribution alongside the game , initially scheduled for February 27 , 2009 . As this was the first of the later six postponements , however , the album was republished and deferred to June 26 . Following the second delay , the soundtrack was held indefinitely until 0verflow announced on April 16 , 2010 that it would be released April 21 . The album contains all of the game 's background music , all of which was composed by HIKO of KIRIKO / HIKO Sound , and theme songs performed by Yozuca * , iyuna , Ceui , Kotaro Odaka and Riryka , totaling 25 tracks .
Radio Cross Days , a radio drama broadcast from January 8 , 2009 to March 25 , 2010 , was the second and final set of audio compilations made for the game by Lantis . Released as a first and second disc on June 23 and July 21 , 2010 , respectively , each album contained thirty @-@ two segments of the broadcast , comprising the sixty @-@ four total that were aired .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Considerable effort was made to market and promote Cross Days before and after its release , including the sale of brand merchandise . The limited edition of the visual novel came with a figurine of the Kotonoha character , and 0verflow and its partners also sold wall scrolls and Zippo lighters , as well as shower curtains , cushion mousepads , dakimakura cases .
= Love Hina =
Love Hina ( Japanese : ラブ ひな , Hepburn : Rabu Hina ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Ken Akamatsu . It was serialized in Weekly Shōnen Magazine from October 21 , 1998 to October 31 , 2001 , with the chapters collected into 14 tankōbon volumes by Kodansha . The series tells the story of Keitarō Urashima and his attempts to find the girl with whom he made a childhood promise to enter Tokyo University . The manga was licensed for an English @-@ language release in North America and the United Kingdom by Tokyopop , in Australia by Madman Entertainment , and in Singapore by Chuang Yi . Two novelizations of Love Hina , written by two anime series screenwriters , were also released in Japan by Kodansha . Both novels were later released in North America and the United Kingdom by Tokyopop .
A twenty @-@ four episode anime adaptation of the manga series , produced by Xebec , aired in Japan from April 19 , 2000 , to September 27 , 2000 . It was followed by a bonus DVD episode , Christmas and Spring television specials , and a three episode original video animation ( OVA ) entitled Love Hina Again . The anime series , special , and OVA were licensed for release in North America by Bandai Entertainment . In July 2007 , the license was acquired by Funimation , who released a boxset of the television series in February 2009 . The series is also licensed in Australia by Madman Entertainment and in the United Kingdom by MVM Films .
The series has proved extremely popular around the world , both commercially and critically . In Japan , the manga sold over 16 million copies ; over 1 million anime DVDs were also sold . The English release of the manga has been reprinted many times . Both anime and manga have received numerous industry awards in Japan and North America , as well as praise from critics .
= = Plot = =
The story is a shōnen comedy that takes place in the Kanagawa Prefecture , and centers on Keitarō Urashima and his attempts to fulfill a childhood promise that he made with a girl to enter Tokyo University together . However , he has forgotten the name of the girl he made the promise to and hopes to be accepted into Tokyo University in order to find her . Having failed the entrance exam twice and with his parents no longer willing to support him , he goes to stay at his grandmother 's hotel , only to find that it has been converted into a female @-@ only apartment . The tenants are about to kick him out when his aunt appears and announces that his grandmother has given him the title to the apartments . Much to their dismay Keitarō becomes the new manager of the family @-@ owned girls ' dorm Hinata House and must now balance his new responsibilities in addition to studying for the university entrance exam .
At Hinata House , Keitarō meets Naru Narusegawa , who is also studying to enter Tokyo University . Naru ranks first in the whole of Japan on the practice exams , and Keitarō convinces her to help him study . As the two of them grow closer through their studies , and after Keitarō accidentally reads a small section of Naru 's diary , he becomes increasingly convinced that Naru may be the girl with whom he made the promise . On the second day of the Tokyo University exam , Keitarō asks Naru about the promise and is stunned when she tells him he is mistaken . Despite their studying , and Naru 's mock exam results , they both fail the exams . The pair then have an argument and independently run off to Kyoto to clear their heads . While on their trip they settle their differences and meet Mutsumi Otohime , who lives in Okinawa and is also studying for the Tokyo University exams .
After returning from Kyoto , Keitarō and Naru decide to retake the exams . After a while , Mutsumi moves to Tokyo , and the
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three begin to study together . During this period , Naru becomes convinced that Mutsumi is Keitarō 's promised girl , but Mutsumi states that she made a childhood promise with Naru , not Keitarō . During the next round of Tokyo University exams , Keitarō believes he has failed them once again and runs away before finding out his results . After learning of this , Naru chases after him without checking her exam results either , and they are followed by the rest of the residents of Hinata House who announce that Keitarō and Naru both passed the exams along with Mutsumi . Unfortunately for him , Keitarō has an accident at the Tokyo University opening ceremony and is unable to attend classes for three months . After recovering from his injuries , Keitarō decides to study overseas with Noriyasu Seta . As Keitarō is about to leave , Naru finally confesses her feelings to him at the airport and decides to wait for him to return .
When Keitarō returns , he and Naru finally begin to express their feelings for each other . After they deal with new obstacles , Grandma Hina returns to Hinata House and reveals Naru is the girl of Keitarō 's promise . Four years later , a wedding ceremony ( with a new girl , Ema Maeda , presented ) is held at Hinata House for Naru and Keitarō as they finally fulfill their childhood promise to each other .
= = Production = =
Initial sketches for the series were created between September and December 1997 , after the completion of A.I. Love You . Early storyboards with initial character designs were created between December 1997 and January 1998 , and further character designs and location sketches followed between January and April 1998 . The last storyboards before serialization were created between April and August 1998 .
Around six months before the start of serialization , character designs were still going through several revisions before being settled upon . Several characters underwent complete redesigns and name changes . At one stage the character Naru was named Midori , and she was supposed to fall through a hole in the floor naked , bump her head on Keitaro and lose her memory . Naru 's name was changed many times before the author settled on Naru Narusegawa , and her final design is similar to Saati Namba from A.I. Love You . Mitsune " Kitsune " Konno 's money @-@ grubbing nature and her older , jaded , and more mature personality were originally intended to be used for Kaolla Su . Shinobu Maehara 's nature was settled on from the beginning of the series , however her physical appearance and age were extensively redesigned as the series concept was shaped . In her early design , Shinobu had a similar appearance to Forty Namba from A.I. Love You .
Throughout the run of the manga , the series used digital editing processes . After a rough sketch of a page was created , the page layout and basic detail were drawn and scanned into an Apple Macintosh . The major page elements were then shaded or filled with patterns , and elements that were drawn separately were added digitally to the page . The manga also used a series of " banked images " , which were basic line drawings of locations , such as a characters room . Instead of redrawing a location from scratch every time it was used , these banked images could be used as a base , and extra detail added to them depending on the requirements for the scene .
Both of these techniques lead to characters having white outlines when copied digitally onto the scene . Parts of Hinata Inn and other locations used were inspired by real life locations and designed from photographs collected during research .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Love Hina were originally serialized in Weekly Shōnen Magazine , between
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November 4 , 1998 and November 14 , 2001 for a total of 123 chapters . The series was released as a 14 @-@ volume collected edition between March 1999 and January 2002 . The series was later released in a partially colored format known as the " Iro Hina version " . The 14 Iro Hina volumes were released between July 2001 and April 2004 . A new seven @-@ volume edition was released by Kodansha between June and December 2014 .
Kodansha published a bilingual English and Japanese edition under the Kodansha Bilingual Comics label . Eight volumes were produced under the bilingual format between October 2000 and July 2001 . The edition was removed from sale after the series was licensed by Tokyopop .
The series was licensed for an English @-@ language release in North America and the United Kingdom by Tokyopop , which released the 14 volumes between May 21 , 2002 and September 16 , 2003 . The English release was one of Tokyopop 's first releases in the " Authentic Manga " lineup of titles using the Japanese right to left reading style . In doing so the artwork remained unchanged from the original . The series appeared consistently in Tokyopop 's top five selling manga and has been reprinted several times . In August 2009 , it was revealed that Tokyopop 's license had been left to expire by Kodansha and would not be renewed . Kodansha Comics USA licensed the series with a new translation . This edition was released as 5 volumes between October 2011 and March 2013 .
The series is also licensed for an English @-@ language release in Singapore by Chuang Yi and for regional language releases in France and Québec by Pika Édition , in Spain by Glénat , in Brazil by Editora JBC , in Mexico by Grupo Editorial Vid , in Poland by Waneko , in Greece by Compupress , in Germany in German , in Norway by Schibsted Forlag , in Sweden by Bonnier Carlsen and in Denmark by Egmont Manga & Anime .
The September 1 , 2010 issue of Weekly Shōnen Magazine included a six @-@ color @-@ page Love Hina one @-@ shot . A crossover one @-@ shot with Aho Girl was released on August 27 , 2014 .
The first 11 volumes sold over 6 million copies in Japan .
= = = Anime = = =
Love Hina was adapted into a 24 @-@ episode anime television series by Xebec , a division of Production I.G. The series aired on TV Tokyo April 19 through September 27 , 2000 . The opening theme was Sakura Saku and the closing theme was Kimi Sae Ireba . Both songs were written by Ritsuko Okazaki and performed by Megumi Hayashibara . The two themes were released as a CD single , which debuted on the Oricon charts at Number 7 . A bonus 25th episode was later created and released as a DVD bonus . The series and bonus episode were directed by Yoshiaki Iwasaki , written by Shō Aikawa and featured character designs by Makoto Uno .
In Japan , the television series was released on nine DVDs by Starchild Records between August 3 , 2000 and April 2 , 2001 , and sold over 1 million copies . Love Hina is credited with being one of the first anime series to be available unofficially as a digitally produced fansub , with multiple groups working on the series . The popularity , and widespread availability of the series in this form meant that several potential licensors of the series such as ADV Films had concerns over licensing the series . The series was later licensed in North America by Bandai Entertainment , who released six DVDs between February 19 and November 19 , 2002 . In July 2007 , Funimation Entertainment announced they had acquired the license to the series after Bandai 's license had expired . A new boxset of the television series across 4 discs was released by Funimation on February 24 , 2009 . It was then re @-@ released as part of Funimation 's Viridian Collection on July 27 , 2010 . In the United Kingdom , the series is licensed by MVM Films , who released the series on six DVDs between September 6 , 2004 and March 7 , 2005 , and as a boxset on May 14 , 2007 . In Australia and New Zealand the series is licensed by Madman Entertainment , who also released the series across six DVDs between September 18 , 2002 , and February 11 , 2003 . A box set was later released on December 3 , 2003 .
After the television series was completed , a Christmas special , Love Hina Xmas Eve : Silent Night , was produced and shown on December 25 , 2000 on TV Tokyo . A DVD was released in Japan on July 4 , 2001 . It was then released in North America on December 3 , 2002 and in the United Kingdom on November 7 , 2005 . The Spring Special Love Hina Spring Special : I Wish Your Dream was also shown on TV Tokyo on April 2 , 2001 . The DVD was released in Japan on August 1 , 2001 , in North American on March 18 , 2003 and in the United Kingdom on May 16 , 2005 . Finally , an OVA series called Love Hina Again was released on DVD in Japan in 3 parts between January 26 , 2002 and March 27 , 2002 . A CD single featuring the opening theme " Kirari Takaramono " and the ending theme " Be for Me , Be for You " was released on February 28 , 2002 . A solo version was used for the first episode , and a duet with Yūji Ueda was used for the third episode . The North American and United Kingdom releases of Love Hina Again grouped the 3 parts together on one disc and were released on September 2 , 2003 and January 7 , 2008 respectively .
After the end of the television series , Love Hina Final Selection was released , containing a summary of the series and " Love Live Hina " , a live concert featuring all of the main cast members .
The anime was later used as the source for a film comic , Love Hina Anime Comics , which told the anime story in comic form using stills from the show as the comic panels . The anime Comics series follows the story of the television series , unaired 25th episode , and the Xmas and Spring specials and each volume contains 3 exclusive trading cards . The film comics also contain anime production info .
= = = Light novels = = =
Two novels have been written by the anime screenwriters and illustrated by Ken Akamatsu as side stories of the main series . Love Hina : Mystery Guests at Hinata Hotel was written by Shō Aikawa under the pen name " Kurō Hazuki " , was published in Japan by Kodansha on May 17 , 2001 . It was later rereleased in a bilingual edition ( English and Japanese ) in December 2001 . The second novel , Love Hina : Secrets at Hinata Hotel was written by Hiroyuki Kawasaki and released in Japan on February 15 , 2002 , with a bilingual edition released the same month . Tokyopop licensed both novels for an English @
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-@ language distribution in North America , releasing the first novel under the title Love Hina : The Novel , Volume 1 on April 11 , 2006 , and the second novel under the title Love Hina : The Novel , Volume 2 on August 8 , 2006 .
= = = Reference books = = =
Two reference books for the manga series have been released for fans of the series . Love Hina 0 was released on July 17 , 2002 and contains character profiles , interviews and production info as well as other supporting materials for the first seven volumes of the manga . Love Hina Mugendai ( ラブひな ∞ ) was released on July 17 , 2002 and contains character profiles , a timeline , artwork , interviews and production info . A large section is dedicated to early production sketches and handwritten development notes .
Two reference books have also been released for the anime series . Ani @-@ Hina Ver.1 was released on August 4 , 2000 and Ani @-@ Hina Ver.2 was released on November 9 , 2000 . Each book contains character profiles , episode summaries , production sketches and details as well as interviews and information on the voice actors ; each covers half of the anime series .
= = = Video games = = =
The series has seen several video games released across several platforms . The Game Boy Color received Love Hina Pocket on August 4 , 2000 , and Love Hina Party on January 26 , 2001 . The Game Boy Advance received Love Hina Advance on September 7 , 2001 . The Sega Dreamcast received Love Hina : Totsuzen no Engeji Happening on September 28 , 2000 and Love Hina : Smile Again on March 29 , 2001 . The Sony PlayStation received Love Hina 1 : Ai wa Kotoba no Naka ni on September 28 , 2000 and Love Hina 2 : Kotoba wa Konayuki no Yō ni on November 30 , 2000 . The Sony PlayStation 2 received Love Hina : Gojasu Chiratto Happening on May 22 , 2003 .
= = = Soundtracks = = =
Prior to the start of the anime , several image songs were recorded by the anime cast members . Several maxi singles were released featuring some of these image songs as well as drama tracks , also performed by the anime cast . " I Love Hina " was released on April 26 , 2
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000 and followed by Love Hina 1 on June 26 , 2000 , Love Hina 2 on July 26 , 2000 and Love Hina 3 on August 23 , 2000 . Love Hina 1 came with a box to hold the other singles .
There have been several Love Hina soundtracks released . Love Hina Original Sound File was released on September 21 , 2000 and contains all of the background music for the series as well as many vocal songs . Love Hina — Winter Special Soundtrack was released on January 24 , 2001 and was followed by Love Hina — Spring Special Soundtrack on June 6 , 2001 . Love Hina Again Soundtrack was released on April 3 , 2002 . Two collections of vocal songs featuring the female cast members were released : Love Hina – Hinata Girls Song Best was released on March 16 , 2001 and Love Hina – Hinata Girls Song Best 2 was released on October 3 , 2001 . Many of the songs featured on these two albums were written by Ritsuko Okazaki , who released the self cover album Love Hina Okazaki Collection on December 16 , 2001 . Two live concerts called Love Live Hina were performed by the Japanese cast members . The Tokyo Bay performance was bundled on DVD with Love Hina Final Selection , and the Osaka Performance was available separately .
= = Reception = =
Love Hina won the Kodansha Manga Award for best shōnen title in 2001 . It was selected as the " Best Manga , USA Release " at both the 2002 and 2004 Anime Expo conventions . In 2003 , the title was among the top ten graphic novels on Nielsen BookScan 's list and one of the first graphic novels to ever appear in the general trade paperback list . The pop culture website ICv2 voted Love Hina " Anime Product of the Year " in 2002 .
The series was well received by critics . Tony Chen , of Anime News Network ( ANN ) , found it to be a funny series , though finding the 16 + rating appropriate due to the number of jokes involving sexual innuendo . He praised the beautiful artwork , feeling the " sexy and cute " female designs were perfect for the series and that Keitarō 's design fit his dorky personality . Chen found Naru 's regularly catching Keitarō making a mistake and calling him a pervert redundant and annoying . Eric Luce of Ex.org notes an increased character development over other love comedies , and describes the series as " nothing if not whimsical " .
The release of the second and third DVD 's in Japan was only the second time that an anime series had consecutive number 1
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chart positions . This would not occur again until over 15 years later with Mr. Osomatsu .
ANN 's Bamboo Dong praised the anime adaptation for being very intriguing and mixing " drama , romance , and slapstick comedy in a pleasing combination " . She found the music " incredibly cute " and felt it was used in a way which contributed to many of the dramatic effects in the anime . In The Anime Encyclopedia : A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917 , Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy felt the female characters were a " standard rack of female anime archetypes " and that the series as a whole was a " culmination of a decade of geek @-@ centered anime " . Kenneth Lee , writing for Ex.org , praised the look and quality of the animation , highlighting the benefits of the digital creation of the adaption over traditional cel animation . Lee recognised elements from other series such as Maison Ikkoku and Kimagure Orange Road , and summarised the series as " simply wonderful " . Chris Beveridge , of AnimeOnDVD.com , noted the first anime DVD volume was " really well put together " , but also felt the manga did not translate into an anime series particularly well . He praised the Christmas special , noting that it was " several notches above the TV series " but found that while the Spring Special had amusing moments , it was rushed with bad plotting .
The Love Hina Again OVA received more mixed reviews , with ANN 's Zac Berthschy feeling it reversed part of the plot of the main anime series and never reached the same entertainment level as the television series . The character of Kanako , Keitarō 's sister , was heavily criticized for being " one of the most annoying characters ever created even though she would have been better for Keitaro than Naru . " Beveridge praised the fun and comedy as well as the fan service , but also noted that one 's enjoyment would depend on whether they still cared for the characters .
= Larrys Creek =
Larrys Creek is a 22 @.@ 9 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 36 @.@ 9 km ) tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River in Lycoming County in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . A part of the Chesapeake Bay drainage basin , its watershed drains 89 @.@ 1 square miles ( 231 km2 ) in six townships and a borough . The creek flows south from the dissected Allegheny Plateau to the Ridge @-@ and @-@ valley Appalachians through sandstone , limestone , and shale from the Devonian , Mississippian , and Pennsylvanian periods .
The valley 's first recorded inhabitants were the Susquehannocks , followed by the Lenape and other tribes . The Great Shamokin Path crossed the creek near its mouth , where Larry Burt , the first Euro @-@ American settler and the man who gave the creek its present name , also lived by 1769 . In the 19th century , the creek and its watershed were a center for logging and related industries , including 53 sawmills , grist mills , leather tanneries , coal and iron mines . A 1903 newspaper article claimed " No other stream in the country had so many mills in so small a territory " . For transportation , a plank road ran along much of the creek for decades , and two " paper railroads " were planned , but never built .
As of 2006 , the Larrys Creek watershed is 83 @.@ 1 % forest and 15 @.@ 7 % agricultural ( a reforestation of land clear @-@ cut in the 19th century ) . Nearly 9 @,@ 000 acres ( 3 @,@ 600 ha ) of second @-@ growth forest are protected public and private land for hunting and trout fishing , with more land protected in parts of Tiadaghton State Forest . Pollution from past industrial use is gone and Larrys Creek " has an exceptionally scenic , ultra @-@ highwater , whitewater run " for canoeing . Despite agricultural runoff and small amounts of acid mine drainage , water quality is quite good , and a water filtration plant on Larrys Creek supplies over 2500 customers .
= = Name = =
Larrys Creek is named for Larry Burt , the first European settler in the area , who lived near the mouth of the creek outside what is now the hamlet of Larrys Creek in Piatt Township . He traded with the indigenous peoples , and , according to a tradition reported by Meginness ( 1892 ) , he had a Native American wife . Larry Burt was already there when surveyors came through in 1769 ( after the land was purchased by the colonial government of Pennsylvania on November 5 , 1768 as part of the " New Purchase " in the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix ) , but disappeared sometime soon after , perhaps moving west with the Native Americans who left the area .
Larrys Creek is the only major creek in Lycoming County for which a Native American name is unknown . As of 2006 , it is the only stream named " Larrys Creek " on USGS maps of the United States and in the USGS Geographic Names Information System . The possessive apostrophe is not part of the official name of the creek , although records from the 19th century often spell it as " Larry 's Creek " ( as do some highway bridge signs today ) .
Today the creek has given its name to the hamlet at its mouth , as well as the village of " Larryville " further upstream . Before it became a borough , Salladasburg was also known as " Larrys Creek " ( from the name of its post office ) . The " First Fork " and " Second Fork " of Larrys Creek are named in the order in which they are encountered traveling upstream , with " Fork " here denoting a major tributary . " Lawshe Run " , the major tributary of the Second Fork , is named for Robert Lawshe , who established a tannery in Salladasburg in 1848 . " Seeley Run " , a minor tributary entering the creek at Larryville , is named for Mr. Seely , who built the first sawmill on Larrys Creek in 1796 . While the USGS uses " Seeley Run " , it is still " Seely Run Road " that follows the stream . The First Fork , Canoe Run , Joes Run , and Wolf Run also have roads named for them .
= = Course = =
Larrys Creek is the only major watershed in Lycoming County entirely within the county . Measured directly , Lycoming County is about 130 miles ( 210 km ) northwest of Philadelphia and 165 miles (
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266 km ) east @-@ northeast of Pittsburgh . It is 53 @.@ 0 miles ( 85 @.@ 3 km ) from the mouth of Larrys Creek along the West Branch Susquehanna River to its confluence with the Susquehanna River at Northumberland , Pennsylvania . The source of Larrys Creek is in northern Lycoming County in Cogan House Township , just south of the hamlet of Steam Valley , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 740 feet ( 530 m ) It flows west @-@ southwest through the village of Cogan House , and then under the Cogan House Covered Bridge .
The creek next heads due south through Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 114 . There it runs for about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) with only a trail or unimproved road beside it . It passes through Mifflin Township for a short distance and heads southeast into Anthony Township , where it leaves the State Game Lands and passes a water filtration plant ; there is a dam 8 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) tall and 52 @.@ 5 feet ( 16 @.@ 0 m ) wide here . Further south , it receives Roaring Run ( on the left bank ) . Roaring Run receives the only acid mine drainage in the watershed and enters Larrys Creek 10 @.@ 4 miles ( 16 @.@ 7 km ) from the mouth .
Larrys Creek then heads southwest back into Mifflin Township , where it passes through the borough of Salladasburg , with Pennsylvania Route 973 running parallel to the creek from the township line to the borough . At Salladasburg , Larrys Creek receives its major tributary , the Second Fork of Larrys Creek , on the right bank 5 @.@ 8 miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) from the mouth .
The Second Fork rises in Cogan House Township near the village of White Pine and runs south through the village of Brookside , then a few miles through Cummings Township , and last through Mifflin Township and Salladasburg . Lawshe Run is its major tributary . Pennsylvania Route 287 runs parallel to the Second Fork its whole length , and continues parallel to Larrys Creek from Salladasburg south to its terminus on U.S. Route 220 ( near the creek 's mouth ) .
Just south of Salladasburg , Larrys Creek receives the First Fork of Larrys Creek , 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) from the mouth . The First Fork has its source in Cummings Township and flows south @-@ southeast into Mifflin Township . 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) from its mouth Larrys Creek receives Canoe Run . Both these tributaries enter on the right bank .
Larrys Creek then enters Piatt Township , flowing east around a ridge and through the village of Larryville where it receives Seeley Run on the left bank , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the mouth . It next flows back southwest , then south to the hamlet of Larrys Creek and finally into the West Branch Susquehanna River , 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) east of the borough of Jersey Shore , at an elevation of 515 feet ( 157 m ) . U.S. Route 220 and the Lycoming Valley Railroad cross the creek on separate bridges just north of its mouth . The direct distance between the source and mouth is only 16 @.@ 9 miles ( 27 @.@ 2 km ) . The difference in elevation between source and mouth , 1 @,@ 225 feet ( 373 m ) , divided by the length of the creek , 22 @.@ 9 miles ( 36 @.@ 9 km ) , gives the average drop in elevation per unit length of creek or relief ratio of 53 @.@ 5 feet per mile ( 10 @.@ 1 m / km ) . The meander ratio is 1 @.@ 08 , so the creek is fairly straight in its bed .
= = = Discharge = = =
From 1960 to 1979 , the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) operated one stream gauge on Larrys Creek at the village of Cogan House , for the uppermost 6 @.@ 8 square miles ( 18 km2 ) of the watershed . The mean discharge measured at this site from 1961 to 1978 was 10 @.@ 8 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 306 m ³ / s ) , with a peak discharge of 1 @,@ 130 cubic feet per second ( 32 @.@ 0 m ³ / s ) and peak gauge height of 5 @.@ 29 feet ( 1 @.@ 61 m ) , both on June 22 , 1972 during Hurricane Agnes . The USGS also estimated mean monthly and annual groundwater recharge at the Cogan House stream gauge . Using data from 1961 to 1977 , the upper and lower annual recharge estimates were 18 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 5 inches ( 46 to 37 cm ) , and the greatest monthly recharge was in March , with 20 @.@ 1 % of the annual total .
The USGS also measured discharge at the village of Larrys Creek , very near the creek 's mouth , as part of water quality measurements on seven occasions between 1970 and 1975 . The average discharge was 66 @.@ 0 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 87 m3 / s ) , and ranged from a high of 114 cubic feet per second ( 3 @.@ 23 m3 / s ) to a low of 8 @.@ 8 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 25 m3 / s ) . Lycoming County operates a stream gauge at Salladasburg as part of the county @-@ wide flood warning system . It only measures the water height ( not discharge ) and had a peak gauge height of 8 @.@ 0 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , on September 18 , 2004 during Hurricane Ivan .
= = Geology = =
Larrys Creek is in a sandstone , limestone , and shale mountain region , with the source in the dissected Allegheny Plateau and the mouth in the Ridge @-@ and @-@ valley Appalachians . The southern part of the Larrys Creek watershed has sedimentary surface rocks from the Devonian period , with a large area from the Mississippian period in the north of the watershed and a small Pennsylvanian period region within this area . The Cogan House anticline runs north of and parallel to the upper part of the creek . Iron ore within the watershed was mined south of Salladasburg and along Canoe Run in the 19th century ; there are also deposits on Puterbaugh Mountain .
Larrys Creek is in a narrow valley formed by mountains and hills , with steep to moderate slopes . The channel pattern is regular , with a dendritic drainage pattern . South of its source , the creek turns to flow southwest along the northern edge of Green Mountain , turns south into the State Game Lands at Buckhorn Mountain , and flows south along the western edge of Coal Mountain . The only named peak on the west bank of Larrys Creek itself is Harris Point , where it leaves the dissected Allegheny Plateau .
The Second Fork flows south along the eastern side of Henson Ridge , then east of Puterbaugh Mountain . The only named peak on the east bank of the Second Fork is Clapp Point , which marks the boundary of the dissected plateau and is southwest of Harris Point . The First Fork flows past the southwest edge of Little Round Top and then continues on the southwest side of Puterbaugh Mountain . Fishery Point is at the southern end of the Allegheny Plateau
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, just west of the First Fork . The three features named Point are each part of the Allegheny Front , the edge of the Allegheny Plateau .
The Larrys Creek watershed has two deposits of low volatile bituminous coal along Roaring Run and a small , deep natural gas field . A potentially large source of natural gas is the Marcellus Shale , which lies 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 0 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 2 km ) below the surface here and stretches from New York through Pennsylvania to Ohio and West Virginia . Estimates of the total natural gas in the black shale from the Devonian era range from 168 to 516 trillion cubic feet ( 4 @.@ 76 to 14 @.@ 6 trillion m3 ) , with at least 10 percent considered recoverable . In November 2007 , drilling within the Larrys Creek watershed started in Mifflin Township , just west of Salladasburg , with a 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) deep well . A second well was drilled in Mifflin Township in December 2007 , and by February 2008 every well drilled in Lycoming County was producing natural gas . The Marcellus Shale requires special techniques to fracture the rock and release the gas , including pumping sand and water into the well , and , in some cases , horizontal drilling .
= = Watershed = =
The Larrys Creek watershed is entirely in Lycoming County and accounts for 7 @.@ 17 % of the county by area . It is the only major creek whose watershed is entirely in the county , and lies between the Pine Creek watershed ( including Little Pine Creek ) 5 @.@ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) to the west and the Lycoming Creek watershed 11 @.@ 9 miles ( 19 @.@ 2 km ) to the east ( as measured on the river ) .
The Larrys Creek watershed has a total population of 2 @,@ 513 ( as of 2000 ) and a total area of 89 @.@ 1 square miles ( 231 km2 ) . Of that area , 74 square miles ( 190 km2 ) are forested and 14 square miles ( 36 km2 ) are given to agricultural uses . Larrys Creek is the largest creek in Lycoming County without its own watershed association .
= = = Tributaries = = =
The major smaller streams in the Larrys Creek watershed include the First and Second Forks , Roaring Run , Lawshe Run , and Canoe Run . The Second Fork is the largest tributary , with a watershed of 24 @.@ 9 square miles ( 64 km2 ) or 28 @.@ 0 % of the total watershed . The First Fork is next largest , with a watershed of 17 @.@ 6 square miles ( 46 km2 ) or 19 @.@ 8 % of the total . Roaring Run accounts for 5 @.@ 7 % of the total watershed with 5 @.@ 1 square miles ( 13 km2 ) and other tributaries are less than 5 % of the total .
Starting at the mouth , the tributaries of Larrys Creek are : Seeley Run , Canoe Run , First Fork Larrys Creek , Second Fork Larrys Creek , Mash Run , " Pond Hollow " , " Spook Hollow " , Roaring Run , " Cramer Hollow " , " Pot Lick Hollow " , " Match Pine Hollow " , " Watt Hollow " , Long Run , Wendell Run , Crayton Hollow Run , Wolf Run , Dibber Hollow Run , and Birch Run ( unnamed streams in a named feature are given as the name of the feature in quotation marks ) .
= = = Water quality , pollution , and filtration plant = = =
The clear @-
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@ cutting of forests in the 19th century adversely affected the ecology of the Larrys Creek watershed and its water quality . Polluting industries on the creek and its tributaries during that period included coal and iron mines and tanneries . As of 2006 , water quality in Larrys Creek is quite good , although two small unnamed tributaries of Roaring Run do receive acid mine drainage from an abandoned coal mine . Agricultural runoff is another source of pollution . Effluent limits for Larrys Creek in Mifflin Township for the 5 @-@ day test for carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand ( CBOD5 ) are 25 mg / L , while fecal coliform bacteria count limits are 200 per 100 mL in May through September , and 2000 per 100 mL in October through April .
The mean annual precipitation for Larrys Creek is 40 to 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 100 mm ) . According to the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission : " Pennsylvania receives the most acid deposition of any state in the nation because , in addition to being the third highest producer of the gases that cause acid deposition , we are also located downwind from the highest concentration of air pollution emitters . " The region 's geology gives it a relatively low capacity to neutralize added acid . This makes the creek especially vulnerable to increased acidification from rain , which poses a threat to the long term health of the plants and animals in the creek .
The Jersey Shore Area Joint Water Authority ’ s water filtration plant is on Larrys Creek , near the border between Mifflin and Anthony Townships . The plant has been there since at least 1914 and provides water from the creek to 2 @,@ 500 industrial and residential customers in the boroughs of Jersey Shore and Salladasburg , as well as Anthony , Mifflin , Nippenose , Piatt , and Porter Townships in southwestern Lycoming County , and Pine Creek Township in the southeastern part of neighboring Clinton County , Pennsylvania .
= = = Recreation = = =
There are at least two camps along Larrys Creek . " Camp Kiwanis " has a main lodge , four cabins , picnic pavilion , and various recreational facilities on 50 acres ( 20 ha ) on Route 287 , 1 @.@ 0 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Salladasburg in Mifflin Township . It is operated as a service by the Williamsport Kiwanis and rented out for fire department training , Girl Scouts , weddings , church , and other groups . Further south along the creek in Piatt Township is the New Tribes Mission camp for preparing Christian missionaries for field work with indigenous peoples in remote parts of the world . The training at the camp lasts one year .
Edward Gertler writes in Keystone Canoeing that Larrys Creek " has an exceptionally scenic , ultra @-@ highwater , whitewater run that is really worthy of your attention " . Canoeing and kayaking on Larrys Creek are possible when the water is high enough ( in Spring and after hard rain ) , with 8 @.@ 0 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) of Class 3 whitewater on the International Scale of River Difficulty from Township Road 786 south through the State Game Lands to Route 973 , and 7 @.@ 4 miles ( 11 @.@ 9 km ) of Class 1 to 2 whitewater south from PA 973 to U.S. 220 .
In addition to the 2 @,@ 881 acres ( 1 @,@ 166 ha ) in State Game Lands No. 114 , opportunities for hunting and fishing are available in the areas of Tiadaghton State Forest in the western part of the watershed , along the First and Second Forks . In 2002 , a Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) report on " State Forest Waters with Special Protection " rated the First Fork as a " High Quality @-@ Cold Water Fishery " . A stretch of Larrys Creek from the water company filtration plant ( near the border between Mifflin and Anthony Townships ) to 1 @.@ 0 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream of the confluence with the First Fork has been designated as approved trout waters by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission . This means the waters will be stocked with trout and may be fished during trout season .
There are also private hunting and fishing clubs and cabins along Larrys Creek and its tributaries . The largest is the " Larrys Creek Fish and Game Club " , incorporated August 1 , 1906 , which owns over 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 ha ) along Route 287 on the Second Fork . As of 2006 , the club has 55 active and 15 honorary members ( all male ) . The club promotes conservation and stocks its 7 miles ( 11 km ) of trout stream with three to four thousand brook and brown trout each year . The club 's facilities include a trapshooting range and a helipad , to aid in medical evacuations from its remote location .
Another large private club is the Ogontz Lodge on the First Fork , established by banker Jay Cooke about 1884 for fishing and hunting . Cooke owned nearly the whole First Fork , 9 @.@ 2 miles ( 14 @.@ 8 km ) long , with the main " Lodge " 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) from the mouth , and a smaller " Upper Cabin " 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) upstream of that . Herbert Hoover found solitude at the Ogontz Lodge as a guest of Jay Cooke III three times : in June , 1918 ( just before leaving for Europe as head of the American Food Administration ) , mid @-@ May , 1928 ( just before his selection as the Republican presidential candidate ) , and finally in late May , 1930 ( as President of the United States ) . Other notable guests at the Ogontz Lodge include Theodore Roosevelt , Jr. and Katharine Hepburn , and it is still in operation as of 2007 .
= = History = =
= = = Early inhabitants = = =
Two Clovis points found in the Salladasburg area in a " stream site " are the earliest evidence of human activity along Larrys Creek ( circa 10 @,@ 000 BCE ) . The earliest recorded inhabitants of the Susquehanna River valley were the Iroquoian speaking Susquehannocks . Their name meant " people of the muddy river " in Algonquian . Decimated by diseases and warfare , they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes by the early 18th century . The lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River Valley were then chiefly occupied by the Munsee phratry of the Lenape ( or Delaware ) , and were under the nominal control of the Five ( later Six ) Nations of the Iroquois . The Great Shamokin Path crossed the creek at a ford near its mouth ; however , no trails of the indigenous peoples are recorded as having followed Larrys Creek north .
On November 5 , 1768 , the British acquired the " New Purchase " from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix , opening what is now Lycoming County to settlement . However , the Line of Property ( or Purchase Line ) border defined by " Tiadaghton Creek " dividing colonial and Native American lands was disputed . The colonists claimed this was Pine Creek , the Iroquois and other tribes that it was Lycoming Creek . Larrys Creek was in the disputed territory between these , so the illegal settlers there were part of the " Fair Play Men " system of self @-@ government , with their own Declaration of Independence from Britain on July 4 , 1776 .
In the Revolutionary War , settlements throughout the Susquehanna valley were attacked by Loyalists and Native Americans allied with the British . After the Wyoming Valley battle and massacre in the summer of 1778 ( near what is now Wilkes @-@ Barre ) and smaller local attacks , the " Big Runaway " occurred throughout the West Branch Susquehanna valley . Settlers fled feared and actual attacks by the British and their allies . Homes and fields were abandoned , with livestock driven along and a few possessions floated on rafts on the river east to Muncy , then further south to Sunbury . The abandoned property was burnt by the attackers . Some settlers soon returned , only to flee again in the summer of 1779 in the " Little Runaway " . Sullivan 's Expedition helped stabilize the area and encouraged resettlement , which continued after the war .
On April 13 , 1795 , Lycoming County was formed from Northumberland County , prompting further growth . In 1
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800 , the " State Road " was the second major road built in the county and followed part of Larrys Creek in Cogan House Township as it ran from Newberry ( the western part of Williamsport today ) north to the Pennsylvania @-@ New York state line near Painted Post , New York . Larrys Creek had a bridge near the mouth by 1806 , the first of the major creeks in the county for which a bridge is mentioned .
= = = Lumber = = =
Like all creeks in Lycoming County , Larrys Creek served as an area for settlers to establish homesteads and farms . As logging became a major industry in the mid @-@ 19th century , the creek was a source of power for sawmills and other mills . The first sawmill on the creek , in what is now Mifflin Township , was built in 1799 . The relatively low flow of water in the creek did not allow rafts of logs to be floated downstream to the river and the lumber boom at Williamsport ( as they were on Pine Creek to the west ) .
This and the lack of logging railroads along the creek led to the development of many small sawmills : the Larrys Creek watershed once had 53 sawmills within 22 miles ( 35 km ) of the mouth ( as well as other industries of the time ) . No other stream in the country had so many sawmills in so small a territory . Twelve sawmills were on the Second Fork , six on the First Fork , one each on Canoe Run and Lawshe Run , and the rest were on Larrys Creek itself . Eight were structures rebuilt on the site of previous sawmills , and only four were steam powered ( the rest were water powered ) . The earliest of these sawmills was built in 1796 ( near Seeley Run ) , the last in 1902 ( on Lawshe Run ) , and by 1903 just two mills were still standing and only one of those was operating .
Lumbering removed the tree trunks , but left many flammable limbs , branches , and stumps behind . On May 2 , 1872 , a large forest fire destroyed the villages of Carter and Gould , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Salladasburg on Larrys Creek in Mifflin Township . There are large tracts of second growth forest and small lumber companies still operate in the watershed today .
= = = Paper railroads = = =
Two " paper railroads " were proposed for Larrys Creek : the " Larry 's Creek Railroad and Coal Company " , incorporated June 24 , 1839 to hold 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 km2 ) and operate up to 7 miles ( 11 km ) of railroad from the mouth of the creek north to the coal mines ; and the " Jersey Shore , Pine Creek & State Line Railroad " , incorporated on April 11 , 1853 to run north from Jersey Shore up Pine Creek to Tioga or Long Run , and thence to the New York state line . Its charter was amended April 4 , 1854 to run up Marsh Creek ( then known as the Third Fork Pine Creek ) and Crooked Creek to the Tioga Railroad , and again on March 26 , 1856 to run up Little Pine Creek ( then known as First Fork Pine Creek ) to the Larrys Creek Plank Road and then up Blockhouse Creek to Blossburg . It was still an active corporation in 1865 , but the charter of the " Jersey Shore , Pine Creek and Buffalo Railway " in 1870 ( New York City @-@ Reading interests ) superseded it . Neither railroad was actually ever built . The only railroad in the watershed crosses the creek just north of the mouth .
= = = Plank road = = =
In 1851 a plank road or puncheon was built along Larrys Creek from the village of Larrys Creek at the creek 's mouth north to Salladasburg , then later along the Second Fork and on to the village of Brookside in Cogan House Township . It was later extended north to the village of White Pine and finally to the village of English Center in Pine Township ( along the current course of Pennsylvania Route 287 ) . A spur of the plank road along Larrys Creek into Anthony Township was also built , but it is not known how far it extended . ( Landis claims it may have run nearly as far north as the covered bridge in Cogan House Township ) . The plank road was a toll road run by " The Larrys Creek Plank Road Company " , a corporation founded May 8 , 1850 . It served the sawmills , grist mills , mines , and leather tanneries along the creek . There was a connection to the railroad and the West Branch Division of the Pennsylvania Canal at the hamlet of Larrys Creek , as well as the West Branch Susquehanna River .
Hemlock logs were used to build the plank road . At that time , the tree 's bark was a major source of tannin used to tan leather . The wood was not used much for lumber , so hundreds of thousands of stripped hemlock logs were normally left to rot . There were sawmills and experienced lumber workers available from the local timber industry .
The earth under the plank road was first graded , then ties ( similar to those used for railroad tracks ) were set into the ground . Next long narrow stringers ( similar to rails on a railroad track ) were nailed to the ties , with a distance between stringers of about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . The road surface consisted of planks about 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) wide nailed to the stringers and was fairly smooth . The road had turnoffs ( as it was not wide enough for horse @-@ drawn vehicles to pass each other ) . Toll houses were at regular intervals , with variable tolls for pedestrians , riders on horseback and various carts and wagons . No toll schedule has survived .
The plank road was operational for about 38 years when a major flood on June 1 , 1889 washed out much of it . The flood also destroyed the canal at the creek 's mouth . The same storm system caused the Johnstown Flood , which killed over 2200 people . The Cogan House Covered Bridge was the only one on Larrys Creek to survive the flood , as a fallen tree formed a protective dam just upstream . The 90 foot ( 27 m ) long Burr arch truss bridge was built in 1877 , listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 , rehabilitated in 1998 , and is today one of just three left in the county .
By then most of the original forests in the county had been clear @-@ cut , so no cheap source of wood was available as before . While the road from Salladasburg south to the West Branch Susquehanna River was repaired and rebuilt , the rest was not . In 1900 the county courts recognized a petition to end tolls on this last portion of the road . The corporation was dissolved and the road and its maintenance passed to the county . As sections of plank road wore out they were replaced by graded dirt and gravel , so that it soon became a regular road . The plank road operated as a toll road for about 49 years . Today only the " Plank Road " name survives , in a 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) section of road that runs north from
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U.S. Route 220 , parallel to Route 287 .
= European Nucleotide Archive =
The European Nucleotide Archive ( ENA ) is a repository providing free and unrestricted access to annotated DNA and RNA sequences . It also stores complementary information such as experimental procedures , details of sequence assembly and other metadata related to sequencing projects . The archive is composed of three main databases : the Sequence Read Archive , the Trace Archive and the EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Database ( also known as EMBL @-@ bank ) . The ENA is produced and maintained by the European Bioinformatics Institute and is a member of the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration ( INSDC ) along with the DNA Data Bank of Japan and GenBank .
The ENA has grown out of the EMBL Data Library which was released in 1982 as the first internationally supported resource for nucleotide sequence data . As of early 2012 , the ENA and other INSDC member databases each contained complete genomes of 5 @,@ 682 organisms and sequence data for almost 700 @,@ 000 . Moreover , the volume of data is increasing exponentially with a doubling time of approximately 10 months .
= = History = =
The European Nucleotide Archive originated from separate databases , the earliest of which was the EMBL Data Library , established in October 1980 at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory ( EMBL ) , Heidelberg . The first release of this database was made in April 1982 and contained a total of 568 separate entries consisting of around 500 @,@ 000 base pairs . In 1984 , referring to the EMBL Data Library , Kneale and Kennard remarked that " it was clear some years ago that a large computerized database of sequences would be essential for research in Molecular Biology " .
Despite the primary distribution method at the time being via magnetic tape , by 1987 , the EMBL Data Library was being used by an estimated 10 @,@ 000 scientists internationally . The same year , the EMBL File Server was introduced to serve database records over BITNET , EARN and the early Internet . In May 1988 the journal Nucleic Acids Research introduced a policy stating that " manuscripts submitted to [ Nucleic Acids Research ] and containing or discussing sequence data must be accompanied by evidence that the data have been deposited with the EMBL Data Library . "
During the 1990s the EMBL Data Library was renamed the EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Database and was formally relocated to the European Bioinformatics Institute ( EBI ) from Heidelberg . In 2003 , the Nucleotide Sequence Database was extended with the addition of the Sequence Version Archive ( SVA ) , which maintains records of all current and previous entries in the database . A year later in June 2004 , limits on the maximum sequence length for each record ( then 350 kilobases ) were removed , allowing entire genome sequences to be stored as a single database entry .
Following the uptake of Sanger sequencing , the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute ( then known as The Sanger Centre ) had begun cataloguing sequence reads along with quality information in a database called The Trace Archive . The Trace Archive grew substantially with the commercialisation of high @-@ throughput parallel sequencing technologies by companies such as Roche and Illumina . In 2008 , the EBI combined the Trace Archive , EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Database ( now also known as EMBL @-@ Bank ) and a newly developed Sequence ( or Short ) Read Archive ( SRA ) to make up the ENA , aimed at providing a comprehensive nucleotide sequence archive . As a member of the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration , the ENA exchanges data submissions each day with both the DNA Data Bank of Japan and GenBank .
= = EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Database = =
The EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Database ( also known as EMBL @-@ Bank ) is the section of the ENA which contains high @-@ level genome assembly details , as well as assembled sequences and their functional annotation . EMBL @-@ Bank is contributed to by direct submission from genome consortia and smaller research groups as well as by the retrieval of sequence data associated with patent applications .
As of release 114 ( December 2012 ) , the EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Database contains approximately 5 × 1011 nucleotides with an uncompressed filesize of 1 @.@ 6 terabytes .
= = = Data classes = = =
The EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Database supports a variety of data derived from different sources including , but not limited to :
Expressed sequence tags with their associated sample data .
Nucleotide sequence being generated from whole genome sequencing projects at varying stages of assembly , including complete contigs and annotated , fully assembled sequence .
Data relating to transcriptomics , such as complementary DNA , with optional annotation .
Novel or extended annotations of existing coding sequences , for example new sequence versions with corrected start or stop codons .
= = = EMBL @-@ Bank format = = =
The EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Database uses a flat file plaintext format to represent and store data which is typically referred to as EMBL @-@ Bank format . EMBL @-@ Bank format uses a different syntax to the records in DDBJ and GenBank , though each format uses certain standardised nomenclature , such as taxonomies as defined by the NCBI Taxon database . Each line of an EMBL @-@ format file beings with a two @-@ letter code , such as AC to label the accession number and KW for a list of keywords relevant to the record ; each record ends with / / .
= = Sequence Read Archive = =
The ENA operates an instance of the Sequence Read Archive ( SRA ) , an archival repository of sequence reads and analyses which are intended for public release . Originally called the Short Read Archive , the name was changed in anticipation of future sequencing technologies being able to produce longer sequence reads . Currently , the archive accepts sequence reads generated by next @-@ generation sequencing platforms such as the Illumina Genome Analyzer and ABI SOLiD as well as some corresponding analyses and alignments . The SRA operates under the guidance of the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration ( INSDC ) and is the fastest @-@ growing repository in the ENA .
In 2010 the Sequence Read Archive made up approximately 95 % of the base pair data available through the ENA , encompassing over 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sequence reads made up of over 60 trillion ( 6 × 1013 ) base pairs . Almost half of this data was deposited in relation to the 1000 Genomes Project wherein the researchers published their sequence data to the SRA in real @-@ time . In total , as of September 2010 , 65 % of the Sequence Read Archive was human genomic sequence , with another 16 % relating to human metagenome sequence reads .
The preferred data format for files submitted to the SRA is the BAM format , which is capable of storing both aligned and unaligned reads . Internally the SRA relies on the NCBI SRA Toolkit , used at all three INSDC member databases , to provide flexible data compression , API access and conversion to other formats such as FASTQ .
= = Data access = =
The data contained in the ENA can be accessed manually or programmatically via REST URL through the ENA browser . Initially limited to the Sequence Read Archive , the ENA browser now also provides access to the Trace Archive and EMBL @-@ Bank , allowing file retrieval in a range of formats including XML , HTML , FASTA and FASTQ . Individual records can be accessed using their accession numbers and other text queries are enabled through the EB @-@ eye search engine . Additionally , sequence similarity @-@ based searches implemented using De Bruijn graphs offer another method of retrieving records from the ENA .
The ENA is accessible via the EBI SOAP and REST APIs ,
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which also offer access to other databases hosted at the EBI , such as Ensembl and InterPro .
= = Storage = =
The European Nucleotide Archive handles large volumes of data which pose a significant storage challenge . As of 2012 , the ENA 's storage requirements continue to grow exponentially , with a doubling time of approximately 10 months . To manage this increase , the ENA selectively discards less @-@ valuable sequencing platform data and implements advanced compression strategies . The CRAM reference @-@ based compression toolkit was developed to help reduce ENA storage requirements .
= = Funding = =
Currently the ENA is funded jointly by the European Molecular Biology Laboratory , the European Commission and the Wellcome Trust . The emerging ELIXIR framework , coordinated by EBI director Janet Thornton , aims to secure a sustainable European funding infrastructure to support the continued availability of life science databases such as the ENA .
= Daruvar Agreement =
The Daruvar Agreement ( Croatian , Serbian : Daruvarski sporazum ) was a document negotiated by Croatian and Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) local authorities in the United Nations Protected Area ( UNPA ) for the SAO Western Slavonia , also known as Sector West on 18 February 1993 , during the Croatian War of Independence . The agreement provided for the improvement of water and electrical power supply , the return of refugees to their homes and the opening of transport routes spanning Sector West and connecting Croatian Army @-@ controlled areas near towns of Nova Gradiška and Novska . It also provided a framework for the further improvement of living conditions of the population both in the Croatian- and RSK @-@ controlled portions of Sector West . The agreement was named after Daruvar , the site of its signing .
The Daruvar Agreement , mediated by the head of the United Nations ( UN ) Civil Affairs in Sector West Gerard Fischer , was negotiated in secrecy . When the central RSK authorities in Knin learned of the arrangement , the signatories on behalf of the RSK were sacked from their official posts and arrested . The agreement itself was labeled as treasonous by the central RSK authorities . Fischer and other UN officials , who were involved in mediation of the agreement , were criticised by the UN for being excessively assertive in the matter . Fischer soon left the area .
= = Background = =
In November , Croatia , Serbia and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) agreed upon the Vance plan , designed to halt combat operations in the
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Croatian War of Independence and allow the negotiation of a political settlement . Besides the ceasefire , the plan entailed protection of civilians in specific areas , designated as United Nations Protected Areas ( UNPAs ) , and UN peacekeepers in Croatia — United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) . The ceasefire came into effect on 3 January 1992 . Shortly after the Vance plan was accepted , the European Community announced its decision to grant diplomatic recognition to Croatia on 15 January 1992 , while the Serb- and JNA @-@ held areas within Croatia were organised as the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) .
Despite the Geneva Accord requiring an immediate withdrawal of JNA personnel and equipment from Croatia , the JNA stayed behind for seven to eight months . When its troops eventually pulled out , JNA left their equipment to the RSK . As a consequence of organisational problems and breaches of ceasefire , the UNPROFOR , did not start to deploy until 8 March . The UNPROFOR took two months to fully assemble in the UNPAs . The UNPROFOR was tasked with demilitarisation of the UNPAs , ceasefire maintenance , monitoring of local police and creating conditions for return of internally displaced persons and refugees . Those comprised more than 300 @,@ 000 Croats who were exiled from the RSK @-@ controlled territory , and 20 @,@ 000 Serbs who fled the areas of western Slavonia captured by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) in Operations Swath @-@ 10 , Papuk @-@ 91 and Hurricane @-@ 91 in late 1991 .
A part of western Slavonia , encompassing an area extending approximately 90 by 45 kilometres ( 56 by 28 miles ) , was designated as the UNPA of Western Slavonia or Sector West by the peace plan . Unlike other UNPAs , the RSK controlled only a part of the area — approximately a third of the UNPA located in the south — centred on the town of Okučani . The RSK @-@ held area included a section of the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway . The UNPROFOR deployed to Sector West thought the HV would attack the area to control the motorway . In response , the UNPROFOR developed Operation Backstop aimed at defending against the HV attack , assuming that its main axis would be aligned with the motorway .
= = Cooperation schemes = =
Division of Sector West into Croatian- and RSK @-@ controlled areas fragmented the market for locally grown agricultural produce , and produce processing plants were rendered inaccessible to most farmers . Furthermore , the RSK @-@ controlled area of Sector West suffered from severe shortage of fuel and electricity , while the Croatian @-@ held Pakrac was cut off from water supply systems fed by springs in the RSK @-@ held area to the south of the town . The situation led the head of the UN Civil Affairs in Sector West , Gerard Fischer , and Argentine General Carlos Maria Zabala , commanding officer of the UNPROFOR in Sector West , to propose a degree of cooperation between local authorities on both sides in the area .
Their efforts resulted in a scheme where grain crops grown in the RSK @-@ held part of Sector West were milled in the Croatian @-@ controlled areas , and the supply of potable water to Pakrac was exchanged for electricity supplied from Croatia to the southern portion of Sector West . Fischer also obtained approval for the limited return of refugees from local authorities . The scheme involved up to 2 @,@ 500 refugees who would be allowed to rebuild their homes , funded by the Austrian government . The funds , in the amount of 1 @.@ 3 million dollars , were obtained through Michael Platzer , Special Assistant to the Director @-@ General of the United Nations Office at Vienna .
= = = Formal agreement = = =
Fischer attempted to gain wider support for the cooperation schemes already in place and extend their scope in Sector West . Fischer also assured the local authorities of the RSK that such a move would prevent renewed fighting in the area . The result of Fischer 's efforts was the Daruvar Agreement . The agreement , signed in Daruvar on 18 February , encompassed the reconstruction of water and electrical power supply networks , the reopening of the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway section in Sector West for non @-@ commercial traffic , the facilitation of the Novska – Nova Gradiška railway , the repair of telecommunication lines , the establishment of a joint commission tasked with normalisation of living conditions in Sector West , the return of all refugees to their homes , the access to property owned by civilians across the ceasefire line , and further meetings with local authorities to discuss further cooperation .
On behalf of the RSK local authorities , the agreement was signed by Veljko Džakula , Dušan Ećimović , Milan Vlaisavljević , Mladen Kulić , Đorđe Lovrić and Milan Radaković . At the time , Džakula held the position of deputy prime minister , while Ećimović was a government minister in the RSK . Signatories on behalf of the Croatian local authorities were Zlatko Kos , Zdravko Sokić , Ivan Volf , Vladimir Delač and Želimir Malnar . Fischer signed the agreement as a witness . According to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia testimony given by Džakula at the trial of Milan Martić , Ivan Milas was present at the signing of the agreement as a representative of the Government of Croatia , accompanied by Joško Morić , Croatian Deputy Interior Minister . According to Džakula , no effort was made to conceal the signing of the agreement , even though the negotiations beforehand were kept secret .
= = Aftermath = =
The central RSK authorities in Knin learned of the agreement through a report filed by the 18th Corps of the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina on 26 February , eight days after it was signed . The main opposition to the agreement came from Milan Martić , the RSK Interior Minister . Leadership of the ruling Serb Democratic Party accused Džakula of handing the RSK territory to Croatia . The RSK leadership considered the Daruvar Agreement tantamount to admission of economic unfeasibility of the RSK and an act of treason . District council of the RSK @-@ controlled western Slavonia condemned the agreement because it was enacted only in the Croatian language , and failed to note the existence of the RSK or its administrative divisions .
Džakula and Ećimović were sacked from their government positions , and from the positions of regional authority in the RSK @-@ held western Slavonia . The other three RSK signatories were dismissed from their official posts as well . At local elections held in May 1993 to fill the vacated posts , Džakula was elected to serve as the Mayor of Pakrac municipality . On 21 September , Džakula and Ećimović were arrested , and taken to Knin prison and then to Glina while the investigation was in progress . On 3 December , they were released only to learn that the arrest of the two , and Kulić , was ordered days later . In order to evade the arrest , the three fled the RSK to Serbia . On 4 February 1994 , Džakula was abducted in Belgrade by the RSK agents and taken back to the RSK .
The RSK 's response to the agreement ended Fischer 's efforts . Moreover , Fischer , Zabala and Platzer were criticised by the UN , citing their excessive assertiveness in the matter . Fischer left Croatia , and Jordanian General Shabshough replaced Zabala in March . The Zagreb – Belgrade motorway was reopened in December 1994 through an agreement between the governments of the RSK and Croatia . However , a series of armed incidents in late April 1995 led to a Croatian military intervention and the capture of the portion of Sector West previously controlled by the RSK in Operation Flash in early May .
= Warwick Armstrong =
Warwick Windridge Armstrong ( 22 May 1879 –
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13 July 1947 ) was an Australian cricketer who played 50 Test matches between 1902 and 1921 . An all @-@ rounder , he captained Australia in ten Test matches between 1920 and 1921 , and was undefeated , winning eight Tests and drawing two . Armstrong was captain of the 1920 – 21 Australian team which defeated the touring English 5 – 0 : one of only three teams to win an Ashes series in a whitewash . In a Test career interrupted by the First World War , he scored 2 @,@ 863 runs at an average of 38 @.@ 68 , including six centuries , and took 87 wickets . He was inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 2000 .
Armstrong was a large man ( 6 foot 3 inches – 1 @.@ 9 m tall and 21 stones – 133 kg or 294 lb ) and was known as the " Big Ship " . He was not a stylish batsman but his strokeplay was effective , with a sound defence and temperament . He bowled leg spin with a gentle action and while not a big turner of the ball , he relied on accuracy to dismiss opponents . He made his Test debut in 1902 against England at the Melbourne Cricket Ground ( MCG ) and was selected to tour England later that year where he was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year . That was the first of four tours of England . He was involved in several altercations with cricket administrators and was one of the " Big Six " who boycotted the 1912 Triangular Tournament in England after a dispute with the Australian Board of Control for International Cricket .
A talented Australian rules footballer , Armstrong briefly represented South Melbourne in the Victorian Football League before playing Test cricket . He was employed as a pavilion clerk by the Melbourne Cricket Club for much of his cricket career , who allowed him time to play cricket . Following his retirement from Test and first @-@ class cricket after the successful 1921 tour of England , Armstrong took a position as an agent for a scotch whisky distributor and wrote on cricket for the Sydney Evening News .
= = Early life = =
Armstrong was born in the rural Victorian town of Kyneton in 1879 , the eldest son of John and his wife Amelia ( née Flynn ) . The marriage was across the sectarian divide , then strong in Australia : John was an Anglican ; Amelia was a Catholic . The Armstrong family moved to Melbourne in 1880 , settling in the inner suburb of Emerald Hill . An inheritance enabled the family to move to a larger house , " Arra Glen " in North Caulfield , Victoria in 1888 .
Armstrong attended Cumloden School , a respected sporting member of the Schools Association , a group of smaller private schools in Melbourne . By 1893 , he had found himself a spot in the school XI and came to the attention of the press , catching the eye of journalists Reginald Wilmot and Tom Horan . Armstrong joined the nearby Caulfield Cricket Club and played in a senior premiership with the club at the age of 15 .
The next year the St Kilda Cricket Club , one of the leading clubs in Melbourne 's pennant competition , gave the youthful Armstrong a trial . In the 1896 – 97 season , Armstrong fell out with St Kilda and returned to Caulfield . His last years of school were at University College .
Leaving school at 19 , Armstrong joined his father 's former club , South Melbourne , captained by Australian Test captain Harry Trott . Armstrong was an immediate success , scoring 101 runs against University and 173 against his former club , St Kilda . He was selected to represent Victoria against Tasmania in Hobart in January 1899 , as one of seven in the squad making their first @-@ class cricket débuts . Armstrong 's performance was promising , scoring six and 33 and taking four for 78 in 27 overs .
Armstrong began regular Sheffield Shield cricket in the 1899 – 1900 season . In his first match against New South Wales in January 1900 , he dismissed Syd Gregory with his second delivery and scored 45 runs in the second innings . In the Pennant season for South Melbourne , Armstrong scored 665 runs at an average of 95 ; this included 145 and six for nineteen against the Melbourne Cricket Club , the largest club in Melbourne whose team included many Test and first @-@ class cricketers .
= = Representative cricket = =
= = = Early career = = =
Following his feats against it in 1899 – 1900 , Armstrong was recruited for the next season by the Melbourne Cricket Club ( MCC ) . For the next twenty years , on and off the pitch , Armstrong 's fortunes were tied to the club , a leading cricketing light in Australia and a bastion of the city 's rich and powerful . He scored his maiden first @-@ class century , 118 , against South Australia , facing the very fast and physically dangerous bowling of Ernie Jones , and by the end of the 1900 – 01 season he was a permanent member of the Victorian team .
The England cricket team , organised and captained by Archie MacLaren , toured Australia to compete for the Ashes in the summer of 1901 – 02 . The English were considered a poor and undermanned team , but it surprised all by winning the first Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground by an innings and 124 runs . Before the second Test , Armstrong had an excellent all @-@ round performance against New South Wales , dismissing Test players Victor Trumper and Syd Gregory , and then scoring 137 in reply . When the team for the Melbourne Test was announced , Armstrong was selected , making his début with Reggie Duff from New South Wales .
Armstrong made a steady start to Test cricket . Batting at No. 9 on a sticky wicket , he made four not out in the first innings , in an Australian total of 116 . In reply , England could only score 61 . With the wicket still treacherous , Australia rearranged their batting order to save the better batsmen until conditions improved . The two debutants , Duff and Armstrong , were positioned at 10 and 11 , and shared a 120 @-@ run partnership for the last wicket , Duff scoring 104 and Armstrong 45 not out . Australia won the Test by 229 runs . Armstrong played in the remaining Tests in the series , narrowly heading the averages with 159 runs at an average of 53 , and Australia went on to win comfortably by four matches to one .
Armstrong was selected as part of the Australian cricket team to tour England in 1902 . He started the tour well , taking eight for 47 in the second innings against Nottinghamshire , his best bowling figures to that date . The first Test , at Edgbaston was rain @-@ affected and the Australians were lucky to come away with a draw , being dismissed for 36 in their first innings . The rest of the close @-@ fought series was followed with interest by the English public . The second Test at Lord 's was rained off , and Australia won the
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third at Bramall Lane by 143 runs . The final two Tests were nail @-@ biters — Australia winning the fourth at Old Trafford by only three runs and England earning a consolation victory in the fifth Test at the Oval by one wicket , when last @-@ wicket pair George Hirst and Wilfred Rhodes eked out the final runs . Armstrong had a good tour , making 1 @,@ 075 runs at 27 @.@ 56 and taking 72 wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 90 , but the star for the Australians was Victor Trumper , who made 2 @,@ 570 runs at an average of 48 @.@ 49 including eleven centuries .
On the return trip to Australia , the touring team stopped in South Africa to play three Tests , the first between the two nations . In the second Test at Johannesburg , Armstrong scored 159 , just over half the Australian score of 309 and carried his bat through the innings as Australia won the Test by 159 runs . Australia won the Test series two – nil . On return to Australia for the 1902 – 03 season , he made 580 runs at an average of 58 and 23 wickets at an average of just over 19 . The highlights of his season included 145 against Queensland and a hat @-@ trick against New South Wales .
Plum Warner 's English team toured Australia in 1903 – 04 , the first to do so under the auspices of the Marylebone Cricket Club . The strong English team defeated Australia three – two , retrieving the Ashes . Armstrong did not have a good series . He was tormented by Rhodes , who dismissed him eight times in ten meetings for Victoria and Australia that summer . As a result , he was dropped from the Australian XI after the Third Test .
Returning to club cricket , Armstrong found form , scoring 438 in only 455 minutes for Melbourne against University , from a total score of 699 for eight . In the 1904 – 05 season , Armstrong scored 460 runs at 57 @.@ 5 for Victoria to secure selection for the 1905 tour of England .
= = = Consolidation and conflict = = =
The 1905 Australians left for England , leaving behind the beginnings of a conflict between players and administrators over control of cricket that would poison the sport in Australia for the next ten years . While previous tours of England had been underwritten by the Melbourne Cricket Club and organised by the players , the new Australian Board of Control was asserting its right to control Australian cricket .
Armstrong , finding himself promoted to number five in the batting order , started the tour well with 112 against Nottinghamshire and 248 against Gentlemen of England at Lord 's . In the first Test at Trent Bridge , Australia 's lack of effective bowling options had Armstrong forced to bowl wide outside the leg stump in an early form of leg theory bowling to prevent the England batsmen from scoring quickly . Bumbling and taciturn , Armstrong maintained an accurate line and length , and put a strangle on both England 's run @-@ scoring and the crowd 's entertainment . It was a recurrent pattern for the rest
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of the series , and lead to what was seen by spectators and the press as dull cricket . Batsmen like the imperial Archie MacLaren would kick the ball away contemptuously , but lissome Johnny Tyldesley proved that runs could still made if a batsman employed more enterprise . Hopping away to leg to make room for himself , Tyldesley cut and drove the leg @-@ spinner to great effect in a strategy later used by Don Bradman against the bodyline menace .
Armstrong 's tactics were ultimately futile , a Stanley Jackson @-@ inspired England winning the series by two Tests to none . For the season , he scored 1 @,@ 902 runs at an average of fifty . Regarding his batting , Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack said , " The great batsman of the eleven was Armstrong . In form nearly all through the tour , he struck the happy medium , being brilliant without recklessness . " The highlight of his tour was a triple century ( 303 not out ) at the Recreation Ground in Bath against Somerset .
When the team returned to Australia , the rift between the players and the Board of Control widened . The dispute saw the English postpone their tour , scheduled for 1906 – 07 . In the midst of all this turmoil , Armstrong continued to impress : on tour with Melbourne Cricket Club in New Zealand , he was described by that country 's Herald newspaper as a " team almost in himself " . He made 868 runs at an average of 124 to complement his 83 wickets at under ten . He was elected captain of Victoria by his team @-@ mates for the match against New South Wales , commencing on New Year 's Eve , responding with six for 68 with the ball and then scoring 168 in the second innings as part of a sturdy rearguard effort .
Armstrong found employment with the Department of Home Affairs and , as a result , declared himself unavailable for the next match against South Australia . He was mortified when he found that he had been included in the team and that the Victorian Cricket Association ( VCA ) had approached his employer to ask for leave on his behalf , despite his having explicitly instructed the VCA secretary otherwise . Armstrong refused to play and was called to face a disciplinary hearing at Young & Jackson 's Hotel . Rightly indignant , he was left unpunished .
The scheduled tour postponed from the previous season kicked off with the arrival of an English team weakened by the withdrawals of a number of leading players . The first Test saw an Australian victory , Armstrong bowling 53 overs and taking four for 92 . More squabbling , this time over expenses , followed between Armstrong and the VCA , and the former withdrew from the Boxing Day match against New South Wales . Armstrong sought a ₤ 1 per diem , but the VCA held fast at ten shillings . It then mounted a campaign in the Melbourne press , attempting to portray Armstrong as avaricious and once again called him to front a disciplinary commission . Following threats of suspension , Armstrong was forced to apologise to the VCA . The fracas did not affect his form , however : the second Test , starting on New Years Day , saw Armstrong score 31 and 77 and take five wickets for 89 . Despite his efforts , England won a hard @-@ fought Test by one wicket .
Australia took the third Test in Adelaide , and a patient 133 in 289 minutes from Armstrong in the fourth saw Australia clinch the series and win back the Ashes . The margin was four – one , but both teams were criticised by reporters for slow scoring and negative cricket .
Once again , the selection and management of the Australian team to tour England in 1909 caused friction between leading players and the Board of Control . Clem Hill , unwilling to tour on the terms offered by the Board , withdrew his name from consideration . Regardless , the tour was a success , both for the Australians , who won the series two @-@ one , and for Armstrong , who made 1 @,@ 451 runs at an average of just under 44 and took 133 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 40 Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack described his role in the tour as " to keep the side together by means of his impregnable defence , and he did exactly what was required , only on rare occasions giving free play to his hitting power . When he likes to let himself loose there is no harder driver in the world " .
Armstrong , along with Monty Noble , Tibby Cotter and Bert Hopkins returned home via Sri Lanka ( then Ceylon ) , Penang and Singapore , where they were lavishly entertained and comfortably billeted by the elite of the Colony . Their hosts took the cricketers on a trip to the British protectorate of Perak for a shooting expedition where Armstrong contracted malaria . He would suffer relapses throughout the rest of his life .
= = = Rebellion = = =
Armstrong was appointed captain of an Australian team touring New Zealand in 1909 – 10 , partly as recognition of his accomplishments and partly due to the unavailability of other candidates , such as Trumper . Suspicions still ran high between the Board and the players and Trumper , tiring of what he perceived as persecution , retired from first @-@ class cricket . The tour did not include any Test matches , although a match was played against a representative New Zealand team . Australia won every game , save a draw against Canterbury . Armstrong , more diplomatic as captain than some commenters had been expecting , turned down a lucrative offer to coach the Auckland team .
The Melbourne Cricket Club found Armstrong a job as " pavilion clerk " . His duties were broadly defined in order to allow him to meet his representative cricket obligations . These included matches against the touring South Africans , scheduled to play five Tests in 1910 – 11 . The first Test saw Australia win by an innings and 114 runs thanks mainly to an innings on 191 from Hill and eight wickets to Bill Whitty . Armstrong nearly missed the second Test in Melbourne with a case of mumps . He recovered , and although still unwell managed to score 75 and take 4 – 134 from 48 overs . In the fourth Test , Armstrong compiled another century , 132 including a partnership of 154 with Hill . Australia won the series comfortably , winning four of the five Test matches with their only loss at Adelaide by 38 runs . Returning to cricket after his self @-@ imposed exile , Victor Trumper was the leading player for the Australians during the series scoring 661 runs at an average of 94 .
The English team returned to Australia the following season to compete for the Ashes with Pelham Warner once again captain of a very strong English team that included bowlers Sydney Barnes and Frank Foster . Warner suffered from an illness early in the tour and handed the captaincy to Johnny Douglas . After losing the first Test , England won the remaining four Tests comfortably . In the second Test at Melbourne , Armstrong played one of his best Test innings . Facing exceptional bowling from Foster and Barnes , he made a nerveless 90 , including 14 boundaries , before being dismissed by Foster .
While this series took place , the Board of Control made plans to usurp the commonly accepted rights of the players to appoint a manager when touring England . The hostility between the players and the board saw a fist fight break out between Clem Hill and Peter McAlister at a selection meeting . When the Board announced that George Crouch would be manager of the Australian team for the 1912 Triangular Tournament in England , rather than the player 's choice , Frank Laver , outright rebellion ensued . Armstrong , Hill and Trumper , along with Hanson Carter , Tibby Cotter and Vernon Ransford ( known as the " Big Six " ) announced that they would be unavailable to join the touring party . The team , under the captaincy of Syd Gregory , left without these players . The tour was not a success on any front : the Australians winning only eight games and losing nine in a wet season and Crouch on return to Australia reported to the Board that " some of the players had conducted themselves so badly in England as to lead to the team being socially ostracised . "
International cricket was placed on hold as a result of the
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outbreak of the Great War . Armstrong had been named captain of the Australian team to tour South Africa in 1914 – 15 , however the tour was unable to take place . Armstrong chose not to enlist in the military during the war and kept his own counsel on the subject . He continued to work and play cricket for Melbourne Cricket Club , participating in the occasional fund @-@ raising fixture .
= = = Captain = = =
When international cricket resumed after the Great War , Armstrong , now over forty years of age , was appointed captain of a strong Australian team boosted by the inclusion of players such as Jack Gregory and Herbie Collins who had starred in the Australian Imperial Forces cricket team . Armstrong was much older than many of his team @-@ mates and was the subject of some awe ; Gregory describing him as " my ideal cricketer " . The English team , captained once again by Johnny Douglas was no match for the Australians , who won all five Tests in the 1920 – 21 series , completing the first and only Ashes whitewash for 86 years on 1 March . Armstrong was masterful throughout the Test series . He scored 474 runs at an average of over 77 including three centuries ; 158 in Sydney , 121 in Adelaide and 123 not out in Melbourne . Before going out to bat in the second innings at Sydney , he was seen , " padded up , [ drinking ] whisky with his mates at the members ' bar " .
Armstrong remained unpopular with the Board of Control . Despite Armstrong 's triumphs , it was reported that he was only appointed captain of the 1921 Australian team to tour England by " the narrowest possible margin " . On the voyage to England , Armstrong attempted to lose some weight by spending some time each day in the stokehold of the ship . On arrival , however , he weighed in 4 pounds ( 2 kg ) heavier . Against English teams badly affected by the Great War , the Australians dominated the series . Armstrong marshalled his troops well , utilising Gregory and Ted McDonald to devastating effect . Australia won the first Test in two days , the second Test by lunch on the third day and the third Test and the Ashes by 5 @.@ 00 pm on the third day . Throughout the tour , Armstrong fought a series of running battles against the Board appointed manager , Syd Smith , on behalf of his men . Smith , looking to cut overheads , had suggested boarding with wealthy cricket devotees ; Armstrong dismissed the idea .
The fourth Test at Old Trafford was famous for two events , both involving Armstrong . The first day 's play was washed out and England commenced their innings the following day , the match now a two @-@ day affair . Lionel Tennyson , the English captain , declared his innings closed with twenty minutes of play left in the day . The Australian wicket @-@ keeper , Sammy Carter pointed out to Armstrong that a declaration at that time in a two @-@ day match was against the laws of cricket as they stood at that time . Armstrong protested to the umpires and England were forced to continue batting . In the commotion , Armstrong managed to bowl two overs in succession , an action also against the laws of cricket .
By the fifth Test , the Australian team was in sight of being the first Australian team to remain unbeaten throughout a tour of England . Once again , much of the first day was lost to rain . Determined not to lose , Armstrong attempted to delay commencement after the rain and was heckled by English supporters . He told his three main bowlers , " I won 't ask you not to get a man out , but as long as Mead ( a notoriously slow scoring batsman ) remains at the wicket we can 't be beaten " . In the last three hours of the Test , Armstrong decided to rest his key bowlers and allowed his part @-@ time bowlers to rotate as they pleased and fielders to configure themselves . During this time , Armstrong picked up a newspaper that had been blown across the field and began to read . When asked about this later , Armstrong was said to have replied , " I wanted to see who we were playing " , although this is claimed to be apocryphal . The Australians drew the Test and won the series three – nil , however they could not maintain their unbeaten record , losing by 28 runs to an English XI at Eastbourne and again to C. I. Thornton 's XI at Scarborough .
Despite the two losses , the tour was a triumph for Armstrong . Personally , he achieved the 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets milestone for the third time in an English summer . About his captaincy , former rival Frank Foster said , " I honestly think that Australia have got to thank one man , one man only for their success . That man is Warwick Armstrong , probably one of the best captains ever sent to England from Australia " . On return to Australia , Armstrong was greeted by large enthusiastic crowds and acclaimed at many public receptions . At one reception , he was presented with a ₤ 2 @,@ 500 cheque by the Prime Minister of Australia Billy Hughes .
If ever there was a man singled out as a king of sport it was Mr. Armstrong , who had gone out to give the people of England a chance to regain the Ashes and who had returned , like Imperial Caesar , who came , saw and conquered .
= = Outside cricket = =
The 1921 tour was Armstrong 's swan song in first @-@ class cricket . On the journey back to Australia , he suffered a relapse of the malaria that had plagued him since his earlier visit to Malaya . This kept him from taking part in any of the matches in South Africa , allowing Herbie Collins to captain Australia for the first time . Armstrong resigned from his job with Melbourne Cricket Club and drawing on contacts he had made while on tour took a role as an agent for Dawson 's Scotch Whisky . He remained in the liquor trade until his retirement in 1946 . Armstrong also applied his cricket background acting as a cricket journalist for the Sydney Evening News . His copy was promoted as " frank and fearless " and was generally contemptuous of much of the cricket and cricketers he saw , especially of what he saw as dull cricket .
In 1922 he wrote a primer on cricket titled The Art of Cricket published by Methuen & Co , London .
In July 1913 he married Aileen O 'Donnell , the daughter of a wealthy Irish Australian pastoralist with large land holdings in the Riverina region of New South Wales . The couple met while Armstrong was representing the
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Melbourne Cricket Club in a match against a Wagga Wagga XV . Armstrong and his new wife settled in Melbourne , moving to the Sydney suburb of Edgecliff for business reasons in 1935 . Aileen died of a thrombosis in 1940 . Armstrong , following illness that saw him lose much of the weight that he was known for , died on 13 July 1947 , leaving an estate to the value of ₤ 90 @,@ 000 . He was survived by his son , Warwick George .
Armstrong was an all @-@ round sportsman , playing Australian rules football in the winter for South Melbourne in the Victorian Football League ( VFL ) , the premier competition in the state , from 1898 to 1900 . A slim utility , he played 16 games for the club , scoring 18 goals . He played in South Melbourne 's losing 1899 VFL Grand Final team defeated by Fitzroy by one point .
= = Style and personality = =
Although slim as a young man , Armstrong grew into a big man , weighing 133 kilograms ( 293 lb ) and being 190 centimetres ( 6 foot 3 inches ) tall . As a result , he acquired the nickname " The Big Ship " . His oversize shirt , measuring 26 centimetres ( 10 in ) by 85 centimetres ( 33 in ) and his shoes , 32 centimetres ( 13 in ) long by 18 centimetres ( 7 in ) wide are on display at the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame . A story told of Armstrong had a young boy following him around at a tour match in Southampton . Armstrong , thinking it a manifestation of hero worship , offered to sign the boy 's autograph book . The boy turned to Armstrong and said , " Please , sir , you are the only bit of decent shade in the place . "
As a batsman , Armstrong was not a stylist . The Times , in describing Armstrong 's batting after he scored his maiden century against Sussex in 1902 said , " Mr. Armstrong 's methods were not attractive " .
His pose at the wickets gives an impression of awkwardness which is not dispelled when he shapes to play the ball and his strokeplay is essentially laboured ... His methods , however , are remarkably effective ; they show a most admirable blend of aggression and caution , backed by the right temperament . His defence is very sound , watchful and painstaking , his strokeplay is limited in its variety , but very sound in its execution .
Armstrong was tireless as a leg break bowler and was known for his ability to land the ball on any point of the
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pitch he liked . His action imparted as much topspin as leg spin , making it difficult for batsman to detect his " straight @-@ breaks " . Early in his career , he bowled negative leg theory but later used his accuracy to great effect , bowling an over or two of leg breaks and then the straight one in the hope of bowling the batsman or receiving a leg before wicket dismissal . His action consisted of an easy amble and a gentle arc and was described in the Sporting Life as " rather like a fat uncle , not altogether unlike a fat aunt . " It was effective , however , with the Daily Telegraph stating after the first Test in 1921 , " there is not a single batsman in England who faces with any appearance of confidence his innocuous slows . "
Armstrong was renowned for his gamesmanship and was willing to push the boundaries of what was considered acceptable behaviour in order to obtain an advantage for his team . In 1909 , the English all @-@ rounder Frank Woolley was making his Test début against the Australians at the Oval . Taking advantage of a rule that allowed bowlers to bowl trial balls or " looseners " , Armstrong kept Woolley waiting nervously for more than fifteen minutes while he bowled trial balls alongside the pitch . In a club game against St Kilda , Armstrong claimed a catch in the slips , only to have the umpire refuse the dismissal . It was the last ball of the over and as the field changed , Armstrong brusquely inquired why this was so . Informed that the ball had struck the batsman 's pads , Armstrong then appealed for a leg before wicket dismissal , which the umpire then upheld .
Armstrong was not a " walker " ; he believed in waiting for the umpire to make a decision , once telling the English cricketer Arthur Gilligan , " The more you play this game , the more you will find out that will be given out many times when you are not out and vice versa " . English professional cricketers took a dim view of Armstrong 's approach to the game . Jack Hobbs , describing one instance said ,
The chief offender was Warwick Armstrong , who got very nasty and unsportsmanlike , refusing to accept the umpire 's decision . That upset me . I did not know if was standing on my head or my heels with the consequence that two balls later I let one go , never even attempting to play it ; and it bowled me . I still bear this incident in mind against Armstrong .
= M @-@ 113 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 113 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs in Grand Traverse County from M @-@ 37 near Hannah to US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) in Walton Junction . The trunkline runs through farm fields and woodlands in a rural area of the county . It connects the highways at its termini with the village of Kingsley . First designated in November 1927 , the highway was extended in 1940 by adding the southernmost section near Walton Junction which was originally part of US 131 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 113 starts west of Hannah at an intersection with M @-@ 37 south of Traverse City . The highway runs eastward through farm fields . In the community
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of Hannah , the highway passes the church and the cemetery before exiting . On the other side of the town , M @-@ 113 continues through more fields to Kingsley . The trunkline follows Main Street through the business district in the village . On the east side of town , M @-@ 113 runs through fields mixed with scattered groves of trees . The landscape transitions over to woodland just before a 90 @-@ degree turn south near Fife Lake . About one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the turn , M @-@ 113 intersects M @-@ 186 at the latter 's western terminus . M @-@ 113 continues due south past Camp Pugsley Correctional Facility and turns southeasterly . The highway crosses a line of the Great Lakes Central Railroad , and then it terminates at US 131 north of the Manistee River and the Grand Traverse – Wexford county line .
M @-@ 113 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2009 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 113 were the 7 @,@ 519 vehicles daily in the village of Kingsley ; the lowest count was 4 @,@ 161 vehicles per day south of the M @-@ 186 intersection . No section of M @-@ 113 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 113 was first designated in November 1927 from M @-@ 42 ( now M @-@ 37 ) west of Kingsley to a three @-@ way junction with US 131 and M @-@ 131 near Fife Lake ; at this time , US 131 ended west of Fife Lake and M @-@ 131 continued east to Fife Lake and north to Petoskey . M @-@ 42 was replaced by M @-@ 37 in 1940 , and US 131 was relocated around the same time north from Walton Junction along a new alignment to Fife Lake . From Fife Lake northward , US 131 replaced M @-@ 131 . The portion of M @-@ 131 running west of Fife Lake became M @-@ 186 and the remaining piece of US 131 between M @-@ 113 and Walton Junction was added to M @-@ 113 . The routing has remained unchanged since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Grand Traverse County .
= HMS Minotaur ( 1906 ) =
HMS Minotaur was the lead ship of the Minotaur @-@ class armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy . Launched in 1906 , she served as the flagship of the China Station before the First World War . Shortly after the war began , the ship searched unsuccessfully for the German East Asia Squadron and was transferred to the Grand Fleet at the end of 1914 . During the rest of the war Minotaur served as the flagship of the 7th and 2nd Cruiser Squadrons and spent most of her time assigned to the Northern Patrol . In mid @-@ 1916 she participated in the Battle of Jutland but did not fire her weapons during the battle . The ship was paid off in 1919 and sold for scrap the following year .
= = Description = =
Minotaur displaced 14 @,@ 600 long tons ( 14 @,@ 800 t ) as built and 16 @,@ 630 long tons ( 16 @,@ 900 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 519 feet ( 158 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 74 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 7 m ) and a mean draught of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . She was powered by a pair of four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 27 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 20 @,@ 130 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 24 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 060 long tons ( 2 @,@ 090 t ) of coal and an additional 750 long tons ( 7
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60 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 8 @,@ 150 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 090 km ; 9 @,@ 380 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Minotaur was designed to carry 779 officers and men , but mustered 825 in 1909 .
The ship 's main armament consisted of four BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mark X guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . Her secondary armament , ten BL 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mark II guns , were mounted amidships in single turrets . Anti @-@ torpedo boat defence was provided by sixteen QF 12 @-@ pounder ( three @-@ inch ) 18 @-@ cwt guns . Minotaur also mounted five submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , one of which was mounted in the stern .
The waterline belt consisted of 6 inches ( 152 mm ) of Krupp cemented armour roughly between the fore and aft 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch gun turrets , but was reduced in steps to three inches to the ends of the ship . The gun turrets and barbettes were protected by 6 – 8 in ( 152 – 203 mm ) of armour . The thickness of the lower deck was 1 @.@ 5 – 2 inches ( 38 – 51 mm ) . The armour of the conning tower was 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick .
= = Construction and career = =
Minotaur was ordered as part of the 1904 – 05 naval construction programme as the last of three Minotaur @-@ class armoured cruisers . She was laid down on 2 January 1905 at Devonport Royal Dockyard and was christened on 6 June 1907 by the Countess of Crewe . The ship suffered a coal gas explosion that injured three sailors and one dockyard worker on 6 November before she was commissioned on 1 April 1908 . Minotaur cost £ 1 @,@ 410 @,@ 356 . The ship was assigned to the 5th Cruiser Squadron of the Home Fleet upon commissioning . She escorted the royal yacht Victoria and Albert from Kiel , Germany to Reval when King Edward VII and his wife visited in Russia in June . The next month Minotaur escorted the battlecruiser Indomitable as it carried the Prince of Wales to Canada to commemorate the tercentenary of Quebec City . The ship was transferred to the 1st Cruiser Squadron when the Home Fleet reorganized on 24 March 1909 . She was present for two fleet reviews in June and July before she was ordered to the China Station in January 1910 to relieve King Alfred as flagship .
Minotaur was in Wei Hai Wei on 3 July 1914 when most of the ships assigned to the China Station were ordered to assemble at Hong Kong . Shortly after the start of the First World War , the ship , together with the armoured cruiser Hampshire and the light cruiser Newcastle sailed for the German @-@ owned island of Yap . They captured the collier Elsbeth on 11 August and destroyed the radio station there with gunfire . They then unsuccessfully searched for the ships of the East Asia Squadron until the light cruiser Emden was reported to have destroyed several ships in the Bay of Bengal in mid @-@ September . Minotaur was ordered to the west coast of Sumatra to search for the German warship , but was unsuccessful . She was then ordered to escort a troop convoy from Wellington , New Zealand in late September . The ship was detached from the convoy and ordered to proceed to the Cape of Good Hope and reinforce the squadron there on 6 November after the Admiralty learned of the defeat at the Battle of Coronel . Upon her arrival Minotaur became flagship of the Cape of Good Hope Station under the command of Vice Admiral Herbert King @-@ Hall and escorted a South African troop convoy to Luderitz Bay in German South @-@ West Africa . The ship was near Table Bay , South Africa when the East Asia Squadron was destroyed during the Battle of the Falklands in early December and she was ordered home on 8 December .
Upon her arrival , Minotaur became flagship of the 7th Cruiser Squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Arthur Waymouth , based at Cromarty Firth . She received a brief refit in early 1915 and was then assigned to Northern Patrol for the next year . The ship received a QF 12 @-@ pounder ( three @-@ inch ) 12 @-@ cwt anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun and a QF three @-@ pounder ( 47 mm ) AA gun in 1915 – 16 . The 12 @-@ pounder gun was mounted on the aft superstructure and the three @-@ pounder on the quarterdeck at the extreme rear . The ship was transferred to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron on 30 May 1916 and participated in the Battle of Jutland on the following day as flagship of Rear Admiral Herbert Heath . She remained unengaged throughout the battle and did not fire her 9 @.@ 2 or 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns at all during the battle . Minotaur was also present during the attempted interception of the High Seas Fleet by the Grand Fleet on 19 August although no combat occurred . For the rest of the war , the ship was assigned to the Northern Patrol . On 11 December 1917 , together with her sister Shannon and four destroyers , she was assigned to patrol the convoy route between Lerwick and Norway , but the Germans successfully destroyed a convoy off the Norwegian coast on the following day and returned home without being spotted . The British ships were only able to rescue survivors and escort the sole surviving ship from the convoy , the crippled destroyer Pellew , back to Scapa Flow .
In 1917 – 18 the 12 @-@ pounder AA gun mounted on the aft superstructure was moved to the roof of the forward 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch gun turret and a fire @-@ control system was installed with a director mounted on a platform fitted to the foremast . Minotaur was paid off on 5 February 1919 , placed on the disposal list in May , put up for sale in March 1920 and sold the following month .
= BX ( sternwheeler ) =
The BX sternwheeler was the first of two river steamers built for service on the upper Fraser River by the BC Express Company during the busy era of Grand Trunk Pacific Railway construction . The BX was built at Soda Creek in early 1910 by Alexander Watson Jr , of Victoria , who was one of British Columbia 's foremost shipbuilders and the son of the man who had built the Charlotte . The BC Express Company also hired Captain Owen Forrester Browne to be the master of the BX as he was the most experienced upper Fraser River pilot .
= = Construction = =
Captain Browne worked with Alexander Watson throughout the design and construction phases of the BX . Watson purchased the BX 's boiler , engines and other equipment from the Chicago Marine Ironworks Company , who were informed that the BX 's construction site at Soda Creek was 167 miles ( 269 km ) away from the railway at Ashcroft and therefore the equipment would have to be hauled by horse drawn freighters for that distance . Chicago Marine decided to build the boiler in sections , the heaviest piece was less than 10 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) , so it was easily transported to the construction site . They also supplied two compound condensing engines for the BX which would use half the fuel of a single engine of similar power . These engines gave the BX an enormous advantage over the other sternwheelers
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that were on the river at this time , as it cut down on both the labor needed to load the wood and the cargo space required to carry it.It was later estimated that these engines saved the BX a sum equal to the amount of her construction , $ 54 @,@ 531 @.@ 33 .
For the hull , Watson turned to local man , William Lyne , who was a portable sawmill operator.Lyne was instructed to find a good stand of fir and cut the necessary timbers and planks . Intending to build a steamer with the lightest draught possible , Watson built the rest of the BX out of first grade cedar , shipped up from Victoria . Construction began in February when Watson arrived with a crew of fifty carpenters , joiners and labourers and work was begun on the hull .
At the end of March , a near catastrophe occurred . The ice on the Fraser suddenly broke up and piled up at Soda Creek Canyon , a quarter mile from the BX 's construction site . The river overflowed its banks and chunks of ice were deposited all over the site . The rushing water knocked the BX off its blocks and swept many of the tools and supplies out of the warehouse and down into the river . Luckily the workers had heard the ice breaking up in the canyon and had been able to scramble to higher ground and safety . When the floodwaters receded , Watson was able to inspect the BX and found that the only damage done was some twisted and broken timbers that were quickly replaced . The company swiftly shipped up the replacement tools and supplies from Ashcroft and work resumed once more .
When the BX was completed , she had three decks , with stateroom accommodation for 70 passengers and could also carry another 60 deck passengers . The staterooms featured steam heat , hot and cold running water , fine quality bedding and attractive wall and floor coverings . Her dining room could seat 50 and was lavishly furnished , right down to the plates , which were specially ordered from England and monogrammed in the BX Company 's colors : red , yellow and white . Off the ladies cabin above the covered paddlewheel a bridal chamber was built , which contained , among other luxuries , a double brass bed and a silk eiderdown worth $ 150 . Many dignitaries , including Premier Richard McBride would travel in the comfort of this sumptuous suite .
= = Maiden voyage = =
The BX was launched at Soda Creek on Friday May 13 , 1910 , without ceremony . Many people of a superstitious bent , especially the shipyard workers , criticized Watson and Browne for choosing to launch a ship on a Friday the 13th . The BC Express Company mollified the workers by explaining that it was the company 's lucky day .
Watson and Browne were pleased with how the BX sat in the water , her draught was only 16 inches ( 410 mm ) at the bow and 20 inches ( 510 mm ) at her deepest part . Even fully loaded , with a hundred tons of freight , she only sat 30 inches into the water .
She left Soda Creek for her first trip upstream on May 23 , leaving at the break of day and arriving in Quesnel at 11 am . Captain Browne made semi @-@ weekly trips between Quesnel and Soda Creek until June 23 when he decided that the BX was ready for testing in the two canyons between Quesnel and Fort George , the Cottonwood Canyon and the Fort George Canyon . He left Quesnel at 1pm and upon arriving at the Cottonwood Canyon , offloaded the passengers and lined through using the steam capstan . However , Browne soon realized that the light and powerful BX did not need to line through and could run the canyons unaided . By law passengers were forced to disembark and walk around any canyon that a steamer was lining through and be picked up on the other side . However , by the fall of 1910 , the federal steamboat inspector decided that the BX was allowed to keep her passengers on board . This gave her a huge advantage over her rivals , all of which had to line through both canyons , wasting time and fuel as well as inconveniencing the passengers .
The BX arrived in South Fort George on June 24 , to a warm welcome from the local populace . The steamer landing on the Fraser had been there since 1909 and was already used by the Charlotte , Chilco and Quesnel . Nevertheless , local residents had been anticipating the day of the BX 's arrival to see where the company would choose to have its landing and where it would build its office and warehouse . Many local business decisions were going to be based on this , as it was widely and correctly assumed that the BX would be bringing up the bulk of the passengers and landseekers from the south . One businessman , hotelier Al Johnson , was waiting for this information so he would know where to build Fort George 's first licensed hotel , the Hotel Northern . The promoters of South Fort George were well aware of the huge benefit it would be to have the landing at their town @-@ site , so the day after the BX arrived they offered the BC Express Company free lots of their choice in South Fort George . The company accepted the offer and construction on the facilities was begun . This would be a huge disappointment to South Fort George 's rival town @-@ site , Central Fort George on the Nechako River , which had hoped for the BC Express 's landing and offices for itself . George Hammond , the promoter for Central , made the best he could out of a bad situation and hired a representative for the Central town @-@ site and had him travel on the BX and promote Central to the passengers before they arrived in South Fort George .
= = The route = =
Once the BX had been successfully tested in the canyons , she began a semi @-@ weekly passenger and mail service from Soda Creek to Fort George . The BX would meet the company horse stages or automobiles at Soda Creek and would leave at 3am on Sundays and Wednesdays , arriving in Quesnel at noon , offload cargo and passengers and continue upriver until dark . The next day she would start again at dawn and arrive in Fort George around 11am . The return trips downriver were much faster , the BX would leave Fort George on Tuesdays and Saturdays at 7am and arrive in Soda Creek at 4pm the same day . She made good speed through the canyons , often as fast as 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) .
In 1910 , the stage fare from Ashcroft to Soda Creek was $ 27 @.@ 50 , steamer fare from there to Fort George was $ 17 @.@ 50 , meals were 75 cents and berths , $ 1 @.@ 50 . Along the route , if a settler needed the BX to stop , they simply raised a white flag along the riverbank and the steamer would pull over and land . A white flag was never ignored , it might only be a settler wanting to ship some produce to market , or it could be a sick child that needed emergency transportation to a hospital .
Late in 1910 , the BX fulfilled a heroic role . The Chilco had been on its way up from Quesnel to Fort George in late November with Fort George 's winter food supply when it met with an accident just above the Cottonwood Canyon and the food had to be transported back to Quesnel . When news of this reached Fort George , pioneers Al Johnson and Russell Peden snow @-@ shoed down to Quesnel to petition Captain Browne to make one last run with the BX with the necessary supplies . By then ice had begun to form along the river , but Captain Browne consented and brought the BX to Fort George , without as much as a scratch on her paint .
1911 was a busy year as more settlers poured into the district , and in 1912 , the BX was joined by her sister ship , the BC Express , which under the command of Captain Joseph Bucey , had been built for service on the Fort George to Tête Jaune Cache section of the upper Fraser . However , that year the Fraser was very low and all the sternwheelers had trouble . The BX rammed the same rock twice in the Fort George Canyon , until her crew , in case of frustrated over @-@ exuberance , dynamited the offending boulder , thereby breaking every window in the BX in the process .
But 1912 also brought some very good news for all the local river steamers , and the area in general . It was announced that another railway was going to be built , the Pacific Great Eastern which would run from Vancouver to Fort George and eventually beyond to the Peace River Country . Foley , Welch and Stewart would be the contractors for this railway as well and they planned to build the grade along the upper Fraser
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River from Fort George to Soda Creek so that sternwheelers could be used to aid in its construction .
In 1914 , the construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific was finished and construction on the Pacific Great Eastern began and the Foley , Welch and Stewart boats , the Operator and the Conveyor joined the BX and the BC Express on the route between Soda Creek and Fort George . By then , the rivalry between the FW & S boats and the BC Express boats was quite heated and it soon came down to a race . The Conveyor had proved itself to be swifter than its sister ship Operator , as had the BX proven swifter than the BC Express , so one day in July , the Conveyor 's Captain Shannon challenged Captain Browne to a race to Quesnel from Soda Creek . The rules were rather odd , as the BX was still obligated to stop and deliver her mail at several different landings whereas the Conveyor had no such obligation and could run right through . As the race progressed , it soon became obvious to all that the BX was the faster boat , as she had stayed ahead for most of the race , despite having to stop several times . At one landing the BX had more mail to deliver than usual and had fallen behind the Conveyor , but she soon caught up and was passing her opponent when Captain Johnson rammed the BX with the Conveyor . Captain Browne immediately pulled over to inspect his boat for damages and the Conveyor pulled ahead again . Fortunately Browne soon discovered that the Conveyor had hit the BX just where the shear of her guards met and that there was no serious damage . In fact , when Browne arrived in Quesnel , he had almost caught up with the Conveyor again . When the full tale was heard by the local populace , it was unanimously agreed that the BX was the winner and she was declared the " Speed Queen of the Fraser " . Captain Shannon , meanwhile was apologetic , and had stated that he just got caught up in the moment .
That would be the last race on the upper Fraser River , because that August would bring the onset of World War I and the halting of construction of the Pacific Great Eastern .
= = The end of an era = =
In 1915 , only the BX was used on the upper Fraser River , with the BC Express reserved for special trips . Despite having a monopoly on river traffic , the BX finished the season with a $ 7000 loss .
In 1916 and 1917 , sternwheelers were not used on the river at all . In 1918 , after an appeal from the Quesnel Board of Trade , the provincial government granted the BC Express Company a $ 10 @,@ 000 per year subsidy to continue river navigation from Soda Creek to Fort George . The BX ran until August 30 , 1919 , when she was punctured by an infamous rock called the " Woodpecker " and sank with a 100 tons of bagged cement intended for construction of the Deep Creek Bridge . The BC Express Company , fully intending to salvage their prized craft , hired Alexander Watson Jr to rush up from Victoria to overhaul the BC Express , which had been out of service since 1915 , so she could go rescue the BX . However , out at the site of the accident , it was discovered that the bags of cement had solidified and had to be separated before the BX could be raised and the salvage could not be completed before freeze @-@ up . In the spring of 1920 , the salvage work was completed and at a cost of $ 40 @,@ 000 the BX was raised and patched sufficiently to get her back to Fort George . The newly overhauled BC Express pushed her back upstream through the Fort George Canyon and to the shipyard at Fort George . This would be the first time in the history of sternwheelers that one would push another upriver through a canyon . That it could be accomplished was a fitting testament to the craftsmanship of Alexander Watson Jr and the skill of Captain Browne and Captain Bucey . The BC Express ran until November 1920 and then it joined the BX on the riverbank at Fort George , where their hulls were abandoned . In a sense , they lived on , as their engines and equipment were shipped to Northern Alberta to work on the Mackenzie River for the Alberta and Arctic Transportation Company .
= Flood ( Halo ) =
The Flood are fictional parasitic alien life forms in the Halo video game series created by Bungie . They are introduced in Halo : Combat Evolved as a second enemy faction alongside the Covenant ; they return in sequels Halo 2 , Halo 3 , Halo Wars , and as a gametype in Halo 4 . The Flood are driven by a desire to infect any sentient life they encounter , and are depicted as such a threat that the ancient Forerunners were forced to kill themselves and all other sentient life nearly 100 @,@ 000 years ago in an effort to starve the Flood to death .
The Flood 's design and fiction was spearheaded by Bungie artist Robert McLees , who utilized unused concepts from the earlier Bungie game Marathon 2 . The ringworld Halo was stripped of many of its large creatures to make the Flood 's appearance more startling . Bungie environment artist Vic DeLeon spent six months of pre @-@ production time refining the Flood 's fleshy aesthetic and designing the organic interiors of Flood @-@ infested space ships for Halo 3 .
The player 's discovery of the Flood in Halo : Combat Evolved is a major plot twist , and was one of the surprises reviewers noted positively upon release . The Flood 's return in Halo 2 and Halo 3 was less enthusiastically praised . Reaction to the Flood has varied over the years ; while some found the Flood too derivative and a cliché element of science fiction , some others ranked them among the greatest villains of all time .
= = Game development = =
The Flood were added early in the development of Halo : Combat Evolved , before the game had made its jump from the Macintosh platform to the Xbox . A design for one Flood form appeared as early as 1997 . Commenting upon the inception of the Flood , Bungie staff member Chris Butcher noted that " the idea behind the Flood as the forgotten peril that ended a galaxy @-@ spanning empire is a pretty fundamental tenet of good sci @-@ fi . Yeah , and bad sci @-@ fi too . " Another inspiration was Christopher Rowley 's The Vang series . The early design for the Flood was done by Bungie artist and writer Robert McLees , who considers himself " the architect " of the Flood ; the Flood 's roots are reflected in concept art of a " fungal zombie " that McLees did for the earlier Bungie game Marathon 2 : Durandal . McLees also did all the early concept art for the Flood .
Based on the behavior of viruses and certain bacteria , the Flood were intended to be " disgusting and nasty " . The creatures were constructed from the corpses and bodies of former combatants , so the artists had to make sure the Flood soldiers were recognizable enough while changing their silhouette enough to differentiate them from the uninfected . Many concepts and ideas were discarded due to time constraints — initially , the Flood were intended to convert any species of the alien Covenant into soldiers . " We didn 't have the resources to make it happen , " McLees recalled , so they modified the game 's fiction to suggest that some Covenant were too small or too frail to be combat troops . At one point , the ringworld Halo featured dinosaur @-@ like terrestrial creatures , but these were dropped due to gameplay constraints . An additional consideration was that Bungie felt the presence of other native species would dilute the impact and surprise of the Flood .
For Halo 3 , it was decided a new visual language for the Flood was needed . The task of developing the new Flood forms , organic Flood terrain , and other miscellaneous changes fell to Vic DeLeon , Bungie 's Senior Environment Artist . With the addition of mutable forms in Halo 3 , the only fictional constraint on the designer 's imaginations was that the Flood altered the DNA of its victims by digesting .
Early concepts of what became " pure forms " featured the creatures wielding an array of weapons via tendrils , while forms like the Flood Infector and Flood Transport concepts never made it into the final game . Flood @-@ infested structures were designed as angular to counterbalance Flood biomass , as well as provide surfaces for the game 's artificial intelligence to exploit and move on . New additions were designed to be multi @-@ purpose ; exploding " growth pods " that spew Flood forms were added to the game to adjust pacing , provide instant action , and add to the visuals . Endoscopic pictures provided further inspiration . Bungie used Halo 3 's improved capacity for graphics to make a host 's sudden transformation into Flood form more dramatic ; two different character models and skeletons were fused and swapped in real @-@ time .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Halo : Combat Evolved = = =
The Flood make their surprise appearance more than halfway through Halo : Combat Evolved 's campaign , during the mission " 343 Guilty Spark " . The Master Chief is sent on an extraction mission by the artificial intelligence Cortana to find Captain Jacob Keyes , who disappears in a swamp while looking for a weapons
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cache with which to fight the alien Covenant . The Master Chief discovers that the Covenant have released the Flood accidentally , and the sheer numbers of the parasite overwhelm Keyes and his squad . Keyes ' squad is turned into soldiers for the parasite , while Keyes is interrogated by the Flood in an attempt to learn the location of Earth . Keyes successfully resists , but is assimilated by the Flood before Master Chief can rescue him . The emergence of the Flood on the ringworld Halo prompts Halo 's resident artificial intelligence 343 Guilty Spark to enlist the help of the Master Chief in activating Halo 's defenses and preventing a Flood outbreak . When Master Chief learns of the devastation that Halo would cause to humanity and all other sentient life if activated , he detonates the human ship Pillar of Autumn 's engines , destroying the ring and preventing the Flood from escaping .
The Flood are depicted as having a complicated lifecycle . The largest self @-@ contained form that the Flood can produce itself , without using other biomass , is an " infection form " . The infection form seeks hosts living or dead , attempting to drive sharp spines into the host and tap into the nervous system . The host is incapacitated while the infection form burrows into the host 's body and begins the mutation process , bringing the host under Flood control . Depending on the size or condition of the body , the Infection form mutates the hapless host into various specialized forms in the continual drive for more food . Larger hosts are seen turned into forms for combat , growing long whiplike tentacles , while mangled and disused hosts are turned into incubators for more infection forms . The Flood also create forms not suited to combat , which interrogate and strip information from the minds of its victims or serve as a central intelligence to drive the infestation .
= = = The Halo Graphic Novel = = =
The 2006 book The Halo Graphic Novel expands upon the Flood 's release from Halo in two stories . The first , Last Voyage of the Infinite Succor , takes place at the same time as the Master Chief hunts for Keyes during Halo : Combat Evolved . The Flood manage to pilot a Covenant dropship off Halo , and crash @-@ land the vessel in the hangar of a Covenant agricultural ship , Infinite Succor . Successfully assimilating most of the Covenant and wildlife aboard the ship , the Flood are stopped by a Covenant strike team led by Rtas ' Vadumee , who sets the ship on a course into the nearby sun . The second story , Breaking Quarantine , details the escape of Sergeant Avery Johnson from the clutches of the Flood , immediately after Keyes ' squad is overrun during Halo . Due to a pre @-@ existing medical condition , the Flood parasites cannot infect Johnson and attempt to kill him instead . Whereas the Flood are only hinted at being intelligent in Halo : Combat Evolved , the Halo Graphic Novel shows the Flood have a hive mind , assimilating the knowledge of their hosts rapidly . Lee Hammock , writer of The Last Voyage of the Infinite Succor , described the basis of the story as a way to showcase the true danger of the Flood as an intelligent menace , rather than something the player encounters and shoots . Hammock also stated that the story would prove the intelligent nature of the Flood , and " hopefully euthanize the idea that they are just space zombies " .
= = = Halo 2 and Ghosts of Onyx = = =
The Flood make a return appearance in Halo 2 , first after being released on a Forerunner facility near Halo , and again on Installation 05 or " Delta Halo " . The Flood on Delta Halo are led by the Gravemind , a massive creature that dwells in the bowels of the ring . Gravemind brings together the Master Chief and the Arbiter and tasks them with stopping the Covenant leadership from activating the ring . In the meantime , Gravemind infests the human ship In Amber Clad and crashes it into the Covenant space station of High Charity . Once there , the Flood sweep through the city , before Gravemind appears and questions Cortana . As the Flood spread across Halo and infect High Charity in Halo : Ghosts of Onyx , the Covenant form a blockade in an effort to prevent the parasite from leaving its prison .
= = = Halo 3 = = =
The Flood reappear in the Halo 3 mission " Floodgate " , on board a damaged ship that escapes the quarantine around Delta Halo . While the infestation of Earth is prevented by the cauterisation of the only site of outbreak , in the East African continent , Gravemind follows Master Chief and his allies to the Ark aboard the infested High Charity . Though the Master Chief and Arbiter form a tenuous alliance with the Flood to stop the activation of all the Halo rings , as soon as the firing sequence is stopped Gravemind turns on them . The Master Chief fights his way to the center of High Charity , freeing Cortana and destroying the city , but Gravemind attempts to rebuild himself on the ring under construction by the Ark . Realizing that lighting the ring will destroy only the local Flood infestation and spare the galaxy , the Master Chief , Arbiter , Cortana and Sergeant Johnson proceed to Halo 's control room , activate the ring , and escape . Gravemind leaves the Master Chief and the Arbiter with a final warning that his defeat will only delay the Flood 's goal of consuming all sentient life . Halo 3 added new capabilities to the Flood , including the ability for the parasite to infect enemies in real time . The Flood are also seen to produce a mutable " pure form " which can mutate into several other Flood types .
= = = Forerunner Saga = = =
It is revealed in the novel Halo : Silentium that the Flood are what remains of the Precursors , an ancient race that was said to accelerate the evolution of a species and " shape galaxies "
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. 10 million years before the war between the Flood and the Forerunners , the Precursors created many races including humanity and the Forerunners . The Forerunners were the first born of these created races , and were bestowed , by right of inheritance , with the venerable Mantle of Responsibility , which is a complex concept involving the preservation of life .
Despite careful preparations , patience and remedial efforts by the overseeing Precursors , it became apparent that the Forerunners were irredeemable and grossly unworthy of their inheritance , to the extent of becoming a direct threat to the Mantle itself . Eventually , the Precursors reached the limit of their patience , and determined that to protect the Mantle , the Forerunners must be reserved for utter destruction . However , the Forerunners discovered the Precursors ' intentions before they could be carried out , and in defiance , hunted the Precursors to the verge of extinction . Surviving Precursors proceeded to protect their own continued existence , by creating a biological powder which can be used to reconstruct their genome when it is safe for their resurrection . However , time rendered the powder corrupted and malfunctioning , and it became mutagenic , reacting with other living organisms to produce what would eventually mutate into the Flood . The sole surviving Precursor , who discovered this catastrophic failure of the final solution , remarked that as the Precursors ' destruction would be permanent , it was " good " that the solution failed in the way it did , as the Flood would insure that none of their creations would persist to threaten the Mantle . The Flood was unleashed on the galaxy , its first target being a space @-@ faring civilization of prehistoric humans .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
The Flood have been featured in four series of Halo action figures , produced by Joyride Studios . For Halo : Combat Evolved , Joyride produced a Carrier Form and Infection form bundle . Halo 2 's series contains both a human Combat Form and Infection form ( bundled with the Master Chief ) , which were released after the video game . Reviewer Aaron Simmer of Armchair Empire.com expressed the sentiment that Joyride 's models could not totally capture the ghoulishness texture and detail of the Flood . The action figures for Halo 3 were produced by McFarlane Toys and although the first series did not feature the Flood , the third series featured a human Combat Form .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The surprise appearance of the Flood during Halo : Combat Evolved was seen as an important plot twist and a scary moment even after repeat playing of the game . Gamasutra , writing about video game plots , gives the example of the Flood not only as an important reversal to the story of Halo , but a textbook example of how games and their stories are made more interesting by twists in the plot . Mark Binelli of Rolling Stone credited the appearance of the Flood as an excellent way to keep players on their toes by forcing them to adjust their strategies , as well as being a twist as radical " as if , several levels into a game of Pac @-@ Man , the dots suddenly began to attack you " .
Despite the positive acclaim in Halo , the response to the presence of the Flood in Halo 2 and Halo 3 was mixed . A panel of online reviewers noted that the Flood appeared in Halo 2 for no obvious reasons , and were simply described as " aggravating " to play against . Similarly , reviewers including Victor Godinez of The Dallas Morning News felt that the Flood were too derivative of other sci @-@ fi stereotypes , and functioned as " space zombies " . Daniel Weissenberger of Gamecritics.com noted in his review of Halo 3 that even though the Flood looked better than ever , their single strategy of rushing the player proved tedious over time . GamesRadar 's Charlie Barratt listed the Flood as the worst part of Halo , contrasting what he
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considered fun , vibrant and open levels before the Flood 's appearance with confined spaces and predictable enemies . The Flood have been recognized as some of the greatest game villains . Wizard Magazine ranked the Flood as the 77th Greatest Villains of all time , Game Daily ranked them 5th of their " Top 25 Enemies of All Time " , and PC World ranked the Flood the 31st " Most Diabolical Video @-@ Game Villains of All Time " . Electronic Gaming Monthly ranked the Flood in their top ten list of " badass undead " . MTV considered Flood possession in Halo 3 as a " great gaming moment " of 2007 , stating that " with the power of the Xbox 360 's graphics , this reanimation comes to vivid , distressing life , more memorably than it had in the earlier games . Here are the zombies of gaming doing what they do worst . [ ... ] It 's grisly and unforgettable . " IGN listed the Flood as the 45th best video game villain , describing them as one of the most hated video game villains in the history of video games .
= Islay =
Islay ( / ˈaɪljə / EYE @-@ lə ; Scottish Gaelic : Ìle , pronounced [ ˈiːlə ] ) is the southernmost island of the Inner Hebrides of Scotland . Known as " The Queen of the Hebrides " , it lies in Argyll just south west of Jura and around 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) north of the Irish coast . The island 's capital is Bowmore where the distinctive round Kilarrow Parish Church and a distillery are located . Port Ellen is the main port .
Islay is the fifth @-@ largest Scottish island and the seventh @-@ largest island surrounding Great Britain , with a total area of almost 620 square kilometres ( 239 sq mi ) . There is ample evidence of the prehistoric settlement of Islay and the first written reference may have come in the 1st century AD . The island had become part of the Gaelic Kingdom of Dál Riata during the Early Middle Ages before being absorbed into the Norse Kingdom of the Isles . The later medieval period marked a " cultural high point " with the transfer of the Hebrides to the Kingdom of Scotland and the emergence of the Clan Donald Lordship of the Isles , originally centred at Finlaggan . During the 17th century the Clan Donald star waned , but improvements to agriculture and transport led to a rising population , which peaked in the mid @-@ 19th century . This was followed by substantial forced displacements and declining resident numbers .
Today , it has over 3 @,@ 000 inhabitants and the main commercial activities are agriculture , malt whisky distillation and tourism . The island has a long history of religious observance and Scottish Gaelic is spoken by about a quarter of the population . Its landscapes have been celebrated through various art forms and there is a growing interest in renewable energy . Islay is home to many bird species such as the wintering populations of Greenland white @-@ fronted and barnacle goose , and is a popular destination throughout the year for birdwatchers . The climate is mild and ameliorated by the Gulf Stream .
= = Geography = =
Islay is 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) long from north to south and 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) broad . The east coast is rugged and mountainous , rising steeply from the Sound of Islay , the highest peak being Beinn Bheigier , which is a Marilyn at 1 @,@ 612 feet ( 491 m ) . The western peninsulas are separated from the main bulk of the island by the waters of Loch Indaal to the south and Loch Gruinart to the north . The fertile and windswept southwestern arm is called The Rinns , and Ardnave Point is a conspicuous promontory on the northwest coast . The south coast is sheltered from the prevailing winds and , as a result , relatively wooded . The fractal coast has numerous bays and sea lochs , including Loch an t @-@ Sailein , Aros Bay and Claggain Bay . In the far southwest is a rocky and now largely uninhabited peninsula called The Oa , the closest point in the Hebrides to Ireland .
The island 's population is mainly centred around the villages of Bowmore and Port Ellen . Other smaller villages include Bridgend , Ballygrant , Port Charlotte , Portnahaven and Port Askaig . The rest of the island is sparsely populated and mainly agricultural . There are several small freshwater lochs in the interior including Loch Finlaggan , Loch Ballygrant , Loch Lossit and Loch Gorm , and numerous burns throughout the island , many of which bear the name " river " despite their small size . The most significant of these are the River Laggan which discharges into the sea at the north end of Laggan Bay , and the River Sorn which , draining Loch Finlaggan , enters the head of Loch Indaal at Bridgend .
There are numerous small uninhabited islands around the coasts , the largest of which are Eilean Mhic Coinnich and Orsay off the Rinns , Nave Island on the northwest coast , Am Fraoch Eilean in the Sound of Islay , and Texa off the south coast .
= = = Geology and geomorphology = = =
The underlying geology of Islay is intricate for such a small area . The deformed Palaeoproterozoic igneous rock of the Rhinns complex is dominated by a coarse @-@ grained gneiss cut by
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large intrusions of deformed gabbro . Once thought to be part of the Lewisian complex , it lies beneath the Colonsay Group of metasedimentary rocks that forms the bedrock at the northern end of the Rinns . It is a quartz @-@ rich metamorphic marine sandstone that may be unique to Scotland and which is nearly 5 @,@ 000 metres thick . South of Rubh ' a ' Mhail there are outcrops of quartzite , and a strip of mica schist and limestone cuts across the centre of the island from The Oa to Port Askaig . Further south is a band of metamorphic quartzite and granites , a continuation of the beds that underlie Jura . The geomorphology of these last two zones is dominated by a fold known as the Islay Anticline . To the south is a " shattered coastline " formed from mica schist and hornblende . The older Bowmore Group sandstones in the west centre of the island are rich in feldspar and may be of Dalradian origin .
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Loch Indaal was formed along a branch of the Great Glen Fault called the Loch Gruinart Fault ; its main line passes just to the north of Colonsay . This separates the limestone , igneous intrusions and Bowmore sandstones from the Colonsay Group rocks of the Rhinns . The result is occasional minor earth tremors .
There is a tillite bed near Port Askaig that provides evidence of an ice age in the Pre @-@ Cambrian . In comparatively recent times the island was ice @-@ covered during the Pleistocene glaciations save for Beinn Tart a ' Mhill on the Rinns , which was a nunatak on the edge of the ice sheet . The complex changes of sea level due to melting ice caps and isostasy since then have left a series of raised beaches around the coast . Throughout much of late prehistory the low @-@ lying land between the Rinns and the rest of the island was flooded , creating two islands .
= = = Climate = = =
The influence of the Gulf Stream keeps the climate mild compared to mainland Scotland . Snow is rarely seen at sea level and frosts are light and short @-@ lived . However , wind speeds average 19 to 28 kilometres per hour ( 10 to 15 kn ) annually and winter gales sweep in off the Atlantic , gusting up to 185 kilometres per hour ( 115 mph ) . This can make travelling and living on the island during the winter difficult , while ferry and air links to the mainland can suffer delays . The driest months are April to July and the warmest are May to September , which as a result are the busiest times for tourism . Sunshine hours are typically highest around the coasts , especially to the west .
= = Etymology = =
Islay was probably recorded by Ptolemy as Epidion , the use of the " p " suggesting a Brittonic or Pictish tribal name . In the seventh century Adomnán referred to the island as Ilea and the name occurs in early Irish records as Ile and as Íl in Old Norse . The root is not Gaelic and of unknown origin . In seventeenth century maps the spelling appears as " Yla " or " Ila " , a form still used in the name of the whisky Caol Ila . In poetic language Islay is known as Banrìgh Innse Gall , or Banrìgh nan Eilean usually translated as " Queen of the Hebrides " and Eilean uaine Ìle – the " green isle of Islay " A native of Islay is called an Ìleach , pronounced [ ˈiːləx ] .
The obliteration of pre @-@ Norse names is almost total and place names on the island are a mixture of Norse and later Gaelic and English influences . Port Askaig is from the Norse ask @-@ vík , meaning " ash tree bay " and the common suffix -bus is from the Norse bólstaðr , meaning " farm " . Gaelic names , or their anglicised versions such as Ardnave Point , from Àird an Naoimh , " height of the saint " are very common . Several of the villages were developed in the 18th and 19th centuries and English is a stronger influence in their names as a result . Port Charlotte for example , was named after Lady Charlotte Campbell , daughter of the island 's then owner , Daniel Campbell of Shawfield .
= = Prehistory = =
The earliest settlers on Islay were nomadic hunter @-@ gatherers who may have first arrived during the Mesolithic period after the retreat of the Pleistocene ice caps . A flint arrowhead , which was found in a field near Bridgend in 1993 and dates from 10 @,@ 800 BC , is amongst the earliest evidence of a human presence found so far in Scotland . Stone implements of the Ahrensburgian culture found at Rubha Port an t @-@ Seilich near Port Askaig by foraging pigs in 2015 probably came from a summer camp used by hunters travelling round the coast in boats . Mesolithic finds have been dated to 7000 BC using radiocarbon dating of shells and debris from kitchen middens . By the Neolithic , settlements had become more permanent , allowing for the construction of several communal monuments .
The most spectacular prehistoric structure on the island is Dun Nosebridge . This 375 square metres ( 4 @,@ 040 sq ft ) Iron Age fort occupies a prominent crag and has commanding views of the surrounding landscape . The name 's origin is probably a mixture of
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Gaelic and Old Norse : Dun in the former language means " fort " and knaus @-@ borg in the latter means " fort on the crag " . There is no evidence that Islay was ever subject to Roman military control although small numbers of finds such as a coin and a brooch from the third century AD suggest links of some kind with the intermittent Roman presence on the mainland . The ruins of a broch at Dùn Bhoraraic south east of Ballygrant and the remains of numerous Atlantic roundhouses indicate the influences of northern Scotland , where these forms of building originate . There are also various crannogs on Islay , including sites in Loch Ardnave , Loch Ballygrant and Loch Allallaidh in the south east where a stone causeway leading out to two adjacent islands is visible beneath the surface of the water .
There is some controversy about the nature of the relationship between the indigenous peoples of Ireland and south west Scotland during the late Iron Age . The widely accepted theory is that the latter became populated by immigrants from the former , replacing an earlier culture , although it has also been suggested that the Gaels in this part of Scotland were indigenous to the area .
= = History = =
= = = Dalriada = = =
By the 6th century AD Islay , along with much of mainland Argyll , lay within the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata with strong links to Ireland and , according to the Senchus fer n @-@ Alban ( " The History of the Men of Scotland " ) , was ruled by the kin group Cenél nÓengusa . In 627 the son of a king of the Irish Uí Chóelbad , a branch of the Dál nAraidi kingdom of Ulster , was killed on Islay at the unidentified location of Ard @-@ Corann by a warrior in an army led by King Connad Cerr of the Corcu Réti , a kindred based in Cowal on the mainland of Scotland . The Senchus also lists what is believed to be the oldest reference to a naval battle in the British Isles — a brief record of an engagement between rival Dál Riatan groups in 719 .
There is evidence of another kindred on Islay , the Cenél Conchride , descended from a brother of the legendary Dál Riatan king Fergus Mór but its existence seems to have been brief and the four hundred and thirty households of the island are later said to have been divided between three great @-@ grandsons of the eponymous founder of Cenél nÓengus : Lugaid , Connal and Galán .
= = = Norse influence and the Kingdom of the Isles = = =
The arrival of Scandinavian settlers on the western seaboard of Scotland in the ninth century had a long @-@ lasting effect . For the next four centuries and more all the islands of the west fell under the control of various rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles most of whom were of Norse origin . As is the case in the Northern Isles , the derivation of place names suggests a complete break from the past . Jennings and Kruse conclude that although there were settlements prior to the Norse arrival " there is no evidence from the onomasticon that the inhabitants of these settlements ever existed " . Gaelic continued to exist as a spoken language in the southern Hebrides throughout the Norse period , but the place name evidence suggests it had a lowly status , possibly indicating an enslaved population .
Godred Crovan was one of the Norse @-@ Gael rulers of this Hebridean sea kingdom
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who had a connection with Islay . His origins are obscure . The Chronicles of Mann call him the son of Harald the Black of Ysland , ( his place or origin variously interpreted as Islay , Ireland or Iceland ) and state he " so tamed the Scots that no one who built a ship or boat dared use more than three iron bolts " . Godred also became King of Dublin at an unknown date although in 1094 he was driven out of the city by Muircheartach Ua Briain , later known as High King of Ireland , according to the Annals of the Four Masters . He died " of pestilence " on Islay the following year . A local tradition suggests that a standing stone at Carragh Bhan near Kintra marks Godred Crovan 's grave . A genuine 11th century Norse grave @-@ slab was found at Dóid Mhàiri in 1838 , although it was not associated with a burial . The slab is decorated with foliage in the style of Ringerike Viking art and an Irish @-@ style cross , the former being unique in Scandinavian Scotland .
In the 12th century a granddaughter of Godred Crovan 's married the ambitious Somerled , a Norse @-@ Gael Argyll nobleman . Godred Olafsson , a grandson of Crovan , was an increasingly unpopular King of the Isles at the time and Somerled was spurred into action . The two fought the Battle of Epiphany in the seas off Islay in January 1156 . The result was a bloody stalemate , and the island kingdom was temporarily divided , with Somerled taking control of the southern Hebrides . Two years later Somerled completely ousted Godred and re @-@ united the kingdom , but the divide was re @-@ established after the former 's death in 1164 . His Clann Somhairle descendants continued to describe themselves as " King of the Sudreys " until the 13th century but following the 1266 Treaty of Perth the Hebrides were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland .
= = = Scottish rule = = =
= = = = Lords of the Isles = = = =
Somerled 's descendants became the rulers of various powerful clans , including the MacDougalls , Clan Donald and the Macruaris . Alexander MacDougall 's support of the opponents of King Robert the Bruce led to the forfeiture of his lands and they were distributed between Aonghas Óg
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MacDonald of Islay and the chief of the Macruaris , Ruaidhri mac Ailein , who also held much of Lorne , parts of Lochaber , Garmoran and the North Isles . These estates were eventually inherited by Amie Macruairi of Garmoran . She had married her MacDonald cousin John of Islay in the 1330s , and he now controlled significant stretches of the western seaboard of Scotland from Morvern to Loch Hourn and the whole of the Hebrides save for Skye . From 1336 onwards John began to style himself Dominus Insularum — " Lord of the Isles " , a title that implied a connection to the earlier Kings of the Isles and by extension a degree of independence from the Scottish crown and this honorific was claimed by his heirs for several generations .
Initially , the MacDonald Lords ' power base was on the shores of Loch Finlaggan in northeastern Islay . Successive chiefs of Clan Donald were proclaimed Lord of the Isles there and their advisory " Council of the Isles " met on Eilean na Comhairle . However , as their control of the west grew in strength the twin castles of Aros and Ardtornish in the Sound of Mull had become the " heart of the Lordship " by the early 15th century .
The Islay Charter , a record of lands granted to an Islay resident , Brian Vicar MacKay , by Domhnall of Islay , Lord of the Isles in 1408 , is one of the earliest records of Gaelic in public use , and is a significant historical document . In 1462 , John of Islay , Earl of Ross struck an alliance with Edward IV of England under the terms of the Treaty of Ardtornish @-@ Westminster . The onset of the Wars of the Roses prevented Edward from fulfilling his obligations as an ally , and in 1493 MacDonald was compelled to forfeit his estates and titles to James IV . After the forfeiture , James ordered Finlaggan demolished , its buildings razed , and the coronation stone destroyed to discourage any attempts at restoration of the Lordship . When Martin Martin visited Islay in the late 17th century he recorded a description of the coronations Finlaggan had once seen .
= = = = 16th and 17th centuries = = = =
Initially dispossessed in the wake of royal opposition to the Lordship , Clan MacDonald of Dunnyveg 's holdings in Islay were restored in 1545 . In 1549 , Dean Monro observed that the island was fertile , fruitful , and full of natural pastures , with good hunting and plentiful salmon and seals . He also referred to Dunyvaig Castle in the south east , controlled by Clan Donald and Loch Gorm Castle on Eilean Mòr in Loch Gorm to the west , " now usurped be M ’ Gillayne of Doward " . This implied dispute with the Macleans continued and they were expelled from Loch Gorm by force in 1578 and defeated at the Battle of Traigh Ghruinneart in 1598 . However , a clash with the Irish branch of the family led by Sorley Boy MacDonnell and their unpopularity in Edinburgh ( where their use of Gaelic was regarded as barbaric ) weakened the MacDonald grip on their southern Hebridean possessions . In 1608 the Scottish crown mounted an expedition to subdue them and then in 1614 handed Islay over to Sir John Campbell of Cawdor in return for an undertaking to pacify the island . This the Campbells eventually achieved although a setback occurred during the Civil War when a Covenanter army under Sir David Leslie arrived on the island in 1647 . They besieged a royalist garrison at Dunnyvaig and laid waste to the island . It was not until 1677 that the Campbells felt sufficiently at ease there to construct Islay House at Bridgend ( which is now used as a hotel ) as their principal ( and unfortified ) island residence . The structure was built for Sir Hugh Campbell of Cawdor and is now a Category A listed building .
= = = British era = = =
At the beginning of the 18th century much of the population of Argyll was to be found dispersed in small clachans of farming families and only two villages of any size
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— Killarow near Bridgend and Lagavulin — existed on Islay at the time . ( Killarow had a church and tolbooth and houses for merchants and craft workers but was razed in the 1760s to " improve " the grounds of Islay House . ) The agricultural economy was dependent on arable farming including staples such as barley and oats supplemented with stock @-@ rearing . The carrying capacity of the island was recorded at over 6 @,@ 600 cows and 2 @,@ 200 horses in a 1722 rental listing .
In 1726 Islay was purchased by Daniel Campbell of Shawfield . It remained in his family 's ownership until 1853 when it was sold to James Morrison of Berkshire , ancestor of the third Baron Margadale , who still owns a substantial portion of the island . A defining aspect of 19th century Argyll was the gradual improvement of transport infrastructure . Roads were built , the Crinan canal shortened the sea distance to Glasgow and the numerous traditional ferry crossings were augmented by new quays . Rubble piers were built at several locations on Islay and a new harbour was constructed at Port Askaig .
Initially , a sense of optimism in the fishing and cattle trades prevailed and the population expanded , partly as a result of the 18th century kelp boom and the introduction of the potato as a staple . The population of the island had been estimated at 5 @,@ 344 in 1755 and grew to over 15 @,@ 000 by 1841 . However , the sundering of the relationship between the landowners and the island 's residents proved consequential . When the estate owners realised they could make more money from sheep farming than from the indigenous small farmers , wholesale Clearances became commonplace . Four hundred people emigrated from Islay in 1863 alone , some for purely economic reasons , but many others having been forced off the land their predecessors had farmed for centuries . In 1891 the census recorded only 7 @,@ 375 citizens , with many evictees making new homes in Canada , the United States and elsewhere . The population continued to decline for much of the 20th century and today is about 3 @,@ 500 .
During World War I two troop ships foundered off Islay within a few months of each other in 1918 . The American vessel SS Tuscania was torpedoed by UB @-@ 77 on 5 February with the loss of over 160 lives and now lies in deep water 6 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 4 mi ) west of the Mull of Oa . On 6 October HMS Otranto was involved in a collision with HMS Kashmir in heavy seas while convoying troops from New York . Otranto lost steering and drifted towards the west coast of the Rinns . Answering her SOS the destroyer HMS Mounsey attempted to come alongside and managed to rescue over 350 men . Nonetheless , the Otranto was wrecked on the shore near Machir Bay with a total loss of 431 lives . A monument was erected on the coast of The Oa by the American Red Cross to commemorate the sinking of these two ships . A military cemetery was created at Kilchoman where the dead from both
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nations in the latter disaster were buried ( the American bodies later removed ) .
During World War II , the RAF built an airfield at Glenegedale which later became the civil airport for Islay . There was also an RAF Coastal Command flying boat base at Bowmore from 13 March 1941 using Loch Indaal . In 1944 an RCAF 422 Squadron Sunderland flying boat 's crew were rescued after their aircraft landed off Bowmore but broke from her moorings in a gale and sank . There was an RAF Chain Home radar station at Saligo Bay and RAF Chain Home Low station at Kilchiaran .
= = Economy = =
The mainstays of the modern Islay economy are agriculture and fishing , distilling and tourism .
= = = Agriculture and fishing = = =
Much of Islay remains owned by a few non @-@ resident estate owners and sheep farming and the few dairy cattle herds are run by tenant farmers . Islay has some fine wild brown trout and salmon fishing and in September 2003 the European Fishing Competition was held on five of the island 's numerous lochs ; this was " the biggest fishing event ever to be held in Scotland " . Sea angling is also popular , especially off the west coast and over the many shipwrecks around the coast . There are about 20 commercial boats with crab , lobster and scallop fishing undertaken from Port Askaig , Port Ellen and Portnahaven .
= = = Distilling = = =
Islay is one of five whisky distilling localities and regions in Scotland whose identity is protected by law . There are eight active distilleries and the industry is the island 's second largest employer after agriculture . Those on the south of the island produce malts with a very strong peaty flavour , considered to be the most intensely flavoured of all whiskies . From east to west they are Ardbeg , Lagavulin , and Laphroaig . On the north of the island Bowmore , Bruichladdich , Caol Ila and Bunnahabhain are produced , which are substantially lighter in taste . Kilchoman is a microdistillery opened in 2005 toward the west coast of the Rinns .
The oldest record of a legal distillery on the island refers to Bowmore in 1779 and at one time there were up to 23 distilleries in operation . For example , Port Charlotte distillery operated from 1829 to 1929 and Port Ellen is also closed although it remains in business as a malting . In March 2007 Bruichladdich announced that they would reopen Port Charlotte distillery using equipment from the Inverleven distillery .
= = = Tourism = = =
Some 45 @,@ 000 summer visitors arrive each year by ferry and a further 11 @,@ 000 by air . The main attractions are the scenery , history , bird watching and the world @-@ famous whiskies . The distilleries operate various shops , tours , and visitor centres , and the Finlaggan Trust has a visitor centre which is open daily during the summer .
= = = Renewable energy = = =
The location of Islay , exposed to the full force of the North Atlantic , has led to it being the site of a pioneering , and Scotland 's first , wave power station near Portnahaven . The Islay LIMPET ( Land Installed Marine Powered Energy Transformer ) wave power generator was designed and built by Wavegen and researchers from the Queen 's University of Belfast , and was financially backed by the European Union . Known as Limpet 500 , due to cabling constraints its capacity is limited to providing up to 150 kW of electricity into the island 's grid . In 2000 it became the world 's first commercial wave power station . In March 2011 the largest tidal array in the world was approved by the Scottish Government with 10 planned turbines predicted to generate enough power for over 5 @,@ 000 homes . The project will be located in the Sound of Islay which offers both strong currents and shelter from storms .
= = = Transport = = =
Many of the roads on the island are single @-@ track with passing places . The two main roads are the A846 from Ardbeg to Port Askaig via Port Ellen and Bowmore , and the A847 which runs down the east coast of the Rhinns . The island has its own bus service provided by Islay Coaches and Glenegedale Airport offers flights to and from Glasgow International Airport and on a less regular basis to Oban and Colonsay .
Caledonian MacBrayne operate regular ferry services to Port Ellen and Port Askaig from Kennacraig , taking about two hours . Ferries to Port Askaig also run on to Scalasaig on Colonsay and , on summer Wednesdays , to Oban . The purpose @-@ built vessel , MV Finlaggan entered service in 2011 . ASP Ship Management Ltd operate a small car ferry on behalf of Argyll & Bute Council from Port Askaig to Feolin on Jura . Kintyre Express will begin operating passenger only services between Port Ellen and Ballycastle in Northern Ireland form Fridays to Mondays through June , July and August .
There are various lighthouses on and around Islay as an aid to navigation . These include the Rinns of Islay light built on Orsay in 1825 by Robert Stevenson , Ruvaal at the north western tip of Islay constructed in 1859 , Carraig Fhada at Port Ellen , which has an unusual design , and Dubh Artach , an isolated rock tower some 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) to the north west of Ruvaal .
= = = Other activities = = =
Since 1973 the Ileach has been delivering news to the people of Islay every fortnight and was named community newspaper of the year in 2007 . The Islay Ales Brewery brews various real ales at its premises near Bridgend . In the early 21st century a campus of Sabhal Mòr Ostaig was set up on Islay , Ionad Chaluim Chille Ìle , which teaches Gaelic language , culture and heritage . The Port Mòr community centre at Port Charlotte , which is equipped with a micro @-@ wind turbine and a ground @-@ source heating system , is the creation of local development trust Iomairt Chille Chomain .
= = Gaelic language = =
Islay has historically been a very strong Gaelic @-@ speaking area . In both the 1901 and 1921 censuses , all parishes in Islay were reported to be over 75 percent Gaelic @-@ speaking . By 1971 , the Rhinns had dropped to 50 @-@ 74 percent Gaelic speakers and the rest of Islay to 25 @-@ 49 percent Gaelic speaker overall . By 1991 about a third of the island 's population were Gaelic speakers . In the 2001 census this had dropped to 24 percent , which , while a low figure overall , nonetheless made it the most strongly Gaelic @-@ speaking island in Argyll and Bute after Tiree , with the highest percentage recorded in Portnahaven ( 32 percent ) and the lowest in Gortontaoid ( 17 percent ) , with the far north and south of the island being the weakest areas in general .
The Islay dialect is distinctive . It patterns strongly with other Argyll dialects , especially those of Jura , Colonsay and Kintyre . Amongst its distinctive phonological features are the shift from long / aː / to / ɛː / , a high degree of retention of long / eː / , the shift of dark / l ̪ ˠ / to / t ̪ / , the lack of intrusive / t ̪ / in sr groups ( for example / s ̪ ɾoːn / " nose " rather than / s ̪ t ̪ ɾoːn / ) and the retention of the unlenited past @-@ tense particle d ' ( for example , d 'èirich " rose " instead of dh 'èirich ) . It sits within a group of lexical isoglosses ( i.e. words distinctive to a certain area ) with strong similarities to southern Gaelic and northern Irish dialects . Examples are dhuit " to you " ( instead of the more common dhut ) , the formula gun robh math agad " thank you " ( instead of the more common mòran taing or tapadh leat but compare Irish go raibh maith agat ) , mand " able to " ( instead of the more common urrainn ) or deifir " hurry " ( instead of the more common cabhag , Irish deifir ) .
= = Religion = =
Associated with various Islay churches are cupstones of uncertain age ; these can be seen at Kilchoman
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Church , where the carved cross there is erected on one , and at Kilchiaran Church on the Rhinns . In historic times some may have been associated with pre @-@ Christian wishing ceremonies or pagan beliefs in the " wee folk " .
The early pioneers of Christianity in Dál Riata were Columba of Iona and Moluag of Lismore . The legacy of this period includes the 8th century Kildalton Cross , Islay 's " most famous treasure " , carved out of local epidiorite . A carved cross of similar age , but much more heavily weathered can be found at Kilnave , which may have served as a site of lay worship . Although the first Norse settlers were pagan , Islay has a substantial number of sites of drystone or clay @-@ mortared chapels with small burial grounds from the later Norse era . In the 12th century the island became part of the Diocese of Sodor and the Isles , which was re @-@ established by King Olaf Godredsson . The diocese fell within the jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Nidaros and there were four principal churches on Islay in the Norwegian prestegjeld model : Kilnaughton , Kildalton , Kilarrow and Kilmany . In 1472 Islay became part of the Archdiocese of St Andrews .
Archibald Campbell , 5th Earl of Argyll was a strong supporter of the Reformation , but there is little evidence that his beliefs were greeted with much enthusiasm by the islanders initially . At first there were only two reformed churches but in 1642 three parishes were created , based at Kilchoman , Kilarrow and a new church at Dunyvaig . By the end of the century there were seven churches including one on Nave Island . Kilarrow Parish Church is round , as local folklore has it , to leave no corner for the devil to hide in . This " architectural gem " was constructed in 1767 by Daniel Campbell , the laird of Islay . The kirk on the Rhinns of Islay is St Kiaran 's , located just outside the village of Port Charlotte and Port Ellen is served by St John 's . There are a variety of other Church of Scotland churches and various other congregations on the island . Baptists meet in Port Ellen and in Bowmore , the Scottish Episcopal Church of St. Columba is located in Bridgend and the Islay Roman Catholic congregation also uses St. Columba 's for its services .
= = Media and the arts = =
Islay was featured in some of the scenes of the 1954 film The Maggie , and the 1942 documentary " Coastal Command " was partly filmed in Bowmore .
In 1967 – 68 , folk @-@ rock singer Donovan included " The Isle of Islay " in his album , A Gift from a Flower to a Garden , a song praising the pastoral beauties of the island . " Westering Home " is a 20th @-@ century Scottish song about Islay written by Hugh S. Roberton , derived from an earlier Gaelic song .
In the 1990s the BBC adaptation of Para Handy was partly filmed in Port Charlotte and Bruichladdich and featured a race between the Vital Spark ( Para Handy 's puffer ) and a rival along the length of Loch Indaal . In 2007 , parts of the BBC Springwatch programme were recorded on Islay with Simon King being based on Islay . The British Channel 4 archaeological television programme Time Team excavated at Finlaggan , the episode being first broadcast in 1995 .
In 2000 , Japanese author Murakami Haruki visited the island to sample seven single malt whiskies on the island and later wrote a travel book called If our language were whiskey .
= = Wildlife = =
Islay is home to many species of wildlife and is especially known for its birds . Winter @-@ visiting barnacle goose numbers have reached 35 @,@ 000 in recent years with as many as 10 @,@ 000 arriving in a single day . There are also up to 12 @,@ 000 Greenland white @-@ fronted geese , and smaller numbers of brent , pinkfooted and Canada geese are often found amongst these flocks . Other waterfowl include whooper and mute swans , eider duck , Slavonian grebe , goldeneye , long @-@ tailed duck and wigeon . The elusive corncrake and sanderling , ringed plover and curlew sandpiper are amongst the summer visitors . Resident birds include red @-@ billed chough , hen harrier , golden eagle , peregrine falcon , barn owl , raven , oystercatcher and guillemot . The re @-@ introduced white @-@ tailed sea eagle is now seen regularly around the coasts . In all , about 105 species breed on the island each year and between 100 and 120 different species can be seen at any one time .
A population of several thousand red deer inhabit the moors and hills . Fallow deer can be found in the southeast , and roe deer are common on low @-@ lying ground . Otters are common around the coasts along Nave Island , and common and grey seals breed on Nave Island . Offshore , a variety of cetaceans are regularly recorded including minke whales , pilot whales , killer whales and bottle @-@ nosed dolphins . The only snake on Islay is the adder and the common lizard is widespread although not commonly seen . The island supports a significant population of the marsh fritillary along with numerous other moths and butterflies . The mild climate supports a diversity of flora , typical of the Inner Hebrides .
= = Notable natives = =
John Francis Campbell , authority on Celtic folklore and joint inventor of the Campbell – Stokes recorder . The son of Daniel Campbell of Shawfield , his father 's bankruptcy prevented him inheriting the Islay estate . There is a monument commemorating him at Bridgend .
Glenn Campbell , Scottish political reporter for the BBC , was brought up on Islay and attended Islay High School .
Alistair Carmichael , the Liberal Democrat Deputy Chief Whip , was born on Islay to hill @-@ farming parents . He has represented Orkney and Shetland at Westminster since 2001 .
The Islay @-@ born Reverend Donald Caskie ( 1902 – 1983 ) became known as the " Tartan Pimpernel " for his exploits in France during World War II .
John Crawfurd was born on Islay in 1783 and during a long career as a colonial administrator he became governor of Singapore . He also wrote a number of books including Journal of an Embassy from the Governor General of India to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China ( 1828 ) .
David MacIntyre from Portnahaven , recipient of the Victoria Cross .
General Alexander McDougall , a figure in the American Revolution and the first president of the Bank of New York , was born in Kildalton in 1731 .
George Robertson , formerly secretary @-@ general of NATO and British Defence Secretary . In 1999 he was made Lord Robertson of Port Ellen .
Sir William Stewart ( born 1935 ) steered a course from Bowmore junior school to become the UK government ’ s Chief Scientific Adviser in the late 1980s and early 1990s .
= Mark Bresciano =
Mark " Marco " Bresciano ( Italian pronunciation : [ breʃˈʃano ] ; born 11 February 1980 ) is an Australian football ( soccer ) player who last played for Qatar Stars League side Al @-@ Gharafa as a midfielder . He represented Australia at all youth levels , including appearances at the 1999 FIFA World Youth Championship and 2000 Olympic Games . For several years he was a
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regular member of the Australian national team , and represented Australia at the 2006 , 2010 and 2014 FIFA World Cups . Since the age of 19 he played senior club football in Italy with Empoli , Parma , Palermo and Lazio before moving to the United Arab Emirates .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early days in Australia = = =
Bresciano grew up in Rosanna , Melbourne . He began playing football locally and later progressed to the first team of Victorian Premier League side Bulleen Lions in 1995 at the age of 15 . He made little impact until his third year in the first team , scoring four goals in four league games and helping Bulleen to the 1997 VPL grand final . Bresciano 's reputation began to grow and he was selected in an Australian Schoolboys squad that toured the United Kingdom in 1996 . In 1997 , he featured prominently in Australia 's unsuccessful U17 World Cup qualifying campaign , scoring five goals .
At the end of the 1997 season and upon completing high school at Marcellin College , he was offered a place at the Australian Institute of Sport , where he reunited with childhood pal Vince Grella . The players ' careers would mirror in the coming years as the two supported their footballing endeavours on and off the field . He and Vince Grella signed with new National Soccer League ( NSL ) club Carlton for the 1997 – 98 season , but Bresciano was forced to wait until Round 17 to make his NSL debut . He then played every game for the rest of the year , as Carlton finished second with a place in the finals . Bresciano scored in injury time to win the elimination semi @-@ final and put the club into its first grand final , which they lost 2 – 1 . He stayed with the Blues for the 1998 – 99 season , scoring four goals in 18 games , but the club finished well outside the top six . In 1998 and 1999 , Bresciano made a number of appearances for Australia in various matches at Under @-@ 20 and Under @-@ 23 level , including the 1999 FIFA World Youth Championship , where the Young Socceroos were eliminated in the first round .
= = = Move to Italy = = =
As for many Australian players , a career in Europe beckoned for Bresciano as he sought to develop his game and further his career . Bresciano and Grella had sights set on a move to Italy , spurred in part by their Italian heritage . The pair joined Empoli in 1999 , who had been relegated to Serie B the previous season , and became regular selections in the first team . In Bresciano 's third year at the club , he scored 10 goals and helped Empoli to a fourth position and promotion back to the top @-@ flight Serie A. The pair also appeared several times in the Australian Under @-@ 23 team in the lead @-@ up to the 2000 Olympics , particularly in friendlies held in Europe . They were both included in the team for the Sydney Olympics , although Bresciano only saw limited action as a substitute . The following year , his efforts with the Olympic squad were rewarded with a call @-@ up to the " Socceroos . " On 1 June 2001 , Bresciano received his first cap for Australia in a Confederations Cup match against France , coming on as a substitute in the 78th minute for Josip Skoko . He made a further five appearances that year for the " Socceroos , " including another match against France in a friendly at the Melbourne Cricket Ground ( MCG ) , again replacing Skoko as a substitute .
In the summer of 2002 , he joined Parma for € 7 million , at the time a record transfer fee for an Australian player . " Moving to Parma was a big change in every way , not just money @-@ wise but it is a big club . The structure of the club , the facilities , its popularity means you are under a lot more pressure to get a result , " he said following the close of the season , well aware of his profile . Though he was hampered by a series of injuries , his 24 appearances in 2002 – 03 helped Parma to fifth and a UEFA Cup place . With Empoli being relegated again , he was reunited with Grella who stayed in Serie A with a transfer to Parma .
= = = Goal scoring for Parma and Socceroos = = =
Setting himself a target for the 2003 – 04 season of five goals , Bresciano surpassed that with eight goals from 33 appearances , the most of any midfielder in the Serie A , as Parma finished fifth in the league again . Bresciano had also claimed a regular spot in the " Socceroos " line @-@ up , justifying his selection with a string of goals , including a match @-@ winning free @-@ kick against New Zealand and the only goal in a one @-@ nil victory against South Africa . Parma 's fifth place qualified them for the UEFA Cup , where the club advanced through to the semi @-@ finals before being eliminated by eventual winners CSKA Moscow . Their league performance that year was in stark contrast to their UEFA Cup form , as they were forced in to a play @-@ off to retain their Serie A status by finishing 18th in the league . Bresciano and Grella were excused from the 2005 Confederations Cup by then @-@ Australian manager Frank Farina to allow them to take part in the play @-@ off against Bologna — Parma went on to win the tie and remained in Serie A for the following season . Both players returned to the Australian squad in September 2005 , now under the direction of Guus Hiddink , for World Cup qualification playoff against the Solomon Islands , followed by a friendly against Jamaica where Bresciano scored the first of Australia 's five goals . After playing the first leg of the CONMEBOL – OFC World Cup qualification play @-@ off against Uruguay on 12 November , Bresciano scored the only goal in the second leg four days later . The 1 – 0 win levelled the playoff 1 – 1 on aggregate after extra time and the
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" Socceroos " won the ensuing penalty shoot @-@ out to advance to the World Cup .
Parma recovered well in the 2005 – 06 season with Bresciano playing the majority of games , finishing a respectable 10th by season 's end in May 2006 ( later rising to seventh and a UEFA Cup place after the Calciopoli findings ) . Bresciano described their resurgence as physically finding their form . Despite starting poorly , the team went from " strength to strength " as the season went on , with Bresciano himself becoming mentally tougher for the experience .
= = = 2006 World Cup = = =
Buoyed by his strong club season , Bresciano played in Australia 's opening game of the 2006 FIFA World Cup , being substituted before the team went on to score three goals and defeat Japan . He came on as a substitute in the second game against Brazil and , in the third Group Stage game , was instrumental in the 79th @-@ minute goal scored by Harry Kewell against Croatia . The goal resulted in a 2 – 2 draw , a result securing Australia 's place in the second round . Against Italy , Bresciano was judged to be in a scoring position in the 50th minute when fouled by Marco Materazzi , the Italian receiving a red card . Italy went on to win after being awarded a penalty in the dying minutes of the game , eliminating the " Socceroos . " After being identified as a key player for Australia , Bresciano 's overall performance at the tournament failed to live up to expectations , described by an FFA writer as " solid without being spectacular , " although his role as a set @-@ piece @-@ specialist was highlighted .
= = = Palermo and Asian Cup = = =
Shortly after the end of the World Cup , Bresciano was signed by Palermo on a four @-@ year @-@ contract , and made regular first team appearances in the Serie A and Europe . In October 2006 Bresciano scored what some – including Socceroos Assistant Coach John Kosmina – have described as the greatest goal ever scored for Australia in a full international match . In an Asian Cup qualification match against Bahrain , Mile Sterjovski received a cross @-@ field pass which was played first @-@ time back in to the penalty area , Bresciano reacting quickly to turn his body horizontally and strike the ball on the volley into the net . The goal drew comparisons to his first goal for Palermo in Serie A , two months earlier , against Reggina on the opening day of
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the 2006 – 07 season . Bresciano was on the pitch on 2 February 2007 , when violence broke out outside the stadium in the Catania @-@ Palermo match . He was affected by tear gas as it drifted into the stadium and afterwards described the incident as " completely terrifying " . He scored his ninth international goal against China in March 2007 . A hamstring injury suffered in May caused him to miss the final round match for Palermo , Australia 's friendly against Uruguay on 2 June and hampered his preparations for the 2007 AFC Asian Cup . However , he recovered in time for a warmup match against Singapore and played all of Australia 's first two Asian Cup matches . He was substituted in the second half against Thailand and the quarter @-@ final against Japan before the Socceroos ' elimination on penalties . The Sydney Morning Herald rated the 71 minutes played against Japan as his best performance of the tournament , after average displays in the early matches .
Bresciano returned to the national team in February 2008 for Australia 's opening World Cup qualification match against Qatar , starting the match and scoring the Socceroos third goal . He also played a full 90 minutes in the second group match , away to China . The new campaign has also seen Bresciano change squad numbers , wearing ' 18 ' in the two qualifiers , as opposed to his traditional ' 23 ' which he has worn for the majority of his Socceroo career .
= = = To England and back = = =
On return from Australia 's Asian Cup exit , Bresciano became a transfer target for Premier League club Manchester City . After confirmation from new Palermo manager Stefano Colantuono that he would be leaving Palermo for Manchester , the clubs agreed to a four @-@ year contract with a transfer price of £ 5 million and he began training with the City squad . " I needed a new challenge and I wanted to get the excitement factor back into my game , " Mark stated in confirming his desire to play in England , also citing the chance to play under Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson as a big reason for seeking to make the switch . However , talks between the two clubs broke down in finalising the move , with the timing of the transfer fee given as the primary issue – as City sought to delay payment – and Bresciano returned to Palermo to rejoin their pre @-@ season preparations . As the transfer deadline passed and the deal was put off indefinitely , Bresciano continued training with Palermo . He came off the bench for their opening @-@ day loss to Roma , and remained a regular selection under new manager Francesco Guidolin , although more commonly from the substitute bench .
He came off the bench in the first match of the 2008 – 09 season to score a goal , although Palermo lost 3 – 1 to Udinese . He then established himself back in the starting line @-@ up following the appointment of new head coach Davide Ballardini , playing both as a winger and a deep @-@ lying forward for the rosanero , and also managing to score both goals in Palermo 's second seasonal away win , a 2 – 0 to Sampdoria on 18 January 2009 .
= = = Lazio = = =
On 3 July 2010 , it was confirmed that Bresciano had signed for Lazio on a two @-@ year @-@ contract . Bresciano scored his first goal for Lazio in the Coppa Italia third round win over Serie B outfit Portogruaro on 27 October 2010 .
= = = Al @-@ Nasr = = =
On 9 August 2011 , it was announced he had signed a contract with UAE Pro @-@ League side Al @-@ Nasr Dubai for free .
= = = Al @-@ Gharafa = = =
On 6 August 2012 , Bresciano joined Qatar Stars League side Al @-@ Gharafa on a three @-@ year contract . He unilaterally breach the contract with Al @-@ Nasr in order to finalize the transfer .
On
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4 October 2013 , Bresciano was suspended for four months and fined € 1 @,@ 377 @,@ 000 after the manner in which he transferred to Al @-@ Gharafa from Al Nasr , putting serious doubt into his chances for a third World Cup . On the 8 January , Bresciano was cleared to play for the Socceroos in the 2014 World Cup . The ban was ended on 3 February 2014 . Both Bresciano and Al @-@ Nasr had appealed to the Court of Arbitration for Sport , however the transfer ban of the club , the ban and fine of Bresciano were dismissed .
= = Style = =
Bresciano is one of Australia 's most talented footballers and has a renowned eye for goal . He usually plays his football on the left side of midfield but can also play as a forward and in the central or right midfield role . Bresciano is a versatile player who often assists in both attack and defence and is also a set @-@ piece specialist .
Bresciano is also popular for his " Spartacus " goal celebration , that involves the player stopping in the position from where he shot from , clenching his fists by his side and raising his chin . He stands still , usually until mobbed by his teammates coming to celebrate the goal .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Name = = =
Bresciano 's correct first name is Mark and not , as is often reported , " Marco " . Interviewed for the TV documentary The Away Game , he said " In Australia , it 's Marco . In Italy , it 's Mark . Work that one out . My birth certificate says Mark . But I 'm named after my grandfather Marco . I like Marco but not Mark @-@ O. I prefer Mark " .
= = = Family = = =
Bresciano 's father is Italian ( from Viggiano , Basilicata ) and his mother Croatian ( from Antonci , in Istria ) . His younger brother Robert currently plays for Fawkner Blues in the Victorian Premier League . He married his childhood sweetheart Renée Capitanio in May 2006 in Heidelberg , Melbourne , after proposing to her at the Romeo and Juliet House in Verona . In February 2007 , the couple welcomed their first child , a daughter named Alessia and in May 2009 , the couple welcomed their second child , a daughter named Montana .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Statistics accurate as of 12 March 2015 .
Cup includes domestic cups , promotion / relegation playoffs and NSL / VPL Finals series
= = = International career = = =
As of 22 January 2015
= = = = International goals = = = =
Scores and results list Australia 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = International = = =
Australia
OFC U @-@ 20 Championship : 1998
OFC Nations Cup : 2004
AFC Asian Cup : 2015
= Milton Friedman =
Milton Friedman ( July 31 , 1912 – November 16 , 2006 ) was an American economist who received the 1976 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his research on consumption analysis , monetary history and theory and the complexity of stabilization policy . With George Stigler and others , Friedman was among the intellectual leaders of the second generation of Chicago price theory , a methodological movement at the University of Chicago 's Department of Economics , Law School , and Graduate School of Business from the 1940s onward . Several students and young professors that were recruited or mentored by Friedman at Chicago went on to become leading economists ; they include Gary Becker , Robert Fogel , and Robert Lucas , Jr .
Friedman 's challenges to what he later called " naive Keynesian " theory began with his 1950s reinterpretation of the consumption function . In the 1960s , he became the main advocate opposing Keynesian government policies , and described his approach ( along with mainstream economics ) as using " Keynesian language and apparatus " yet rejecting its " initial " conclusions . He theorized that there existed a " natural " rate of unemployment , and argued that employment above this rate would cause inflation to accelerate . He argued that the Phillips curve was , in the long run , vertical at the " natural rate " and predicted what would come to be known as stagflation . Friedman promoted an alternative macroeconomic viewpoint known as " monetarism " , and argued that a steady , small expansion of the money supply was the preferred policy . His ideas concerning monetary policy , taxation , privatization and deregulation influenced government policies , especially during the 1980s . His monetary theory influenced the Federal Reserve 's response to the global financial crisis of 2007 – 08 .
Friedman was an advisor to Republican U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Conservative British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher . His political philosophy extolled the virtues of a free market economic system with minimal intervention . He once stated that his role in eliminating U.S. conscription was his proudest accomplishment . In his 1962 book Capitalism and Freedom , Friedman advocated policies such as a volunteer military , freely floating exchange rates , abolition of medical licenses , a negative income tax , and school vouchers . His support for school choice led him to found the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice .
Milton Friedman 's works include many monographs , books , scholarly articles , papers , magazine columns , television programs , and lectures , and cover a broad range of economic topics and public policy issues . His books and essays have had an international influence , including in former communist states . A survey of economists ranked Friedman as the second most popular economist of the twentieth century after John Maynard Keynes , and The Economist described him as " the most influential economist of the second half of the 20th century ... possibly of all of it . "
= = Early life = =
Friedman was born in Brooklyn , New York on July 31 , 1912 . His parents , Sára Ethel ( née Landau ) and Jenő Saul Friedman , were recent Jewish immigrants from Beregszász in Carpathian Ruthenia , Kingdom of Hungary ( now Berehove in Ukraine ) . They both worked as dry goods merchants . Shortly after Milton 's birth , the family relocated to Rahway , New Jersey . In his early teens , Friedman was injured in a car accident , which scarred his upper lip . A talented student , Friedman graduated from Rahway High School in 1928 , just before his 16th birthday .
In 1932 , Friedman graduated from Rutgers University , where he specialized in Mathematics and Economics and initially intended to become an actuary . During his time at Rutgers , Friedman became influenced by two economics professors , Arthur F. Burns and Homer Jones , who convinced him that modern economics could help end the Great Depression .
After graduating from Rutgers , Friedman was offered two scholarships to do graduate work — one in mathematics at Brown University and the other in economics at the University of Chicago . Friedman chose the latter , thus earning a Master of Arts degree in 1933 . He was strongly influenced by Jacob Viner , Frank Knight , and Henry Simons . It was at Chicago that Friedman met his future wife , economist Rose Director . During the 193
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3 – 1934 academic year he had a fellowship at Columbia University , where he studied statistics with renowned statistician and economist Harold Hotelling . He was back in Chicago for the 1934 – 1935 academic year , working as a research assistant for Henry Schultz , who was then working on Theory and Measurement of Demand . That year , Friedman formed what would prove to be lifelong friendships with George Stigler and W. Allen Wallis .
= = Public service = =
Friedman was initially unable to find academic employment , so in 1935 he followed his friend W. Allen Wallis to Washington , where Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal was " a lifesaver " for many young economists . At this stage , Friedman said that he and his wife " regarded the job @-@ creation programs such as the WPA , CCC , and PWA appropriate responses to the critical situation , " but not " the price- and wage @-@ fixing measures of the National Recovery Administration and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration . " Foreshadowing his later ideas , he believed price controls interfered with an essential signaling mechanism to help resources be used where they were most valued . Indeed , Friedman later concluded that all government intervention associated with the New Deal was " the wrong cure for the wrong disease , " arguing that the money supply should simply have been expanded , instead of contracted . Later , Friedman and his colleague Anna Schwartz wrote A Monetary History of the United States , 1867 – 1960 , which argued that the Great Depression was caused by a severe monetary contraction due to banking crises and poor policy on the part of the Federal Reserve .
During 1935 , he began work for the National Resources Committee , which was then working on a large consumer budget survey . Ideas from this project later became a part of his Theory of the Consumption Function . Friedman began employment with the National Bureau of Economic Research during autumn 1937 to assist Simon Kuznets in his work on professional income . This work resulted in their jointly authored publication Incomes from Independent Professional Practice , which introduced the concepts of permanent and transitory income , a major component of the Permanent Income Hypothesis that Friedman worked out in greater detail in the 1950s . The book hypothesizes that professional licensing artificially restricts the supply of services and raises prices .
During 1940 , Friedman was appointed an assistant professor teaching Economics at the University of Wisconsin – Madison , but encountered antisemitism in the Economics department and decided to return to government service . From 1941 to 1943 Friedman worked on wartime tax policy for the Federal Government , as an advisor to senior officials of the United States Department of the Treasury . As a Treasury spokesman during 1942 he advocated a Keynesian policy of taxation . He helped to invent the payroll withholding tax system , since the federal government badly needed money in order to fight the war . He later said , " I have no apologies for it , but I really wish we hadn 't found it necessary and I wish there were some way of abolishing withholding now . "
= = Academic career = =
= = = Early years = = =
In 1940 , Friedman accepted a position at the University of Wisconsin – Madison , but left because of differences with faculty regarding United States involvement in World War II . Friedman believed the United States should enter the war . In 1943 , Friedman joined the Division of War Research at Columbia University ( headed by W. Allen Wallis and Harold Hotelling ) , where he spent the rest of World War II working as a mathematical statistician , focusing on problems of weapons design , military tactics , and metallurgical experiments .
In 1945 , Friedman submitted Incomes from Independent Professional Practice ( co @-@ authored with Kuznets and completed during 1940 ) to Columbia as his doctoral dissertation . The university awarded him a PhD in 1946 . Friedman spent the 1945 – 1946 academic year teaching at the University of Minnesota ( where his friend George Stigler was employed ) . On February 12 , 1945 , his son , David D. Friedman was born .
= = = University of Chicago = = =
In 1946 , Friedman accepted an offer to teach economic theory at the University of Chicago ( a position opened by departure of his former professor Jacob Viner to Princeton University ) . Friedman would work for the University of Chicago for the next 30 years . There he contributed to the establishment of an intellectual community that produced a number of Nobel Prize winners , known collectively as the Chicago school of economics .
At that time , Arthur F. Burns , who was then the head of the National Bureau of Economic Research , asked Friedman to rejoin the Bureau 's staff . He accepted the invitation , and assumed responsibility for the Bureau 's inquiry into the role of money in the business cycle . As a result , he initiated the " Workshop in Money and Banking " ( the " Chicago Workshop " ) , which promoted a revival of monetary studies . During the latter half of the 1940s , Friedman began a collaboration with Anna Schwartz , an economic historian at the Bureau , that would ultimately result in the 1963 publication of a book co @-@ authored by Friedman and Schwartz , A Monetary History of the United States , 1867 – 1960 .
Friedman spent the 1954 – 1955 academic year as a Fulbright Visiting Fellow at Gonville and Caius College , Cambridge . At the time , the Cambridge economics faculty was divided into a Keynesian majority ( including Joan Robinson and Richard Kahn ) and an anti @-@ Keynesian minority ( headed by Dennis Robertson ) . Friedman speculated that he was invited to the fellowship , because his views were unacceptable to both of the Cambridge factions . Later his weekly columns for Newsweek magazine ( 1966 – 84 ) were well read and increasingly influential among political and business people . From 1968 to 1978 , he and Paul Samuelson participated in the Economics Cassette Series , a biweekly subscription series where the economist would discuss the days ' issues for about a half @-@ hour at a time .
Friedman was an economic adviser to Republican presidential candidate Barry Goldwater during 1964 .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Retirement = = =
In 1977 , at the age of 65 , Friedman retired from the University of Chicago after teaching there for 30 years . He and his
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wife moved to San Francisco where he became a visiting scholar at the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco . From 1977 on , he was affiliated with the Hoover Institution at Stanford University . During the same year , Friedman was approached by the Free To Choose Network and asked to create a television program presenting his economic and social philosophy .
The Friedmans worked on this project for the next three years , and during 1980 , the ten @-@ part series , titled Free to Choose , was broadcast by the Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) . The companion book to the series ( co @-@ authored by Milton and his wife , Rose Friedman ) , also titled Free To Choose , was the bestselling nonfiction book of 1980 and has since been translated into 14 foreign languages .
Friedman served as an unofficial adviser to Ronald Reagan during his 1980 presidential campaign , and then served on the President 's Economic Policy Advisory Board for the rest of the Reagan Administration . Ebenstein says Friedman was " the ' guru ' of the Reagan administration . " In 1988 he received the National Medal of Science and Reagan honored him with the Presidential Medal of Freedom . Milton Friedman is known now as one of the most influential economists of the 20th century . Throughout the 1980s and 1990s , Friedman continued to write editorials and appear on television . He made several visits to Eastern Europe and to China , where he also advised governments . He was also for many years a Trustee of the Philadelphia Society .
= = = Later life = = =
According to a 2007 article in Commentary magazine , his " parents were moderately observant [ Jews ] , but Friedman , after an intense burst of childhood piety , rejected religion altogether . " He described himself as an agnostic . Friedman wrote extensively of his life and experiences , especially in 1998 in his memoirs with his wife Rose , titled Two Lucky People .
= = = Death = = =
Friedman died of heart failure at the age of 94 years in San Francisco on November 16 , 2006 . He was still a working economist performing original economic research ; his last column was published in the The Wall Street Journal the day after his death . He was survived by his wife ( who died on August 18 , 2009 ) and their two children , David , known for the anarcho @-@ capitalist book The Machinery of Freedom , and Janet .
= = Scholarly contributions = =
= = = Economics = = =
Friedman was best known for reviving interest in the money supply as a determinant of the nominal value of output , that is , the quantity theory of money . Monetarism is the set of views associated with modern quantity theory . Its origins can be traced back to the 16th @-@ century School of Salamanca or even further ; however , Friedman 's contribution is largely responsible for its modern popularization . He co @-@ authored , with Anna Schwartz , A Monetary History of the United States , 1867 – 1960 ( 1963 ) , which was an examination of the role of the money supply and economic activity in the U.S. history . A striking conclusion of their research regarded the way in which money supply fluctuations contribute to economic fluctuations . Several regression studies with David Meiselman during the 1960s suggested the primacy of the money supply over investment and government spending in determining consumption and output . These challenged a prevailing , but largely untested , view on their relative importance . Friedman 's empirical research and some theory supported the conclusion that the short @-@ run effect of a change of the money supply was primarily on output but that the longer @-@ run effect was primarily on the price level .
Friedman was the main proponent of the monetarist school of economics . He maintained that there is a close and stable association between inflation and the money supply , mainly that inflation could be avoided with proper regulation of the monetary base 's growth rate . He famously used the analogy of " dropping money out of a helicopter . " , in order to avoid dealing with money injection mechanisms and other factors that would overcomplicate his models .
Friedman 's arguments were designed to counter the popular concept of Cost @-@ push inflation , that the increased General Price Level at the time was the result of increases in the price of oil , or increases in wages ; as he wrote ,
Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon .
Friedman rejected the use of fiscal policy as a tool of demand management ; and he held that the government 's role in the guidance of the economy should be restricted severely . Friedman wrote extensively on the Great Depression , which he termed the Great Contraction , arguing that it had been caused by an ordinary financial shock whose duration and seriousness were greatly increased by the subsequent contraction of the money supply caused by the misguided policies of the directors of the Federal Reserve .
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The Fed was largely responsible for converting what might have been a garden @-@ variety recession , although perhaps a fairly severe one , into a major catastrophe . Instead of using its powers to offset the depression , it presided over a decline in the quantity of money by one @-@ third from 1929 to 1933 ... Far from the depression being a failure of the free @-@ enterprise system , it was a tragic failure of government .
Friedman also argued for the cessation of government intervention in currency markets , thereby spawning an enormous literature on the subject , as well as promoting the practice of freely floating exchange rates . His close friend George Stigler explained , " As is customary in science , he did not win a full victory , in part because research was directed along different lines by the theory of rational expectations , a newer approach developed by Robert Lucas , also at the University of Chicago . " The relationship between Friedman and Lucas , or new classical macroeconomics as a whole , was highly complex . The Friedmanian Phillips curve was an interesting starting point for Lucas , but he soon realized that the solution provided by Friedman was not quite satisfactory . Lucas elaborated a new approach in which rational expectations were presumed instead of the Friedmanian adaptive expectations . Due to this reformulation , the story in which the theory of the new classical Phillips curve was embedded radically changed . This modification , however , had a significant effect on Friedman ’ s own approach , so , as a result , the theory of the Friedmanian Phillips curve also changed . Moreover , new classical Neil Wallace , who was a graduate student at the University of Chicago between 1960 and 1963 , regarded Friedman ’ s theoretical courses as a mess . This evaluation clearly indicates the broken relationship between Friedmanian monetarism and new classical macroeconomics .
Friedman was also known for his work on the consumption function , the permanent income hypothesis ( 1957 ) , which Friedman himself referred to as his best scientific work . This work contended that rational consumers would spend a proportional amount of what they perceived to be their permanent income . Windfall gains would mostly be saved . Tax reductions likewise , as rational consumers would predict that taxes would have to increase later to balance public finances . Other important contributions include his critique of the Phillips curve and the concept of the natural rate of unemployment ( 1968 ) . This critique associated his name , together with that of Edmund Phelps , with the insight that a government that brings about greater inflation cannot permanently reduce unemployment by doing so . Unemployment may be temporarily lower , if the inflation is a surprise , but in the long run unemployment will be determined by the frictions and imperfections of the labor market .
Friedman 's essay " The Methodology of Positive Economics " ( 1953 ) provided the epistemological pattern for his own subsequent research and to a degree that of the Chicago School . There he argued that economics as science should be free of value judgments for it to be objective . Moreover , a useful economic theory should be judged not by its descriptive realism but by its simplicity and fruitfulness as an engine of prediction . That is , students should measure the accuracy of its predictions , rather than the ' soundness of its assumptions ' . His argument was part of an ongoing debate among such statisticians as Jerzy Neyman , Leonard Savage , and Ronald Fisher .
= = = Statistics = = =
One of his most famous contributions to statistics is sequential sampling . Friedman did statistical work at the Division of War Research at Columbia , where he and his colleagues came up with the technique . It later became , in the words of The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics , " the standard analysis of quality control inspection " . The dictionary adds , " Like many of Friedman ’ s contributions , in retrospect it seems remarkably simple and obvious to apply basic economic ideas to quality control ; that however is a measure of his genius . "
= = Public policy positions = =
= = = Federal Reserve = = =
Due to its poor performance , Friedman believed that the Federal Reserve Board should be abolished . He further believed that if the money supply was to be centrally controlled ( as by the Federal Reserve System ) that the preferable way to do it would be with a mechanical system that would keep the quantity of money increasing at a steady rate .
= = = Exchange rates = = =
Friedman was a strong advocate for floating exchange rates throughout the entire Bretton @-@ Woods period . He argued that a flexible exchange rate would make external adjustment possible and allow countries to avoid Balance of Payments crises . He saw fixed exchange rates as an undesirable form of government intervention . The case was articulated in an influential 1953 paper , " The Case for Flexible Exchange Rates " , at a time , when most commentators regarded the possibility of floating exchange rates as a fantasy .
= = = School choice = = =
In his 1955 article " The Role of Government in Education " Friedman proposed supplementing publicly operated schools with privately run but publicly funded schools through a system of school vouchers . Reforms similar to those proposed in the article were implemented in , for example , Chile in 1981 and Sweden in 1992 . In 1996 , Friedman , together with his wife , founded The Foundation for Educational Choice to advocate school choice and vouchers .
= = = Conscription = = =
While Walter Oi is credited with establishing the economic basis for a volunteer military , Milton Friedman was a proponent , stating that the draft was " inconsistent with a free society . " In Capitalism and Freedom , he argued that conscription is inequitable and arbitrary , preventing young men from shaping their lives as they see fit . During the Nixon administration he headed the committee to research a conversion to paid / volunteer armed force . He would later state that his role in eliminating the conscription in the United States was his proudest accomplishment . Friedman did , however , believe a nation could compel military training as a reserve in case of war time .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Biographer Lanny Ebenstein noted a drift over time in Friedman 's views from an interventionist to a more cautious foreign policy . He supported US involvement in the Second World War and initially supported a hard line against Communism , but moderated over time . He opposed the Gulf War and the Iraq War . In a spring 2006 interview , Friedman said that the USA 's stature in the world had been eroded by the Iraq War , but that it might be improved if Iraq were to become a peaceful independent country .
= = = Libertarianism and the Republican Party = = =
He served as a member of President Reagan 's Economic Policy Advisory Board starting at 1981 . In 1988 , he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the National Medal of Science . He said that he was a libertarian philosophically , but a member of the U.S. Republican Party for the sake of " expediency " ( " I am a libertarian with a small ' l ' and a Republican with a capital ' R. ' And I am a Republican with a capital ' R ' on grounds of expediency , not on principle . " ) But , he said , " I think the term classical liberal is also equally applicable . I don 't really care very much what I 'm called . I 'm much more interested in having people thinking about the ideas , rather than the person . "
= = = Public goods and monopoly = = =
Friedman was supportive of the state provision of some public goods that private businesses are not considered as being able to provide . However , he argued that many of the services performed by government could be performed better by the private sector . Above all , if some public goods are provided by the state , he believed that they should not be a legal monopoly where private competition is prohibited ; for example , he wrote :
There is no way to justify our present public monopoly of the post office . It may be argued that the carrying of mail is a technical monopoly and that a government monopoly is the least of evils . Along these lines , one could perhaps justify a government post office , but not the present law , which makes it illegal for anybody else to carry the mail . If the delivery of mail is a technical monopoly , no one else will be able to succeed in competition with the government . If it is not , there is no reason why the government should be engaged in it . The only way to find out is to leave other people free to enter .
= = = Social security , welfare programs , and negative income tax = = =
After 1960 Friedman attacked Social Security from a free market view stating that it had created welfare dependency .
Friedman proposed that if there had to be a welfare system of any kind , he would replace the existing U.S. welfare system with a negative income tax , a progressive tax system in which the poor receive a basic living income from the government . According to the New York Times , Friedman 's views in this regard were grounded in a belief that while " market forces ... accomplish wonderful things " , they " cannot ensure a distribution of income that enables all citizens to meet basic economic needs " .
= = = Drug policy =
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Friedman also supported libertarian policies such as legalization of drugs and prostitution . During 2005 , Friedman and more than 500 other economists advocated discussions regarding the economic benefits of the legalization of marijuana .
= = = Gay rights = = =
Friedman was also a supporter of gay rights . He never specifically supported same @-@ sex marriage , instead saying " I do not believe there should be any discrimination against gays . "
= = = Economic freedom = = =
Michael Walker of the Fraser Institute and Friedman hosted a series of conferences from 1986 to 1994 . The goal was to create a clear definition of economic freedom and a method for measuring it . Eventually this resulted in the first report on worldwide economic freedom , Economic Freedom in the World . This annual report has since provided data for numerous peer @-@ reviewed studies and has influenced policy in several nations .
Along with sixteen other distinguished economists he opposed the Copyright Term Extension Act and filed an amicus brief in Eldred v. Ashcroft . He supported the inclusion of the word " no @-@ brainer " in the brief .
Friedman argued for stronger basic legal ( constitutional ) protection of economic rights and freedoms to further promote industrial @-@ commercial growth and prosperity and buttress democracy and freedom and the rule of law generally in society .
= = Honors , recognition , and influence = =
George H. Nash , a leading historian of American conservatism , says that by , " the end of the 1960s he was probably the most highly regarded and influential conservative scholar in the country , and one of the few with an international reputation . " Friedman allowed the libertarian Cato Institute to use his name for its biannual Milton Friedman Prize for Advancing Liberty beginning in 2001 . A Friedman Prize was given to the late British economist Peter Bauer in 2002 , Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto in 2004 , Mart Laar , former Estonian Prime Minister in 2006 and a young Venezuelan student Yon Goicoechea in 2008 . His wife Rose , sister of Aaron Director , with whom he initiated the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice , served on the international selection committee . Friedman was also a recipient of the Nobel Prize in Economics .
Upon Friedman 's death , Harvard President Lawrence Summers called him " The Great Liberator " saying " ... any honest Democrat will admit that we are now all Friedmanites . " He said Friedman 's great popular contribution was " in convincing people of the importance of allowing free markets to operate . "
In 2013 Stephen Moore , a member of the editorial forward of the Wall Street Journal said , " Quoting the most @-@ revered champion of free @-@ market economics since Adam Smith has become a little like quoting the Bible . " He adds , " There are sometimes multiple and conflicting interpretations . "
= = = Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences = = =
Friedman won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences , the sole recipient for 1976 , " for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis , monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy . "
= = = Hong Kong = = =
Friedman once said , " If you want to see capitalism in action , go to Hong Kong . " He wrote in 1990 that the Hong Kong economy was perhaps the best example of a free market economy .
One month before his death , he wrote the article " Hong Kong Wrong – What would Cowperthwaite say ? " in the Wall Street Journal , criticizing Donald Tsang , the Chief Executive of Hong Kong , for abandoning " positive noninterventionism . " Tsang later said he was merely changing the slogan to " big market , small government , " where small government is defined as less than 20 % of GDP . In a debate between Tsang and his rival , Alan Leong , before the 2007 Chief Executive election , Leong introduced the topic and jokingly accused Tsang of angering Friedman to death .
= = = Chile = = =
During 1975 , two years after the military coup that brought military dictator President Augusto Pinochet to power and ended the government of Salvador Allende , the economy of Chile experienced a severe crisis . Friedman and Arnold Harberger accepted an invitation of a private Chilean foundation to visit Chile and speak on principles of economic freedom . He spent seven days in Chile giving a series of lectures at the Universidad Católica de Chile and the ( National ) University of Chile . One of the lectures was entitled " The Fragility of Freedom " and according to Friedman , " dealt with precisely the threat to freedom from a centralized military government . "
In an April 21 , 1975 , letter to Pinochet , Friedman considered the " key economic problems of Chile are clearly ... inflation and the promotion of a healthy social market economy " . He stated that " There is only one way to end inflation : by drastically reducing the rate of increase of the quantity of money ... " and that " ... cutting government spending is by far and away the most desirable way to reduce the fiscal deficit , because it ... strengthens the private sector thereby laying the foundations for healthy economic growth " . As to how rapidly inflation should be ended , Friedman felt that " for Chile where inflation is raging at 10 – 20 % a month ... gradualism is not feasible . It would involve so painful an operation over so long a period that the patient would not survive . " Choosing " a brief period of higher unemployment ... " was the lesser evil .. and that " the experience of Germany , ... of Brazil ... , of the post @-@ war adjustment in the U.S. ... all argue for shock treatment " . In the letter Friedman recommended to deliver the shock approach with " ... a package to eliminate the surprise and to relieve acute distress " and " ... for definiteness let me sketch the contents of a package proposal ... to be taken as illustrative " although his knowledge of Chile was
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